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THE 


DICTIONARY   OF   ElfGLISH   HISTORY. 


THE 


DICTIONAET 


or 


ENGLISH    HISTORY 


EDITED 

SIDNEY   jrLOW,   B.A. 

LATK   8CU0LAK  OP   BALLIOL   COLLEGE,    OXFORD;    LATE  LBCTU&SK  ON    MODKUN    HI8TOHY, 

KINO'b  COLLBOR,   LONDON 

AND 

F.  S.  PULLING,  M. A. 

LATB   PROFBBSOB  OF   HIBTO&T,   YOKKSHZKB  OOXJJMB,   LBKD& 


>•> 


CASSELL    AND    COMPANY,    Limited 

LONDON,  PARIS  db  MELBOURNE 

1896 

ALL  BIGHTS   H£8KKYBD 


PREFACE  TO  FIRST  EDITION. 


> 
J 


AT  a  time  when  the  systematic  study  of  Engliflh  history  is  eveiy  day  attn 
ing  the  interest  of  an  ever- widening  circle  of  readers,  it  is  somew 
remarkable  that  there  should  be  no  convenient  handbook  to  the  whole  subj 
The  present  publication  is  an  attempt  to  supply  this  deficiency,  so  flBtr  as  it 
be  supplied  by  a  work  which  is  intended  to  be  useful  rather  than  exhaust 
It  is  scarcely  possible  that  everything  relating  directly  or  indirectly  to  a  suh 
so  vast  and  so  ill-defined  as  the  history  of  a  great  people  and  a  great  em] 
could  be  included  within  the  compass  of  eleven  hundred  moderate-sized  paj 
The  compilers  of  a  concise  historical  dictionary  must  be  content  to  mak 
selection  from  the  materials  at  their  command.  The  present  work  is  not 
encyclopcedia,  and  the  editors  are  aware  that  many  things  are  omitted  fron 
which  might  have  been  included,  had  its  limits  been  wider,  and  its  aim  n 
ambitious.  But  they  hope  that  the  general  reader,  as  well  as  the  special  stud 
of  the  history  of  the  British  Empire,  will  find  this  volume  a  convenient  auzili 
to  his  studies ;  and  they  are  sanguine  enough  to  anticipate  that  it  will  fill  a 
on  his  book^elves  not  at  present  occupied  by  any  single  book  of  referei 
Dictionaries  of  biography  already  exist  in  abundance ;  handbooks  of  dates  ; 
chronology  are  common  and  familiar  things ;  manuals  of  English  hist< 
political  and  constitutional,  of  all  sizes  and  all  degrees  of  merit,  are  at  the  e 
command  of  the  reading  public ;  and  it  is  possible,  by  diligent  search,  to  discc 
works  on  English  bibliography,  and  even  on  the  bibliography  of  English  hist< 
But  if  a  great  book  is  a  great  evil,  a  great  many  books  are  assuredly  a  grea 
The  most  earnest  student  cannot  be  expected  to  read  his  history  with  a  do 
manuals  and  works  of  reference  at  his  elbow,  in  case  he  should  be  in  doubt 
to  a  fact,  or  should  require  to  verify  a  date,  to  gain  some  information  oi 
constitutional  point,  to  satisfy  himself  as  to  the  sequence  of  events  at  one  of 
epochs  of  our  annals,  or  to  find  out  the  authorities  for  a  particular  peri 
To  produce  a  book  which  should  give,  as  concisely  as  possible,  just  the  infon 
tion,  biographical,  bibliographical,  chronological^  and  constitutional,  that 
reader  of  English  history  is  likely  to  want^  is  what  is  here  attempted. 

In  deciding  what  should  or  ahould  not  find  a  place  in  these  pages,  the  Edit 

have  tried  to  keep  in  view  the  probable  needs  of  modem  readers.     Practical  c 

venience  has  guided  them  in  the  somewhat  arbitrary  selection  they  have  b 

compelled  to  make ;  and  with  a  view  to  this  end  they  have  not  hesitated  to  mi 

some  slight  changes  of  plan  which  suggested  themselves  in  the  course  of 

work.     In  the  biographical  department  names  of  purely  personal  and  liter 

interest  have  been  omitted,  and  the  biographies  have  been  written  through 

from  the  historical  standpoint     No  attempt  is  made  to  supplant  other  Dicti 

aries  devoted  solely  to  biography ;  but  the  reader  wiU,  it  is  hoped,  find  suffici< 

information  about  every  prominent  personage  to  be  of  use  to  him  in  his  hif 

rical  studies,  while  the  references  to  authorities  which  accompany  all  the  m< 

important  articles  will  show  him  where  to  go  if  he  desires  to  pursue  his  inquii 

farther.     In  the  older  "  Helps  to  English  History,"  such  as  that  of  Heylin,  spi 

equal  to  the  whole  of  this  work  is  devoted  to  genealogies  and  to  the  lists 

the  holders  of  public  offices  and  dignities.     In  the  present  volume  lelativi 


VI  PREFACE. 

little  space  is  given  to  these  subjects.  The  genealogies  of  the  great  fiunilies  and 
the  order  of  official  succession  are  very  fully  worked  out  in  many  well-known 
and  easily  accessible  works.  A  modem  student  is  likely  to  have  more  occasion 
for  the  accounts  of  the  growth  of  English  institutions,  and  for  the  summaries 
of  great  epochs  in  our  history,  and  of  the  relations  of  the  country  with  foreign 
powers,  which  occupy  a  considerable  portion  of  these  pages.  In  these  instances 
it  is  hoped  also  that  the  bibliographical  notes,  supplemented  by  the  special  article 
on  Authorities  on  English  History  (page  105),  will  be  found  of  considerable 
value,  even  by  those  who  can  lay  claim  to  some  historical  scholarship. 

It  IB  perhaps  necessary  to  say  that  though  "  English  "  on  the  title-page  of 
this  work  is  to  be  understood  in  its  widest  and  least  exact  sense  :  and  though  the 
doings  of  Englishmen,  Scotsmen,  Irishmen,  and  Welshmen  at  all  places  and 
periods  nostri  est  farrago  -libelliy  yet  that  very  much  more  attention  is  devoted 
to  the  history  of  England  than  to  that  of  Scotland,  Ireland,  Wales,  and  the 
Colonies.  Selection  being  inevitable  if  the  book  were  not  to  sacrifice  its  chief 
recommendation,  that  of  practical  utility,  it  is  felt  that  the  rule  adopted,  though 
illogicfd,  is  the  one  likely  to  promote  the  greatest  convenience  of  the  greatest 
number  of  readers.  It  has  been  thought  advisable  to  bring  the  book  down  to  our 
own  day ;  but  very  recent  events  have  been  treated  more  briefly  than  those  of 
more  remote  periods,  and  only  those  living  and  recently  deceased  statesmen  have 
been  included,  concerning  whom  there  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt  that  their 
names  have  a  right  to  appear  in  a  Dictionary  of  English  History.  For  obvious 
reasons  no  articles  on  living  historians  have  been  given,  though  it  is  hoped  that 
full  justice  is  done  to  their  works  in  the  bibliographical  notes. 

To  save  space,  and  to  secure  somewhat  more  adequate  treatment,  it  has  often 
been  thought  better  to  group  the  various  divisions  of  a  lai^  subject  into  one 
article,  rather  than  to  discuss  them  separately  in  a  number  of  short  ones.  Here, 
again,  the  rule  followed  is  somewhat  arbitrary.  But  a  reference  to  the  Index 
will  generally  show  tlie  reader  where  to  look  in  case  he  does  not  find  the  title  he 
is  in  search  of  in  its  proper  place,  or  in  the  Appendix. 

Such  merits  as  this  volume  may  be  found  to  possess  are  due  in  great  measure 
to  the  able  staff  of  contributors  who  have  given  it  their  invaluable  aid. 
To  all  of  them  the  Editors  have  to  render  their  grateful  thanks.  For  many 
useful  suggestions  and  much  kindly  interest  displayed  in  the  progress  of  the 
work,  they  have  to  acknowledge  their  obligations  to  Dr.  Mandell  Creighton ; 
Professor  Rowley,  University  College,  Bristol;  Mr.  Arthur  L.  Smith,  Fellow 
of  Balliol  College,  Oxford  ;  Mr.  Uoyd  Sanders,  M.  A. ;  Mr.  W.  J.  Ashley,  M.A. ; 
and  Mr.  T.  A  Archer,  B.A.  Their  special  thanks  are  due  to  Mr.  T.  F.  Tout, 
M.  A,  whose  assistance  throughout  has  been  of  the  greatest  value,  and  who  has 
constantly  and  most  kindly  placed  the  benefits  of  his  extensive  knowledge  of 
modem  history  at  the  service  of  the  Editors. 


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PEINCIPAL    CONTEIBUTOES. 


T.  A.  ABCHER,  B.A, 

W,  J.  ASHLEY,  M.A.,  Professor  of  Economio 
History  in  Harvard  University,  U.S.A. 

a  B.  D.  BLACK. 

OSCAR  BROWNING,  M.A.,  Senior  FeUow 
of  King's  CoUege,  Cambridge ;  University 
Lieoturer  on  History. 

RIGHT  REV.  MANDELL  CREIGHTON, 
D.D.,  LL.D.,  D.C.L.,  Lord  Bishop  of 
Peterborough;  late  Professor  of  Eccle- 
siastical History  in  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge. 

REV.  JOHN  EARLE,  M.A.,  ProfesBor  of 
Anglo-Saxon  in  the  University  of  Oxford. 

H.  ST.  CLAIR  FEILDEN,  M.A. 

CHARLES  H  FIRTH,  M.A,,  late  Scholar  of 
Balliol  College,  Oxford. 

J.  WOULFE  FLANAGAN,  B.A. 

MRS.  S.  R.  GARDINER. 

DAVID  HANNAT. 

REV.  WM.  HUNT,  M.A.,  late  Examiner  in 
the  School  of  Modem  History,  Oxford. 

CHAS.  F.  KEARY,  F.S.A. 

S.  L  LEE,  B.A.,  late  Exhibitioner  of  BaUiol 
College,  Oxford. 

SroNEY  J.  ^.LOW,  B.A.,  late  Lecturer  on 
Modem  History,  King's  College,  London. 

MISS  M.  MACARTHUB. 


(  J.  F.  BASS  MULLINGER,  M.A,,  Lecturer 
and  Librarian  of  St.  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge. 

R.  L.  POOLE,  M.A.,  Ph.D.  Leipzig;  formerly 
of  the  Department  of  MSS.  in  the  Briti^ 
Museum. 

F.  a  PULLING,  M.A.,  late  Professor  of 
Histor}',  Yorkshire  College,  Leeds. 

REV.  HASTINGS  RASHDALL,  M.A.,  FeUow 
and  Lecturer  of  Hertford  (Jollege,  Oxford. 

H.  R.  REICHEL,  M.A.,  late  Fellow  of  All 
Souls'  College,  Oxford  ;  Principal  of  the 
University  CoUege  of  North  Wales. 

J.  B.  THOROLD  ROGERS,  M.A.,  late 
Professor  of  Political  Economy,  Oxford. 

JAMES  ROWLEY,  M.A.,  Professor  of  English 
Literature  and  History,  University  College, 
BristoL 

LLOYD  C.  SANDERS,  M.A.,  late  Exhibitioner 
of  Christ  Church,  Oxford. 

W.  R.  SHELDON,  M.A. 

B.  C.  SKOTTOWE,  M.A. 

ARTHUR  L.  SMITH,  M.A.,  Fellow  and  Tutor 
of  Balliol  College,  Oxford. 

T.  F.  TOUT,  M,A.,  Professor  of  History, 
Owens  CoUege,  Manchester. 

BERNHARD  RINGROSE  WISE,  M.A., 
late  Attorney-General  of  New  South  Wales, 
AustraUa. 


\ 

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MAGNA   CARTA. 


A' 


Translation  of  the  Great  Charter  of  King  John,  granted  June  15th, 
A.D.  1215,  in  the  seventeenth  Year  of  his  Rei^n. 


JOHN,  by  the  grace  of  God,  king  of  England,  lord  of  Ireland,  duke  of  Nor- 
^     inandy  and  Aquitaine,  and  earl  of  Anjou,  to  all  his  archbishops,  bishops, 
al)bots,  earls,  barons,  justiciaries,  foresters,  sherifl^  commanders,  officers,  and  to 
all  his  bailiffs  and  faithful  subjects,  xoishth  health.     Know  ye,  that  we,  from  our 
regard  to  God,  and  for  the  salvation  of  our  own  soul,  and  of  the  souls  of  our 
ancestora,  and  of  our  heirs,  to  tlie  honour  of  God,  and  the  exaltation  of  holy 
church  and  amendment  of  our  kiuffdom,  by  the  advice  of  our  venerable  fathers, 
Stephen  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  primate  of  all  England,  and  cardinal  of  the 
holy  Roman  church,  Henry  archbishop  of  Dublin,  William  of  London,  Peter  of 
Winchester,  Joceline  of  Bath  and  Glastonbury,  Hugh  of  Lincoln,  Walter  of 
Worcester,  William  of  Coventry,  Benedict  of  Rochester,  bishops,  master  Pan- 
<lulph,  the  pope*s  sub-deacon  and  familiar,  brother  Eymeric  master  of  the  knights- 
templars  in  England,   and  of  these  noble  poi-sons,  William    Marischal  earl  of 
Pembroke,  William  earl  of  Salisbury,  William  earl  of  Warren,  William  earl  of 
Arundel,  Allan  of  Galloway  constable  of  Scotland,  Warin  Fitz-Gerald,  Peter 
Fitz-Herbert,  Hubert  de  Burgh,  steward  of  Poitou,  Hugh  de  Nevil,  Matthew 
Fitz-Herbert,  Thomas  Basset,  Allan  Basset,  Philip  de  Albany,  Robert  de  Roppel, 
John  Marischal,  John  Fitz-Hugh,  and  of  others  of  our  liegemen,  have  granted  to 
God,  and  by  this  our  present  charter,  have  confirmed,  for  us,  and  our  heirs  for 
«ver : — First,  That  the  English  churcli  shall  be  free,  and  shall  have  her  whole 
rights,  and  her  liberties  unhurt ;  and  I  will  this  to  be  observed  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  may  appear  from  thence,  that  the  freedom  of  elections,  which  was  reputed 
most  necessary  to  the  English  church,  which  we  gi*anted,  and  by  our  charter 
confirmed,  and  obtained  the  confirmation  of  it  from  pope  Innocent  III.  before 
the  rupture  between  us  and  our  barons,  was  of  our  own  free  will      Which 
charter  we  shall  observe ;  and  we  will  it  to  be  observed,  with  good  faith,  by  our 

heirs  for  ever. We  have  also  granted  to  all  the  fi*eemen  of  our  kjbagdom,  for 

lis  and  our  heirs  for  ever,  all  the  underwritten  libei-ties,  to  be  enjoyed  and  held 

by  them  and  their  heirs,  of  us  and  our  heirs. If  any  of  our  earls  or  barons, 

or  others  who  hold  of  us  in  chief  by  military  service,  shall  die,  and  at  his  death 
his  heir  shall  be  of  full  age,  and  shall  owe  a  relief,  he  shall  have  his  inheritance 
for  the  ancient  relief,  viz.  the  heir  or  heirs  of  an  earl,  a  whole  earPs  barony,  for 
jOXiQ  hundred  pounds ;  the  heir  or  heirs  of  a  baron,  a  whole  barony  for  one 
J;^//^red  pounds  * ;  the  heir  or  heii-s  of  a  knight,  a  whole  knight's  fee,  for  one 

,r0u8  is  mark%  in  Matthew  Paris,  which  is  probably  the  right  reading.    M.  Paris,  p.  178;  coL  L 


u  MAGNA  CARTA. 


hundred  shillings  at  most ;   and  he  who  owes  less,  shall  give  less,  acoording  to 

the  ancient  custom  of  fees. But  if  the  heir  of  any  such  be  under  age,  and  in 

wardship,  when  he  comes  to  age  he  shall  have  his  inheritance  without  relief  and 

without  fine. ^The  warden  of  an  heir  who  is  under  age,  shall  not  take  of  the 

lands  of  the  heir  any  but  reasonable  issues,  and  reasonable  customs,  and  reason- 
able services,  and  that  without  destruction  and  waste  of  the  men  or  goods  :  and 
if  we  Ammit  the  custody  of  any  such  lands  to  a  sheriff,  or  to  any  other  person 
who  is  bound  to  answer  to  us  for  the  issues  of  them,  and  he  shall  make  destruc- 
tion or  waste  upon  the  ward-lands,  we  will  recover  damages  from  him,  and  the 
lands  shall  be  committed  to  two  legal  and  discreet  men  of  that  fee,  who  shall 
answer  for  the  issues  to  us,  or  to  him  to  whom  we  have  assigned  them  :  and  if  we 
granted  or  sold  to  any  one  the  custody  of  any  such  lands,  and  he  shall  make  de- 
struction or  waste,  he  shall  lose  the  custody ;  and  it  shall  be  committed  to  two 
legal  and  discreet  men  of  that  fee,  who  shall  answer  to  us,  in  like  manner  as  was 

said  before. Besides,  the  waixlen,  as  long  as  he  hath  the  custody  of  the  lands, 

shall  keep  in  order  the  houses,  parks,  warrens,  ponds,  mills,  and  other  things 
belonging  to  them,  out  of  their  issues  ;  and  shall  deliver  to  the  heir,  when  he  is 
at  age,  his  whole  estate  provided  with  ploughs  and  other  implements  of  husbandry, 
according  to  what  the  season  requires,  and  the  profits  of  the  lands  can  reasonably 

afibrd. Heirs  shall  be  married  without  disparagement,  and  so  that,  before  the 

marriage  is  contracted,  it  shall  be  notified  to  the  relations  of  the  heir  by  con- 
sanguinity.  A  widow,  after  the  death  of  her  husl)and,  shall  immediately,  and 

without  difficulty,  have  her  mamage  goods  and  her  inheritance  ;  nor  shall  she 
give  any  thing  for  her  dower,  or  her  marriiige  goods,  or  her  inheritance,  which 
her  husband  and  she  held  on  the  day  of  his  df^ath.  And  she  may  remain  in  her 
husband's  house  forty  days  after  his  death,  within  which  time  her  dower  shall  be 
assigned.  No  widow  shall  be  compel letl  to  marry  herself  while  she  chuses  to 
live  without  a  husband,  but  so,  that  slie  shall  give  security  that  she  will  not 
marry  herself,  without  our  consent,  if  she  holds  of  us,  or  without  the  consent  of 

the  lord  of  whom  she  holds,  if  she  holds  of  another. Neither  we  nor  our 

bailiffs  shall  sei^e  any  land  or  rents  for  any  debt,  while  the  chattels  of  the  debtor 
are  sufficient  for  the  payment  of  the  debt ;  nor  shall  the  sureties  of  the  debtor  be 
distrained,  while  the  principal  debtor  is  able  to  pay  the  debt :  and  if  the  prin- 
cipal debtor  fail  in  payment  of  the  debt,  not  having  wherewith  to  pay,  the 
sureties  shall  answer  for  the  debt;  and  if  they  please,  they  shall  have  the 
lands  and  rents  of  the  debtor,  until  satisfaction  be  made  to  them  for  the  debt 
which  they  had  before  paid  for  him,  unless  the  principal  debtor  can  show  that  he 

is  discharged  from  it  by  the  said  sureties. If  any  one  hath  borrowed  any 

thing  from  the  Jews,  more  or  less,  and  dies  before  that  debt  is  paid,  the.  debt 
shall  pay  no  interest  as  long  as  the  heir  shall  be  under  age,  of  whomsoever  he 
holds ;  and  if  tliat  debt  shall  fall  into  our  hands,  we  will  not  take  any  thing, 

except  the  chattels  contained  in  the  bond. And  if  any  one  dies  indebted  to 

the  Jews,  his  wife  shall  have  her  dower,  and  shall  pay  nothing  of  that  debt ; 
and  if  children  of  the  defunct  remain  who  are  under  age,  necessaries  shall  be 
provided  for  them,  according  to  the  tenement  which  belonged  to  the  defunct ; 
and  oat  of  the  surplus  the  debt  shall  be  paid,  saviog  the  rights  of  the  lords  of 


MAGNA  CARTA.  iii 


whom  the  lands  are  Iield,     The  same  rules  shall  be  observed  with  respect  to 

debts  owing  to  others  than  Jews. No  scutage  or  aid  shall  be  imposed,  except 

by  the  common  council  of  our  kingdom,  but  for  redeeming  our  bodj, — for  making 
our  eld&st  son  a  knight,  and  for  once  marrying  our  eldest  daughter ;  and  for 
these  only  a  reasonable  aid  shall  be  demanded.     This  extends  to  the  aids  of  the 

city  of  London. And  the  city  of  London  shall  have  all  its  ancient  liberties, 

and  its  free  customs,  as  well  by  land  as  by  water.  Besides,  we  will  and  grant, 
that  all  other  cities  and  burghs,  and  towns  and  sea-ports,  shall  have  all  their 

liberties  and  free  customs. And  to  have  a  common  council  of  the  kingdom, 

to  assess  an  aid,  otherwise  than  in  the  three  foresaid  cases,  or  to  assess  a  scutage, 
we  will  cause  to  be  summoned  the  archbishops,  bishops,  earls,  and  greater  barons, 
personally,  by  our  letters ;  and  besides,  we  will  cause  to  be  summoned  in  general 
by  our  sheriffs  and  bailiffs,  all  those  who  hold  of  us  in  chief,  to  a  certain  day,  at 
the  distance  of  foi*ty  days  at  leasts  and  to  a  certain  place ;  and  in  all  the  letters 
of  summons,  we  will  express  the  cause  of  the  summons ;  and  the  summons  being 
thus  made,  the  business  shall  go  on  at  the  day  appointed,  according  to  the  advice 
of  those  who  shall  be  present,  although  all  who  had  been  summoned  have  not 

come. We  will  not  give  leave  to  any  one,  for  the  future,  to  take  an  aid  of 

his  freemen,  except  for  redeeming  his  own  body,  making  his  eldest  son  a  knight, 

and  marrying  once  his  eldest  daughter ;  and  that  only  a  reasonable  aid. Let 

none  be  distrained  to  do  more  service  for  a  knight's  fee,  nor  for  any  other  free 

tenement,  than  what  is  due  from  thence. Common  pleas  shall  not  follow  our 

court,  but  shall  be  held  in  some  certain  place. Assizes  upon  the  writs  of 

Novel  desseisin,  Mortdancester  (death  of  the  ancestor),  and  Darrein  presentment 
(last  presentation),  shall  not  be  taken  but  in  their  proper  counties,  and  in  this 
manner. — We,  or  our  chief  justiciary  when  we  are  out  of  the  kingdom,  shall 
Bend  two  justiciaries  into  each  county,  four  times  a-year,  who,  with  four  knights 
of  each  county,  chosen  by  the  county,  shall  take  the  foresaid  assizes,  at  a  stated 

time  and  place,  within  the  county. And  if  the  foresaid  assizes  csmnot  be 

taken  on  the  day  of  the  county-court,  let  as  many  knights  and  freeholders,  of 
those  who  were  present  at  the  county-court,  remain  behind,  as  by  them  the  fore- 
said assizes  may  be  taken,  according  to  the  greater  or  less  importance  of  the 

business. ^A  freeman  shall  not  be  amerced  for  a  small   offence,  but   only 

according  to  the  degree  of  the  offence ;  and  for  a  great  delu^'^uency,  according  to 
the  magnitude  of  the  delinquency,  saving  his  contenement :  a  merchant  shall  be 
amerced  in  the  same  manner,  saving  his  merchandise,  and  a  villain,  saving  his 
implements  of  husbandry.  If  they  fall  into  our  mercy,  none  of  the  foresaid 
•amerciaments  shall  be  assessed,  but  by  the  oath  of  honest  men  of  the  vicinage. 

Earls  and  barons  shall  not  be  amerced  but  by  their  peers,  and  that  only 

according  to  the  degree  of  their  delinquency. No  clerk  shall  be  amerced  for 

his  lay-tenement,  but  according  to  the  manner  of  others  as  aforesaid,  and  not 

according  to  the  quantity  of  his  ecclesiastical  benefice. Neither  a  town  nor  a 

particular  person  shall  be  distrained  to  build  bridges  or  embankments,  except 

those  who  anciently,  and  of  right,  are  bound  to  do  it. No  sheriff,  constable, 

coroner,  or  bailiff  of  ours  shall  hold  pleas  of  our  crown. All  counties,  hun- 
dreds, wapontacks,  and    tiithings,  shall  be  at  the   ancient  rent,  without   any 


iv  ^lAGNA  CARTA. 


increment,  except  our  demesne-nmnors. If  any  one  holding  of  us  a  lay-feo 

dies,  and  the  sheriff  or  our  bailiff  shall  shew  our  letters-patent  of  our  summonn 
for  a.  debt  which  the  defunct  owed  to  us,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  sheriff  or  our 
bailiff  to  attach  and  register  the  chattels  of  the  defunct  found  on  that  fee,  to  the 
amount  of  that  debt,  at  the  view  of  lawful  men,  so  that  nothing  shall  be  removed 
from  thence  until  our  debt  is  paid  to  us.  The  clear  overplus  shall  be  left  to  the 
executora  to  fulfil  the  last- will  of  the  defunct ;  and  if  nothing  is  owing  to  us  by 
him,  all  the  chattels  shall  fall  to  the  defunct,  saving  to  his  wife  and  children 

their  reasonable  shares. If  any  freeman  shall  die  intestate,  his  chattels  shall 

1)0  distributed  by  his  nearest  relations  and  friends,  at  the  view  of  the  church, 

saving  to  every  one  the  debts  which  the  defunct  owed  to  him. No  constable 

or  bailiff  of  ours  shall  take  the  com  or  other  goods  of  any  one,  without  instantly 
paying  money  for  them,  unless  he  can  obtain  respite  from  the  free  will  of  the 

seller. No  constable  (governor  of  a  castle)  shall  distrain  any  knight  to  give 

money  for  castle-guard,  if  he  is  willing  to  perfomi  it  by  his  own  person,  or  by 
another  good  man  if  he  cannot  perform  it  himself,  for  a  reasonable  cause.  Or  if 
we  have  carried  or  sent  him  into  the  army,  he  shall  be  excused  from  castle-guard, 

according  to  the  space  of  time  he  hath  been  in  the  army  at  our  command. 

No  sheriff  or  bailiff  of  ours,  or  any  other  person,  shall  take  the  horses  or  carts  of 

any  freeman,  to  perform  carriages,  without  the  consent  of  the  said  freeman. 

Neither  we,  nor  our  bailiflfe,  shall  take  another  man's  wood,  for  our  castles  or 

other  uses,  without  the  consent  of  him  to  whom  the  wood  belongs. We  will 

not  retain  the  lands  of  those  who  have  been  convicted  of  felony,  above  one  year 

and  one  day,  and  then  they  shall  be  given  up  to  the  lord  of  the  fee. All 

kydeUs  (weirs)  for  the  future  shall  be  quite  removed  out  of  the  Thames,  the 

Med  way,  and  through  all  England,  except  on  the  sea-coast. ^The  writ  which  is 

called  Precipe  for  the  future  shall  not  be  granted  to  any  one  concerning  any 

tenement  by  which  a  freeman  may  lose  his  court. There  shall  be  one  measure 

of  wine  through  all  our  kingdom,  and  one  measure  of  ale,  and  one  measure  of 
corn,  viz.  the  quarter  of  London ;  and  one  breadth  of  dyed-cloth  and  of  russets, 
and  of  halberjects,  viz.  two  ells  within  the  lists.     It  shall  be  the  same  with 

weights  as  with  measures. Nothing  shall  be  given  or  taken  for  the  future  for 

the  writ  of  inquisition  of  life  or  limb  ;  but  it  shall  be  given  gratis,  and  not  denied. 

If  any  hold  of  us  by  fee-farm,  or  socciige,  or  burgage,  and  holds  an  estate  of 

another  by  military  service,  we  shall  not  have  the  custody  of  the  heir,  or  of  his 
land,  which  is  of  the  fee  of  another,  on  account  of  that  fee-farm,  or  soccage,  or 
burgage,  unless  the  fee-farm  owes  military  service.  We  shall  not  have  the 
custody  of  the  heir,  or  of  the  land  of  any  one,  which  he  holds  of  another  by 
military  service,  on  account  of  any  petty  sergeant ry  which  he  holds  of  us,  by 

giving  us  knives,  arrows,  or  the  like. No  liailiff,  for  the  future,  shall  put  any 

man  to  his  law,  upon  his  own  simple  affirmation,  without  credible  witnesses  pro- 
duced to  that  purpose. No  freeman  shall  l)e  seized,  or  imprisoned,  or  disseised, 

or  outlawed,  or  any  way  destroyed,  nor  will  we  go  upon  him,  nor  will  we  send 
upon  him,  except  by  the  legal  judgment  of  his  peers,  or  by  the  law  of  the  land. 

To  none  will  we  sell,  to  none  \rill  we  deny,  to  none  will  we  delay  right  or 

justice. All  merchants  shall  be  safe  and  secure  in  coming  into  England,  and 


MAGNA  CARTA. 


going  out  of  England,  and  staying  and  travelling  through  England,  as  well  by 
land  as  by  water,  to  buy  and  to  sell,  without  any  unjust  exactions,  according  to 
ancient  and  right  customs,  except  in  time  of  war,  and  if  they  be  of  a  country  at 
war  against  us.  And  if  such  are  found  in  our  dominions  at  the  beginning  of  a 
war,  they  shall  be  apprehended  without  injury  of  their  bodies  and  goods,  until  it 
be  known  to  us,  or  to  our  chief  justiciary,  how  the  merchants  of  our  country  are 
treated  in  the  country  at  war  against  us ;  and  if  ours  are  safe  there,  the  others 

shall  be  safe  in  our  country. It  shall  be  lawful  to  any  person,  for  the  future,. 

to  go  out  of  our  kingdom,  and  to  return,  safely  and  securely,  by  land  and  by 
water,  saving  his  allegiance,  except  in  time  of  war,  for  some  short  space,  for  the 
common  good  of  the  kingdom,  except  prisoners,  outlaws  according  to  the  law  of 
the  land,  and  people  of  the  nation  at  war  against  us,  and  merchants,  who  shall 

be  treated  as  is  said  above. If  any  one  holdeth  of  any  escheat^  as  of  th& 

honour  of  Wallingford,  Nottingham,  Boulogne,  Lancaster,  or  of  other  escheats 
which  are  in  our  hands,  and  shall  die,  his  heir  shall  not  give  any  other  relief,  or 
do  any  other  service  to  us,  than  he  should  have  done  to  the  baron,  if  that  barony 
had  been  in  the  hands  of  the  baron ;  and  wo  will  hold  it  in  the  same  manner 

that  the  baron  held  it. Men  who  dwell  without  the  forest^  shall  not  come,  for 

the  future,  before  our  justiciaries  of  the  forest,  on  a  common  summons,  unless 
they  be  parties  in  a  plea,  or  sureties  for  some  person  or  persons  who  are  attached 

for  the  forest. We  will  not  make  men  justiciaries,  constables,  sheriffs,  or 

bailiffs,  unless  they  understand  the  law  of  the  land,  and  are  well  disposed  to 

observe  it. All  barons  who  have  founded  abbeys,  of  which  they  have  charters 

of  the  kings  of  England,  or  ancient  tenure,  shall  have  the  custody  of  them  when 

they  become  vacant,  as  they  ought  to  have. ^ All  forests  which  have  been  made 

in  our  time,  shall  be  immediately  disforested ;  and  it  shall  be  so  done  with  water- 
banks  which  have  been  made  in  our  time,  in  defiance. All  evil  customs  of 

forests  and  warrens,  and  of  foresters  and  wari^eners,  sheriffs  and  their  officers, 
water-banks  and  their  keepera,  shall  immediately  be  inquired  into  by  twelve 
knights  of  the  same  county,  upon  oath,  who  shall  be  chosen  by  the  good  men  of 
the  same  county ;  and  within  forty  days  after  the  inquisition  is  made,  they  shall 
be  quite  destroyed  by  them,  never  to  be  restored ;  provided  that  this  be  notified 

to  us  before  it  is  done,  or  to  our  justiciary,  if  we  are  not  in  England. We 

will  immediately  restore  all  hostages  and  charters  which  have  been  delivered  to 

us  by  the  English,  in  security  of  the  peace,  and  of  their  faithful  service. We 

will  remove  from  their  offices  the  relations  of  Gerard  de  Athyes,  that,  for  the 
future,  they  shall  have  no  office  in  England,  Engelard  de  Cygony,  Andrew,  Peter, 
and  Gyone  de  Chancell,  Gyone  de  Cygony,  Geoffery  de  Martin,  and  his  brothers  ; 
Philip  Mark,  and  his  brothers ;  and  Geoffrey  his  grandson ;  and  all  their  iol- 

lowers. And  immediately  after  the  conclusion  of  the  peace,  we  will  remove 

out  of  the  kingdom  all  foreign  knights,  cross-bow-men,  and  stipendiary  soldiers, 

who  have  come  with  horses  and  arms  to  the  molestation  of  the  kingdom. If 

any  have  been  disseised  or  dispossessed  by  us,  without  a  legal  verdict  of  their 
peers,  of  their  lands,  castles,  liberties,  or  rights,  we  will  immediately  restore  these 
things  to  them ;  and  if  a  question  shall  arise  on  this  head,  it  shall  be  determined 
by  the  verdict  of  the  twenty-five  barons,  who  shall  be  mentioned  below,  for  the- 


vi  MAGNA  CARTA. 


security  of  the  peaca  But  as  to  all  those  things  of  which  any  one  hath  been 
disseised  or  dispossessed,  without  a  legal  verdict  of  his  peers,  by  king  Heniy 
our  father,  or  king  Bichard  our  brother,  which  we  have  in  our  hand,  or  others 
hold  with  our  warrants,  we  shall  have  respite,  until  the  common  term  of  the 
Crusaders,  except  those  concerning  which  a  plea  had  been  moved,  or  an  inquisi- 
tion taken,  by  our  precept,  before  our  taking  the  cross.  But  as  soon  as  we  shall 
return  from  our  expedition,  or  if,  by  chance,  we  shall  not  go  upon  our  expedition, 

we  shall  immediately  do  complete  justice  therein. But  we  shall  have  the  same 

respite,  and  in  the  same  manner,  concerning  the  justice  to  be  done  about  dis- 
foresting or  continuing  the  forests  which  Henry  our  father,  or  Richard  our 
brother,  had  made ;  and  about  the  wardship  of  lands  which  are  of  the  fee  of 
some  other  person,  but  the  wardship  of  which  we  have  hitherto  had,  on  account 
of  a  fee  which  some  one  held  of  us  by  military  service ;  and  about  abbeys  which 
had  been  founded  in  the  fee  of  another,  and  not  in  ours,  in  which  abbeys  the 
lord  of  the  fee  hath  claimed  a  right.  And  when  we  shall  have  returned,  or  if 
we  shall  stay  from  our  expedition,  we  shall  immediately  do  complete  justice  in 

all  these  pleas. No  man  shall  be  apprehended  or  imprisoned  on  tJie  appeal  of 

a  waman^  for  the  death  of  any  other  man  than  her  husband. All  fines  that 

have  been  made  with  us  unjustly,  or  contrary  to  the  law  of  the  land ;  and  all 
amerciaments  that  have  been  imposed  unjustly,  or  contrary  to  the  law  of  the 
land,  shall  be  remitted,  or  disposed  of  by  the  verdict  of  the  twenty-five  barons, 
of  whom  mention  is  made  below,  for  the  security  of  the  peace,  or  by  the  verdict 
of  the  major  part  of  them,  together  with  the  foresaid  Stephen  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  if  he  can  be  present,  and  others  whom  he  may  think  fit  to  bring  with 
him ;  and  if  he  cannot  be  present,  the  business  shall  proceed  notwitlistd.ndiiig 
without  him  :  but  so,  that  if  one  or  more  of  the  foresaid  twenty-five  baix)ns  ha\  e 
a  similar  plea,  let  them  be  removed  fi-om  that  particular  trial,  and  others  elected 
and  sworn  by  the  i^esidue  of  the  same  twenty-five,  be  substituted  in  their  room, 

only  for  that  trial. If  we  have  disseised  or  dispossessed  any  Welshmen  of 

their  land,  liberties,  or  other  things,  without  a  legal  verdict  of  their  peei"s,  in 
England  or  in  Wales,  they  shall  be  immediately  restored  to  them ;  and  if  a 
question  shall  arise  about  it,  then  let  it  be  determined  in  the  marches  by  the 
verdict  of  their  peers,  if  the  tenement  be  in  England,  according  to  the  law  of 
England  :  if  the  tenement  be  in  Wales,  according  to  the  law  of  Wales  :  if  the 
tenement  be  in  the  marches,  according  to  the  law  of  the  marches.     The  Welsh 

shall  do  the  same  to  us  and  our  subjects. But  concerning  those  things  of 

which  any  Welshman  hath  been  disseised  or  dispossessed  without  a  legaJ  verdict 
of  his  peei-s,  by  king  Henry  our  father,  or  king  Bichard  our  brother,  which  we 
have  in  our  hand,  or  others  hold  with  our  warranty,  we  shall  have  respite,  until 
the  common  term  of  the  Crusaders,  except  those  concerning  which  a  plea  had 
been  moved,  or  an  inquisition  taken,  by  our  precept,  before  our  taking  the  cros& 
But  as  soon  as  we  shall  return  from  our  expedition ;  or  if,  by  chance,  we  shall 
not  go  upon  our  expedition,  we  shall  immediately  do  complete  justice  therein, 
according  to  tlie  laws  of  Wales,  and  the  pai-ts  aforesaid. We  will  immedi- 
ately deliver  up  the  son  of  Lewelin,  and  all  the  hostages  of  Wales,  and  charters 
which   have  been  given  to  us  for  security  of  the  peace. We  shall  do  to 


ilAGNA  CARTA.  vii 


Alexander  king  of  Scotland,  concerning  the  restoration  of  his  sisters  and  hostages, 
and  his  liberties  and  rights,  according  to  the  form  in  which  we  act  to  our  other 
barons  in  England,  unless  it  ought  to  be  otherwise  by  chartera  which  we  have 
from  his  father  William  late  king  of  Scotland,  and  that  by  the  verdict  of  his 

'   peers  in  our  court. But  all  these  foresaid  customs  and  liberties  which  we 

have  granted  in  our  kingdom,  to  be  held  by  our  tenants,  as  far  as  concerns  us, 
all  our  clergy  and  laity  shall  observe  towards  their  tenants,  as  far  as  concerns 

them. But  since  we  have  granted  all  these  things  aforesaid,  for  God,  and  to 

tho  amendment  of  our  kingdom,  and  for  the  better  extinguishing  the  discord 
arisen  between  ns  and  our  barons,  being  desirous  that  these  things  should  possess 
entire  and  unshaken  stability  for  ever,  we  give  and  grant  to  them  the  security 
underwritten,  viz.  That  the  barons  may  elect  twenty-five  barons  of  the  kingdom, 
whom  they  please,  who  shall,  with  their  whole  power,  observe  and  keep,  and 
cause  to  be  observed,  the  peace  and  liberties  which  we  have  granted  to  them,  and 
have  confirmed  by  this  our  present  charter,  in  this  manner.  That  if  we,  or  our 
justiciary,  or  our  bailiffs,  or  any  of  our  officers,  shall  have  injured  any  one  in  any 
thing,  or  shall  have  violated  any  article  of  the  peace  or  security,  and  the  injury 
shall  have  been  shown  to  four  of  the  foresaid  twenty-five  barons,  these  four 
barons  shall  come  to  us,  or  to  our  justiciary  if  we  are  out  of  the  kingdom,  and 
making  known  to  us  the  excess  committed,  require  that  we  cause  that  excess  to 

• 

be  redressed  without  delay ;  and  if  we  shall  not  have  redressed  the  excess,  or,  if 
we  have  been  out  of  the  kingdom,  our  justiciary  shall  not  have  redressed  it, 
within  the  term  of  forty  days,  computing  from  the  time  in  which  it  shall  have 
been  made  known  to  us,  or  to  our  justiciary  if  we  have  been  out  of  the  kingdom,, 
the  foresaid  four  barons  shall  lay  that  cause  before  the  residue  of  the  twenty-five 
barons ;  and  these  twenty-five  barons,  with  the  community  of  the  whole  land, 
shall  distress  and  harass  us  by  all  the  ways  in  which  they  can,  that  is  to  say,  by 
the  taking  of  our  castles,  lands,  and  possessions,  and  by  other  means  in  their 
power,  until  the  excess  shall  have  been  redressed,  according  to  their  verdict ; 
stiving  our  person,  and  the  persons  of  our  queen  and  children  ;  and  when  it  hath 
been  redressed,  they  shall  behave  to  us  as  they  had  done  before :  and  whoever  of 
our  land  pleaseth,  may  swear,  that  he  will  obey  the  commands  of  the  foresaid 
twenty-five  barons,  in  accomplishing  all  the  things  aforesaid,  and  that  with  them 
he  will  harass  us  to  the  utmost  of  his  power:  and  we  publicly  and  freely 
give  leave  to  every  one  to  swear  who  is  willing  to  swear ;  and  we  will  never 
forbid  any  man  to  swear.  But  all  those  of  our  land,  who,  of  themselves,  and 
their  own  accord,  are  unwilling  to  swear  to  the  twenty -five  barons,  to  distress 
and  liarass  us  together  with  them,  we  will  compel  them,  by  our  command,  to 
swear  as  aforesaid.  And  if  any  one  of  the  twenty-five  barons  shall  die,  or 
remove  out  of  the  land,  or  in  any  other  way  shall  be  prevented  from  executing 
tho  things  above  said,  those  who  remain  of  the  twenty-five  barons  shall  elect 
another  in  his  place,  according  to  their  pleasure,  who  shall  be  sworn  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  rest.  But  in  all  those  things  which  are  appointed  to  be  done  by 
these  twenty-five  barons,  if  it  happen  that  all  the  twenty-five  have  been  present, 
and  have  differed  in  their  opinions  about  any  thing,  or  if  some  of  them  who  had 
been  summoned,  would  not,  or  could  not  be  present,  that  which  the  major  part  of 


viii  AIAGNA  CAKTA. 


those  who  were  present  shall  have  provided  and  decreed,  shall  be  held  as  lirin 
and  valid,  as  if  all  the  twenty-five  had  agreed  in  it  And  the  foresaid  twenty- 
five  shall  swear,  that  they  will  faithfully  observe,  and,  to  the  utmost  of  their 
power,  cause  to  be  observed,  all  the  things  mentioned  above.  -Ajid  we  will 
obtain  nothing  from  any  one,  by  ourselves,  or  by  another,  by  which  any  of  these 
concessions  and  liberties  may  be  revoked  or  diminished.  And  if  any  such  thing 
hath  been  obtained,  let  it  be  void  and  null ;  and  we  will  never  use  it,  either  by 
ourselves  or  by  another.  And  we  have  fully  remitted  and  pardoned  to  all  men, 
all  the  ill-will,  rancour,  and  resentments  which  have  arisen  between  us  and  our 
subjects,  both  clergy  and  laity,  from  the  commencement  of  the  discord.  Besides, 
we  have  fully  remitted  to  all  the  clergy  and  laity,  and  as  far  as  belongs  to  us,  we 
have  fully  pardoned  all  transgressions  committed  on  occasion  of  tlie  said  discord, 
from  Easter,  in  the  sixteenth  year  of  our  reign,  to  the  conclusion  of  tlie  [yeaice. 
And,  moreover,  we  have  caused  to  be  made  to  them  testimonial  letters-patent  of 
my  lord  Stephen  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  my  lord  Henry  archbisliop  of  Dublin, 
and  of  the  foresaid  bishops,  and  of  Mr.  Paudulf,  concerning  this  security,  and  the 
foresaid  concessions.  Wherefore,  our  will  is,  and  we  firmly  command,  that  the 
church  of  England  be  free,  and  that  the  men  in  our  kingdom  have  and  hold  all 
the  foresaid  liberties,  rights,  and  concessions,  well  and  in  peace,  freely  and 
<iuietly,  fully  and  entirely,  to  them  and  their  heira,  of  us  and  our  heirs,  in  all 
things  and  places  for  ever,  as  aforesaid.  An  oath  hath  been  taken,  as  well  on 
our  part,  as  on  the  part  of  the  barons,  that  all  these  things  mentioned  above 
shall  be  observed  in  good  faith,  and  without  any  evil  intention,  before  the  above- 
named  witnesses,  and  many  others,  (liven  by  our  hand,  in  the  meadow,  which 
is  calJed  Rmihig^iiedy  between  Windsor  and  Staines,  this  fifteenth  day  of  Juncj, 
in  tlie  seventeenth  year  of  our  reign. 


Dictionary  of  English  History. 


♦»» 


Abbeville,  T&batt  of  (May  20,  1259), 
was  concluded  between  Louifl  IX.  of  France 
and  Uenry  III.  of  England,  after  the  abor- 
tive attempt  of  the  latter  to  recover  the  pro- 
vinces which  John  had  lost.  By  this  treaty 
the  English  king  relinquished  all  claims  to 
!N'ormandy,  Anjou,  Touraine,  Maine,  and 
Foitou ;  but  was  guaranteed  the  possession  of 
Cf  uienne,  which  he  was  to  continue  to  hold  as 
a  fief  from  the  French  crown.  His  territories 
in  the  south  of  France  were  to  be  further  in- 
creased by  the  three  bishoprics  of  Limoges, 
Perigueux,  and  Cahors ;  and  he  was  to  receive 
from  Louis  a  grant  of  money  sufficient  to 
maintain  five  hundred  knights  for  two  years. 

The  text  of  the  treaty  ia  given  in  Bymer, 
Fadera,  i.  675  (ed.  of  1704).  Sm  also  ih.  688: 
and  Pearson,  Mist,  of  Eng.  during  the  Early  ana 
Middle  Agn,  ii.  102,  228. 

Abbey.    [Monastictsm.] 

Abbot  (abbas,  literally  "father'*)  was  a 
title  of  respect  applied  in  early  times  to  all 
monks,  but  was  ijterwards  specifically  re- 
stricted to  the  superior  of  a  monastery. 
The  abbot  was  elected  by  the  brethren  of  the 
monastery,  subject  to  varying  and  ill-defined 
rights  of  the  crown  and  the  bishop ;  but,  on 
the  whole,  as  the  position  of  abbot  was  one  of 
comparatively  small  political  importance,  free- 
dom of  election  was  allowed  to  a  degree  very 
rare  in  bishoprics,  and  the  power  and  influence 
of  the  great  orders  freed  them  also  in  most 
cases  from  episcopal  jurisdiction.  Thus 
chosen,  the  abbot  held  office  for  life,  unless 
canonically  deprived  by  the  bishop.  In  the 
earliest  days  of  the  English  Church,  the 
abbots,  like  other  monks,  were  very  commonly 
laymen,  but  later  it  became  usual  for  them  to 
receive  priest's  orders ;  and  an  early  instance 
of  a  series  of  presbyter  abbots  is  to  be  found 
in  the  great  foundation  of  lona.  In  Ire- 
land, abbots  were  either  themselves  bishops, 
or  usurpers  of  episcopal  functions.  In  ^e 
monastic  cathedrals  which  form  such  a  pecu- 
liar feature  in  Fnglish  Church  history,  the 
bishop  was  also  abbot.  The  power  of  the 
abbot  varied  with  the  order  to  which  he 
belonged,  but  it  was  always  very  high.  In 
theoiy,  as  the  name  denotes,  it  was  paternal ; 
and,  m  early  times,  this  paternal  authority  is 
the  same  as  absolute  power.    The  abbot  was 

fllHT.— 1 


to  be  feared  as  lord  as  weU  as  loved  as  father. 
No  one  was  allowed  to  act  without  his  orders, 
and  the  whole  management  of  the  monastery 
ultimately  depended  on  him.  But  Bene- 
dictine abbots  were  restricted  in  various  waya 
by  their  obligation  to  observe  the  rule  of 
their  f oimder.  The  practical  limitations  to 
the  power  of  the  abbot  were :  (a)  the  prior ; 
{p)  the  decani  and  eentenarii  chosen  by  the 
monks ;  (c)  the  general  chapter  of  the  monas- 
tery (by  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict,  the  abbot 
was  obliged  to  take  counsel  with  all  the 
monks,  junior  as  well  as  senior,  though  the 
final  right  of  decision  rested  with  him,  and 
not  with  the  brethren) ;  (d)  the  bishop^  though 
exemption,  after  the  12ui  century,  generally 
took  away  this  check ;  {e)  the  advocattUf  an 
influential  layman,  who  was  appointed  owing 
to  the  inability  of  the  abbot  to  interfere  in 
person  in  civil  suits,  and  who  consequently 
largely  limited  the  power  of  the  abbot  Over 
the  property  of  the  abbey  and  secular  matters 
generally.  But,  with  all  these  deductions, 
the  abbot  held  a  most  imposing  position.  As 
practical  landlord  of  a  large  district,  he  had 
much  social  influence  and  political  considera- 
tion. In  England  the  position  of  the  abbot 
was  especially  important ;  for,  introduced  by 
monks,  English  Christianity  had  from  the  first 
a  monastic  aspect.  Thus  half  the  English 
cathedi-als  became  Benedictine  abbeys,  of 
which  the  canons  were  monks  and  the  bishop 
abbot.  As  magnates,  or  as  king's  chaplains, 
a  few  abbots  sat  in  the  Witenagemot :  and, 
after  the  Conquest,  many  of  them  attended 
the  Great  Council,  as  holders  of  feudal 
baronies,  and  were  ranked  after  the  lords 
spiritual.  Under  the  early  Norman  kings, 
Norman  abbots  were  set  over  the  English 
monasteries,  and  in  many  cases  met  with 
determined  resistance  from  their  monks. 
They  organised  the  monastic  system  more 
strictly  than  before:  and  each  new  order 
found  a  home  in  England  during  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries.  Some 
abbots  were  called  mitred^  because  they 
received  from  the  Pope  the  right  of  wearing 
the  mitre  and  other  vestments  proper  to  the 
episcopal  office.  This  did  not,  however, 
alfect  their  constitutional  position,  for  abbots 
were  summoned  to  Parliament  as  holding 
baronies    under    the    crown.     The    smaller 


Abhd 


(2  ) 


Abb 


abbots  felt  attendance  at  Parliament  to  be  a 
strain  on  their  resources,  and  during  the 
fourteenth  century  many  of  them  executed 
deeds  declaring  that  they  did  not  hold  their 
estates  by  any  tenure  that  involved  the  duty 
of  parliamentary  attendance.  In  Edward  I.'s 
model  Parliament  of  1295  there  were  present 
67  abbots  and  priors ;  but  this  number  rapidly 
declined,  and  in  1341  the  number  had  become 
27,  which  seems  to  have  remained  fixed.  The 
abbots  summoned  in  1483  may  be  mentioned 
as  showing  the  chief  amongst  the  body. 
They  were :  Peterborough,  St.  Edmunds, 
Colchester,  Abingdon,  Waltham,  Shrewsbury, 
Cirencester,  Gloucester,  Westminster,  St. 
Albans,  Bardney,  Selby,  St.  Benedict  of 
Hulme,  Thomey,  Evesham,  Ramsey,  Hyde, 
Glastonbury,  Malmesbury,  Crowland,  Battle, 
Winchcombe,  Reading,  St.  Augustine's,  St. 
Mary's  York,  and  the  priors  of  Coventry 
and  St.  John  of  Jerusalem.  As  the  average 
number  of  lay  lords  attending  Parliament  was 
about  40,  the  proportion  of  27  abbots  was  large. 
The  monasteries,  however,  represented  the 
influence  of  the  papacy  as  against  the  bishops, 
and  were  left  unmolested  both  by  pope  and 
king.  The  elections  of  abbots  were  rarely 
interfered  with  by  the  crown,  and  in  the  later 
middle  ages  abbots  did  not  take  much  part  in 
political  affairs.  They  were  chiefly  busy  with 
the  administration  of  the  secular  business  of 
their  monasteries.  When  once  the  work  of 
civilisation  had  been  accomplished,  monasti- 
cism  drifted  apart  from  the  general  current 
of  national  life,  and  its  abuses  became  in- 
creasingly  manifest.  The  religious  reformers 
found  little  difficulty  in  calling  attention  to  the 
sloth  and  uselessness  of  the  smaller  monasteries, 
and  in  1536  the  temporalities  of  all  that  did 
not  exceed  £200  a  year  were  given  by  Act  of 
Parliament  to  the  king:  their  number  was 
computed  at  380.  The  greater  monasteries 
followed  by  process  of  compulsory  surrender, 
and  by  1540  aU.  had  been  suppressed.  They 
took  no  common  action  to  avert  their  doom ; 
the  abbots  in  the  House  of  Lords  did  not 
raise  their  voices  against  the  measure  for 
vesting  in  the  crown  the  property  of  monas- 
teries which  should  be  suppressed.  With 
the  disappearance  of  the  abbots  from  the 
House  of  Lords,  the  preponderance  of  lay 
Over  spiritual  peers  was  established,  and  the 
subsequent  work  of  the  Reformation  of  the 
Church  was  rendered  more  easy.  Lay  abbots, 
or  advocati  eeehtia,  were  common  in  the  abbeys 
of  Irish  origin  from  the  8th  to  the  12th  cen- 
turies. They  were  commonly  the  descendants 
of  the  founder  or  of  a  neigh^uring  lord,  and 
were  originally  the  lessees  of  the  abbey  lands. 
In  some  cases,  the  eoarb,  or  abbot,  chosen  by 
the  monks  retained  his  spiritual  position,  but, 
in  temporal  matters,  he  was  quite  superseded 
by  the  advoeatfts.      [Cathzdbal;    Monasti- 

CISM.] 

The  ecoleeiastical  and  social  jK'Sition  of  an 
abbot  oui  l)e8t  be  gathered  by  reference  to  the 


histozy  of  some  monasterj,  such  as  Walsing- 
ham'a  O^sta  Ahbatum  MonaiUnoe  8.  Alhani,ed. 
Riley,  1863—72.  The  constitutional  questiona 
oonceming  abbots  are  discumed  in  the  Lordt' 
Report  on  the  Dignity  of  a  Peer,  1829.  See  also 
art.  Abbot,  hf  Mr.  Haddan,  in  the  Diet,  of 
Chrutian  Aht%quUis»  ;  Montalenibert,  Th«  Monfct 
of  th»  WMt:  and  for  the  Celtic  abbots,  Skene, 
OeUie  Scotland,  vol.  iL,  and  Dr.  Beeves'  edition  of 
Adamnan's  Life  of  St.  CMumba.  [M.  C] 

Abboty  Chahlbs.    [Colchester,  Lord.] 

Abbot,  Gbohob  {b.  1562,  d,  1633),  Arch- 
bishop  of  Canterbury,  1611 — 1633,  was  bom 
of  humble  parents  in  Guildford;  studied  at 
Balliol  College,  Oxford,  of  which  he  became 
fellow  in  1582 ;  was  elected  Master  of  Uni- 
versity College  in  1597,  and  made  Dean  of 
Winchester  in  1599,  Bishop  of  Lichfield  in 
1609,  and  translated  to  the  See  of  London,  1610. 
He  owed  his  appointment  as  archbishop  (1611) 
to  his  union  of  Calyinistic  theology  with  a  de- 
sire to  maintain  the  authority  of  the  crown  in 
ecclesiastical  matters.  Such  a  position  coin- 
cided with  the  wishes  of  James  I. ;  but  Abbot, 
though  a  man  of  earnest  piety,  was  narrow- 
minded,  stem,  and  lacking  in  geniality.  He 
was  in  theological  matters  the  conspicuous 
opponent  of  Laud,  who  represented  the  re- 
action against  Calvinism.  His  conscientious- 
ness was  shown  by  his  determined  refusal  to 
comply  with  the  wishes  of  the  king  in  for- 
warding the  divorce  of  the  Countess  of  E^x 
from  her  husband,  that  she  might  marry  the 
favourite,  Robert  Carr,  Earl  of  Somerset.  In 
1621,  at  a  staghimt  at  Bramshill  Park,  Abbot 
accidentally  shot  a  keeper.  This  raised 
the  question  among  canonists  whether,  in 
consequence  of  having  shed  blood,  he  had 
become  legally  incapacitated  from  the  epis- 
copal office.  A  commission  of  bishops  and 
judges  appointed  to  determine  this  point  were 
divided  in  opinion,  but  advised  the  king  that 
it  was  desirable  that  the  archbishop  should 
ask  for  pardon.  Though  Abbot  was  greatly 
shaken  by  this  untowani  event,  he  still  was 
bold  enough  to  express  his  disapproval  of  the 
Spanish  marriage  of  Prince  Charles.  On  the 
accession  of  Charles  I.,  Abbot  found  that  his 
influence  at  court  was  gone,  and  that  Laud 
was  the  favourite.  In  1627  he  incurred  Charles 
I.'s  displeasure  by  manfully  refusing  to 
license  a  sermon  by  Dr.  Robert  Sibthorpe,  in 
favour  of  passive  obedience.  He  was  onlered 
by  the  king  to  betake  himself  to  his  house  at 
Ford,  in  Kent,  and  there  remain  in  confine- 
ment, while  the  archbishopric  was  put  into 
the  hands  of  a  commission,  with  Laud  at  the 
head.  He  was,  however,  restored  to  some 
degree  of  royal  favour  next  year ;  but,  suffer- 
ing from  disease,  and  embittered  in  temper,  he 
was  helpless  against  the  influence  of  Laud. 
His  last  years  were  spent  in  the  indolence 
of  sickness  and  despair,  and  his  death  made 
way  for  the  undisputed  power  of  his  rival. 
He  was  buried  in  Trinity  Church,  Guildford, 
where  his  monument  still  remains.  Abbot 
was  munificent  in  his  bene&ctions,  and  built 


Abb 


(3) 


Abe 


a  hospital  at  Guildford,  which  bears  his 
name.  He  was  a  worthy  man,  but  had  neither 
knowledge,  large-heartedness,  nor  tact  suffi- 
cient for  his  office. 

Heyhn,  Cypn'antu  Anglioanvs;  Spelman's 
Avologie  for  ArchhUhop  Abbott  1727;  Abbot's 
Narraiiw  in  Bushwortb,  Historical  Collectioiu, 
vol.  i.  Se0  alao  Hook,  Ltces  of  the  Archhiahops, 
vol.  v.,  new  aeries.  There  is  a  jrood  portrait 
in  the  hall  of  University  College,  Ozfova. 

[M.  C] 

Abbott,  Chakles.    [Tenterdbn,  Loan.] 

Abdication.    [Crown.] 

Abelf  Thomas  {d.  July  30, 1540),  chaplain 
to  Catherine  of  Arnigon,  strongly  opposed  the 
divorce  of  that  princess;  and  was  attainted  for 
his  share  in  the  afiair  of  Elizabeth  Barton, 
and  found  guilty  of  misprision  of  treason.  He 
was  subsequently  imprisoned  and  executed 
for  denying  the  king*s  supremacy,  and  affirm- 
ing the  legality  of  the  marriage  with  Cathe- 
rine. He  carved  the  famous  punning  inscrip- 
tion (an  A  upon  a  bell)  on  the  walls  of  the 
Beauchamp  Tower  in  the  Tower  of  London. 

ArcluBOlogia,  adii.  93. 

Aborconiy  Peerage  of.  In  1603  James 
Hamilton,  Master  of  Paisley,  grandson  of 
James  Hamilton,  second  Earl  of  Arran  and 
Duke  of  Chatelherault  [Douglas  ;  Hamilton], 
was  created  Baron  Abercom,  and  in  1606 
Earl  of  Abercom.  John  James,  ninth  Earl, 
was  created  Marquis  of  Abercom  in  1790,  and 
his  successor  James  {b.  1811),  Lord  Lieutenant 
of  Ireland,  1866—68,  and  1874—76;  wajs 
created  Duke  of  Abercom  and  Marquis  of 
Hamilton,  Aug.  10,  1868.  The  title  is  derived 
from  the  Castle  of  Abercorn  in  Linlithgow, 
shire,  a  stronghold  of  the  Douglases,  taken  by 
James  II.  in  the  Douglas  rebellion  of  1456. 
Abercom  was  the  seat  of  one  of  the  earliest 
monasteries  in  Scotland,  and  of  a  Pictish 
bishopric. 

Aberorombyf  SiRBALPM(d.  m4,d.  I801), 

bom  at  Tullibody,  Clackmannanshire,  entered 
the  army  as  comet  in  a  dragoon  regiment  in 
1756,  and  was  gazetted  to  a  colonelcy  in  1781. 
He  had,  however,  seen  scarcely  any  active 
service,  on  account  of  his  opposition  to  the 
government  while  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
and  the  sympathy  hemanifested  for  the  Ameri- 
can Colonies.  In  1793  he  commanded  a  brigade 
under  the  Duke  of  York  in  Holland,  and  was 
wounded  at  Nimeguen.  In  the  winter  of 
1794 — 5  he  showed  great  skill  in  protecting, 
as  far  as  possible,  the  British  forces  during 
their  disastrous  retreat.  After  the  close  of 
this  expedition,  he  was  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  forces  in  the  West  IndleA.  He 
returned  in  1797«  and  held  the  chief  command 
in  Ireland  during  that  and  the  following  year. 
There  he  showed  much  talent  in  re- organising 
an  undisciplined  army,  as  well  as  statesman- 
like tact.  Thwarted,  however,  by  the  Irish 
government,  he  reluctantly  resigned  his  office, 


and  accepted  the  chief  command  in  Scotland, 
whence  he  was  called  to  serve  again  in  the 
disastrous  expedition  to  Holland  imder  the 
Duke  of  York.  In  1801  he  was  appointed  to 
command  the  expedition  against  the  French  in 
Egypt.  With  wonderful  skill  and  daring  he 
disembarked  his  forces  at  Aboukir  in  the  face 
of  the  French  army.  On  March  21,  the  two 
armies  met  near  Alexandria.  Abercromby 
gained  a  complete  victory;  but  the  battle, 
which  saved  Egypt  from  the  French,  cost  the 
English  the  life  of  their  oonmiander.  In 
aclmowledgment  of  Sir  Ralph  Abercromby's 
services,  lus  widow  was  created  a  Peeress  of 
the  United  Kingdom,  with  the  style  and  title 
of  Baroness  Abercromby  of  Aboukir.  The 
title  descended  to  her  eldest  son.  Her 
third  son,  James,  Judge-Advocate-General, 
1827,  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
1835—39,  was  created  Lord  Dunfermline 
of  Dunfermline  in  1839.  [Alexandria, 
Battle  of.] 

Lord  Donfermline,    Sir    R.   Ahoreromby :   a 
Memoir^  1861 ;  Alison,  Hitiory  of  Swrope. 

[W.  R.  S.] 

AberdOOliy  was  an  important  place  even 
before  its  elevation  to  a  cit}'  in  the  twelfth 
century.  It  was  made  a  royal  burgh  by 
WiUiam  the  Lion,  and  received  a  charter  fiom 
Robert  Bruce  in  1319.  The  University  was 
founded  in  1494  by  Bishop  Elphinstone,  and 
Marischal  College  by  George  Keith,  Earl 
Marischal,  about  a  centur\'  later.  They  were 
united  in  1860.  In  1336*  the  greater  portion 
of  the  town  was  burnt  by  tho  English,  and 
when  rebuilt  was  called  New  Aberdeen. 

Aberdeoily  Peerage  of.  In  1682  Sir 
John  Gordon  of  Haddo,  Lord  Chancellor  ot 
Scotland,  was  created  Earl  of  Aberdeen  in 
the  peerage  of  Scotland.  Georffe,  fodrth 
Earl,  was  made  a  peer  of  the  United  Kingdom 
in  1813,  and  in  1818,  on  his  marriage  with 
Lady  Catherine  Hamilton,  assumed  the  addi- 
tional surname  and  arms  of  Hamilton. 

Abordoon,  George  Hamilton-Gordon, 
4th  Earl  OF  (d.  1784,  d,  1860),in  1801  began  his 
diplomatic  life  as  attache  to  Lord  Comwallis  at 
Paris  when  engaged  in  negotiating  the  peace  of 
Amiens.  In  1806  he  was  elected  a  representa- 
tive peer  of  Scotland.  In  1 81 3  he  was  emplo)red 
on  a  mission  to  induce  Austria  to  break  with 
Napoleon,  and  in  this  he  was  highly  successful. 
He  followed  the  allied  armies ;  was  present  at 
Lutzen,  Bautzen,  and  Leipzig ;  was  employed 
to  detach  Murat  from  Napoleon;  and  was 
the  colleague  of  Lord  Castlereagh  at  the  Con- 
gress of  (SiatiUon.  He  took  no  further  share 
in  public  life  until  1827—28,  when  he  waa 
offered  the  Chancellorship  of  the  Duchy  of 
Lancaster  by  the  Duke  of  Wellington  with  a 
seat  in  the  Cabinet,  and  shortly  after  was  pro- 
moted to  the  Foreign  Office.  In  this  capacity 
he  took  a  prominent  share  in  the  management 
of  the  Greek  question,  and  the  formation  of 
the  Hellenic  Kingdom,   recognised   by  the 


Aba 


(4  ) 


AU 


Porte  in  1829.  In  general,  however,  he  was  in 
favour  of  a  policy  of  neutrality^  in  continental 
questions.  He  recognised  Louis  Philippe  im- 
mediately ;  he  ref  ui^  to  employ  the  English 
power  to  dispossess  Don  Miguel  of  the  crown 
of  Portugal;  and  he  strongly  objected  to 
the  Qua£niple  Alliance  which  Lord  Pal- 
merston  negotiated.  His  first  tenure  of  office 
ended  in  1830.  He  was  Colonial  Secretary 
under  Sir  R.  Peel  in  1834—35,  and  Foreign 
Secretary  to  the  same  statesman  in  1841. 
He  assisted  in  carrying  the  repeal  of  the  Com 
Laws  and  the  commercial  reforms  of  Peel,  and 
on  the  death  of  that  statesman  he  became  the 
acknowledged  head  of  his  party.  When  in 
succession  both  Whigs  and  Tories  had  failed 
to  carry  on  the  government,  and  there  was  no 
course  left  but  to  apply  to  the  Peelites,  Lord 
Aberdeen  was  invited  to  form  a  government, 
1852.  He  formed  a  coalition  ministry,  em- 
bracing ''  men  of  all  parties,  from  the  extreme 
Tory  to  the  extreme  Radical.''  It  was  his 
misfortune  to  be  met  by  the  complications 
in  foreign  politics  which  led  to  the  Crimean 
War.  It  was  thought  at  the  time,  and  the 
opinion  has  been  frequently  expressed  since, 
that  a  greater  display  of  vigour  on  the  part 
of  the  ministry  might  have  averted  the  war. 
The  mismanagement  of  the  campaign  com- 
pleted the  unpopularity  of  the  ministry. 
On  January  25th,  1856,  Mr.  Roebuck  moved 
for  a  select  committee  to  inquire  into  the  state 
of  the  army  and  the  conduct  of  the  war.  On 
the  motion  being  carried  Lord  Aberdeen  re- 
signed, and  during  ihe  remainder  of  his  life 
took  no  further  share  in  public  affairs.  In 
his  home  policy  Lord  Aberdeen  represented 
the  advanced  section  of  the  Conservatives, 
Tegardinff  Catholic  Emancipation  and  the 
repeal  of  the  Com  Laws  as  advantageous 
measures  rather  than  as  necessary  e\dls.  In 
foreign  politics  he  was  the  advocate  of  the 
principles  of  friendship  with  foreign  powcni, 
and  non-intervention,  which  he  perhaps  at- 
tempted to  apply  too  iDdiscriminately.  Lord 
Aberdeen,  **the  travelled  thane,  Athenian 
Aberdeen,"  of  Byron's  EtiglUh  Bards  and 
Scotch  Reviewers,  was  an  accomplished  scholar, 
speciaUy  learned  in  Hellenic  antiquities. 

The  policj  and  administration  of  Lord  Aber- 
deen are  diacuased  in  Kinglake,  invoMon  of  the 
Grimea^  eap.  it.  62. 

Aberdeen  Dootors,  was  the  name 
given,  in  1638 — 9,  to  six  clergymen  of  Aber- 
deen—John Forbes,  Robert  Bacon,  Alexander 
Ross,  William  Leslie,  Alexander  Scrogie, 
and  James  Sibbold — who  strenuously  opposed 
the  compulsory  administration  to  aU  persons  of 
the  oath  to  preserve  the  Solemn  League  and 
Covenant. 

Spalding,  HemorioU,  i.  96,  Ac. ;  and  Bnrton, 
Hiff.  ofSeoOund,  ▼!.  oap.  Ixzil 

AbertfaTexiny,  Pebraoe  of.  Nov.  23, 

1392,  WiUiaxn  Beauchamp  was  summoned  to 
Parliament  by  writ  as  Lord  Bergavenny  or 
Abergavenny.      The    peerage    paissed  to  a 


branch  of  the  Neville  family  on  the  marriage 
of  Sir  £dward  Neville  (second  son  of  Ralph 
Neville,  Earl  of  Westmoreland,  by  Joan, 
daughter  of  John  of  Gaunt)  with  Elizabeth, 
heiress  of  Richard  Beauchamp,  'Eaxl  of  Wor- 
cester, Baron  Bergavenny.  George,  fifteenth 
Baron,  was  created  Earl  in  1 784,  and  William, 
fifth  Earl,  was  advanced  to  the  dignity  of 
Marquis  in  1876.     [Neville.] 

AbeztfaTennjy  Geoboe  Neville,  3rd 
Barox  (a.  1536),  was  one  of  the  nobles 
arrested  in  1502  on  suspicion  of  being  engaged 
in  a  conspiracy  with  Edmund  de  la  Pole,  'EbxI 
of  Suffolk.  He  was,  however,  soon  restored 
to  liberty,  and  eventually  came  into  great 
favour  with  Henry  VII.  and  Henry  VIII. 
During  the  Cornish  revolt  of  1497,  it  was 
partly  owing  to  Lord  Abergavenny's  local 
influence  that  the  insurgents  met  with  no 
encouragement  from  the  people  of  Kent. 

AbergaTeil]iy»  Henby  Neville,  4th 
Babon  {a.  1587),  who  was  supposed  to  favour 
the  insurgents  in  1554,  finally  declared  for 
Mary,  and  d^eated  the  rebels  at  Wrotham 
Heath  (q.v.).  He  was  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners at  the  trial  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots, 
in  1586. 

Abhorrera  (1679),  was  the  name  given 
to  the  adherents  of  the  court  party,  who,  on 
petitions  being  mresented  to  the  king,  prayiug 
him  to  summonJParliament  for  January,  1680, 
signed  counter-petitions,  expressing  abhors 
renee  for  those  who  were  attempting  to  en- 
croach on  the  royal  prerogative.  [See  Peti- 
tioners.] It  is  said  that  the  names  Whig 
and  Tory,  as  party  designations,  were  first 
used  in  the  disputes  between  the  Petitioners 
and  Abhorrers. 

Burnet,  flutory  of  Hia  Own  Time,  U.  2S8; 
Bapin,  Hist,  of  Eng.  u,  712;  Macankv*  Hwf. 
o/fny.  i.25& 

Abmgdon  Abbey  Cbroniole,  The,  is 

a  well-preserved  record  which  narrates  the 
history  of  the  great  Benedictine  monastery  of 
Abingdon.  It  extends  from  the  foundation  of 
the  abbey  in  675  to  the  accession  of  Richard  I. 
in  1189.  It  is  specially  useful  for  the  light  it 
throws  on  social  history,  on  the  relations  of  the 
clergy  to  the  laity,  on  the  state  of  society  be- 
fore the  Norman  Conquest,  and  on  the  details 
of  the  changes  produced  by  that  event. 

The  Chronioon  MoruuterU  ds  Abingdon  has  been 
printed  in  the  Kolls  Series,  1858,  with  valuable 
mtroductionB  by  Mr.  Stevenson. 

AbilU^doilf  Peerage  of.  In  1572  Sir 
HenryNorris,  who  was  ambassador  to  France 
the  preceding  year,  and  son  of  the  Sir 
Henry  Norris  beheaded  in  1536  for  alleged 
criminality  with  Anne  Boleyn,  was  created 
Baron  Norris  of  Ryecote.  He  was  the  father 
of  the  distinguished  military  commander,  Sir 
John  Norris.  His  grandson,  Francis,  was 
created  Earl  of  Berkshire  in  1620,  but  died 
the  same  year,  and  the  Berkshire   peerage 


AU 


(5) 


AIM 


expired.  Tke  Norris  peerage  descended  by 
the  female  line  to  James  Bertie,  who  was 
created  Earl  of  Abingdon  in  1682.  This 
nobleman  commanded  the  Oxfordshire  Militia 
against  the  Duke  of  Monmouth  on  the  latter's 
invasion  of  England.  He,  howerer,  opposed 
James  II.*s  action  in  religious  matters,  and 
was  the  first  English  peer  to  join  WilUam. 

Allinger,  James  Scaklbtt,  Lord  (b.  1769, 
d.  1844),  the  second  son  of  Robert  Scarlett 
of  Jamaica,  after  gaining  great  refutation  as 
an  advocate,  entered  Parliament  m  1818  as 
member  for  Peterborough.  He  resisted  the 
plans  of  Castlereagh  and  Yansittart  for  in- 
creased taxation,  and  supported  Romill^  and 
Mackintosh  in  their  attempts  to  amehorate 
the  Penal  Code.  He  also  unsuccessfully 
endeavoured  to  bring  in  a  bill  for  amend- 
ing the  Poor  Laws.  In  1827,  when  Mr. 
Canning  sought  the  assistance  of  the  Whigs, 
Mr.  Scarlett  became  Attorney-General.  He 
now  gradually  drifted  over  to  Conservatism. 
He  retained  his  office  under  Lord  Goderich, 
and,  on  the  dismissal  of  Sir  Charles  Wetherell 
by  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  took  office  again 
under  the  latter.  Li  1830  he  resigned  with 
his  party.  In  1834  he  was  made  Chief  Baron 
by  Sir  R.  Peel,  and  raised  to  the  peerage. 
Fobs,  Th»  Judgu  of  Aiyland. 

Alignratioii  Oath,  The  (1701),  was  a 

Sledge  of  renunciation  of  the  exiled  Stuart 
ynasty,  exacted  from  time  to  time  after  the 
Revolution  of  1688.  It  first  appears  in  1690, 
embodied  in  a  proposed  **  Act  for  the  further 
security  of  his  Majesty's  person,  and  for 
extinguishing  the  hopes  of  the  pretended 
Prince  of  Wales,  ana  all  other  pretenders 
and  their  abettors.'*  Every  person  who  held 
any  office,  civil,  military,  or  spiritual,  was  to 
solemnly  abjure  the  exiled  king;  the  oath  of 
abjuration  might  be  tendered  oy  any  justice 
of  the  peace  to  any  subiect  of  their  Majesties; 
and,  if  it  were  refused,  the  recusant  might 
be  sent  to  prison,  to  lie  there  as  long  as  he 
continued  oc)etinate.  The  influence  of  Wil- 
liam caused  this  bill  to  be  rejected,  as  well  as 
a  less  severe  measure,  imposmg  a  declaration 
on  all  office-holders  that  they  would  stand  by 
William  and  Mary  against  James  and  James's 
adherente.  In  the  last  year  of  the  reign,  after 
Louis  XIV.  had  acknowledge  the  Pretender, 
it  was  again  introduced  in  the  "  Act  for  the 
further  security  of  his  Majesty's  person,  and 
the  succession  of  the  crown  in  the  Protestant 
line."  After  a  long  debate  in  the  Commons, 
the  abjuration  oath  was  made  compulsory ; 
but  the  provision  was  only  carried  by  a 
majority  of  one.  William  gave  his  assent  to 
the  measure  on  his  death-bed.  On  the  ac- 
cession of  Anne  a  new  Act  was  passed,  apply- 
ing the  oath  to  the  new  reig^.  The  oath  was 
taken  freely  by  the  Tories,  and  even  by  noted 
Jacobites,  the  Pretender  having,  it  was  said, 
sent  instructions  to  that  effect  to  his  adherente. 
It  was  renewed  on  the  occasion  of  the  union 


with  Scotland,  when  the  Scottish  clergy 
petitioned  against  it,  but  without  result.  The 
bill  was  subsequently  re-introduced  on  the 
accession  of  George  I.,  and  on  the  death  of  the 
old  Pretender  (1766).  The  oath  was  not  finally 
abolished  until  1858.  "The  definition  of 
persons  required  to  take  the  Abjuration 
Oath,"  says  Mr.  Burton,  '*  is  an  attempt,  and 
a  successful  attempt,  to  exhaust  the  gentr}^ 
and  the  educated  community."  It  includes 
the  holders  of  all  public  offices,  members  of 
the  universities,  and  all  teachers,  clergymen, 
and  legal  practitioners;  and  as  a  general 
remedy  of  omissions,  the  oath  might  be 
tendered  "  to  any  person  or  persons  what- 
soever." 

Burnet,  Hut.  cf  hit  Own  Time ;  Burton,  Btipi 

of  <>ueen  Anne;  Stanhope,  Reign  of  QuMn  Ann§ ; 

Aacaulay.  Hwt.  ^  Eng.  [L.  C.  S.  ] 

Al^nxation  Oath  for  Sootlaad,  The 

(1662),  was  imposed  on  all  persons  holding 
public  office,  and  consisted,  among  other  abju- 
zations,  of  a  declaration  that  the  ODvenant  and 
League  "are  of  themselves  unlawful  oaths, 
and  were  teken  by  and  imposed  upon  the 
subjecto  of  this  kingdom  against  the  funda- 
mentel  laws  and  liberties  of  the  same."  The 
oath  was  modified  in  1716,  when  it  became  a 
simple  declaration  of  allegiance  to  the  Han- 
over settlement  and  a  renunciation  of  the 
Stuarts.    [Covenant.] 

Aljjvratioii  of  the  Bealm,  Thb  Oath 

of,  was  the  oath  to  quit  the  country,  which 
might  be  enforced  on  an^  felon  who  had 
taken  advantage  of  the  privilege  of  sanctuary. 
Such  a  person  was  bound  to  leave  the  king- 
dom within  thirty  days,  and  if  he  returned  he 
might  be  put  to  death.  The  practice  was 
abolished,  m  company  with  the  privilege  of 
sanctuary,  by  James  I.,  cap.  28.  [Sanctuary.] 
By  a  statute  passed  in  the  35th  year  of  Eliza- 
beth, Protestant  Dissenters  who  had  failed  to 
attend  divine  service,  and  Roman  Catholics, 
might  be  compelled  to  abjure  the  realm,  and 
if  they  refused,  or  returned  without  licence, 
they  were  adjudged  felons,  and  might  be 
hanged.  Dissenters  were  relieved  of  the 
necessity  of  abjuration  by  the  Act  of  Tolera- 
tion ;  but  as  regards  Roman  Catholics,  it  was 
not  finally  removed  from  the  Statute  JBook  till 
1791. 

Abrahaniy     Hbights     of.      [Quebec; 

WOLPB.] 

AbsentaoisiUy  owing  to  the  character  of 
the  conquest  of  Ireland,  and  the  lapse  of  many 
great  Insh  fiefs  to  V^Tiglinh  baronial  houses, 
early  became  a  crying  evil  in  that  country.  In 
1331,  Edward  lir.  called  on  all  absentees  to 
follow  him  to  Ireland  and  defend  their  estates. 
When  Lionel  of  Clarence  went  out  in  1361, 
the  same  demand  was  made.  In  1374,  too, 
they  were  d^ed  up  to  go  in  person  or  send 
substitutes.  The  first  statute  on  the  subject 
was  passed  in  1379  in  an  English  Parliament, 
I  ordering  all  proprietors  who  were  absentees 


Aby 


(«) 


to  contribute  two-thirds  of  their  means  to  the 
defence  of  Ireland.  In  1413  all  Irishmen 
were,  with  the  same  object,  ordered  to  leave 
England,  and  were  exdaded  from  the  Inns 
of  Court.  In  Henry  YI.'s  reign,  legislation 
against  absenteeism  vras  also  frequent.  James 
I£.  in  1689  summoned  all  absentees  to  join 
him.  Under  George  I.,  absenteeism  having 
much  increased,  in  1729  an  absentee-tax  of 
four  shillings  in  the  pound  was  imposed  on 
all  moneys  paid  out  of  Ireland ;  but  the  king 
being  allowed  to  grant  exemptions,  it  did  not 
do  much  g^ood.  In  1767,  this  law  was  re- 
newed, and  the  exemptions  done  away  with, 
or,  at  least,  only  maintained  for  members  of 
the  royal  funily  and  distinguished  ofiScers. 
But  an  attempt  to  increase  the  tax  in  1773 
had  to  be  given  up,  owing  to  the  opposition  it 
aroused  in  England.  In  1783,  a  like  attempt 
failed  in  Ireland.  In  1796,  an  absentee-tax 
was  defeated  in  the  Irish  Parliament  by 
English  influence,  and  after  that  no  such 
measure  was  mooted,  though  the  evil  con- 
tinued to  increase.  In  1779,  Arthur  Young 
estimated  the  amount  of  rent  annually  sent 
out  of  the  country,  at  £732,000. 

Ahnost  every  Irish  historian,  gtatesman,  and 
economist,  has  had  somethingr  to  saj  on  the 
BuliJect  of  abooiteeism.  The  reader  will  find 
it  referred  to,  at  some  length,  in  Fronde, 
Th§  English  in  Ireland,  passim ;  Lecky,  Hid,  of 
Bng.,  vol.  ii. ;  the  works  of  Swift  and  Arthur 
Young ;  and  !rh«  J{«port  of  tht  SsUat  CommitUo  on 
the  8laU  cf  Ir$land,  1828. 

Abyssiniaii  fixpeditum,  Thb  (1867). 

Theodore,  King  of  Abyssinia,  fancying  that 
he  was  lighted  by  the  British  Oovemment, 
who  had  refused  to  assist  him  against  the 
Egyptians,  had  seized  and  imprisoned  in  his 
fortress  of  Magdala  all  the  British  subjects 
within  his  readi.  Among  others  was  Mr. 
Cameron,  British  Consul  at  Massowah.  An 
embassy  was  sent  to  the  king,  headed  by 
Mr.  Rassam,  British  Assistant-Resident  at 
Aden,  to  expostulate.  The  mission  was  at 
first  well  received  and  cajoled  by  the  crafty 
king,  but  eventually  seized  and  imprisoned 
with  the  rest.  Lord  Stanley's  remonstrance 
being  disregarded,  war  was  declared.  It  was 
waged  from  India,  and  the  exx)edition  was 
despatched  from  Bombay  in  the  winter  of 
1867  under  Sir  Robert  Napier.  The  cam- 
paign was  conducted  under  difficulties,  which 
arose  from  the  varying  nature  of  the 
climate  and  the  natural  impediments  of  the 
ground.  The  difficult  task  of  transporting 
the  military  stores  and  artillery  in  a  country 
where  roads  were  unknown,  and  which 
bristled  with  lofty  and  rugged  mountains, 
was  performed  with  complete  success.  The 
baggage-elephants  were  especially  useful,  and 
greatly  facilitated  the  progress  of  the  expe- 
dition. Little  resistance  was  experienced 
from  the  natives.  There  were  one  or  two 
straggling  skirmishes,  and  a  wild  battle  was 
fought,  in  which  the  reckless  bravery  of  the 
Abyssinians  proved  ineffectual  against  the 


serried  masses  of  the  English  bayonets,  and 
the  deadly  fire  of  the  English  artillery. 
Theodore,  at  last,  sent  back  all  the  prisoners, 
and  offered  to  treat.  Napier,  however,  refused 
to  listen  to  any  terms  short  of  a  total  surren- 
der, and  to  this  the  king  refused  to  agree. 
He  shut  himself  up  in  his  citadel  of  Magdala, 
which  was  perched  upon  a  lofty  rock,  and  de- 
fended not  only  by  the  natural  difficulty  of  the 
ascent,  but  also  by  walls  of  great  thickneHS, 
and  gateways  strongly  fortified.  The  Eng- 
lish, with  great  bravery,  surmounted  the 
difficulties  of  the  ascent,  forced  their  way 
through  the  gate  at  the  top,  and  fought  from 
post  to  post  till  the  position  was  won. 
Theodore  was  found  dead  inside  the  gate, 
slain  by  his  own  hand.  The  town  and 
fortress  were  destroyed,  and  within  a  week 
the  troops  wero  on  the  sea  returning  homo. 
Sir  Robert  Napier  for  his  services  was  created 
Lord  Napier  of  Magdala,  with  a  pension, 
and  received  the  thanks  of  both  Houses  of 
Parliament. 
Acadia.     [Nova  Scotia.] 

Accord,  Thb,  is  the  name  given  by  some 
Scotch  writers  to  the  Treaty  of  Leith  (q.v.). 

Acre»  or  St.  Jean  d*Acre,  a  town  on  the 
coast  of  Syria,  anciently  called  Ptolemais,  is 
connected  with  three  episodes  in  English 
history  :— (1)  The  Siege  op  Acre.  In  June, 
1191,  Richard  I.  arrived  before  the  town, 
which  had  already  been  besieged  by  the 
Crusaders  for  more  than  two  years,  with  the 
loss,  it  is  said,  of  over  120,000  men.  A  series 
of  assaults  was  immediately  made  on  the 
town,  but  these  were  seriously  impeded  by 
the  attacks  of  Saladin  on  the  Christian  lines. 
At  length,  however,  the  garrison  offered  to 
treat ;  they  were  allowed  to  retain  their  lives, 
and  (July  12)  the  Crusaders  marched  into 
the  town.  (2)  The  Defence  of  Acre.  On 
March  16,  1799,  Bonaparte's  Egyptian  army 
appeared  before  Acre.  The  town  was  held 
b^  a  Turkish  garrison,  under  Yuasuf  Pasha, 
aided  by  Sir  Sidney  Smith,  who  commanded 
the  English  squadron  in  the  roads,  and  a 
French  engineer,  Philippoteaux,  who  had 
once  been  a  school-fellow  of  Bonaparte.  Ani- 
mated by  these  loaders,  the  Turks  held  out 
with  great  bravery  for  sixty  days  of  open 
trenches ;  and  on  May  20  the  French  were 
compelled  to  retreat.  "  That  miserable  fort," 
as  Napoleon  called  it,  was  thus  the  means  of 
causing  his  Syrian  expedition  to  be  aban- 
doned, and  his  great  projects  of  Oriental 
conquest  to  be  altogether  hopeless.  Alluding 
to  Sir  Sidney  Smith,  he  is  said  to  have  fre- 
quently remarked :  '*  That  man  made  me 
miss  my  destiny."  (3)  The  Bombardment 
OP  Acre,  Nov.  3,  1840.  After  the  refusal  of 
Mehemet  Ali  to  agree  to  the  terms  of  the 
Quadrilateral  Alliance,  1840,  a  combined 
Austrian,  Turkish,  and  British  squadron  (the 
latter,  consisting  of  6  line-of-battle  ships, 
and  10  smaller  vessels,  commanded  by  Admiral 


Act 


(7) 


▲da 


Sir  R.  Stopford)  sailed  to  the  coast  of  Syria, 
and  bombarded  Acre,  which  fell  in  total  ruins 
after  enduring  a  tremendous  fire  for  three 
hours. 

Act  of  Parliament.    [Statute.] 

Acton  Bnrnel,  Parliament  of  (1283), 
was  the  name  given  to  one  of  the  sessions  of 
Edward  I/s  great  council,  reinforced  probably 
by  the  merchants  who  had  previously  met  in 
the  Parliament  at  Shrewsbury.  The  presence 
of  so  many  representatives  of  the  commercial 
classes  was  tak«n  advantage  of  by  the  king  to 
issue  the  ordinance  known  as  the  Statute  of 
Merchant*. 

Adamnan,  St.  (6.  624,  d.  704),  Abbot  of 
lona,  was  converted,  while  on  a  mission  to 
Aldfrid  of  Xorthumbria  in  688,  to  the  custom 
of  the  Roman  Church  with  regard  to  the 
observance  of  Easter — a  conversion  which 
embroiled  him  in  disputes  with  the  monks  of 
lona.  In  692  he  attended  the  Synod  of  Tara, 
and  successfully  urged,  on  part  of  the  Irish 
Church,  the  necessity  of  conformity  to  the 
rest  of  the  Church.  Adamnan  wrote  in  Latin 
the  Life  of  St.  Columba,  which  although  con- 
taining some  elements  of  legend,  is  the  great 
authority  for  the  history  of  the  old  Celtic 
Church.  It  has  been  edited  by  Bishop  Reeves 
for  the  Irish  Arch.  Soc.  and  the  Bannatyne 
Club.  This  edition  has  been  re-issued  with 
an  English  translation  in  the  Mistoriam  oj 
Scotland.    He  also  wrote  J)e  Situ  Terra  Sanetee, 

Adanifly  John  (b.  1735,  d.  1826),  second 
President  of  the  United  States,  was  a  lawyer 
in  Boston,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the 
measures  of  the  colonists  to  defend  their 
lights  against  the  English  Government.  In 
the  Philadelphia  Congress  of  1 774  he  was  dele- 
gate for  Massachusetts,  and  he  was  one  of 
the  members  of  the  "  Continental  Congress '' 
of  1775.  In  tiiis  assembly  he  advocated 
immediate  and  vigorous  hostile  measures 
against  the  mother  country,  being  convinced 
that  any  further  attempts  at  reconciliation 
were  hopeless.  Adams  was  a  skilful  practical 
lawyer,  as  well  as  an  earnest  student  of  the 
philosophy  of  politics  and  jurisprudence ; 
and  much  of  the  shape  whicifi  the  national 
and  state  constitutions  assumed,  as  well  as 
the  curious  basis  of  speculative  legal  theory 
on  which  the  acts  of  the  earlier  congresses 
were  grounded,  was  largely  due  to  his  in- 
fluence. He  was  a  declared  opponent  of 
the  "  pure  democracy,"  advocated  by  a  large 
flection  of  the  American  leaders,  and  favoured 
the  system  of  government  by  double  cham- 
bers and  "  checks  and  balances,*'  which  was 
often  stigmatised  as  aristocratic.  In  1777  he 
was  sent  as  diplomatic  agent  of  the  new 
government  to  Paris,  and  for  the  greater  part 
of  the  next  ten  years  was  engaged  in  political 
and  financial  missions  to  the  courts  of  France, 
Holland,  and  England.  On  his  return  to 
America  in  1788  he  was  chosen  Vice-President 
of  the  Union,  and  was  immediately  involved 


ii^  the  bitter  party  contests  between  the 
federalists,  who  followed  Hamilton,  and  the 
republicans,  who  were  now  led  by  Jefferson. 
In.  1797  Adams  was  chosen  President  by 
a  slight  and  doubtful  federalist  majority. 
His  term  of  ofiice  was  not  altogether  a  suc- 
cessful one.  The  southern  federalists  were 
only  lukewarm  supporters,  and  the  repub- 
licans bitterly  assailed  him  in  public  and  pri- 
vate. Like  Washington,  Adams  held  to  the 
principle  of  neutraHty  in  the  contest  between 
France  and  the  other  European  states;  but 
this  made  him  very  unpopular  with  the  power- 
ful body  of  republicans  within  the  States.  In 
the  presidential  election  of  1801,  Adams  was 
defeated  by  Jefferson,  and  retired  from  public 
life  amidst  a  storm  of  very  undeserved  obloquy. 
Adams  was  a  voluminous  writer  of  political 
and  quasi-political  treatises,  and  his  works 
are  very  valuable  for  a  correct  understanding 
of  the  views  and  principles  which  actuated 
one  large  section  of  the  f  oiinders  of  the  United 
States. 

F.  Adams,  Life  and  Wovke  of  John  AdamSf  10 
vols.,  Boston,  1850;  J.  Q.  and  C.  F.  Adams, 
Life  of  J.  AdafM,  2  toLb.,  1871 ;  Jared  Sparks, 
Diplomatic  Correspondence  of  the  Amer.  Keoclur 
tion;  Ooicot,  Waehington.  [g.  J.  L.l 

Adams,  Saml-bl  {b.  1722,  d,  1803),  a  dis- 
tant relation  of  John  Adams,  was  a  leading 
member  of  the  Boston  "  Caucus  "  Club,  and 
took  a  considerable  part  in  foiinding  similar 
associations  elsewhere.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
to  oppose  the  measures  by  which  the  English 
ParHament  attempted  to  raise  revenue  nrom 
the  trade  of  the  American  colonists,  and  he  did, 
perhaps,  more  than  any  other  man  to  rouse 
the  people  of  Massachusetts  to  open  resist- 
ance. In  American  politics  he  was  by  no 
means  a  devoted  follower  of  Washington, 
and  was  in  many  respects  an  opponent  of 
the  federalist  constitution.  In  1797  ho 
retired  from  the  governorship  of  Massa- 
chusetts, when  the  federal  party  were  pre- 
dominant. It  is  in  a  (probably  spunons) 
speech  of  Samuel  Adams,  printed  in  London, 
and  purporting  to  have  been  delivered  at  Phi- 
ladelphia, August  1,  1776,  that  the  famous 
phrase,  *'  a  nation  of  shopkeepers,"  is  applied 
to  England.  The  speech  was  translated  into 
French,  and  Bonaparte  probably  borrowed  his 
use  of  the  appellation  from  it. 

W.  y.  Wells,  Life  of  Samud  Adame,  Boston, 
1885. 

Adamaoilt  Patrick  {b.  1543,  d.  1591^, 
Archbishop  of  St.  Andrews,  was  educated  in 
France,  and  returned  to  Scotland  in  1673,  when 
he  entered  the  ministry.  In  1 575  he  was  one  of 
the  commissioners  employed  to  settle  the  con- 
stitution of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  and  soon 
after  was  appointed  by  the  Regent  Mortoti 
Archbishop  of  St.  Andrews.  His  life  thence- 
forward was  a  long  course  of  opposition  to 
the  Presbyterian  party,  who  lost  no  oppor- 
tunity of  taking  proceedings  against  him, 
and  nnally  succeSled  in  getting  him  excom- 


Add 


(8) 


Add 


municated,  and  deprived  of  the  revenues  of 
His  see,  so  that,  it  is  said,  his  last  years  were 
passed  in  actual  want.  Uo  was  the  author  of 
a  poetical  version  of  the  Book  of  Job,  and 
other  works  in  Latin  verse. 

Calderwood,  Tfue  Hut.  of  the  Church  of  Soot, 
land;  CnnninghaTn,  Church  Hist,  of  ScotUmd. 

Addingtoily  Henry,  Viscount  Sidmouth 
{b.  17oo,  d.  1844),  the  son  of  Anthony 
Addington,  Lord  Chatham's  family  physician, 
was  called  to  the  Bar  about  the  same  time  as 
Pitt,  whose  intimate  friend  he  was.  By  Pitt 
he  was  persuaded  to  leave  the  Bar,  and  to  turn 
his  attention  to  political  life.  He  was  accord- 
ingly returned  to  Parliament  as  member  for 
Devizes,  and  soon  became  conspicuous  as 
a  devoted  follower  of  Pitt.  In  1789  he  was 
elected  Speaker,  and  presided  over  the  House 
until,  on  Pitt's  resignation  in  1801,  he  was 
invited  by  the  king  to  form  an  adminis- 
tration. It  was  very  feeble,  and  would 
scarcel}^  have  lived  a  month  if  Pitt  had  not 
for  a  time  given  it  his  protection  and  advice. 
Addington's  ministry  was  chiefly  signalised 
by  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty  of  Amiens ;  but 
when  Pitt  withdrew  his  support,  the  utter 
weakness  of  the  Cabinet  becune  very  clear, 
and  Addingfton  was  forced  to  make  way  for 
his  former  leader.  There  was  now  a  com- 
plete breach  between  the  two,  and  Ad- 
dington,  who  had  been  created  Viscount 
Sidmouth,  attacked  Lord  Melville,  and 
through  him  the  Prime  Minister,  with  great 
vehemence.  After  Pitt's  death.  Addington 
became  President  of  the  Council  in  the  Gren- 
ville  and  Fox  administration.  In  the  minis- 
try of  Perceval  and  the  Duke  of  Portland 
he  had  no  place ;  but,  when  Lord  Liverpool 
came  into  office  in  1812,  he  was  appointed 
Home  Secretary.  In  this  position  his  repres- 
sive policy,  and  the  hostilit>'  he  showed  to 
popular  movements,  made  him  remarkably 
unpopular  with  the  nation  at  large :  but  he 
maintained  his  post  for  several  years,  until  he 
resigned  it  to  Sir  Robert  Peel,  1822,  after 
which  ho  took  but  little  share  in  politics. 
His  administration  has  been  described  by 
Macaulay  as  one  which,  in  an  age  pre- 
eminently fruitful  of  parliamentary  talents, 
contained  hardly  a  single  man  who,  in  par- 
liamentary talents,  could  be  considered  as 
even  of  the  second  rate.  "  He  was,"  the 
nme  writer  says,  "universally  admitted  to 
have  been  the  best  speaker  tluit  had  sate  in 
the  Chair  since  the  retirement  of  Onslow. 
But  nature  had  not  bestowed  on  him  very 
vigorous  faculties,"  and  his  long  occupation 
of  the  Chair  had  unfitted  him  for  the  Jbask 
of  heading  an  administration. 

Pe&ew,  Life  and  Correepondenee  of  Lord  Sid- 
mouih.  1847;  Stanhope,  Life  ofPm;  BusseU, 
lAfe  of  Fox :  Lord  HoUaAd,  Memoire. 

[W.  R.  S.] 

AddlBOn,  Joseph  {b.  1672,  d.  1719),  was 
the  son  of  the  Reverend  Launcelot  Addison, 


afterwards  Dean  of  Lichfield.  Joseph  Addison 
was  educated  at  the  Charterhouse  and  Mag- 
dalen College,  Oxford,  where  his  Latin  com- 
positions gained  him  considerable  reputation. 
He  was  elected  to  a  fellowship  in  1699.  Soon 
after  leaving  Oxford,  he  became  acquainted 
with  Charles  Montague,  Earl  of  Halifax, 
and  subsequently  with  Lord  Somers,  through 
whose  influence  he  received,  in  1695,  a  pension 
of  £300  a  year.  In  1699  he  left  England, 
and  travelled  over  France  and  Italy,  until 
the  death  of  WiUiam  III.  In  1704  his  Catn^ 
paiffn,  a  poem  on  the  battle  of  Blenheim, 
written  at  the  request  of  Godolphin,  wai» 
highly  successful,  and  at  once  brought  its 
author  into  note.  Henceforth  his  rise  was 
rapid.  He  became  Commissioner  of  Appeals, 
Secretary  to  the  Legation  at  Hanover,  and  in 
1708  Under-Secretary  of  State.  In  1708  he 
entered  Parliament  as  member  for  Lost- 
withiel.  In  the  autumn  of  the  same  year. 
Lord  Wharton,  the  Lord- Lieutenant  of  Ire- 
land, appointed  him  his  Chief  Secretar}*  and 
Keeper  of  the  Records.  From  Ireland  Addison 
sent  his  contributions  to  the  TaiUr^  the  first 
of  the  periodical  publications,  which  his  friend 
Steele  projected.  With  Steele  he  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  new  literary  school  of  the 
Essayists,  who  introduced  into  English  Prose 
a  remarkable  simplicitv  and  purity  of  style, 
and  in  whose  light  and  graceful  publications 
modem  periodical  literature  had  its  source. 
On  the  fall  of  the  Whigs  in  1710,  Addison 
was  dismissed  from  office.  During  the 
General  Election  he  contributed  some  vio- 
lent party  pa|)ers  to  a  political  journal, 
entitled  the  Wh'uj  Examifter,  In  March,  1711, 
the  Spectator  appeared,  under  the  conduct  of 
Steele,  and  during  the  years  of  its  existence 
(March,  1711— Dec,  1714),  Addison  was  the 
principal  contributor.  In  1713  Addison^s 
tragedy,  Cato^  was  put  on  the  stage.  Political 
feeling  was  high  at  the  time,  and  the  opposite 
principles  appealed  to  in  the  play  caused  it  to 
be  highly  successful,  both  with  Whigs  and 
Tories.  On  the  death  of  Anne,  Addison  was 
made  Secretary  to  the  Lords  of  the  Regency. 
On  the  accession  of  George  I.,  he  again  became 
Chief  Secretary  to  the  I^ord-Lieutenant.  In 
1715  he  published  the  Freeholder,  the  best  of 
his  political  writings.  The  next  year  he  mar- 
ried the  Dowager  Countess  of  Warwick,  and 
in  1717  became  Secretarj'  of  State.  But  his 
health  was  failing,  and  his  marriage  wus 
unhappy.  He  finally  quitted  office  in  1718, 
with  a  pension  of  £1,500  a  year.  In  1719 
his  defence  of  the  Peerage  Bill  involved  him 
in  a  quarrel  with  Steele,  whom  he  attacked 
in  a  party  journal  called  the  Old  IVhiff.  This 
was  the  last  of  Addison^s  literar}'  efforts.  Ho 
died  June  17,  1719,  and  was  buried  in  West- 
minster Abbey.  Addison's  importance  in  the 
political  history  of  England  is  not  great,  though 
he  held  high  office,  and  his  personal  career  was 
remarkably  successful,  even  for  an  age  when 
literary  merit,  aided  by  a  certain  amount  of 


Add 


(9) 


Ade 


influential  patronage,  was  frequently  a  pass- 
port to  wealth  and  power.  In  Parliament 
he  was  a  silent  member,  and  as  Secretary 
of  State  he  was  not  particularly  successful. 
In  principles  he  was  a  strict  Whig  of  a  some- 
what narrow  cast :  and  in  the  schism  which 
took  place  in  1717  it  is  notable  that  he  sup- 
ported the  **  old  Whigs,"  Sunderland  and 
Stanhope,  against  the  more  progressive  section 
of  the  party  which  Walpole  headed.  It  is  as 
an  essayist  that  he  won  his  title  to  fame^ 
though  his  political  writings  are  valuable, 
as  exhibiting  the  doctrines  and  principles  of 
the  earlier  Whig  statesman  of  the  Revo- 
lution school,  set  forth  with  the  skill  and 
finish  of  a  consummate  literary  artist. 
Plis  chief .  political  writings  are  The  Presetit 
State  of  the  War  (1707),  The  Trial  and  Con- 
viction of  Count  Tariff  (1713),  and  the  Free- 
holder (1715 — 16) ;  and  his  contributions  to 
the  Whig  Examiner  (1710)  and  the  Old  Whig 
(1719). 

The  WorlcM  of  Addkon  were  published  in  six 
volumes,  with  Notes  bj  Bishop  Hard  in  1811. 
There  is  a  good  Life  by  Miss  Aildn,  pnblished 
In  1848,  and  a  lengthy  memoir  in  the  ^tographta 
BriUvnniea.  The  famons  chazacter  of  Addison, 
under  the  name  of  Atticua,  in  Pope's  Ejntiie  io 
Dr.  Arhuiknoi^  and  Macaulay^s  account  of  the 
relations  between  Addison  and  Steele  in  his 
essay  on  the  former  are  ^all  known.  See  also 
Did.  of  Nat,  Biog.  [S.  J.  L.] 

Addled  "^dirliaiiient  was  the  name 
given  tc  the  Parliament  which  sat  from 
April  5  to  June  7,  1614.  No  Parliament  had 
been  in  session  since  1611;  but  in  1614  the 
condition  of  the  finances,  and  the  unwilling- 
ness of  the  people  to  pay  the  Customs  levi^ 
by  the  king  without  the  sanction  of  Parlia- 
ment, made  it  essential  to  assemble  one. 
James  hoped  that,  by  cmplo^nng  "under- 
takers'* or  intermediaries,  between  himself 
and  the  Commons,  he  might  obtain  a  con- 
siderable grant  in  return  for  the  renuncia- 
tion of  some  small  portions  of  the  royal  pre- 
rogative. But  when  Parliament  met,  it 
showed  itself  determined  not  to  grant  any 
supplies  until  the  king's  claim  to  levy  Customs 
had  been  nurrondered.  Finding  that  the 
Commons  persisted  in  their  determination  to 
make  redress  of  grievances  precede  grants  of 
supply,  James  dissolved  Parliament  before  a 
single  statute  had  been  passed,  and  committed 
the  leaders  of  the  opposition  to  prison. 

Addresses  to  the  Crown  are   (i) 

from  Parliament,  (2)  from  Uie  people. 
(I)  Since  the  time  of  Edward  T.,  Parliamont 
has  exercised  the  privilege  which  it  inherited 
from  the  Groat  Council  of  the  Baronage, 
of  ireely  offering  its  advice  to  the  crown, 
and  demanding  the  abolition  of  grievances. 
Nearly  all  the  legislation  of  the  fourteenth 
century  is  based  upon  the  petitions  of  Parlia- 
ment. From  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  the 
petitions  and  addresses  began  to  assume 
the  form  of  actual  statutes,  and  were  called 

Hist  -1* 


bills.  In  later  history,  Parliament  asserted 
its  right  to  address  the  Crown  on  subjects  of 
wider  policy,  such  as  the  settlement  of  the 
succession  under  Elizabeth,  and  recommen- 
dations to  the  queen  to  marry  (1562  and 
1566) :  whilst  advice  on  questions  of  peace 
and  war  has  often  been  tendered  to  the 
Crown  by  Parliament.  Thus  the  House,  of 
Commons  presented  a  remonstrance  against 
the  continuance  of  the  American  war,  and  on 
receiving  an  unsatisfactory'  answer,  declared 
that  it  would  "  consider  as  enemies  to  his 
Majesty  and  this  country  all  who  should 
advise  or  by  any  means  attempt  the  further 
prosecution  of  offensive  war  on  the  continent 
of  America,  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  the 
revolted  colonies  to  obedience  by  force." 
Addresses  to  the  Crown  are  always  moved  in 
both  Houses  in  answer  to  the  Royal  Speech 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Session;  and  the 
Debate  upon  the  Address  has  become  the 
formal  opportunity  for  approving  or  challeng- 
ing the  Ministerial  policy  put  forward  in  the 
Royal  Speech.  (2)  Addresses  from  indivi- 
duals have  been  offered  to  the  king  from  the 
earliest  times,  usually  in  the  form  of  petitions 
for  pardons,  or  redress  of  private  grievances ; 
and  though  these  petitions  were  subsequently 
usually  made  to  the  House  of  Commons,  they 
were  occasionally  laid  at  once  before  the 
sovereign  himself,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
petition  of  the  clergy  in  1344.  The  practice 
of  addressing  the  Crown  on  political  matters 
had,  however,  no  precedent  until  the  time  of 
Charles  I.  (1640^,  and  in  1662  was  restrained 
by  an  Act  against  tumultuous  petitioning. 
In  1679  the  Whig  petitions  for  the  assembling 
of  Parliament  were  met  on  the  part  of  the 
Tories  by  counter-addresses  from  the  Ab- 
horrers  (q.v.).  In  1701  petitions  were  pre- 
sented, praying  for  the  dissolution  of  Parlia- 
ment, and  again  in  1710;  whilst  in  1784 
numerous  addresses  to  the  king  set  forth 
that  the  people  were  willing  to  support  Mr. 
Pitt  and  the  prerogative.  The  constitutional 
character  of  the  addresses  of  1710  were  sup- 
ported by  a  vote  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
which  affirmed  '*that  it  is  the  undoubted 
right  of  the  j)eople  of  England  to  petition  or 
address  the  king  for  the  calling,  sitting,  and 
dissolving  Parliaments,  and  for  the  redressing 
of  grievances.*'    [Crown  ;  Petitions.] 

For  the  nraotioe  and  prooedure  obseryed  in 
Addresses  from  Parliament,  see  May,  Law  of 
Parliament,  chop,  xvii.,  and  Conal.  Hiet. ;  Stnbbs, 
Con«t.  JEfwf. ;  Hallam,  Con«t.  JEfi«(. 

[F.  S.  P.] 

Adesif  An  important  military  position  on 
the*  south-west  coast  of  Arabia,  was  taken 
by  the  English  in  1839,  and,  in  spite  of 
attacks  made  upon  it  by  the  Arabs,  has  ever 
since  remained  under  British  rule.  Its 
position  gives  it  a  great  importance  as  a  coal- 
ing station  for  the  Indo-European  steamers. 
Aden  is  governed  by  a  Resident,  and  forms 
part  of  the  Bombay  presidency. 


Ade 


(10) 


Adelaide,  Queen  (4.  1792,  d.  1849),  tho 
daughter  of  George,  Duke  of  Saxe-Moiningeny 
was  married  to  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  1818. 
On  the  accession  of  the  Duke  of  Clarence  as 
William  IV.,  a  bill  was  passed  [Regency 
Bills]  appointing  her  Kegent,  in  case  any 
child  of  the  king's  succeeded  him  during 
minority.  8ho  scrupulously  abstained  from 
interfermg  in  politics ;  but  in  spite  of  this, 
tho  dissolution  of  the  ^lelboume  Cabinet  in 
1834  was  attributed  to  her  influence.  After 
the  accession  of  Queen  Viotoria,  her  life  was 
chiefly  spent  in  works  of  charity  and  benevo- 
lence. 

Adelaae  of  Lonvain  [h.  ii03)  was  the 

second  wife  of  Henry  I.,  to  whom  she  was 
married  in  1121.  She  survived  her  husband, 
and  subsequently  married  William  de  Albini, 
ancestor  of  the  family  of  Howard. 

.  AcyntaterSy  Thb  (sometimes  erroneously 
styled  Agitaton)^  mtoio  representatives  elected 
by  each  )«giment  of  the  Puritan  army  in  1647, 
to  act  in  concert  with  the  officers  in  com- 
pelling Parliament  to  satis^  the  demands 
of  the  army  before  disbanding  it.  They 
presented  a  petition  to  Parliament,  in  which 
they  complamed  of  "the  ambition  of  a  few 
men,  who  nad  long  been  servants,  but  were  de- 
generating into  tyrants.*'  The  Parliament, 
finding  it  impossible  any  longer  to  refuse  to 
listen  to  the  demands  of  the  army,  sent  a 
committee,  consisting  of  Cromweli,  Ireton, 
Skippon,  and  Fleetwood,  to  head-quarters 
to  pacify  the  soldiers.  But  the  army  muti- 
nied, seized  the  money  intended  for  their 
pay,  and  expelled  the  officers  whom  they 
suspected.  On  May  29  a  great  meeting  of 
Adjutators,  under  the  authority  of  Fairfax, 
was  held  at  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  and  a  ren- 
dezvous of  all  the  troops  called  at  Newmarket. 
On  June  2  the  army  leaders  sent  Comet 
Joyce  to  remove  the  king  out  of  the  hands 
of  the  Parliament.  This  having  been  done, 
on  June  10  a  groat  rendezvous  of  the  army 
was  held  at  Triploe  Heath,  near  Cam- 
bridge. Hero  the  army  refused  to  accept 
the  conditions  of  Parliament,  demanded  the 
dismissal  of  eleven  of  the  most  obnoxious 
Presbyterian  leaders,  and  began  to  march  on 
London.  On  the  approach  of  the  army  the 
eleven  withdrew,  and  the  Independents  be- 
came for  a  time  the  majority  in  the  House. 
But  the  City  of  Ix)ndon  was.  strongly  Pres- 
byterian, and  on  July  26  a  large  muster  of 
apprentices  and  others  came  unto  tho  House, 
and  compelled  the  recall  of  the  eleven  mem- 
bers, and  the  replacing  of  the  London  militia 
in  tiie  hands  of  the  Presbyterians.  Tliere- 
upon  the  army,  which  had  been  encamped 
close  to  London,  entered  the  ■  city  (August  8) 
and  again  expelled  the  eleven  members.  The 
power  was  now  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the 
army,  and  the  Adjutators  were  busy  holding 
meetings,  and  urging  forward  extreme  mea- 
sures, and  demanding  vengeance  on  the  king. 


'  Cromwell  and  tho  officers  began  to  grow 
I  anxious  to  I'ostore  discipline  in  the  army, 
and  when  some  of  the  regiments  showed 
signs  of  acting  independently,  vigorous 
measures  were  taken,  one  of  the  ringleaders 
shot,  and  others  placed  under  arrest.  Lil- 
bumo  und  others  attempted  to  revive  the 
Adjutators  in  1649 ;  but  the  attempt  was 
frustrated  by  Cromwell.  [Ckomwsll  ;  Fair- 
fax.] 

Whitelocke,    MttMin;    Ludlow,    Ifcmoirt; 
Carlyle,  CromwtU;  Onixot,  HUt.  of  the  Ena.  Bn. 

[F.  S.  P.] 

Admiraly  The  Lord  High,  was  one  of  the 

great  officers  of  State  who  was  specially  con- 
cerned with  the  government  of  the  navy  and 
the  administration  of  maritime  ailkirs.  The 
name  is  derived  from  an  Asiatic  word  corres- 
ponding to  the  Arabic  Amir^  and  the  Turkish 
£mirf  a  commander  or  general ;  and  it  was  pro- 
bably adopted  by  the  English  either  directly 
from  the  Saracens,  in  the  course  of  the  latex 
Crusades,  or  from  the  Sicilians  or  Genoese. 
We  hear  of  the  appointment  of  officers  called 
'*  custodes  maris ' '  from  time  to  time  under  the 
Norman  and  earlier  Angevin  kings,  but  the 
definite  organisation  of  the  Admiralty  dates 
from  the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  who  in  1294 
appointed  William  Leybume  **  captain  of  aU 
the  postmen,"  and  in  1306  appointed  three 
admirals,  with  jurisdiction  oyer  the  eastern, 
western,  and  southern  coasts  respectively.  In 
1360  a  single  High  Admiral  was  first  appointed. 
From  1404  till  1632  there  was  an  uninter- 
rupted succession  of  Lord  High  Admirals  of 
England,  whose  duties  were  not  only  to  act 
as  Naval  Commanders-in-Chief,  but  also  as 
Ministers  of  Marine  and  Presidents  of  the 
Court  of  Admiralty.  In  1632  the  duties 
of  the  office  were  entrusted  to  a  commission 
of  the  great  officers  of  state  ;  and  under 
the  Commonwealth  naval  affairs  were  man- 
aged by  a  Committee  of  Parliament,  and 
afterwards  by  CromwoU.  After  the  Restora- 
tion, the  ofiuce  of  Lord  High  Admiral  was 
held  by  King  Charles  II.,  and  by  James, 
as  Duke  of  York  and  as  King,  and  by  Prince 
George  of  Denmark,  the  husband  of  Queen 
Anne.  Since  1708,  however,  the  office  has 
always  been  in  commission,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  short  period  (May,  1827 — Sept., 
1828),  when  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  after- 
wards King  William  IV.,  was  Lord  High 
Admiral.  By  the  Acts  2  Will,  and  Mary,  c.  2, 
and  1  Greo.  iv.  c.  90,  the  authorities,  juris- 
diction, and  powers  of  the  Lord  High  Admiral 
were  vested  in  the  Lords  Commissioners  of 
the  Admiralty.  The  chief  of  these  commis- 
sioners is  styled  the  First  Lord  of  the  Ad- 
miralty. In  modem  times  he  has  become 
practically  sole  and  responsible  Minister  for 
the  Navy,  and  is  now  always  a  member  of  the 
Cabinet.  In  1869,  Mr.  CSiilders,  then  First 
Lord  of  the  Admiialty,  introduced  important 
changes  into  the  working  of  the  department 


(") 


which  tended  to  give  the  mmister  more  un- 
divided control  and  responsibility.  The  First 
Lord,  who  is  g^eneraUy  a  civilian,  is  as- 
sisted by  the  three  Naval  Lords,  one  Civil 
Lord,  and  the  Secretary  to  the  Admiralty, 
who  has  charge  of  financial  and  parliamentar}' 
business. 

The  title  of  Aomikal  has  also  been  used 
continuously  since  the  1 3th  centur}'  to  desig- 
nate the  highest  grade  in  the  Royal  Navy ;  but 
it  does  not  appear  to  have  come  into  general 
use  in  this  sense  till  the  latter  part  of  the  16th 
century.  There  were  formerly  three  classes  of 
Admirals,  those  of  the  Red,  the  White,  and 
the  Blue  squadrops,  but  this  distinction  was 
abolished  in  1864.     [Navv.] 

LoED  HioH  Admirals. 

William  de  Leyboume,  or  Leibnm,  ia  styled 
at  the  AEMMmbly  at  Bruges  8th  March, 
15  Bd.  I.,  AdmirdUm  Mar^  Analia    .        .    1286 

Johu  de  Botetort,  Admiral  of   the  North ; 

William  de  Leihnm,  Admiral  of  the  South    12M 

John  de  Belle  Campo,  or  Beauchamp,  consti- 
tuted High  Admiral  of  both  West  and 
North 1360 

Sir  Robert  Herle 1361 

Sir  Ralph  deSpigumell 13&1 

Richard  Fitz-Alan,  Earl  of  Arundel  .    1387 

Edward  of  Rutliuia,  afterwards  of  Albemarle, 

Hi«h  Admiral 1392 

John  Beaufort,  Marquis  of  Dorset  (natural 
ton  of  John  <9f  Qaunt),  High  Admiral  of 
the  Northern.  Western,  and  Irish  Fleets    1398 

Thomas  Percy,  Earl  of  Worcester,  Admiral 

of  both  parts 1390 

Thomas  of  Lancaster,  High  Steward  of  Eng- 
land, irffcerwards  Duke  of  Clarence   .       .    1404 

John  Beaufort,  Earl  of  Somerset  .       .    1406 

Edmund  Holland,  Earl  of  Kent.      .  .    1407 

Sir  Thomas  Beaufort,  natural  son  of  John 
of  Qaunt.  croated  by  letters  patent,  1411, 
Admiral  of  England,  Ireland,  and  Aqui- 
talne  for  life 1408 

John  of  Lancaster,  Duke  of  Bedford,  son  of 

Heni^  IV 1486 

John  Holland,  Duke  of  Exeter,  oonstitnted, 
together  with  his  son.  Admirals  of  Eng- 
land, Ireland,  and  Aquitaine  .    1486 

William  de  la  Pole,  Marauis  and  Earl  of 
Suffolk,  Admiral  of  England,  Ireland,  and 

Aquitaine 1446 

^  ~  1449 

1461 
1462 
1465 
1466 
1471 
1483 
1485 


Henry  Holland,  Duke  of  Exeter 

Richard  Novil,  Earl  of  Warwick 

William  Neyil.  Earl  of  Kent     .... 

Richard,  Duke  of  Gloucester   .... 

Richard  Neril 

Richard,  Duke  of  Gloucester   .... 
John  Howard,  Duke  of  Norfolk 
John  de  Vere,  Earl  of  Oxford  .... 
Edward  Howard  (afterwards  Duke  of  Nor- 
folk)         .        .        .    1513 

Thomas  Howard  (brother  of  the  aboTe,  after- 
wards Duke  of  Norfolk)      ....    1514 
Henty,  Duke  of  Richmond        .        .        .       •    1526 
William  Fitzwilliam,  Earl  of  Southampton    .    1537 

John  Russel,  Lord  Russel 1541 

John  Dudley 1543 

Lord  Thomas  Seymour 1548 

John  Dudley,  Earl  of  Warwick  .       .    1561 

Edward.  Lord  Clinton 1552 

William  Howard  of  EiUngham  ....    1553 

Edward,  Lord  Clinton 1555 

Charles,  Lord  Howard  of  Effingham  .    1595 

George,  Duke  of  Buckingham  ....    1619 
Committee  of  Parliament ....  1649—1660 

James,  Duke  of  York 1660  -1673 

Charles  IL  managed  it  himself  by  his  Privy 

Conncillors 1673—1684 

James  II.,  as  Duke  of  York  and  King      .  1684—1689 


Thomas,  Earl  of  Pembroke      ....  1702 
George,  Prince  of  Denmark      .       .       .  1702—1706 

Wmta».DnkeofCh«noe       .       .  {g^fS.liB 

FiBST  Loans  or  the  Admikaltt. 

Prince  Rupert 1673 

Sir  Henzy  OapeU 1679 

Daniel  Finch  (afterwards  Earl  of  Nottmgham )  1680 

Arthur  Herbert 1689 

Thomas,  Earl  of  Pembroke       ....  1690 

Charles,  Lord  Comwallis 1692 

Anthony,  Tisoount  Falkland     ....  1698 

Edward  Russell 1694 

Edward,  Earl  of  Oxford 1697 

John,  Earl  of  Bridgewater        ....  1699 

Edward,  Earl  of  Oxford 1709 

Sir  .John  Leake 1710 

Thomas,  Earl  of  Strafford 1712 

Edward.  Earl  of  Oxford 1714 

James,  £arl  of  Berkeley 1717 

Viscount  Torrington 1727 

Sir  Charles  Wager 1733 

Daniel,  Earl  of  Winchelsea       ....  1741 

John,  Duke  of  Bedford 1744 

John,  Earl  of  Sandwich 1748 

(3toorgd.  Lord  Anson 1751 

Bichud,  Earl  Temple 1756 

Earl  of  Winchelsea 1757 

Lord  Anson 1757 

George,  Earl  of  Halifax 1762 

George  Grenfille 1762 

Earl  of  Sandwich 1763 

John.  Earl  of  Egmont 1763 

Sir  Charles  Saunders 1766 

Sir  Edward  Hawke 1766 

Earl  of  Sandwich 1771 

Augustus,  Viscount  Keppel      ....  1782 

Richard,  viscount  Howe    .               .   Jan.  30,  1783 

Viscount  Keppel April  10,  1783 

Viscount  Howe Dec.  31,  1783 

John,  Earl  of  Chatham 1788 

George,  Earl  Spencer 1794 

John,  Earl  of  St.  Vincent 1801 

Henry,  Lord  MelvUle 1804 

Charles,  Lord  Bertram 1805 

OiarlesGrey 1806 

Thomas  GreuTille 1806 

HeniT,  Lord  Mulgrare 1807 

Charles  Yorke 1808 

Robert,  Lord  Melville 1812 

Sir  James  Graham 1830 

George,  Lord  Auckland 1831 

Philip,  Earl  de  Grey 1834 

LordAnckhind April  25,  1835 

Gilbert,  Earl  of  Minto                        .  Sept.  19,  1835 

Thomas,  Earl  of  Haddington    ....  1841 

Edward,  Earl  of  Ellenborongh .       .   Jan.  13,  1846 

George,  Earl  of  Auckland  .               .  July  21,  1846 

Sir  F.  Baring 1849 

Duke  of  Northumberland 1852 

Sir  J.  Graham 1853 

Sir  Charles  Wood       ......  1855 

Sir  John  Pakington 1858 

Edward,  Duke  of  Somerset        ....  1859 

Sir  J.  Pakington 1866 

Thomas  L.  Corry 1868 

HughOhilders 1868 

George  J.  Goechen 1871 

George  Ward  Hunt 1874 

William  H.  Smith 1877 

Thomas,  Earl  of  Northbrook     ....  1880 

Lord  George  Francis  Hamilton                       .  1885 

Marquis  of Ripon                      .      '.       .        .  1886 

Lord  George  Francis  Hamilton  1886 

Earl  Spencer       ....*..  1892 

Admiralty  Court  of,  is  the  Court  of 
the  Lord  High  Admiral  in  his  judicial  capa- 
city. Tho  early  admirals  and  eustodes  marU, 
from  the  time  of  Henry  I.  onwards,  had  the 
prerogative  of  judging  on  all  disputes  between 
merchants  and  sailors,  and  on  offences  com- 
mitted on  the  high  seas,  out  of  the  jurisdic- 


(  12) 


Adr 


lion  of  the  Common  Iaw  Courts.  These 
privileges  provoked  the  jealousy  of  the 
Common  lawyers,  and,  in  13  Rich.  II.,  a 
statute  was  passed  strictly  limiting  its  proce- 
dure to  matters  transacted  on  the  seas,  and 
this  statute  was  enforced  by  one  passed  two 
years  later.  When  there  was  a  Lord  High 
Admiral  the  judge  of  the  Admiralty  Court 
was  generally  appointed  by  him ;  when  the 
office  is  in  commission  he  is  appointed  by  the 
Crown.  The  criminal  jurisdiction  of  the  Ad- 
miralty Court  is  now  no  longer  exercised, 
and  offences  committed  on  the  high  seas  are 
tried  at  common  law.  By  an  Act  of  the  reign 
of  Henr>'  VIII.,  all  such  offences  were  to  be 
tried  by  commissioners  of  oyer  and  terminer 
under  the  great  seal,  and  according  to  the 
law  of  the  land.  When  the  Central  Criminal 
Court  was  established  in  1834,  the  judges 
were  authorised  to  decide  on  all  offences  com- 
mitted within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Admi- 
ralty. The  civil  jurisdiction  of  the  court  is 
important,  and,  by  3  and  4  Vict.,  c.  66,  com- 
prehends all  causes  arising  out  of  questions 
of  the  title  to  or  ownership  of  vessels,  mari- 
time contracts,  salvage,  and  cases  of  collisions 
and  damages  on  the  high  seas.  By  the  Judi- 
cature Act  of  1873,  the  Admiralty  Court  was 
united  with  the  Court  of  Probate  and  Divorce 
to  form  one  division  of  the  Supreme  Court  of 
Judicature.  At  the  breaking  out  of  war,  a 
conmiission  is  issued  to  the  judge  of  the 
Admiralty  Court  constituting  him  president 
of  a  Prize  Court,  to  decide  as  to  what 
is  or  what  is  not  lawful  prize.  Property 
captured  from  the  enemy  is  held  not  to  have 
absolutely  ceased  to  belong  to  its  former 
owner  till  condemned  by  the  sentence  of  a 
Prize  Court.  The  proceedings  in  this  court 
are  supposed  to  be  conducted  according  to  the 
law  of  nations,  and  the  decisions  of  its  judges, 
and  notably  of  Lord  Stowell  during  the  early 
years  of  the  French  revolutionary  war,  form 
very  important  contributions  to  international 
law.  Courts  of  Vice- Admiralty,  having 
analogous  powers  to  the  Admiralty  Court, 
are  established  in  most  of  the  British  colonies. 
The  Chief  Justice  of  the  colony  is  cx-oflicio 
judge  of  this  court,  and  there  is  an  ap})eal 
from  his  decision  to  the  Judicial  Committee 
of  the  Privy  Council.  The  Admiralty 
Court  for  Scotland  retained  its  se])arate  exis- 
tence at  the  union,  though  the  Scottish  Lord 
High  Admiral  was  abolished.  In  1831  the 
Scotch  Admiralty  Courts  were  abolished,  and 
their  functions  entrusted  to  the  Coui'ts  of 
Session  and  Justiciary.     [Navy.] 

For  the  early  history  of  the  Admiralty,  the  best 
authority  is  The  Black  Book  of  the  Admiralty,  a 
most  important  coUectiou  of  documents  bearing 
on  the  suly'ect,  chiefly  in  the  14th  and  15th  cen- 
turies, with  the  valuable  X)reface8  of  Sir  Travers 
Twiss  in  the  RolU  S^ries^  1871,  &c.  See  esp.  the 
Editor's  introduction  to  vol.  ii.  Among  other 
matters  of  interest,  the  Black  Book  contains  a 
transcript  of  the  Lavs  of  0//>,-r>n,  issued  by 
Richard  I.  at  that  town,  which  formed  the  baads 
of  the  maritime  Jiuisprtideuce  of  all  the  western 


nations.  See  also  Byiner's  Fcedara ;  Pepys'  Naval 
Con^dtotu;  A  Trtiii^  on  th»  Sea  LaiD«,  1724; 
J.  Ezton,  Maritime  Diarologie,  1746;  Sir  Harris 
Nioolas,  History  of  the  Btitith  Ndby;  Knight's 
Political  Cyelopcedia,  art.  Admiralty  ;  and  Ste- 
phens' Comnventacics  on  the  Laxca  of  England. 

[S.  J.  L.] 

Admonitioiit  The,  If588.  A  book  en- 
titled '*  An  Admonition  to  the  Nobility  and 
People  of  England  and  Ireland,  concerning 
the  present  wars  made  from  the  execution  of 
his  Holiness'  sentence,  by  the  high  and 
roightie  King  Catholike  of  Spain,"  was 
issued  by  Cardinal  Allen,  in  order  to  advo- 
cate the  Spanish  invasion  of  Blngland,  and 
to  declare  the  Papal  sentence  of  excom- 
munication against  Elizabeth.  It  is  a  docu- 
ment full  of  gross  and  offensive  attacks  on 
the  Queen,  and  may  be  considered  as  one  of 
the  most  indecent  political  libels  that  have 
ever  appeared.  The  effect  of  the  Admonition 
was  to  disgust  not  only  all  Protestants,  but 
also  a  great  many  Catholics.  The  style  is  so 
unlike  the  usual  manner  of  Cardinal  Allen  that 
it  has  often  been  attributed  to  the  pen  of 
the  Jesuit  Parsons ;  but  whoever  was  its  real 
author,  it  was  signed  and  acknowledged  by 
Allen. 

Burnet,    Hijrf.    of  the   Reformation;   Stiype, 

AnnaU  of  the  Reformationj  iiL,  pt.  2,  p.  7A0 

(ed.  1824) ;  Sharon  Turner,  Siat.  ofEng.,  zU.  485. 

The  Admonition  was  reprinted  with  ik preface  by 

Bev.  J.  Meudham,  1842. 

Admoziition  to  Farliaiiient,  Thb, 

1672.  the  work  of  two  nonconformists, 
named  Field  and  Wilcox,  was  presented  to 
Parliament  by  Thomas  Cartwright.  The 
object  of  the  pamphlet,  which  was  written  in 
a  spirit  of  intolerance  and  defiance,  was  the 
complete  abolition  of  episcopacy.  A  second 
"admonition"  was  also  published  by  Cart- 
wright  (who  was  supported  by  Leicester),  and 
spread  over  the  country.  An  elaborate  answer 
wa»  written  by  Archbishop  Whitgift,  and 
Field  and  Wilcox  were  committed  to  New- 
gate. 

See  Strype,  Annalt  of  the  Reformation,  and  Life 
of  Whitgift. 

Adrian  IV.,  Pope  (*.  circ.  1100,  d.  1159), 
was  the  only  P^ngliahman  who  has  occupied 
the  Papal  chair.  His  name  was  Nicholas 
Breakspeare.  He  was  bom  at  Langley  in 
Hertfordshire,  studied  in  France,  entered  the 
monastery  of  St.  Rufus  in  Provence,  of  which 
he  became  Abbot.  In  1146  he  was  created  a 
Cardinal,  and  sent  as  papal  legate  to  Norway. 
In  1154  he  was  chosen  Pope.  His  papjicy 
was  disturbed  by  the  attempt  of  Arnold  of 
Brescia,  whom  ho  succeeded  in  arresting  and 
executing  (1155).  Adrian  is  memorable  in 
European  history  as  beginning  the  long  and 
bitter  quarrel  between  the  Popes  and  tlie 
Hohenstiuifen  emperors.  In  English  history 
his  chief  interest  lies  in  the  famous  bull  in 
which  he  granted  Henry  II.  the  sovereignty 
over  Ireland.  The  Bull  of  Adrian  IV.,  with 
regard  to  Ireland,  was  issued  in  accordance 


Ada 


(13) 


AdT 


with  the  idea,  commonly  held  throughout  the 
middle  ages,  that  the  fabulous  *'  donation  " 
of  Constantine  had  included  a  gift  to  the  suc- 
cessor of  St.  Peter  of  all  the  islands  in  the 
world.  In  1158,  on  condition  of  the  pay- 
ment of  Peter's  Pence,  the  Pope  issued  a  bull 
which  handed  over  the  sovereignty  of  the 
islani  to  Henry  II.  The  enterprise  was 
prompted,  it  was  stated,  by  ''  the  ardour  of 
faith  and  love  of  religion,"  and  there  is  in- 
deed no  doubt  that  the  laxity  of  the  Irish 
clergy,  and  the  looseness  of  the  connection 
with  Home,  had  much  to  do  with  the  eager- 
ness with  which  the  Pope  acceded  to  Henry's 
request  for  the  bull. 

William  of  Newbnry,  ii.  ch.  6 ;  Will,  of  Tyre, 
xviii.,  ch.  26 ;  GiraldiuCambrenB.  ExpugMibem.; 
Moore«  Hiat.  of  Ireland. 

Adnllamites  (1866)  was  a  name  deri- 
sively applied  to  those  Liberals,  about  forty  in 
number,  who  opposed  the  majority  of  their 
TMLtty  on  Earl  Russell's  proposal  for  a  further 
Reform  of  Parliament.  Their  leaders  were 
Mr.  Lowe,  Mr.  Horsman,  and  Lord  Elcho. 
Mr.  Bright,  on  the  13th  of  March,  compared 
this  party  to  the  assembly  which  came  to  the 
cave  of  AduUam,  when  David  called  about 
him  every  one  that  was  in  distress  and  every 
one  that  was  discontented.  The  defection 
of  the  Adullamites  led  to  the  overthrow  of 
Lord  Hnssell's  ministry. 


Adventurers. 

TUREIIS.] 


[See  Mbrcuant  Adven- 


Adventurere  of  1642,  The.    The 

English  Parliament  having  confiscated  be- 
tween two  and  three  millions  of  acres  in 
Ireland,  in  consequence  of  the  Rebellion  of 
1641,  debenture  bonds  were  issued  made  pay- 
able in  land  after  the  reconquest  of  the 
country.  About  a  million  acres  were  thus 
disposed  of,  the  original  idea  being  that  the 
money  thus  obtained  should  actually  be  em- 
ployed in  suppressing  the  rebellion  ;  but  the 
outbreak  of  civil  war  in  England  prevented 
this.  When  in  1653  the  conquest  was  finally 
accomplished,  the  counties  of  Limerick,  Tip- 
peraiy,  and  Waterford,  in  Munster;  King's 
and  Queen's  County,  East  and  West  Meath, 
in  Ijeinster;  Down,  Antrim,  and  Armagh, 
in  Ulster,  were  set  aside  for  satisfying  these 
claims,  and  those  of  the  Puritan  soldiery. 
Many  of  these  Adventurers  were  subse- 
quently deprived  of  a  large  portion  of  their 
lands  by  the  Act  of  Settlement  and  Explana- 
tion in  1665,  and  a  considerable  number 
emigrated  to  America. 

Sir  W.  Petty,  The  PoUtical  Anatomy  of  Ireland, 
1681 ;  and  The  Hist,  of  the  Survey  of  Ireland,  re- 
published by  the  Irish  Archaoloe.  Soc.,  Dahlin, 
1851.  See  also  Lecky.  Hist,  of  Eng.  in  the  Eigh- 
teenth Century  ;  Fronde,  The  ^ngli^  in  Irdand. 

AdvertisementBy  Duty  on.  Adver- 
tisements in  newspapers  appear  to  have  first 
come  into  use  during  the  period  of  the  Common- 
wealth, the  first  being,  it  is  said,  an  announce- 


ment of  an  heroic  poem  on  the  death  of  Crom- 
well. Advertisemente  became  common  during 
the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
in  the  reign  of  William  III.,  a  gratuitous  paper 
of  advertisements  was  started  and  existed  for 
some  time.  By  an  Act  of  1712,  a  duty  was 
imposed  on  each  advertisement  published.  In 
1838  the  tax  was  reduced  from  3s.  6d.  in  Ghreat 
Britain,  and  2s.  6d.  in  Ireland,  to  Is.  6d.  in 
the  former  and  Is.  in  the  latter  country.  In 
1851  the  tax  brought  in  over  £175,000.  The 
duty  was  abolished  in  1853. 

See  Article  in  Quart«rly  Ueviem,  Jnne,  1865; 
Grant,  The  Newspaper  Press. 

Advertisements  (1566)  was  the  name 
of  a  book  of  discipline  issued  by  Arfihbishop 
Parker.  It  marks  the  beginnings  of  the 
persecutions  of  the  Puritan  clergy,  and  has 
in  recent  times  excited  much  controversy.  The 
Archbishop  had  previously  endeavoured  in 
vain  to  induce  Cecil  to  consent  to  an  official 
promulgation  of  these  **  advertisements ; "  but 
as  Cecil  was  not  anxious  to  provoke  opposition 
by  too  rigid  an  execution  of  the  Act  of 
Uniformity,  he  had  refused  to  authorise  or 
publish  them,  and  Parker  was  consequently 
left  to  issue  them  on  his  own  responsibility. 
Their  title  ran :  "  Advertisements  partly  for 
due  order  in  the  public  administration  of 
Common  Prayer  and  using  of  the  Holy 
Sacraments,  and  partly  for  the  apparel  of  all 
persons  ecclesiastical,  by  virtue  of  the  Queen's 
Majesty's  letter  commanding  the  same."  The 
pointe  especially  insisted  on  are  the  wearing 
of  the  surplice  and  cap ;  and  generally  they 
enforced  rigid  obedience  to  the  more  ob- 
noxious portions  of  the  Act  of  Uniformity. 
Much  controversy  has  arisen  as  to  the  precise 
validity  of  these  Advertisemente.  On  the  one 
side  it  has  been  maintained  that  the  royal 
authorisation  gave  binding  force  to  the  Arch- 
bishop's injunctions,  and  that  they  were  the 
"  other  order  "  which  the  Act  of  Uniformity 
of  1559  half  anticipated  as  likely  to  supersede 
the  **  Omamente  Rubric,"  which  enjoined  that 
church  ornaments  should  remain  as  in  the 
second  year  of  Edward  VI.  This  view, 
which  was  adopted  by  Lord  Selbome  in  the 
"  Ridsdale  Case,"  has  been  attacked  by 
Mr.  J.  Parker  in  his  "  Ornaments  Rubric," 
whore  it  is  maintained  that  the  advertise- 
ments were  simple  archiepiscopal  injunctions, 
and  that  their  enforcement  of  a  minimum  of 
ritual  did  not  aim  at  abolishing  the  veetmente, 
ete.,  of  Edward  VI. *s  First  Prayer-Book. 

Strype's  Annals  and  Life  of  Parlor;  Neal's 
History  of  {he  Puritans. 

Advocatei  Thb  Lord,  also  called  the 
King's  or  Queen's  Advpcate,  is  the  chief  law 
officer  of  the  crown  in  Scotland,  and  corre- 
sponds, roughly  speaking,  to  the  English 
Attomey-GeneraL  The  King's  Advocate  is 
found  in  existence  in  1479,  in  1640  he  be- 
came one  of  the  officers  of  state,  and  in  1587 
he  is  first  mentioned  as  Lord  Advocate.    The 


Adv 


(  14  ) 


A* 


origin  of  the  office  is  extremely  obscure;  it 
has  been  supposed  that,  with  the  title,  it  wils 
derived  from  the  French ;  and  the  duties  of 
the  earlier  Kings'  Advocates,  of  whom  there 
is  a  fairly  full  list  from  1483,  are  equally 
ill-defined.  They  appear  to  have  been  com* 
prised  in  the  prosecution  of  state  officers,  and 
the  inquiry  into  ihe  extent  of  the  feudal  for- 
feitures arising  from  those  offences.  In  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  it  is  possible 
to  gain  a  clearer  idea  of  his  functions;  the 
Lord  Advocate  was  public  prosecutor,  he 
conducted  all  cases  in  which  the  sovereign 
was  concerned,  which,  from  the  reign  of 
Queen  Mar}%  have  been  pursued  in  his  name, 
and  in  the  latter  part  of  the  century  appears 
to  have  occasionally  combined  the  offices  of 
advocate  and  judge  in  the  court  of  sessions. 
Previous  to  the  Union,  the  Lord  Advocate 
sat  in  Parliament  in  virtue  of  his  office  ;  but 
now  he  is  not  necessarily,  though  he  is 
generally,  a  member  of  l£e  Lower  House. 
He  is  appointed  by  the  Crown,  and  tenders 
his  resignation  when  the  administration 
changes.  When  the  Duke  of  Newcastle 
abolished  the  office  of  Secretary  of  State  for 
Scotland  in  the  reign  of  George  II.  the  duties 
of  that*  minister  were  transferred  to  the  Lord 
Advocate.  In  Parliament  he  answers  all 
questions  relating  to  Scotland,  and  under- 
takes all  measures  of  Scottish  legislation; 
but  he  iM  not  a  member  of  the  Privy  Council, 
and  is  called  right  honourable  by  courtesy 
only.  Outside  Parliament  he  acts  as  public 
prosecutor,  in  which  duties  he  is  assisted  by 
the  Solicitor-General  and  four  advoeateB-depute, 
and  appears  for  the  Crown  in  all  civil  cases. 
His  warrants  for  searching,  apprehending, 
and  imprisoning  run  in  any  part  of  Scotland ; 
he  is  allowed  to  sit  within  the  bar  of  the 
court  of  session,  a  privilege  enjoyed  by  peers 
of  the  realm. 

Barclaj,  DigetA  of  the  Lavo  of  Scotland  ;  More, 
Lecture*  vn.  the  Lawa  of  8cotland,rol.  i. ;  Knight, 
Cydopcedia  of  Political  KnowUdge.    [L.  C.  S.l 

Advowvon  is  the  right  of  presentation 
to  an  ecclesiastical  benefice  vost(^d  in  a  man 
and  his  heirs  for  ever.  The  word  is  taken 
from  Lat.  advoeatio,  for  he  who  had  the 
advowson  was  the  protector  or  patroti  of 
the  church.  As  the  parochial  system  was 
grafted  on  the  township,  it  might  be  contended 
that  the  right  of  presentation  would  at  first 
he  in  the  lord  of  the  manor ;  but  as  a  fact, 
the  early  parish  priests  were  in  a  great  pro- 
portion of  cases  appointed  by  the  bishops. 
An  advowson  is  prcBentative  when  it  is  the 
right  of  presenting  a  clerk  to  the  bishop 
for  institution;  coUativc  when  the  bishop 
is  patron ;  donative  when  by  royal  foundation 
or  licence  the  patron  can  present  without 
reference  to  the  bishop.  An  advowson  is 
regarded  by  the  law  as  a  trust.  Yet  advow- 
bons,  and  the  power  of  exercising  the 
right  of  presentation  for  one  or  more  terms, 


can  be  sold  subject  to  some  restrictions.  A 
right  of  nomination  to^the  patron  may  exist 
separate  from  the  right' of  presentation  to  the 
bishop ;  thus,  in  the  mortgage  of  an  advow- 
son, the  mortgagee  presents,  but  he  must  do 
so  on  the  nomination  of  the  mortgager. 
Neither  Roman  Catholics  nor  their  trustees 
may  present ;  they  must  sell  the  presentation, 
or  it  will  vest  in  the  University  of  Oxford 
or  of  Cambridge  (11  Geo.  II.,  c.  17).  The 
presentee  must  be  in  priest's  orders  before 
his  institution  (14  Car.  II.,  c.  4).  Restric- 
tions on  patronage  depend  on  the  law  of 
$ifn<my,  which,  as  far  as  our  temporal  courts 
are  concerned,  is  founded  on  31  Eliz.,  c.  6, 
and  12  Anne,  c.  12.  A  clergyman  may  not 
purchase  a  next  presentation  for  himself,  but 
he  may  purchase  an  advowson,  and  be  pre- 
sented on  the  next  vacancy.  If  a  patron 
neglects  to  exercise  his  right,  the  presenta- 
tion lapses  at  the  end  of  six  months  to  the 
bishop,  the  archbishop,  and  the  crown  suc- 
cessiv^y.  Suits  for  disturbance  of  patronage 
used  to  be  maintained  by  darrein  presentment^ 
and  later  more  usually  by  quare  impedity  and 
now,  since  23  and  24  Vict.,  c.  126,  by  writ 
of  summons.  The  bishop  is  bound  to'  insti- 
tute the  clerk  presented  by  the  patron,  unless 
there  is  good  cause  to  the  conbrary,  and  the 
patron  or  the  clerk  has  remedy  in  case  of 
refusal  by  application  to  the  ProWncial  Court. 

FhilUmore,  Bed.  Law;  CripiM.Laio  of  Church, 
Ac.;  Chitty,  Collection  o/ Statutes.    [W.  H.] 

Aelfheali.    [Alpheoe.] 

Aelred  (Aildrbd,  Ealrbd)  of  Rievaulx, 
St.  {b.  1109,  d,  1166).  An  English  historian, 
bom  at  Hexham,  and  educated  in  the  family  of 
King  David  of  Scotland.  He  is  said  to  have 
refused  a  Scotch  bishopric  that  he  might  be- 
come a  monk  of  the  Cistercian  Abbey  of  Rio- 
vaulx,  in  Yorkshire,  of  which  he  became 
abbot  in  1146.  He  wrote  several  historical 
works,  among  which  are  lives  of  Edward  the 
Confessor,  David  of  Scotland,  Queen  Mai^ret 
of  Scotland,  and  St.  Ninian,  and  a  Chronicle 
of  the  Kings  of  England.  None  of  his  works 
are  of  high  historical  value.  "  Ailred  of 
Rievaulx,"  says  Sir  Thomas  Hardy,  "ranks 
in  the  second  class  of  English  mediaeval  his- 
torians, and  even  there  does  not  occupy  the 
first  place."  Aelred  was  also  the  author  of 
a  number  of  theological  treatises.  He  was 
canonised  in  1191. 

See  Sir  Thoe.  HaTdy,  Descriptive  Catalogue  of 
Mafen'ols,  ii.  2i>3,  kc.  (BoUb  Series.)  Aelred's 
works  were  collected  by  B.  Gibbon,  Donai, 
1631,  4to,  and  they  are  to  1)8  found  in  Hifpie, 
Patrotogta,  vol.  195.  Aelnd'e  Vita  S.  Bdwardi 
Conf.  and  Desmptto  de  BeUo  aptid  Standardum 
are  in  Twysden  Scriptore»  Decern. 

JEthelberht.    [Ethelbert.] 

JBthelred.    [Ethslbed.] 

JBthelstaao.    [Athelstan.] 

A-fjyltn.it  Wars.  (1)  Situated  in  imme- 
diate   proximity  to    the    N.W.  frontier    of 


A4r 


(  16) 


AJBg 


India,  Afghanistan  has,  from  the  earliest 
times,  figured  conspicuously  in  the  history 
of  Hindostan  and  of  Central  Asia.  Its  first 
connection  with  English  history  dates  from 
the  year  1809,  when  the  rumour  of  a  joint 
invasion  of  India,  determined  on  by  Napoleon 
and  the  Czar  Alexander,  led  to  the  despatch 
of  the  Hon.  M.  Elphinstone  as  envoy  to  Shah 
Shujah,  then  ruler  of  CabuL  A  treaty  was 
concluded  between  the  two  at  Peshawur.  The 
subsequent  events,  fraught  with  intestine 
broils,  do  not  call  for  detailed  review,  though 
we  may  note  the  visit  of  Lieut.  Alexander 
Bumes  to  Cabul,  on  his  way  to  Bokhara,  in 
1832,  for  the  mass  of  interesting  information 
collected  thereby.  In  1834,  Shah  ShnjiJi, 
who  had  been  dethroned,  endeavoured  to 
regain  his  power,  and  advanced  on  Candahar, 
but  was  defeated  by  Dost  Mahomed,  ruler  of 
Cabul,  and  Kohandil  Khan,  who  reigned  at 
Candahar.  He  took  r^uffe  eventuaUy  with 
Nasir  Khan,  of  Khelat,  who  enabled  him  to 
return  to  Ludiana  in  a  manner  suited  to  his 
dignity.  In  1837,  the  siege  of  Herat  by 
Persia,  encouxaged,  as  believed,  by  the  Bus* 
sians,  and  the  defeat  of  the  Sikhs  by  Dost 
Mahomed,  led  the  English  to  despatch  Ibumes 
88  resident  at  the  court  of  Cabul.  But  the 
suspension  of  the  negotiations  then  existing 
between  Dost  Mahomed  and  the  Hussiana 
being  refused  by  the  Amir,  the  resolu- 
tion was  formed  of  placing  the  ex-king, 
Shah  Shujah,  on  the  Afghan  throne.  An 
army  of  21,000  men  was  assembled  on  the 
Indus  (16th  January,  1839),  and,  advancing 
on  Candahar  through  the  Bolan  Pass,  took 
possession  of  that  city,  where  Shah.  Shujah 
was  crowned  on  the  8th  May.  Ghaxni  feU 
next,  the  gate  of  the  city  being  blown  in  by 
Ldeut.  (afterwards  Greneral  Sir  Henry) 
Durand.  Dost  Mahomed,  finding  his  forces 
melting  away,  lied  beyond  the  Hindu  Kush, 
and  the  British  entered  Cabul  without  oppo- 
sition. Shah  Shujah*s  restoration  was  at 
first  popular,  but  the  people,  soon  finding  how 
completely  ^is  was  due  to  English  support, 
incensed  at  the  reduction  of  subsidies  to  the 
chiefs,  and  inflamed  by  the  mullah*  or  priests, 
began  to  gather  in  insurrection.  The  British 
authorities  neglected  warnings,  and  on  the 
2nd  November,  1841,  rebellion  broke  out,  and 
Sir  Alexander  Bumes  and  other  officers  were 
treacherously  assassinated.'  Disasters  fol- 
lowed thickly  on  one  another,  and  General 
Elphinstone,  on  whom  the  command  had  been 
thrust,  was  in  the  feeblest  health.  At  a  con- 
ference with  Akbar  Khan,  Dost  Mahomed's 
son,  Sir  W.  Macnaghten,  the  British  envoy, 
was  murdered  by  that  chief ;  and  on  the  6th 
January,  1842,  the  British  garrison  of  4,500, 
with  nearly  three  times  that  number  of  camp 
followers,  proceeded  to  evacuate  the  country, 
but  perished  miserably  in  the  mountain  passes 
between  Cabul  and  Jellalabad,  a  single  sur- 
vivor, Dr.  Br^'don,  alone  reachLxg  the  latter 
city,    Ghasni  fell  to  the  Afghans  on  the  10th 


December,  some  hundreds  of  Sepoys  being 
carried  into  captiHty,  while  ninety-five  host- 
ages, left  by  the  British,  were  in  durance  near 
Cabul.  Candahar  and  JeUalabad,  however, 
were  held  firmly  by  Generals  Nott  and  Sale 
respectively.  A  strong  expedition,  under 
General  Pollock,  was  prepared  in  India,  and 
after  forcing  the  Khyber  Pass  relieved  Jella- 
labad. After  halting  two  months  at  this 
place,  the  time  being  spent  in  negotiations. 
General  PoUock  advanced  and  inflicted  a 
severe  defeat  on  Mahomed  Akbar  Khan 
entering  Cabul  a  few  days  later.  The  cap- 
tives were  recovered,  the  principal  bazar 
of  Cabul  razed  to  the  ground,  and  General 
Nott,  who  had  advanced  from  Candahar  and 
captured  Ghazni,  beheld,  on  his  arrival  at 
Caoul,  the  British  flag  floating  over  the 
rampa^s.  Soon  after  tiie  departure  of  our 
troops  Shah  Shuiah  was  assassinated,  and 
Dost  Mahomed  Khan  was  restored  to  his 
former  power.  During  the  Sikh  revolt,  in 
1848,  he  joined  them  against  the  British,  but 
a  friendly  understanding  was  arrived  at  and 
a  treaty  concluded  in  1865.  The  same  year 
saw  the  acquisition  of  the  Candahar  province 
by  Dost  Mahomed,  and  the  second  Persian 
aolvance  on  Herat;  its  capture  and  final 
cession,  through  fear  of  the  English,  who 
had  sent  an  expedition  to  the  Persian  Gulf, 
are  the  subsequent  events  of  note. 

(2)  Shere  All  Khan,  who  ascended  the 
Afghan  throne  in  1863,  passed  through  great 
vicissitudes  of  fortune,  but  eventually  over- 
came his  rivals  and  foes  in  1 868.  An  arrange- 
ment was  arrived  at  between  the  British  and 
Russian  governments  in  1872  that  Aighani- 
stan  was  beyond  the  field  of  Russian  influence, 
and  the  practical  violation  of  this  under- 
standing in  1878,  coupled  with  the  repulse 
by  the  Afghans  of  a  ^British  mission,  led  to 
a  fresh  Afghan  war.  The  victories  at  All 
Musjid  and  Pewar,  and  the  capture  of  Can- 
dahar and  Kelat-i-Ghilzai  by  Sir  Donald 
Stewart,  placed  all  the  important  vantage 
points  of  Eastern  Afghanistan  (Cabul  ex- 
cepted) in  our  hands.  A  treaty  was  con- 
cluded at  Gandamak  with  Yakub  Khan,  who 
had  succeeded  to  power  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  Shere  All,  but  all  its  provisions  were 
scattered  to  the  winds  by  the  murder  of  Sir  L. 
Cavagnari,  who  had  been  deputed  as  English 
envoy  to  Cabul.  Sir  F.  Roberto  promptly 
advanced  on  the  capital,  and  inflicted  a  severe 
defeat  on  the  Af ghuis  at  Charasia.  For  some 
months,  however,  fighting  went  on,  till,  at 
the  close  of  1879,  the  total  defeat  of  Mahomed 
Jan  effectually  dispersed  the  insurgents. 
These  successes  were  worthily  supported  by 
Sir  D.  Stewart's  victory  at  Ahmed  Khevl,  he 
having  advanced  to  Cabul  from  Candahar. 
Matters  were  now  settling  down,  but  the 
approach  of  the  Sirdar  Ayub  Khan  from  the 
side  of  Herat  kindled  anew  the  flames  of 
rebellion.  This  pretender,  having  defeated 
General  Burrows  at  Maiwand,  proceeded  to 


(1«) 


Agi 


invest  Candahar,  but  was  utterl}'  routed  in 
his  turn  by  General  Sir  F.  Roberts,  who  had 
effected  the  difficult  march  from  Cabul  with 
much  skill  and  generalship.  In  {September, 
1880,  the  British  troops  were  withdrawn  from 
the  Kurram  and  Cabul  valleys,  and  in  the 
following  April  from  Candahar,  leaving  the 
government  of  the  country  in  the  hands  of 
Abdur  Hahman,  whose  au&ority  as  ruler  of 
the  country  had  been  recognised  by  England 
in  July,  1880, 

The  ehief  aathoritiM  on  the  raloect  of  Afghan- 
istaD  generally  will  be  found  ennmemted  at 
length  in  Sir  Charles  MocOregor'B  admirable 
Oaz«ttMr,  published  at  Calcutta  in  1871.  The 
leading  events  of  the  subsequent  campaigns  are 
briefly  ohnmided  in  Bobertson's  Thr^t  0am- 
paignBinA/ghanittanilSSl).         [C.  E.  B.] 

AffinuatioiLS.^  [Oath,  Parliamkwtary, 
and  Oath  in  Coubts  op  Law.] 

Africa.  [8ouTH  African  Colonies  and 
West  African  Colonies.] 

African  Companj.  [Daribn  Scheme.] 

Arathay  or  Elfoiva,  second  daughter 
of  William  the  Conqueror,  was  betrothed  to 
Harold  in  1062,  but  died  shortly  after. 

AgKinw^  Battle  of  (July  12,  1691), 
fought  in  the  campaign  between  William  III. 
and  James  II.,  in  Ireland,  resulted  in  a 
victory,  gained  by  Ginkel,  over  the  Irish  and 
French  troops,  under  St.  Ruth.  The  French 
general  had  allowed  Athlone  to  be  taken 
(June  30).  He  then  fell  back  about  thirty 
miles  to  the  hill  of  Aghrim.  He  drew  up 
his  army  on  the  slope  of  a  hill  almost  sur- 
rounded by  a  deep  bog.  A  wooden  breast- 
work had  been  constructed  in  front,  near  the 
edge  of  the  morass.  Ginkel  started  from 
Ballinasloe,  four  miles  from  Aghrim,  on  the 
11th,  and  reconnoitred  the  Irish  position. 
Next  day  at  five  in  the  evening  the  battle 
began.  The  English  first  struggled  through 
the  bog  and  attacked  the  breastwork,  only  to 
be  driven  back  again  and  again.  Ginkel  was 
meditating  a  retreat.  But  Mackay  and  Ru- 
yigny  led  the  cavalry  through  a  narrow 
passage  in  the  morass,  and  turned  the  Irish 
flank.  At  this  crisis  St.  Ruth  was  killed. 
His  officers  foolishly  kept  his  death  secret, 
so  that  Sarsfield,  who  might  have  taken  the 
command,  remained  with  the  reserve.  At 
length  the  breastwork  was  carried.  The 
Iri&  retreated  step  by  step,  but,  after  a 
while,  broke  and  fled.  Then  the  conquei'ors 
began  to  kill  without  mercy.  For  miles 
around  the  naked  bodies  of  the  slain  lay  on 
the  fields.  The  country  looked,  it  was  said, 
like  an  immense  pasture  covered  with  flocks 
of  sheep.  Sarsfield  did  his  best  to  cover  the 
retreat.  One  body  of  fugitives  went  towards 
Gkdway,  the  other  towards  Limerick. 

London  QazetU,  1661 ;  Maranlay.  Hitt,  ofEng.s 
Froude,  Eng.  in  Irelund. 

Aginconrtf  Battle  of,  fought  October 
25,  T416.     Henry    V.,    in   attempting   to 


regain  the  ground  which  Edward  III.  had 
lost  in  his  first  campaign  against  France, 
took  Harfleur,  but  finding  his  army  greatly 
diminished  by  sickness,  was  unable  to  under- 
take any  great  expedition.  He  resolved  to 
make  his  way  to  Calais  through  the  hostile 
provinces  of  Normandy,  Picardy,  and  Artois. 
His  army  consisted  of  about  15,000  men,  of 
whom  5,000  were  archers,  and  700  knights. 
A  French  army  numbering  at  least  50,000, 
under  the  Constable  D'Albret,  was  gathered  to 
cut  them  off.  The  English  were  allowed  to 
cross  the  Somme,  and  Henry  was  courteously 
asked  to  name  a  day  for  batUe.  He  answered 
that  he  was  always  to  be  found  in  the  field. 
For  four  davs  the  French  marched  by  the 
side  of  the  iSnglish.  At  last  the  Constable 
chose  his  position  a  little  to  the  north  of 
Cre<^,  so  as  to  cut  off  the  Knglish  from 
the  village  of  Agincourt.  The  oattle' field 
was  a  somewhat  narrow  valley,  surrounded 
by  woods  on  the  east  and  west,  while  through 
it  ran  the  road  to  Calais.  The  French  were 
drawn  up  in  three  massive  lines.  The  first 
two  lines  fought  on  foot;  the  third  was 
mounted.  The  confined  nature  of  the  ground 
gave  no  chance  for  the  use  of  artillery,  and 
file  heavy-armed  French  were  at  a  disad« 
vantage  in  the  soft  ground,  as  compared  with 
the  light-armed  English  yeomen.  The  Eng- 
lish were  drawn  up  in  three  divisions,  but  all 
close  together.  While  their  lines  were  only 
four  deep,  the  French  were  massed  thirty 
deep.  Before  the  battle  futile  negotiations 
were  carried  on,  and  Henry  V.  used  the  time 
to  send  some  archers  secretly  through  the  wood 
to  watch  the  left  flank  of  the  French.  It  was 
eleven  o^dock  when  the  order  was  given  to 
the  English  to  advance.  The  archers  ran 
forward  armed  with  stakes,  which  they  fixed 
in  the  ground  so  as  to  form  a  palisade  in 
front  of  them.  Darting  forward,  they  fired 
with  splendid  aim  at  the  French  men-at- 
arms,  who  were  unable  to  advance  quickly 
in  the  soft  g^und,  and  fell  in  numbers. 
Meanwhile  the  French  cavalry  attempted  a 
fiank  movement,  but  were  taken  unawares  by 
the  archers  in  ambush;  their  horses  soon 
became  unmanageable,  and  they  were  thrown 
into  confusion.  The  French  infantry,  finding 
themselves  unsupported,  broke,  and  the 
English  archers,  seizing  their  swords  and 
maces,  rushed  into  their  Imes  and  turned  them 
to  flight.  Then,  reinforced  by  the  English 
men-at-arms,  the  archers  attacked  the  second 
division  of  the  French.  Here  the  battle  was 
fiercer  and  more  equal.  The  Duke  of  Alen9on 
on  the  French  side,  and  Henry  Y.  on  the 
English,  fought  desperately,  and  for  two 
hours  the  victory  was  uncertain.  At  length 
Alen^on  was  slain,  and  the  French  gave 
way.  A  cry  was  raised  among  the  English 
that  a  new  French  army  was  coming  up  in 
their  rear.  In  the  panic  Henry  V.  gave  orders 
that  all  prisoners  should  be  shun.  Many 
brave  Frenchmen    met    their  death  before 


Agi 


(17) 


it  was  discovered  that  the  supposed  army 
was  only  a  band  of  peasants  who  had  col- 
lected to  plunder.  Meanwhile  the  third 
division  of  the  French  wavered,  and,  at  last, 
fled.  After  three  hoars'  fighting  the  victory 
of  the  English  was  assured.  The  French 
losses  were  very  heavy.  .  More  than  10,000 
men  fell  on  the  field,  amongst  them  8,000 
nobles,  knights,  and  squires. 

On  the  English  side,  see  Walmngham,  Hisioria 
Annlica ;  Elmbam,  Vila  et  Qe^a  Henrici  Y. ; 
Henrici  V.  Gesta,  ed.  Williams;  Titus  Livina 
Forqjnliensis  Vita  Henrici  Quinli ;  English  Chro- 
nicle (Camden  Society) ;  on  the  French  side, 
Beligienz  de  St.  Denys,  Monstrelet,  and  St. 
S«ny.  [M.  C] 


is  a  strong  and  ancient  town  on  the 
river"  Jumna,  in  the  North- West  Provinces 
of  India.  It  was  formerly  one  of  the  chief 
cities  of  the  Mogul  dynasty,  and  in  the 
wars  of  1803  it  was  held  by  the  Mahrattas, 
from  whom  it  was  captured  by  General  Lake 
after  a  day's  bombardment,  and  ceded  to  the 
TCngliah  by  Scindiah  at  the  peace  of  Surge 
Anjengaom.  Agra  then  beoEune  the  capi- 
tal of  one  of  the  eight  commissionerships 
into  which  the  North- West  Provinces  were 
divided,  and  the  residence  of  the  Lieutenant- 
Governor;  but  since  the  mutiny  of  1857, 
when  the  European  residents  were  menaced 
by  the  insurgent  sepoys,  and  had  to  take 
refuge  in  the  fort,  the  provincial  seat  of 
government  has  been  transferred  to  Allaha- 
bad. Agra  contains  the  old  palace  of  Shah 
Jehan,  a  mosque  which  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  in  India,  and  the  famous  Tajmahal, 
a  magnificent  mausoleum  btiilt  by  Shah 
Jehan  over  the  remains  of  his  wife. 

"Agreement  of  the  People"  was 

one  of  John  Lilbume's  numerous  pamphlets, 
and  was  pubHshed  in  1648.  It  was  received 
with  g^reat  enthusiasm  by  the  Levellers ;  and 
at  a  meeting  held  between  Hertford  and  Ware, 
for  the  purpose  of  restoring  discipline  to  the 
army,  and  satisfying  the  claims  of  the 
soldiers,  a  large  number  wore  this  pamphlet 
in  their  hats.  Fairfax  and  Cromwell  ordered 
them  to  remove  the  pamphlets.  All  the 
regiments  except  Lilbume's  obeyed;  and 
Cromwell,  perceiving  the  necessity  of  at  once 
stopping  the  insubordination,  caused  one 
of  the  ringleaders  to  be  shot,  and  had  all 
the  others  imprisoned.    [Lilbubne  ;   Level> 

LEBS.] 

Agricolap  GNiBvs  Julius  (b,  37,  d,  93), 
Roman  governor  of  Britain  (78 — 84),  had, 
previous  to  his  appointment,  served  in  the 
island  under  Cerealis.  During  his  governor- 
ship he  endeavoured  to  subdue  the  tribes  in 
the  north,  and  to  conciliate  the  British  to  the 
Roman  rule  by  making  them  acquainted  with 
the  advantages  of  civilisation.  He  encouraged 
them  to  come  to  the  towns,  and  had  many  of 
the  sons  of  the  chiefs  instructed  in  literature 
and  science,  and  he  succeeded  so  well ''  that 


they  who  had  lately  scorned  to  learn  the 
Roman  language  were  becoming  fond  of 
acquiring  the  Roman  eloquence."  In  78  he 
reduced  Mona ;  in  79  he  subdued  the  north  of 
Britain  to  the  Tweed ;  in  80  he  advanced  as 
far  as  the  Firth  of  Tay;  the  year  81  was 
employed  in  constructing  a  chain  of  forts 
between  the  Clyde  and  the  Forth ;  in  the 
next  year  he  explored  the  north-west  part  of 
the  island,  and  planned  a  descent  upon  Ire- 
land, but  liie  rising  of  the  Caledonians,  under 
their  chief  Ghdgacus,  prevented  this  project 
being  carried  out.  After  some  severe  fightmg, 
he  defeated  Galgacus,  and  thus  subdued  the 
whole  island.  In  84  he  sailed  round  the 
island,  and  discovered  the  Orkneys ;  and  in 
the  same  year  he  returned  to  Rome,  where  a 
triumph  was  decreed  to  him. 


The  Life  of  Agricola  was  written  by  his  son- 

Aar 
the  best  extant  account  of  the  condition  of 


in-law,  the  historian  Tadtas.     The  Agricola  is 


Britain  in  the  early  part  of  the  period  of  the 
Roman  rule. 

Agricilltlire.  The  history  of  agricul- 
ture m  England  is  derived  from  two  sources : 
the  literature  on  the  subject,  which  is 
scanty  in  the  earlier  period,  but  becomes 
copious  as  time  goes  on,  and  contemporaneous 
records,  which  are  exceedingly  abundant  and 
exact  in  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth,  and  part 
of  the  fifteentJi  centuries,  but  are  scarce  i2^ter 
this  time.  The  fact  that  so  great  a  mass  of 
domestic  archives  has  been  preserved  is  due 
to  the  importance  the  rules  of  law  gave 
to  all  documents  which  could  be  alleged  in 
proof  of  title.  Besides,  it  was  at  an  early 
period  the  custom  with  nearly  all  proprietors 
— even  the  sovereign  and  the  great  peers — to 
cultivate  their  own  estates  with  their  own 
capital,  and  under  the  superintendence  of 
bailiifs,  who  regularly  drew  up  an  annual 
balance-sheet,  which  was  submitted  to  the 
audit  of  their  lords.  Hence  it  is  possible,  by 
investigating  these  accounts,  to  discover  how 
land  was  stocked  and  cultivated,  and  what 
was  the  amount  of  produce  which  agriculture 
secured  from  land. 

Generally,  during  the  mediaeval  period, 
the  greater  part  of  the  land  in  a  parish 
or  manor  was  possessed  by  the  lord  and 
the  tenants,  free  and  serf,  in  the  shape  of 
strips  or  furrows  in  a  common  field,  separated 
by  a  narrow  boundary  of  untilled  ground. 
Ijiese  fields  were  private  property  during 
part  of  the  year  (as  a  rule,  from  Lady-day  to 
Michaelmas),  and  common  pasture  for  the 
rest.  Sometimes  fields — ^generally  pasture- 
land — were  held  in  absolute  ownership,  and 
the  value  of  such  closes  was  great.  Besides 
the  cultivated  land  and  the  closes,  there  was 
always  a  more  or  less  considerable  area  of 
common  pasture,  and  generally  a  wood  in 
which  hogs  were  fed,  a  small  charge  being 
paid  for  each  head.  English  agriculture  from 
very  early  times  always  looked  to  the  raising 
and  maintenance  of  live  stock  as  a  most 


(  18) 


important  industry,  and  the  success  with 
which  stoek-breeding  was  handled  is  proved 
by  the  great  value  of  English  wool,  and  by 
the  numerous  qualities  of  this  product.  The 
keeping  of  sheep  in  connection  with  arable 
farming  has  always  been  a  special  character- 
istic of  English  agriculture,  and  for  several 
centuries  this  countrv  had  almost  a  monopoly 
in  the  supply  of  wool. 

Early  agriculture  in  England  was  very  rude. 
The  plough  was  clumsy,  iron  was  exceedingly 
dear,  draught-cattle,  horses  and  oxen,  were 
small,  and  the  ground  was  only  scratched 
on  the  surface.  The  husbandman  had  but 
little  farmyard  manure,  and  the  only  artificial 
fertilisers  which  he  knew  of  were  marl  and 
lime.  The  seed  was  thrown  broadcast  on  the 
land,  about  two  bushels  to  the  acre  of  wheat, 
r>'e,  and  peas,  and  about  four  bushels  of 
barley  and  oats.  Four  times  the  seed  sown 
was  thought  to  be  a  fair  crop,  and  five  times 
was  seldom  obtained  even  on  the  best  land. 
The  husbandman  knew  nothing  of  winter 
roots,  or  of  artificial  grasses,  as  they  are 
called.  Hence  his  cattle  were  starved  in  the 
winter,  and  always  stunted.  Under  this  im- 
perfect cultivation,  he  was  forced  to  let  at 
least  a  third  of  his  land  lie  in  fallow  every 
year.  The  com  was  reaped  by  cutting  off 
the  ears,  the  straw  being  suffered  to  remain 
on  the  field  at  least  for  a  time,  often  per- 
manently, in  order  to  restore  the  ground. 
The  whole  of  the  population,  town  and 
country,  generally  took  part  in  the  harvest, 
for  the  number  of  residents  in  the  country 
was  insufficient  for  gathering  even  the  scanty 
harvest.  The  stock  on  the  land  was  far  more 
valuable  than  the  land  itself.  It  has  been 
proved  that  the  stock  on  a  weU-tilled  farm 
was  worth  three  times  as  much  as  the  land. 
The  rent  of  good  arable  land  was  for  three 
centuries  about  sixpence  an  acre. 

It  is  not  likely,  even  if  the  great  land- 
owners had  continued  to  cultivate  their  own 
estates,  that  much  progress  could  have  been 
nuide  in  agriculture,  for  the  inventive  facul- 
ties of  Europe  were  almost  stagnant  up  to 
the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  But  owing 
to  the  ravages  of  the  Black  Death,  the  great 
land-owners  abandoned  cultivation  on  their 
own  account,  and  let  their  land  and  stock  to 
tenant-farmers,  a  stocked  estate  being  found 
to  be  the  most  profitable  employment  of 
capital,  even  though  the  landlord  did  all  the 
repairs,  and  made  good  the  losses  of  his 
tenant's  sheep.  It  was  quite  out  of  the 
question  that  a  tenant  should  make  agricul- 
tural discoveries  and  improvements,  and  it  is 
certain  that  from  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  to 
the  death  of  Elizabeth,  some  350  years,  no 
material  alteration  was  made  in'  English 
agriculture,  except  in  sheep-farming,  and 
certainly  no  appreciable  progress. 

Small  as  was  the  produce  of  the  land 
in  comparison  with  that  which  has  been  ob- 
tained at  later  periods,  it  is  very  likely  that 


nearly  as  much  land  was  cultivated  in  the 
Middle  Ages  as  is  in  modem  times  in  England. 
Certain  counties,  especially  the  north  and 
the  west,  were  very  backward,  as  we  learn 
from  those  few  valuations  of  counties  for  tax- 
ing purposes  which  are  still  extant,  and  are 
probably  the  only  genuine  valuations  in  ex- 
istence. But  the  towns  were  much  smaller, 
and  the  space  occupied  by  human  habi- 
tations in  such  counties  as  Middlesex,  Oxford- 
shire, and  Norfolk,  the  most  opulent  of  the 
English  counties,  was  far  less  than  at  present. 
Ornamental  g^unds  were  whoUy  unknown, 
and  the  land  was  ploughed  up  to  the  noble's 
castle  and  the  farmer's  homestead.  One  can 
constantly  see  in  parks,  which  are  now  an- 
cient, and  surrounding  residences  which  are 
still  more  ancient,  the  signs  that  cultivation 
had  formerly  been  carried  on  over  places 
which  are  now  either  ornamental  only,  or 
are  devoted  to  pasture.  In  the  description 
given  of  ancient  estates,  we  may  often  find 
that  land  was  ploughed  and  sown  up  to  the 
gates  of  the  manor-house,  and  over  spaces 
which  have  long  been  streets  in  busy  towns. 
Our  ancestors  had  poor  gardens,  and  no  plea- 
sure g^unds.  In  the  more  fertile  counties, 
which  are  now  known  by  the  absence  of  by- 
roads, it  is  likely  that  more  land  than  is  now 
cultivated  was,  in  the  poor  fashion  of  those 
times,  tilled,  under  the  disadvantageous  system 
of  frequent  &llows  and  oonmion  fields.  For 
as  ploughing  was  merely  superficial,  and  the 
number  of  crops  was  very  umited,  land  was 
early  exhausted,  and  haa  to  rest  in  fallow. 
As  the  ownership  of  several  lands  or  closes 
was  rare,  and  was  generally  confined  to  the 
lord  of  the  manor,  the  furrows  in  the  common 
field,  with  the  scanty  pasture  of  the  manor 
common,  were  the  hol^ung  of  the  small  agri- 
culturist, ?'.<?.,  of  the  mass  of  the  people,  since 
nearly  all  possessed  land  ;  but  were  held,  as 
far  as  the  first  portion  of  the  holding  was 
concerned,  under  the  least  advantageous  form. 
Kor  was  the  use  of  common  land  for  pasture 
as  profitable  as  it  might  have  been.  Gene- 
rally the  right  of  pasturage  was  without 
stint,  that  is,  each  occupier  had  the  right 
of  putting  as  many  cattle  or  sheep  as  ho  could 
get  upon  the  common  pasture;  and  as  the 
lord,  who  possessed,  as  has  been  said,  closes 
from  which  he  could  make  hay,  or  could 
devote  to  forthcoming  stock,  had  many  more 
cattle  than  the  tenants,  he  could  make  the 
common  pasture  of  comparatively  little  value 
to  them  by  overstocking  it. 

Nothing  better  illustrates  the  character  of 
mediaeval  husbandry  than  the  extreme  rarity 
with  which  prices  of  hay  are  recorded  in  early 
times,  and  the  excessive  rent  which  was  paid 
for  enclosed  pastures.  The  rent  of  arable 
land  being  about  sixpence  an  acre,  that  of 
natural  meadow  is  constantly  sixteen  times 
as  much,  and  the  aftermaths  over  four  or 
five  times.  In  our  day,  the  best  natural 
meadow  does  not  command  a  rent  of  more 


(19) 


than  twice  the  best  arable.  Duriiif^  the 
thirteenth  and  fourteenth  oenturiesy  it  is  rare 
to  find,  in  the  examination  of  many  thousand 
accounts,  the  prices  of  hay  given.  In  the 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth,  daring  which  time 
enclosures  were  frequent,  and  many  of  the 
common  lands  were  encroached  on,  occa- 
sionally to  the  great  discontent  of  the  fanner, 
and  even  to  the  employment  of  violent  reme- 
dies for  the  wrong  which  they  felt  had  been 
done  them,  prices  of  hay  are  very  common. 

Under  so  imperfect  a  system  of  agriculture, 
as  the  people  were  fed  on  unwholesome  salted 
food  during  half  the  year,  and  cattle  were 
starved  during  the  same  period,  disease  was 
common  in  man  and  beast.  Scurv}'-,  the 
inevitable  oonsequenoe  of  the  use  of  salted 
meat,  and  a  deficient  vegetable  diet,  was 
endemic.  Leprosy,  which  an  abundant  vege- 
table food  has  banished,  was  as  common  as 
it  now  is  in  the  basin  of  the  Po.  The  unclean 
habits  of  our  forefathers  added  to  the  general 
unhealthiness  of  their  lives.  Few  people  lived 
beyond  fifty,  when  they  were  old.  Plagues 
of  terrible  deadliness  attacked  the  people. 
It  is  probable  that  one-third  of  the  population 
perished  in  1349,  when  the  Black  Death  ap- 
peared among  us.  [Black  Dbath.]  The 
Plague  continued  to  appear  at  intervals,  till 
its  last  visitation  in  1666,  when  it  seems 
most  terrible,  because  it  has  been  most 
minutely  described.  After  the  battle  of 
Bosworth,  a  new  disease,  the  sweating  sick- 
ness, appeared,  and  for  a  long  time  was  the 
special  scourge  of  the  English  people.  Like 
the  plague,  it  was  very  destructive ;  but, 
unlike  it,  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
a  foreign  importation,  but  the  result  of 
dirt,  privation,  and  unwholesome  food.  It 
is  only  by  the  study  of  contemporaneous 
evidence,  and  by  inquiry  from  undoubted 
facts,  that  we  can  discover  the  real  extent 
of  the  loss.  So  it  is  not  likely  that  we  should 
get  evidence  of  the  occasion  on  which  plagues 
have  \'isited  animal  and  vegetable  life.  It  is 
carious  to  find  that  two  diseases,  scab  in  sheep 
and  smut  in  wheat,  were  first  noticed  at 
periods  which  can  be  almost  defined.  The 
former  appears  about  1288,  and  was  par- 
ticularly dreaded,  because  it  imperilled  the 
principal  source  of  English  opulence  daring 
the  liiddle  Ages,  and,  indeed,  for  long  after, 
English  wool,  in  the  cloth  product  from 
which  a  large  part  of  Western  Europe  was 
clad.  The  other  was  smut  in  wheat  and 
the  allied  g^ins,  which  was  'first  noticed 
in  1527,  a  year  of  comparative  famine. 
The  art  of  the  agriculturist  has  long  been 
engaged  in  combating  those  two  posts  of  his 
calling.  Other  serious  diseases,  the  rot  in 
sheep,  and  pleuro-pneumonia  in  homed  cattle, 
are  described  so  precisely  that  there  is  no 
doubt  of  their  identity  with  modem  cattle- 
pln<2rues. 

It  was  stated  above  that  during  the  four- 
teenth and  fifteenth  centuries  it  was  a  com- 


mon practice  to  let  live  and  dead  stock  with 
land,  in  other  words,  to  stock  a  &rmer*8  land 
as  weU  as  let  it  to  him.  The  monasteries 
continued  the  practice  up  to  the  dissolution. 
The  leasing  of  stock  was  the  best  part  of  the 
landlord's  profit  on  his  property,  and  by  im- 
plication the  least  profitable  form  of  holding 
to  the  tenant.  Hence,  in  order  to  induce 
tenants  to  accept  this  kind  of  occupancy,  the 
landlord  not  only  covenanted  to  do  all  repairs, 
great  and  small,  on  the  holding,  but  to  insure 
the  tenants  against  the  loss  of  their  cattle  by 
disease.  In  the  rent-roUs  of  great  estates, 
the  costs  of  tenants'  losses  by  cattle  disease 
form  a  very  serious  item,  and  throw  a  plain  and 
characteristic  light  on  agriculture  and  its 
customs  in  England,  while  they  show  how 
it  came  to  be  an  English  custom  that  land- 
lords should  improve  land.  The  first  change 
in  this  prolonged  system  began  with  the  dis- 
coveries of  the  Dutch.  When  that  people 
had,  by  almost  superhuman  efforts,  obtained 
their  political  freedom,  they  began  to  cultivate 
Holland  on  new  methods,  and  to  instruct 
Europe.  The  impulse  which  was  given  to 
the  human  mind  in  the  seventeenth  eentur}'' 
reacted  upon  husbandr}'.  The  disoovery  of 
the  process  of  reducing  iron  by  pit-coal 
cheapened  the  tools  of  the  husbandman.  The 
Dutch  discovered  and  improved  winter  roots, 
the  turnip  and  carrot.  It  is  estimated  that 
the  turnip  has  doubled  the  productiveness  of 
land.  For  a  century  and  a  half  the  Dutch 
were  the  seedsmen  of  Western  Europe.  Then 
the^'  cultivated  clover,  and  other  so-called 
artificial  grasses,  and  English  agriculturists 
and  landowners  soon  saw  that  greater 
profits  and  larger  rents  would  accrue  from 
these  new  inventions.  The  effect  of  these 
improvements  was,  that  the  numbers  and  the 
quality  of  cattle  and  sheep  were  greatly 
increased,  the  agriculturist  being  enabled 
to  find  them  food  in  winter,  and  keep 
them  at  least  in  some  condition.  Till 
winter  roots  were  discovered,  surplus  stock 
was  killed  in  November,  and  Kilted  for 
winter  provisions,  and  it  is  obvious  that  this 
system  was  injurious  to  health,  as  well  as  a 
great  hindrance  to  agricultural  progress. 

During  two  epochs  of  English  history,  the 
fifteenth  and  the  eighteenth  centuries,  agri- 
cultural products  were  abundant  and  cheap. 
The  seasons  appear  to  have  been  continuously 
favourable,  while  the  result  was  aided  by 
the  creation  of  estates  in  severalty,  by  endosing 
portions  of  lands  on  which  there  were  certain 
common  uses,  and  by  similar  expedients.  The 
loss  was  considerable  to  the  general  body  of 
occupiers,  but  the  agg^gate  food  product  was 
greatly  increased.  During  the  eighteenth 
century  Enclosure  Acts  were  exceedingly 
common.  Between  1726  and  1796, 1,761  such 
Acts  were  passed,  dealing  with  nearly  three 
million  acres.  From  this  date  to  1850,  2,365 
more  Acts  were  passed,  under  which  six  million 
more  acres  were  thus  appropriated.    Most  of 


Ahm 


(  20) 


A^A 


this  area  passed  from  common  pasture  to 
arable,  and  as  it  may  be  reasonably  con- 
cluded that  the  agriculturist  would  not 
cultivate  new  soil  except  with  the  prospect 
of  increased  profit,  the  quantity  of  food  pro- 
duced must  have  been  greatly  increased.  To- 
wards the  latter  end  of  the  last  century 
great  attention  was  given  to  the  improvement 
of  breeds  of  sheep,  by  the  selection  of  those 
which  had  the  best  points.  This  develop- 
ment of  agricultural  art  was  due  to  Mr.  Bake- 
well,  and  even  more  perhaps  to  Mr.  Coke, 
afterwards  Lord  Leicester.  The  economy  of 
such  a  selection  was  rapidly  extended  to  cattle, 
and  up  to  recent  times  stock  in  Great  Britain 
has  been  better  than  in  any  part  of  the 
civilised  world,  pedigree  animals  being  ex- 
ported to  all  countries  from  this.  Nor  were 
the  discoveries  in  practical  science  made 
during  the  eighteenth  century  without  their 
significance  on  agriculture.  With  cheaper 
iron  came  better  and  cheaper  tools,  a  deeper 
and  more  thorough  manipulation  of  the  soil, 
and  consequently  a  higher  rate  of  production 
from  the  soil.  Writers  on  medissval,  and 
even  later  agriculture,  counsel  the  use  of 
wooden  harrows  on  stony  ground,  because 
iron  was  too  costly  for  such  tools,  and  with 
reason,  for  while  wheat  during  the  greater 
part  of  Elizabeth's  reign  was  worth  about 
fourteen  shillings  a  quarter,  iron  cost  about 
£26  a  ton. 

The  last  improvements  in  agriculture  are 
due  to  chemical  science  and  machiner)'.  The 
agricultural  chemist,  by  the  gift  of  artificial 
manures,  by  the  analysis  of  artificial  food,  and 
by  the  examination  of  soils,  has  been  a  great 
benefactor  of  the  farmer,  and  these  inventions 
have  been  eminently  of  English  growth.  The 
Americans  are  to  be  credited  with  many 
labour-saving  machines,  adopted  in  order  to 
reduce  the  cost  of  wages,  for  the  problem 
before  the  agriculturist  has  always  been  how 
to  get  the  greatest  possible  amount  oi  nutri- 
tive matter  out  of  the  soil  for  man  and  beast, 
and  how  to  get  this  continuously,  as  far  as 
possible,  of  uniformly  good  quality. 

Walter  de  Henley,  Le  Bit  de  Ho$t>anderye, 
about  1250 ;  Fitzherbert's  Treatises  on  Husban- 
dry and  Surveying^  1523 :  the  works  of  Tusser, 
1580,  Markham,  1610,  and  Simon  Harthf,  1680; 
Worledge's  System  of  Agrievlture ;   Houghton's 

'  03;  Arthur  Yomw'sWc  " 

f  the  Nation;    Ti 
1  of  Prices ;  and  tt 
of  Agriculture   and  Prices,  1869 — 1582,  4  vols.. 


Collections.  1683—1703 ;  Arthur  Youns 's  Works ; 
Porter's  Progreea  of  the  Nation;  Tooke  and 
Newmarch,  uigtory  of  Prices ;  and  the  History 
of  Agriculture  and  Prices,  1269—1582,  4  vol 
1866  -82,  by  the  present  writer.      [J.  T.  R.] 


Ahmednnggnr.  A  tqwn  of  British  India, 
capital  of  a  pro^ce  of  the  same  name  in  the 
district  of  Gujerat.  It  passed  from  the  hands 
of  the  Peishwa  to  those  of  Scindia  in  1797. 
During  the  Mahratta  war  of  1803  General 
WeUesley  invested  and  captured  the  town. 
It  was  restored  to  the  Mahrattas  at  the  end 
of  the  war;  but  in  1817,  after  the  treaty  of 
Punnah,  again  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
British. 


Aid  was  a  term  which  included  all  custo- 
mary payments  by  a  vassal  to  his  feudal 
superior,  but  which  was  applied  especially  to 
the  forms  of  taxation  employed  by  the  Crown 
from  the  Norman  Conquest  to  the  fourteenth 
century.  It  is  therefore  applied  to  the 
militax}'  tenants'  payment  of  scutage,  the 
freeholders*  carucage,  and  the  borougiis'  tal- 
lage, as  well  as  to  what  may  be  called  the 
ordinary  feudal  aids.  The  word  aid  (auxiiium) 
expresses  in  itself  the  very  theory  of  the 
feudal  relation — viz.,  that  it  was  a  voluntary 
relation.  The  tenant  made  gifts  in  aid  of 
his  lord,  as  the  lord  himself  had  accepted 
homage  from  the  tenant.  Taxation,  there- 
fore, as  long  as  it  consisted  chiefly  of  feudal 
aids,  requir(Hl  the  formal  grant  of  the  feudal 
tenants,  but  when  it  becomes  national 
taxation,  it  requires  the  grant  of  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  nation — i.e.,  of  the  Estates 
in  Parliament.  Thus  it  is  that  Bracton's 
statement,  that  '^aids  depend  on  the  srace 
of  the  tenant,  and  are  not  at  the  will  of  the 
lord,"  grows  into  the  principle  enunciated  by 
Lord  Chatham :  **  The  taxes  are  a  voluntary 
gift  and  grant  of  the  Commons  alone."  So 
early  even  as  Henry  I.,  the  words  of  the 
king's  writ  are — "  The  aid  which  my  barons 
have  given  to  me."  And  on  the  same  prin- 
ciple, in  the  thirteenth  centur}-,  grants  are  said 
to  be  made  by  ^*  chief  tenants,  freeholders, 
and  villeins."  The  very  villeins,  in  order  to 
be  taxed,  must  be  supposed  to  join  in  the 
grant,  if  only  through  the  lords  and  the 
h^eeholders,  or  their  representatives  in  the 
national  Parliament.  The  evolution  of  a 
national  Parliament  is,  therefore,  a  logical 
consequence  of  the  theor}'  of  the  aid. 

The  word  "  aid  "  applied  originally  to  the 
three  occasions  on  which  the  lord  could 
demand  contributions  from  his  tenants— viz., 
for  his  own  ransom,  or  for  the  expenses  of 
making  his  eldest  son  a  knight,  or  of  marry- 
ing his  eldest  daughter.  It  was  due,  therefore, 
equally  from  the  barons  who  were  tenants  of  the 
crown,  and  from  the  tenants  of  those  barons. 
Thus  Henry  I.  took,  in  1110,  an  aid  pur  Jilie 
fnarier,  three  shillings  from  every  hide  in 
Englnnd,  and  a  similar  aid  pur  fnire  JUz 
ehevaiier  ;  and  the  amount  raised  for  Richard 
I.* 8  rans  )m  was  enormous.  But  the  word 
"  aid "  includes  also  what  may  be  called 
the  extraordinary  aids  —  the  scutage,  the 
hidage  or  carucage,  and  the  tallage,  which 
togetiier  made  up  the  Anglo-Xorman  scheme 
of  direct  taxation.  Sculagey  the  composition 
in  lieu  of  military  service,  fell  properly  on 
the  military  tenants  of  the  crown  alone. 
But  when  the  king  demanded  scutage  from 
them,  they  would  make  up  the  amount 
by  aid  from  their  tenants.  Hidage,  or  in 
the  later  and  stricter  form  which  it  took, 
carucage,  fell  on  the  freeholders.  Tallage 
was  the  similar  burden  ou  the  royal  demesne, 
and  fell  chiefly  on  the  towns.  The  great 
struggle  in  regard   to  all  aids  was  to  fix 


Aid 


(  21  ) 


Aid 


the  rate.  Thus  Henry  l.*a  charter  promises 
to  take  only  ''  reasonable  "  aids,  and  that  the 
barons  shall  do  the  same.  In  Glanvil  the 
amount  is  settled  between  king  and  baron,  as 
between  baron  and  vassal,  by  bargaining.  In 
Magna  Churta,  art.  12  and  art.  14,  consent  of 
the  Coumion  Council  of  the  realm  is  required 
for  all  but  the  three  ordinary  aids,  and  these 
aids  are  to  be  **  reasonable "  in  all  cases, 
whether  taken  by  the  crown  from  th(»  barons, 
or  by  the  banms  from  their  own  men.  And  in 
the  Confirmatio  Cartarum  of  1297  it  is  en- 
joined :  "  Aids  henceforth  shall  only  be  by 
the  common  assent  of  the  realm,  saving  the 
ancient  aids  and  prises  due  and  accustomed." 
Alreiidy  by  statute,  in  the  third  year  of 
Edward  I.,  the  rate  at  which  lords  might  take 
aids  of  their  vassals  was  fixed  at  twenty 
shillings  the  knight's  foe  {i.e.,  about  5  per 
cent,  of  the  annual  value) ;  the  same  rate  in 
the  twenty-fifth  year  of  Edward  III.  was 
fixed  for  the  feudal  aids  of  the  crown.  It 
only  remained  to  make  the  extraordinary 
aids,  and  especially  tallage,  dependent  upon 
the  assent  of  Parliament.  Ihis,  after  a 
long  struggle,  was  effected  by  the  concession 
made  by  Edward  III.  m  1340:  "No  aid  to 
be  henceforth  but  bv  assent  of  Parliament." 
The  struggle  was  decided,  though  it  was 
still  necessary  to  guard  against  royal  eva- 
sions. But  after  the  Good  Parliament, 
in  1376,  it  is  not  till  national  liberties  were 
silenced  by  the  Yorkist  and  Tudor  despotism 
that  the  old  theory  of  a  voluntary  offering  was 
again  made  a  cover  for  arbitrary  taxation, 
under  the  new  name  of  benerolencvu. 

But  the  crown,  by  working  the  theory  of 
voluntary  offerings,  had  also  been  able  to 
negotiate  with  the  merchants  for  large  grants 
by  way  of  increased  customs,  especially  on 
wool ;  and  to  humour  the  clerg>'  in  their 
device  to  evade  the  Bull  Cicricis  Laieos  bv 
accepting  their  tenths  or  fifteenths  as  free 
gifts.  Parliament,  therefore,  had  to  take 
under  its  control  these  two  great  sources  of 
revenue  also,  if  it  was  to  make  the  voluntary 
theor}*^  of  taxation  a  reality.  And  so,  in 
1362,  it  is  at  last  enacted  that  the  merchants 
are  to  grant  no  charge  on  wool  without 
assent  of  Parliament.  The  clergy,  however, 
in  their  two  Convocations,  were  wise  enough 
to  forestall  direct  interference  on  the  part  of 
Parliament,  which  on  its  side  accepted  the 
compromise,  as  the  crown  Iwid  done.  Thus, 
by  th(»  liancastrian  reigns,  the  class-taxation 
of  the  land>owners,  merchants,  and  clergy 
was  becoming  harmonised  into  a  simpler^ 
system  of  taxation,  which  should  fall  upon 
the  wholi'  nation  rather  than  upon  classes, 
and  on  persomtlty  rather  than  mainly  on 
land.  As  the  subsidy  on  movables  and  the 
customs  on  exports  and  imports  came  in,  the 
old  aids  died  out.  The  last  feudal  aid  was 
that  taken  by  Edward  III.  in  1346,  for 
knighting  the  Black  Prince,  which  was  pro- 
tested against  by  the    Commons.      Of   the 


extraordinary  aids,  scutage  was  last  taken  in 
1314.  Scutages,  indeed,  were  part  of  a  military 
organisation  of  society  that  was  now  obsolete, 
as  was  that  division  into  knight's  fees,  which 
were  the  basis  on  which  they  were  assessed. 
Moreover — and  this  applies  also  to  carucage 
and  to  tallage — they  were  bound  up  with  a 
ver^  imperfect  method  of  representation,  in 
which  the  class  highest  in  the  feudal  scale 
was  supposed  to  speak  for  all.  They  required 
laborious  collection  by  old  and  waisteful 
methods.  But,  above  all,  the  two  former 
were  assessed  on  land,  and  let  personalty 
escape ;  while  tallage  was  peculiarly  un- 
profitable, because  a  tallage  by  the  king  from 
his  demesne  had  to  be  purchased  by  allowing 
his  btirons  simultaneousl}'  to  tallage  theirs. 
The  development  of  the  wool-trade,  and  the 
existence  of  a  national  Parliament,  alike 
necessitated  the  substitution  of  a  simple 
national  system ;  and  the  old,  irregular,  and 
imperfect  system  of  aids  disappears,  not, 
however,  without  having  bequeathed  the  groat 
principle  to  our  constitution — that  taxation 
requires  assent,  and  therefore  must  come 
through  the  Commons. 

Braotoii,  bk.  IL,  foL  36;  Modox,  Hut.  of  the 
Exchequer;  Kenelm  Digby,  fltst.  of  the  Law  of 
Real  PropeHy  ;  Stubbs,  C<m$t.  Hiat.  [A.  L.  S.] 

Aidaa,  Kino  {b.  532,  d.  606),  the  son  of 
Gabran,  succeeded  Conal  (574)  as  King  of  Dal- 
riada.  Aidan  was  crowned  by  St.  Columba, 
in  the  island  of  lona,  and  soon  proved  himself 
to  be  a  ruler  of  energy  and  ability.  In  576, 
at  the  Council  of  Brumscat,  he  succesBfully 
asserted  the  independence  of  the  Scotch  king- 
dom of  Dalriada,  throwing  off  the  yoke  of  the 
Irish  Dalriada.  In  583  he  defeated  the 
English  invaders  at  the  battle  of  Manau,  but 
in  596  was  defeated  in  Kincardineshire  by  the 
Picts,  four  of  his  sons  being  slain.  In  603 
Aidan  was  again  defeated  by  Ethelfrith  of 
Northumbria  at  the  battle  of  Daegsastan. 
[Dalriada.] 

Aidan,  St.  (d.  651),  was  a  monk  in  the  Co- 
lumban  monaster}*  of  lona.  Upon  the  failure 
of  a  mission  sent  into  Northumbria  at 
the  request  of  the  King  Oswald,  who 
had  learnt  something  of  Chnstianity  in  Scot- 
land, Aidan  was  sent  and  was  at  once  in- 
stalled as  bishop,  with  his  see  at  Lindisfame. 
He  established  Christianity,  and  was  one  of 
the  most  zealous  supporters  of  the  unreformed 
Paschal  Cycle ;  despite  which  Bede  fully  re- 
cognises his  piety  and  integrity.  To  St. 
Aidan  many  miracles  are  ascribed,  the  most 
remarkable  of  which  is,  perhaps,  his  i-eputed 
power  of  stilling  the  most  violent  tempest  by 
the  UFj  of  consecrated  oil. 

Bede,  Hiitt.  EccUe.^  i.,  3,  50;  Ada  Sanctorum  ; 
Bright,  Early  Englieh  Church  Hi«f. 

Aids,  The  Voluntary,  was  the  name 
given  to  a  grant  of  £120,000,  made  in  1628 
by  the  Irish  Parliament,  payable  in  in- 
stalments of  £40,000  a  year  in  return  for 


Alt 


(  2"^  ) 


Alb 


certain  "  Graces  *'  or  concessionB  from  the 
crown.  These  payments  were  afterwards, 
especially  by  Strafford's  action,  renewed,  and 
altogether  continued  for  ten  years.  The 
Graces  were  never  actually  granted. 

Aiguillon,  Siege  op  (1347),  was  the 
most  lamous  siege  of  the  French  wars  of 
Edward  III.'s  reign.  The  fortress  of  Aiguil- 
Ion  was  strongly  situated  on  the  borders  of 
Gascony  and  Agenois,  between  the  Lot  and 
the  Garonne,  and  it  was  bravely  defended  by 
Sir  Walter  Manny  against  John,  Duke  of 
Normandy,  from  ^lay  till  the  end  of  August. 
The  duk(>  had  sworn  never  to  quit  the  siege 
till  the  place  was  taken;  and,  finding  his 
assaults  ineffectual,  resolved  to  reduce  the 
place  by  famine.  But  the  great  victory  of 
the  English  at  Cre^y  imperatively  called  for 
the  presence  of  the  duke's  army  in  the  north 
of  France,  and  he  was  compelled  to  raise  the 
siege. 

Ailesbnry.  Thomas  Bruce,  2nd  Eabl 
OF,  and  3rd  Earl  of  Elgin  in  Scotland  (tf.  1741), 
was  present  at  the  death-bed  of  Charles  II. 
He  took  the  oath  of  alleg^iance  to  William  III., 
but,  nevertheless,  played  a  prominent  part  in 
the  Jacobite  conspiracies  against  the  king.  He 
was  present  at  a  meeting  of  Jacobites  at  the 
Old  King's  Head  in  1695.  He  was  sent  to  the 
Tower  for  his  complicity  in  the  Assassination 
Plot,  and,  in  conjunction  with  Fen  wick,  at- 
tempted to  bribe  the  witness  Porter  to  leave 
the  country.  He,  however,  always  denied 
that  he  had  been  privy  to  the  criminal  designs 
of  the  plotters.  ^lacaulay  remarks  that  "  his 
denial  would  be  the  more  creditable  if  he 
had  not,  by  taking  the  oaths  to  the  govern- 
ment against  which  he  was  so  constantly 
intriguing,  forfeited  the  right  to  be  considered 
as  a  man  of  conscience  ana  honour." 

Ailmor,  Sta  Laurence,  was  Sheriff  of 
London  in  1501, and  subsequently  Lord  Mayor. 
He  resisted  the  exactions  of  the  king's  rapa- 
cious minsters,  Empson  and  Dudley,  and  was 
committed  to  prison  in  the  last  year  of  Henry 
VI I. 's  reign  for  refusing  to  pay  the  fine  of 
£1,000  imposed  upon  him. 

Airds  Moss,  Fight  of  (1680),  in  Ayr- 
shire, was  a  small  skirmish  in  which  the 
royal  troops  routed  a  party  of  the  extreme 
Scotch  Covt'iianters,  who  had  signed  the 
**  Sanquhar  Declaration  "  (q.v.),  or  Cameron- 
ians,  as  they  were  subsequently  called. 
Richard  Cumeron,  the  loader  of  the  sect,  fell 
in  this  encounter. 

Aislabie.  John  {b.  1670,  d.  1742),  was 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  in  L^rd  Stan- 
hope's mini8tr\'  of  1 7 1 7.  In  1 7 1 9  he  defended 
the  Peerage  Bill.  In  1720  he,  with  Sunder- 
land, was  requested  by  Stanhope  to  consider  the 
proposals  of  the  South  Sea  Company.  They 
accepted  them ;  and,  accordingly,  all  the  inten- 
sity of  popular  indignation  fell  on  them  when 
the  scheme  failed.    The  inquiry  elicited  the 


fact  that  an  extensive  system  of  bribes  had 
prevailed,  and  that  large  sums  of  fictitious 
capital  had  been  invented  and  distributed 
among  leading  members  of  the  Government. 
Aislabie's  case  was  so  flagrant  that  no  one 
rose  to  defend  him.  He  was  expelled  the 
House,  and  sent  to  the  Tower.  [South  Sba 
Company.] 


„  iz-la-Chapelle,   T&batv    of    (April 

18,  1748),  closed  the  War  of  the  Austrian 
Succession.  The  initiative  came  from  France, 
strengthened  by  her  recent  successes,  and 
the  strong  desire  for  peace  felt  by  England 
and  Holland  eventually  forced  the  treaty 
on  Austria  and  Sardinia.  The  principal  arti- 
cles were : — ^The  renewal  of  all  former  treaties, 
and  the  mutual  restoration  of  all  conquests, 
England  giving  hostages  for  the  restoration 
of  Cape  Breton ;  the  fortifications  of  Dun- 
kirk on  the  sea-side  were  to  be  demolished ; 
the  Duchies  of  Parma,  Guastalla,  and  Pia- 
cenKa  were  assigned  to  the  Infant,  Don 
Philip,  but  if  he  succeeded  to  the  throne  of 
Naples,  the  two  first  reverted  £b  the  house  of 
Austria,  and  Piacenza  to  Sardinia ;  the  Duke 
of  Modena  and  the  republic  of  Genoa  were 
reinstated  in  their  former  territories ;  the 
Assiento  Treaty  with  Spain  was  confirmed 
for  four  years ;  the  Protestant  succession  in 
England  was  guaranteed  according  to  the 
treaty  of  1714,  and  the  Pretender  was  to  be 
excluded  from  France ;  the  Emperor  was  to  be 
acknowledged  by  France,  and  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction  guaranteed;  the  Duchy  of  Silesia 
and  the  county  of  Glatz  were  guaranteed  to 
the  King  of  Prussia,  and  the  portions  of  the 
Milanese  held  by  Sardinia  were  permanently 
surrendered  by  Austria.  It  resulted  in  the 
breach  of  the  Austrian  and  English  alliance. 

Koch  et  Schoell,  Hid.  de*  Traitfn  de  Fiix,  il., 
ch.  16 ;  Ck>xe.  Pelham ;  Mahon,  Hitt.  of  Eng, ; 
Ameth,  Maria  Theresa. 

Ajmeer,  the  chief  town  of  a  district  in 
Rajputana,  lying  south-east  of  Jodpore.  It 
was  taken  by  the  Mahrattas  from  the  Moguls 
in  1770,and  was  for  nearly  half  a  century  alter- 
nately in  the  hands  of  the  Mahrattas  and  of 
rival  Hajput  princes.  In  1818  it  was  finally 
ceded  to  the  British  in  return  for  a  pa}'ment 
of  50,000  rupees.  The  town  contains  the 
ruins  of  a  very  fine  Hindoo  temple. 

Akeman  Street.    [Koman  Roaps.] 

Alabama.     [Geneva  Award.] 

Albaa.  About  the  end  of  the  ninth 
century,  and  before  the  term  Scotia  came  into 
U8<%  tht'  district  betwoc»n  the  Firths  of  Forth 
and  Clyde  and  the  Spey,  which  had  been 
known  as  PictLind,  or  the  kingdom  of 
Scone,  was  called  Alban,  or  Albania  (more 
correctly.  Alba,  or  Albu).  a  name  which  had 
still  earlier  been  used  to  designate  the  whole 
coimtry  north  of  the  Forth  and  the  Clyde. 
The  first  king  of  Alban  was  Donald,  son  of 
Coustantine  (889—900).     Shortly  after  this, 


Alb 


<23) 


Alb 


Albaa  waa  divided  into  seven  provinces. 
About  a  century  later  the  name  was  super- 
seded by  that  of  Scotia,  Malcolm,  son  of 
Kenneth  (100d>-1034),  being  the  first  king 
of  Scotia. 

KiKOS  OF  Albajv. 

Donald 889-000 

Constantme,  sou  of  Aedh  .  900—942 

Maloohu 942-9M 

ludnlph 954-962 

Dubh 962-^67 

Cuilean 967—971 

Kenneth 971—995 

Constontine,  son  of  Cuilean  .       .  995—997 
Kenneth,  sou  of  Dabh  .               .  997—1004 

See  SkAie,  (kiUic  Sootland  :  a  Hutory  o/ilnct«nt 
AVban,  1876. 

Albaa,  St.  {d.  305  ?),  is  generally  held  to 
be  the  proto-martyr  of  Britain.  His  story, 
as  related  by  Gildas,  is  that  Alban,  being 
then  a  Pagan,  saved  a  confessor,  who  was 
being  pursued  by  his  persecutors,  and  was  at 
the  point  of  being  seized,  by  hiding  him  in 
his  own  house,  and  by  changing  clothes  with 
him.  Alban  was  carried  before  the  magis- 
trate, but  having  in  the'  meantime  become  a 
Christian,  ho  refused  to  sacrifice  to  the  gods, 
and  was  accordingly  executed  just  outside 
the  great  city  of  Verulamium  (St.  Albans). 
Numerous  miracles  are  related  of  him,  but, 

Sutting  these  aside,  there  seems  no  reason  for 
oubting  that  he  is  a  historic  personage.  The 
date  of  the  martyr's  death  is  a  difficulty,  as  in 
305  ConstantiuB,  the  father  of  Cons^ntine, 
was  CsDsar  in  Britain,  who  is  known  to  have 
been  very  favourable  to  Christianity  ;  perhaps 
we  may  place  the  event  in  283,  the  date 
asaigned  to  it  in  the  Saxon  Chronicle. 

Bede,  EccUi.  Hid.,  i.  7 ;   GUdas,  Hut.,  §  10; 
InghhSaxon  Chr(m..t  sub.  an. 

Albani.  A  name  cognate  in  meaning 
with  Alban  and  Albion,  which  is  found  asso- 
ciated with  the  Celtic  tribe  who  possessed  the 
districts  of  Breadalbone  and  Athol,  with  parts 
of  Lochaber  and  Upper  Lome. 

Albania-  The  name  sometimes  given  to 
the  Scottish  Dalriada.     [Dalriada.] 

AlbailBy  St.,  Abbey  of,  &c.  [St. 
Albans.] 

Albany,  Peekaoe  of.  In  1398  Robert 
Stuart  (second  son  of  King  Robert  II.  of 
Scotland)  was  created  Duke  of  Albany.  On 
the  execution  of  his  son,  Murdoch,  second 
Duke  of  Albany,  in  1425,  the  peerage  was 
forfeited  to  the  crown,  but  revived  by  James 
II.  of  Scotland,  and  conferred  on  his  second 
son  Alexander,  who  transmitted  it  to  his  son 
the  Regent  (1515—1523),  John,  Duke  of 
Albany.  In  1565,  the  title,  being  again 
extinct,  was  granted  to  Henry  StuEurt,  Lord 
Damley  [Daknley],  husband  of  Mary, 
Queen  of  Scots.  In  1772  the  title  of 
Countess  of  Albany  was  assumed  by  Louisa 
Maria  of  Stolberg-Gedem  (1754—1823)  on 
her  marriage  with  Prince  Charles  Edward,  the 
Young  Pretender.    She  quitted  her  husband 


in  1780,  and  after  his  death  married  the  poet 
Alfieri.  On  being  deserted  by  his  wife,  the 
Pretender  affected  to  create  his  natural 
daughter,  by  Clementina  \Valkinshaw,i)M;A^M 
of  Albany.  The  title  of  Albany  was  added 
to  that  of  York  in  the  peerages  of  Ernest 
Augustus,  brother  of  George  I.,  Ernest  Au- 
gustus, brother  of  George  HI.,  and  Frederick, 
second  son  of  that  king.  By  letters  patent, 
May  24,  1881,  Prince  Leopold,  fourth  son  of 
the  Queen,  was  created  Duke  of  Albany  and 
Earl  of  Clarence.  He  died  in  1884.  [Stuart.] 

Albany,  Robert  Stuart,  Iht  Duke  of 
{b.  1339,  d.  1419),  the  second  son  of  Robert  II., 
and  the  brother  of  Robert  III.,  of  Scotland, 
during  his  brother's  later  years  practically  go- 
verned the  kingdom.  His  inertness  on  the  inva- 
sion of  Scotland  by  Henry  IV.  gave  rise  to  the 
suspicion  that  he  was  plotting  for  the  death 
of  his  nephew,  David,  Duke  of  Rothesay, 
who  was  besieged  in  Edinburgh  Castle. 
That  there  may  have  been  some  truth  in  the 
supposition  is  likely ;  for  soon  afterwards 
Rothesay  was  seized  at  Albany's  instigation, 
and  imprisoned  in  Falkland  Castle,  where  he 
died  of  starvation,  1402.  On  his  nephew's 
death  Albany  became  governor  of  the  king- 
dom, and  in  that  character  gave  support  to 
a  man  whom  ho  declared  to  be  Richard  II. 
of  England,  and  whom  he  hoped  to  be  able 
to  make  use  of  against  Henry  IV.  The 
capture  of  the  young  Prince  James  by  the 
English  was  also  ascribed  to  his  intrigues, 
whether  justly  or  not  is  uncertain.  On 
the  death  of  Robert  III.  Albany  continued 
to  govern  the  kingdom  as  regent,  until  his 
own  death,  Sept.  3,  1419.  In  spite  of  his 
odious  private  character,  Albany  seems  to 
have  ruled  Scotland  with  vigour,  justice, 
and  moderation. 

See  the  Scoh'chrontoon  and  Wyntoun,  bk.  ix., 
for  different  views  of  his  character ;  and  Barton, 
RisL  of  SooOani. 

Albany,  Murdoch,  2nd  Duke  of 
{d.  1425),  succeeded  his  father,  Robert,  as 
governor  of  Scotland,  1419,  during  the  cap- 
tivity of  James  I.  in  England.  Upon  James's 
return  he  was  condenmcd  and  executed  at 
Stirling,  May,  1425,  together  with  two  of  his 
sons,  for  having  misused  his  power  as  regent. 

Albany,  Albxandkk,  3kd  Duke  op 
{d.  1485),  was  the  second  son  of  James  II.,  and 
brother  of  James  III.,  from  whose  jealousy  he 
was  compelled  to  take  refuge  in  France,  1479. 
In  1483  he  joined  Edward  IV.  of  England, 
executing  a  secret  deed,  in  which  he  aclmow- 
ledged  the  feudal  supremacy  of  England  over 
Scotland.  After  the  affair  at  Lauderbridge 
(q.v.),  Albany  returned  to  Scotland  and 
assumed  the  government  for  a  short  time; 
but  on  the  terms  of  his  secret  treaty  leaking 
out,  was  again  compelled  to  seek  an  asylum  in 
England.  Here  he  joined  the  Earl  of  Douglas 
in  an  invasion  of  Scotland,  which  failed, 
Albany  being  obliged  to  go  to  France,  where 


Alb 


(24) 


Alb 


he  became  a  great  favourite  of  Louis  XI.  He 

is  described  in  the  Chronicle  of  Pittscottie 

aa  **  verrie  wyse  and  manlie,  and  loved  nothing 

80  Weill  as  able  men,  and  maid  great  coast 

and  expences  theirupoun." 

Chronicle  of  PittKOttie;  Lesley,  Hist   of  Scot- 
land ;  Burton,  H.iA.  of  Scotland,. 

Albany^  John,  4th  Duke  of.  Regent  of 
Scotland  m>m  1515  to  1524,  was  the  son  of 
Alexander,  Duke  of  Albany,  and  nephew  of 
James  III.  On  the  death  of  James  IV., 
Albany,  who  was  Lord  High  Admiral  of 
France,  was  summoned  to  Scotland  to  assume 
the  regency,  a  position  which  his  French 
education  had  by  no  means  fitted  him  to  fill. 
He  arrived  in  Scotland  in  1515,  and  one  of  his 
first  acts  as  regent  was  to  crush  the  power  of 
the  Earl  of  Angus,  whom  he  managed  to  get 
conveyed  to  France ;  his  next,  to  bring  to  trial 
all  whom  he  conceived  to  be  in  league  with 
the  Douglas  party.  In  September,  1622,  he 
collected  an  immense  army  for  the  invasion  of 
England,  to  retaliate  upon  Henry  VIII.  for 
havmg  demanded  his  expulsion  from  the 
Scotch  Estates.  Henry,  however,  contrived 
by  diplomacy  to  stay  the  blow  before  it  had 
fallen,  and  Albany  shortly  after  returned  to 
France,  where  he  coUectea  an  auxiliary  force, 
1523.  Compelled,  however,  to  raise  the  siege 
of  Wark  Castle,  he  retired  to  France  in  dis- 
gust, May,  1524,  and  never  returned. 

Chronicle  of  PitUiCottie ;  Lesley,  Hist,  of  Scot- 
land ;  Btirtou,  Hist,  of  Soolland. 

Albemarle  (or  Aumale),  Pbekage  of. 

Odo  or  Eudes,  a  claimant  of  the  county  of 
Champagne,  held  considerable  possessions 
at  Albemarle,  in  Normandy.  He  married 
Adeliza,  sister  of  William  the  Conqueror, 
and  his  wife,  styled  in  Domesdal^  Book 
"Comitissa  de  Albemarle,"  obtained  large 
grants  of  land  in  England.  Her  son 
Stephen  a  127)  is  called  **  Comes  Albe- 
marlensis,"  and  the  title  was  inherited  by  his 
son  William,  who  greatly  distinguished  him- 
self at  the  battle  of  the  Standard.  {iSee  Sir 
Harris  Kicolas'  note  in  his  Sis  tor  ie  Peerage,) 
His  heiress  Hawisia  carried  the  title  to  Williiim 
de  FortibuB  {d.  1195),  from  whom  it  passed 
to  their  son,  William  do  Fortibus,  one 
of  the  twenty-five  barons  named  in  Magna 
Charta.  His  granddaughter  Avelina  married 
Edmund,  Earl  of  Lancaster,  second  son 
of  Henry  III.,  so  that  the  title  and 
honours  of  Albemarle  became  sunk  in  the 
royal  house.  In  1397,  Edward,  Earl  of 
RutUmd,  son  of  Edmund,  Duke  of  York,  was 
created  Duke  of  Albemarle  (or  Aumale),  but 
forfeited  the  title  in  1399.  In  1411,  Thomas, 
second' son  of  Henry  IV.,  was  created  Duke  of 
Clarence  and  Earl  of  Albemarle ;  he  was  killed 
at  Beauge  in  1421,  when  the  peerage  became 
extinct.  It  was  revived  in  1423,  in  favour 
of  Richard  Beauchamp,  Earl  of  Warwick,  who 
was  granted  the  title  for  life.  It  again  be- 
came extinct  on  his  death  in  1439.     In  1660 


Greneral  Greorge  Monk  was  created  Duke  of 
Albemarle.  The  title  passed  to  his  son 
Christopher,  and  expired  with  him  in  1688. 
In  1696  the  earldom  of  Albemarle  was  revived 
and  conferred  on  William  Ill/s  faithful 
follower,  Arnold  Joost  van  Keppel,  in  whose 
descendants  it  has  sinc«  remained. 

Albemarle,  George  Monk,  Duke  of 
(6.  1608,  d.  1670),  was  the  second  son  of  a 
Devonshire  baronet,  entered  the  army  as  a 
volunteer,  and  took  part  in  the  expedition  to 
the  Isle  of  Hhe  in  1628 ;  and  after  peace 
was  made  with  France  joined  the  Earl  of 
Oxford's  regiment,  which  had  been  raised  for 
the  support  of  the  Protestants  in  Germany 
and  Holland.  He  remained  abroad  for  ten 
years,  returning  to  England  in  1639,  in  time 
to  take  part  in  the  Scotch  war.  After 
hesitating  for  some  time  between  king 
and  Parliament,  Monk  decided  on  joining 
the  forces  which  had  been  sent  over  from 
Ireland  by  Ormond  to  Charleses  assistance. 
As  major-general  ^f  these  troops.  Monk 
took  part  in  the  battle  of  Nantwich,  where 
he  was  taken  prisoner  and  committed  to 
the  Tower.  Here  he  remained  for  more 
than  two  years,  but  in  1646  he  was  liberated 
and  placed  in  command  of  the  English  forces 
in  Ulster.  He  was  so  badly  supported  that 
he  was  forced  to  make  terms  with  the  rebels 
under  Owen  Roe  O'Neil,  for  which  he  was 
censured  by  Parliament,  although  the  Inde- 
pendent leaders  had  advised  the  treaty.  But 
Monk  had  convinced  Cromwell  of  his  abilitv, 
and  on  the  latter  being  appointed,  in  1650, 
to  the  command  of  the  parliamentar)'  forces 
in  Scotland,  he  made  Monk  lieutenant-general 
of  artillery.  At  the  battle  of  Dunbar,  IMonk 
showed  great  bravery,  and  on  Cromwell's 
return  to  England  he  was  left  to  complete 
the  reduction  of  Scotland,  which  he  speedily 
effected,  though  not  without  considerable 
cruelty.  In  1653,  on  the  outbreak  of  the 
Dutch  war,  Monk  was  appointed  one  of  the 
admirals  of  the  fleet,  and  had  a  share  in  the 
great  victory  off  the  Texel.  He  returned  to 
his  command  in  Scotland  in  1054,  and  re- 
mained there  till  the  death  of  Oliver  Cromwell, 
when  he  acknowledged  Richard,  and  advised 
him  to  rely  on  the  Presbj'terian  jwrty,  and 
endeavour  to  gather  the  old  nobility  and  the 
country  gentlemen  round  him.  But  during 
Richard's  short  reign  anarchy  prevailed  in 
England.  The  Parliament  had  been  forcibly 
dissolved  by  the  army,  and  the  Kump  rostored, 
only  to  be  dispersed  a  few  months  afterwards 
by  the  soldiers.  Having  obtained  a  grant  of 
money  from  the  Scotch  Estates,  on  New 
Year's  Day,  1660,  Monk  crossed  the  border, 
and  on  February  3rd  entered  London.  All 
opposition  to  him  proved  fruitless,  and  the 
Rump,  which  had  been  hurriedly  re.suscitated, 
hailed  him  as  their  deliverer.  Perceiving  the 
strength  of  the  royalist  reaction  he  determined 
to  restore  the  monarchy,  and  sent  an  invitation 


Alb 


C25) 


Alb 


to  ChnrleB  II.  to  retuni.  So  skilfully  did  he 
manage  matters  that  only  one  slight  outbreak 
occurred,  which  was  easily  suppressed,  and 
when  Charles  landed  he  was  universally 
welcomed.  Monk  reaped  the  highest  re- 
wards. He  was  created  Duke  of  Albemarle 
and  lieutenant-general  of  the  forces,  and  a 
perpetual  pension  of  £7,000  a  year  was 
granted  to  him.  .On  the  renewal  of  the  Dutch 
war  in  1664  he  was  appointed  joint-admiral 
with  Prince  Rupert,  and  behaved  with  his 
usual  braver}-.  During  the  Plague  of  1665 
he  was  invested  by  the  king  with  the  govern- 
ment of  London,  and  by  his  energy  greatly 
alleviated  the  general  misery,  and  preserved 
order.  He  took  no  prominent  part  in 
politics  during  the  few  remaining  years  of 

his  life. 

Gnizot.  Konir  (Eng.  tTanslation,  1851,  with 
Lord  Whazucliffe's  notes) ;  Gamble,  L\/e  of 
Monk,  1671 ;  Skinner,  L1/0  0/  JlfonJb,  1723 ;  Lodj^, 
Poi*troit«,  vol.  v.;  Ludlow,  "hLtinovn;  White- 
looko,  VLtmairt ;  Clarendon,  UiA.  of  the 
R^tUum,  [F.  S.  P.] 

Alb6Iliarl0f  Arnold  Joost  tax  Kefpel, 

IsT  Ea&l  of  {b.  1669;  d.  1718),  accompanied 

William  of  Orange  to  England.    He  was  the 

confidential  friend  of  the  king,  and  acted  as 

his    chamberlain.     He  •  was    raised    to    the 

peerage  in  1696.    After  the  death  of  William, 

Albemarle  was  chosen  by  the  States-General 

to  command  their  cavalry,  and  fought  in  the 

war  of  the  Spanish  succession.     He  was  taken 

prisoner  at  Denain  in  1712. 

Bio^aphica  Britannica;  Macanlay,  EM.  of 
England. 

Albemarle,  Geokoe  Keppel,  3rd  Karl 
OP  (A.  1724,  d.  1772),  the  son  of  William  Anne, 
2nd  earl,  served,  as  aide-de-camp  to  the  Duke 
of  Cumberland,  at  Fontenoy  and  Culloden .  In 
1746  he  was  elected  member  for  Chichester, 
which  place  he  continued  to  represent  till 
1754,  when  he  succeeded  to  the  earldom.  In 
1761  he  was  appointed  governor  of  Jersey. 
In  March,  1762,  he  embarked  as  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  land  forces  destined  for  the  re- 
duction of  Havannah,  and  captured  Fort 
Moro  after  a  stubborn  resistance.  Still  the 
Spaniards  declined  to  surrender ;  but  after 
enduring  a  cannonade  for  six  hours  Havannah 
capitulated  with  eleven  men-of-war  and  one 
mUlion  and  a  half  of  money,  and  about  the 
same  amount  in  merchandise.  In  Parliament 
the  earl  took  an  active  part  in  most  of  the 
WTiig  measures  of  his  time,  especially  making 
himself  conspicuous  by  his  opposition  to  the 
Royal  ISIarriage  Act,  and  by  joining  with 
forty-seven  other  peers,  in  1770,  in  a  solemn 
pledge  against  any  future  infringement  of  the 
rights  of  the  people  at  elections. 

Albemarle,  Rockingham  and  hU  Cot«mporan«t; 
Jesse,  Reign  of  George  HI. ;  QrenviUe  Papers,  iii. 

Albert,  Prince  {b.  1819,  d.  1861),  the  hus- 
band of  Queen  Victoria,  was  the  second  son 
of  the  reigning  Duke  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 
and  nephew  to  King  Leopold,  of  Belgium, 


and  the  Duchess  of  Kent.  The  prince  was 
admirably  and  carefully  educated,  and  in 
November,  1839,  formally  betrothed  to  his 
cousin,  the  Queen,  to  whom  he  was  married 
February  10,  1840.  By  an  Act  passed  just 
before  this  event,  a  sum  of  £30,000  a  year 
vas  settled  on  the  prince  for  life,  the  grant 
having  been  reduced  from  £50,000,  the  sum 
proposed  by  the  Ministry,  by  tiie  eflforts  of 
the  Radicals  and  the  Opposition.  By  a  subse- 
quent Act  of  this  session,  the  prince  wan 
named  regent  in  the  event  of  the  Queen's 
death  before  the  heir  to  the  crown  attained 
the  age  of  eighteen  ;  and  in  1857  he  was  desig- 
nated ** Prince  Consort"  by  letters  patent. 
He  died,  to  the  universal  regret  of  the  nation, 
of  typhoid  fever,  Dec.  14,  1861.  The  prince's 
position,  as  husband  of  a  constitutional  sove- 
reign, had  been  a  peculiarly  difficult  and 
trying  one.  Apprehensions  were  frequently 
expressed  in  the  etirlicr  part  of  his  married 
life  that  his  influence  would  be  too  extensively 
exercised  in  matters  of  itate ;  and  during  the 
years  of  the  Crimean  war  it  was  asserted  and 
popularly  believed,  though,  as  it  was  proved, 
without  a  shadow  of  foundation,  that  the 
prince  had  taken  an  undue  share  in  the 
management  of  the  army  and  the  disposal  of 
patronage.  It  was,  however,  gradually  ac- 
knowledged that  the  difficult  circumstances 
of  his  situation  could  hardly  have  been  ftict 
with  greater  tact  and  conscientiousness,  and 
with  more  thorough  appreciation  of  the  theory' 
of  constitutional  monarchy.  The  prince 
found  a  more  congenial  sphere  than  politics 
in  the  encouragement  of  the  arts  and 
in  the  promotion  ot  social  and  industrial 
reforms,  and  to  his  efforts  the  inauguration 
and  successful  establishment  of  the  Great 
Exhibition  of  1851  were  in  great  part  due. 

The  Speechee  and  Addreetes  of  Prince  XIb«H, 
with  an  Introd.,  1862;  Sir  Theodore  Martin's 
authoritative  and  elaborate  Life  of  the  Prince 
ConaoH ;  Memoirs  of  Baron  Stodkmar,  1872 ;  The 
Eorrly  Years  of  the  Prince  Consort,  1887. 

Albert  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales 
(b,  November  9,  1841),  the  eldest  son  of 
her  Majesty  Queen  Victoria  ;  Duke  of  Corn- 
wall, in  the  peerage  of  England;  Duke  of 
Rothesay,  Baron  Renfrew,  and  Lord  of  the 
Isles  in  Scotland ;  and  Earl  of  Dublin  and 
Carrick  in  Ireland ;  was  educated  at  both 
Oxford  and  Cambridge.  The  Prince  visited 
Italy  in  1859,  America  in  1860,  Germany  in 
1861,  Turkey  and  Egypt  in  1862,  and  the 
Emperor  of  the  French  at  Fontainebleau  the 
same  year.  In  1871  his  life  was  imperilled 
by  an  attack  of  t>T)hoid  fever,  and  his 
recovery,  in  Feb.,  1872,  was  celebrated  by  a 
National  Thanksgiving  Festival,  liietwcen 
Nov.  8,  1875,  and  March  13,  1876,  the  Prince 
of  Wales  was  engaged  in  a  grand  tour 
of  India.  He  married.  Mar.  10,  1863,  Alex- 
andra, daughter  of  Christian  IX.,  King  of 
Denmark,  and  his  eldest  surviving  son.  Prince 
George  Frederick,  was  bom  June  3,  1865. 


▲lb 


(  26) 


Aid 


Albums,  Clodius  (d.  197) »  commander 
of  the  Roman  forces  in  Britain,  was  pro- 
claimed £mperor  by  the  legions  of  tiie  province 
on  the  assassination  of  Pcitinax  (193).  His 
rival,  Severus,  who  was  declared  emperor  by 
the  troops  of  Pannonia,  at  first  attempted  to 
win  him  over  by  favours ;  but  in  197  marched 
against  him  and  defeated  and  slew  him  at 
Lyons.  This  battle  of  Lugdunum,  or  Lyons, 
is  interesting  as  being  the  first  recorded  battle 
fought  by  a  British  army  on  the  Continent. 
Dio  Cassias,  Ixxiil.— ▼. 

JLlbioil  ^afl  perhaps  the  oldest  name  for 
Britain.  It  occurs  in  a  treatise  once  ascribed 
to  Aristotle  (i>e  Mundo,  c.  3,  in  Mon.  Hist. 
Brit,  i.),  **  4v  rovrif  (sc.  ry  *Aiccov^)  tfrjcot 
Sityiirral  tc  rvyxdwovaiw  oZtrat  8i;o,  fiptrafvuccH 
\ey6fityai,  'AAfitov  koI  *Upyri  '*  (cf.  Bede,  Hist. 
Ec,  i.  1.,  in  Mon.  HUt.  Brit.,  108  A).  "Rex 
Albionis  insulsB  "  was  a  very  favourite  title  of 
the  more  powerful  Anglo-Saxon  kings  {see 
example  in  Freeman,  Norm.  Conq.,  i.  54&i— 
551),  but  in  later  times  Albion  mainly  occurs 
in  poetry.  The  word  means  "  white,"  and 
its  use  was,  perhaps,  suggested  by  the  chalk 
cliffs  of  the  south-east  coast.  It  is  etymo- 
logically  connected  with  "albus,"  "alp,"  &c., 
and  is  the  Br}iJionic  (Cymric)  form  of  the 
GtoideUc  (Gaelic)  "Alban,"  e.g.,  "Drum 
Albin  "  is  "Dorsum  Albionis"  {M(m.  HUt. 
Bfit.,  175  «). 

For  much  curious  information  and  extraor- 
dinary etymologies,  km  Cooper,  Th*»aurns 
LingiuB  Eomana  «t  Britannicce;  Dictionarium 
Hittoricwn  (London,  1565),  &.▼.  Albion.  See 
also  Bhys,  Celtic  Britain,  p.  200-  208. 

[T.  F.  T.] 

Albuera,  Battle  of  (May  16,  1811), 
during  the  Peninsular  War,  was  fought  by 
Beresford  to  check  Soult,  who  was  advancing 
to  the  relief  of  Badajos.  Soult  had  with  him 
20,000  veteran  troops,  while  Beresford,  though 
he  had  nominally  30,000  men,  could  only 
depend  on  the  handful  of  7,000  British  troops, 
lie  had,  however,  taken  up  a  strong  position 
on  a  range  of  hills,  in  front  of  which  ran  the 
Albuera  River ;  the  British  being  in  the  centre, 
with  Blake  and  the  Spaniards  on  the  right. 
During  the  night  of  the  15th  Soult  massed  his 
men  with  a  view  to  carrying  the  table-land 
which  threatened  the  English  right  and  rear, 
and  on  the  morning  of  the  16th  directed 
a  feint  attack  in  front.  Beresford  ordered 
Blake  to  change  front,  to  guard  against  an 
expected  flank  attack  on  the  right,  but  that 
general  for  a  long  time  refused  to  obey 
orders,  and  the  movement  was  only  at 
length  carried  out  by  Beresford  in  person, 
who,  even  when  he  had  changed  the  front  of 
the  Spaniards,  could  scarcely  induce  them  to 
move.'  Beresford  was  already  thinking 
of  retreating,  when  Colonel  Hardinge 
with  the  4th  division,  and  Abercrombie 
with  a  brigade  of  the  '2nd  division,  which 
had  onlj'  been  slightly  engaged,  pushed 
on  to  the  high  ground.     The  crowded  forma- 


tion of  the  French  prevented  them  from 
executing  any  rapid  movement;  and,  in 
spite  of  a  storm  of  grapeshot,  the  British 
infantry  irresistibly  pressed  on  till,  "  slowly 
and  with  a  horrid  carnage,  the  French  were 
pushed  by  the  incessant  vigour  of  the 
attack  to  the  farthest  edge  of  the  hill." 
The  attempt  to  bring  up  reserves  "only 
increased  the  irremediable  confusion ;  and  the 
mighty  mass,  breaking  oft  like  a  loosened 
cliif,  went  headlong  down  the  steep,  and 
1,800  unwounded  men,  the  remnant  of  6,000 
unconquerable  British  soldiers,  stood  trium- 
phant on  the  fatal  hill."  In  four  hours 
nearly  7,000  of  the  allies  and  8,000  French 
had  been  struck  down.  On  the  17th  Soult 
took  up  a  threatening  position,  but  on  the 
arrival  of  British  reinforcements  marched 
away,  and  abandoned  the  attempt  to  relieve 
Badajos. 

There  is  a  striking  account  of  the  battle  iu 
Napier,  Peninsular  War.  [w.  II.  S.] 

Alcantara^  Capture  of  (1706),  was 
effected  by  Lorti  Galway  during  the  War  of 
Succession  in  Spain  (qo^.).  Ho  had  urged  on 
the  Portuguese  troops  the  duty  of  advancing 
on  Madrid  to  co-operate  with  the  troops  of 
the  Archduke  Charles  advancing  from  Bar- 
celona. On  his  way  he  drove  out  a  garrison 
placed  by  Marshal  Berwick  in  Alcantara. 
"  Ten  good  battalions "  of  Berwick's  force 
were  taken,  and  sixty  pieces  of  uumon. 

Alcock,  John  (^.1514),  Bishop  of  Roches- 
ter, Worcester,  and  Ely,  bom  between  1430 
and  1440,  at  Beverley,  in  Yorkshire,  was  ap- 
pointed dean  of  the  chapel  of  St.  Stephen  in 
the  Palace  of  Westminster  in  1462,  and  in 
March,  1470,  acted  as  Edward  IV.'s  envoy  to 
the  King  of  Castile.  After  the  victory  of 
Bamet,  Alcock  was  made  Master  of  the  Rolls, 
which  appointment  he  resigned  in  March, 
1472,  to  John  Morton,  upon  his  own  advance- 
ment to  the  bishopric  of  Rochester.  During 
the  temporary-  ilbiess  of  Bishop  Stillington, 
Alcock  held  the  Great  Seiil  from  20th  Septem- 
ber, 1472,  to  April  5th,  1473 ;  and  in  Septem- 
ber, 1476,  he  was  appointed  to  the  bishopric 
of  Worcester.  During  Richard  III.'s  reign 
his  influence  on  public  affairs  was  very  slight ; 
but  on  the  accession  of  Henry  VII.  he  bwame 
Lord  Chancellor,  in  1485  :  and  in  1486  suc- 
ceeded Morton  as  Bishop  of  Ely.  He  built 
the  beautiful  hall  at  his  episcopal  palace  of 
Ely,  and  Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  which  he 
founded  on  the  site  of  the  old  monastery  of 
St.  Radigunda. 

Fobs,  Judges  of  England,  vol.  v. 

Alderman*  or  Ealdorman,  which  is 

the  more  ancient  form  of  the  word,  means 
simply  elder  man ;  that  is,  one  advanced  in 
years.     It  is  used  in  two  distinct  senses. 

(1)  Among  the  first  English  settlers  the 
title  appears  to  have  meant  simply  chieftain, 
the  position  of  the  ealdorman  corrcHponding 
to    that   of    the   priuceps  of    the   Germanic 


Aid 


(27) 


Aid 


tribes  as  described  by  Tacitos  before  the 
migration,  and  it  continued  to  be  occasionally 
used  vaguely  as  an  equivalent  to  lord  or 
noble ;  but  in  all  public  documents  the  word 
is  evidently  taken  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
chief  magistrate  of  the  shire  or  group  of 
shires,  and  was  not  necessarily  connected 
with  nobility  of  blood,  service,  or  large 
estate.  This  restriction  of  the  title  may  be 
dated  about  the  beginning  of  the  ninth 
centur>-,  in  the  days  of  Egbert.  The 
eal^orman  was,  in  theory,  elected  in  the 
Witenagemot,  but  the  ofBce  became  practi- 
cally hereditary.  As  the  power  of  the 
kingdom  of  Wessex  rose,  and  the  smaller 
kingdoms  were  absorbed  by  it,  the  des- 
cendants of  the  royal  houses  often  became 
hereditary  ealdormen  in  almost  unbroken 
succession;  and  when  their,  lines  became 
extinct,  the  ealdormen  appointed  by  the  king, 
with  the  implied,  if  not  expressed,  consent  of 
the  Witan,  transmitted  the  office  to  their  des- 
cendants. Their  jurisdictions  became  en- 
larged, probably  by  the  aggregation  of  several 
shires  under  one  rule.  The  position  of  the 
great  ealdormen  was  a  high  one ;  they  were 
practically  independent  of  wQak  kings.  Their 
wergild,  the  fine  exacted  from  those  who  killed 
them,  was  equal  to  that  of  the  bishop,  and  four 
times  that  of  the  theyn,  the  king's  being  six 
times.  The  duties  of  the  ealdorman  con- 
Risted  in  administering  the  shire  conjointly 
with  the  sheriff,  who  represented  the  royal 
as  opposed  to  the  national  authority.  He 
commanded  the  military  force  of  the  shire, 
in  which  capacity  he  was  sometimes  called 
heretogay  the  leader  of  the  host  {here) ;  and 
he  sat  with  the  sherifit  and  the  bifliiop  in  the 
shiremoot,  receiving  a  third  of  the  fines  levied 
in  the  jurisdiction.  The  ealdormen  also 
attended  the  central  Witenagemot,  together 
with  the  bishops.  In  Ethelred's  reign  the 
name  ealdorman  begun  to  be  supplanted  by 
the  Danish  title,  earl,  and  this  process  was 
completed  when  Canute  divided  the  kingdom 
into  four  great  earldoms.  From  that  date  the 
title  sank  to  its  earlier  meaning  of  headman, 
and  was  applied  to  almost  any  local  officer. 
Thus,  in  the  thirteenth  century  there  is  an 
ealdorman  of  the  hundred,  who  represents 
his  hundred  in  the  shire  moot.  [^See  also  Eabl  ; 
Sheriff.! 

(2)  Alderman,  in  its  mediaeval  and  modem 
sense,  means  an  official  invested  with  certain 
municipal  powers  and  duties,  and  associated 
with  the  mayor  in  the  government  of  a  city 
or  town  corporate.  The  word  ealdorman, 
or  alderman,  had,  as  has  been  shown,  become 
applied  to  any  headman  or  local  officer,  and 
accordingly,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  we 
find  that  the  headman  of  a  gild  is  called 
alderman.  When,  as  happened  in  some  of 
the  great  towns,  the  English  system  of  a  gild, 
or  trade  corporation,  gradually  lost  its  identity 
in  the  eommuna,  or  municipal  corporation,  the 
presiding  officer  of  which  was  the  mayor,  the 


mayor  and  aldermen  became  associated  in 
the  government  of  the  new  municipalities. 
The  first  mayor  of  London  was  appom.ted  in 
1191,  and  the  institution  of  mayor  and  idder- 
men  in  the  large  towns  was  pretty  general 
by  the  end  of  the  reign  of  John.  The  autho- 
rity of  the  aldermen  was,  at  first,  by  no 
means  secure,  and  throughout  the  reign  of 
Henry  III.  the  populace  of  London  protested 
against  their  claim  to  assess  taxation  and 
elect  the  mayor.  However,  we  find  them,  with 
four  men  from  each  ward,  sending  members  to 
Parliament  in  1297,  and  their  appointments, 
which  were  annual  under  Edward  IL,  were  for 
life  under  Edward  IV .  Under  the  Lancas- 
trian kings,  the  mayor  and  aldennen  are 
associated  with  the  ttnon  councils,  relics  of  the 
earlier  town  government,  which  first  consisted 
of  twenty-four,  and  afterwards  of  larger 
numbers,  and  became  prominent  from  the 
decay  of  the  machinery  of  the  local  courts ; 
the  mayor,  aldermen, and  town  council  forming 
the  elements  of  the  municipal  corporation. 
The  numbers  and  sometimes  the  functions  of 
the  aldermen  were  settled  in  the  charters  of 
incorporation  granted  to  the  towns.  Under 
the  Stuarts,  their  powers  were  frequently 
tampered  with  from  above  by  the  foi^eiture 
and  alteration  of  the  charters  of  incorpora- 
tion, and  the  appointment  of  individual  alder- 
men by  royal  authority ;  while  they  in  turn 
usurped  the  privileges  of  the  burgesses  and 
freemen,  became  self-elective,  and  in  some 
cases  obtained  the  exclusive  right  of  electing 
members  of  Parliament.  Their  electonu 
power,  however,  was  taken  from  them  by  the 
Eeform  Bill,  and  in  1836  the  Municipal 
Reform  Act  and  a  subsequent  Act  in  1859 
did  away  with  the  old  order  of  aldermen 
(except  in  London),  and  enacted  that  their 
successors  were  to  be  elected  for  six  years 
instead  of  for  life,  one-half  of  their  number 
retiring  every  third  year;  and  that  they 
should  form  one-third  of  the  town  councillors, 
who  vary  in  each  borough  from  12  to  48, 
from  whom  and  by  whom  they  were  to  be 
chosen.  The  alderman  is  represented  in  Scot- 
land by  the  bailie ;  in  Irehmd  he  is  elected 
by  the  burgesses.     [See  also  Gild  ;  Town.] 

Stnbbfl,  ConA,  'RiBt,^  chape,  v.,  vi.,  zi.,  xv.  and 
xzi.,  and  Select  Charten;  Falgmve,  The  Bng. 
CommonweaUh ;  Brady,  On  Boroughs;  Mere- 
weather  axid  Stephens,  Hitt  of  Boroughs ;  Grant, 
The  Law  of  Corporatione;  Maitland,  HiiA.  of 
London.  Statutes  1 5  and  6  Will.  IV.,  c.  76; 
and  22  Viet.,  c.  36.  [L.  C.  S.] 

Aldamey.    [Channel  Islands.] 

Aldfirid  (Ealdfrith],  King  of  North- 
umbria  (686 — 705),  was  the  son  of  Oswy,  and 
brother  of  Egfrith,  whom  he  succeeded.  He 
was  well  instructed  in  theology  and  secular 
learning,  and  acquired  the  title  of  "the 
wisest  of  kings.**  His  territory  was  curtailed 
by  the  conquests  of  the  Ficts,  but  on  the 
whole  his  reign  is  said  to  have  been  a  pros- 
perous and  tranquil  one. 


Aid 


(28) 


Ale 


Aldhelm,  or  Adelm,  St.,  Bishop  of 
Sherborne  (b.  eirea  656,  d.  709),  was  bom  in 
Wiltshire,  and  appears  to  have  been  connected 
with  the  family  of  the  West  Saxon  kings. 
Early  in  life  he  was  sent  to  study  in  Kent, 
and  afterwards  joined  the  community  of 
scholars  who  had  studied  under  the  Irish 
hermit,  Meidulf,  at  Malmesbury ;  of  which 
monastery  Aldhelm  became  abbot.  He  after- 
wards made  a  journey  to  Home,  and  took 
part  in  the  dispute  with  the  British  clergy 
about  Easter.  In  705  he  was  made  Bishop  ot 
Sherborne.  Aldhelm's  learning  was  greatly 
celebrated.  He  wrote  in  the  vernacular  as 
well  as  in  Latin,  and  has  been  called  **  the 
father  of  Anglo-Latin  poetry.'*  King  Alfred 
considered  him  as  among  the  best  of  English 
poets.  He  wrote  a  prose  treatise,  De  Laude 
VirginitatU  ;  and  a  poem,  De  Laude  Virffinum; 
some  JEnigmaia  in  verse ;  and  some  letters  to 
Aldfrid  of  Northumbria  and  others. 

Will,  of  Malm«sbtU7.  Vita  AUKdmi ;  in 
Wharton'B  Anglia  Sacra;  Wright,  Bto^raphta 
Brit,  LOf.  i  200,  where  a  list  of  editions  of 
Aldhelm's  works  is  given. 

Aldred  (Ealdrzd),  {d.  1069),  Arch- 
bishop of  York,  was  a  monk  of  Winchester, 
who  became  Abbot  of  Tavistock,  and  in  1046 
Bishop  of  Worcester.  Like  many  of  the 
native  English  prelates  he  travelled  much 
on  the  Continent.  Besides  journeying  to 
Home,  in  1050  he  traversed  Hungary  and 
visited  Jerusalem;  and  subsequently  was 
sent  by  Edward  the  Confessor  on  a  mission 
to  the*  Emperor  Henry  III.  In  1061  he 
became  Ardibishop  of  York,  retaining  the 
see  of  Worcester  in  eommendam.  The  Pope 
refused  to  bestow  the  pallium  on  him  till 
he  gave  up  the  see  of  Worcester.  On  ti^e 
deatii  of  Edward,  Aldred  crowned  Harold ; 
but  on  the  death  of  that  prince  he  submitted 
to  William,  and  in  fact  became  a  strong  sup- 
porter of  the  new  dynasty.  He  performed 
the  coronation  ceremony  lor  the  Conqueror, 
in  default  of  Stigand.  Several  legendary 
tales  are  told  of  the  latter  part  of  his  life, 
among  which  is  the  striking  story  that  he 
cursed  William  for  his  e\'il  deeds,  and  caused 
the  king  to  fall  trembling  at  his  feet. 

William  of  Malmesbury,  D«  GoA.  Potif^.,  154 ; 
T.  Stnbbe,  Ada  Pcntif.  Eboracetu.,  1701 ;  Free- 
man, Norm.  Conq.,  xL  85,  iv.  242,  Ac. 

Ale-Taster^    Ale-Conneb,    or    Alb- 

FouNDEK,  was  an  officer  appointed  formerly  in 
every  manor  and  borough  to  examine  and 
assay  the  beer  and  ale,  and  present  dishonest 
ale- vendors  to  the  next  court-leet  or  borough- 
court.  The  assize  of  bread  and  ale  (pams  et 
eerevisia)f  51  Henry  III.,  regulated  the  selling 
and  insj^ction  of  these  two  chief  articles  of 
food.  The  ale-tasters  were  chosen  and  sworn 
in  the  court-leet  once  a  year.  The  office,  which 
is  of  very  great  antiquity,  still  survives  in  some 
parts  of  England.  It  has  been  thought  to 
owe  its  origin  to  the  convivial  feasts  in  which 


the  business  of  the  primitive  Teutonic  com- 
munities was  largely  transacted. 

Alexander  Z.f  the  Fiebcb,  King  of 

Scotland  («.  1107,  d.  1124),  was  the  son  of 
Malcolm  Canmore  and  Margaret,  and  successor 
to  his  brother  Eadgar,  or  Edgar.  By  Eadgar's 
will  he  obtained  as  his  kingdom  the  lands  north 
of  the  Forth  and  Clyde,  his  brother  David  in- 
heriting Lothian  and  Cumbria.  He  gained  a 
great  victory  on  the  Moray  Firth  over  the 
rebellious  Mjaormars  of  Boss  and  the  Meams, 
and  founded,  in  gratitude,  the  monaster}- 
of  Scone.  An  attempt  to  reconstitute  the 
bishopric  of  St.  Andrews  involved  the  king 
in  dilutes  with  the  Archbishop  of  York  and 
Canterbury,  ending  only  with  his  death,  which 
took  place  at  Stirling,  April,  1124.  He  had 
married  Sybilla,  natural  daughter  of  Henry  I. 
of  England.  With  his  father's  courage  and 
restless  ambition,  he  seems  to  have  inherited 
from  his  mother  a  devotional  feeling  and  a 
taste  for  religious  exercises,  which  were  much 
less  characteristic  of  his  race.  He  inaugurated 
the  feudal  policy  so  thoroughly  carried  out  by 
his  successor,  David. 

Robertson,  Early  Kings  of  SooCkmd;   Skene, 
CtUic  Scotland. 


ZZ.y  King  of  Scotland  {t. 
Dec.  5,  1214,  d.  1249),  was  son  and  successor 
to  William  the  Lion.  The  young  king, 
who  was  on  friendly  terms  with  the 
English  barons,  had  to  maintain  a  border  army 
to  frustrate  the  attacks  of  John  until  1217. 
Carlisle  surrendered  to  the  Scots,  and  the 
Castle  of  Tweedmouth  was  demolished  in 
1217.  In  June,  1221,  Alexander  married 
Joanna,  sister  of  Henry  III.  The  next 
year  Alexander  entered  Argyle,  drove 
out  all  those  who  had  been  engaged  in 
insurrections  against  the  royal  power, 
and  turned  the  whole  district  into  the 
sheriffdom  of  Argyle,  creating  also  the 
bishopric  of  the  same  name.  After  a  struggle 
of  some  years'  duration  he  succeeded  in  1235 
in  finally  bringing  Galloway  into  subjection 
to  the  crown.  The  following  year  Alexander 
refused  to  do  homage  to  the  English  king, 
and  laid  claim  to  the  northern  counties  of 
England;  at  a  conference  between  the  two 
kings,  at  Newcastle,  war  was  only  averted  by 
the  strong  inclination  which  the  Englisn 
barons  showed  for  peace.  In  1244  there  was 
another  rupture  between  the  two  kings, 
and  war  was  imminent ;  but  it  was  averted 
by  the  mediation  of  Richard  of  Cornwall 
and  the  Archbishop  of  York.  In  1248, 
Alexander,  after  trying  to  induce  Haco,  King 
of  Norway,  to  surrender  the  sovereignty  of 
the  isles,  made  an  expedition  to  the  Sudreys. 
Ho  died,  however,  before  accomplishing  his 
object,  near  Oban,  July  8,  1249,  and  was 
buried  at  Melrose.  He  married,  as  his  second 
wife,  Mary,  daughter  of  Enguerrand  de  Concur. 
Ho  had  been  a  good  king,  noted  for  his 
moderation  and  jiutice,  bent  on  the  improve- 


Al0 


(29) 


Ale 


ment  of  his  subjects  and  the  consolidation  of 
the  various  discordant  elements  in  his  king- 
dom. Sir  David  Dalrymple  calls  him  **  one 
of  the  wisest  princes  that  ever  reigned  over 
Scotland." 

8j0  the  SooUchrouiccn,  edited  br  Mr.  Skene  ; 
DaJrjrmple,  Anndl$  of  Scotland ;  Bobertaon,  Early 
King$  oj  Sootland  ;  Skene,  Ctifiic  SooHoMd  ;  Burton, 
Rid.  of  ScoiXand. 

Alexander  ZZZ.,  King  of  Scotland 
{b,  1241,  9.  1249,  d,  1285),  was  the  son  of 
Alexander  II.  and  Mary  de  Coucy.  In  1251,  in 
accordance  with  the  terms  of  tiie  Treaty  of 
Newcastle,  he  was  married  to  his  cousin 
Margaret,  daughter  of  Henry  III.  In  1255, 
Henry  procured  the  appointment  of  the  Earl 
of  Dunbar,  who  was  &vourable  to  his  in- 
terests, as  regent  in  the  place  of  the  EUirl  of 
Menteith,  who,  however,  recovered  his  power. 
In  1263  a  war  broke  out  between  Alexander 
and  Haco  of  Norway,  for  possession  of  the 
Sudreys  and  the  Norse  districts  on  the  main- 
land, which  ended  in  the  ^'ictory  of  the  Scots 
at  Largs  (q.v.),  and  the  consequent  annexa- 
tion of  the  Isles  to  Scotland,  1266.  In  1274 
Alexander  and  his  queen  were  present  at 
Edward  I.'s  coronation;  and  in  1278  the 
Scotch  king  did  homage  to  his  brother-in-law 
at  Westminster,  for  lands  held  in  England. 
On  the  death  of  his  second  son,  Alexander, 
January,  1284,  the  king,  left  childless,  sum- 
moned a  meeting  of  die  Estates  at  Scone, 
and  caused  them  to  recognise  his  grand- 
daughter, Margaret,  the  Maid  of  Norway, 
as  their  future  sovereign.  Shortly  after- 
wards he  married  Yolande,  daughter  of 
the  Count  of  Dreux,  but  died  owing  to  a  fall 
from  his  horse,  near  Kinghom,  in  March, 
1285.  "To  judge  from  the  events  of  his 
reign,'*  says  Mr.  Robertson,  *'he  was  an  able, 
upright,  and  high-spirited  sovereign. 

Seotiehronioon;  Robertson,  JSorly  ftn^t  of 
Sootland  ;  Bnrton,  BiA.  of  Sootlamd. 

AlezaadeTy  Bishop  of  Lincoln  (<f.  1147), 
was  one  of  the  family  group  of  episcopal 
statesmen  of  Stephen's  reign,  of  whidi  Alex- 
ander's uncle,  the  Justiciar,  Roger,  Bishop 
of  Salisbury,  was  the  head.  By  his  in- 
fluence he  was  advanced  to  the  see  of  Lin- 
coln, and  probably  also  held  some  ofSce  in 
the  royal  court.  He  was  one  of  the  bishops 
arrested  by  Stephen  in  1139,  and  was  kept  m 
prison  some  considerable  time.  After  his 
release  he  retired  from  political  life,  and  was 
appointed  Papal  legate  in  England.  Henry 
of  Huntingdon  dedicated  his  history  to 
Alexander,  and  speaks  of  him  in  terms  of  the 
highest  praise.  He  began  the  erection  of  the 
present  cathedral  of  Lincoln,  to  replace  the 
former  one,  which  was  destroyed  by  fire. 

HesTT  of  Huntingdon,  Huforia ;  Panli,  JShig. 
Q-chicldti  Stnbbe,  Omti.  Hut. 


Pkincbss  of  Wales  (A. 
Dec.  1, 1844),  the  eldest  daughter  of  Christian 
IX.,  King  of  Denmark,  was  married  to  Albert 


Edward,  Prince  of   Wales,  on  the   IQth  of 
March,  1863. 

f^^^^tLrtArntk^  Battlb  OF  (21st  March, 
1801),  was  fought  by  the  British  force  under 
Sir  Ralph  Abercromby,  which  had  been  sent 
out  to  complete  the  destruction  of  the  dimi- 
nished remnant  of  Bonaparte's  army  after  he 
had  effected  a  landing  in  Aboukir  Bay,  in  the 
face  of  a  large  Ii^ench  force,  on  the  Ist  of 
March.  During  the  next  three  weeks  the 
French  gradually  fell  back  before  the  British, 
till  they  retired  into  Alexandria.  Aber- 
cromby now.  stationed  himself  to  the  cast  of 
Alexandria,  with  his  right  resting  on  some 
Roman  ruins  on  the  sea-shore,  and  his  left  on 
the  Lake  Mayadieh.  Early  on  the  2 Ist  the 
French  infantry  attacked  simultaneously  both 
flanks,  though  the  serious  attack  was  on  the 
right,  where  all  the  French  cavalry  were 
launched  upon  the  English.  The  attack 
was  resistea  by  Moore's  division  with  stub- 
bom  bravery,  until  Abercromby  ordered  the 
reserve  to  charge.  It  obeyed,  threw  the 
French  into  confusion,  and  hurled  them  back 
to  their  own  lines.  Meanwhile  the  attack  on 
the  left  had  proved  to  be  merely  a  feint,  and 
a  real  attack  on  the  centre  had  Deen  repulsed 
by  the  Guards.  The  British  loss  was  heavy, 
and  Sir  Ralph  Abox^romby  felL  Deprived 
of  its  general,  the  army  was  handled 
with  an  excess  of  caution  which  precluded 
any  brilliant  successes,  but  finally  resultM 
in  the  capitulation  of  the  French  army. 
Alison,  Uitt.  of  Europe, 


BOMBA&DMBNT    OF     (1882). 

In  May,  1882,  owing  to  the  disturbed  state  of 
Egypt,  where  the  so-called  "  National  Party," 
under  Arabi  Pasha,  had  obtained  a  complete 
control  of  the  government,  and  seemed  oent 
on  dethroning  the  Khedive,  an  English  and 
French  fieet  was  ordered  to  enter  the  harbour 
of  Alexandria.  An  attempt  of  the  Khedive 
to  diKmiwa  Arabi  failed,  and  the  rebellious 
leaders  remained  masters  of  the  situation. 
On  June  11th  a  fanatical  outbreak  of  the 
Mussulman  population  of  Alexandria  oc- 
curred, and  several  hundreds  of  Europeans, 
including  an  officer  of  the  fieet  and  the 
British  consul,  were  killed  or  injured.  The 
fortifications  of  Alexandria  were  being  con- 
stantly strengthened,  till  they  menaced  the 
safety  of  the  British  fieet.  The  English  admiral. 
Sir  Beauchamp  Seymour,  demanded  that  thef^e 
works  should  be  oiscontinued ;  and  on  July 
6th  threatened  to  bombard  the  forts  if  the 
demand  was  not  complied  with.  On  the  9th 
and  10th  the  foreign  ^ips,  including  those  of 
France,  steamed  out  of  the  harbour.  The 
English  fieet,  consisting  of  eight  ironclads 
and  five  gunboate,  opened  fire  at  seven  o'clock 
on  the  morning  of  July  1 1th.  By  the  evening 
of  the  12th  the  forts  had  been  completely  des- 
troyed and  the  town  abandoned  by  its  garrison, 
after  being  set  on  fire  in  several  places.^  The 
loss  of  the  English  in  the  action  was  trifiing. 


▲If 


(  30) 


▲If 


though  the  Eg3rptiaii8  fought  with  bravery. 

Sir  Beauchamp  Seymour  was  raised  to  the 

peerage  under  the  title  of  Lord  Alcester. 

Annual  B$gifter,  1883:    Hidory  of  the  Tear, 
1881—2. 

Alfordy  Battle  op  (May,  1645),  was 
a  skirmish  fought  in  Aberdeenshire  between 
Montrose,  at  the  head  of  the  Cavaliers,  and 
the  Covenanters  under  Hurry  and  Baillie. 
The  latter  were  defeated. 

Alfred  (fi.  849  P  d.  901),  called  in  his 
own  times  Mlvued  ^thelwufino,  in  later, 
Alfred  the  Great  ;  King  of  the  West-Saxons 
between  871  and  901,  was  bom  at  *'the  royal 
town  that  is  called  Wanating*'  (Wantage), 
in  Berkshire.  The  date  usually  given  on  the 
authority  of  Asser  is  849.  But  an  earlier 
date,  842  or  843,  for  his  birth  would  remove 
at  least  one  difficulty  in  the  story  of  his  life, 
without  raising,  so  far  as  the  present  writer 
can  judge,  any  others  that  cannot  be  ex- 
plained. He  was  the  youngest  son  of  King 
Ethelwulf  and  his  wife,  the  Lady  Osburgh, 
and  the  grandson  of  Egbert,  and  of  Oslac,  the 
pinceifia,  or  cup-bearer,  of  Ethelwulf. 

We  are  told  nothing  of  Alfred^s  childhood, 
and  but  little  of  his  boyhood.  In  863,  says 
the  Chronicle,  his  father  sent  him  to  Rome, 
when  Leo  (IV.)  was  Pope ;  and  the  Pope  there 
consecrated  him  king,  and  took  him  as  his 
spiritual  son.  The  well-known  account  given 
in  Asser  of  the  way  in  which  his  lifelong  love 
of  letters  was  first  kindled  is  now  looked  upon 
with  considerable  doubt.  There  is  certainly 
more  than  one  fatal  objection  to  it,  on  the 
supposition  that  Alfred  was  bom  as  late  as 
849.  In  861  his  mother  had  been  dead  at 
least  six  years ;  his  father,  who  had  taken  as 
second  wife  a  girl  not  much  older  than  Alfred 
himself,  and  his  eldest  brother,  who  had 
married  this  same  girl  on  her  widowhood, 
were  also  dead,  and  another  brother  was  king 
in  the  elder's  place;  but  if  we  can  bring 
ourselves  to  believe  the  date  of  Alfred's  birth, 
as  now  printed,  a  blunder  for  an  earlier,  we 
can  safely  acquiesce  in  the  literal  truth  of  the 
beautiful  story. 

When  we  add  to  these  scraps  of  information 
the  facts  that  he  lost  his  mother  about  855, 
and  his  father  in  858,  we  possess  all  that  can 
be  received  as  certain  or  admissible  know- 
ledge respecting  his  youth.  The  story  that 
he  went  again  to  Rome,  as  his  father's  com- 
panion, in  855,  is  discredited  by  the  silence  of 
the  Chronicle  on  the  subj  ect  In  868  he  married 
Alcswith«  the  daughter  of  Ethelred,  sur- 
named  Mickle  (the  Big),  Earl  of  the  Gainas, 
in  Lincolnshire.  If  Asset's  Zifi  speaks  the 
truth,  the  wedding  festivities  were  not  yet 
over  when  he  was  seized  by  a  malady  of  so 
strange  and  mysterious  a  nature  that  the 
simple  folk  of  the  time  suspected  it  to  be  the 
work  of  the  devil.  This  would  seem  to  have 
been  some  peculiar  form  of  nervous  disease. 
Its  most  painful  feature  was  its  periodic  re- 
currence ;  it  sometimes  came  upon  him  with- 


out a  minute's  warning,  and  paralysed  his 
powers  on  occasions  that  demanded  their 
fullest  exercise.  In  the  same  year,  within 
a  few  weeks,  perhaps,  he  was  called  upon 
to  face,  for  the  first  time,  what  proved  to 
be  the  one  mighty  task  of  his  Ufe.  The 
Danes  had  fallen  upon  the  land  of  the  Mer- 
cians. Burghred,  the  Mercian  king,  cried  to 
his  brother-in-law  and  over-lord,  Ethelred, 
King  of  the  West-Saxons,  for  help.  His  cry 
was  heard,  and  Alfred  went  with  his  brother 
to  the  siege  of  Nottingham,  where  the  Danes 
were  lying.  Nottingham  was  won  back,  not 
by  force,  but  by  a  treaty — ^which  probably 
meant  a  bargain  that  gave  the  English  a 
breathing-space,  and  the  Dunes  a  fair  profit 
on  their  adventure. 

Three  years  later  (871)  Alfred  was  sum- 
moned to  grapple  with  the  work  he  was  bom 
to  accomplish,  in  deadly  earnest ;  and,  as  if 
to  bring  hiin  to  the  fulfilment  of  his  destiny, 
his  elder  brothers  were  rapidly  dving  off.  In 
860  the  West-Saxon  king^ip  hacl  passed  from 
Ethelbald  to  Ethelbert,  whose  death  in  865 
had  given  the  crown  to  Ethelred,  and  thus 
placed  Alfred  on  the  ver^*^  steps  of  the  throne. 
After  the  peace  of  Nottingham  the  invaders 
had  gone  back  to  York,  stayed  there  a  year, 
and  then  (870)  had  marched  southward, 
seized  on  Thetford,  and  beaten  in  battle  and 
slain  Edmund,  the  East-Anglian  king.  Very 
early  nextyear  (871)  they  burst  into  Wessex 
itself.  *;The  destroying  host"  laid  hold 
on  Reading,  secured  their  position  there, 
and  proceeded  straightwav  to  carry  on  from 
thence  their  work  of  plunder  and  havoc.  To- 
wards Reading  the  men  of  Wessex  at  once 
hastened,  under  the  command  of  King  Ethel- 
red, of  Alfred,  and  of  Ethelwulf,  the  alder- 
man; and  a  furious  strife  ensued,  which 
lasted  throughout  the  year.  Fight  followed 
fight  in  quick  succession.  Victorious  under 
Ethelwulf  at  Englefield  the  West-Saxons 
were,  a  few  days  later,  bafiled  at  Read- 
ing, though  led  by  their  king  and  his 
brother  in  person ;  and  after  great  slaughter 
had  to  fall  back,  leaving  the  field  of  carnage 
in  the  possession  of  their  enemies.  Foiled 
for  the  moment,  but  with  counige  still  un- 
shaken, the  royal  brothers,  four  days  after- 
wards, closed  with  the  whole  army  of  the 
Danes  at  Ashdown.  Here  took  place  one  of 
the  most  stubborn  tugs  of  war  in  histor}'. 
[AsHDOiR'N.]  To  Alfred  the  chief  glorj' 
of  the  victory  of  the  West-Saxons  is  given 
by  Asser,  whose  book  tells  us  that  it  was  his 
early  advance  to  the  attack,  while  his  brother 
lingered  at  mass,  that  broke  the  strength  of 
the  enemy,  and  led  to  their  utter  discomfiture 
in  the  end.  Yet  this  splendid  success  was 
indecisive.  In  an  engagement  at  Basing  that 
followed  a  fortnight  later,  *'the  Danes  got 
the  "victory  "  over  the  winners  of  Ashdown  ; 
and  in  two  months  more,  at  Merton,  the 
West-Saxons,  after  a  stubborn  conflict,  had 
to  withdraw  from  the  field. 


Alf 


(31  ) 


Alf 


At  Easter  Ethelred  died;  and  Alfred  was 
made  king.  In  another  month  he  was  again  at 
handgrips  with  his  dogged  foes — ^this  time  at 
Wilton — and  was  again  beaten.  Thus  Alfred's 
reign  began  with  defeat.  He  now  either  lost 
heart,  or  concluded  that  further  fighting  was 
useless ;  for  in  a  short  time  he  came  to  terms 
— perhaps  struck  a  bargain — ^with  the  men 
he  had  failed  to  overcome;  and  early  next 
year  the  Danes  marched  away  from  his 
kingdom. 

If  it  was  his  design  to  gain  time  to  repair 
his  strength,  he  was  wise  to  make  peace. 
After  871  the  land  had  entire  rest  for  four 
years,  and  comparative  rest  for  three  more, 
though  other  parts  of  England  were  smarting 
under  the  rapacity  and  ferocity  of  the  merci- 
less strangers.  Some  use  of  this  respite  the 
king  must  have  made:  he  is  recorded  as 
ha\'ing,  in  875,  attacked  and  put  to  flight 
seven  Danish  ships.  During  the  next  and 
following  years  (876 — 877)  he  was  also  strong 
enough  to  force  a  treaty  upon  a  powerful 
force  that  had  landed  in  Dorset,  and  exact 
oaths  and  hostages  from  them.  He  found  it 
no  easy  matter  to  get  rid  altogether  of  the 
intruders ;  but  in  the  autumn  of  877  they  at 
length  sailed  away  from  Exeter  to  the  land  of 
the  Mercians.  But  this  deliverance  almost 
brought  his  kingdom  to  the  brink  of  ruin. 
In  the  first  week  of  878  the  Danish  army 
stole  up  from  Gloucester,  and,  coming  upon 
the  West-Saxons  unawares,  seized  Chippen- 
ham. The  surprise  was  complete;  so 
sudden  and  so  swift  was  the  movement, 
that  they  had  ridden  over  and  taken  to 
themselves  the  greater  part  of  the  kingdom 
before  a  sufiScient  force  could  be  brought 
together  to  make  head  against  them  at  any 
point.  Many  people  fled  beyond  the  sea; 
Alfred  alone  refused  to  despair ;  **  uneasily, 
with  a  little  band  of  warriors,  he  went  along 
the  woods,  and  into  the  moor-fastnesses." 
In  one  of  these  he  at  last  halted,  and  began, 
with  the  faithful  few  that  followed  him,  to 
throw  up  a  defenaive  work — thrice-famous 
ever  since  as  Athelney,  the  Isle  of  Nobles, 
called  so,  no  doubt,  from  the  trusty  handful 
of  high-bom  men  that  plied  the  mattock 
around  the  king.  It  covers  a  few  acres  a 
little  south  of  Sedgmoor,  in  Somerset.  To 
its  narrow  compass  the  last  English  kingdom 
had  shrunk. 

But  it  was  a  brief  agony,  after  all.  The 
Dunes  would  seem  to  have  been  drawing 
their  toils  round  Athelney;  they  threw  a 
considerable  detachment  on  the  neighbouring 
coast,  which  was  beaten  with  groat  loss,  and 
Alfred  was  untiring  in  his  assaults  upon 
them  from  his  stronghold.  The  country 
recovered  from  its  surprise,  and,  some  weeks 
after  Easter,  Alfred  quitted  Athelney, 
and  met  the  levies  of  the  three  shires  at 
Egbertstone,  on  the  eastern  skirts  of  Selwood 
Forest.  With  these  he  went  straight  upon 
the  enemy,  met  them  at  £idington  (a  puce 


that,  like  Egbertstone,  has  not  been  identifled 
with  certainty),  overthrew  their  host,  and 
chased  its  wrecks  into  their  fortress.  A 
siege  of  fourteen  days  ended  in  the  Danes 
engaging  to  withdraw  from  Wessex,  and 
their  king,  Guthorm,  consenting  to  become  a 
Christian.  These  pledges  were  punctually 
kept.  At  AUer  the  baptismal  ceremonies 
were  begun;  at  Wedmore  they  were  com- 
pleted; and  soon  after,  the  army  of  the  in- 
vaders marched  away  from  Chippenham. 
Thus  was  Wessex  snatched  from  destruction, 
and,  with  Wessex,  the  destiny  of  the  English 
race.  Never,  perhaps,  had  a  nationality  come 
so  near,  and  yet  escaped,  extinction. 

The  next  fifteen  years  (878—893)  may  be 
called  a  time  of  peace  for  Alfred  and  his 
people.  During  them  the  flame  of  war  left 
the  ancient  kingdom  untouched ;  such  fitful 
bursts  of  fighting  as  broke  the  general  still- 
ness either  fell  upon  the  outlying  districts,  as 
Kent  and  Surroy,  or  had  the  sea  as  their 
scene  of  action ;  and  the  king  was  success- 
ful in  all.  But  to  these  years  almost 
certainly  belong  the  great  measuros  that 
make  the  second  half  of  England^s  debt  to 
Alfred — ^the  e&cement  of  the  ravages  of  war, 
the  restoration  of  material  prosperity,  the 
re-invigoration  of  the  national  defences,  the 
improvement  of  the  laws,  the  rokindling  of 
roligion,  the  "relighting  of  the  lamp  of 
learning."  The  first  two  of  the  above 
objects  he  tried  to  effect  by  repairing  the 
damage  done  to  towns  and  cities,  raising 
public  buildings,  reclaiming  waste  lands,  and 
making  or  renewing  roads  and  bridges,  Our 
knowledge  of  the  third  is  vague ;  but  to  the 
f'/rd,  or  levy  ett  masse,  of  the  people,  he  sought 
to  give  greater  rapidity  and  flexibility  of 
movement :  and  he  reformed  the  naval  s^'stem 
by  making  the  ships  themselves  instruments 
of  war,  not  mere  platforms  for  fighting  from. 
As  a  leg^isktor,  he  added  nothing  to  existing 
laws,  but  simply  reWsed  those  of  his  prede- 
cessors, keeping  "  those  that  seemed  to  him 
good,'*  reiecting  "  those  that  seemed  to  him 
not  good, '  and  combining  the  former  into  a 
single  code.  Religion  and  letters  had  sunk 
so  low  among  the  West-Saxons  that  he  had 
to  seek  the  agents  of  their  regeneration  in 
foreign  lands.  From  Wales  he  drew  Asser ; 
from  Mercia,  Werfrith  and  Plegmund  ;  Grim- 
bald  and  John  the  Old  Saxon  from  the  Con- 
tinent ;  and  with  their  help  reanimated  the 
services  of  the  Chureh,  founded  schools,  and 
encouraged  literary  composition  in  the  native 
tongue.  At  this  last  he  was  himself  a  diligent 
worker,  as  translations  (that  are  not  mere 
translations)  of  large  portions  of  the  writings 
of  Boethius,  Orosius,  Bede,  and  Gregory  the 
Great  still  survive  to  prove.  Men  in  later 
times  loved  to  dwell  on  this  feature  of  his 
career;  in  a  medisD^al  list  of  West-Saxon 
kings,  his  name  is  specially  distinguished  as 
"  litteratus."  But  in  893*the  dogs  of  war 
were  again  let  slip  on  his  kingdom,  and  the 


Alf 


(82) 


Alff 


old  hideous  scenes  of  pillage,  slaughter,  and 
havoc  were  renewed.  The  chief  leader  of 
these  fresh  swarm  of  marauders  was  the 
terrible  Hasting^.  For  four  years  he  dragged 
Alfred  up  and  down,  across  and  along,  the 
country,  making  treaties  and  breaking  them, 
getting  again  and  again  beaten,  both  by  land 
and  by  sea,  but  recovering  himself  after  every 
defeat  and  refusing  to  be  driven  from  the 
land.  The  value  of  the  king's  military 
roforms  was  thus  effectually  tested ;  and  they 
may  be  said  to  have  fairly  stood  the  strain. 
In  every  recorded  encounter— as  at  Famham, 
Benfleet,  Butting^n — ^the  West-Saxons  over- 
threw their  foes.  The  upshot  at  length  was 
that  the  Danes,  beaten,  out-generalled,  and 
checked  at  every  turn,  got  weary  of  an  un- 
profitable enterprise,  broke  up  into  several 
bands,  and  went  off  in  different  directions, 
leaving  Wessex  at  peace.  The  heroic  king's 
work  was  now  done.  *'  Six  nights  before 
Allhallowmas,"  in  the  year  901,  he  died. 

Alfred  is  one  of  the  few  historical  charac- 
ters that  all  writers  delight  to  honour ;  almost 
with  one  consent  historians  have  pronounced 
that  he  comes  pretty  nearly  as  close  to  per- 
fection as  a  man  and  a  king  as  any  ruler  of 
whom  there  is  record.  This  verdict  may  be 
accepted  as  final ;  it  is  certainly  not  likely  to 
be  ever  successfully  impeached.  To  his  good- 
ness, nobility  of  character,  moral  greatness, 
heroism,  his  whole  life  is  a  testimony.  Alfred 
the  Good  and  Steadfast  he  assuredly  was; 
and  if  it  may  be  plausibly  hinted  that  he 
was  a  little  lacking  in  the  sagacity,  originality, 
forecast,  and  efficient  provision  for  the  future, 
without  which  no  human  greatness  is  com- 
plete, it  may  yet  be  pleaded  that  such  a  rare 
combination  of  moral  and  intellectual  excel- 
lence amply  justified  the  writers  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  in  styling  him  Alfked  the 
Great. 

The  Anglo-SocoA  ChronicU^  the  only  really 
trustworthy  authority.  AsBerins,  d«  Jt«biM 
Gfestts  JElfredif  from  whom  all  biographies  of 
Alfred  are  in  large  part  drawn,  of  disputed 
authenticity,  at  best  containing  bat  a  kernel  of 
original  matter  [tee  the  art.  Assbb]  ;  Alfred's 
Laws,  in  Thorpe's  Collection;  and  Alfred's 
Works.  No  collected  edition  of  these  exists; 
but  the  Preface  to  8t.  Qregory's  Fastorale  has 
been  three  times  published  (hy  Archbishop 
Parker  in  1574,  hj  Oamden  in  1603,  by  Wise  in 
1722) ;  the  translation  from  Bade  twice  (at  Cam- 
bridge, in  1643  and  1722) ;  the  translation  from 
BoHIUus  twice  (at  Ozfoid  in  1096,  and  at  London 
in  1829)  i  Alfred's  WiU  twice  (at  Oxford  in  1788, 
and  at  London  in  1828;  his  translation  from 
OroriuB  once  (at  London  in  1773) ;  and  of  the 
Jf«tr«8  of  Boeifciuf  once  (at  London  in  1836). 
There  is  a  Ltfe  of  Alfred  the  Great  by  Dr.  B. 
Fauli  (translated  by  Wright,  London,  1852). 

[J.  R.] 

Alfred    (or  Aluhed)   of  Bevarlo]^, 

Treasurer  of  the  Church  of  Beverley  in  the 
first  half  of  the  twelfth  century,  wrote  nine 
books  of  Annates^  which  were  first  printed  by 
Heame,  in  1716.  A  very  large  part  of 
Alfred's  work  is  mere  compilation  from 
Geffrey  of  Monmouth  and  Henry  of  Hunt- 


ingdon. It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  he 
must  have  written  at  least  as  late  as  the 
year  1138 — 9,  about  which  time  the  British 
History  of  Geoffrey  is  supposed  to  have 
appeaiidd,  and  that  the  dates  usually  given 
for  his  death  (1126  or  1136)  are  erroneous. 
It  is  probable  that  the  Antuiles  were  written 
about  1143. 

Hardy,  Descriptive  Catalogue  of  Jfotmob,  ii. 

178  (Roils  Series);    Wright,  BiograpMa,  Bri,. 

Ltt^raria,  ii.  157. 

Alficic  (^LFRic),  sumamed  Abba^  and 
GrammatieM,  was  an  ecclesiastic  of  the  tenth 
century,  and  the  writer  of  numerous  works 
in  Anglo-Saxon.  Ho  received  his  early  edu- 
cation from  a  secular  or  *' mass-priest.*'  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Ethelwold  at  Winchester, 
and  he  became  Abbot  of  Evesham.  Jiillfric's 
works,  which  include  a  grammar,  a  number  of 
sermons,  a  treatise  on  astronomy  {see  Wright, 
Popular  I'reatises  on  Science  during  the  Middle 
Ages),  and  some  Canons,  are  interesting  to 
the  student  of  Anglo-Saxon  literature,  and 
have  considerable  importance  as  regards  the 
state  of  tJie  English  Church  in  the  tenth 
century  both  as  to  doctrine  and  discipline. 
The  writer  has  often  been  confused  with 
another  Alfric  or  JElpkic,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  who  died  during  the  closing 
years  of  the  tenth  century. 

Wharton,  D*  Duobiu  B^ricU  in  Anglia  Sacra, 
▼oL  i. ;  ^orpe,  Analecta. 

Alfred  (JSlfred)  the  Etheling  (d. 

1036  P),  was  the  son  of  Ethelred  II.  and 
Emma.  On  the  death  of  his  father  ho  fled 
to  Normandy,  where,  together  with  his 
brother  Edwud  (the  Confessor),  he  seems  to 
have  remained  till  the  reign  of  Harold,  1036, 
when,  either  alone  or  accompanied  by  Edward, 
he  made  an  expedition  to  England  for  the 
purpose  of  obtaining  the  crown.  He  was 
entrapped,  together  with  his  Norman  fol- 
lowers, by  means  of  an  ambuscade  near 
Guildford,  and  conveyed  to  the  monastery  of 
Ely  ;  by  the  orders  of  Harold,  he  was  either 
blinded  and  died  of  the  pain,  or  was  actually 
murdered.  The  question  whether  Godwine 
had  any  share  in  this  is  a  vexed  one,  but  it  is 
certain  that  he  was  at  the  time  suspected  of 
being  an  accomplice ;  and  it  was  also  sus- 
pected that  Emma  was  privy  to  the  treachery 
and  violence  which  brought  about  the  end  of 
Alfred,  in  order  that  the  crown  might  be 
assured  to  his  half-brother  Harthaknut. 

Vita  Edward.  Con/emor.  in  Twysden,  Hi'rf. 
Anglic.  Scriptoree  decern;  Ang.  Sax.  ChronitHe; 
Turner,  Anglo-Saxons;  Freeman,  Norman  Con- 
<iuest  i  and  the  art.  in  the  UMb.  of  Nat,  Biog, 

Alnr  (JElfoar)  {d.  1062  ?),  was  the  son 
of  EafI  Leofric,  and  the  father  of  Edwin  and 
Morkere.  We  first  hear  of  him  in  1061, 
when,  on  the  triumph  of  the  Norman  party 
and  outlawry'  of  Harold,  he  received  the 
earldom  of  East-Anglia.  On  Harold*s  re- 
turn in  the  next  year,  Algar  appears  to  have 
quietly  resigned  it  to  him,  to  resume  it  again 


Alg 


(33) 


AU 


in  1053,  on  the  translation  of  Harold  to 
Wessex.  In  1055  Algar  was  banished.  The 
reason  for  this  treatment  is  doubtful ;  but  he 
soon  showed  his  unscrupulous  and  treacherous 
disposition  by  allying  with  Gruffj'dd  of  Wales, 
and  ravaging  Herefordshire.  Harold  was 
sent  against  them,  and  peace  was  quickly 
made,  one  of  the  conditions  being  that  Algar 
should  be  restored  to  his  earldom.  In 
1057,  on  his  father's  death,  he  succeeded 
to  the  earldom  of  Mercia.  Outlawed  again 
in  1058,  he  was  once  more  restored  to  his 
earldom,  and  seems  to  have  spent  the  latter 
years  of  his  life  in  peace  and  good  works. 
[Hakold.] 

Freeouui,  Norm.  Conq.,  ii.  161,  Ac 

AlgiarSy  Bombardment  of  (1816),  was 
conducted  by  the  English  fleet  in  conse- 
quence of  the  ravages  made  by  the  Algerine 
pirates  on  the  commerce  and  coasts  of  the 
Slediterranean.  The  work  was  entrusted  to 
Lord  Exmouth,  who  at  first  attempted  by 
negotiations  to  unite  the  states  of  Barbary  in 
an  effort  to  suppress  the  pirates.  In  May, 
1816,  while  Exmouth  was  absent  in  England, 
pending  the  result  of  his  negotiations,  2,000 
Algerine  troops  attacked  the  Italian  coral- 
fishers,  who  were  attending  mass  under  the 
protection  of  the  British  flag,  and  massacred 
the  whole  of  them.  Exmouth  at  once  set 
sail,  ,with  a  force  of  five  ships  of  the  line, 
five  frigates,  and  some  bomb-vessels.  At 
Gibraltar  Lord  Exmouth  received  a  rein- 
forcement from  the  Dutch  admiral,  Capellen, 
who  desired  to  be  allowed  to  join  in  the  siege. 
On  the  27th  of  August  the  fleet  reached 
Algiers,  and  a  messenger  was  at  once  de- 
spatched with  an  ultimatum  to  the  Bey. 
This  the  Dey  refused  to  receive,  and  Lord 
Exmouth,  at  once  leading  the  way  towards  the 
harbour,  anchored  as  close  as  possible  to  the 
mole,  and  opened  fire.  The  ba&le  lasted  from 
two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  till  ten  o'clock, 
when,  the  batteries  having  been  nearly  all 
silenced,  and  fearful  destruction  wrought  in 
the  town,  the  British  fleet  ceased  firing.  Next 
day  Lord  Exmouth  sent  off  a  despatch,  offer- 
ing the  Dey  peace  on  the  conditions  of  t^e 
ultimatum.  The  chief  of  these  related  to  the 
abolition  of  the  slave-trade  for  the  future,  and 
the  immediate  restitution  of  all  Christian 
slaves  without  ransom.  The  conditions  were 
immediately  agreed  to. 

iinnual  Rtgiater,  1816;    S.  Walpole,  BitL  of 
Eng.  from  1816, 

Alien  Priories.    [Monasticism.] 
Alienation  of  Land.    [Land,  Tektbe 

OF.] 

Aliens.  By  our  Common  Law,  nation- 
ality depends  on  the  place  of  birth.  Every 
one  bom  in  a  land  not  subject  to  the  sove- 
reign of  this  country  was  an  alien.  Jews 
also,  though  bom  in  this  kingdom,  were 
regarded  in  the  same  light.    [Jews.]    This 

H»T.~2 


doctrine  has  been  modified  by  statute.  By 
26  Ed.  III.,  St.  2,  all,  whose  father  and 
mother  at  the  time  of  their  birth  were  in 
allegiance  [Allegiance],  were  so  far  to  be 
held  natural-bom  subjects  as  to  be  capable 
of  inheritance.  And  it  was  held  that  the 
nationality  of  the  mother  mattered  not,  if 
her  husband  was  a  British  subject.  Aliens 
could  become  subjects  bv  denization,  which 
conferred  a  kind  of  middle  state  between  a 
natural-bom  subject  and  an  alien.  This 
position  was  sometimes  obtained  {temp.  Hen. 
VUI.)  by  Act  of  Parliament,  but  as  a  rule 
by  letters  patent.  Naturalisation  was  ob- 
tained only  through  Parliament  until  the 
reign  of  Queen  Victoria.  All  children  bom 
in  Scotland  after  the  accession  of  James  I. 
to  tiie  throne  of  England  {post-nati)  were 
held,  by  the  dedaion  in  Calvin's  case,  to^ 
be  natural -bom  subjects  of  England. 
[Post-Nati.]  In  the  same  reign  it  was 
determined  (7  Jas.  I.,  c.  2)  that  no  alien 
should  be  naturaHsed  until  he  had  taken 
the  oaths  of  supremacy  and  allegiance,  and 
conformed  to  tide  sacramental  test.  From 
a  desire  to  strengthen  the  Protestant  interest, 
an  Act  was  passed  (7  Anne,  c.  6),  naturalising 
all  Ptotestant  residents  on  their  taking  the 
oaths,  &c.,  and  declaring  the  children  of  all 
natuiul-bom  British  subjects  to  be  natural- 
bom.  This  statute  was  repealed,  as  regards 
its  earlier  provision,  shortly  afterwards. 
Seven  years'  residence  in  the  American 
colonies  ¥ras  made  (13  Geo.  II.,  c.  7)  to  confer 
naturaHsation  on  a  Protestant  alien.  During 
the  war  consequent  on  the  French  Kevolution,. 
various  statutes  were  passed,  as  33  Geo.  III., 
c.  4,  placing  aliens  under  supervision,  and 
giving  the  Secretary  of  State  power  to  remove 
Uiem,  if  suspected,  out  of  the  kingdom.  The 
demand  of  me  First  Consul,  in  1802,  for  the 
expulsion  of  the  French  emigrants  was  one  of 
the  causes  which  led  to  a  renewal  of  the  war. 
The  7  and  8  Vict.,  c.  66,  allowed  naturalisa- 
tion to  be  conferred  by  the  certificate  of  a 
Secretary  of  State.  By  the  Naturalisation- 
Act  (33  and  34  Vict.,  c.  14),  a  woman,  who 
has  become  an  alien  by  a  foreign  marriage, 
may,  after  her  husband's  death,  be  re-admitted 
to  nationality,  in  this  case  her  children, 
though  bom  of  her  alien  husband,  will  also 
gain  the  position  of  British  subjects.  By 
naturalisation  in  a  foreign  state,  British  sub- 
jects are  allowed  to  become  aliens.  This  Act 
also  provides  for  the  grant  of  certificates  of 
naturalisation  to  aliens  who  have  resided 
within  the  kingdom,  or  served  the  crown, 
for  hve  years,  and  for  the  gprant  of  a 
limited  nationality  by  the  legislature  of 
British  colonies  within  their  own  borders. 
Aliens  have  been  regarded  with  jealousy 
both  for  political  and  commercial  reasons. 
During  the  fourteenth  century  they  were 
often  made  the  subjects  of  special  taxation. 
By  the  Great  Charter,  art.  41,  alien  merchants 
were  allowed  to  trade  freely.    The  privileges 


AU 


(  34  ) 


Alk 


of  the  mercantile  statutes  of  Edward  I.  were 
extended  to  them.  The  king  favoured  them 
because  they  granted  him  customs.  Parlia- 
ment, however,  interfered  with  these  grants 
in  1303,  and  at  other  times.  [Customs.] 
English  merchants  were  jealous  of  these 
foreign  competitors.  In  18  Edward  I.  the 
citizens  of  London  petitioned  that  they  might 
be  banished.  This  was  refused.  Vexatious 
restrictions  were  laid  upon  alien  merchants 
in  the  reign  of  Bichard  III.,  and  were  in- 
creased by  32  Hen.  YIII.,  c.  16.  Aliens  are 
subject  to,  and  under  the  protection  of,  the 
criminal  law.  By  express  provision,  they 
also  are  subject  to,  and  have  the  advantages 
of,  the  Bankruptcy  Acts.  Aliens  by  the 
Common  Law  lay  under  great  disabilities. 
An  alien  could  not  take  nor  transmit  land  by 
descent  He  could  not  hold  land  either  for 
his  own  benefit  or  in  trust.  Until  8  Hen.  Y., 
c.  16,  the  alien  wife  of  an  English  subject 
could  not  demand  her  dower.  Aliens  might, 
however,  hold  benefices,  for  the  Church  was 
Catholic.  An  alien  could  not  have  an  action 
for  land  in  his  own  name,  but  he  might  have 
An  action  for  personal  property.  His  witness 
was  received,  but  he  could  not  serve  on  a 
jury,  except  on  one  partly  composed  of 
aliens  for  the  trial  of  aliens  {de  medietate 
lingua).  These  disabilities  have  to  a  great 
extent  been  removed  b^  statute.  By  33 
and  34  Vict.,  c.  14,  an  alien  may  acquire  by 
inheritance  or  purchase.  He  may  hold  any 
kind  of  property  in  this  kingdom,  except  a 
share  in  a  Briti^  ship ;  and  title  to  land  may 
be  derived  from  or  through  an  alien.  This 
Act,  however,  does  not  confer  any  right  to 
hold  property  in  land  outside  the  United 
Kingdom,  and  provides  that  no  property 
shall  confer  on  an  alien  a  qualification  for 
franchise  or  public  office. 

Foote,    YritoU  In(«niatumal   Jumprudtfiioe ; 
Hanflard,  Oa  AIUhb;  Bacon's  AhriAmMni. 

[W.  H.] 

Alignrh.  Capturb  of  (Aug.  29,  1803), 
•occurred  in  Ueneral  Lake*s  campaign  against 
the  Mahrattas.  Alignrh,  the  great  military 
arsenal  of  the  French  army  of  Dowlut  Kao 
iScindiah,  in  Hindostan,  was  very  strongly 
fortified,  and  further  protected  by  a  ditch, 
100  feet  wide,  and  30  feet  deep,  containing 
10  feet  of  water.  General  Lake,  however, 
was  determined  to  take  it,  and  it  ¥ras  cap- 
tured by  the  irresistible  gallantry  of  the 
76th  Highlanders,  commanded  by  Major 
Madeod,  who  blew  open  the  gate,  and  forced 
their  way  in  through  the  most  intricate  and 
loop-holed  passages,  raked  by  a  destructive 
fire  of  grape,  wall-pieces,  and  matchlocks. 
The  number  of  guns  captured  was  281.  The 
Duke  of  Welling^n  called  it  "one  of  the 
most  extraordinary  feats  he  had  ever  heard 
of." 

All  Morad  was  one  of  the  Ameers  of 
Upper  Scinde  in  1842.    The  intrigues  of  All 


Morad  to  obtain  the  office  of  rais,  or  lord 
paramount  of  Upper  Scinde,  then  held  by 
Meor  Roostum,  were  the  main  causes  which 
hastened  on  Sir  Charles  Napier's  proceed- 
ings in  Upper  Scinde  in  tiie  year  1842. 
He  succeeded  in  obtaining  at  last  the  office 
of  rais,  and  lands  to  the  value  of  six  lacs 
of  rupees  a  year.  The  insurrection,  how- 
ever, which  broke  out  in  1843,  destroyed 
all  his  hopes  and  past  success.  The  annex- 
ation of  Scinde  was  accompanied  by  the 
banishment  and  pensioning  of  the  Ameers. 
[Scinde.] 

▲liwall,  Battlb  op  (Jan.  28,  1846),  was 
fought  during  the  first  Sikh  war.  After  his 
victorv  at  Looidiana,  Runjoor  Singh  fell  back  to 
AUwall,  on  the  Sutlej.  General  Smith,  rein- 
forced by  11,000  men,  lost  no  time  in  attack- 
ing him.  The  village  was  feebly  defended  by 
some  hill-men,  who  took  to  flight  with  Hun  joor 
Singh  at  their  head,  after  firing  a  few  rounds. 
But  the  English  met  with  a  stem  resistance 
from  the  Khalsa  soldiers  on  the  right,  men 
of  true  Sikh  blood  and  temper,  who  stood 
their  ground  with  unflinching  courage ;  and 
it  was  not  till  their  ranks  had  thrice  been 
pierced  by  Cureton's  cavalry,  thai  they 
became  disorganised,  and  retreated  to  the 
river,  in  which  a  great  number  were 
drowned,  leaving  67  guns  as  trophies  to  the 
victors. 

Coxmingham,  SOcht,  812. 

Alkin  the  Scot  {d.  834),  of  Pictish 

descent  on  his  mother's  side,  in  832  was 
King  of  the  Southern  Picts.  In  834  he  was 
victorious  at  the  Carse  of  Gk)wrie  over  the 
Picts,  who  disowned  his  authority ;  but  on 
July  20  of  the  same  year  was  d^eated  and 
slain  by  them  at  Pitalpin,  near  Dundee. 

Chron.  PtcU  ami  SeoU;  Skene,  Celtic  Scotland. 

AUanaaTy  Capture  op  (Oct.  2, 1799),  was 
effected  during  the  expedition  of  ^e  Duke  of 
York  to  Holland.  On  September  19  an  un- 
successful attack  had  been  made  by  the  allied 
troops.  Soon  afterwards  the  Duie  of  York 
was  strongly  reinforced,  and  on  October  2, 
with  30,000  men,  be  was  ready  to  attack  the 
equal  forces  of  the  French,  under  the  com- 
mand of  Brune,  whose  position  was  centred  at 
Alkmaar.  The  attack  was  begpin  at  six  a.m., 
b}*-  an  impetuous  charge  of  the  Russians, 
which  carried  the  villages  of  Schorl  and 
Schorldam,  and  drove  the  French  back  to 
Bergen.  The  Russians  then  halted,  await- 
ing the  arrival  of  Sir  R.  Abercromby  on 
the  right.  With  9,000  men  he  had,  since 
early  morning,  been  steadily  pushing  his 
way  along  the  sand-dyke  on  the  seashore. 
Continually  driving  the  French  back,  he 
was  at  length  able  to  attack  their  left 
flank.  The  Russians,  reassured  by  Aber- 
cromby's  arrival,  simultaneously  attacked  in 
front.  The  whole  of  the  French  left  was 
thus  turned,  and,  falling  back  in  confusion 


AU 


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AU 


on  the  centre,  compelled  Brune  to  abandon 
Alkmaar,  which  was  at  once  occupied  by  the 
allies. 

Aliaon,  Hist.  ofEuropt;  Annual  Begitter,  1799. 

All  the  Talents,  Ministry  of  (1806), 
was  the  name  given  to  the  administration 
which  was  called  into  existence  on  the 
death  of  William  Pitt.  An  attempt  was 
made  to  include  in  the  new  government  re- 
presentatives  of  all  the  throe  parties — the 
Tories,  the  Moderate  Whigs,  and  the  Extreme 
Whigs,  whose  sympathies  had  all  along  been 
with  f^^mce.  Lora  Grenville  became  Prime 
Minister;  Fox,  Foreign  Secretary;  Erskine, 
Lord  Chancellor ;  Lord  Fitzwilliam,  President 
of  the  Council ;  Lord  Sidmouth,  Lord  Piivy 
Seal ;  Windham,  Minister  of  War ;  and  Lord 
Spencer,  Home  Secretary.  Lord  Ellen- 
borough,  the  Lord  Chief  Justice,  was  also, 
by  a  ^mewhat  startling  innoration,  admitted 
into  the  Cabinet  In  spite,  however, 
of  this  singularly  imposing  array  of  talent, 
the  Cabinet  was  composed  of  elements  much 
too  discordant  to  admit  of  any  perman- 
ent harmony;  and  Fox's  early  death  re- 
moved the  commanding  mind  which  alone 
could  possibly  have  held  together  men  of 
such  cufferent  views.  One  great  measure 
was  passed,  which  will  always  be  associated 
with  this  ministry  —  viz.,  the  abolition  of 
the  slave-trade.  Little  else  of  permanent 
interest  was  effected.  Foreign  politics  were 
of  too  vital  an  importance  to  admit  of  any 
progress  in  domestic  reform ;  and  Fox  him- 
self devoted  all  his  ability  to  negotiating  a 
peace  with  France,  and  too  late  learned  to 
gauge  the  restless  ambition  of  Napoleon, 
with  the  result  of  being  convinced  tiiat  his 
long-cherished  hope  of  peace  was  in  vain.  On 
^larch  25th,  1807,  the  ministry,  which  had 
been  greatly  weakened  by  the  oisaffection  of 
some  of  its  members,  resigned  office,  on  being 
required  by  the  king  not  only  to  drop  the 
Catholic  Reb'ef  Bill  Uiey  had  brought  in,  but 
also  to  pledge  themselves  never  to  introduce 
any  sudi  measure  in  the  future.  They  were 
succeeded  by  the  administration  in  which 
the  Duke  of  Portland  was  Prime  Minister. 
[Fox,  C.  J. ;  Grenville,  Lord.] 

BoMell.  Life  of  Fox ;  Lord  Holland,  Mem.  of 
tlu  Lihtral  Party ;  Cooke,  Bist.  of  Parly ;  Pellew, 
lAfe  of  Sidmouth ;  Alison,  Hiat.  of  Europe. 

[W.  K.  8.] 


bbady  the  capital  of  the  North- 
West  Provinces  of  India,  was  one  of  the  strong 
towns  of  the  old  Mogul  dynasty.  At  the 
break-up  of  the  Mogul  empire  it  fell  under 
the  yoke  of  the  Vizier  of  Oude,  by  whom  it 
was  ceded  to  the  Company  in  1765,  and  handed 
over  to  the  dethroned  Mogul  Emperor,  Shah 
Allum.  In  1771  it  was,  however,  handed  to 
the  Nawab  of  Oudh,  by  whom  it  was  ceded 
back  to  the  English  in  1801.  The  town  con- 
tains the  remains  of  a  magnificent  palace  of 
the  Emperor  Akbar. 


AllectlUi  {d,  296)  was  one  of  the 
officers  of  Carausius,  whom  he  murdered  in 
293.  Allectus  then  usurped  the  power  in 
Britain,  and  governed  the  province  in  a  very 
tyrannical  manner  till  296,  when  Constantius 
Qilorus  invaded  the  country,  and  completely 
defeated  the  usurper,  who  was  slain  in  the 
battle. 

Eutropius,  ix.  12 ;  Orosins,  liii.  25;  T.  Wright, 
The  CeU,  the  Boman,  and  the  Saaon, 

Allegiance  (Lat.  alHfro,  through  Low 
Lat.  liganeiOy  and  Norm.-Franch,  ligeanee)^ 
means  the  tie  which  hinds  each  man  of  a 
nation  to  its  head  in  return  for  the  protec- 
tion allowed  him.  The  idea  of  allegiance 
existed  in  England  at  an  early  date.  The 
duties  of  the  ^g  towards  the  subject  were 
expressed  in  the  promise  of  Ethelred  to  govern 
rijghteously ;  those  of  the  subject  towards  the 
kmg  in  the  treason-law  of  Alfred,  and  in  the 
laws  of  his  son  Edmund  (about  943)  wo  have 
the  first  recorded  oath  of  allegiance.  '*  All 
shall  swear,  in  the  name  of  the  Lord,  fealty 
to  King  Edmund  as  a  man  ought  to  be  faith- 
ful to  his  lord,  without  any  controversy  or 
quarrel  in  open  or  in  secret,  in  loving  what 
he  shall  love,  and  not  willing  what  he  shall 
not  will."  It  was  to  counteract  the  disrup- 
tive tendencies  of  feudalism,  and  to  assert  the 
royal  power,  that  William  I.,  at  the  Council 
of  Salisbury,  ▲.d.  1086,  caused  "  all  his  witan 
and  all  the  land-owners  of  substance,  whoso 
vassals  soever  they  were,"  to  swear  an  oath 
of  allegiance  to  mm,  which  in  form  was  a 
modification  of  that  of  Edmund ;  and  there  is 
a  clause  directing  every  free  man  to  take  the 
oath  in  the  so-called  Laws  of  William. 
Nevertheless,  from  that  date,  inasmuch  as 
ownership  of  land  was  the  sign  of  the  rela- 
tions between  ruler  and  subject,  and  all  land 
was  held  of  the  king,  the  idea  of  allegiance 
became,  as  far  as  he  was  concerned,  identified 
with  those  of  fealty  and  homage,  though  the 
two  last  concerned  in  reality  owners  of  land 
in  the  connection  of  vassal  and  lord,  and  had 
no  necessary  connection  with  kingship.  This 
change  is  to  be  found  in  the  oath  of  allegiance 
to  Edward  I.,  which  was  imposed  on  all  over 
the  age  of  fourteen.  With  tiie  growth  of  the 
idea  of  loyalty  and  legitimacy  under  the 
Lancastrian  and  Yorkist  kings,  the  theory 
became  prominent  among  legal  writers. 
Meanwhile  another  idea  had  been  growing 
up — ^that  of  the  oath  of  office ;  it  was  asserted 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  by  the  Provisions 
of  Oxford,  and  probably  existed  even  earlier 
in  the  case  of  sheriffs  and  the  king's  coun- 
cillors, and  in  the  reign  of  Edward  II.  the 
Despencers  weire  banished  by  Parliament  for 
misapplication  of  allegiance.  It  was  not, 
however,  imposed  by  statute,  on  all  perscms 
holding  office  until  the  reign  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  the  promise  then  being  "  to  be  true 
and  faithful  to  the  king  and  his  heirs,  and 
truth  and  faith  to  bear  of  life  and  limb  and 
terrene  honour,  and  not  to  know  or  hear  of 


AU 


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AU 


any  ill  or  damage  intendod  him  without 
defending  him  therefrom."  This  oath  might 
be  exacted  when  necessary  from  all  persons 
over  the  ag^  of  twelve.  James  I.  also  im- 
posed a  special  oath  on  Roman  Catholics,  in 
which  he  bound  them  to  disclose  conspiracies 
against  him,  in  spite  of  any  excommunication 
by  the  Pope,  thus  attacking  his  supposed 
deposing  power.  The  oath  of  alle^nce  was 
imposed  afresh  after  the  Revolution  by  the 
Declaration  of  Right ;  but  as  the  form  en- 

t'oined  by  it  differed  from  the  form  imposed 
»y  statute,  it  was  determined,  in  1689,  to  pass 
an  Act  abolishing  the  old  oaths,  and  deter- 
mining by  whom  the  new  oaths  should  be 
taken.  The  form  agreed  upon  was  much  the 
same  as  that  at  present  in  use,  but  a  violent 
controversy  arose  as  to  the  class  of  men  who 
should  be  required  to  take  it.  It  was 
unanimously  agreed  that  it  should  for  the 
future  be  applied  to  all  who  were  admitted  to 
dvil,  military,  or  academical  offices;  but  it 
was  felt  that  to  make  it  retrospective  would 
be  to  make  largo  bodies  of  the  clergy,  who 
believed  in  the  doctrine  of  the  divine  right  of 
kings,  resign  their  livings.  On  this  point 
the  House  of  Lords  and  William  III.  were 
disposed  to  be  merciful,  and  exempt  the 
clergy  from  the  oath ;  but  the  Commons  re- 
fused to  give  way,  and  finally  it  was  decided 
that  all  those  who  refused  to  take  the  oath  by 
February,  1690,  should  be  deprived  of  office. 
Hie  forms  of  the  oaths  of  abjuration  and 
supremacy  were  also  settled  at  the  same  date. 
A  single  oath  was,  however,  substituted  for 
the  three  in  1858,  and  in  the  same  year  this 
was  adapted  to  the  use  of  Catholics  and  Jews. 
By  the  Promissory  Oaths  Act,  1868,  the  form 
of  oath,  that  at  present  in  use,  was  fixed  as 
follows : — '<  I,  A.  B.,  do  swear  that  I  will  be 
faithful  and  bear  true  allegiance  to  her 
Majesty  Queen  Victoria,  her  heirs  and  sue- 
oesBors,  according  to  the  law.  So  help  me, 
Ood !  "  It  is  imposed  on  all  officers  of  state, 
holders  of  appomtments  in  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Judicature,  and  justices  of  the 
peace,  though  in  some  cases  a  simple  affirma- 
tion is  allowed ;  but  members  of  Parliament, 
on  whom  the  obligation  to  take  the  oath 
of  allegiance  was  imposed  m  1679,  and  again 
in  1714,  now  use  a  special  form  of  oath 
provided  by  the  Parliamentary  Oaths  Act  of 
1866. 

Btubbfl,  Const,  Hui.,  yol.  i.,  chaps.  Tii.andiz., 
Tol.  liL,  ohap.  xxi. ;  Littleton,  T«iiiirM;  Stephen, 
CoiMMntarUs  on  tht  Law  of  England,  toI.  ii. : 
Statutes,  1  Will,  and  Vary,  o.  8;  31  and  32 
Vict.,  c.  7a.  [L.  C.  S.] 

AUelvia  Victory,  Thb  (429  P),  is  the 

name  given  to  a  victory  of  the  Britons  over 
the  Picts  and  Saxons.  The  story,  as  told  by 
Bode  (who  copies  from  Constantius,  Satict, 
Oermani  Vita)^  is  that  the  Britons,  being 
attacked  by  the  combined  forces  of  the  Picts 
and  Saxons,  sought  the  aid  of  S.  Germanus. 
The  saint  accordingly,  after  the  celebration 


of  Blaster,  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
Britons,  and  drew  up  his  troops  in  a  valley 
encompassed  by  hills,  in  the  way  by  which 
the  enemy  was  expected.  As  soon  as  the  foes 
appeared,  Germanus,  bearing  in  his  hands  the 
standard,  instructed  his  men  to  repeat  his 
words  in  a  loud  voice,  and  as  the  enemy  ad- 
vanced securely,  thinking  to  take  them  by 
surprise,  the  men  cried  three  times  aloud, 
"  Alleluia !  "  The  enemy,  struck  with  terror, 
fled  in  disorder.  Thus  the  Britons  gained  a 
bloodless  victory.  The  scene  of  this  battle  is 
laid  at  Maes  Grarmon  (the  Field  of  Germanus), 
about  a  mile  from  Mold,  in  Flintshire. 
Bede,  BiMtoria,  EcdniaKtica,  L,  chap.  zx. 

Allaily  Ethak  (<f.  1789),  was  a  celebrated 
partisan  leader  in  the  American  Independence 
War.  He  established  the  little  state  of 
Vermont,  whose  individuality  he  successfully 
vindicated,  and  formed  a  corps  of  irregulars, 
"  The  Green  Mountain  Boys,"  which  greatly 
disting^ahed  itself.  Allen  took  a  chief  share 
in  the  capture  of  Ticonderoga  and  Crown 
Point  in  1775,  but  in  the  expedition  to 
Canada  he  was  captured  by  the  British. 
He  was  subsequently  exchanged,  and  re- 
ceived several  marks  of  distinction  from 
Congress. 

Allen,  John  {b.  1476,  d.  1534),  had  been 
Archbishop  Warham's  agent  at  Rome,  and 
was  afterwards  employed  by  Wolsey  in 
visiting  the  smaller  monasteries,  with  a  view 
to  their  suppression.  In  1528  he  was  made 
Archbishop  of  Dublin  and  Chancellor  of 
Ireland.  In  these  capacities  he  headed  the 
opposition  to  the  Earl  of  Kildare.  In  1534 
he  was  seized  by  Eildare*s  orders,  and 
brutally  murdered. 

A'^'^ftll  (or  Allan),  Cardinal  William 
(b.  1532,  d.  1594),  was  at  one  time  Principal  of 
St.  Mary  Hall,  Oxford,  and  Canon  of  i  ork 
during  Uie  reign  of  Mary.  In  1568  he  estab- 
lished a  seminary  at  Douay,  in  order  to  train 
priests  for  EngUuid.  Subsequently  he  founded 
a  college  at  Rheims,  and  another  at  Rome. 
Becoming  closely  connected  with  the  Jesuits, 
he  entered  into  various  schemes  for  the  sub- 
version of  Elizabeth's  throne,  and  advocated 
a  Spaniflh  invasion  of  England.  In  1580,  by 
his  aid,  a  number  of  Jesuits  were  dispatched 
to  England  to  prepare  the  people  for  rebel- 
lion ;  and,  until  the  destruction  of  the  Spanish 
Armada,  Allen  continued  to  inveigh  against 
Elizabeth  in  the  most  virulent  terms.  In 
1587  he  was  made  a  cardinal  by  the  Pope,  in 
acknowledgment  of  his  services  to  the  Itoman 
Catholic  cause,  and  received  a  rich  abbey 
from  the  King  of  Spain.  In  1588  he  pub- 
lished at  Antwerp  his  violent  and  scurrilous 
pamphlet  against  Queen  Elizabeth,  entitled 
An  Admonition  to  the  People  of  England  (q.v.). 
Allen  was  created  Archbishop  of  Malines  in 
1591,  but  the  remainder  of  his  life  was  passed 
at  Rome.    Besides  the  Admonition^  his  chief 


AU 


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Aim 


works  are  A  Defence  of  the  Doctrine  of 
Catholieks,  1567 ;  Of  the  Wonhip  due  to  Saints 
and  their  Relicka,  1583 ;  De  SaeratnefUiSf 
1676. 

Fitsherbeit.  Eviiomt  Fito  CardinaU$  Alani, 
Borne,  1606 ;  Wooa,  Athena  (hon.,  yol.  i. ;  Strype, 
Annalet ;  Camden,  AtmalM  Ber,  Ang. ;  Liiigiiid, 
Htct.  •/  Bng. ;  Sharon  Turner,  Hid.  of  Aiy. 

Alliaucef  the  Gkand,  the  Holy,  &c. 
[Gbamd  ALLiAiiCE ;  Holy  Alll^ncb,  &c.] 


Battle  of  the  (Sept.  20,  1854), 
fought  during  the  Crimean  War.  After 
their  landing  at  Eupatoria,  the  allies  marched 
southwards  along  the  coast,  meeting  with  no 
resistance.  The  allied  army  consisted  of 
27,000  English,  22,000  French,  and  5,000 
Turks^  Pnnce  Mentschikoff,  the  Russian 
general,  had  determined  not  to  allow  them 
to  march  without  opposition  on  Sehas- 
topol.  He  entrenched  himself  strongly 
on  the  heights  which  overlook  the  river 
Alma,  ahout  sixteen  miles  to  the  north 
of  Sehastopol,  with  the  river  hetween  him 
and  the  foe.  The  allies  came  up  under  a 
heavy  fire,  forced  their  way  through  the 
river,  and  struggled  bravely  up  to  the  Rus- 
sian entrenchments,  which,  after  a  slight 
momentary  waver  along  the  whole  line,  they 
carried  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet.  The 
Russians  retreated  slowly,  with  their  usual 
dogged  persistency,  in  spite  of  their  heavy 
losses.  The  allies  were  too  much  fatigued 
and  too  weak  in  cavalry  to  be  able  to  follow 
up  the  advantage  they  had  gained.  The 
victory  was  in  great  part  due  to  the  deter- 
mined advance  of  the  British  up  the  height 
in  the  face  of  a  terrible  fire. 

Kinglake,  Invomon  Vffihe  CrivMO, 

AlniftUTa,  Battle  of  (April  25,  1707), 
was  one  of  the  battles  of  the  Succession  War 
in  Spain.  Peterborough,  who  had  been  most 
successful,  was  superseded  by  Lord  Gkdlway,  an 
experienced  veteran,  "  who  thought  it  much 
more  honourable  to  fail  according  to  rule  than 
to  succeed  by  innovation.*'  On  the  plain  of 
Almanza  he  encountered  the  French,  under 
the  Duke  of  Berwick.  As  Berwick  was 
Wronger  than  the  allies  in  cavalry,  it  was 
rash  in  Galway  to  act  on  the  offensive; 
but  he  wished  to  drive  the  French  from 
Valencia.  Berwick  had  drawn  up  his  troops 
with  his  infantry  and  artillery  in  the  centre, 
and  his  cavalry  on  the  fianks.  The  English 
commander  committed  the  gprave  mistake  of 
drawing  up  his  infantry  in  line  close  in  the 
roar  of  his  cavalry.  Galway's  attack  on  the 
French  right  was  at  first  successful,  and  the 
French  centre  was  for  a  moment  driven  back. 
On  the  right  of  the  allies  the  Portuguese 
cavalry,  under  the  Marquis  de  los  Minas, 
as  usual  turned  and  fled ;  their  infantry  were 
cut  to  pieces.  The  English  centie  was 
assailed  at  once  on  the  flank  and  in  front, 
and  thus  completely  routed,  they  were  com- 
pelled to  surrender.    The  victory  was  decisive 


and  important.  Valencia  and  Arragon  were 
at  once  reconquered  by  the  French.  *'  The 
battle  of  Almanza,"  says  Macaulay,  *'  decided 
the  fate  of  Spain." 

Burton,  £etyn  of  Q.  Anne;  Vfyon,  iZeign  of 
Q.  Anne ;  Stanhope,  War  of  the  Suoeeaeion  in 
Spain;  and  Bfacaiuay's  Beaay  on  the  same 
anbjeot. 

Almmara,  Battle  of  (July  10,  1710), 
resulted  in  a  victory  for  the  allied  armies  in 
Spain.  Through  the  month  of  June  the  two 
armies  were  engaged  in  marches  and  man- 
oeuvres. At  lengtii  General  Stanhope  over- 
ruled the  scruples  of  his  colleague,  the  Im- 
perial general,  Staremberg,  and  advanced 
across  the  Segre.  He  also  secured  the  pas- 
sa^  of  the  Nog^era,  the  Spanish  general 
bemg  too  late  to  intercept  him.  The  two 
armies  were  face  to  face  near  the  village  of 
Almenara.  Staremberg  was  still  averse  to  an 
engagement ;  but  the  spirits  of  the  English 
regiments  had  been  roused  by  the  sight  of  the 
enemy,  and  they  murmurea  loudly  at  their 
forcea  inactivity.  At  length,  two  hours 
before  nightfaU,  Stanhope  obtained  per- 
mission m>m  tiie  Archduke  Charles  to 
attack  some  Spanish  regiments  who  had 
advanced  in  a  spirit  of  bravado.  He 
charged  at  the  head  of  the  cavalry.  *'The 
allied  squadrons  on  the  right  had  easy  work 
in  routing  the  left  wing  of  the  enemy ;  but 
opposed  to  the  English  and  Dutch  was  the 
splendid  body-guard  of  Philip,  regiments  of 

Sicked  soldiers,  not  inferior  in  courage  or 
iscipline  to  the  renowned  household  troops 
of  the  French  king."  A  furious  struggle 
ensued,  Stanhope  himself  slaying  the  com- 
mander of  the  Spanish  cavalry.  The  king's 
troops  at  length  gave  way,  and  had  a  few 
hours  of  daylight  remained  it  is  probable  that 
the  whole  army  would  have  been  destroyed. 
Philip  hastily  retired  on  Lerida,  and  fell  back 
first  to  the  line  of  the  Cintra,  and  then  to  the 
line  of  tile  Ebro. 

For  anthoritiee  see  last  article. 

Almoign,  Fkakk.    [Frank  Almoion.] 

Almony  John  {b,  1738,  d,  1805),  after  an 
adventurous  career  in  early  life,  became  ac- 
quainted with  Churchill  and  Wilkes,  and 
published  a  defence  of  Wilkes's  '*  Essay  on 
Woman."  In  1763  he  set  up  as  bookseller 
and  publisher.  He  published  **  The  Found- 
ling Hospital  for  Wit,"  a  collection  of  party 
squibs,  and** The  Parliamentary  Register," 
an  account  of  the  debates  in  Parliament.  In 
1765  he  was  tried  in  the  Court  of  King's 
Bench  for  publishing  a  pamphlet,  **  On  Juries, 
Xibeds,  &c.  ;  "  and  in  1770  he  was  again  tried 
for  publishing  Junius' s  Letter  to  the  King, 
and  was  fined  ten  marks.  He  amassed  a 
large  fortune  in  his  trade,  much  of  which  he 
lost  by  an  imf ortunate  newspaper  enterprise. 
To  add  to  his  misfortunes,  he  was  again 
prosecuted  for  libel,  and  afterwards  was  pro- 
claimed an  outlaw.    The  rigour  of  the  law, 


Aliw 


(  38) 


JUr 


however,  was  soon  relaxed,  and  he  retired 
once  more  to  his  villa  at  Boxmoor,  from 
which,  in  1792,  he  sent  forth  a  work  called 
**  Anecdotes  of  the  Life  of  the  Earl  of  Chat- 
ham/' In  1806,  he  published  "The  Life 
and  Letters  of  Mr.  Wilkes."  He  died  on 
the  same  day  as  Woodfall,  the  publisher  of 
Junius. 

Chalmers,     Biog.   Diet.;    QenUeman's  Mag., 
vol.  Ixxv. 

Almorah,  Gaptubb  of  (April  26,^815), 
took  place  in  the  Goorkha  War.  Colonel 
Gaitlner,  with  a  body  of  irregular  troops, 
occuied  the  Chilkeeah  pass,  and  proceeded  to 
Almorah,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  Ku- 
maon,  along  the  Cosillas  river.  The  Goorkhas 
withdrew  as  he  advanced.  Being  reinforced 
by  2,000  regulars,  under  Colonel  NicoUs,  on 
April  25  the  heip^hts  and  town  of  Almorah 
were  attacked  with  rapid  success.  Two  of 
the  enemy's  breastworks  on  the  Sittolee  ridge 
were  carried  by  the  regular  infantry,  and  the 
irregular  troops  attacked  and  carried  the 
remaining  three.  During  the  night  an  un- 
successful attempt  was  made  to  dispossess  the 
victors  of  their  advantage.  In  the  morning 
the  fort  was  vigorously  attacked,  and  by  nine 
in  the  evening  the  Goorkha  commander 
agreed  to  terms,  by  which  the  province  and 
fortresses  of  Kumaon  were  surrendered  to 
the  English.     [Goo&kha  War.] 

Alnwick^  Northumberland,  in  1093  was 
besieged  by  Malcolm  Canmore,  of  Scotland,  who 
was  slain  before  its  walls.  In  1 1 35  it  was  taken 
by  David,  of  Scotland.  In  1174  it  was  be- 
sieged by  William  the  Lion,  who  was  taken 
frisoner  in  a  battle  fought  under  the  walls, 
n  1215  Alnwick  was  destroyed  by  John.  In 
1310  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Percies. 
In  Northumberland's  rebellion  in  1403,  the 
castle  was  temporarily  seized  by  the  king ; 
and  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century 
it  was  burnt  by  the  Scots.  During  the  re- 
bellion of  the  Northern  lords,  in  1569,  it  was 
fortified  by  the  Earl  of  Northumberland  for 
the  insurgents.  Alnwick  Abbey  was  a  prior}*" 
of  Premonstratensian  canons,  founded  by 
Eustace  Fitz-John,  and  richly  endowed  by  the 
De  Vescies  and  the  Percies. 

Mackenzie,  Iforthtcmberland,  i.  448. 

Alodial  ZiaiicL  is  land  which  is  the  abso- 
lute property  of  its  occupier,  and  is  not  held  by 
rent,  service,  or  other  obligation  from  a  supe- 
rior. The  "  alod,"  which  name  occurs  in  Anglo- 
Saxon  documents  of  the  eleventh  century^ 
and  in  its  Latinised  form,  is  found  in  the  SaUan 
and  other  Continental  codes  and  documents, 
was  land  held  in  full  ownership,  whether 
derived  by  inheritance,  or  created  from  the 
public  land  by  grant  or  charter.  In  the 
latter  case,  as  deriving  its  title  from  some 
book  or  document,  it  was  called  Boeland  (q.v.). 
In  England,  as  in  other  countries  which  came 
under  the  effects  of  feudalism,  the  smaller 


alodial  proprietors  found  themselves  practi- 
cally obliged,  for  the  sake  of  security  and 
protection,  to  eomtnend  themselves  to  some 
neighbouring  lord,  surrondering  their  lands 
to  him,  and,  receiving  them  back  again  on 
some  feudal  tenure.  Thus  the  alodSal  land 
tended  to  disappear,  and  in  England  the  pro- 
cess received  a  great  impetus  by  the  Norman 
Conquest,  and  the  theoretical  transfer  of  all 
land  to  the  crown,  which  followed.  Accord- 
ing to  the  theory  of  English  law,  there  is 
therefore  no  alodial  land  in  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  all  land  being  occupied  by  tenure^ 
and  held  either  directly  or  indirectly  from 
the  crown. 

The  deri^mtioD  of  nloA  has  l)een  much  (lis- 
cnBsed.  GMmm,  BwUdh,  WorUrbvxhf  uBsociates 
it  with  the  root  od,  wealth,  found  in  A.S. 
§ad^  and  Lat.  ops ;  others  take  it  as  connected 
with  lot,  and  as  meaning  primarily  that  which  is 
ohtoined  b^  lot,  or  division  of  the  original  tribal 
land.  It  IS  not  improbable  that  there  is  a 
connection  between  oUod  and  odol.  or  edfcal, 
the  word  signifying  inheritance,  ana  snecially 
the  inherited  homestead,  with  *'  the  share  of 
araUe  and  appurtenant  common  rights  "  (Prof. 
Stubbs),  and  which  also  came  to  mean  nobility 
of  blood  and  race.  (See  Skeat,  Stymologiool 
jyicAUmary.) 

Stephen's  ComnMntonM,  bk.  ii.,  pt.  i.,  oh.  i. ; 
CoIm  tiDon  Ltttt«ton,  93a ;  Stubbs,  CSonst.  Hiit., 
i.  60,  dec. ;  Hallam,  Jfid.  Agm,  ch.  ii..  pt.  L, 
&c. ;  and  for  the  whole  subject  see  the  art. 
Lasd  Tshubx. 

Alphege'CAELFHBAH),  St.  (^.954,  d.  1012), 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (1006—1012),  was 
of  noble  birth,  and  early  in  life  became  a 
monk.  He  is  said  to  have  been  Abbot  of 
Glastonbury,  and  was  certainly  advanced  to 
the  bishopric  of  Winchester  in  984.  In  1006 
he  was  made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  On 
the  capture  of  C!anterbury  by  the  Danes  in 
1012,  Alphege  was  taken  prisoner,  in  the  ex- 
pectation that  he  would  ransom  himself  with 
some  of  the  treasure  of  his  see.  On  his  re- 
fusal to  pay  them  anything,  the  Danes  dragged 
the  archbishop  to  their  husting,  or  place  of 
assembly,  where  they  pelted  him  with  stones, 
logs  of  wood,  and  the  bones  and  skulls  of 
oxen,  till  one  Thrum,  whom  Alphege  had 
converted,  clave  his  head  with  a  battle-axe. 
He  was  considered  a  martyr  by  the  Eng- 
lish, and  Anselm  contended  that  he  had  a 
right  to  the  title ;  because  he  died  refusing  to 
plunder  his  people  in  order  to  ransom  himself. 
The  English  Church  celebrates  St.  Alphege 
on  April  19. 

Hook,  Lives  qf  th«  Arctibiutiop^;  Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicle. 

Alrad  (Ealhrbd),  King  of  Northumbrian 
succeeded  to  the  throne  in  the  year  765,  on  the 
resignation  of  Ethelwald.  After  a  troublous 
reig^  of  nine  years,  he  was  compelled  to  re- 
nounce the  throne,  and  seek  refuge  with  the 
Picts. 

Alresford,  Fight  at  (Mareh  29,  1644), 
was  between  the  Koyalists,  under  the  Earl  of 
Brentford  and  Sir  Ralph  Hopton,  and  the 
Parliamentary    forces    under    Sir    William 


Ala 


(39) 


Amb 


Waller.  The  lattw  were  Tictorioas,  though 
the  seTere  loeses  they  Bostained  prevented 
Waller  from  taking  advantage  of  hiB  victory. 

Alvredy  John  [b.  1607,  d.  1653  ?),  served  as 
colonel  of  a  regiment  under  Fairfax.  He  was 
member  for  Heydon  in  the  Long  Parliament, 
acted  as  one  of  the  king's  judges,  and  signed 
the  death-warrant,  ms  Drother,  Matthew 
Alured,  also  served  in  the  Parliamentary 
army. 

AljtlL.  A  small  town  on  the  slopes  of 
the  Grampians,  fifteen  miles  north-west  of 
Dundee,  where  the  last  remnant  of  the  Scots 
Estates,  some  forty  in  number,  who  called 
themselves  '*The  Committee  of  Estates,'' 
assembled  in  September,  1661,  alter  the 
storming  of  Dundee  by  Monk.  They  were 
surprised  and  captured  by  a  party  of  cavalry 
sent  by  Monk,  and  were  conveyed  to  London. 
With  them  the  existence  of  the  Scots  Estates 
came  to  an  end  for  the  time. 

AmiV^ff'**^  MonXLtaillt  Battle  of  the 
ri846),  was  fought  between  the  British  and 
Gape  forces,  under  Colonels  Campbell  and 
Somerset,  and  the  Kaffirs,  under  Sandilli. 
The  latter  were  completely  routed,  although 
shortly  afterwards  they  managed  to  capture 
the  English  baggage- wagons. 

AatbaJIMMloni*  Different  ranks  and 
titles  exist  among  tiie  diplomatic  repreeenta- 
tives  at  states.  Ambassadors  hold  the  first 
place.  Next  below  them  are  Envoys  and 
Ministers  Plenipotentiary.  In  the  third  rank 
are  Residents  and  Chai^ffe  d'Af^ures.  The 
distinction  between  these  dasses  is  one  of 
dignity,  and  depends  on  the  nature  of  their 
commission,  or  the  fulness  of  the  representa- 
tive character  with  which  the  agent  is  in- 
vested by  his  court.  This  representative 
character  exists  in  perfection  in  the  office  of 
ah  ambassador.  There  is,  however,  no  dis- 
tinction between  these  agents  as  to  their 
rights  and  privileges.  From  the  time  when 
England,  by  the  conversion  of  its  people, 
became  part  of  European  Christendom,  its 
sovereigns  have  from  time  to  time  sent  em- 
bassies to  other  lands,  and  received  the  repre- 
sentatives of  their  rulers.  While,  however, 
the  mediflBval  system  continued,  and  Christen- 
dom was  regarded  as  one  body  politic  under 
the  Emperor  and  the  Pope,  the  mission  of 
ambassadors  was  occasional,  and  unregulated 
by  law.  As  the  mediaeval  polity  gave  place 
to  a  system  of  independent  states,  the  matter 
of  ambassadors  received  the  attention  of 
jurists.  Ambassadors  were  at  first  sent 
only  on  special  occasions.  Long  residence 
was  regarded  with  jealousy  by  tbe  state 
which  received  the  embassy,  0.^.,  Coke 
praises  Henry  VII.  because  he  was  too 
prudent  to  allow  ambassadors  to  reside  within 
his  realm.  This  f eelinfj:  died  out  in  the  seven- 
teenth century.  After  the  Peace  of  West- 
phalia,    1648,    resident    ambassadors    were 


generally  employed  by  most  of  the  nations 
of  the  eivUised  world.     Ambassadors  may 
therefore    be    classed    as    either   ordinary, 
resident,  or  extraordiiiary.    Eveiy  sovereign 
state    has   a    right    to    send    and    receive 
ambassadors,  unJess  it  has  renounced  that 
right.     Mararin,  in  1659,  received  the  am- 
bassadors of  Oliver  Cromwell  at  the  Congress 
of  the   Pyrenees,  and  rejected   those   sent 
by  Charles  11.    A  prince  who  has  lost  his 
sovereignty  cannot  claim  to  be  represented 
by   an   ambassador;    and  so  far    at   least 
the  civilians  of  Elizabeth  were  right  when, 
in  1667,  they  refused  to  recognise  tibe  Bishop 
of  Boss,  the  agent  of  the  Queen  of  Scots,  as 
an  ambassador.    The  right  of  rebels  to  em- 
bassy must  be  decided  by  circumstances.    To 
avoid  difficulty,  a  foreign  country  in  such 
cases  sometimes  receives  from  an  insurgent 
state  agents  invested  with  the  immunities^ 
but  not  with  the  representative  character  of 
ambassadors.    The  right  to  do  this  was  as- 
serted by  Lord  Russel^  in  1861,  in  the  Trent 
afiair.    A  state  cannot  reasonably  refuse  to 
receive  an  embassy,   though  it  may  make 
an  objection  to  receive  any  particular  am- 
bassador.   In  1626,  Louis  AlII.,  not  with- 
out reason,  refused  to  receive  the  Duke  of 
Buckingham   as   ambassador  of  Charles  I. 
The  right  of  inviolability  attaches   to  all 
ministers  representing  their  sovereign  or  their 
state,  not  only  in  the  country  to  which  a  re- 
presentative is  sent,  but  in  any  other  through 
which  he  may  have  to  pass.    In  1587,  Aubes- 
pine,  the  French  ambassador,  was  found  to 
have  been  privy  to  a  plot  against  the  life 
of  the  queen.     Burleigh,  however,  did  not 
bring  hun  to  trial  because  of  his  right  as  an 
ambassador.    The  inviolability  of  an  ambas- 
sador extends  to  his  suite.     It  is  doubtful, 
however,  whether  in  this  case  it  is  equally 
full  in  respect  of  gross  crimes.    For,  in  1654,. 
Dom  Pantaleon  8a,  brother  of  the  Portuguese 
ambassador,   was    executed  in  London   for 
murder.    He  pleaded  that  he  was  accredited 
as  an  ambassador,  but  could  show  no  creden- 
tials.   Had  he  been  able  to  prove  that  he 
was  a  representative  of  his  sovereign,  he 
might  have  escaped.     Certain  privileges  of 
ambassadors  ar^*  established  by  custom.    An 
ambassador  is  exempt  from  civil  jurisdiction, 
unless,  indeed,  he  so  far  forget  his  character 
as  to  engage  in  trade.    In  consequence  of 
this  exemption  having  been  violated  in  1708,. 
in  the  case  of  an  ambassador  of  the  Czar,  it 
has    been  enforced  by  our  municipal  Iaw« 
7  Anne,  o.  12.   An  ambassador  is  also  exempt 
from  taxation,  and  enj03rs  other  like  immu- 
nities.   Akin  to  these  was  the  privilege  of 
asylum  attaching  to  his  house,  which  is  now 
generally   renounced.    An    ambassador   re- 
ceives instruetums  from  his  own  government, 
and  carries  withhim  eredentials  to  the  govern- 
ment to  which  he  is  sent.    He  also  cairies 
the  full  power,  which  is  his  authority  for 
negotiation.   After  he  has  delivered  his  letterf 


Amb 


(40) 


«/  eredenee  to  the  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs, 
he  has  a  right  to  an  audience  of  the  sovereign 
to  whom  he  is  accredited.  The  death  of 
either  of  the  sovereigiis  between  whom  he 
negotiates  ends  his  embassy.  He  may,  how- 
ever, be  re-accredited ;  and  if  this  is  likely  to 
be  the  case,  his  embassy  is  held  to  be  sus- 
pended, and  relations  are  continued  in  the 
expectation  of  confirmation. 

Grottos,  J>€  Lt^albwrvym.  jwrt,  ed.  'Wheaton ; 
Vattel,  Droit  cIm  Gena^  bk.  iv.;  Wbeaton,  In- 
ternational Law;  Fhillimore,  International  Law, 
VOL  ii.  [W.  H.] 

AMhojnSkt  one  of  the  Molucca  Islands, 
was  captured  by  the  Butch,  from  the 
Portuguese,  in  1607.  The  English,  after 
having  been  expelled  from  Amboyna  by  the 
Dutch,  obtained  in  1619  the  right  of  trading 
there.  The  treaty  was  badly  kept  on  both 
sides ;  and  in  February,  1623,  the  Dutch  tor- 
tured to  death  several  of  the  English  factors, 
under  pretence  that  they  had  intrigued  with 
the  natives.  In  1654,  after  the  war  with 
Hollsnd,  the  Dutch  agreed  to  pay  a  sum  of 
£300,000  to  the  descendants  of  the  victims,  as 
compensation  for  the  massacre.  Amboyna 
has  since  this  been  twice  captured  by  the 
English — ^in  1796,  and  again  in  1810 — but  on 
both  occasions  subsequent  treaties  of  peace 
restored  it.  to  Holland. 

Ambrosiiui  AureUamui  (d.  cire.  450) 

is  said  to  have  been  a  prince  of  the  Damnonii, 

and  appears  to  have  been  the  chief  leader 

of  the  firitons  against  the  English  invaders 

under  Hengist.     He  was  very  probably  a 

rival  of  Yortigem — whom  he  is  said  to  have 

defeated  in  &ttle — and   the   representative 

of  the  Roman  party  in  Britain.    According 

to  Gildas,  he  was  "  a  modest  man,  who,  of  all 

the  Koman  nation,  was  then  alone  in  the 

confusion  of  this  troublous  time  left  alive. 

His  parents,  who  for  their  merit  were  adorned 

with  the  purple,  had  been  slain  in  these  same 

broils."    GeofiErey  of  Monmouth  makes  him 

the  brother  of  Uther  Pendiugon  and  father 

of  Arthur,  and  states  that  he  built  Stone- 

henge. 

GUdas,  §25;  Bede,  Hut.  Bodm.,  L  16.  8e$ 
also  Nennius,  Creolfrey  of  MonmoHth,  and 
Palgrave,  Eng.  Commonwealth. 

Amear  Khan,  a  Rohilla  adventurer  and 
free-lance,  joined  Jeswunt  Kao  Holloir  in  his 
plunder  of  the  territories  of  Scindiah  and 
the  Peishwa.  During  the  Holkar  War  (1804) 
he  waged  a  predatory  warfare  against  the 
English  and  their  allies.  The  conclusion  of 
the  second  Treaty  of  Surje  Anjengaom 
drove  Ameer  Khan  and  HoUcar  westward  to 
Ajmere,  where  they  led  a  predatory  life, 
until  Holkar  was  compelled  to  yield  by 
Lord  Lake.  The  Treaty  of  Kampoor  Ghaut 
left  Ameer  Khan  hee  to  live  at  the 
expense  of  the  Rajpoot  princes,  whom  he 
plundered  with  great  impartiality,  and  gra- 
dually proceeded  to  create  a  principality  for 


himself.  He  became  the  recognised  chief  of 
the  Pathans  in  India.  In  1809  he  crossed  the 
Nerbudda  with  40,000  horse  and  24,000  Pin- 
darries,  entered  the  Nagpore  state,  and  sacked 
the  town  of  Jubbulpore.  The  English,  how- 
ever, interfered,  ordered  him  to  quit  the 
country  of  their  ally,  and  put  an  army  iu 
motion  to  enforce  it ;  when  Ameer  Khan  with- 
drew to  Indore.  During  the  Pindarrie  war 
he  brought  52  battalions  of  trained  in^try 
into  the  field ;  but  his  army  and  his  influence 
were  alike  destroyed  by  the  British  victories 
and  the  vigorous  policy  of  Lord  Hastings. 
He,  however,  founded  a  dynastv  at  TonJc,  in 
Rajpootana,  and  his  MohammedBm  descendant 
stiu  exists  as  a  protected  prince,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  treaty  made  in  1817,  which  con- 
firmed his  jaghire  to  him. 

American  Zndapendenoef  Dbclaba- 

Tiox  OP  (July  4, 1776),  was  a  manifesto  issued 
by  the  representatives  of  the  thirteen  United 
Colonies  assembled  in  Congress,  and  signed 
by  all  of  them  but  one.  The  original  draft 
was  the  work  of  Thomas  Jefferson  of  the  State 
of  Virginia,  which  had  in  the  preceding  May 
issued  a  Declaration  of  Rights,  and  the  altera- 
tions made  were  only  matters  of  detaiL  It 
began  with  an  imaginary  picture  of  *^  natural " 
society,  and  an  assertion  of  the  original  rights 
of  man.  The  inference  it  drew  from  the 
hypotheses  was  that  man  has  a  right  to  upset 
any  form  of  government  which  violates  these 
**  natural "  conditions.  The  Declaration  went 
on  to  enumerate  "  the  repeated  injuries  and 
usurpations,  all  having  in  direct  object  the 
establishment  of  an  absolute  tyranny  over  these 
States.*'  The  last  paragraph  sums  up  the 
position  which  the  colonies  claimed  to  hold 
in  the  future  :  "  We,  therefore,  the  represen* 
tatives  of  the  United  States  of  America,  in 
general  Cong^ss  assembled,  appealing  to  the 
supreme  Judge  of  the  world  for  the  rectitude 
of  our  intentions,  do,  in  the  name  and  by  the 
authority  of  the  good  people  of  these  colonies, 
solemnly  publish  and  dediire  that  these  united 
colonies  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  free  and 
independent  States.^*  Jefferson,  in  his  indict- 
ment of  George  III.,  had  inserted  a  paragraph, 
charging  him  with  waging  *^  cruel  war  against 
human  nature  itself'*  by  encouraging  the 
slave-trade.  This  clause,  however,  was  struck 
out,  on  account  of  the  disapproval  expressed 
by  some  of  the  Southern  members ;  and  thus 
Congress  committed  itself  to  the  inconsistency 
of  asserting  in  one  paragraph  that  all  men 
are  created  equal,  that  they  are  endowed  by 
their  Creator  Mrith  certain  inalienable  rights, 
that  among  these  are  life,  liberty,  and  the 
pursuit  of  happiness;  while  in  the  rest  of 
the  Declaration  it  tacitly  recognised,  since  it 
did  not  prohibit,  the  slave-trade.  "The 
Declaration,"  says  Bancroft,  "was  not  only 
the  announcement  of  the  birth  of  a  people, 
but  the  establishment  of  a  national  govern- 
ment.   The  war  was  no  longer  a  civil  war  ,* 


Ame 


(  41  ) 


Britain  was  1)600106  to  the  United  States  a 
foreign  country.  Every  former  subject  of 
the  British  king  in  the  thirteen  colonies  now 
owed  primary  allegiance  to  the  dynasty  of 
the  people,  and  became  a  citizen  of  the  new 
Bepublic.  Except  in  this,  everything  re- 
mained as  before."  In  the  lustory  of  political 
thought,  the  Declaration  has  an  important 
place.  It  embodied  in  a  formal  state-paper 
some  of  those  theories  on  the  equality  of  man, 
and  the  origin  and  character  of  human  society, 
which  were  thrown  into  a  popular  shape  by 
Rousseau.  And  the  influence  which  this 
enunciation  of  the  freedom  and  equality  of 
all  men  exerted  on  the  European  peoples  was 
immediate  and  profound,  as  weU  as  lasting. 
The  Americans  largely  owed  their  political 
theories  to  France;  but  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  gave  form  and  expression  to 
the  tneories,  and  was  thus  a  distinct  step  in 
the  direction  of  that  attempt  to  realise  certain 
m  priori  political  theories  which  formed  one 
element  in    the   French    Revolution. 

Bancroft,  Bid.  ofiKt  Un{t«d  StotM,  chap.  Izz. ; 
Jared  Sparks,  Life  of  Wtuhingion;  Stanhope, 
H«t.  ofBngUkni,  vi.,  chap.  liii.        [S.  J.  L.] 

American  Independence,  Wak  op 

(1776—1783).  For  some  time  before  the 
spring  of  1775  the  relations  between  the  colo- 
nies and  the  mother-country  were  such  that 
thev  were  in  a  state  of  virtual  hostility.  Ac- 
tual warfare  began  in  April,  1775,  when  the 
first  blood  was  shed  at  Lexington,  near 
Boston.  Colonel  Smith  had  been  sent  to 
destroy  a  magazine  at  that  place,  but  was 
met  by  unexpected  opposition.  He  suc- 
ceeded only  partially,  and  after  a  long  and 
desultory  skirmish  retreated  with  considerable 
loss.  In  the  north,  Fort  Ticonderoga,  on 
Lake  Champlain,  was  surprised ;  and  its 
garrison  surrendered  the  fort  and  its  copious 
stores.  On  May  10,  the  Congress  assembled 
for  its  second  session  at  Philadelphia,  and 
prepared  for  war  by  voting  15,000  men  as  the 
**  continental "  army.  While  it  was  still  sitting, 
an  English  fleet  appeared  in  Boston  Roads, 
and  its  arrival  was  the  signal  for  General 
Gkige  to  declare  martial  law.  On  June  17 
was  fought  the  battle  of  Bunker's  Hill,  which 
had  been  occupied  by  the  Americans,  and  was 
carried  on  the  third  assault  by  the  British 
troops,  with  great  loss  of  life.  Washing- 
ton arrived  soon  after  the  battle  to  take 
command,  and  found  the  difficulty  of  the 
situation  increased  by  want  of  ammunition 
»nd  the  insubordination  of  the  men.  The 
English  were  masters  of  the  sea,  and  held 
Boston  and  Charleston,  but  were  surrounded 
by  the  blockading  lines  of  Washington. 
After  the  battle,  Penn  carried  to  England 
the  Olive  Branch  Petition,  the  last  attempt 
at  reconciliation  on  the  part  of  America.  In 
the  meantime  an  expedition  was  sent  to 
Canada,  which  proved  a  total  failure,  and 
aacrificed  many  valuable  American  Hves.    In 

HIST.— 2* 


Virginia,  Lord  Dunmore  exasperated  public 
opinion  by  his  many  cruelties,  and  by  offerings 
inducements  to  the  slaves  to  join  the  British 
side.  Howe  evacuated  his  position  in  Maich, 
and  while  he  sent  Clinton  to  co-operate  with 
the  fleet  at  Charleston,  in  Carolina,  he  himself 
threatened  New  York  from  Sandy  Hook.  The 
attack  on  Charleston  was  gallantly  repulsed ; 
and  Clinton  brought  back  his  division  to  take 
part  in  the  operations  against  New  York.  On 
July  4,  the  American  Congress  adopted  the 
Declaration  of  Independence.  The  attack  on 
New  York  was  long  delaved  ;  but  on  August 
27,  the  British  troops  orove  the  defenders 
from  Long  Island ;  and  it  was  only  HoweV 
dilatonness  that  allowed  Washington  to  witii- 
draw  unmolested  from  New  York.  The' 
English  withdrew  into  winter  quarters,  and 
left  Washington  free  to  take  advantage  of 
their  inactivity  by  surprising  the  garrison  of 
Trenton,  and  soon  afterwards  aoquiring  nearly 
all  New  Jersey  by  winning  a  decisive  battle 
at  Princeton.  Howe  remained  idle  till  June, 
1777,  when  he  organised  a  threefold  expe- 
dition, which  was  so  far  successful  that  after 
defeating  Washington  at  Brandy  wine  Creek, 
in  September,  he  advanced  unopposed  inta 
Philadelphia.  <<  It  is  not  (General  Howe  tiiat 
has  taken  Philadelphia;  it  is  Philadelphia 
that  has  taken  Gheneral  Howe,"  said  Franklin  ;. 
and  BO  it  proved.  While  Washington  passed 
the  winter  in  his  camp  at  Vallev  Forge, 
with  resources  gradually  dwindling,  his 
forces  weakened  by  privations,  fevers,  and 
insubordination,  and  himself  harassed  by 
the  petty  jealousies  of  the  government  and 
his  own  officers,  Philadelphia  became  "the 
Capua  of  the  British  army."  Meanwhile,, 
in  New  York  State,  Clinton  captured  Fort» 
Clinton  and  Montgomery,  on  the  Hudson;, 
but  he  did  not  advance  &8t  enough  to  co- 
operate with  Burgoyne,  who  was  advancing 
from  Canada.  On  August  16,  a  detached 
division  of  his  force  had  b^n  destroved 
at  Bennington,  and  Burgoyne  himself,  after 
being  defeated  at  Stillwater,  on  September  19, 
was  compelled  to  capitulate,  with  3,500  men, 
at  Saratoga,  on  Oct.  16.  The  immediate  result 
of  Saratoga  was  a  treaty  between  France  and 
America,  which  was  virtually  a  declaration 
of  war  by  France  against  England.  In 
June,  Clinton,  who  had  succeeded  Sir  Wil- 
liam Howe  as  commander-in-chief,  evacu- 
ated Philadelphia  and  retreated  on  New 
York.  Washmgton  opposed  his  march  at 
Monmouth,  and  finished  a  severe  contest 
master  of  tiie  field,  but  not  strong  enough  ta 
offer  any  further  resistance.  In  the  north, 
operations  were  at  a  standstill  through 
the  embarrassed  condition  of  both  com- 
manders, and  the  interest  of  the  war  centred 
in  the  south.  In  December,  Savannah  whk 
taken  by  Colonel  Campbell :  and  in  January, 
1779,  Lower  Oeorgia  was  reduced  by  Colonel 
Prevost.  In  February,  South  Carolina  was 
overrun,  and  Charleston  was  again  threatened 


(42) 


Ame 


by  the  British,  whospent  the  summerin  alienat- 
ing  by  their  ravages,  tiie  few  loyalists  that 
remained.  In  September  a  combined  French 
and  American  force  failed  to  take  Savannah. 
In  the  meantime,  Washington  had  tided  over 
his  difiSculties  by  maintaining  a  strictly  de- 
fensive attitude.  A  large  armament  sent  by 
^lassachusetts  to  destroy  a  British  outpost  in 
Penobscot  Bay  was  signally  defeated  and 
almost  destroyed.  In  October,  1779,  Rhode 
Island  was  evacuated,  and  Clinton  carried  the 
troops,  thus  set  free,  to  the  attack  of  Charles- 
ton. It  was  not,  however,  till  May,  1780, 
that  General  Lincoln  surrendered  the  town. 
Clinton  returned  to  New  York,  leaving  6,000 
men  with  Lord  Comwallis,  who  by  the  end 
of  June  reported  that  all  resistance  was  at  an 
end  in  Georgia  and  South  Carolina.  But 
atrenuous  efforts  were  made  to  save  the 
South,  and  General  Gates,  with  strong  rein- 
forcements, met  Lords  Comwallis  and  Raw- 
don  at  Camden,  on  August  16,  and  was  sig- 
nally defeated,  with  heavy  loss.  A  small 
detachment,  under  Sumpter,  was  also  cut  to 
pieces  by  Colonel  Tarleton's  cavalry,  and 
the  American  army  of  the  South  seemed  to 
be  annihilated.  But  the  severity  of  Com- 
wallis and  Rawdon  had  alienated  the  popula- 
tion, and  the  inhabitants  rose  on  all  sides 
to  oppose  the  advance  of  the  former  into 
North  Carolina.  During  the  winter  Wash- 
ington and  Clinton  maintained  a  passive 
attitude,  each  watching  the  other,  and  neither 
strong  enough  to  take  the  offensive;  and 
Washington's  difficulties  were  increased  by 
the  disaffection  of  the  troops,  who  had  re- 
ceived no  pay  for  ten  months.  On  March  1, 
1781,  a  crisis  was  averted  by  the  signing  of 
the  Articles  of  Confederation,  which  united  all 
the  States  by  a  common  bond  of  union.  In 
the  South,  Greene,  who  had  succeeded  Gkites, 
put  a  new  aspect  on  the  war.  In  January, 
1781,  he  defeated  Tarleton  at  the  Cowpens; 
but,  notwithstanding,  Comwallis  assumed  the 
offensive,  and  advanced  northwards.  Greene 
retreated  200  miles  before  Comwallis,  who 
was  gradually  leaving  his  base  of  supplies 
farther  and  farther  in  his  rear.  On  March 
15,  Greene  gave  him  battle  at  Guildford 
Court  House,  and  after  a  fierce  struggle 
was  driven  from  his  position,  but  Comwallis 
was  so  weakened  that  he  retreated  to  Wil- 
mington, though  in  April  he  again  advanced 
to  Petersburg,  in  Virginia.  Meanwhile, 
Greene  had  organised  a  combined  movement 
a^inst  South  Carolina  and  Georgia.  He 
himself  was  attacked  and  defeated  by  Lord 
Rawdon,  who,  however,  was  compelled  by  the 
simultaneous  advance  of  Lee  and  Marion  to 
retire  to  Charleston,  and  the  greater  part  of 
South  Carolina  was  again  in  American  hands. 
In  September  the  battle  of  Eutaw  Springs 
ended  in  a  victory  for  the  English,  which  was 
as  disastrous  as  a  defeat;  and  the  British 
forces  in  the  South  were  henceforth  pent  up 
in  Wilmington,  Charleston,  and  Savannah. 


From  Petersburg  Comwallis  had  pursued 
Lafayette,  who  continued  to  elude  him ;  bat 
in  the  beginning  of  August,  in  obedience  to 
orders  from  Clinton,  he  withdrew  with  his 
army  to  Yorktown,  where  he  strongly  fortified 
himself.  At  the  same  time  a  lEu*ge  French 
force  joined  Washington,  and  a  southward 
march  was  begim.  On  August  31,  De  Grasse 
arrived  with  a  French  fleet  in  Chesapeake 
Bay,  and  a  few  days  later  beat  off  the  English 
under  Admiral  Graves.  On  Sept.  28,  the 
whole  army  had  completely  invested  York- 
town  ;  and  on  Oct.  19,  1781,  Comwallis  sur- 
rendered, with  all  his  army  and  supplies. 
In  March,  1782,  Rockingham  again  became 
prime  minister;  and  by  Shelbume,  one  of  the 
new  secretaries  of  state.  Sir  Guy  Carleton  was 
at  once  sent  out  to  supersede  Clinton,  and  to 
prosecute  conciliatory  measures.  Franklin  had 
been  caiT3ring  on  negotiations  at  Paris ;  but 
the  American  commissioners  persisted  in  vain 
proposals,  until  it  was  discovered  that  France 
was  playing  a  double  game.  The  intrigues  of 
the  loyalists,  together  with  the  wretched  con- 
dition of  the  American  army,  brought  matters 
to  a  crisis,  and  on  Nov.  30  preliminary  articles 
of  peace  were  signed.  On  Dec.  6,  the  king 
announced  his  tardy  and  reluctant  consent  to 
the  independence  of  the  American  colonies. 
In  April,  1783,  Congress,  beset  by  the  nu- 
merous discontents  in  the  army,  and  threatened 
by  mutineers,  issued  a  proclamation  for  the 
cessation  of  hostilities.  On  Sept.  3  the 
treaties  were  ratified,  but  various  arrangements 
remained  to  be  carried  out,  and  it  was  not  till 
Nov.  26,  1783,  that  the  British  troops  evacu- 
ated New  York.  The  war  had  cost  America 
little  under  £50,000,000,  but  she  had  gained 
independence  at  a  price  that  was  not  too  dear. 
Its  result  to  England  was  the  loss  of  half  a 
continent  and  the  addition  of  115  millions  to 
the  national  debt. 

Jared  Sparks,  Dif^omaiic  Corrmfpondenet  of 
tht  American  B4v6l\dion,  12  vols.,  Boston,  1829  ; 
and  Life  and  Writingt  of  Wakhingtont  by  the 
sanie  writer ;  D.  Bamsaj,  Hiat.  of  the  American 
Revolution.  Philad.,  1789 ;  Jefferson's  Work»^  ed. 
H.  A\  Washington,  1854 ;  J.  Q.  Adams,  TTorfci. 
10  vols.,  1856 ;  A  Hamilton.  Worlu,  ed.  J.  C. 
Hamilton,  1857—58 ;  W.  Gordon,  Hiat.  of  the 
American  ITar,  Lond.,  1788  ;  The  Life  and  Corr. 
of  Prestd«nt  Rett;  The  Chatham  Correapondenoe. 
The  best  general  account  is  to  be  found  in 
G.  Bancroift's  exhaitstiTe  Hiet.  of  the  United 
8late$f  new  ed.  in  6  vols.,  1876.  See  also  B. 
Hildreth,  Hid.  of  the  United  States;  B.  Lossing, 
Field  Book  of  the  American  Bevol%ttion;  Wash- 
ington Irving,  Life  of  Wathington  ;  and,  for  the 
English  side,  Stannope's  Hist,  of  Bng,  For 
shorter  acconnts,  see  J.  H.  Patton,  Hid.  of  thn 
Uniied  Siaiee  ;  Leckj,  Hid.  of  Eng.,  vol.  iv. ;  and 
J.  M.  Ludlow,  The  War  of  American  Indepen- 
d«"^-  [W.  R.  S.J 

American   Wur  (i8i2~i8io),  arose 

out  of  the  severe  action  of  England  towards 
neutral  vessels  in  the  war  against  Bonaparte. 
America,  to  retaliate,  adopted  England^s  policy, 
and  laid  an  embargo  upon  all  trade  witii  both 
France  and  England.  Some  arrangement  was 
attempted  in  1809;  but  it  was  impossible  to 


Ame 


(43) 


Amh 


effect  any  permanent  conciliation  as  long  as 
England  adhered  to  the  Orders  in  Council  of 
1807,  and  Brougham's  motion  for  their  repeal 
came  too  late  to  avert  the  war.  The  war, 
which  was  declared  without  any  great  una- 
nimity on  the  part  of  Congress,  in  June,  1812, 
was  at  first  almost  entirely  contined  to  com- 
bats between  detached  frigates,  in  which  the 
Americans  were  generally  successful,  and  to 
attempts  by  the  Americans  on  Canada,  which 
always  ended  in  failure.  The  cause  of  the 
English  want  of  success  in  the  naval  actions 
was  in  some  degree,  no  doubt,  due  to  the  ex- 
cellence of  their  enemies'  seamanship,  and 
the  picked  crews  they  obtained  by  enlisting 
English  deserters;  but  it  was  also  partly 
owing  to  the  superior  size  and  armaments  of 
the  American  frigates,  which  were  in  reality 
almost  equivalent  to  tiie  smaller  ships  of  the 
line.  The  most  celebrated  of  these  detached 
actions,  that  between  the  Chesapeake  and  the 
Shannon,  is  well  described  by  Alison,  Hiet. 
of  Europcy  chap.  xci.  England  carried  on  the 
war  in  a  very  desultory  manner,  until  the 
close  of  the  campaign  in  the  south  of  France 
set  free  the  Peninsular  veterans,  many  of 
whom  were  shipped  straight  from  Bordeaux 
to  America.  In  the  meantime,  negotiations 
had  been  entered  into  at  Ghent,  which  con- 
tinued for  more  than  twelve  months  before 
they  resulted  in  the  conclusion  of  peace.  A 
large  fleet,  under  Admiral  Cockbum,  was 
despatched  with  the  Peninsular  troops,  under 
Oeneral  Ross,  to  make  a  combined  attack  by 
sea  and  land  on  the  Chesapeake  River.  The 
expedition  completely  succeeded  in  the  cap- 
ture of  Washington,  the  chief  public  buildings 
of  which  citv  were  destroyed.  A  combined 
sea  and  land  attack  was  made  upon  Platts- 
burg  on  Lake  Champlain;  but  the  flotilla, 
umiided  by  Sir  George  Prevost,  who  com- 
manded the  troops,  was  annihilated,  and 
the  enterprise  had  to  be  abandoned.  A  pro- 
jected attack  on  Baltimore  was  also  given  up; 
but  the  State  of  Maine  was  almost  entirely 
in  the  hands  of  the  British.  An  expedition 
on  a  large  scale  was  undertaken  against  New 
Orleans,  under  General  Pakenham.  Natural 
difficulties,  greatly  increased  by  the  energy 
and  ability  of  the  American  commander, 
General  Jackson,  met  the  armament  at  every 
turn,  but  were  at  length  overcome  by  the 
alacrity  of  the  men;  and  on  the  8th  Jan., 
1815,  an  assault  was  made.  This  was  con- 
spicuous no  less  for  the  intrepid  gallantry  of 
the  troops  on  both  sides,  which  caused  a  ter- 
rible loss  of  life,  including  that  of  Sir  E. 
Pakenham,  than  for  the  utter  mismanagement 
and  want  of  unity  among  the  English  com- 
manders. The  assault  was  delivered  in  a 
number  of  separate  attacks  on  different  points, 
which  failed  from  want  of  co-operation  and 
neglect  of  the  most  simple  details.  So  great 
was  the  loss  of  the  British  that  General  Lam- 
bert, who  had  succeeded  to  the  command,  felt 
it  desirable  to  withdraw.     Had  means  of  com- 


munication been  more  rapid  in  those  days, 
this  useless  bloodshed  would  have  been  averted, 
since  already,  on  the  previous  24th  Dec,  a 
convention  had  been  signed  at  Ghent.  This 
convention  was  merely  a  compromise,  which 
left  undecided  all  the  chief  points  on  which 
the  two  countries  were  at  issue.  The  rights 
of  neutrals  were  not  touched  upon,  and  the 
question  of  the  frontier  line  between  Canada 
and  the  United  States  was  reserved  for  future 
negotiation. 

I9ee  B.  J.  Losfringr's  and  C.  J.  Ingersoll's  His- 
tories of  the  War  of  1812  ;  J.  F.  Ckioper,  Hist,  of 
the  Vwied  States  Navy ;  James,  Aaval  Hut. ; 
Annual  Register,  1813 ;  Alison,  Hist,  of  Europe. 

[S.  J.  L.] 

Amherst,  Jeffery,  Lobd  {b.  1717,  d, 

1797),  as  aide-de-camp  to  General  Ligonier, 
was  present  at  Dettingen  and  Fontenoy,  and 
fought  under  the  Di^e  of  Cumberland  at 
Ha^^enbeck.  In  1756  he  was  appointed  to 
command  the  15th  Regiment  of  Foot,  and 
two  years  later  became  major-general.  In 
1758  he  was  sent  to  America,  and,  acting  in 
co-operation  with  Admiral  Boscawen,  effected 
the  capture  of  Louisburg,  the  capital  of  Cape 
Breton.  In  the  following  year,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  General  Prideaux,  Sir  £.  Johnson, 
and  Wolfe,  he  took  Ticonderoga.  In  1760 
he  reduced  Montreal  after  a  long  and  difficult 
navigation,  taking  the  fort  of  Isle  Royale  on 
his  way.  Shortly  afterwards  he  phumed  u 
successful  expedition  for  the  recovery  of  New- 
foundland. In  1761  he  was  created  a  Knight 
of  the  Bath,  and  appointed  Commander-in- 
chief  and  Governor-General  in  America.  In 
1770  he  was  appointed  Grovemor  of  Guernsey, 
and  Lieutenant-Gencral  of  the  Ordnance.  In 
1776  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  with 
the  title  of  Baron  Amherst  of  Uohnesdale. 
S}iortly  afterwards  he  was  made  Commander- 
in-chief,  and  in  that  capacity  quelled  the 
riots  of  1780,  but  was  compelled  to  resign 
in  1782.  He  was  again  appointed  in  1793, 
and  accepted  the  rank  of  field-marshal  in  1796. 
Amherst  was  a  firm  disciplinarian,  but  was 
much  beloved  by  his  men.  He  was  a  com- 
mander of  some  tactical  ability,  and  always 
showed    dauntless  courage  on  the  field  of 

battle. 

QenUeman'e  Maganne,  1797 ;  Stanhope,  Hi^.  of 
England. 

Amherst,  William  Pitt,  1st  Earl  (6. 
1773,  d,  1857),  was  the  eldest  son  of  lieut.- 
General  Aniherst,  brother  of  the  first  Lord 
Amherst.  On  the  death  of  the  latter  in 
1797,  he  succeeded  to  the  title.  In  1816  he 
was  appointed  Ambassador-Extraordinary  to 
the  Emperor  of  China.  On  reaching  the 
precincts  of  the  imperial  palace  at  Pekin,  and 
refusing  to  submit  to  the  humiliating  cere- 
monies of  the  emperor's  court,  he  was  refused 
admission  to  the  presence  of  the  emperor,  and 
his  mission  was  thus  rendered  useless.  On 
his  return  voyage,  the  vessel  he  was  in  was 
wrecked  off  the  island  of  Pulo  Leat,  from 


(44} 


Ane 


which  he  proceeded,  accompanied  by  Sir 
Henry  Ellis,  in  the  boats  of  the  wrecked  ship 
to  Batavia.  lie  was  subsequently  appointed 
Govemor-Greneral  of  India,  and  landed  in 
Calcutta,  1823.  He  had  no  sooner  assumed 
the  government  than  he  found  hii(iself  in- 
volved in  hostile  discussions  with  the  Bur- 
mese, which  terminated  within  five  months 
in  a  declaration  of  war.  After  two  cam- 
paigns, the  first  Burmese  War  ended  in  the 
Treaty  of  Yandnboo.  The  progress  of  the  Bur- 
mese War  also  gave  rise  to  the  Barrackpore 
Mutiny,  which  was  violently  suppressed,  and 
to  several  seditious  manifestations  in  India. 
The  Governor-General  was  created  Earl  Am« 
herst  of  Aracan  in  1826.    [Buhmbsb  Wak.] 

Ellis,  Proceeding*  of  the  late  EmJboMy  to  China, 
1817. 

Auhnnrt,  NiehoUui  (d.  1742),  was  a 

writer  of  satires  and  political  papers  of  con- 
siderable ability.  He  publi^ed  a  caustic 
series  of  papers  in  1726  under  the  title,  Terra 
FiliuSf  intended  as  a  satire  on  the  University 
of  Oirford.  After  quitting  Oxford,  Amhurst 
devoted  himself  to  political  journalism,  attach- 
ing himself  to  the  opponents  of  Walpole.  He 
conducted  The  Craft sttutHy  a  political  journal, 
to  which  Bolingbroke  and  Pulteney  contri- 
buted largely.  Amhurst  was,  however,  neg- 
lected by  his  influential  friends,  and  died  m 
poverty  and  distress. 

Biogva^\ia  Britannica  ;  Wilson,  Hwrf.  of  Mev- 
cliant  Taylors'  School, 

Amiens,  Misb  of  (Januarv  23,  1264), 
was  the  award  pronounced  by  Louis  IX.  of 
France,  to  whom  the  question  as  to  the  obli- 
gation of  Henr}^  III.  to  observe  the  Provisions 
of  Oxford  haa  been  referred,  on  Dec.  16, 
1263.  Since  1261  the  baronial  part}'  had 
been  reduced  bv  desertions,  and  distracted  by 
Prince  Edward's  attitude  towards  their  cause 
in  1262,  and  by  disputes  and  jealousies 
among  themselves.  This,  with  the  fear  of 
Louis  openly  supporting  Henry  III.  with 
troops,  explains  their  forced  assent  to  an 
arbitration  which,  from  Louis*  character  and 
frequent  services  to  Henr}'',  could  onl^  issue 
one  way.  Influenced  by  hijB  strong  views  as 
to  the  kingly  office,  and  by  the  authority 
of  the  papal  bull,  possibly  also  by  the  ne- 
gotiations already  on  foot  for  the  papal 
appointment  of  his  brother  Charles  to  the 
crown  of  Naples,  Louis,  after  some  days' 
hearing  of  the  pleadings  on  either  side,  and 
perhaps  some  hesitation,  decided  completely 
for  his  brother  sovereign,  annulled  the  Pro- 
\'isions  of  Oxford,  especially  as  to  the  employ- 
ment of  aliens  in  England  and  the  royal 
appointment  of  sheriffs;  but  after  all  left  to 
the  barons  a  loophole  in  declaring  that  his 
decision  was  not  to  annul  any  of  the  ancient 
charters  or  liberties  of  the  realm.  In  March 
the  warfare  broke  out  which  ended  for  the  time 
in  Simon's  victorj'  at  Ijewcs.  Similar  arbi- 
trations were  frequent  about  this  period: 
even  the  day  before  Lewes,  the  barons  offered 


to  submit  all,  save  the  aliens  Question,  to  a 
new  body  of  arbitrators;  and  a  striking 
political  song  of  the  time  shows  the  general 
feeling,  even  in  the  national  party,  that  some 
compromise  must  be  accepted.  The  award 
had  the  effect  of  still  further  reducing  and 
weakening  Simon  de  Montfort's  party. 

The  documents  oonneoted  with  this  event  mre 
given  in  P^re  Daniel,  Hit^oire  de  France;  Bish- 
anger,  Chronicle  (Camden  Society) ;  Stnbbs, 
Select  Charlere,  See  also  the  Liber  de  Antiqui* 
Legibua ;  the  Royal  Letten  (Bolls  Series) ; 
Bymer's  Fadera  ;  Wright's  PoliUcal  Song»  (Bolls 
Series).  The  best  modem  accounts  are  in 
B^mont,  Simon  de  Montfort;  Blaanw,  BaroM' 
War ;  Fxothero,  Simon  de  Montfort.   [A.  L.  S.] 

Amiens,  Tbeatv  of  (March  25,  1802), 
between  England  and  France,  put  an  end  for 
the  time  to  the  great  warwhich  had  lasted  since 
1793.  The  mutual  losses  during  the  preced- 
ing years,  the  complete  supremacy  of  the 
EngUsh  fleet,  and  the  blow  g^ven  to  the 
northern  alliance  by  the  battle  of  Copenhagen, 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  the  defeats  inflicted 
on  England's  Continental  ally,  Austria,  in 
1800,  and  the  Treaty  of  Luneville,  which  she 
concluded  with  France,  Feb.  9, 1801,  led  both 
governments  to  desire  a  cessation  of  hostilities. 
The  treaty  was  the  work  of  the  Addington 
ministry.  In  the  pre\'ious  October  the  pre- 
Hminanes  had  been  agreed  to  and  signed,  but 
some  troublesome  negotiations  had  to  be  gone 
through,  before  it  was  finally  ratified  at 
Amiens,  by  Lord  Comwallis  on  the  part  of 
England,  and  bv  Joseph  Bonaparte,  assisted 
by  Talle}Tand,  Jor  France.  According  to  it, 
likigland  gave  up  all  its  conquests  but  Trinidad 
and  Cevlon.  The  Cape  of  Good  Hope  whs 
restored  to  the  Dutch,  but  was  to  be  a  free 
port.  Malta  was  to  go  back  to  the  Knights 
of  St  John,  under  the  guarantee  of  one  of 
the  great  powers.  *^(^t  article  est  le  plus 
important  de  tout  le  traits,  mais  aucune  des 
conditions  qu^il  renferme  n^a  ^te  exocutee; 
et  il  est  devenu  le  pretexte  d'une  guerre  qui 
s'est  renouvelee  en  1803,  et  a  dure  sans  inter* 
ruption  jusqu'en  1814  "  (Histoire  des  Traith, 
vi.  149).  Porto  Ferrajo  was  to  be  evacuated. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Republic  of  the  Ionian 
Islands  was  acknowledged ;  the  French  were 
to  withdraw  from  Naples  and  the  Roman 
States;  the  integrity  of  Portugal  was  to  be 
guaranteed;  Egypt  was  to  bo  restored  to 
the  Porte;  and,  finally,  the  Newfoundland 
fisheries  were  to  be  placed  on  the  same  footing 
as  they  held  before  the  war  began.  Theso 
terms,  as  noticed  above,  were  not  considered 
sufficiently  satisfactory  by  the  English ;  conse- 
quently  the  peace  was  of  ver}-  short  duration, 
war  being  declared  against  Bonaparte  in  1803. 

For  the  oomplicated  negotiations  which 
accompanied  the  Treaty,  aee  Koch  et  Schoell, 
Hwrf.  aee  Traiiie,  vi.,  chap.  xxxi. ;  Von  Sybel, 
B.i$t,  of  the  French  Revolution ;  Alison,  Hud,  of 
Europe;  Masaej,  Hid,  of  George  III,;  ilnnual 
Regigter,  1802.  [S.  J.  L.] 

AucoliteSf  The,  were  a  small  British 
tribe,  inhabiting  probably  part  of  Berkshire 


Abc 


(46) 


and   Oxfordshire.     Thoy  are  mentioned  by 
Caesar,  but  not  by  Ptolemy. 

Anemia  Moor,  Battle  of  (Feb.  17, 
lo4o),  was  fought  in  Roxburghshire,  between 
the  forces  of  Henry  VIII.,  headed  by  Sir  Ralph 
Evans  and  Sir  Brian  Latour,  and  the  Scots, 
under  the  Earl  of  Angus,  Scott  of  Buccleuch, 
and  the  Master  of  Hothes.  The  English  were 
completely  beaten,  owing  to  their  desertion  by 
the  Borderers  who  had  joined  them. 

Andorida  (Akdkedes-ceastbk),  the  name 
of  a  Roman  fortress  and  settlement  on  the 
Sussex  coast,  which  Camden  placed  at  New- 
endon,  in  Kent,  and  others  have  con^dered 
to  have  been  situated  at  Hastings,  Chichester, 
or  under  the  downs  near  Eastbourne,  where, 
in  1717,  Roman  pavements,  baths,  and  other 
remains  were  found.  Most  modem  autho- 
rities agree  in  placing  it  on  the  site  of  Feven- 
sey.  The  town  was  taken  and  burnt  by  the 
Saxons,  under  Ella,  in  491,  and  the  site  was 
a  desolate  ruin  in  the  time  of  Henry  of 
Huntingdon.  The  Forett  of  Afiderida  (An- 
dredes- weald)  was  the  great  belt  of  wood 
which  stretched  across  south-eastern  England 
through  Hampshire,  Kent,  and  Surrey,  having 
a  length  of  more  than  seventy,  and  in  some 
places  a  breadth  of  over  thirty,  miles.  The 
district  still  called  the  Weald  may  be  held  to 
mark  out  roughly  the  extent  of  the  closer 
portions  of  this  forest.     [Forests.] 

Henry  of  Htmtiugdou,  HM.  Anglor.,  ii.  §  10, 
Ac. ;  Lower,  Susmbb. 

Anderson,  Sir  Edmund  {b,  1540,  d,  1605), 
one  of  £lizabeth*s  judges,  was  employed  in 
the  prosecutions  of  the  Jesuits,  as  Queen's 
Sergeant,  1^81.  In  the  following  year  he 
was  made  Chief  Justice  of  the  Common  Pleas, 
an  office  which  he  retained  until  his  death. 
In  1'386  ho  tried  the  conspirators  in  Babing- 
ton's  plot,  and  was  one  of  the  commissioners 
at  the  trial  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  in  Oct., 
1586.  He  subsequently  tried  Davison  for  the 
issue  of  the  warrant. 

« 

Anderton,  William  (d.  1693),  was  a 

violent  Jacobite  pamphleteer,  in  the  reign  of 
William  III.  For  two  years  he  evaded  the 
government  agents,  but  was  at  length  traced 
to  a  house  near  St.  James's  Street.  He 
attempted  to  conceal  his  press,  but  it  was 
discovered,  together  with  a  tract  called 
Jtetnarks  on  the  Present  Confederacy  and  the 
Late  devolution.  He  was  indicted  for  high 
treason  before  Treby  at  the  Old  Bailey.  He 
denied  that  he  had  printed  the  libels.  It 
was  argued  in  his  favour,  moreover,  that,  as 
printing  was  unknown  in  the  reign  of  Edward 
III.,  it  could  not  be  construed  into  an  overt 
act  of  treason,  and  that,  under  the  statute  of 
that  sovereign,  a  further  distinction  ought  to 
be  made  between  the  author  of  a  treasonable 
pamphlet  and  the  man  who  merely  printed  it. 
He  was,  however,  found  guilty,  and  after 
being  kept  for  some  time  in  suspense,  in  the 


hope  that  he  would  betray  his  accomplices, 

was  executed. 

Cobbett'a  State  TnaU,  xii.  1216;  Balph,  Hiat. 
of  Eng.  under  WiXUam  III.,  fto. 

Andre,  Msgor  John  (^.  1751 ,  (/.1 780),  was 
the  son  of  a  London  merchant.  Entering  the 
army,  he  rose  rapidly.  He  was  appointed  to 
serve  under  General  Howe  in  America,  and, 
when  Sir  H.  Clinton  succeeded  Howe,  was  made 
adjutant-general.  His  tact  and  ability  in  this 
position  caused  him  to  be  selected,  in  the 
month  of  September,  1780,  to  superintend  the 
negotiations  for  the  surrender  of  West  Point, 
on  the  Hudson  Kiver.  The  man  he  had 
to  deal  with  on  the  other  side  was  Arnold, 
an  American  general  whose  ambition  was  not 
satisfied  with  his  position.  An  arrangement 
was  made  between  the  two  for  a  meeting,  to 
take  place  on  the  17th,  when  Washington 
would  be  absent.  The  sloop  which  was  carry- 
ing Andr^  to  the  meeting-place  ran  aground, 
and  Arnold,  on  hearing  of  the  mishap,  refused 
to  come  down  himself,  but  sent  for  Andr^  to 
come  to  him.  Andr^,  on  his  return,  found 
the  sloop  gone,  and  could  not  induce  the 
boatmen  to  put  off  to  her.  He  accordingly 
returned  to  Arnold,  who  persuaded  him  to 
exchange  his  uniform  for  a  countryman's 
dress,  and  go  back  to  the  British  lijaes  by 
land.  He  accomplished  the  greater  part  of 
the  journey  in  safety,  and  was  already  in 
sight  of  the  British  lines,  when  he  was 
arrested,  and,  in  spite  of  Arnold's  passport, 
carried  back  to  Washington.  A  court  of 
inquiry  was  forthwith  held ;  Andre  was  found 
to  be  a  spy,  and  sentenced  to  death.  Wash- 
ington was  most  unwilling  to  carry  out  the 
sentence,  and  he  endeavoured  to  seize  Arnold, 
the  real  offender,  in  order  to  be  able  to  release 
Andre.  But  Arnold  was  not  to  be  found ; 
and  on  Oct.  2,  Andr6  met  his  fate  with  i^erfect 
composure.  Washington  himself  declaring 
that  he  was  more  jmf  ortimate  than  criminal. 
His  bones  were  afterwards  brought  to 
England,  and  have  been  interred  in  West- 
minster Abbey. 

J.  Sparks,  Life  of  Arnold;  DUt.  Nat.  Biog, 

Andros,  Sir  Edmund  {b.  1637,  d.  1713), 
became  gov^irnor  of  New  York  in  1674,  and 
in  1685  was  appointed  governor  of  New 
England  by  James  II.  His  administration 
was  so  unpopular  with  the  colonists  that,  in 
1688,  all  the  colonies  subject  to  him  revolted, 
and  he  was  sent  back  to  England  for  trial, 
but  acquitted.  In  1692  he  went  out  as 
governor  of  Virginia,  holding  the  office  with 
credit  to  himself  and  advantage  to  the  country 
until  1698. 

Aftgfti  was  the  name  of  a  gold  coin,  first 
introduced  into  England  in  1465.  The  value 
of  an  angel  was  originally  8s.  4d.,  but  in 
Edward  YI.'s  time  it  was  raised  to  lOs.  It 
derived  its  name  from  the  representation  of 
the  Archangel  ^lichael  which  appeared  on  it. 


(46) 


Ang 


Angels  continued  to  be  coined  down  to  the 
reign  of  Charles  I.     [Coinaob.] 

JkSkgBvinMf  The,  sometimes  called  Plan- 
tag  bnets.  Anjou  first  l)ecame  connected 
with  England  by  the  marriage,  in  1127,  of 
Matilda,  daughter  of  Henry  I.,  with  Geoffrey 
v.,  Count  of  Anjou.  Their  son  Honrj'  be- 
came King  of  England,  as  well  as  C'ount  of 
Anjou.  Anjou  remained  united  to  England 
till  1205,  when  Philip  Augustus  conquered 
it,  and  annexed  it  to  the  French  crown.  For 
a  short  time,  during  the  reigns  of  Henry  V. 
and  Henry  VI.,  it  was  again  united  to  Eng- 
land; but  in  1444  the  latter  king,  on  his 
marriage  with  Margaret  of  Anjou,  ceded  his 
claims.  The  Angevin  rulers  fiUed  as  great  a 
s])ace  in  the  history  of  the  ^liddle  Ages 
lis  the  Hapsburgs  have  done  in  more  modem 
times.  The  first  Count  of  Anjou  was  Fulk 
the  Ked,  who  at  tbe  end  of  the  ninth  century 
was  thus  rewarded  for  his  services  against 
the  Northmen.  But  by  the  twelfth  century, 
when  the  petty  counts  had  added  Saintonge, 
Maine,  and  Touraine  to  their  territory,  men 
began  to  throw  their  origin  further  back,  into 
legends  of  an  heroic  champion,  Ingelger,  son 
of  the  wild  Breton  hunter,  Tortull;  and  ac- 
counted for  that  fitful  energy  and  successful 
unscrupulousness  which  marked  the  whole 
race,  by  tales  of  an  ancestress,  who  had 
l)een  an  evil  spirit  or  a  witch  in  guise  of 
a  lovely  countess.  In  Fulk  the  Grooa  there 
appears  the  other  side  of  the  Angevin 
character :  the  literar}'',  poetic,  and  artistic 
tastes  strong  in  Hem^  III.  and  Edward  III., 
in  Richard  I.  and  Kichard  II.,  and  partly 
shared  bv  Henry  II.  and  John;  the 
capacity  for  business  and  the  organising 
power  which  disting^shed  Henry  II.  and 
Edward  I.  So,  too,  the  physical  prowess  of 
Richard  I.  was  an  inheritance  from  his  an- 
cestor, Geoffrey  Cb«ygown,  the  third  count ; 
while  the  fourth  count,  Fulk  the  Black,  in 
his  successful  adventurousness,  his  restless 
pilgrimages  to  Jerusalem,  his  cruel  revenges 
on  his  wife  and  son,  seems  to  anticipate 
familiar  stories  of  our  own  Plantagenet  kings. 
WithFulk*s  son,  Geoffrey  Hartel,  the  original 
Angevin  line  ends,  to  be  continued  by  his 
daughter's  marriage  with  Geoffrey  of  the 
House  of  Orleans.  Their  son,  Fulk  Rechin, 
**  to  whom  alone  it  is  due  that  the  charge  of 
trickery  is  urged  against  this  fazmly," 
brought  upon  himself  many  enenues  and  some 
disasters.  The  next  count,  Fulk  the  Yoimg, 
had  already  secured  IVIaine  by  marriage ;  and 
his  successor,  Geoffrey  the  Handsome,  called 
Plantagenet,  by  his  marriage  with  the  Em- 
press Matilda,  heiress  to  Henry  I.  of  England, 
raised  to  its  climax  the  long  advancement  of 
his  house.  Their  son,  Henr>'  II.  of  England, 
succeeded,  in  1151,  to  Anjou,  Maine,  and 
Touraine  from  his  father,  and  Normandy 
from  his  mother,  and  received,  in  1152, 
Poitou,  Limoges,   Auvergne,    Guienne,  and 


Gascony,  with  Eleanor,  the  divorced  wife  of 
Louis  of  France.  He  was  crowned  King  of 
England  in  1154,  made  himself  Lord  of  Ire- 
land in  1171,  exacted  full  homage  from  the 
captive  King  of  Scots  in  1174,  and  obtained 
for  his  second  son,  Geoffrey,  the  succession  to 
Brittany  by  marriage.  In  1170  Anjou  was 
set  apart,  with  Maine  and  Normandy,  to 
form  a  temporary  dominion  for  his  eldest 
son,  Henr}%  as  Aquitaine  was  for  Richard, 
Brittany  for  Geoffrey,  and  Ireland  for  John. 
But  with  the  accession  of  John  "  Lack- 
land," Anjou,  like  most  of  the  other  French 
possessions  of  the  English  crown,  passed 
to  Philip  of  France  in  1202.  Before  this, 
Ralph  06  Diceto,  finding  a  pious  explana- 
tion for  the  success  which  haa  now  reached 
such  a  height,  had  declared  "  the  prophecy 
made  to  Fulk  the  Grood  by  the  leper  whom 
he'  carried  so  piously  (and  who  was  none 
other  than  the  Saviour  Himself),  that  his 
seed  should  prosper  to  the  ninth  generation, 
is  being  fulfilled."  But  most  men  spoke 
otherwise  of  the  Angevins.  Tlius  Giraldus 
Cambrensis,  not  content  with  recounting  their 
diabolic  origin,  St.  Bernard's  prediction  of 
their  curse,  and  Richard  CoDur  de  Lion's 
gloomy  acceptance  of  it  ("  Let  us  fight ;  son 
with  father,  brother  with  brother;  it  is  in- 
stinct in  our  family:  from  the  devil  we  all 
came,  to  the  devil  we  shall  all  go  "),  draws 
out  furthermore  the  calanutous  end  of 
all  the  offspring  of  Eleanor,  as  a  vengeance 
foretold  for  her  parents'  adulterous  imion; 
he  recites  the  visions  which  warned  holy  men 
of  the  punishment  reserved  for  Henry  II. 's 
sins  against  the  Church,  and  pointis  the 
moral  of  the  breakdown  of  that  great  king's 
empire,  after  all  his  subtle  schemes  and  his 
toilsome,  gainful  life,  before  the  divinely - 
favoured  royal  house  of  France.  This  indeed 
was  the  feeling  which  many  men  had  about 
the  Angevins;  not  without  some  reason. 
"  They  remind  us,"  says  Dr.  Stubbs, "  of  those 
unhappy  spirits  who,  throughout  the.  Middle 
Ages,  were  continually  spending  superhuman 
strength  in  building  in  a  night  inaccessible 
bridge  and  uninhabitable  castles,  or  purchas- 
ing with  untold  treasures  souls  that  might  have 
been  had  for  nothing,  and  invariably  cheated 
of  their  reward."  There  is,  indeed,  in  all  the 
English  kings  of  this  race,  even  in  Edward  I., 
something  of  this  waste  of  vast  energies  upon 
futile  results,  which  are  no  sooner  g^rasped 
than  they  crumble  in  the  hand.  They  had 
not,  with  all  their  insight,  that  rare  g^t  of 
penetrating  to  the  real  heart  of  their  age, 
the  gift  that  only  s>Tnpathy  with  it  can 
g^ve.  Even  Edwaid.  I.  could  not  see  that 
he  was,  in  his  own  despite,  making  of 
Scotland  what  he  had  already  made  of 
England — a  self-governing  patriotic  nation. 
Yet  to  this  dynasty  England  owes  much. 
Henrj'  II.  not  only  finally  defeated  the  feudal 
class  by  superseding  its  privileged  jurisdic- 
tion, by  subduing  it  to  his  strong  centralised 


Ang 


(*n 


system,  bywithdrawing  its  military  basis,  but 
he  also  set  up  a  counterpoise  to  it  in  the 
revived  popular  courts,  in  the  developed  use 
of  local  juries,  in  the  reconstituted  national 
militia,  in  the  leg^aUsed  liberties  of  the  towns. 
In  a  word,  he  began  the  varied  training  of  the 
Fnglinh  people  to  co-operation  in  the  work 
of  government,  which  Edward  I.  took  up  and 
carried  on  to  its  completion.  Moreover, 
the  ver}'  tyranny  and  neglect  of  the  other 
kings  were  direct  instruments  of  benefits 
never  intended.  Richard  I.'s  careless  absence 
and  heavy  exactions  left  his  ministers  free  to 
expand  the  principles  bequeathed  them  from 
Henry  XL's  reign.  A  still  greater  debt  of 
g^titude  we  owe  to  the  misgovemment  of 
John,  the  worst  of  the  line,  inasmuch  as 
it  alone  supplied  the  pressure  which  could 
force  the  baronage  for  the  first  time  to  act 
with  and  for  Church  and  people,  and  produced 
the  coalition  which  extoriked  the  Great 
Charter.  Henry  III.'s  shiftiness  recalled  this 
coalition  into  action  so  often  that  it  became 
a  permanent  union.  The  second  Edward's 
fikuure  taught  the  nation  that  a  vigorous 
kingship  was  still  a  requisite  of  political 
stability,  to  control  the  baronage,  and  to  be 
the  working  head  of  the  government.  Ed- 
ward III.,  in  his  selfish  haSte  for  the  means 
of  warfare  and  ostentation,  sold  away  the 
crown's  power  of  extra-parliamentary  mter- 
ference  m  taxation  and  legislation.  And 
Kichard  II.*s  imsnccessful  attempt  at  abso- 
lutism precipitated  the  downfall  of  preroga- 
tive, and  ^ve  constitutional  government 
sixty  years  m  which  to  strike  its  roots  down 
too  deep  even  for  the  destroying  hand  of 
Yorkist,  Tudor,  and  Stuart  kings  to  kill  tiieir 
latent  life.  And  it  is  to  the  st^m  peace  kept 
by  the  Angevin  kings,  to  their  repression  of 
private  iustice  and  private  war,  to  their  firm 
bat  pruaent  attitude  to  the  Church,  that  we 
owe  the  early  rise  of  English  literature  and 
philosophy,  the  great  age  of  the  English 
Church,  the  enfranchisement  of  the  peasantry, 
the  populous  independence  of  the  towns,  the 
)<rowth  of  wool-trade  and  maritime  commerce. 
All  the  Angevins  were  men  of  strong  but  con- 
flicting character;  none  were  without  physical 
bravery,  bodily  activity,  passionate  emotions. 
Even  the  worst  were  men  who  superstitiously 
respected  some  forms  of  religion,  while  they 
violated  its  spirit :  like  Henry  II.,  jesting  and 
drawing  pictures  at  mass,  but  dying  before  the 
chapel  altar  at  Chinon  ;  or  Richard,  alter  an 
agony  of  repentance  for  his  sins,  recovering, 
to  plunge  into  them  afresh.  All  inflicted,  and 
in  turn  suffered,  the  ancestral  curse,  the  pang^ 
of  filial  or  fraternal  ingratitude.  None  are  con- 
temptible, save,  perhaps,  Henr>'  III. ;  none, 
save  John,  fail  to  win  some  sympathy'.  They 
must  remain  to  us  as  they  were  to  their  con- 
temporaries— a  marvellous  race,  with  many 
elements  of  greatness,  with  immense  personal 
endowments,  and  a  certain  mj^terious  shadow 
hanging  over  all ;  whose  work,  to  which  they 


sacrificed  their  peace  and  domestic  happiness, 
and  too  often  their  conscience  and  fame,  for 
the  most  part  was  destined  to  pass  away,  but 
through  whom  other  results  were  brought 
about,  destined  to  be  of  incalculable  value  and 
indestructible  permanence. 


▲lOKVIN  KlKOS  OF  EnOLAVD. 


HeniylL 
Siehudl. 
John    .    . 
HenxyllL 


1154— U80 
118»— 1199 
1199—1216 
1216-1272 


Edwvdl.  . 
Edward  II.  . 
Edward  m. 
Richard  II. . 


1272-130r 
1807—1327 
1327-1877 
1877—1399 


ChroniquM  d'Anjou,  with  pralkoe  bj  M. 
MabiUe,  1871 ;  the  works  of  Benediotiis  Abbas, 
Soger  de  Hoveden,  Balph  de  Dioeto,  William  of 
Newbnrgh,  Itinerarium  Regis  Rieardi  (in  the 
BoUs  Series),  Walter  of  Coventrr.Hatthew  Paris, 
GixalduB  Cambrensis  (eepeeiallv,  his  De  Ifwtttw* 
tione  Principum),  and  Balph  Niger.  See  also 
Lingard,  Hid,  qf  Em.;  Hallam,  Mid.  Agn; 
Stnbbs,  Coiutittttional  HMory;  Dr.  Panli, 
GtHAtitMe  von  EnyZand  (from  Edward  L  to 
Bichard  n.):  Longman,  hift  and  TimM  of 
Rdvtard  III.;  M.  Wallon,  Bichard  if. 

[A.  L.  S.] 

AnfflMff  The.  If  identity  of  name  and 
^neraT  probability  be  held  fair  proofiB  of 
identity  of  race,  the  Angles  (Angli,  Anglii)^ 
after  whom  this  land  is  called,  are  first  men- 
tioned in  the  G^rmania  of  Tacitus  (written 
about  A.D.  98),  seemingly  as  dwellers  on  the 
&rther  side  of  the  Elbe.  But  in  Tacitus*s- 
page  they  are  merely  one  among  a  num- 
ber of  obscure  names  of  German  peoples. 
They  would  seem,  however,  to  have  been 
then  in  motion  westwards;  fifty  years  later 
Ptolemy  found  them  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
same  nver,  in  occupation  of  a  territory  con- 
jectured to  be  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
modem  town  of  Magdeburg.  But  neither  did 
they  remain  here ;  by  the  fourth  century,  if 
not  earlier,  they  had  established  themselves  on 
the  neck  of  the  northern  peninsula,  now 
Jutland,  and  filled  the  district  that  is  now 
known  as  Schleswig,  but  which  an  English 
writer  of  the  tenth  century  (Ethelward) 
names  Anglia  Vetuty  or  Old  England.  And 
Bede,  in  calling  this  country  of'  theirs  An- 
ffuluSf  suggests  a  hint  regarding  the  origin  of 
their  name,  which  a  weighty  authority.  Dr. 
Guest,  has  not  scrupled  to  take,  speaking  of 
l^eir  Continental  home  as  "  Ongle,*'  and  ap- 
parently looking  upon  them  as  "  men  of  the 
comer.*'  Next  to  nothing  is  told  us  of  the 
Angles  in  written  history.  Scholars  are,  how- 
ever, satisfied  that  they  were  of  the  LoW' 
German  stock,  and  were  closely  akin  to,  yet 
distinct  from,  the  Saxons,  haidng  a  speech 
that,  though  essentially  the  same  as  the  Saxon, 
was  not  BO  far  removed  from  the  High- 
Gtorman,  and  showed  more  frequent  marks  of 
Scandinavian  influence.  But,  like  the  Saxons, 
they  were  of  pure  German  type ;  Roman 
civUisation  had  never  reached  them.  A 
legal  code,  the  Laws  of  the  Anglii  and 
Werini,  presumably  belonging  to  them^ 
and  as  old  as  the  eighth  century,  survives 
as  a  record  of  native  usages  in  an  inter- 
mediate stage  between  those  of  the  Oirmania 


Anff 


(48) 


and  of  the  earliest-known  English  system. 
En  the  sixth  century,  at  various  but  un- 
known dates,  and  by  many  but  unconnected 
expeditions,  the  Angles  crossed  over  to 
Britain,  and  conquered  to  their  own  use  the 
whole  of  the  east  coast,  from  the  Stour  to  the 
Forth.  Pui^ing  steadily  their  encroach- 
ments westwards,  and  slaying,  expelling,  or 
enslaving  the  bidk  at  least  of  the  natives, 
they  eventually  formed  several  powerful 
kingdoms,  and  not  a  few  smaller  states — 
fought  and  prospered  until  two-thirds  of  the 
conquered  land  had  passed  into  their  posses- 
sion. This  great  movement  is  believed  to 
have  caused  an  exhaustive  migration  of  the 
race ;  Bede  is  our  authority  for  a  report  that 
their  fatherland  was  without  inhabitants  even 
in  his  time.  Yet  some  will  have  it  that  their 
name  still  abides  there  in  the  local  term, 
Angeln,  In  Britain,  liiough  they  just  missed 
Avinning  political  supremacy,  they  fixed  their 
name  ineffaceably  on  the  whole  German 
population  and  the  land  it  lived  in.  Many 
have  speculated  upon,  but  none  plained  any 
flolid  knowledge  of,  their  distinguishing  cha- 
racteristics; it  would  seem,  however,  that 
wherever  they  differed  from  their  Saxon 
brethren,  they  more  nearly  resembled  their 
Danish  cousins. 

Elton,  Onjfifu  of  JSimImK  Ri^orUf  ch.  zii. ; 
Stnbbs,  CoiutituCimuil  A utory,  oh.  lii. ;  Skene, 
Celtic  ScotZcmd,  book  i.,  oh.  !▼. ;  and  the  works 
of  Tacitus,  Ptolemj,  and  Bede.  [J.  R.] 

Anglesey  (Latin,  Mona  ;  Welsh,  M6n), 
an  island  and  county  of  North  Wales,  was 
in  the  earliest  times  celebrated  as  the  head- 
quarters of  Druidism,  and  therefore  of  resist- 
Ance  to  the  Romans.  It  was  conquered  by 
8uetonius  Paulinus  in  a.d.  61,  and  again  more 
thoroughly  by  Agricola  in  78.  On  the  with- 
drawal of  the  Romans,  it  became  the  centre 
of  the  power  of  the  kings  of  North  Wales,  or 
Gwynedd,  and  Gildas  calls  the  famous  Mael- 
gwn  "insularis  draco."  Yet  it  was  conquered, 
with  much  other  Welsh  territory,  by  Edwin 
of  Northumbria  (Bede,  ii.  6),  and  perhaps 
this  Anglian  conquest  explains  Nennius — 
'*  Mona  insula  quad  Anglice  ]Englesei  vocatur  id 
est  insula  Anglorum"  (Mon,  HUt.Brit,,  52  D.). 
But  Northumbria  soon  fell,  and  the  "  isle  of 
the  English "  became  Welsh  again.  It  con- 
tuned  Aberffraw,  the  chief  palace  of  the 
king^  of  Gwynedd.  During  the  ninth,  tenth, 
and  eleventh  centuries,  it  was  repeatedly 
ravaged  by  the  Danes,  who  very  probably 
effected  permanent  settlements  in  it.  After 
the  Norman  Conquest,  it  became  the  battle- 
ground of  Irish  Dane,  native  Welsh,  and 
Norman  adventqrers.  Under  William  Ruf  us, 
it  was  more  than  once  captured  by  Earl  Hugh 
of  Chester,  when  ^*the  French  reduced  all 
to  be  Saxons"  (Brut-y'TyB.^  sub  an.  1096). 
Again,  in  1098,  it  was  the  scene  of  the  exploits 
of  Magnus  of  Norway,  and  of  the  death  of 
Hugh.  But  it  soon  got  back  its  liberty, 
and    has    retained    to   this    day    that   in- 


tensely Welsh  character  (^*Mdn  mam 
Cymru")  which  makes  its  name  so  mis- 
leading. It  continued  the  home  of  the 
princes  of  North  Wales  until  the  fall  of 
Llewelyn  ap  GrufPydd  annexed  the  princi- 
pality to  the  crown,  and  it  was  erected  into  a 
reg^ular  county  by  Henry  VIII.  [Counties, 
Welsh.] 

Bowhind's  Jfona  Afdiqua  RmAawnda  hopelesalj 
confoBes  the  history  with  fable.  A  Hutory  of 
AngUtty  (London,  1775)  is  little  better.  Tho 
chief  fkcts are  in  MinWilliama'HMoryo/TFalM, 
and  Freeman,  IFiUiam  fiti/iM,  vi.  187,  aeq. 

[T.  F.  T.] 

Axkf\M«Jm  Pberaob  op.  In  1628  Sir 
Francis  Annesley,  of  Newport  Pagnell,  Bucks, 
was  created  Baron  Mount  N  orris  in  the  peer- 
age of  Ireland,  and  Viscount  Yalentia.  It 
was  this  nobleman  who  was  arbitrarily  tried 
and  condemned  to  death  by  Straffoni,  when 
Lord -Deputy  in  1636.  Arthur,  second 
Viscount  Valentia  (1614—1686),  was,  in 
1645,  sent  as  Commissioner  to  Ulster  to 
oppose  Owen  Roe  O'Neil.  After  the  death 
of  Cromwell,  he  was  President  of  the  Council 
of  State,  and  took  a  considerable  share  in 
bringing  aliout  the  Restoration.  In  1660  he 
was  created  Earl  of  Anglesey  in  the  peerage 
of  England.  During  the  life  of  Richard, 
sixth  Earl  of  Anglesey,  the  title  and  estates 
were  claimed  by  James  Annesley,  who 
asserted  that  he  was  the  son  of  the  fourth 
Earl.  |]For  the  litigation  which  ensued  on 
this  daim,  see  Annbslby's  Case.]  As  a  result 
of  this  litigation,  it  was  held  that  the  earldom 
of  Anglesey  became  extinct  in  1761,  on  the 
death  of  the  sixth  Earl.  In  1815  the  title  of 
Marquis  of  Anglesey  was  conferred  on  Henry 
Paget,  Earl  of  Uxbndge. 

Anglesey,  Arthur  Annesley,  5th 

Eakl  op  (d.  1737),  held  several  posts  in 
Ireland  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne.  In  1711 
he  hastened  from  Ireland  to  take  part  in  the 
debates  on  the  war,  and  commented  severely 
on  the  exhaustion  of  the  country,  hinting 
that  Marlborough  had  averted  peace  from 
interested  motives.  Bat  on  a  subsequent  oc- 
casion he  attacked  the  ministry,  and  publicly 
apologised  for  the  part  he  had  played  in 
politics.  During  the  last  years  of  Queen 
Anne,  he  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  tho 
faction  of  Hanoverian  Tories,  whom  Swift 
calls  the  "  Whimsicals.''  He  was  one  of 
the  Lords  Justices  appointed  to  administer 
the  kingdom  between  the  death  of  Anne  and 
the  arrival  of  George  I. 

Anglesey,  Eanry  William  Paget. 

Iht  Marquis  of  (6. 1768,  d.  1854),  eldest  son  of 
Henry,  first  Earl  of  Uxbrid^e,  in  1794  served 
under  the  Duke  of  York  m  Flanders,  and 
again  in  Holland  in  1799,  as  colonel  of  a 
dragoon  regiment.  In  December,  1808,  he 
joined  Sir  John  Moore^s  force  as  a  major- 
general,  and  greatly  distinguished  himself  by 
the    manner   in  which  he  covered  the  dis- 


(49) 


Ang 


astrouB  retreat  of  the  British  army,  and  con- 
tributed in  no  small  measure  to  the  victor}' 
of  the  English  at  Corunna.  In  1806  he  was 
returned  to  Parliament  for  Milboume  Port, 
and  he  was  called  to  the  Upper  House  on  the 
death  of  his  father  in  1812.  In  the  campaign 
of  1815  the  Earl  of  Uxbridge  was  appointed 
to  the  command  of  the  cavahy.  At  Water- 
loo, where  he  led  the  heavy  brigade  in  the 
terrible  charge  which  overwhelmed  D'Erlon's 
division,  he  distinguished  himself  by  the  ut- 
most intrepidity.  In  the  battle  he  was 
wounded  in  the  leg,  which  was  obliged  to 
be  amputated.  For  his  services  he  was 
created  Marquis  of  Anglesey,  and  re<^eived 
the  thanks  of  both  Houses  of  Parliament. 
In  1827  he  was  appointed  Master-General  of 
the  Ordnance ;  and  in  1828  the  Wellington 
Cabinet  made  him  Viceroy  of  Ireland.  His 
advent  was  looked  forwfurd  to  with  much 
dread  in  Ireland,  owing  to  some  thoughtless 
remarks  he  had  once  made  as  to  using 
military  force  to  quell  disturbances.  But  he 
very  much  belied  the  anticipations  t.hat  had 
been  formed  of  him,  and  by  his  impartial 
conduct  and  strict  justice,  gained  great  popu- 
larity. His  views  on  Catholic  conancipa- 
tion,  of  which  he  was  a  strong  advocate, 
entirely  differed  from  the  policy  of  the 
Cabinet,  and  he  was  summarily  removed 
from  his  post,  to  the  great  regret  of  all 
classes  in  Ireland.  In  1830  he  was  again 
appointed  Lord-Lieutenant,  and  carried  on 
the  government  of  Ireland  till  the  dissolution 
of  Lord  Grey*s  government  in  1833.  In  1846 
he  was  made  a  field-marshal,  and  in  the 
same  year  once  more  became  Piaster-General 
of  the  Ordnance,  which  office  he  held  till 
1862,  when  he  retired  into  private  life  until 
his  death. 

Wdlingtan  Dnpatehes ;  Clark,  The  Georgian  Era. 

A-nglJ^^  East.     [East  Anglia.] 

A-nglio.  Saora  is  the  title  of  a  miscel- 
laneous collection  of  ecclesiastical  memorials, 
published  by  Dr.  Henry  Wharton,  in  two 
vols,  folio,  Lend.,  1691.  These  volumes  con- 
tain Eadmer's  "  Life  of  -^nselm,"  William  of 
Malmesbury's  "  Life  of  Aldhelm,"  John  of 
Salisbury's  **Life  of  Anselm,*'  and  other 
works  relating  more  particularly  to  the  early 
history  of  English  dioceses,  and  the  biography 
of  English  bishops. 

Anglo-Saxon  is  a  word  which  has  been 
commonly  applied  to  the  agg^^gate  of  the 
Teutonic  inhabitants  of  Britain  who  lived 
under  native  institutions,  up  to  the  date  of  the 
Norman  Conquest ;  to  the  earliest  form  of  the 
English  langpuage  of  which  memorials  survive; 
and,  by  a  curious  modem  usage,  to  the  sum 
total  of  the  men  of  English  spci^ch  and  origin, 
to  whatever  nation  they  may  belong,  who  are 
now  scattered  over  the  globe.  The  exact 
meaning  of  the  word  is  not  obvious.  Mr. 
Freeman  rules  '<  Anglo-Saxon  V  to  be  a  con- 


densation of  the  phrase  "  Angles  and  Saxons,*' 
construing  both  its  component  parts  as  nouns ; 
whilst  the  ablest  of  his  predecessors  has  taken 
the  compound  to  mean  ^*  properly  Saxons  of 
England,  as  distinguished  from  Saxons  of  the 
Continent,"  in  which  case  the  former  half  must 
have  the  force  of  an  adjective.  A  scrutiny  of 
the  oldest  forms  of  the  word,  whether  English 
or  Ijatin,  would  seem  to  justify  the  latter  con* 
elusion  rather  than  the  otiier.  These  forms 
are :  in  English,  Oagol^Saxna  and  Angul" 
Seaxna  ;  in  Ijatin,  Afigul-SojcoHM  and  Angli' 
Saxones,  Now,  if  Ongol  eyn  and  Angel  cyn  be 
—as  they  usually  are— -construed  into  "  EngHsh 
kin,"  we  cannot  easily  escape  the  necessity 
of  construing  Ongol'Sajce,  Angul-Seaxey  and 
Angul-Saxonts  into  '*  English  Saxons."  And 
the  Latin  form  seemingly  admits  of  the 
same  construction  more  readily  than  it  does 
that  of  *' Angles  and  Stucons."  Camden, 
therefore,  and  ^Ir.  Kemble  would  appear  to 
have  had  some  show  of  reason,  the  first  for 
naming  {Remaitu  concerning  Britain^  pp.  24, 
25)  the  inhabitants  of  England  before  the 
Norman  Conquest  "  English-Saxons,"  and 
their  tongue  *' English-Saxon,"  the  second 
for  calling  his  great  work  ^*  The  Saxont  in 
England."  On  the  other  hand,  Mr  Freeman's 
explanation  would  unquestionably,  if  language 
permitted  it,  be  a  far  more  satisfactory 
one.  An  Anglo-Saxon  king  was  certainly 
a  king  of  Angles  and  Saxons ;  the  popula- 
tion he  reigned  over  wbjs  composed  of 
Angles  of  the  north  and  east,  as  well 
as  Saxons  of  the  south  and  west.  It  is 
noteworthy,  however,  and  perhaps  signi- 
ficant, that  the  word  was  barely  recognised 
by  the  men  of  the  time  to  which  it  is  now  so 
often  given;  neither  in  the  Chronicle,  nor 
in  Ethelward — ^nor,  indeed,  in  any  purely 
native  English  historical  record — ^is  it  onco 
found.  So  long  as  these  men  were  distributed 
into  separate  states,  they  looked  upon  them- 
selves as  Saxons  or  as  Angles ;  when  they  foil 
into  political  unions  they  became,  when  con- 
templated as  members  of  one  community. 
Englishmen.  When  native  writers  would 
contrast  West-Saxons,  East-Anglians,  and 
Northumbrians  with  their  insiuar  foes  or 
continental  neighbours,  they  had  no  other 
designation  for  them  than  **  Engle,"  no 
other  for  their  speech  than  '^Englisc." 
This  is  the  first  reason  that  has  moved 
some  scholars  to  drop  this  and  every 
cognate  word  altogether  in  writing,  and  use 
'^  English  "  as  a  descriptive  epithet  of  every 
part  of  our  history  and  every  form  of  our 
language.  The  men  whom  Ed^;ar  and  Harold 
ruled  called  themselves  '*  English  kin ; "  even 
Alfred,  mere  King  of  West-Saxons  as  he  was, 
is  represented  in  the  Chronicle  as  having 
been  *'  King  of  all  the  English  kin  except  the 
part  that  was  under  the  wield  of  the  Danes." 
It  is  thought  better  to  call  the  people  as  they 
called  themselves.  And  undoubtedly  the 
name  has  led  to  misconceptions.    It  has  misled 


Ang 


(60) 


JLug 


people  into  thinking  that  their  forefathers 
were  not  their  forefathers,  that  the  nation 
which  was  (temporarily)  overthrown  at  Senlac 
was  not  the  same  nation  that,  750  years 
later,  overthrew  Napoleon ;  into  thinking 
the  language  of  the  Chronicle  a  different 
tongue  from  the  lang^iage  of  Carlylo.  "  The 
unhistorical  and  conventional  term  Anglo- 
Saxon  conveys,"  says  Sir  F.  Palgrave,  *'a  most 
false  idea  of  our  civil  history.  It  disguises 
the  continuity  of  afEairs,  and  substitutes  the 
api>earance  oi  a  new  formation  in  place  of  a 
progressive  evolution."  On  the  other  hand, 
it  is  urged  that  as  regards  the  language,  at 
1  last,  the  name  is  necessary.  To  insist  upon 
calling  both  the  earliest  and  latest  forms 
of  our  literary  language'  "English,"  is 
to  assert  identity  whore  there  is  no  identity ; 
to  prevent  misconception,  therefore,  we  must 
alter  the  name  either  of  our  own  or  of  Al- 
fred's tongue.  To  do  the  second  were  not 
easy.  But  those  earlier  were  the  days 
of  Angles  and  Saxons,  if  ever  Angles  and 
Saxons  were ;  it  surely  ought  to  be  at  least 
fairly  accurate  to  speak  of  their  written  lan- 
guage as  the  Anglo-Saxon  form  of  English. 
And  as  to  the  people — seeing  that  during 
those  dayn  the  Angles  and  Saxons,  though 
coalescing,  had  not  yet  coalesced  into  a  well- 
blended  national  unity — there  is  perhaps 
no  intolerable  error  in  describing  their  era 
as  the  Anglo-Saxon  stage  in  the  history  of 
the  English  nation. 

Freeman,  Nomutn  Conqu49t,  esp.  vol.  i.,  ap- 
pendix, note  A ;  Marsh,  Ori^n  and  Hi»t.  of  the 
BhM.  Lanauage,  sect.  ii. ;  Kemble,  Saxons. 

[J.  R.] 

Antflo-Saacon  CUiroiiiclo  is  the  name 
given  to  an  historical  document  of  the  very 
first  importance  for  the  whole  earlier  portion 
of  English  history.  It  is  in  the  form  of 
annals,  beginning  with  the  Christian  era, 
and  terminating  at  various  dates  in  the  various 
copies,  the  most  prolonged  ending  with  1154. 
The  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  is  sometimes 
spoken  of  in  the  plural,  as  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicles ;  and  each  form  of  expression  may 
be  justified.  The  extant  copies  are  so  mr 
alike  in  their  contents  that  they  can  be  re- 
gpirded  as  variations  of  a  common  original, 
such  hypothetical  original  being  a  compilation 
made  in  the  ninth  century.  But  the  diver- 
gences are  great  even  within  this  earlier 
part,  and  they  tend  in  the  continuations  to  a 
separation  so  wide  as  to  produce  in  some 
cases  a  total  independence  of  one  another 
before  the  close.  No  one  can  really  study 
this  document  without  finding  that  there  is 
at  least  equal  propriety  in  the  plural  designa- 
tion. 

Mttnv»cript» :  There  are  six  mannscripte,  and 
some  fragments  of  a  seventh.  These  manuscripts 
have  been  designated  by  the  letters  A,  B.C.  D,  E, 
F,  G.  They  have  each  and  all  been  identified  (at 
least  proximately)  with  one  or  other  of  the 
great  religions  houses  of  the  southern  port  of 
the  islind.  The  first  (A)  has  been  assigned  to 
Winchester ;  the  second  (B)  was  probably  com- 


piled at  St.  AngoatineJ's,  Canterbury ;  the  third 

(C)  is  manifestly  from  Abix^gdon;  the  fourth 

(D)  from  Worcester ;  the  fifth  (E)  is  from  Peter- 
borough, and  is  the  most  distinotly  local  of  the 
whole  series :  the  sixth  [¥),  in  the  two  Isngnage^ 
Latin  and  Saxon,  is  from  Canterbury.  The 
seventh  (Q)  is  litUe  more  than  a  late  copy  of  A. 
Of  this  last  manuscript  only  three  leaves  have 
escaped  the  fire  of  ItSI  ;  but  this  loss  is  alle- 
viated by  the  fact  that  this  manuscript  has  been 
printed  in  fulL  and  without  admixture,  by 
whekxs  (Cambridge,  1648).  The  pUuses  of  de- 
posit of  these  mannscriptis  are  as  foUows : — A, 
m  Corpus  Christ!  College,  (Cambridge ;  B,  C,  D, 
F,  Q,  m  the  Cotton  Library,  Brituh  Museum ; 
E,  in  the  Bodleian. 

Of  all  these  manuscripts,  the  Peterborough 
Cnironide  (E)  is  the  one  of  which  the  date  and 
occasion  of  its  production  has  been  most  satis- 
factorily made  out.  There  was  a  great  fire  at 
Peterborough  in  August.  1116,  which  destroyed 
all  the  monastery  except  the  chapter-house  and 
the  dormitory ;  most  ox  the  town  was  burnt  also. 
All  the  books  were  probably  lost.  Five  years 
later,  in  1121,  we  find  this  new  Chronicle,  which 
must  have  taken  time  to  collect  and  compile, 
brought  down  to  the  date  of  the  current  year  in 
one  handwriting.  A  new  hand  continues  the 
history  in  1122.  We  know  from  other  sources 
that  this  was  counted  an  epoch  at  Peterborough. 
The  Latin  Chrontoon  Petrcburgente  (Camden 
Society),  of  which  the  object  was  to  describe 
the  administration  of  Abbot  Bobert,  which  dates 
firom  1274,  begins  with  1122. 

Division  of  ContmU:  The  first  five  hundred 
years  is  a  litezaxv  compilation,  made  at  a  com- 
paratively late  date,  Rom  Latin  authorities; 
then  follows  a  mixed  period  down  to  a.d.  TSJL  iu 
which  the  greatest  part  is  from  Bede,  with  a  few 
original  aimals  interapersed.  These  annals  are 
the  earliest  material  proper  to  the  Saxon 
Chronicle.  From  this  date  onwards,  our  Chroni- 
cles are  the  highest  source  for  nearly  all  the 
history  they  contain.  As  a  whole,  the  (chroni- 
cles belong  to  the  south,  but  there  is  an  impor- 
tant exception  to  this  genoral  character,  m  a 
series  of  annals  between  ▲.n.  737  and  806,  em- 
bodied in  the  Worcester  Chronicle  (D),  snd 
manifestly  derived  from  Northumbrian  and 
Mercian  souvoes,  not  otherwise  known.  The 
best  and  strongest  writing  appears  with  a 
natural  propriety  in  the  reigns  of  Ethelred  and 
Alfred,  the  greatest  crisis  of  the  national  life. 
In  1066  we  msjr  be  struck  with  the  fact  that 
only  one  Chronicle  (p)  describes  the  battle  of 
Hastings.  A  new  and  peculiar  interest  attaches 
to  the  later  continuations  of  the  Peterborough 
Chronicle  (E).  Here  we  see  the  language  ad' 
mltting  gradual  changes,  and  this  goes  with 
other  points  of  interiuGd  evidence  to  link  the 
records  very  closely  with  the  events. 

The  earliest  Latin  historians  are  in  close  rela- 
tion with  the  Saxon  Chronicles.  Florence  of 
Worcester,  who  died  In  1118,  and  whose  latest 
annal  is  1117,  is  for  a  large  part  of  his  work 
simply  a  translator  of  these  Chronicles,  espe- 
cially of  D.  Asser  is  indebted  to  A.  Henry  of 
Huntingdon  made  large  use  of  the  Sueou 
Chronicles ;  and  where  he  deviates  from  them 
his  credit  is  deteriorated  thereby.  In  general, 
it  msy  be  asserted  that  the  enstence  of  the 
Saxon  (Thronides  tends  greatly  to  increase  our 
confidence  in  the  early  Latin  annalists.  When 
we  see  how  closely  thev-  have  for  the  most  vaxt 
followed  these  vemacnlar  annals,  we  are  able  to 
feel  assured  that  in  instances  where  vernacular 
authority  fails,  it  was  probably  possessed  by  the 
Latin  historian.  This  is  the  ease  where  Simeon 
of  Durham  produces  materials  that  we  have  no 
other  trace  of,  and  which  is  therefore  attributed 
to  some  lost  northern  chronicles. 

Edition*!  After  Wheloc,  the  next  editor  was 
Oibson  (Oxford,  1692),  who  constructed  a  text 
^  a  collation  of  several  manuscripts.  Both 
Wheloc  and  Gibson  gave  Latin  translations. 


(51) 


Ang 


Knd  Gibson's  is,  for  the  time,  excellent.  The  first 
trBB&lation  into  English  was  by  Miss  Gumey. 
It  was  privately  and  anonymously  printed 
(Norwich,  1819).  The  next  edition  was  in  1828, 
by  Dr.  Insram,  with  English  parallel  to  the 
Saxon.  The  next  edition  appeased  in  the  folio 
Monumenta  HistorieaBritanmca  (1846)  :  and  here 
the  plan  of  a  composite  text  was  carried  to  its 
extreme  perfection.  That  plan  has  since  been 
abandoned.  In  1861  appeared  the  BoUs  edition, 
by  Thorpe,  where  au  the  texts  are  printed 
parallel  in  vol.  i.,  with  a  translation  in  vol.  ii. 
in  1865  came  Two  Saxon  Cl^ronicles  ParaUcI,  with 
SupvUvMntary  ExtracU  from  the  Others,  ed.  J. 
Earle :  Clarendon  Press,  Oxford. 

Lappenberg*   Onehiehte  von  Bngland,  Litera- 
riaehe  ExnUitung,  Tp.  xlix.;  ArehaeologioalJoumal^ 

S&pers  by  1^>  Guest,  Mr.  Freeman,  and  Dr. 
tnbbs ;  Introductions  to  Mon.  Hitt.  Biit.,  and  to 
Earle's  Two  Sax.  Chron.  ParalM.        [J.  E.] 

Anglo  -  Saacon    Kingdoms.     Much 

that  specially  distinguishes  the  development 
of  our  national  history  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  English  Conquest  was  carried  out,  not  by 
a  single  people  or  confederation  of  peoples, 
but  by  independently-acting  bodies  of  adven- 
turers who  were  sprung  from  a  common  stock, 
and  had  been  living  for  ages  under  similar 
institutions.  For  thus  it  came  about  that» 
when  the  success  of  the  long  series  of  separate 
invasions  was  assured,  and  at  least  half  of 
Britain  south  of  the  isthmus  of  Forth  and 
Clyde  had  received  an  English  population, 
and  passed  imder  the  sway  of  the  English 
system  of  rule,  this  newly-subjugated  land  was 
necessarily  divided  among  a  large  number  of 
distinct,  almost  isolated,  kingdoms  and  states. 
By  the  last  quarter  of  the  sixth  century, 
all  the  eastern  and  southern  coast,  from  Queens- 
ferry  to  Portland  Bill,  formed  an  exclus- 
ive sea-board  for  an  Anglian,  Saxon,  Frisian, 
and  Jutish  territory,  while  a  traveller  might 
still  make  his  way  from  Stirling  to  the  shores 
of  West  Bay  entirely  through  Celtic  land, 
without  having  once  to  cross  tidal  water  save 
at  the  point  where  the  Severn  broadens  into 
the  Bristol  Channel.  But  the  line  that  parted 
the  two  races  was  somewhat  irregular,  and, 
owing  to  incessant  warfare  between  them, 
oontinaall}'  changing.  In  the  upper  reaches 
of  the  English  side  of  the  island,  two  king- 
doms had  established  themselves — Bemicia 
(Welsh,  Bryneichj  the  country  of  the  hr(iea) 
and  Deira  {Deifyr),  stretching,  the  former 
from  the  Forth  to  the  Tees,  the  latter  from 
the  Tees  to  the  Humber.  These  are  both 
usually  reckoned  among  the  states  founded  by 
the  Angles,  though  certain  inquirers  profess 
to  have  detected  a  Frisian  element  in  their 
population.  Below  the  Humber  a  cluster  of 
Anglian  settlements  —  Qainas,  Lindiswaras, 
Mercians,  Middle  Angles,  and  others — covered 
a  broader  area  of  considerable  but  indefinable 
length,  and  would  seem  to  have  been  already 
consolidating  into  the  ^at  kingdom  of  the 
Marchland,  or  Mercia.  East  Anglia  filled  the 
space  between  the  lower  half  of  the  Mercian 
land  and  the  eastern  sea,  and  had  the  Stour 
as  its    southern    boundar}-.      Between    the 


Stour  and  the  Thames  dwelt  the  East  and 
the  Middle  Saxons,  already,  it  would  appear, 
united  into  a  single  kingdom.    Westward  to 
the  lower  Severn  and  the  Forest  of  Selwood, 
and  southward  to  the  English  Channel,  spread 
the  kingdom  of  the  West-Saxons,  in  which 
Surrey  had  probably  been  already  included. 
The  belt  of  cleared  land  that  ran,  thrust  in 
between  the  huge  forest  of  Anderida  and  the 
sea,  fi^om  Chichester  harbour  to  the  Bother, 
formed  the  territor}'  of  the   South-Saxons; 
and  the   Kentish  kingdom  must  have  had 
pretty  much  the  same  limits  as  the  present 
county  of  Kent.    Though  the  men  of  Kent, 
Wight,  and  the  part  of  Hampshire  that  bends 
round  the  Southampton  Water,   are   called 
Jutes  in   early  authorities,    the    distinctive 
name  was  not  long  maintained ;  and  the  four 
southern  kingdoms  may  be  taken  to  compose 
the  Saxon  constituent  of  the  English  race  in 
Britain.     It  must  also  be  borne  in  mind  that, 
scattered  over  the  newly-conquered  countr}-, 
there  were  not  a  few  smaller  states,  such  as 
the  Hwiccas,  the  G}7wa8,  the  Meanwaras, 
either  independent  or  owing  an  incomplete 
allegiance  to  one  or  other  of  the  kingdoms ; 
that  Deira  and  Bemicia  showed  a  disposition 
to  combine  into  one  state,  had  already  once 
combined,  and  were  sure  to  become  soon  per- 
manently incorporated  into  a  Northumbrian 
kingdom,  while  the  co-existence  of  the  two 
dioceses  of  Rochester  and  Canterbury,  from 
the  first  organisation  of  the  Church  in  Eng- 
land, has  led  to  the  belief  that  there  may 
have  been  originally  two  kingdoms  in  Kent, 
the  earliest  dioceses  being  generally  co-ex- 
tensive with  kingdoms.    As  yet  these  several 
kingdoms  and  states — at  any  rate,  the  greater 
among  them — ^held  aloof  from  one  another. 
Nor    had    they   yet    learned — -perhaps    the 
resistance    of    the    natives    did    not    allow 
them  the  necessary  leisure — even  to  quarrel 
among     themselves.       In    fact,     each,     as 
a  rule,  went  about  its  business  of  fighting 
with  tiie  Welsh,   of  settlement  and  appor- 
tionment of    the    soil,    of    general    organ- 
isation,   on    its   own    forces    only ;    loosely 
speaking,   they  had  no  relations  with    one 
another;  the  conditions  that  made  the  first 
step  towards  union  possible  did  not  exist.    It 
is  true  that  Ella,  the  first  king  of  the  South- 
Saxons,  is  represented  by  Bede  as  holding  a 
sort    of  imperium,  or  military  overlordship, 
over  the  "  provinces  "  south  of  the  Humber ; 
but  Bede's  statement  must  be  either  an  exag- 
geration of  some  insignificant  fact,  or  alto- 
gether baseless.      An  imperial  king  of   the 
South-Saxons  in  the  fifth  century  is  incon- 
ceivable.    In  another  century  {circ.   685)  a 
great  change  had  taken  place.    The  southern 
part  of    Northumbria    now   stretched  from 
sea  to  sea,  its  western  border-line  joining  the 
coast  at  the  head  of  Morecambe  Bay.    Mercia 
had  grown  considerably  towards  the  south 
and  the  west ;  part  of  the  lower  Dee  and  half 
the  Wye  flowed  within  her  confines,  and  her 


(62) 


Ang 


kings  had  pushed  their  conquests  from  Wossex 
almost  to  the  Bristol  Avon  and  the  upper 
Thames.  But  Wessex  had  helped  to  make 
up  for  these  losses  by  extending  her  western 
frontier  to  the  mouths  of  tlie  Parrot  and 
Exe,  and  by  taking  Wight  within  her  king- 
dom. East  Anglia,  Essex,  Kent,  and  Sussex, 
having  no  weaker  race  in  their  neighbourhood 
to  encroach  upon,  were  substantially  un- 
altered. 

Among  these  kingdoms  a  state  of  things 
had  arisen  which  Milton  in  his  ignorance 
of  the  real  facts  of  the  case  only  caricatures 
when  he  calls  their  mutual  dealings  'Hho 
wars  of  kites  or  crows,  flocking  and  fighting 
in  the  air."  Strife  and  bloodshed  were  uni- 
versal ;  no  kingdom  escaped  them ;  oven 
Christianity  brought  a  sword;  by  far  the 
greater  number  of  battles  that  are  hencefor- 
ward recorded  were  fought  between  English- 
men. Indeed,  the  several  peoples  seldom 
came  together  save  as  enemies.  And  in  the 
course  of  this  warfare  the  vicissitudes  of 
success  were  many  and  sudden;  the  irresis- 
tible conqueror  ol  one  day  was  the  hunted 
fugitive  or  mangled  corpse  of  the  next. 
Ceawlin  of  Wessex,  after  years  of  nearly 
unbroken  success,  in  which  Briton  and  Jute 
went  down  before  him,  was,  in  591,  himself 
beaten  down  by  his  own  subjects,  and  driven 
from  his  kingdom.  Kent  then  rose  to  great- 
ness under  the  guidance  of  Ethelbert,  who 
won  a  sort  of  supremacy  that  is  stated  by 
Bedo  to  have  reached  the  Humber,  at  the 
same  time  that  another  restless  warrior, 
Ethelfrith,  was  making  the  might  of  North- 
umbria  terrible  to  the  north  and  west  of  that 
river.  But  Ethelbert  shrank  bock,  and 
Ethelfrith  fell  in  battle  before  the  growing 
power  of  Redwald,  King  of  the  East  Angles ; 
and  for  a  few  years  Redwald  held  the  fore- 
most place  among  the  kings  that  ruled  south 
of  the  Humber.  Then  the  turn  of  Northum- 
bria  came :  in  630  the  authority  or  influence 
of  her  king,  Edwin,  bore  undisputed  sway 
from  the  Forth  to  the  English  Channel,  save 
in  Kent  alone.  Then  Penda  of  Mercia  van- 
quished and  slew  Edwin  (634),  and  seized  a 
part  of  his  supremacy ;  but  was  himself  van- 
quished and  slain  in  655  by  a  successor  of 
Edwin's,  Oswy,  under  whom  Northumbria 
regained  a  fair  share  of  her  former  ascend- 
ancy. But  with  the  death  in  battle  of  her 
next  king,  Egfrith,  in  685,  the  glory  and 
greatness  of  the  northern  kingdom  passed 
away  for  ever.  For  a  hundred  and  forty 
years  longer  she  kept  her  independence, 
and  at  times  acted  with  vigour  to  the 
north  and  west ;  but  her  part  in  determining 
the  destiny  of  England  was  played  out 
These  were  not  futile  fightings,  after  all. 
The  kingdoms  were  merely  taking  the  best 
way  they  knew  of  settling  among  themselves 
which  was  the  most  worthy  to  fulfil  the 
trust  of  making  England  a  nation.  To 
bringing  about  this  end,  the  newly-founded 


Church  proved  an  effective  aUy.  Her  autho- 
rity, being  an  undivided  force  that  proceeded 
from  a  single  centre,  and  her  organisation 
covering  the  whole  land,  gently  drew  the 
separate  communities  together,  made  the 
idea  of  unity  familiar,  and  must  have  fos- 
tered a  vague  longing  for  political  imion. 
And  the  practical  efiacement  of  all  the  smaller 
kingdoms  except  East  Anglia  must  also  have 
done  something  to  smooth  the  way  towards 
this  consummation.  Essex  sank,  first  into  a 
Mercian,  then,  seemingly,  into  a  West-Saxon 
dependency ;  in  the  last  quarter  of  the-seventh 
century  Ceadwalla  of  Wessex  and  his  succes- 
sor, Ina,  reduced  Sussex  and  Kent  beneath 
their  dominion ;  and  these  states,  without  as 
yet  losing  their  separate  existence,  never 
again  enjoyed  a  separate  political  life. 

In  the  rivalry  that  was  thus  narrowed  to 
Mercia  and  Wessex,  the  tide  of  success, 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  eighth  cen- 
tury, ran  decidedly  in  favour  of  the  former  ; 
one  of  the  Mercian  kings,  Ethelbald,  was 
strong  enough  to  fasten  lus  yoke-on  the  neck 
of  Wessex  iteelf .  And,  though  the  stubborn 
land  succeeded  in  shaking  oft  this  yoke 
by  a  decisive  victory  at  Burford  (752), 
Offa,  a  later  Mercian  king,  managed  in  his 
long  reign  (755 — 794)  to  raise  his  power  to 
an  unexampled  height*  Wessex  was  beaten 
in  battle,  and  driven  below  the  Thames; 
Essex  and  Kent  had  become  almost  parts  of 
the  Mercian  kingdom;  and  in  792  a  deed  of 
the  foulest  treachery  gave  Offa  the  command 
of  East  Anglia.  From  the  WeJsh,  too,  the 
masterful  long  wrested  the  wide  sweep  of 
scrub-land  that  lay  round  Pengwem,  and  on 
the  site  of  this  place  built  the  town  of  Shrews- 
bury (Scrobhesbyrigy  Hcruh-bury),  and  made 
the  dyke  that  is  still  called  after  his  name 
the  western  limit  of  his  kingdom,  thus 
bringing  the  area  of  England  almost  to 
its  furthest  expansion  on  the  side  of  Wales. 
But  the  sceptre  wap  destined  for  Wessex, 
notwithstanding.  Pressed  down  from  her 
northern  frontier,  and  forced,  as  it  would 
appear,  to  give  up  Surrey  and  Sussex  also, 
she  never  paused  in  her  slow  advance  towards 
Cornwall.  Somerset  was  completed,  and  the 
making  of  Devonshire  begun  ;  by  the  end  of 
the  century  the  Exe,  from  source  to  sea,  was 
a  West-Saxon  river.  With  the  first  years 
of  the  next  Egbert,  a  wise  and  valiant 
descendant  of  earlier  kings  came  from 
exile  in  Charlemagne's  court,  to  take  on 
himself  the  rule  of  the  kingdom :  and  under 
his  direction  the  West-Saxons  went  steadily 
forward  on  the  path  that  led  to  national 
greatness.  Egbert  was  long  content  to  repel 
Mercian  invasion,  and  to  push  his  conquests 
further  into  the  Cornish  peninsula;  in  his 
reign  Devon  reached  its  final  limits,  and  the 
men  of  Cornwall  were  driven  to  accept  him 
as  their  overlord.  At  length,  in  823,  on  the 
field  of  EUandune,  Mercia  and  Wessex 
measured  their  strength  for  the  last  time; 


(53) 


Ang 


and  there  the  might  of  Mercia  was 
broken.  Ere  the  year  was  over,  Sussex  and 
Surrey  had  rejoined,  Kent  and  Essex  been 
added  to,  the  victorious  kingdom;  and  the 
East  Anglians  had  successfully  revolted  from 
Hercia,  and  put  themselves  under  the  pro- 
tection of  Egbert.  The  crowning  year  of 
triumph  for  Wesscx  was  827 ;  then  a  single 
campaign  made  her  king  master  of  Mercia, 
and  awed  Northumbrifi  into  submission; 
from  Edinburgh  to  Land's  End  he  was 
supreme  lord  or  immediate  king.  Of  the 
nature  and  measure  of  this  West-Saxon 
supremacy,  no  exact  knowledge  can  be 
gained;  doubtless  it  gave  the  right  to 
demand  help  in  war,  and  a  commanding 
voice  in  the  higher  concerns  of  each  kingdom. 
An  unlooked-for  force  created  the  condi- 
tions that  converted  this  supremacy  into 
actual  kingship.  Northumbria,  Mercia,  and 
East  Anglia,  though  bound  to  Wessex,  still 
remained  distinct  kingdoms,  each  with  its 
dependent  king.  These  kingdoms  the  Danes 
laid  in  ruins ;  and  after  the  narrow  escape 
of  Wessex  from  the  same  fate,  the  lino  of  tiie 
Lea,  the  Ouse,  and  Watling  Street  divided 
England  into  two  political  sj'stems,  Wessex 
and  the  Danelagh,  that  were  practically  two 
hostile  camps.  Between  these,  after  Alfred's 
death,  the  battle  was  fought  out  to  the  bitter 
end ;  and  this  end,  when  it  came — as  it  did 
in  the  reign  of  Edgar  (9oS — 975) — made  the 
whole  of  England  a  single  kingdom.  But 
either  in  this  or  in  Canute's  reign,  the 
country  between  the  Forth  and  the  Tweed — 
the  Lothians,  as  they  are  called — fell,  or 
was  torn,  away  from  England:  under  what 
circumstances  there  is  no  record  can  tell  us. 

The  Anglo-Saxcn  Chron.t  Bede,  and  Ethel- 
ward,  are  oar  chief  authorities  for  the  histoiy 
of  these  kingdoms.  See  also  Lappenberg,  Anglo- 
Saxon  Kings,  vol.  1. ;  J.  E.  Qreen,  The  Making  of 
JSnyland.  [J.  R.] 

Angouldme,  or  Anffonmois,  a  pro- 
vince m  the  south  of  France,  was  united 
with  England  by  the  marriage  of  Henry  II. 
with  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine.  In  1218  it  passed 
into  the  possession  of  the  Count  de  la  Marche, 
stepfather  of  Henr>-  III.  In  1303  it  was 
annexed  to  the  French  crown,  but  by  the 
Treaty  of  Bretigni  in  1360,  was  restored 
to  England,  only  to  be  re-conquered  by  the 
French  in  1370.  * 

Annia  was  a  pirate-chief,  who  occupied 
the  rocK  of  Gheriah,  oflf  the  Iklalabar  coast  of 
India.  His  depredations  had  caused  him  to 
be  regarded  as  the  scourge  of  the  adjacent 
seas.  Clive,  on  his  return  to  India,  in  1756, 
and  Admiral  Watson,  with  the  English  fleet, 
attacked  and  destroyed  his  station. 

AxLgUM  (the  older  name  of  the  county  of 
Forfar)  was  the  territory  of  one  of  the  great 
IHctish  tribes,  or  sub-kingdoms,  and  was 
governed  by  a  succession  of  Celtic  "  maor- 
uiors,"  one    of    whom,'  Dufugan,  is  styled 


(I 


Comes"  in  the  reign  of  Alexander  I.,  and 
"  was,*'  says  Mr.  Skene,  "  no  doubt,  the  first 
Earl.*'  Alter  him  there  is  a  further  succes- 
sion of  four  Celtic  earls  from  father  to  son. 
Maud,  the  heiress  of  the  last  of  these,  carried 
the  earldom  by  marriage  first  to  the  family 
of  the  Comyns,  then  to  that  of  the  Umphra- 
viUes.  In  1297  Gilbert  de  Umphra^Tlle  was 
summoned  to  Parliament  as  Earl  of  Angus. 
It  is  somewhat  doubtful  whether  this  was 
not  merely  a  courtesy-title,  and  whether 
Umphraville  was  not  in  reality  summoned  in 
virtue  of  his  barony  of  Prudhoe,  in  North- 
umberland Uee  Sir  H.  Nicolas,  Historic  Peer- 
age)  ;  but  his  descendants  were,  at  any  rate, 
regularly  summoned  as  Earls  of  Ang^s.  By 
the  marriage  of  Margaret,  Countess  of  Angus, 
with  William,  first  Earl  Douglas  (as  his 
third  wife),  the  earldom  passed  into  one 
branch  of  the  house  of  Douglas.  In  1633 
William,  eleventh  Earl  of  Angus,  was  created 
Marquis  of  Douglas.  In  1700  James,  third 
Marquis,  was  created  Duke  of  Douglas 
Archibald,  son  of  the  first  Marquis,  was 
created  Earl  of  Ormond  in  1651,  and  his  son 
Archibald  was  created  Earl  of  Foifar  in  1661. 
His  title  and  estates  devolved,  in  1715,  on 
the  Duke  of  Douglas,  on  whoso  death,  in 
1761,  the  honours  of  this  family  passed  to  the 
Dukes  of  Hamilton,  for  whoxn,  and  for  the 
celebrated  lawsuit  which  arose  out  of  this 
succession.     [Douolas,  Family  of.] 

Edwards,  Tyncri-ption  of  Angva,  1791 ;  Skene, 
Celtic  Sootlaxd,  iii.  289;  A.  Jervise,  MemoriaL* 
of  Angwt ;  Sir  B.  Burke,  Dormant  and  JBxttnd 
Pcwro^e*,  p.  ITS. 

AlLgVMm  Akchibald  Douglas,  5th  Earl 
OF,  quarrelled  with  his  kinsmen  of  the  royalist 
party,  and  at  the  head  of  the  partisans  of 
James  II.,  defeated  them  at  Arkenholm 
(1455).  At  the  siege  of  Roxburgh,  1460,  he  was 
wounded  by  the  bursting  of  the  same  cannon 
which  killed  James  II.  He  was  the  leader  of 
the  baronial  party  in  the  conspiracy  against 
the  ministers  of  James  III.  at  Lauderbridgc, 
and  from  his  famous  remark  on  that  occasion. 
"Heed  not,  I  am  he  who  will  bell  the  cat," 
was  ever  afterwards  called  Archibald  Bell- 
the-Cat.  He  commanded  one  wing  of  the 
insurgent  army  at  the  battle  of  Torwood, 
where  James  III.  was  killed.  He  became 
Chancellor  of  Scotland,  and  in  1488  was 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  barozu  at  Sauchie- 
bum.  In  1491  he  entered  into  a  private 
treaty  with  Henrj-  VII.  by  which  he  agreed 
to  do  his  utmost  to  promote  harmony  between 
the  kings  of  England  and  ScK>tland. 

Anj^lSy  Abchibald  Douglas,  6tk  Eahi. 
OF  (rf.  1556),  was  the  grandson  of  Earl  "  BcU- 
the-Cat."  In  August,  1514,  he  married 
Margaret,  the  Queen  Regent  of  Scotland, 
and  mother  of  James  V.;  but  was  shortly 
afterwards  carried  off  to  France  at  the  instance 
of  John,  Duke  of  Albany.  Returning  to 
Scotland  in  1519,  he  defeated  his  enemies, 
the  Hamiltons,  in  the  following  year,  in  the 


Ang 


(64) 


Ann 


battle  of  "  Cleanse  the  Causeway/'  and  seized 
Edinburgh,  though  he  soon  found  himseK 
compelled  to  seek  a  temporary  asylum  in 
France.  In  1525  he  returned,  and  became 
guardian  of  the  young  king,  whom  he  kept  in 
close  restraint  for  three  years,  until  one  of  his 
many  attempts  to  escape  proved  successful 
(1528).  On  the  death  of  James  V.,  he 
returned  to  his  native  country,  after  coming 
to  a  secret  understanding  with  the  Engli^ 
king  that  he  would  do  all  in  his  power  to 
serve  his  cause  in  Scotland.  In  1543,  he 
received  Sir  lUlph  Sadler,  the  English  am- 
bassador, at  his  Castle  of  Tantallon ;  but  in 
the  following  year  Angus  with  the  Assured 
Jjords  threw  over  Henry,  and  joined  the 
national  party,  an  act  which  drew  down  on 
his  lands  the  army  of  Lord  Hertford.  Shortly 
afterwards  he  defeated  the  English  at  the 
battle  of  Ancrum  Moor. 

Burton,  Hist,  of  Scot.,  iii.  85,  kc 

AngUMf  McFbrous  {d.  761),  obtained 
the  Pictish  throne,  731,  after  defeating  the 
previous  king,  Alpin,  at  the  junction  of  the 
Tay  and  the  Earn,  and  annihilating  the 
forces  of  Nectan  MacDenli  at  Loch  Inch.  In 
732  Angus  invaded  Dalriada,  and  drove  its 
king  to  Ireland.  In  736  he  again  laid  waste 
the  kingdom  of  the  Scots,  takmg  the  capital, 
Dunad,  and  throwing  Dungal  into  prison ; 
this  devastation  was  repeated  in  741,  when 
Dalriada  for  some  years  sank  into  the  position 
of  a  Pictish  depenaency.  Shortly  afterwards 
Angus  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Eadbert 
of  Northumbria  against  the  Britons  of  Strath- 
clyde,  who  submitted  in  756. 

Animals,  Cruelty  to.  In  1822,  chiefly 
owing  to  the  exertions  of  Mr.  Martin,  M.P., 
an  Act  was  passed  to  repress  the  practice  of 
cruelty  to  animals.  Stfbsequently  Acts  with 
the  same  object  were  passed  in  1827,  1835, 
and  1854,  in  great  part  through  the  afforts  of 
the  Royal  Society  for  the  Prevention  of 
Cruelty  to  Animals,  instituted  in  1824.  In 
1875  a  Koyal  Commission  was  appointed  to 
inquire  into  the  question  of  the  vivisection  of 
animals.  In  1876  an  Act  was  passed  regula- 
ting (but  not  abolishing)  vivisection,  and 
compelling  physiological  demonstrators  and 
others  to  take  out  a  certificate  to  vivisect. 

Aigon.     [Angevijjs.] 

Ai^on,  Margaret  of.     [Margaret  of 

Anjou.] 

Anlaf  (or  Olaf)  Cuaran  {d.  980\  was 

the  son  of  Sihtric,  Danish  King  of  I^orth- 
umberland.  After  his  father*  s  death,  Anlaf 
went  to  Dublin,  but  soon  left  Ireland  for 
Scotland,  where  he  married  the  daughter  of 
Constantino,  King  of  Alban.  It  was  this 
match  which  probably  provoked  Athelstan's 
invasion  of  Scotland  in  933.  Anlaf  next 
appears  as  his  father -in- law*  s  ally  at 
Brunanburh  in  937.  In  943,  after  his 
cousin  Anlaf  Godfrithsson's  death,  we  find 


him  ruling  in  Northumberland  with  Reginald 
Godfrithsson.  When  Edmund  conquered  the 
five  boroughs,  Anlaf  opposed  him,  and  tooli 
Tamworth  by  storm,  but  being  beset  in 
Leicester  he  made  peace  with  the  English  king 
In  944,  however,  Edmund  drove  both  hii 
godsons  from  their  kingdom.  Bat  Aula 
again  appeared  in  arms  in  949,  and  wai 
received  by  the  people,  till  in  952  he  wai 
driven  abroad  for  the  last  time  by  his  turbulen 
subjects.  He  now  ruled  in  Dublin  fo 
several  years,  and  commanded  at  the  groa 
battle  of  Tara ;  but  his  defeat  there  by  th 
high  king  of  Ireland  seems  to  have  wrougl] 
a  change  in  the  old  warrior,  for  he  starto 
the  same  year  on  a  pilgrimage  to  lona,  whui 
he  died. 

The  famous  le^nd  of  HavMk  ike  Dan 
extant  in  old  English  and  French,  cuntains 
romantic  accoxint  of  the  early  years  of  Aiih 
Cuaxan,  and  long  served  to  keep  his  fame  olii 
in  Nortiiem  England,  especially  m  QrimBby,  tl 
port  of  Scandinavian  ahippers,  which  is  f  abU 
to  have  derived  its  name  from  one  of  the  ch 
raoters  in  the  story.  See  the  poem  edited  1 
Sir  F.  Madden  and  Mr.  Skeat  for  the  Ear 
Eng.  Text  Society;  Ang.-Sax.  Chron. ;  Floreu> 
of  Worcesto',  Chron.  sub  an.  937,  &c. ;  Sken 
Celtic  Scotland,  i.  352,  &c. 

Anlaf  (or  Olaf)  CK>d&ith8son  {d.  941 

King  of  Dublin  and  Northumberland,  su 
ceeded  his  father  as  King  of  Dublin  in  03 
He  came  with  a  great  force  of  Irish  ai 
Danes  to  the  assistance  of  his  cousin  Anl 
Cuaran  at  the  battle  of  Brunanburh,  when 
he  fled,  as  the  English  song  of  triumph  to 
us,  "over  the  dark  water  Dublin  to  seoli 
On  the  death  of  Athelstan  he  was  call 
by  the  Northumbrians  to  rule  over  them,  I 
he  perished  soon  after  of  a  grievous  disease: 

▲nlaf  Earaldson,  Anlaf  Tryg^ 
son.    [Olaf.] 

AnnateSf  or  First-Fkuits,  was  1 
first  year's  income  of  newly-appointed  iwi 
bishops  and  bishops  which  was  exac 
by  the  Pope  before  he  would  confirm  i 
election.  According  to  Blackstone,  th 
payments  were  "  part  of  the  papal  usur 
tions  over  the  clergy  of  these  kingdoi 
first  introduced  by  Fandulph,  the  Poj 
legate,  during  the  reigns  of  King  John  i 
Henry  III.*'  Frequent  attempts  were  m 
to  check  the  payment  of  such  large  sums 
the  court  of  Rome,  and  in  34  Ed.  T.,  \v] 
there  was  great  complaint  of  the  opprcsi 
manner  in  which  the  papal  legate  exac 
them,  the  first-fruits  were  granted  to  tho  k 
for  two  years.  It  was  not,  however,  u 
1532  that  a  bill  was  brought  in  declari 
that  whereas  "annates  had  risen,  grown, 
increased  by  an  uncharitable  custom,  groun 
upon  no  good  or  just  title,  and  the  payn 
thereof  was  enforced  bv  the  restraint  of  bi 
against  all  equity  and  justice/'  the  payn 
of  such  annates  should  be  discontinued, 
that  any  bishop  making  such  paym* 
should  forfeit  all  his  lands  and  g^ods  to 


Ann 


(66) 


Ann 


king,  whilst  any  biahops  whom  the  Pope 
refused  to  consecrate  for  non-payment  of  first- 
fruits,  should  be  consecrated  in  England,  and 
**  should  enjoy  their  spiritualities  and  tem- 
poralities as  completely  as  if  they  had 
ubtained  their  bulls  from  Home."  The  opera- 
tion of  this  Act,  however,  was  suspended  for 
a  time,  as  Henry  waited  to  see  whether  the 
Pope  would  grant  him  the  wished-for  divorce 
from  Catherine  of  Aragon ;  on  his  refusal  the 
rupture  with  Rome  took  place,  and  the 
statute  was  re-enacted  1534,  whilst  a  clause 
was  introduced  providing  that  archbishops 
and  bishops  should  not  "  be  presented  to  the 
Bishop  of  Rome,  otherwise  called  the  Pope, 
for  confirmation,  or  sue  out  any  bulls  at  his 
court;  but  that  they  should  be  elected  by 
eonge  iVelire"  In  consequence,  the  payment  of 
episcopal  first-fruits  to  the  Pope  ceased  from 
this  time. 

Anne,  Queen  (b,  Feb.  6,  1664,  »,  March  9, 
1702,  d.  Aug.  12,  1714),  the  last  of  the  Stuart 
sovereigns,  was  the  second  daughter  of  James 
XL  (while  Duke  of  York)  and  Anne  Hyde. 
She  was  bred  a  Protestant  by  the  express 
eommaxid  of  (Charles  II.,  under  the  care  of 
Dr.  H«nry  0>mpton,  afterwards  Bishop  of 
LondoTL    While  still  very  young,  her  hand 
was   .sought    by  George    Louis,     electoral 
prince    of    Hanover,    who   eventually   suc- 
ceeded, her  on  the  English  throne;   but  in 
1683  she  married  George,  brother  of  Chris- 
tian v.,  of  Denmark.     Prince  George  was  a 
personage  completely  without  talent,  capacity, 
or  ambition,   so  that    throughout    his    life 
his  political  position  was  altogether  insigni- 
ficant.    Already,  before  her  marriage,  Anne 
had   conceived  what  were,  perhaps,  the  two 
strongest  emotions  of  her  life.    The  teaching 
of  Compton,  a  zealous  Anglican,   who  had 
suffered  for  the  cause  of  C!hurch  and  King  in 
the  rebellion,  had  made  her  a  steadfast  and 
devoted  adherent  of  the  Church  of  England. 
The  design  of  altering  the  succession  to  the 
throne,  on  condition  that  Anne  would  become 
a  Roman  Catholic,  entertained  by  the  French 
and  English  courts,  was  nullified  by  the  steady 
attachment  of  the  princess  to  the  Protestant 
fedth ;  and  Anne  had  already  conceived  that 
violent  affection  for  Sarah  Jennings,  who  be- 
came in  1678  the  wife  of  John  Churchill 
[Marlbobouoh],  which    lasted  during   the 
greater  portion  of  her  life.    It  was  owing 
to  the  Churchill  infiuence  chiefly  that  Anne 
consented  to  notify  to  William  of  Orange  her 
approval  of  his  landing,  and  that  in  the  crisis 
of  a&irs  she  fled  from  Westminster  to  Dorset's 
house  in  Epping  Forest.    In  spite  of  the 
efforts  of  her  uncle,  CHarendon,  she  made  no 
objection  to  the  accession  of  William  III. 
and  Mary.     She  was  herself  declared  heir  to 
the  throne,  failing  issue  to  the  sovereigns, 
and  an  allowance  of  £20,000  settled  on  her. 
Soon  after  the  Revolution  she  gave  birth  to 
William,  Duke  of  Gloucester,  the  only  one  of 


her  numerous  children  who  survived  infancy 
and  he  died  in  1700  at  the  age  of  eleven. 
Anne  gradually  became  completely  estranged 
from  the  king  and  queen,  and  a  party,  of 
which  the  Churchills  were  the  heads,  whs 
formed  about  her  in  opposition,  and  came  to 
be  known  as  the  "  Princess  Party."  One  of 
the  points  this  party  constantly  pressed  for- 
wara  was  an  increase  in  Anne's  mcome.  In 
1691,  Anne's  estrangement  from  the  king 
went  so  far  that  she  wrote  a  letter  to  James 
II.,  begging  his  forgiveness.  On  the  dis- 
grace of  Marlborough,  in  1692,  Anne  quar- 
relled with  her  sister,  the  queen ;  her  guard 
of  honour  was  taken  from  her,  and  she  was 
treated  with  injudicious  coldness  and  disre- 
spect. After  the  death  of  Mary  a  formal 
reconciliation  was  made,  through  the  media- 
tion of  Somers,  but  there  was  little  friendship 
on  either  side.  Anne  resided  at  St.  James's 
Palace  during  the  remainder  of  William's 
reijgn,  with  some  of  the  state  befitting  the 
heiress  to  the  throne. 

With  the  death  of  William,  Anne  became 
queen,  and  reigned  over  England  during  a 
period  of  twelve  years  crowded  with  important 
events,  and  singularly  distingpiished  by 
illustrious  men.  The  earlier  portion  of 
the  period  is  that  in  which  the  influence 
of  the  Marlboroughs  prevailed;  in  the 
second  that  of  their  opponents  was  pre- 
dominant. By  the  year  1702  the  Tories, 
Godolphin,  Nottingham,  Normanby,  and 
Pembroke,  had  supplanted  the  great  Whig 
ministers,  who  were  chiefly  responsible  fur 
the  Revolution  settlement.  The  war  was 
entered  upon  with  vigour,  under  the  auspices 
of  Marlborough  and  Godolphin ;  a  com- 
mission was  appointed  to  draw  up  terms  of 
union  between  England  and  Scotland ;  and 
the  union  of  the  two  rival  East  India  Com- 
panies accomplished.  The  chief  military 
events  of  the  year  were  the  capture  of  Y enloo, 
Ruremond,  and  Li^ge,  and  the  expedition 
against  Vigo  Bay.  La  1703  violent  opposition 
was  offered  in  the  Scotch  Parliament  to  the 
Union  scheme.  The  Methuen  Treaty  was 
concluded  with  Portugal.  Queen  Anne's 
Bounty,  for  the  augmentation  of  the  livings 
of  the  poorer  clergy,  was  instituted.  Next 
year  some  changes  occurred  in  the  ministry. 
The  High  Tories,  Nottingham,  Jersey,  and 
Seymour,  who  thwarted  Marlborough's  war 
polioy,  were  dismissed,  and  their  places  sup- 
plied by  the  Moderate  Tories,  Harley  and  St. 
John.  In  July  Gibraltar  was  captured,  and 
Marlborough  won  the  great  battle  of  Blen- 
heim in  August.  An  attempt  to  tack  the 
Occasional  Conformity  Act  to  the  Land 
Tax  Bill  was  defeated  in  the  Commons. 
The  Aylesbury  election  case  threatened  a 
permanent  breach  between  the  two  bodies  of 
the  Leg^lature.  In  1705,  Peterborough,  in 
Spain,  captured  Barcelona,  and  established 
the  authority  of  Charles  II.  in  Catalonia  and 
Valencia.    Commissioners  were  appointed  by 


Ann 


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Ann 


the  Scotch  Parliament  to  discuss  the  term» 
of  the  Union  in  London.  It  was  gradually 
becoming  evident  that  Marlborough  would 
have  to  rely  on  a  Whig  ministry.  In  1706 
the  chief  event  was  the  consummation  of  the 
Union  with  Scotland.  The  labours  of  the 
commission  lasted  through  the  year,  and  the 
royal  assent  was  given  in  March  of  the  fol- 
lowing year.  Marlborough  gained  the  battle 
of  Ramillies,  thereby  driving  the  French  from 
the  KetherLmds;  but  in  Spain  Charles  II. 
had  to  evacuate  Madrid,  i&lrs.  Hill  now 
began  to  supplant  the  Duchess  of  Iilarlborough 
in  the  royal  favour,  and  the  influence  of 
Harley  commenced  to  be  appreciable.  He 
instituted  a  series  of  intrigues  in  company 
with  St.  John,  with  a  view  to  drive  the 
Whig  ministers  from  office.  Meanwhile, 
Louis  had  made  offers  for  peace,  which 
were  rejected.  In  the  following  year, 
Harley's  intrigues,  which  took  the  form  of  an 
attack  on  the  naval  administration,  were  dis- 
covered, and  he  was  forced  to  resign.  On  the 
failure  of  a  composite  ministry,  the  Whig 
junto  came  into  power.  The  military  events 
of  the  year  were  unfortunate.  In  Spain  the 
allies  were  utterly  defeated  at  Almanza ;  nor 
was  Eugene's  attack  on  Toulon  successful. 
In  1708  the  Pretender  made  an  imsuccessful 
expedition  to  Scotland ;  and  Marlborough,  in 
Flanders,  gained  a  great  victor}'  at  Oudenarde. 
The  queen  suffered  great  grief-  from  the  loss 
of  her  husband,  to  whom  she  was  sincerely 
attached.  Meanwhile,  it  was  evident  that 
the  Whig  ministry  was  insecure.  Once 
more  Louis  offered  to  treat.  His  terms  were 
rejected;  and  Marlborough  won  a  bloody 
victory  at  Malplaquet.  In  1710  important 
changes  took  place  at  home.  Mrs.  Hill,  now 
Mrs.  Masham,  had  completely  supplanted  the 
Duchess  of  Marlborough  in  the  royal  favour. 
The  nation  was  wear\'  of  the  war ;  and  the 
injudicious  prosecution  of  Dr.  Sacheverell  by 
the  Whig  ministry  produced  a  violent  outcry 
against  them.  Sunderland  and  Godolphin 
were  dismissed,  and  Harley  wtiB  entrusted 
with  the  formation  of  a  Tory  ministry'.  The 
conference  at  Gertruydenberg  resulted  in 
nothing.  In  Spain  the  allies  gained  victories 
at  Almenara  and  Saragossa,  and  Charles  was 
once  more  established  in  Madrid ;  but  these 
results  were  neutralised  by  the  defeat  of 
Stanhope  at  Brihuega.  It  soon  became  evi- 
dent that  the  new  ministry  had  determined 
on  a  peace  policy,  and  that  some  of  them,  at 
all  evente,  were  willing  that  the  Stuarts 
should  be  restored.  The  chief  event  at  home 
in  1711  was  the  formation  of  the  South  SeA 
Company.  Harley,  now  exceedingly  popular 
on  account  of  Guiscard's  attempt  to  stab  him, 
rapidly  opened  negotiations  for  peace.  Marl- 
borough's campaign  in  the  year  was  resultless. 
On  his  return  he  was  violently  attacked  in 
Parliament,  and  deprived  of  his  offices. 
Twelve  new  peers  were  created,  in  order 
to  '*  swamp  **  the  majority  in  the  House  of 


Lords.  In  1712  Ormonde  was  placed  in  com- 
mand of  the  iinny,  with  instructions  tc 
attempt  nothing.  The  conference  was  openec 
at  Utrecht,  and  the  terms  of  peace  wei-o  laic 
before  the  House.  In  July  Ormonde  separatee 
from  the  allies.  Marlborough  quitte( 
England  in  November,  and  remained  ubroa( 
until  the  queen's  death.  The  Treaty  o 
Utrecht  was  signed  in  March,  1713.  Mean 
while,  the  failing  health  of  the  queen  mad 
the  succession  question  open.  Harley  wa 
evidently  unwilling  to  consent  to  a  return  o 
the  Stuarts;  but  no  such  scruples  restraiht^ 
St.  John,  now  Viscount  Bolingbroko.  Th 
remodelling  of  the  army  was  entrr.sted  t 
Ormonde,  but  the  scheme  failed  owing  to  th 
neglect  of  Harley  to  supply  the  neccssar 
funds.  As  a  blind,  Bolingbroke  introduce 
into  the  House  a  proposition  that  the  Pre 
testant  succession  was  in  no  danger.  Th 
design  of  the  Whigs  to  bring  the  Electon 
Prince  over  to  England  was  thwarted  by  th 
wise  caution  of  George,  and  by  the  evidei 
dislike  of  the  queen  to  such  a  step.  Bolin^ 
broke  now  saw  that  he  must  drive  Hark 
from  office ;  and  he  therefore  introduced  h 
Schism  BiU,  which  Harley,  who  was  of  liO 
Church  principles,  could  not  support,  li 
was  accordingly  dismissed.  Ever^'thing  wj 
now  in  Bolingbroke's  favour,  but  his.plai 
were  foiled  by  the  fatal  illness  of  the  quee; 
As  she  lay  on  her  death-bed,  she  was  iiiduc( 
by  a  deputation  of  the  Council  to  entrust  tl 
Lord  Treasurer's  staff  to  Shrewsbury, now  fir 
in  his  attachment  to  the  house  of  Hanove 
There  is  considerable  reason,  nevertheless, 
believe  that  Anne  would  have  consented 
her  brother's  succession  to  the  throne  if  on 
he  would  have  changed  his  religion. 

Anne  was  very  popular  with  the  natio 
but  this,  perhaps,  was  rather  due  to  the  in 
that  she  was  the  last  of  the  dynasty,  whic 
in  spite  of  its  faults,  retained  a  strong  he 
on  the  SA-mpathies  of  Englishmen,  than 
any  special  merits  of  her  own.  She  was 
woman  of  somewhat  narrow  intellect,  vi 
lent  prejudices,  and  weak  judgment.  H 
strongest  political  passions  were  devot 
attachment  to  the  Established  Church,  a 
dislike  to  the  Whigs,  whom  she  regarded 
the  enemies  of  legitimacy  and  of  royal 
itself;  but,  except  when  her  prejudices  a 
her  obstinacy  were  roused,  she  had  lit 
strength  of  will,  and  was  easily  led  by  1 
female  favourites.  While  she  was  under  1 
fascination  of  the  Duchess  of  Marlborouj 
she  lent  herself  readily  to  the  great  schen 
of  the  duke;  when,  subsequently,  the 
fluence  of  Abigail  Hill  was  completely  esfc 
lished  over  her,  she  allowed  herself  with 
less  willingness  to  countenance  the  projt 
of  Harley.  Of  taste  and  wit  she  had  litl 
and  she  showed  scarcely  any  conception 
the  great  intellectual  movement  which  1 
rendered  her  reign  an  illustrious  period 
English  literarj-  history.     She  had,  howe^ 


(57  ) 


AnxL 


some  compensating  qualities.  Her  private 
life  was  exemplary  and  excellent ;  she  was  a 
good  wile  and  a  devoted  mother.  Her  long 
and  much-tried  friendship  with  her  haughty 
favourite  was,  at  any  rate,  a  testimony  of  the 
goodness  of  her  heart  and  the  strength  of  her 
affections.  "  Scarce  any  person,"  says  Lord 
JStanhope,  "  ever  endured  more  for  a  friend, 
or  from  a  friend."  As  applied  to  her  private 
character,  at  least,  the  familiar  appellation  of 
**  good "  Queen  Anne  is,  perhaps,  not  unde- 
served. 

Bojer,  AnnaU,  and  Burnet,  Hid,  0/  hU  (hen 
Tim4»,  both  valuable,  bat  both  to  be  lued  with 
ewe,  as  befaig  the  works  of  violent  Whig  par- 
tiaans;  Kacpheraon,  Shtart  Pmn;  Ooxe, 
Jf •motrt  of  MarUwroughj  Mrs.  Thomson,  lf«- 
moin  of  the  Duchtn  ofMarlboTOugK,  and  of  tho 
Court  of  Q««tfn  Annt^  1838 :  Private  Corrw^' 
dmcooftho  Duchsu  ofMarworougK  1838 :  Cob- 
bett,  ParUam&nUiry  HiBt. :  W.  Wilson.  Ufc  of 
D^oe,  1830;  Lomberty,  MimoireB;  Tindal's  Ba- 
vin'* Hist,  of  Sng, ;  Swift's  works  (esp.  Journal  to 
SMla,  iMMry  into  tho  dmduet  oftht  lAut  Minio- 
try,  and  Thoufhta  on  tho  StaU  of  the  Nation),  and 
The  Hietorjf  of  the  Laet  Four  Fears  of  Q^een  Anne, 
generally  ascribed  to  him,  axe  the  ablest  ex- 

Jression  of  the  Toxy   view;   tee  also   Torcy, 
Umoiree;  and  Bolingbroke,  Correepondence. 
There  ar«  good  modem  histories  of  England 
during  Qoeen  Anne's  reign,  by  Lord  Stanhope 

e.  ICr.  Wyon  (1876),  and  Mr.  T.  H.  Barton 
;  and  a  sketch  in  Mr.  Lecky's  Hift.  qf  the 
tenth  Century.  For  Anne's  jpersonal  his- 
tory, eee  Miss  Strickland's  Livee  of  the  Queene  of 
England,  [L.  0.  S.] 

Ajoxb  Boleyily  Quben,  second  wife  of 
Henry  VIII.  (j.  1507,  d.  1636),  was  the 
daughter  of  Sir  Thomas  Boleyn,  who  married 
the  Lady  ElizabeUi  Howard,  daughter  of  the 
Buke  of  Norfolk.  She  was  in  her  }'outh  taken 
hy  her  father  to  the  French  court,  but  re- 
turned in  1522.  She  is  described  as  a  little 
lively  brunette,  with  long  black  hair  and 
beautiful  eyes.  She  was  the  object  of  much 
flirtation  in  the  English  court,  and  Henry 
VIII.,  beginning  from  idle  gallantry,  ad- 
vanced to  an  uncontrollable  passion  for  her. 
Honours  and  emoluments  were  showered 
upon  her  &ther.  At  last,  in  1527,  Henry 
VIII.  resolved  to  divorce  Catherine  that  he 
might  marry  Anne,  whom  he  lodged  magnifi- 
cently in  his  palace.  The  momentous  pro- 
ceedings to  obtain  a  divorce  were  entrusted  to 
the  charge  of  WoLiey,  and  when,  in  1529,  his 
failure  was  manifest,  his  fall  rapidly  followed. 
Henry  VIII.  still  pursued  his  efforts  to  obtain 
a  divorce,  and  meanwhile  went  about  the 
country  in  company  with  Anne  Boleyn.  This 
created  much  indig^tion  amongst  the  people, 
and  the  mode  of  life  of  the  King  and  Anne 
Bolejni  was  generally  regarded  as  dishonour- 
able. The  vacillation  of  Pope  Clement  VII. 
had  lasted  too  long  for  his  firmness  to  be  suc- 
cessful ;  when,  at  Sie  end  of  1532,  he  issued  a 
brief,  bidding  Henry  to  take  back  Catherine, 
and  forbidding  him  to  marry  Anne  Boleyn, 
Henry  VIII.  had  gone  too  far  to  retrace  his 
steps.  On  Jan.  26,  1633,  he  was  privately 
married,  and  the  new  Ardibishop  ^Cranmer) 
pronounced  his  divorce  from  Catherme.    The 


marriage  with  Anne  was  then  avowed,  and 
confirmed  by  the  archbishop,  and  the  new 
queen  was  crowned  in  Jun&  On  Sept.  7  she 
gave  birth  to  a  daughter,  Elizabeth.  But  Anne 
Boleyn  had  but  a  brief  enjoyment  of  the  posi- 
tion for  which  she  had  waited  so  long.  On 
January  7th,  1536,  Catharine  of  Aragon  died, 
and  Anne  Boleyn  could  not  conceal  her  delight. 
Shortly  afterwards  she  brought  into  the  world 
a  dead  child,  to  the  king's  great  disappoint- 
ment, as  he  wished  for  a  male  heir.  He  looked 
on  Anne's  conduct  with  suspicion.  The  light- 
heartedness  and  brilliancy  which  had  once 
attracted  him  now  seemed  to  be  culpable 
frivolity.  On  May-dav  the  king  abruptly 
left  some  games  at  which  he  was  present 
with  the  queen,  and  on  the  next  day  Anne 
was  committed  to  the  Tower  on  the  charge 
of  treason  and  adultery.  Her  brother.  Lord 
Rochiord,  Sir  Henry  Norris,  Smeaton  a 
musician,  and  Brereton  and  Weston,  gentle- 
men of  the  bedchamber,  were  apprehended  as 
her  accomplices.  Smeaton  and  Morris  made 
some  confessions  of  guilt,  but  it  is  hard  to 
estimate  how  far  they  were  true.  That  Anne 
was  frivolous,  and  had  behaved  with  some 
indecorum,  may  be  admitted;  but  opinions 
must  continue  to  differ  as  to  the  degree  of  her 
guilt.  She  was  arraigned  before  a  commission 
of  twenty-seven  peers,  presided  over  by  the 
Bake  of  I^orfolk.  The  evidence  of  the  con- 
fessions was  regarded  as  sufficient  for  her  con- 
demnation. Cranmer  was  induced  to  declare 
her  marriage  null  and  void,  and  on  May  19, 
1536,  Anne  Bolejnoi  was  beheaded. 

Calmdar  of  State  Paipere  of  Henrv  VIII.,  with 
Mr.  Brewer's  Introd.  to  vol.  iv. ;  Fronde^  Hi^. 
of  Rng, ;  Strickland,  Livee  of  the  Queene  of 
Xnglandy  toI.  iv. :  Lingard,  Hitt.  o/£n<i.,vol.  v. 

[M.  C] 

AxmOy  Daughter  op  Edward  IV.  (fi.  1476, 
d,  1511),  was  married  in  1495  to  Lord  Thomas 
Howard,  son  of  the  Earl  of  Surrey,  by  whom 
she  had  one  son,  who  died  in  infancy. 

AmiOf  Daughter  of  Richard,  Dukb  op 
York  (d,  1475),  was  married  first  to  Henry 
Holland,  Duke  of  Exetor  (q.v.),  from  whom 
she  was  divorced,  and  secondly  to  Sir  Thomas 
St.  Leger. 

Anne  Veville,  Qusbn  {b.  1454,  d.  1485), 

wife  of  Richard  III., was  the  younger  daughter 
of  Richard  NeviUe,  the  great  Earl  of  War- 
wick. In  1470  she  was  betrothed  (though  it 
is  doubtful  whether  she  was  actually  married) 
to  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales,  son  of  Henry  VI. 
After  his  death  at  Tewkesbury,  in  1471,  she 
was  sought  in  marriage  by  Richard,  then 
Duke  of  Gloucester.  Clarence,  who  had 
married  her  sister  Isabel,  strongly  opposed  the 
match,  and  disguised  her  as  a  cookmaid ;  but 
she  was  discovered  by  Richard,  married  to 
him  in  1473,  and  bore  him  a  son  in  1474.  In 
1483  she  was  crowned  queen  with  liichard. 
In  1484  her  young  son  died,  "an  unhappy 
death,"  according  to  the  Continuator  of  tne 


Ann 


(«8) 


Oroyland  Chroniele ;   and  the  queen  did  not 

long  stxrvive  him,  dying  on  March  16,  1485. 

Cont,  Crojfland  Chron. ;  the  C/MxmtclM  of  Boos, 
Hall,  and  Holinahed ;  Staiokland,  Qtt«0iu  o/Bng,, 
ii.  373.  [M.  C] 

Axine  of  Bohemia,  Qubbv  (&..1367,  d. 

1394),  wife  of  Richard  II.,  the  daughter  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  IV.,  was  married  to  Richard 
in  1382.  Her  sweet  and  gentle  diiroosition 
earned  for  her  the  title  of  ''Gbod  Queen 
Anne,"  and  her  influence  seems  to  have  had 
some  effect  in  mitigating  the  violence  and 
disorder  of  her  husband's  reig^.  It  is  said 
that  the  cruel  reprisals  taken  on  the  Kentish 
revolters  were  discontinued  at  her  inter- 
cession; and  that  the  quarrel  between  the 
king  and  the  citizens  of  London,  which  cul- 
minated in  the  riot  of  1392,  was  healed  by 
her  mediation.  In  one  instance  only  does  her 
influence  appear  to  have  been  bad.  She  took 
an  active  part  in  attempting  to  bring  about 
the  divorce  of  the  king*8  favourite,  De  Vere, 
Earl  of  Oxford,  from  his  wife,  who  was  con- 
nected with  several  of  the .  great  noble 
families,  in  order  that  he  might  marry  one 
of  her  German  ladies,  "the  landgravine,*' 
as  Froissart  calls  her.  Anne  of  Bohemia 
was  said  to  be  well  versed  in  the  Bible,  and 
to  have  read  it  in  a  Bohemian  or  Ger- 
man version;  and  she  and  her  attendants, 
English  and  Bohemian,  are  said  to  have 
looked  with  considerable  favour  on  Wiclif. 
The  proscriptions  of  the  "merciless"  Par- 
liament of  1386  were  specially  directed 
against  the  queen's  attendants,  and  King 
Richard  afterwards  declared,  at  the  trial  of 
the  Earl  of  Arundel  (see  State  Triah^  vol.  i.) 
that  the  queen  was  three  hours  on  her  knees 
before  the  earl,  pleading  with  tears  for  the  life 
of  John  Calverley,  one  of  her  esquires.  There 
is  little  doubt  that  the  connection  between 
England  and  Bohemia,  brought  about  by 
Anne's  marriage,  must  have  done  much  to 
make  the  writings  of  Wiclif  better  known  on 
the  Continent,  and  especially  in  Germany. 

Walsingham,  Hitt.  Anglic.,  ii.  48, 119,  153,  kc, ; 
Striokland,  QuMns  of  BngUmd,  i.  59L  ro  t  j  -i 

Anne  of  Bnrgnndy  {d.  1432)  was  the 
daughter  of  John  Sans  Peur  and  sister  of 
Philip  the  Good,  Duke  of  Burgundy.  She 
was  married  in  1423  to  John,  Duke  of  Bed- 
ford (q.v.). 

Anneof  CleTeSyQuEEK  {h.  1517,^.  1557), 

fourth  wife  of  Henry  VIII.,  was  the  daughter 
of  John,  third  Duke  of  Cleves,  by  l^Iarie, 
daughter  of  William,  Duke  of  Julich,  Berg, 
and  Kavensberg.  Anxious  to  secure  for  Eng- 
land the  goodwill  of  the  Schmalcaldic  League, 
Thomas  Cromwell,  after  the  death  of  Jane 
Seymour,  proposed  to  Henr}'  an  alliance  with 
the  German  Protestant  princes  by  means  of  a 
marriage  with  Anne  of  Cleves ;  and  the  king, 
who  was  greatly  pleased  with  a  portrait 
he  received  'of  his  intended  bride,  willingly 
lent     himself     to     Cromwell's    proposition. 


Landing  at  Deal  Dec.  27,  1539,  Anne  pi 
ceeded  to  Rochester,  where  Hemy  first  at 
her.  Her  person,  however,  failed  altogetb 
to  come  up  to  the  expectations  he  h 
formed  &om  her  portrait.  He  called 
council  to  consider  if  there  was  any  pos 
bility  of  getting  out  of  the  marriage  ( 
gagement  to  her  without  involving  hima 
in  a  quarrel  with  her  family.  A  sort  of  pr 
contract  between  Anne  and  Francis,  son 
the  Duke  of  Lorraine,  was,  however,  the  oi 
respectable  objection  to  the  marriage  tl 
could  be  raised ;  and  this,  when  named  to  1 
Duke  of  Cleves's  ambassadors,  was  complct 
disposed  of  by  an  ofl^er  on  their  part  to  p 
duce  a  formal  renunciation  of  the  contm 
Henr^  was  therefore  obliged  to  submit 
the  distasteful  marriage,  which  was  celebra 
at  Greenwich  on  January  6,  1540.  Fo 
time  Henry  was  able  to  Ixeat  his  queen  w 
a  fair  show  of  respect ;  but  after  the  execut 
of  Cromwell,  the  original  proposer  of 
marriage,  he  sought  no  longer  to  conceal 
feeling  of  aversion  for  her.  The  marrii 
was  finally  annulled,  and  the  decie 
to  that  efl^ect  duly  ratified  by  Parliam( 
on  three  grounds,  viz.  (1)  that  she  had  b 
previously  contracted  to  the  Duke  of  Lorrai 
(2)  that  he,  Henry,  had  not  inwardly  given 
consent ;  (3)  that  the  marriage  had  never  h 
consummated.  As  some  consolation  to  A 
for  this  loss  of  position,  it  was  arranged  1 
she  should  be  treated  as  an  adopted  sister, 
that  she  should  enjoy  the  honours  of  precede 
next  to  the  queen  and  the  king's  daugli 
These  terms,  and  the  further  promise  o\ 
annual  settlement  of  .€3,000,  procured  An 
willing  assent  to  the  proposed  divorce, 
passed  the  remainder  of  her  davs  in  Engl 
where  she  died  at  her  palace  of  Chelsea,  I 
16,  1557.  By  Queen  Mary's  ordera  her  fi 
ral  was  solemnised  in  Westminster  Al 
with  regal  splendour. 

Stiype,  lf«morta7«;  Froude,  RUi.  oflSftg. 

[S.  J.  I 

Anne  of  Xlenmark,  Queen  {b.  157 

1619),  wife  of  James  VI.  of  Scotland  and 
England,  was  the  second  daughter  of  Fredc 
II.,  King  of  Denmark,  and  was  marrio 
James  in  1589.  She  seems  to  have  bee 
one  time  a  Roman  Catholic,  and  at  hor  < 
nation  as  Queen  of  England  she  refuse? 
receive  the  sacrament  according  to  the  rit 
the  English  Church.  But  she  took  little 
in  politics,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  j 
quickly  found  it  was  useless  to  hope  for 
thing  from  her.  With  the  exceptio; 
some  occasional  interference  in  the  c 
of  a  favourite,  she  seems  to  have  conte 
herself  with  enteiiaining  the  king  and 
courtiera  with  balls  and  masques.  She 
never  on  very  good  terms  with  her  husi 
and  took  great  delight  in  making  him  je^ 
and  exposing  him  to  ridicule.  She  is  rep< 
to  have  been  on  rather  intimate  terms 


(69) 


Ann 


with  the  Earl  of  Murray ,  who  was  assasainated 

(it  is  eaggested  with  the  king's  oonnivanoe) 

by  the  Earl  of  Huntley,  and  with  Alexander 

Ruthven,  brother  of  the  Earl  of  Gowrie,  who 

met  with  a  similar  fate.    The  pleasantest  fact 

that  is  recorded  about  her  is  her  intercession  for 

Bir  Walter  Raleigh's  life.    Her  chatacter  has 

been  very  differently  represented,  but  perhaps 

Hume's  estimate,  that  she  was  ''a  woman 

eminent  neither  for  her  vices  nor  her  virtues," 

is  on  the  whole  the  fairest  one. 

StrioUand,  Qtuena  of  Sng.;  Jeaae,  Jf«m.   of 
Qu  StvarU;  Aikin,  Court  ofJamn  I, 

Axineal^  Case,  The  (1743),  arose  out 
of  a  disputed  claim  to  the  honours  and  estates 
of  the  Anglesey  peerage.  Soon  after  the 
assumption  of  the  title  by  Richard,  sixth  earl, 
James  Annesley,  who  professed  to  be  the  son 
of  Lord  Altham,  elder  brother  of  the  earl, 
laid  claim  to  the  title  and  estates.  The 
claimant,  who  was  popularly  known  as  ''the 
unfortunate  voung  nobleman,"  stated  that  he 
had  been  kidnaped  in  infancy  by  his  nucleus 
orders,  and  sent  to  the  American  colonies. 
On  November  11,  1743,  he  commenced  an 
action  against  his  uncle  in  the  Irish  Court  of 
Exchequer.  The  result  of  the  trial  (which 
was  said  to  have  been  the  longest  known  up  to 
that  time)  was  that  he  gained  a  verdict,  but 
made  no  further  effort  to  obtain  his  title.  On 
the  death  of  Richard,  sixth  earl,  in  1761,  tiie 
right  of  his  son  Arthur  to  succeed  him  was 
d^uted.  The  Irish  House  of  Lords  confirmed 
his  title.  The  English  House  of  Lords,  how- 
ever, held  that  the  earldom  of  Anglesey  had 
expired  with  the  father  of  this  nobleman, 
who,  however,  continued  to  sit  in  the  Irish 
Parliament  as  Viscount  Valentia,  and  was 
subsequently  created  Earl  of  Mountmorris. 

ataU  TruUc,  xrii.  1130,  &c  ;  Gentl«man*s  Uaga- 
tMM,  ToL  ziii. 

Axmesley's  Case  (1719)  produced  an 

important  constitutional  dispute  between  the 
English  and  the  Irish  Houses  of  Lords.  A 
suit  for  the  possession  of  certain  lands  in 
Kildare,  between  Hester  Sherlock  and  Maurice 
Annesley,  had  been  decided  in  favour  of  the 
latter  by  the  Irish  Court  of  Exchequer.  On 
appeal,  the  Irish  House  of  Lords  reversed  the 
decision.  This  might  have  been  considered 
final ;  but  Annesley  appealed  to  the  English 
House  of  Lords,  who  affirmed  the  judgment 
of  the  Court  of  Exchequer,  and  oniered 
Annesley  to  be  put  in  possession  of  the  estate. 
The  court  made  an  order  accordingly,  but 
the  Sheriff  of  Kildare  refused  to  execute  it. 
He  was  thereupon  fined  £1,200,  and  brought 
his  case  before  the  Irish  House  of  Lords. 
That  body  resolved,  after  taking  the  opinions 
of  the  judges,  that  the  final  right  of  appeal 
from  the  Irish  courts  lay  with  them,  and 
ordered  the  Barons  of  the  Exchequer  into 
custody  for  acting  on  the  decision  of  the 
English  House.  The  latter,  however,  caused 
a  Bill  to  be  brought  in  (which  passed  by  a 
majority  of  63),  asserting  the  inferior  position 


of  the  Irish  House  of  Lords,  and  depriving 

it  of  all  appellant  jurisdiction  whatsoever. 

This  Act  was  a  mere  stretch  of  power,  for  the 

Irish  Lords  had  frequently  entertained  both 

writs  of  error  and  appeals  in  equity. 

ParliamMitarv  Hut.,  vii.  642 ;  Hallam,  Coiuf. 
Hut.,  T.,  chap.  ZTiii. ;  Leoky,  Htat.  of  Eng..  ii. 
41». 

Ammities  are  certain  sums  of  money 
paid  yearly,  and  are  charged  upon  the  person 
or  personal  estate  of  the  individual  from  whom 
they  are  due.  If  an  annuity  is  charged 
upon  real  estate  it  is  called  a  rent  charge. 
Before  the  reign  of  Anne  the  annuities 
which  had  been  granted  by  the  crown  as 
a  reward  for  services  performed,  or  for  other 
reasons,  had  been  charged  upon  the  heredi- 
tary revenues,  and  it  had  been  held  that  the 
king  had  power,  in  law,  to  bind  his  successors. 
On  the  accession  of  Queen  Anne  an  Act  was 
passed  to  restrain  the  alienation  of  any  por- 
tion of  the  hereditary  revenues  for  a  longer 
period  than  the  life  of  the  reigning  sovereign ; 
so  that  it  became  the  practice  to  re-grant 
annuities  and  pensions  at  the  beginning 
of  a  fresh  reign.  On  the  establishment  of  a 
civil  list  under  George  III.,  government 
annuities  were  charged  on  it  instead  of  on 
the  hereditary  revenues ;  and  the  indiscrimi- 
nate granting  of  pensions  by  the  crown  was 
checked  by  Act  of  Parliament,  1782,  the  Irish 
annuities  being  regulated  in  1793,  and  the 
Scotch  in  1810.  In  1837  the  right  of  the 
crown  to  grant  pensions  was  restricted  to 
£1,200  a  year,  and  to  "sach  persons  as  have 
just  claims  on  the  royal  beneficence."  The 
system  of  granting  annuities  as  a  political 
bribe,  which  had  been  much  in  favour 
under  the  Stuarts,  was  done  away  with  in 
1705,  when  holders  of  government  annuities 
were  declared  incapable  of  sitting  in  Parlia- 
ment, though  the  Act  was  occasionally  evaded 
by  the  granting  of  secret  pensions.  The  sys- 
tem  of  raising  government  loans  by  means  of  ' 
annuities  began  in  1692,  when  the  "  Million 
Act*'  empowered  the  raising  of  that  sum  for 
the  expenses  of  the  French  war  by  means  of 
a  tontine  annuity,  and  several  similar  statutes 
were  passed  during  the  war  of  Queen  Anne's 
reign.  During  the  Austrian  Succession  and 
SevenYears*  Wars,  government  annuities  were 
frequently  granted  by  wav  of  bonus  or  pre- 
mium to  the  subscribers  of  government  loans. 
In  1773  a  measure  was  passed  through  the 
House  of  Commons,  under  the  auspices  of 
Burke,  to  enable  the  working  classes  to 
invest  their  savings  in  the  purchase 
of  deferred  annuities,  but  it  was  rejected 
by  the  Lords.  In  1779  the  government 
was  authorised  to  raise  £7,000,000  by  an- 
nuity. "The  government  of  that  period," 
says  Mr.  Walford,  "was  driven  to  great 
extremities  for  raising  money ;  nearly  evexy 
session  one  or  two  Annuity  Acts  were  passed, 
generally  accompanied  by  a  lottery."  Acts 
were  passed  on  ^e  subject  in  1808,  1817,  and 


(60) 


1863;  the  last  named,  besides  consolidatiiig 
and  amending  the  law  on  government  annui- 
ties, inaugurated  the  system  of  granting 
annuities  for  small  amounts  through  the 
medium  of  Savings  Banks. 

May,  C<nuL  Hitt. ;  Walford's  InaMrance  Cyclo- 
fMMlta  oontaiiis  an  elaborate  and  ezhaiutive 
azti(de,  embracing  both  public  and  private  an> 
unities.  Statutes  4  W.  ^  M. ,  c.  3 ;  19  Geo.  III., 
c.  18 ;  48  Geo.  m.,  o.  14si ;  16  and  17  Vict.,  c.  45. 

[S.  J.  L.] 

Awaufcliw,  St.  {b.  1033,  d,  1109),  Archbishojp 
of  Canterbury,  was  bom  at  or  near  Aosta.  His 
father,  a  vassal  of  Maurienne,  was  a  man  of 
some  wealth  and  position,  but  of  unthrifty 
habits  and  violent  temper.  When  only  fifteen 
Anselm  ardently  desired  to  enter  the  monastic 
life,  but  his  father  refused  his  consent.  A 
severe  illness  did  not  soften  the  old  man,  and 
when  his  mother^s  death  removed  the  last 
barrier  to  the  father's  tyranny,  Anselm  crossed 
the  Alps  with  a  single  attendant  to  seek  a 
career  and  escape  his  father's  oppression.  He 
spent  three  years  in  Burgundy,  and  was  thence 
attracted  to  Normandy.  After  a  sojourn  at 
Avranches,  where  Lanfranc  had  once  taught, 
Anselm  removed  to  Bee,  now  flourishing 
under  Lanfranc  as  prior.  After  a  severe  course 
of  study  and  discipline  he  took  the  vows,  at  .the 
age  of  twenty-seven.  Three  years  later  he  was 
elected  prior  on  Lanfranc  removing  to  Caen. 
His  administration  made  Bee  inferior  only  to 
Cluny  in  general  repute  and  superior  to  it  in 
learning.  Not  only  did  Beo  turn  out  great 
scholars,  but  Anselm  infused  a  high  intellectual 
tone  into  the  whole  monastery.  He  now  pub- 
lished his  famous  Frotlogum  and  MonologioUy 
and  in  1078,  when  Herlwin  died,  was  made 
abbot.  Tins  office  led  to  several  visits  to  Eng- 
land, to  look  after  the  estates  Bee  had  obtained 
from  the  Conqueror.  These  visits  made  him 
widelyknown  among  all  classes  of  Englishmen. 
He  renewed  his  connection  with  Lanfranc,  now 
archbishop,  became  acquainted  with  Eadmer 
of  Canterbury,  his  future  biographer,  and 
established  cordial  relations  with  Earl  Hugh 
of  Chester.  He  had  a  good  word  to  sav  for 
Englidi  saints  like  Alphege  when  Lannanc 
denied  their  claims  to  martyrdom.  Lanfranc 
died  in  1089,  and  everyone  recognised  in 
Anselm  the  one  man  who  could,  as  at  Bee, 
continue  Lanfranc' s  work  and  keep  William* 
II.  in  check.  But  William  kept  the  see  vacant 
four  years,  to  secure,  with  the  rich  temporali- 
ties, Ireedom  from  unpleasant  advice.  In  1092 
Anselm  again  visited  England,  very  unwil- 
lingly, lest  he  should  be  accused  of  ambition, 
but  overcome  at  last  by  the  importunity  for 
spiritual  consolation  of  Earl  Hugh,  now 
very  ill.  Anselm  was  still  in  England  when 
a  sudden  illness  stirred  Rufus's  sluggish  con- 
science, and  he  resolved  to  atone  for  his  past 
crimes  by  making  the  Abbot  of  Bee  imsh- 
bishop.  Anselm  was  almost  dragged  before 
the  sick  king's  bed,  and  after  a  show  of  resis- 
tance, ludicrous  if  not  sincere,  was  positively 


forced  to  accept  the  office.    But  if  archbiflhop 
he  would  maintain  all  the  rights  of  his  church. 
Only  on  William's  promise  to  resign  the  tem- 
poralities, to  listen  to  Anselm*s  advice  in  things 
spiritual,  and  to  acknowledge  Urban  11.  instead 
of  the  imperial  anti-Pope  Clement,  did  he 
submit  to  consecration  (Dec.  4, 1093).  William 
soon  recovered,  relapsed  into  his  old  ways, 
and  quarrelled  with  Anselm.    Anselm's  pre- 
sent of  600  marks  was  scornfully  reject^  as 
inadequate.     His  desire  for  the  convocation 
of  a  council  to  check  the  tide  of  profligacy 
and  profanity  was  equally  unheeded.    At  last 
William's  r^sal  to  ackuowledge  Urban,  or 
to  allow  Anselm  to  go  to  Home  to  receive  the 
pallium  from  that  Pope,  }ed  to  a  definite  rup- 
ture. The  Great  Council  of  Rockingham  failed 
to  make  Anselm  give  way  to  William;  but 
the  king  ended  the  dispute  himself  by  secretly 
acknowledging  Urban,  and  getting  from  him 
Anselm's  pallium.     The  fi^sh  difficulty  of 
Anselm*s  refusal  to  accept  it  from  lay  hands 
was  got  over  by  his  taldnff  it  himself  from  the 
high  altar  of  his  catnedraL    But  within  a 
year  William  brought  him  before  the  Curia 
Regis  on  a  charge  of  inadequately  fulfilling 
his  feudal  obligations    in    the  Welsh  war. 
Anselm  now  appealed  to  the  Pope,  wrung 
from  Rufus  a  licence  to  travel,  and  left  Eng- 
land in  October,  1097.  William  at  once  seized 
on  the  estates  of  his  see.    At  Rome,  Anselm 
soon  found  that  Urban,  though  very  friendly, 
was  too  war}'  to  quarrel  with  the  English 
king.    While  in  Italy  he  took  part  in  two 
councils.    At  Bari  he  defended  the  double 
Procession    against    the    Greeks.     At    the 
Lateian  he  shared  in  excommunicating  all 
concerned  with  the  sin  of  lay  inv^tituro. 
Tired  of  fruitless  waiting,  Anselm  left  Italy 
in  the  early  summer  of  1099,  and  lived  chiefly 
at  Lyons,  till  William's  death  and  Henry's 
need  of  friends  recalled  him  from  exile.     But 
though  Henry  had  urged  Anselm's  immediate 
return,  he  required  him  before  long  to  renew 
his  homage,  and  be  again  '*  invested**  with 
his  archbishopric.     Thus  the  investiture  con* 
test  at  last  crossed  over  into  Cngland,  but 
was  conducted  in  a  spirit  different  from  tha 
displayed  by  Gregory  VII.  and  Henry  IV 
Anselm  absolutely  refused  to  yield ;    Henr 
insisted  on  prerogative  and  precedent ;    bv 
king  and  prelate  always  treated  each.  otb< 
with  the  utmost  courtesy.    An  agreement  1 
refer  the  matter  to  the  Pope  led  only  to  Pa 
chal  II.*s  strong  support  of  Anselm ;  and 
Henry  would  not  give  way,  the  primate  ^^e 
into  exile  a  second  time,  in  1103.      In   11 
Anselm  felt  compelled   to  threaten    oiceoi 
munication,  but  his  ultimatum  led  to  an  int^ 
view  and  reconciliation  with    Henry,  -wb 
the  famous  compromise  was   devised   v^b' 
half  a  generation  later  was  accepted  at  Wot 
by   Pope  and  Emperor.      In    1106    Ansc 
returned.    He  gave  canonical  conaecratior 
the  bishops  irregularly  appointed  during 
rupture,  and  efficiently  aided  Henry  agai 


(61  ) 


the  feudalists.  He  found  time  to  compose 
a  treatise  on  the  Agreement  of  Grace  and 
Predestination  with  Free  Will.  He  died 
April  21,  1109,  aged  seventy-six,  and  was 
buried  next  to  Laufranc  at  Canterbury.  Not 
till  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century  did 
he  receive  formal  canonisation  from  the 
worst  of  popes,  Alexander  YI. ;  but  long 
before  this  Dante  had  placed  him  in  paradise 
among  the  greatest  saints  of  Christendom. 
Anselm's  personal  character  was  lofty  and 
pore.  But  the  saint  in  private  life  was  also 
a  churchman  and  a  politician  of  high  rank, 
the  successful  governor  of  a  great  abbey  and 
greater  see,  and  the  author  of  the  investiture 
compromise.  He  represented  the  highest 
ideals  of  mediaeval  Qinstendom.  His  contest 
with  William  and  Henry  was  to  him  a 
struggle  for  principle  and  divine  law  against 
mere  force  and  worldliness.  That  it  involved 
the  subordination  of  budding  nationality  to 
dying  cosmopolitanism,  the  subjection  of  the 
state  to  a  spiritual  tyranny  as  ruthless  as  that 
of  William,  could  not  be  seen  by  Anselm. 

As  the  precursor  of  at  least  one  side  of 
scholastic  philosophy,  Anselm  has  an  equal 
claim  to  fame.  Although  his  unsystematic  trea- 
tises became  unduly  neglected  when  brought 
into  competition  with  the  vast  and  methodical 
tractates  of  the  later  schoolmen,  he,  more 
than  anyone  else,  gave  that  impulse  to  justify 
Scripture  and  the  Cliurch  by  reason  and 
dialectic,  which  was  the  dominant  idea  of  the 
most  characteristic  school  of  mediaeval  philo- 
sophy. In  the  Moneioffunif  he  tried  to 
"  elicit  from  the  necessity  of  reason,  without 
the  aid  of  Scripture,  the  idea  of  God  and  the 
real  foundation  of  it,*'  by  recourse  to  the 
Platonic  theory  of  "  ideas,"  as  expressed  by 
St.  Augustine.  In  the  Proalogion  he  pur- 
sues the  same  line  still  further,  and  anti- 
dpates  Descartes*  famous  principle  "  that  the 
idea  of  God  in  the  human  mind  necessarily 
involves  the  reaKtj'  of  that  idea."  His  Cur 
Deu9  Homo  attempts  to  establish  a  logical 
and  rational  theory  of  the  Incarnation,  and 
has  profoundly  influenced  all  subsequent 
speculation  on  that  subject.  His  crude 
realism  passed  away  with  the  advent  of  more 
systematic  thinking,  but  the  impulse  he  gave 
remained  permanent. 

The  best  editions  of  Anwelm's  works  are  those 
of  Dom  Oerberon  (Paris,  1675)  and  Migne 
(PahoIojKa  Curnw  Comylehu).  Oar  Bnu  Komo 
has  been  translated  into  English  (Oxford,  1868X 
and  the  IfonoZojfion  and  Prosloyion  into  French, 
with  oommente,  in  Bonohitt^'s  BationoIimM 
Clif^CMii  (Paris,  1842).  Some  of  the  UtiiiaUxmB 
have  been  done  into  English  1^  Dr.  Posej. 

Eadmer's  Fiia  Antt^i  and  Historia  Ifovflla 
(printed  in  Migne,  Patrolog.,  v.  IfiO)  are  onr  great 
sooroea  for  the  personal  and  political  career  of 
Anselm.  After  1008  his  history  is  the  history  of 
the  time,  and  much  therefore  can  be  got  from 
the  general  anthoritiee  for  the  period.  They 
are  vaX\j  and  elaborately  worked  np  in  Mr. 
Freeman's  WiXUam  Bufm.  I>ean  Chnrch's 
Saint  Anselm  is  the  best  general  account  of  him 
in  English*  befetes  than  that  in  Dean  Hook's 


Liitu  ^fih9  Ardkhiihopt  of  ConUrhwy.  Chnrch'a 
preface  enumerates  the  chief  modem  works  on 
Anselm.  Professor  Hasse's  Anselm  von  CanUr- 
hury  ia  full  and  carefal.  Professor  Franok's 
work  is  shorter  and  more  meagre.  M.  Charles 
de  IMmosat's  Saint  Anaelmo  d«  Cantoi'b^ry  is  of 
great  importance.  There  are  other  accounts  by 
Mohler,  Saisset,  and  Moatalembert.  An  elabo- 
rate, though  not  altogether  satisfactory.  Life  has 
been  published  (1883)  by  Mr.  M.  Rule. 

[T.  F.  T.] 

Anson«  Geobob,  Ist  Baron  {b.  1697, 
d.  1761),  in  1716  became  second  lieutenant 
of  H.M.S.  Hampshire,  and  duiing  the  two 
following  years  sailed  under  Admiral 
Byng  in  the  Mediterranean.  In  1724 
he  attained  the  rank  of  post  -  captain. 
He  visited  South  Carolina,  and  founded 
the  town  of  Anson  (1733).  In  1740  he  was 
despatched  with  six  vessels  to  sail  round  Cape 
Horn  and  rifle  the  shores  of  Peru.  Beset  by 
terrible  storms,  he  appointed  the  island  of 
Juan  Fernandez  as  a  rendezvous  for  his  ships. 
Next  scur\y  broke  out.  The  vessels  at  length 
arrived  at  the  island,  except  the  Wager,  which 
was  wrecked.  The  Spanish  fleet  sent  to 
attack  them  was  driven  back  into  the  Rio  de 
la  Plata.  Foiled  in  his  attempt  to  catch  the 
Spanish  treasure  ship,  Anson  sailed  westward 
from  America  with  the  Centurion^  his  sole 
remaining  ship,  and  arrived  at  Spithead  in 
June,  1744,  after  an  absence  of  three  years 
and  nine  months,  during  which  he  had  cir- 
cunmavigated  the  globe.  He  was  at  once 
appointed  Rear- Admiral  of  the  Blue  and 
Commissioner  of  the  Admiralty.  In  1746 
he  was  made  Vice-Admiral.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  he  commanded  the  Channel 
squadron,  and  defeated  De  la  Jonqui^re  off 
Cape  Finisterre.  For  this  exploit  he  was 
raised  to  the  peerage.  In  1749  he  became 
Vice -Admiral  of  Great  Britain,  and  in 
1751  First  Commissioner  of  the  Admiralty. 
He  commanded  at  the  descent  on  Cher- 
bourg in  1758.  Anson's  talents  were  of  a 
rather  mediocre  order,  and  scarcely  bore  a 
proportion  to  the  honours  and  success  he 
attained.  He  was  dull  and  somewhat  un- 
ready in  business,  so  that  it  was  said  of  him 
after  his  famous  expedition  that  he  had  been 
round  the  world  but  never  in  it.  He  was, 
however,  a  man  of  great  courage,  coolness, 
and  determination. 

Waldegrave,  Memoirs;  Anton's  VoyagOf  com- 
piled from  his  papers  soon  after  his  return  in 
1744.  and  frequently  reprinted ;  D.  L.  Purvis, 
EnglUh  Cxrcumnavigiior$,  1874. 

Axurbrutherf  Sik  Robebt  {b,  1768,  d. 

1809),  was  quartermaster-general  to  Sir  Ralph 
Abercromby's  army  in  Egypt,  in  the  cam- 
paign of  1800.  In  1808  he  went  to  Portugal 
with  the  reinforcements  for  Sir  Arthur  Wei- 
lesley's  division,  and  was  present  at  the  battle 
of  Vimiera,  in  command  of  a  brigade.  In 
the  subsequent  campaign  of  this  year  he  com- 
manded the  rear-guard  of  Sir  John  Moore^s 
army  during  the  retreat.  He  died  of  exhaus- 
tion and  fatigue,  brought  on  by  his  exertions 


Ant 


(62) 


App 


during  the  campaign,  the  day  after  the  army 
arrived  at  Coronna,  and  was  buried  at  that 
city  by  the  side  of  his  commander. 
Napier,  Penituular  War, 

Anti-Com-Law  League.     [Corn 

LaW8.] 

Antiffaay  the  most  important  of  the 
LeewaroXslands,  was  discovered  by  Columbus 
in  1493.  In  1632  an  Engli^  settlement  was 
founded  in  the  island  by  Sir  Thomas  Warner, 
u  further  influx  of  colonists  from  Britain 
taking  place  in  1663,  in  which  year  a  grant  of 
the  island  was  made  to  Lord  Willoughby.  In 
1666  it  was  ravaged  by  a  Frendi  expedition 
from  Martinique,  but  by  the  Treaty  of  Breda, 
in  the  same  year,  was  formally  ceded  to  Britain. 
In  1710  an  insurrection  caused  by  the  mis- 
conduct of  the  governor,  Colonel  Park,  took 
place,  and  the  governor  was  slain;  in  1737  a 
proposed  rebellion  of  the  negroes  was  crushed 
before  it  came  to  anything.  The  emanci- 
pation of  the  slaves  in  1834  was  effected 
without  any  of  the  disturbances  which  took 
place  in  Jamaica.  In  1871  Antigua  became 
part  of  the  Federation  of  the  Leeward  Islands, 
and  is  the  residence  of  the  govemor-in-chief ; 
even  before  that  date  it  was  a  representative 
colony,  its  affairs  being  adnunistered  by  a 
governor,  a  legislative  council  nominated  by 
the  crown,  and  an  elective  legislative  assem- 
bly of  fourteen  members. 

B.  EdwardB,  Hut.  qf  Wut  tndim  ;  B.  M.  Mar- 
tin,  Hxst.  qfthe  BritiBh  CoUmim,  toI.  ii. 

Anti-Jacobill,  Thb,  was  a  magazine 
established  in  Nov.,  1797,  and  brought  out 
weekly  until  the  foUowing  July,  under  the 
editorship  of  William  Gifford.  The  object 
of  the  paper  was  mainly  political,  being  in- 
tended to  satirise  the  Jacobin  principles  of 
the  Fox  section  of  the  Whigs.  The  most 
distinguished  of  its  contributors  were  John 
Hookham  Frere  and  George  Canning,  the 
latter  of  whom  was  the  author  of  the  cele- 
brated story  of  the  "  Needy  Knife  Grinder." 
Though  its  object  was  political,  it  contained 
much  parody  of  the  literature  of  the  day, 
especially  of  Southey  and  Darwin,  both  of 
whom  afforded  fertile  subjects  for  Canning's 
wit.  The  Anti-Jacobin  as  at  first  projected 
had  but  a  short  life.  The  first  number  was 
published  Nov.  20,  1797,  and  the  last  on  July 
9  in  the  following  year.  It  was,  however, 
continued  on  a  new  plan,  with  less  of  a  political 
and  more  of  a  literary  character,  imtil  1818. 
Some  of  the  papers  that  appeared  in  it  have 
frequently  been  reprinted. 

Anti-Slavery  Associatioii.    [Slave 

Trade.] 


face,  and  he  thought  it  prudent  to  retire  to 
Coleraine.  At  the  battle  of  the  Boyne  his 
cavalry  fled,  without  striking  a  blow,  before 
the  enemy.  Lord  Antrim  was  attainted  of 
high  treason,  but  was  subsequently  included 
in  the  provisions  of  the  Treaty  of  Limerick, 
andhisnonours  and  estates  were  restored  to 
him. 


1,  Alexander  Hacdonnsll,  3rd 
Earl  op  {b.  1616,  rf.  1699),  was  a  Roman 
Catholic,  and  an  active  supporter  in  Ireland 
of  James  II.  after  the  Revolution.  He  was 
sent  with  1,200  men  to  occupy  Londonderry, 
but  the  inhabitants  shut  the  gates  in  hia 


1,  Randal  Macdonnell,  Marquis 

OF  (rf.  1682),  was  employed  in  164 1  to  gain  over 

the  Irish  army,  and  he  greatly  ingratiated 

himself  with  the  CathoUcs.   Though  a  Catholic 

and  a  Cavalier,  he  was  eager  to  fight  the  Ulster 

rebels,  and  offered  his  aid  to  Monroe,  who, 

however,  treacherously  seized  him,  and  kept 

him  a  prisoner  for  eight  months,  when  he 

escaped,  joined  Owen  O^Neil,  and  became  one 

of  the  Kilkenny  Council,  pretending  that  he 

would  bring   10,000  men  over  to  England. 

The   1,500  men  under  Kolkitto  who  joined 

Montrose  in  1 644  were  sent  by  him.  Clarendon 

says  of  him  that  he  was  a  narrow-minded  and 

vain  man,  and  aspired  to  supplant  Ormonde  as 

a  commander,  though  wholly  unfit  for  the  post. 

Claxendon,  flist  of  the  Rebellion;   Froade, 
Sng.  im  Ireland. 

Antwerp,  The    Surrender  of  (1706), 
was  an  important  advantage  for  the  allies 
in  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession.    The 
town  was  the  key  to  the  Scheldt  fortresses, 
and  in  fact  commanded  the  whole  of  Brabant 
and  West  Flanders.     "  It  might  otherwise 
be  described,'*  says  IMr.  Burton,  "as  repre- 
senting in  enlargement  the  relation  of  its  own 
citadel  to  the  minor  fortified  works  attached 
to  its  walls,  since  it  was  the  centre  of  converg- 
ence to  a  group  of  fortified  towns  bound  to  it 
by  an  apparatus  of  dykes  and  canals."   Marl- 
borough was  so  convinced  of  its  importance 
that  he  termed  his  plans  against  it  **  the 
great  design.*'    The  fortress  had  pre-viously 
been  occupied  by  Boufflers,  who  had  driven 
Opdam  from  it.    After  the  battle  of  Ramillies, 
Cadogan  was   sent  to    summon    the  town. 
Marlborough  awaited  the  news  with  anxiety, 
as  a  siege  would  cause  great  delay.    The  in- 
habitants were,  however,  to  a  man  in  favour 
of  their  new  kmg,  and  the  French  were  there- 
fore compelled  to  give  up  the  town.     For  the 
remainder  of  the  war  it  remained   in   the 
hands  of  the  allies. 

Coxe,   MarfhonmgK ;  Burton,  B«yn  of  Queen 
Annti  Wyon,  Reign  of  Anne. 

Antwerp,  Expedition   against   (1809). 
[Walcheren  Expedition.] 

Appa  SaMb  was  the  nephew  of  Ragojee 
Bhonshdi  [Mahrattas], on  whose  death  (1816) 
he  became  regent  of  ^agpore,  in  consequence 
of  the  idiotcy  of  the  heir,  Passwajee.  Being 
opposed  by  a  powerful  faction  in  the  court  and 
zenana,  he  turned  to  the  English,  and  a  sub- 
sidiary treaty  was  concluded  May  27,  1816, 
which  provided  that  a  force  of  6,000  infantry, 
and  a  regiment  of  cavaliy,  together  with  tbe 


App 


(63) 


App 


due  proportioii  of  artillery,  should  be  subsi- 
diaed  by  the  Nagpore  state  at  an  expense  of 
seyen  lacs  and  a  half  per  annum ;  and  that  the 
rajah  should  engage  in  no  foreign  negotiation 
-without  the  concurrence  of  the  British  govern- 
ment.   On  Feb.  1,  1817,  Passwajee  was  stran- 
gled by  order  of  Appa  Sahib,  who  immediately 
mounted  the  throne  with  the  title  of  Madajee 
Bhonslah.      Anxious  to  be  freed  from  de- 
pendence,   he    entered    into    the    Mahratta 
confederacy  against  the  EngHsh,  while  pro- 
fessing the  most  inviolable  attachment  to  the 
latter.    On  hearing  of  the  attack  made  on 
Mr.  Elphinstone  by  Bajee  Rao  on  Nov.  5, 
he  inveighed  against  such  perfidy  in  very 
strong  terms,  though  at  the  same  time  he  was 
preparing  his  resources    for    a  treacherous 
attack    on    the    English    residency.      This 
actually  took   place    soon   after,    and    was 
followed  by  the  gallant  defence  of  the  Tula- 
buldee   hills   by   the    British   against    the 
forces  of  the  rajah,  which  terminated  in  his 
complete  defeat.      On  Dec.  15  the  Resident 
was  able  to  require  the  rajah  to  surrender 
at  discretion,  on  the  undersitanding  that  his 
throne  would  be  restored  to  him.    He  was 
restored  to  his  dignities  Jan.  8,   1818;  but 
again  proving  treacherous,  was  once  more 
dethroned,  and  died  a  pensioner  on  the  bounty 
of  Runjeet  Singh. 

Mill,  Hist,  of  India  (Wilwn's  ed.),  viii.,  ch. 
iv.— ix. 

Appeal  of  Txeason.    [Treason.] 

Appeals  to  Some.    [Papacy.] 

AppeUants,  or  Lords  Appellant, 

was  the  name  given  to  the  nobles  who 
in  1387  **  appealed  *'  of  treason  Richard  II. 's 
ministers,  De  Vere,  Neville,  De  la  Pole, 
Tresilian,  and  Brember.  When  it  was  known 
that  the  king,  with  the  aid  of  his  supporters 
in  various  parts  of  the  country  and  the  citizens 
of  London,  was  attempting  to  resume  the  full 
exerdse  of  his  authority,  of  which  he  had 
been  deprived  by  the  commission  forced  on 
him  the  previous  year,  the  Duke  of  Oloucestor, 
with  a  large  body  of  troops,  marched  to 
London,  and  compelled  him  (Nov.  17)  to 
receive  a  petition  of  complaint  against  the 
royal  counsellors.  On  this  proceeding  he 
immediately  fled.  The  Appellants  exhibited 
the  bill  of  impeachment  in  the  Parliament 
which  met  in  Feb.,  1388,  and,  in  spite  of  the 
protests  of  the  judges,  it  was  carried.  Three 
of  the  ministers  had  already  escaped  from 
the  kingdom;  but  Tresilian  and  Brember 
were  arrested  and  put  to  death.  The  Appel- 
lants were  five  in  number — the  Duke  of 
Gloucester,  and  the  Earls  of  Derby,  Notting^ 
ham,  Warwick,  and  Arundel.  [Richard  II. ; 
Glouobbtbb,  Thomas,  Duke  op/] 

Appellate  Jnriediotum  ia  *'the  ju- 
risdiction ezercuwd  by  a  court  of  justice  at 
the  iofltanoe  of  a  peraon  complaining  of  the 


decision  of  another  court  called,  in  reference 
to  the  court  of  appeal,  the  court  below.'*  Be- 
fore the  Norman  Conquest  no  suit  could  be 
carried  to  a  higher  tribunal  until  it  had  been 
first  heard  in  the  Hundred  Court;  thence 
an  appeal  lay  to  the  Shire  Moot,  and  thence 
to  the  Witenagemot,  which  was  the  final  court 
of  appeal.  Under  the  Norman  kings,  appeals 
were  decided  in  the  Curia  Regis ;  while  the  ap- 
peal from  the  ordinary  law  courts  under  Henry 
II.  lay  to  the  sovereign  as  the  source  of 
justice,  and  to  the  Concilium  Ordinarium.  By 
degrees,  however,  petitions  for  redress  were 
addressed  to  the  Qiancellor  rather  than  the 
king;  and  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  the 
Court  of  Chancery  was  constituted  as  a  Court 
of  Equity,  but  not  of  appeal.  The  Concilium 
Ordinarium  (and  not  the  Commune  Coneilium) 
was  for  long  the  only  court  of  appeal;  by 
degrees  ita  appellate  jurisdiction  passed  to 
Hie  House  of  Lords,  whose  power  to  hear 
common  law  appeals  has  never  been  ques- 
tioned. In  1661,  however,  in  the  famous 
case  of  ShirUy  y.  Fagg^  the  Commons  denied 
that  the  Loi^  could  hear  appeals  from 
equity;  but  this  right,  first  asserted  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  I.,  has  never  been  attacked 
since.  In  1358,  the  Court  of  £xehequtr 
Chamber  was  created  as  an  intermediate 
court  of  appeal  between  the  Common  Law 
Courts  and  the  House  of  Lords ;  the  powers 
of  this  court  were  extended  in  1585,  and 
reconstituted  in  1831.  Under  Henry  VIII., 
appeals  from  the  ecclesiastical  courts  to 
Rome  were  forbidden  under  the  penalty  of 
praemunire,  and  appeals  from  the  arch- 
bishops' courts  were  declared  to  lie  to  the 
king  in  Chancery,  who  was  to  appoint  Lord» 
JDelegaUa  of  Appeals  to  hear  appeals  from  the 
Admiralty,  ecclesiastical,  and  baronial  courts. 
In  1832  this  appellate  jurisdiction  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Judicial  Committee  of  the  Privy 
Council.  By  the  Supreme  Court  of  Judi- 
cature Act  (36  &  37  Vict.,  c.  60)  of  1873,  the 
appellate  functions  of  this  committee,  and  of 
the  Court  of  Exchequer  Chamber,  were  trans- 
ferred to  the  Bigh  Court  of  Appeal  constituted 
by  that  Act,  with  appellate  jurisdiction  from 
all  courts  of  common  law  and  equity,  and 
from  the  Palatine  Courts  of  Durham  and  Lan- 
caster.  The  final  appeal  was  still  left  to 
the  House  of  Lords.  [Chancery  ;  Exchbqueb 
Chamber;  Lords,  House  of.] 

Beeves,  Hiat.  of  'Enq.  Law:   Stephen,  CoM' 
mmtarieB  ;  H.  Broom,  Cofut.  Hiti,  r-n  g  p  i 

Apprenticas  are  persons  bound  by  in- 
dentures to  serve  a  master  for  a  certain 
period,  receiving  in  return  for  their  services 
maintenance  and  instruction  in  their  master's 
craft.  The  system  of  apprenticeship  in 
England  is  of  very  ancient  date,  and  probably 
was  instituted  as  early  as  the  trade  gilds 
themselves.  In  medisaval  times  the  principle 
of  combination  amongst  members  of  one 
trade    was    universally    recognised,  and   in 


App 


(64) 


App 


order  to  practise  any  craft  it  was  necessary  to 
become  tree  of  the  company  or  gild  of  that 
craft.  This  freedom  was  obtained  by  serving 
an  apprenticeship  of  so  many  years ;  and  as 
the  number  of  apprentices  which  each  master 
was  allowed  to  take  was  usually  limited,  a 
material  check  was  placed  upon  the  numbers 
of  those  who  were  privileged  to  exercise  each 
trade.  Although  the  system  of  apprentice- 
ship existed  in  England  from  about,  the 
twelfth  century,  and  is  occasionally  referred 
to  in  Acts  of  Parliament  (e.g.^  12  Rich.  II., 
c.  3),  it  was  not  until  1563  that  the  famous 
Statute  of  Apprentices  was  passed.  By  this 
Act  no  person  was  allowed  to  exercise  a 
trade  unless  he  had  previously  served  a 
seven  years'  apprenticeship  to  it,  though 
the  restriction  did  not,  of  course,  affect 
trades  which  were  established  in  England 
after  the  passing  of  the  statute.  This  Act 
was  speedily  foand  very  burdensome,  and, 
although  it  was  held  to  apply  only  to  towns, 
it  was  repealed  in  1814  on  the  recommen- 
dation of  a  committee  of  the  House  of 
Commons ;  some  reservations  were,  however, 
made  '*  in  favour  of  the  customs  and  by-laws 
of  the  city  of  London  and  of  other  cities, 
and  of  corporations  and  companies  lawfully 
constituted.''  In  1601  it  was  enacted  that 
the  overseers  of  a  parish  mi^ht  bind  pauper 
children  as  apprentices  until  their  twenty- 
fourth  year,  but  in  1728  the  age  was  reduced 
to  twenty-one.  In  1845  an  Act  was  passed 
which  regulated  the  binding  of  boys  appren- 
ticed on  board  vessels,  such  boys  to  be  between 
the  ages  of  twelve  and  seventeen.  The  terms 
of  apprenticeship  in  Ireland  and  Scotland 
were  much  less  than  in  England,  varying 
from  five  to  three  years,  and  in  Scotland, 
says  Adam  Smith,  "  the  corporation  laws  are 
less  oppressive  than  in  any  part  of  Europe.** 
Apprenticeship,  though  not  now  necessary, 
except  in  a  few  cases  (as  that  of  solicitors 
and  the  like),  is  frequently  entered  into  by 
contract,  the  master  being  in  all  cases  bound 
to  provide  necessary  food,  clothing,  and 
lodging.  The  apprentices  of  the  Elizabethan 
and  Stuart  periods  were  usually  the  sons  of 
yeomen  or  tradesmen,  and,  being  forbidden 
to  wear  the  genteel  rapier,  carried  a  stout 
bat  or  club.  Hence  the  cry  when  an  uproar 
commenced  of  "'Prentices!  clubs!'*  From 
the  time  of  the  Tudors  the  apprentices  of 
London  were  the  special  "champions  of  mer- 
cantile jealousy  arrayed  against  aristocratic 
arrogance;  and  are  to  be  found  in  almost 
every  London  riot,  until  they  were  finally  the 
conquerors  at  Marston  Moor  and  Naseby.** 

Macpheraon,  AnnaU  of  Commerce ^Vii.  44 1.  607. 

[L.  C.  S.] 


..     ^  _.;ioii  of  Supplies.     The 

successive  maxims,  the  enforcement  of  which 
finally  secured  to  the  Commons  the  com- 
plete control  of  taxation,  were :  (1)  that  the 
Parliament  alone  could  grant  supplies,  and 


the  Commons  alone  originate  such  grants; 

(2)  that  their  petitions  for  redress  must  be 
answered  before  supplies  should  be  granted ; 

(3)  that  the  right  to  grant  includes  tiie  right 
to  decide  the  appropriation  of  the  grant  for 
definite  purposes,  and  to  demand  the  audit  of 
its  expenditure.    The  Parliament  of  the  six- 
teenth century  saw  the  two  former  of  these 
claims  constantly  evaded  by  the  arbitrary  or 
underhand  action  of  the  crown.    They  began 
also  to  see  that  the  way  to  counteractthi8,andto 
counteract  at  the  same  time  the  extravagance 
or  dishonesty  of  the  minister  of  the  crown,  was 
by  putting  in  force  the  third  claim.  This  had 
been  suggested  in  the  early  struggles  of  the 
thirteenth  century;  as  in   1237,  when  the 
crown   offered  to  allow  a  committee  of  the 
Ghreat  Council  to  supervise  the  expenditure  of 
the  grant  then  asked  for.    The  plan  comes 
forward  again  in  1262  and  in  1266;  its  im- 

Sortance,  however,  was  not  yet  realised.    No 
oubt  under  Edward  I.   it  was  felt  to  be 
enough  that  Parliament  alone  should  make 
grants,  while  under  Edward  III.,  Parliament 
advanced  to  the  principle  of  redress  before 
supply ;  yet  the  principle  of  appropriation  whs, 
even  in  these  reigns,  plainly  exhibited  in  the 
custom  of  explaming  to  the  country  in  the 
writ  of  summons  to  Parliament  what  the 
specific  purpose  was  of  the  grant  about  to  be 
demanded,  whether  for  a  French,  a  Welsh,  or 
a  Scotch  war,  or  for  defence  of  the  seas,  or 
for   protection    against    invasion.      Indeed, 
under  Edward  III.  the  grant  was  commonly 
stated  to  be  made  for  this  particular  purpose  ; 
while  in  1377  the  grant  for  defence  of  the 
seas  is  put  by  the  Commons  into  the  hands 
of  the  London  citizens,  Walworth  and  Phil- 
pot,  to  expend;  and  in  1390  is  clearly   dis- 
played the  distinction  between  the  ordinary 
and  the  war  expenditure,  ten  shillings  and 
thirty  shillings  respectively  being  allotted  to 
each,  out  of  the  forty  shillings  tax  on  every 
sack  of  wool.    The  principle  thus  established 
was  fully  accepted  in  the  Lancastrian  reignB. 
Tonnage  and  poundage,  for  instance,  became 
the  recognised  appropriation  for   defence  of 
the  seas,  as  the  household  expenses  were  sup- 
posed to  be  provided  out  of  the  crown  lands ; 
and  Fortescue  wished  the  principle  carriei: 
further,  so  that  the  crown  lands  should  b< 
redeemed,  and  inalienably  set  apart  for  sucl 
extraordinary  expenses  as  embassies,  pensions 
protection  against  invasion,  &c.     It   was,  ii 
fact,  the  increasing  poverty  of  the  crown  th.a 
directed  attention  to  the  distinction   of    tb 
various  heads  of  expenditure,  and  the  need  c 
a  strict  system  of  appropriation ;    and  it  vrs 
natural,  therefore,  that  when  the  cro-wn,    i 
Yorkist  and  Tudor  hands,  became    wealtli 
as  well  as  despotic,  these  distinctions,  and  tl 
appropriations  among  them,  should   be    1g 
sight  of.    Parliament  met  but  rarely  ;   to 
nage  and  poundage  were    granted    for    t 
king's  life;  benevolences  filled  up  tlie  ro> 
coffers,  already  enriched  by  forfeitures ;   ai 


Aqu 


(65  ) 


AA 


not  till  the  reign  of  Charles  IJ.  is  the  con- 
trol resumed  by  the  old  means — the  first  case 
being  in  1665,  when  a  grant  was  made  for 
purposes  of  the  war  alone.  After  the  Revolu- 
tion, ministers  brought  in  annual  estimates 
of  the  sums  required  under  different  heads; 
and  Fox's  resolution  in  1781  would  have 
effected  this  still  more  completely,  by  making 
it  illegal  to  issue  any  moneys  not  appropriated 
by  Parliament.  This  has  now  become  a  con- 
stitutional rule,  and  in  the  annual  estimates 
the  sums  asked  of  Parliament  are  specifically 
appropriated  to  their  several  purposes,  and 
the  Budget  voted  item  by  item.  The  prin- 
ciple has  been  completed  by  the  reforms 
originated  by  Burke,  which  have  reduced  the 
Civil  List  to  an  amount  fixed  to  meet  the  actual 
personal  and  ro\  al  expenses  of  the  sovereign, 
and  relieved  him  of  many  payments  for 
national  objects,  so  that  I'arhament  no  longer 
has  schedules  of  crown  debts  to  pay  off  at 
intervals,  and  ita  strict  rights  of  appropriation 
now  extend  over  crown  expenses  as  over  all 
other  heads  of  public  expenditure. 

Sir  John  Forteacne,  On  the  Monarchy  of  Eng- 
land;  Qiusist,  Ihtt  Sejf-governmeni i  Gneist,  Ver- 
valiungtreeM  ;  P.  V.  Smith,  Th«  Engliah  Inttitu- 
liona ;  and  the  Constitutional  Uiatories  of 
Btubbs,  HalLun,  and  Hay.  [A.  L.  S.] 

Ajauablanca,  Peter  of  {d.  1268),  was 
one  ol  the  numerous  foreign  ecclesiastics  who 
thronged  to  England  in  Henry  Ill.'s  reign. 
In  1240  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Hereford,  and 
was  one  of  the  most  obnoxious  foreign  ad- 
visers of  the  king.  He  was  driven  from  his 
see  by  the  barons  in  1262,  and  his  goods 
were  6equ€^strated. 

A^vitainef  The  Ducht  of,  in  the  south  of 
France,  which  comprised  Guicnne,  Peri p:ueux, 
Limoges,  Auvergne,  Saintonge,  La  Marche, 
Poitou  and  (rascony,  besides  smaller  terri- 
tories, was  first  brought  into  connection  with 
England    by    the   marriage    of    Henry   IJ. 
with   Eleanor,  heiress  of  the  last  Duke   of 
Aquitaine.    John  lost  Poitou,  but  the  rest  of 
the  province  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
English  king.   By  the  Treaty  of  Abbeville,  in 
1259.  Aquitaine  became  a  fief,  held  by  the 
King  of  England  as  a  vassal  of  the  French 
crown.      For  a  short  while  in   Edward  I.'s 
reigm,  Aquitaine  was  occupied  by  the  French ; 
and  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  war  with 
France  in  the  reigrn  of  Edward  III.  was  the 
attempt  of  Philip  VI.  to  regain  possession  of 
the  duchy.     In  1360  the  Treaty  of  Bn4igny 
once  more  secured  Aquitaine  to  the  English 
king,  with  the  addition  of  Poitou,  but  not 
including  Auvei^pne.      But  the  renewal  of 
the  war  brought  defeats  and  losses  on  the 
English,  with  the  result  that  in  1374  nothing 
remained   to    them   of  Aquitaine  but   some 
small  pieces  of  territory  roimd  Bayonne  and 
Bordeaux.    Henry  V.  won  back  the  province, 
only  for  his  son  to  lose  everything ;  and  the 
final  result  of  the  Hundred  Years*  War  was 

EUT.-3 


the    incorporation    of    Aquitaine    into    the 
French  kingdom. 

Freeman,  HiUorieal  Geography. 

Arabella  Stuart,  Lady  (^.  I577,<f.  1615), 
was  the  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Lennox, 
brother  of  Lord  Datnley.  Thus  she  was  first 
cousin  to  James  I.  and  great-granddaughter  of 
Margaret,  daughter  of  Henry  VII.  During 
her  early  life,  Queen  Elizabeth  often  spoke 
of  Arabelbi  as  her  possible  successor,  in  case 
James  did  not  conduct  himself  according  to 
her  satisfaction;  and  though  on  Elizabeth's 
death  James  I.  succeeded  to  the  English 
crown  without  opposition,  there  were  some 
who  maintained  that  Arabella,  having  been 
born  in  England,  had  a  better  title  to  the 
crown  than  James,  who  was  an  alien.  [Stuaut, 
Family  of.]  One  of  the  objects  of  the 
Main  Plot  would  seem  to  have  been  to 
de()Ose  James  and  place  Arabella  on  the 
throne,  though  it  is  very  improbublo  that 
Arabella  herself  knew  anything  of  the  designs 
of  the  conspirators.  She  continued  to  live  at 
court  till  1610,  when,  contrary  to  the  king's 
wishes,  she  privately  married  Sir  William 
Seymour,  aftrrwards  Marquis  of  Hertford, 
and  a  member  of  the  Suffolk  branch  of  the 
royal  family.  This  union  of  two  possible 
claimants  to  the  throne  was  regarded  by 
James  with  great  apprehension ;  Seymour 
was  at  once  sent  to  the  Tower,  and  Arabella 
confined  at  Lambeth,  to  be  shortly  after 
conveyed  to  Duiham.  While  on  her  way 
thither  she  managed  to  escape,  and  took  ship 
for  France,  her  husband  having  got  out  of 
the  Tower  and  fled  to  Ostend.  But  before 
Arabella  could  reach  Calais,  the  vessel  was 
captured,  and  she  was  committed  to  the  Tower. 
Her  reason  gave  way,  and  after  four  years' 
imprisonment  she  died.  Her  character  was 
remarkably  amiable,  and  she  never  appears 
to  have  engaged  personally  in  the  intrigues 
carried  on  in  her  name. 

Jesse,  Memoin  of  ihe  Stuarts ;  S.  B.  Gardiner, 
Hurt.  ofEng.,  1603—1642. 


is  a  division  of  British  Burmah, 
lying  along  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Bay  of 
Bengal,  extending  from  Chittagong  to  Cape 
Negrais.  The  district  at  one  time  belonged 
to  the  Moguls,  and  was  subsequently  partly 
in  the  hands  of  the  Portuguese.  In  1783  it 
was  conquered  by  the  Burmese,  by  whom  it 
was  ceded  to  th»  Englinh,  as  a  result  of  the 
first  Burmese  War  in  1826. 

on.    [Spain,  Relations  with.] 

on,  Catherine  of.     [Catherine.] 

Arbnthnot,  John,  M.D.  {b.  1666,  d.  1735), 
author,  wit,  and  physician,  the  son  of  a 
Scottish  EpiHcoj)al  clergyman,  after  taking 
a  medical  degree  at  Aberdeen  University, 
came  to  London  in  search  of  a  fortune. 
He  acquired  some  literary  repuUition  by  a 
criticism    of    Dr.   Woodward's   Account    of 


Are 


(  66  ) 


the  Deluge^  and  Tables  of  Grecian^  Roman,  and 
Jewish  Measures^  Weights^  and  Coins,  a  work 
of  considerable  research.  About  1704  acci- 
dent threw  him  in  the  way  of  Prince  George 
of  Denmark,  Queen  Anne's  husband,  and 
ho  became  the  queen's  physician,  and  the 
intimate  friend  of  the  foremost  political 
writers  of  the  Tory  party.  In  1712  he 
wrote  a  political  allegory,  The  History  of 
John  Bull,  which  Macaulay  calls  the  most 
humorous  political  satire  in  our  language.  Its 
object  was  to  throw  ridicule  on  the  War  of 
the  Spanish  Succession,  and  he  represents 
John  Bull,  the  Englishman,  Nick  Frog,  tho 
Frenchman,,  and  Louis  Baboon  (Bourbon),  the 
Spaniard,  as  tradesmen  squabbling  over  a 
lawsuit,  Marlborough  being  the  Attorney 
Hocus,  who  tries  to  prolong  the  contest.  On 
the  death  of  Queen  Anne,  in  1714,  Arbuthnot 
joined  Swift,  Pope,  and  other  Tory  men  of 
letters,  in  founding  the  Scriblerus  Club,  the 
object  of  which  was  to  chastise  literary  quacks. 
The  first  book  of  their  uncompleted  work, 
The  Memoirs  of  Martinus  Scriblerus,.  was  un- 
doubtedly by  his  pen,  and  it  is  a  very  fine 
piece  of  light  Satire.  Arbuthnot  wrote  besides 
many  works  on  medical  subjects,  which  had 
great  reputation  in  their  day. 

Arbnthnot,  MiscMansous  Wcrhs^  1770;  Soott, 
LifsofSvift. 

Arcllbisliops.  Tl^e  territorial  extent  of 
an  archbishop's  authority  is  called  a  province, 
from  the  name  of  an  aaministrative  division 
of  the  Roman  empire.  Archbishops  do  not 
form  an  order  apart  from  bishops.  An  arch- 
bishop in  England  has  a  bishop's  authority 
within  his  own  diocese,  and  is  also  chief  of 
the  clergy,  and  has  power  to  correct  the 
faults  of  bishops  throughout  his  province. 
When,  in  697,  at  the  biddmg  of  Gregory  the 
Great,  Augustine  was  on  his  way  to  England, 
he  received  episcopal  consecration  at  Aries. 
The  design  of  Gregory  was  that  there  should 
be  two  metropolitan  sees  in  England — at 
London  and  York — ^following  the  twofold 
division  of  the  Roman  province.  Augustine, 
however,  dwelt  at  Canterbury,  which  thus 
became  the  seat  of  the  southern  metropolitim. 
Eni^land  was  not  wholly  converted  from  Kent. 
Different  missions  succeeded  atvarious  dates  in 
the  kingdoms  into  which  the  land  was  divided, 
and  in  consequence  a  danger  arose  from  lack 
of  unity  in  the  Church.  From  this  she  was 
saved  by  Archbishop  Theodore  (668—690). 
His  plan  was  that  there  should  be  only 
one  archbishopric,  and  he  gathered  all  tho 
bishops  together  in  one  synod.  After  his 
death  his  scheme  perished. '  Pope  Gregory's 
plan  was  revived  as  more  in  accordance  with 
national  feeling,  and  in  736  the  see  of  York 
was  made  an  archbishopric.  Off  a.  King  of 
Mercia,  similarly  attempted  to  give  expression 
to  the  brief  period  of  Mercian  supremacy 
bv  setting  up  a  third  archbishopric  at  Lich- 
field, which   lasted  from  787  till  803.    In 


1143  Henry  of  Blois,  Bishop  of  tho  royal  citj 
of  Winchester,  applied  to  Pope  Innocent  II. 
to  convert  his  see  into  an  archbishopric  and  rid 
him  of  the  authority  of  Canterbury,  but  did 
not  obtain  his  object.     Before  the  Conquest 
the  archbishopric  of  York  was  below  that 
of  Canterbury  in  dignity.     In  1093  Thomas 
of  York  objected  to  the  title  of  Metropolitan 
of  Great  Britain  being  applied  to  the  Arch- 
bishop of    Canterbur}'.      The  objection  was 
held  good.     The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
was  declared  to  be  Primate,  tirst  in  rank,  but 
York  was  and  is  also  a  metropolitan  see, 
though  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  has 
the  title  of    Primate    and   Metropolitan  of 
all  England.      In   1119  Thurstan  of  York 
defeated   an  attempt  to  make  him  profess 
obedience  to  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
The  Welsh  bishops  owned  the  authority  of 
Canterbury.     An  unsuccessful  attempt  was 
made  in  1199  to  restore  to  St  David's  the 
archiepiscopal  dignity  which   it   bad  in  the 
time  of  the  British  Church.     Until  1152  the 
Irish  bishops  received  consecration  from  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury ;  and  in  the  twelfth 
century  his  authority  in  Scotland  was   dis- 
puted by  the  Archbishop  of  York,  until,  in 
1188s  the  Scotch  Church  was  made  imme- 
diately dependent  on  liome.    The  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury  had  a  kind  of  patriarchal  au- 
thority, and  Archbishop  Anselm  was  greeted 
by  Pojw  Urban  II.  as  the  Pope  and  Patriarch 
of  a  second  world.     His  position  in  the  state 
was  one  of  great  importance,  and  he  has  always 
stood  next  after  the  sovereign,  whom  it  is  his 
duty  ta  crown.   The  right  of  electing  the  arch- 
bishops pertains,  as  in  the  case  of  bishops,  to 
the  Chapters  of  their  churches.    The  diu^nity 
of   the  see  of  Canterbury   caused  frequent 
interference  with  the  right  of  the  monastio 
Chapter  of  Christ  Church.    A  voice  in  the 
election  was  claimed  by  the  suffragan  bishops ; 
but  their  claim  was  disallowed  by  Innocent 
III.    The  crown  interfered  oftener  and  moro 
directly  in  the  appointment  of  one  who  was 
its  constitutional  adviser  than  in  the  case  of 
other  elections.     The  Pope  managed  in  many 
instances  to  secure  tho  election  of  his  nominee. 
His  influence  was  insured  {I)  because  it  was 
held  necessary  that  the  arcnbishops   should 
receive  from  him  the  pall^  an  ecclesiasticiil 
vestment,  without  which  an  archbishop  did 
not  consecrate  bishops;   (2)  and  becauj*©  (in 
later  times)  the   Pope  also   granted    to    the 
archbishop   the  authority  of  a   legate.      The 
right    of    the    Archbishop    of    Canterbury 
to    the   legatine    commission    was     asserted 
by  Archbishop  Anselm,  and  finally    gained 
by    Archbishop     Langton    in    1291.        This 
right  did  not  preclude  the  visits   of   special 
legates  a  latere^  but  it  was  an  infrinj^oment  oi 
it  to  grant  a  permanent  legatine  commissioi 
for  England  to  any  one  else,  as  in  the  case  c>: 
Henry  Beaufort,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  sin  cm 
the  Archbishop  of  Canterbiiry  was  legatns  not  us 
The  Archbishop  of  Y'ork  also  had  the   pall 


(67) 


and  from  about  1350  the  legatme  oommisBion. 
The  proTincial  jurisdiction  of  the  archbishops 
was  exercised  in  their  iVo9t»^/  Cmirta,  The 
judge  of  the  Provincial  Court  of  Canterbury 
was  the  OJkial  Principal.  In  the  Court  of 
AreheM^  so  called  because  held  in  St.  Maiy 
le  Bow  (de  ^rnibus),  the  Lean  of  Arches 
exercised  the  archbishop's  jurisdiction  over 
certain  peouluurs,  or  parishes  exempt  from  the 
ordinary  episcopal  jurisdiction.  As  the  offices 
of  Official  Principal  and  Dean  of  Arches  were 
usually  vested  in  the  same  person,  the  Court 
and  Dean  of  Arches  came  to  be  inexactly 
spoken  of  as  if  they  signified  the  court  and 
judge  of  the  archbishop's  provincial  jurisdic- 
tion. The  final  appeal  ^m  this  court  lay, 
after  the  breach  with  Rome,  to  a  body  called 
the  High  Court  of  Delegates  (25  Henry  VIII., 
c.  19).  By  3  and  4  Wm.  IV.,  a  41,  the 
appellate  jurisdiction  of  this  court  was  con- 
ferred on  the  Judicial  Committee  of  the  Frity 
Council.  The  office  of  Official  Principal,  botib 
of  Canterbury  and  York,  is  now,  by  the  Public 
Yi^orship  Regulation  Act  (37  and  38  Vict.,  c. 
85),  merged  in  that  of  a  judge  appointed  by 
the  archbishops,  subject  to  the  approval  of  her 
Majesty.  This  judge  exercises  the  provincial 
jurisdiction  of  both  archbishops  as  the  Official 
Principal  of  the  Arches  Court  of  Canterbury 
and  the  Chancery  Court  of  York.  The  arch- 
bishops summon  and  preside  over  the  pro- 
vincial synods  or  Convocationa  (q.v.).  [For 
Archbishops  of  Dublin,  St.  Andrew's,  &c.,  see 
InisH  CuTJBCH ;  Scotland,  Chubch  op.] 

HiMldim  amd  Stabbs,  Councils  and  Bod.  Docu- 
meutt  (1860—71) :  Bede,  Hitt,  Ecclea. ;  Eadmer, 
HitL  Nov.  and  YttaAnadm.  •  T.  Stnbbs.  Eborae. 
Arcidemtc  ;  Hook,  lAvea  of  the  Arehlnshopt  of 
Canter^vry ;  PhilUmore,  SecUa.  Law :  Brice, 
PuUie  TTorship;  and  em.  Report  of  the  BoyaX 
Commufum  on  BedetAaetual  Courta,  1888. 

[W.  H.] 

Abcbbxshops  or  Caktkbbubt. 

1062.— Stigand, 
1070.  —Lanfraxio. 
1093.— Aiuselm. 
1114.— Balpb  d'Esoures. 
1123.— Williain  de  Cor- 

betuH. 
1139.— Theobald. 
116S.— Thomas  (Becket). 
1174.— Bichard. 
1185.— Baldwin. 
1193.— Hubert    Fltz- 

Walter. 
1207. — Stephen  Laneton 
1229.— BicWd      of 

Wetherahed. 
1234.— Edmnnd  Bich. 
1245.— Boniface    of 

Savoj. 
1273.— Bob.  Kilwardbj. 
1279.— John  Peckham. 
1294.— Bob.  Winchelsey. 
1313.— Walter  Beynolda. 
1328. — Simon  Meopbam. 
1338.— John  of  Stratford 
1340,  July  10.— Thomaa 

ftndwardine. 
1340,  Dec.   20.— Simon 

Islip. 
1366.— Simon  Langham. 
1368.— Wm.  WhitUeaea. 
1375. — Simon  Sadbnry. 


507.— Angnatine. 

004.— Lanrentina 

no.— Mellitos. 

624.— Justos. 

687. — Honorima. 

655.— Trithona 

(Deaadedit). 

668.— Theodore. 

603. — Brihtwald. 

731.— Tatwin. 

735. — Nothelm. 

750.— Bregwin. 

766.— Jaenbert. 

798.— EthelhanL 

805.— Wnifred. 

832.— Feologild. 

883.— Ceolnoth. 

870.— Sthelred. 

890.— Plegmand. 

014.— Athehn. 

023.— Wolfhelm. 

»IS.-Odo. 

060l — Danatan. 

968.— EthAlgar. 

900.— Sirie. 

905.-~-AJfric 
1005.— Alphege. 
1013.— Alfatan. 
1020.— Ethahioth. 
lOOa— Eadaige. 
1061.— Bobert. 


1881.— Wm.  Coartenay. 
1396.— Thos.  Fitzalan. 
1306.— Boger  Walden. 
1414.— Hemry  Chicheley. 
1448.-John  StafToid. 
1452.— John  Kemp. 
1454.— Thos.  Bonrchier. 
I486.— John  Morton. 
1501.— HenzyDean. 
UOS.— Wm.  Warham. 
1533.— Thoa.  Cranmer. 
1556.— Beginald  Pole. 
1550.— Matthew  Parker. 
1576.— Edmund  Orindal. 
1583.— John  Whitgift. 
1604.— Bichrd.  Bancroft 
1611.— George  Abbot. 
1633.— William  Laud. 
1645-1660.       See     Yar 

cant. 
1660.— William  Jnzon. 
1663.— Gilbert  Sheldon. 


1678.— Wm.  Sonctoft. 
1601 — John  TUlotaon. 
1605.— Thoa.  Ttaiaon. 
1716.— William  Wake. 
1787.— John  Potter. 
1747.— Thomaa  Herring. 
1757.— HatthewHutton. 
1758.— Thomaa  Seeker. 
1768.— Predorick  Cora- 

wallia. 
1783. — John  Moore. 
1805.— Charlee  Manners 

Sutton. 
1828.— William  Howley. 
1848.-iJn.  Bird  Somner. 
1862.— Charlee  Thomaa 

Longley. 
1868.— ArchaMOd  Camp- 

beU  Tait. 
1883.-£dward    White 

Benson.      • 


Abchbishops  of  York. 


625. — Paulinos. 

664.— Ceadda  (Chad). 

660.— Wilfrid  (dep.  678 ; 
restored  686— 
602). 

678.— Bosa. 

705.— John  of  Bererley. 

718.— Wilfrid. 

734.— Egbert. 

767.— Ethelbert    (or 
CoBoa). 

780.— Eanbald. 

766.— Eanbald. 

808  (?).-Wnlf8y  (Wnl- 
flus). 

837.— Wigmnnd. 

8M.— Wolfhere. 

900.— Ethelbald. 

02L— BedeTald. 

981.— Wulf  Stan. 

058.— Oalqrtel. 

972.— Oswald. 

905.— Aldulf. 
1003.— Wulfatan. 
1028.— Alfric. 
1051.— Kinsy. 
1061.— Ealdred. 
1070.— Thomaa. 
1101.— Gerard. 
1100.— Thomas. 
1119.— Thnratan. 
1143.— William     Fitz- 

Herbert. 
1147.— Henry  Murdac. 
1154.— Boger    de   Font 

I'Eveqne. 
1191.— Geoffrey  Planta- 

genet. 
1215.— Walter  Gray. 
1256.— Lewall  BoYill. 
1258.— (}eoifreyLudham 
1266.— Walter  Giffard. 
1279.— Wm.  Wickwan. 
1286.— John  Bomain. 
1296.— Henry  Newark. 
1300.- Thos.  Corbrldge. 
1306.- Wm.  Greenfield. 
1317«— Wm.  Melton. 
1342.— Wm.  de  la  Zouoh. 
1352.— John  Thoresby. 
1374. — Alexndr.  Neville. 


1388.— Thomas  Arundel. 

1307.— Bobert  Waldby. 

1396.— Henry  Scrope. 

1407.— Henry  Bowet. 

1426.-iJohn  Kemp. 

1452.— William  Booth. 

1464— George  NeviUe. 

1476.— Lanrence  Booth. 

1480.— Thomas  Bother- 
ham. 

1501.— Thomaa  Savage. 

1506.— Christphr.  Bain- 
bridge. 

1514.— Thos.  Wolsey. 

1581.— Ed.  Lea. 

1545.— Bobt.  Holgate. 

1555.— Nicholas  Heath. 

1561.— Thomas  Toung. 

1570.— Edmund  Grindal. 

1577.— Edwin  Sandys. 

1580.— John  Piers. 

1595.— Matthw.  Hutton. 

1606.— Tobiaa  Matthew. 

1628.— Gteo.  Mouteigne. 

162a— Samuel     Hara- 
nett. 

1632.— Bichard  Neile. 

1641.-John  Williams. 

1600.— Accepted     Fre- 
wen. 

1644.— Bichard  Sterne. 

1683.— John  Dolben. 

1688.— Thos.  Lamplugh. 

1691.— John  Sharpe. 

1714.— William  Dawea. 

1724.— Lancelot    Bhick- 
.   bum. 

1743.— Thomaa  Herring. 

1747.— Matthew  Hutton. 

1767.— John  Gilbert. 

1761.— Bbt.  Drummond. 

1777.— Wm.  Markham. 

1808.- Edward  Vernon. 

1847.— Thos.  Mnsgrave. 

I860.— Charles  Thomaa 
Lonfrley. 

1863.— Wm.  Thomson. 

1891.— Wm.    Connor 
Magee. 

1891.— Wm,    Dairy mple 
Madflgan. 


See  Bp.  Stubbs,  Regintrum  Sacrum  Anglicanum, 
Oxford,  1856. 

AfoMtecture.  In  England  there  axe 
many  remains — chiefly  of  a  sepulchiul  cha- 
racter— of  the  people  who  dwelt  in  the  land 
before  the  coming  of  the  Romans.  These 
pre-historic  relics  may  be  roughly  classified 


(  68) 


as  (1)  monolifhs,  single  stones  standing  up- 
right; (2)  cromlechs,  or  table  stones,  con- 
siding  of  one  large  stone  supported  by  others, 
as  at  Kit's  Goty  House,  near  Maidstone; 
(3)  stone  circles,  as  at  Stonehengo,  Avebury, 
and  Long  Meg  and  her  Daughters,  near 
Penrith;  (4)  barrows,  oblong  or  round, 
which  consist  of  mounds  of  earth  containing 
sepulchral  chambers.  These  barrows  are 
scattered  over  the  country,  but  are  generally 
found  on  moorland.  Besides  these,  there  are 
traces  of  lake  dwellings  —  houses  built  on 
wooden  platforms  supported  by  piles  driven 
into  the  bottom  of  lakes,  accessible  by  planks 
from  the  mainland.  There  are  also  traces  of 
sculptured  ornaments  on  boulders  of  stOne, 
wh^ch  are  especially  frequent  in  Northumber- 
land. There  are,  again,  earthworks  of  camps 
and  the  foundations  of  fortified  villages  to  be 
found  in  many  places  amongst  the  hills. 

When  the  Romans  came  to  Britain  they 
brought  with  them  the  art  of  building  in 
stone.  They  built  towns  and  houses,  which, 
however,  were  all  destroyed,  though  the  sites 
of  Roman  villas,  their  mosaic  pavements,  the 
hypocausts,  or  cellars  with  flues  to  warm  the 
house,  may  be  still  traced  in  many  places. 
But  the  greatest  memorials  of  Roman  build- 
ing are  their  military  works,  especially  the 
great  wall  extending  from  the  Tyne  to  the 
Solway,  whose  course  may  still  be  traced,  with 
its  military  stations  and  remains  of  build- 
ing^ outside.  The  station  of  Housesteads, 
near  Hexham,  has  been  called  '^  the  English 
Pompeii."  After  the  departure  of  the  Romans 
the  English  conquest  drove  the  Britons  from 
the  cities,  which  fell  into  decay.  The  English 
themselves  lived  in  villages,  in  houses  built 
of  clay,  or  wood,  or  wattles.  After  their 
conversion  to  Christianity  they  began  to 
build  churches,  of  oaken  planks,  sometimes 
covered  with  lead.  Benedict  Biscop,  a 
Northumbrian  thegn,  went  over  to  Gaul  and 
brought  back  workmen,  who,  at  the  end  of 
the  seventh  century,  built  a  stone  charch,  or 
basilica,  for  the  monastery  of  Wearmouth. 
Wilfrid  followed,  and  built  churches  at  York 
and  Hexham,  remains  of  which  may  still  be 
seen.  Still,  before  the  Norman  Conquest 
architecture  did  not  make  much  advance  in 
England.  Stone  towers  were  built  with 
wooden  naves,  and  the  remains  of  what  is 
called  Saxon  architecture  are  few.  The  tower 
of  Earl's  Barton  Church,  in  Northamptonshire, 
is  one  of  the  most  important  examples. 

The  Norman  Conquest  gave  the  signal  for 
a  great  age  of  ecclesiastical  architecture  in 
England.  Vast  cathedrals  were  built  in  the 
massive,  round-arched  style  which  had  gra- 
dually developed  from  the  Roman  construc- 
tions, and  which  is  known  as  Romanesque 
or  Norman.  Of  this  style,  very  striking 
specimens  are  the  cathedrals  of  Norwich, 
Peterborough,  and  Ely,  and  Malmesbury 
Abbey.  T^e  cathedral  of  Durham  shows  an 
attempt  at  emancipation  from  the  traditions 


of  the>  Noiman  builders.     The  introduction 
of  the  pointed  arch,  which  was  probably  first 
employed    in   rebuilding    the    east   end  of 
Canterbury  Cathedral  after  the  fire  in  1174, 
made  a  g^reat  change  in  architectural  con- 
struction.   The  activity  in  the  way  of  church 
building  in  the  north,  as  shown  in  the  Tork- 
shire    abbeys,    still    further    developed    an 
English  style  of  architecture,  which  first  made 
itself  manifest  in  Lincoln  Cathedral  (1200), 
and  Salisbury  (1220—1258).  This  style,  which 
is  known  as  the  Early  EngUsh,  is  remarkable 
for  its  lancet  windows,  which  are  either  single 
or  grouped  in  graceful  designs.    The  increase 
of  the  use  of  painted  glass  as  a  necessary  part 
of  church  decoration  led  to  an  adoption  of 
French  principles  and  the  introduction  of 
geometrical  tracery,  which  marked  the  archi- 
tecture of   the   reigns  of   Edward   I.  and 
Edward  II.     The  Angel  Choir  at  Lincoln, 
the  abbeys  of   Tintem  and  Gainsborough, 
and  the  chapel  of  Merton  College,  Oxford, 
may  be  g^ven  as  examples  of  the  progress  of 
this  geometrical  style.     It  lasted,  however, 
but  a  short  time;    the   restlessness  which  , 
marked  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  was  ex- 
pressed in  the  desire  for  new  inventions,  and 
geometrical  tracery  gave  way  to  flowing  or 
curvilineal  tracery  of  the  style  that  is  called 
Decorated,  specimens  of  which  may  be  seen 
in  Carlisle  Cathedral     It  would  seem  that  the 
vagaries  of  the  Decorated  style  awakened  a 
reaction.  In  the  flowing  tracery  strength  and 
construction  were  alike  lost  sight  of,  till  the 
Perpendicular  style  was  hailed  with  delight 
as  being  sounder.    This  stylo  was  first  made 
popular  by  William  of  Wykeham,  in  his  build- 
ings at  Winchester  and  at  Oxford,  and  pre- 
vaUed  for  above  a  century,  during  the  four- 
teenth and  first  half  of  the  fifteenth  centuries. 
Its  characteristics  were  a  stem  regard  to  the 
needs  of  construction.      Straight  lines  ran 
from  the  bottom  to  the  top  of  the  window, 
which  was  regarded  as  merely  a  frame  for 
painted  glass.      Regularity  and   proportion 
were  everywhere  insisted  upon,  and  fancy  was 
no  longer  allowed  a  place.     The  chapel  of 
King's  College,  Cambridge,  is  a  good  example 
of  the  Perpendicular    style,  but  there   are 
many  instances  to  be  found  in  every  locality 
of  a  style  which  was  so  long  in  use. 

The  development  of    ecclesiastical   archi- 
tecture was  the  chief  feature  of  this  period. 
England  produced  no  great  municipal  build- 
ings.   The  towns  did  not  rise  to  the  same  in- 
dependent position  as  that  which  fostered  the 
development  of  municipal  architecture  on  the 
Continent.   The  dwellings  of  the  barons  wore 
military  fortresses,  and  were  at  first  reproduc- 
tions of  the  castles  of  Normandy.  Castle-build- 
ing, however,  soon  became  an  eminently  £ng^- 
lish  art.    The  massive  keeps  of  the  Norman 
castles  were  surrounded  by  curtain  walls  con- 
necting one  tower  with  another,  and  weaving 
the  whole  pile  into  a  strong  and  picturesque* 
mass  of   buildings.      In  &e  reigns    of    tht' 


(69  ) 


Axo 


Edwards  these  castles  aasumed  their  largest 
proportions,  and  their  remains  are  to  be  seen 
most  clearly  on  the  Welsh  and  iScottish 
marches.  8onie  may  be  trac-ed  in  ruins, 
others  have  been  altered  into  modem  dwell- 
ings, but  still  retain  many  of  their  ancient 
features.  The  castles  of  Alnwick,  Berkeley, 
Chepstow,  Kenilworth,  Warwick,  Rochester, 
and  Windsor  are  amongst  the  most  striking 
examples.  Another  chiss  of  medisBval  build- 
ings peculiar  to  England  is  found  in  the 
colleges  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  the 
schools  of  Eton  and  Winchester.  Taking  as 
their  model  monastic  buildings,  the  architects 
adapted  them  to  the  conditions  of  secular  life, 
and  built  quadrangles  round  the  chapel  and 
common  hall.  The  great  hall  was,  moreover,  a 
feature  of  the  castle,  and  received  the  greatest 
architectural  care,  particularly  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  roof.  The  halls  of  the  royal  palaces 
of  Westminster  (Richard  II.)  and  Eltham 
(Henry  IV.)  still  remain  as  examples  of  the 
constructive  ingenuity  of  their  builders. 

The  Tudor  reigns  saw  a  great  increase  in 
the  material  prosperity  of  England  and  in 
its  internal  quiet.  The  suppression  of  the 
monasteries  removed  one  of  the  principal 
supports  of  ecclesiastical  architecture.  The 
comforts  of  domestic  life  increased.  The 
castles  and  fortified  manor-houses  of  the 
troubled  times  of  the  Middle  Ages  were  either 
abandoned  or  were  converted  into  dwelling- 
houses  more  suitable  for  peaceful  times.  At 
first  this  was  done  in  accordance  with  the 
principles  of  Gothic  architecture.  But  the 
movement  of  the  Renaissance  towards  a  re- 
vival of  the  classical  style  had  begun  in  Italy, 
and  spread  over  France.  It  was  long  in 
taking  possession  of  England,  but  it  afifected 
it  unconsciously  in  details.  'The  style  known 
as  Jacobean  was  Gothic  in  feeling,  but  adopted 
with  some  timidity  classical  ornamentation. 
It  corresponded  to  the  change  through  which 
England  was  passing  in  religion  and  literature 
alike.  The  memorials  of  this  style  are  chiefly 
to  be  found  in  dwelling-houses.  Churches 
were  not  required,  as  the  number  already  ex- 
isting was  more  than  ample  for  the  population. > 
The  University  of  Cambridge,  which  was  at 
that  period  very  flourishing,  has  some  excel- 
lent examples  in  Caius  and  Clare  Colleges, 
and  in  Neville*8  Court  in  Trinity.  The  great 
houses  that  were  now  built  served  for  some 
time  as  models  for  English  houses.  They 
differed  from  the  designs  in  vogue  on  the 
Continent,  and  showed  an  adaptation  to  the 
needs  of  English  climate.  They  were  built 
round  courtyards,  after  the  old  fashion  ;  but 
the  entrance  was  on  the  outside,  and  the  win- 
dows of  the  main  rooms  looked  outwards  to 
the  countr}',  not  into  the  courtyard.  Knowle 
may  be  taken  as  an  example  of  the  Gothic 
style  of  dwelling-house.  Longleat,  Temple 
Newsam,  Longford  Castle,  Hardwicke  Hall, 
and  Hatfield  House  are  examples  of  various 
forms  of  claBsical  adaptations.    All  of  them 


are  picturesque,  graceful  in  proportions,  and 
comfortable  in  their  arrangements,  though 
their  ornamentation  shows  learning  misunder- 
stood  and  improperly  applied.  The  most 
conspicuous  instance  of  this  is  the  gateway  of 
the  Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford,  where  the 
five  orders  of  classical  architecture  are  piled 
one  upon  another,  and  the  whole  is  crowned  by 
Gothic  pinnacles. 

In  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  the  architectural 
style  of  the  Italian  Renaissance  found  its  full 
development  in  England  under  the  influence  of 
Inigo  Jones,  an  architect  of  great  ability,  who 
studied  in  Italy  under  the  last  great  Italian 
architect  Palladio.  On  his  return  to  England, 
Inlgo  Jones  designed  a  mighty  palace  for  the 
king  at  Whitehall.  The  Banqueting  House 
was  executed  from  his  designs,  but  the  ttoubles 
of  Charles  I.  prevented  the  plan  from  being 
carried  out.  Jiones^s  scheme  was  conceived  on 
a  gigantic  scale;  had  it  been  executed,  the 
Palace  of  Whitehall  would  have  been  the 
most  splendid  in  Europe.  Jones  showed  the 
possibility  of  dignified  simplicity  in  a  Protes- 
tant church,  by  the  building  of  St.  PauPs, 
Covent  Garden,  the  first  ecclesiastical  build- 
ing of  any  importance  since  the  Reforma- 
tion. The  Restoration  found  its  architect 
in  a  man  of  real  learning  and  cultivation, 
Sir  Christopher  Wren,  whose  earliest  work 
is  the  Sheldonian  Theatre  at  Oxford.  The 
Great  Fire  of  London,  in  1666,  gave  Wren 
an  opportunity,  such  as  few  architects  have 
enjoyed,  of  modelling  the  architectural  aspect 
oi  a  great  city.  He  prepared  a  plan  for  the 
rebuilding  of  London,  which  unlortunatcly 
was  not  carried  out.  However,  he  was  asked 
to  rebuild  St.  PauPs  Cathedral  and  nearly 
fifty  other  churches.  In  St.  Paul's  Cathedral 
Wren  built  the  largest  and  most  splendid 
church,  after  St.  Peter*s  in  Rome,  that  had 
been  attempted  in  the  classical  style.  Besides 
this,  he  studded  the  city  with  graceful  steeples, 
that  lent  dignity  to  the  proportions  of  St. 
Paul's  dome,  which  towered  above  them.  The 
chief  of  these  are  the  spires  of  Bow  Church ; 
St.  Bride's,  Fleet  Street ,  St.  Michael's.  Corn- 
hill  ;  St.  Stephen's,  Walbrook ;  and  St.  Dun- 
stan's-in-the-East.  In  all  his  buildings  Wren 
showed  great  constructive  ingenuity  and  a 
delight  in  solving  difficult  problems,  though 
at  times  he  has  aUowed  this  to  overcome  his 
artistic  taste.  Few  cities  bear  so  clearly  the 
impress  of  one  man's  architectural  genius  as 
does  London  that  of  Wren. 

The  successors  of  Wren  in  the  beginning  of 
the  eighteenth  century  were  Ilawksmoor,  who 
built  the  church  of  St.  George's,  Bloomsbury, 
and  Sir  John  Vanbrugh.  Vanbrugh,  a  Dutch- 
man by  descent,  was  happy  in  the  opportunity 
of  having  entrusted  to  him  a  monumental 
work  of  national  importance.  He  was  com- 
missioned to  build  Blenheim  Palace  as  a  gift 
of  the  nation  to  the  Duke  of  Marlborough. 
His  plan  is  vast  and  grand.  He  certainly 
aimed  at  giving  enduring  stability  to  his 


Axe 


(70  ) 


Ard 


work.  But  though  the  general  design  vraa 
dignified,  there  is  a  clumsiness  and  a  want  of 
proportion  in  the  adaptation  of  details  that 
leaTe  an  impression  of  heaWuess  and  gloom. 
In  the  building  of  Castle  Howard,  Vanbrugh 
phows  the  same  attempt  at  grandeur,  but  with 
more  sobriety.  An  architect  whose  work 
shows  more  artistic  feeling  is  James  Gibbs, 
whose  most  important  buildings  are  the 
church  of  St.  Martin's-in-the-Fields  and  the 
Kadcliffe  Library  at  Oxford. 

The  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century'  saw  a 
development  of  the  study  of  classical  archas- 
ology,  which  immediately  reacted  on  archi- 
tecture. Especially  Stuart's  work  on  The 
Architecture  of  Athens,  commenced  in  1762, 
affected  popular  taste.  The  architecture  of 
the  Italian  Renaissance,  which  had  hitherto 
been  pursued  in  England,  was  classical  in 
sentiment,  and  used  classical  details  while 
freely  adapting  them  to  its  own  purposes. 
The  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  saw  a 
learned  revival  of  pure  classical  architecture, 
freed  from  its  Italian  adaptations.  This 
absolute  copying  of  classical  antiquity  became 
a  fashion.  Churches  were  built  like  Qrecian 
temples,  as,  for  instance,  the  church  of  St. 
Pancras,  with  its  caryatid  porticoes  aad  model 
of  a  small  temple  erected  by  way  of  a  spire  on 
a  larger  one.  No  large  building  was  erected 
except  in  the  severest  classical  style,  with 
portico,  whether  needful  or  not.  The  British 
Museum  is  one  of  the  least  successful  of  the 
buildings  of  this  school ;  St.  George's  Hall  at 
Liverpool  is  one  of  the  most  happy.  But  this 
classical  revival  in  architecture  was  soon  met 
by  a  Gothic  revival,  which  may  be  said  to 
date  from  Horace  Walpole,  but  took  a  g^at 
hold  on  popular  taste  after  Bcckford's  revival 
of  Fonthill  Abbey  in  the  shape  of  a  gentle- 
man's house.  Its  architect,  Wyatt,  was 
entrusted  with  the  restoration  of  several  of 
our  cathedrals.  Houses  were  built  in  the 
form  of  Gothic  castles  or  abbeys.  The  rage  for 
strictly  classical  imitations  was  succeeded  by  a 
rage  for  exact  reproduction  of  Gothic  designs. 
The  writings  of  Britton,  Rickman,  Pugin, 
and  many  others  lent  the  resources  of  careful 
archieology  to  this  revival,  which  corresponded 
also  with  the  Tractarian  movement  within  the 
English  Church.  In  obedience  to  the  desire 
of  restoring  the  assumed  reverence  and  faith 
of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries, 
churches  throughout  England  have  been 
J*  restored,"  or  brought  back,  to  what  some 
ingenious  archaeologist  guesses  to  have  been 
their  original  aspect.  Innumerable  churches 
have  been  built  in  imitation  of  Gothic  modpls ; 
and  in  secular  buildings,  the  Houses  of  Parlia- 
ment, and  more  recently  the  Law  Courts, 
were  erected  in  Gothic  style,  and  have  taxed 
the  ingenuity  of  their  architects  to  find  the 
accommodation  necessary  for  modem  purposes 
in  buildings  constructed  in  the  style  of  an  age 
when  such  purposes  wore  unknown. 

Kiokman,   AtUmpt  to  ditcriminaU   StyUt  of 


Bnglitih  Arckitadm  ;  Pturin,  FriHciplm  of  PoiiO^d 
Arc)ut$ctur» ;  Billings,  C<UhedraX8  ;  Tvanet  and 
Parker,  DoniMtic  AriMxteclure  in  England ;  J.  Fer- 
gUMon,  History  qf  ArcUvUcture,  [M.  C] 

AfOOtf  Defence  of  ( 1 75 1 ) .    The  victorieB 
of   the    confederation   formed   by    Dupleix 
against  the  English  were   checked   by  the 
expedition  to  Arcot  under  Clive.    Chunda 
Sahib  was  obliged  to  detach  a  large  force, 
thereby  relieving  the  pressure  on  the  British 
garrison  cooped  up  in  Trichinopoly.    The  fort 
of  Arcot  was  defended  only  by  a  low  and 
lightly-built  parapet;  several  of  the  towers 
were  decayed,  and  the  ditch  was  partly  choked 
up.     From  the  day  of  its  occupation,  August 
30,  1751,  Clive  had  been  incessantly  employed 
in   repairing   the    defences,  but   the  place 
seemed  little  capable  of  standing  a  siege.    Of 
his  eight  officers,  one  had  been  killed,  and  two 
wounded,  in  successive  encounters  with  the 
enemy,  and  a.  fourth  had  returned  to  Madras. 
The  troops  fit  for  duty  had  been  reduced  by 
casualties  and  diseaBo  to  120  Europeans  and 
200  sepoys,  and  it  was  with  this  small  body 
that  Clive  sustained  for  seven  weeks  the  in- 
cessant assault  of  10,000  native  troops  and  150 
Europeans.    On  the  last  day  of  the  siege  the 
onemy  endeavoured  to  storm  the  fort,  but, 
during  a  conflict  which  lasted   more  than 
oighteen  hours,  they  were  repulsed  on  every 
point,  and  next  morning  retired  from  the 
town. 

Arcot,  State  of.    [Cahnatic] 

Ardaneslli,  Battle  of  (719),  was  a  naval 
engagement  fought  between  the  two  branches 
of  the  Scots  of  Balriada — the  Cinel  Gkibran 
and  the  Cinel  Loam.  Dunchadt,  King  of 
Kintyre,  was  chief  of  t3ie  Cinel  Gabran,  and 
Selvach,  at  the  head  of  the  Cinel  Loam,  the 
latter  being  defeated.  Ardanesbi,  according 
to  Mr.  Skene,  is  "probably  the  point  of 
Ardminish,  on  the  island  of  Gigha." 

Chrofw  PicfM  and  Scots  (Skene's  ed.).  cxzx.  74. 

Arde2L,  Edward  {d.  1683),  was  implicated 
in  a  project  for  the  assassination  of  Elizabeth, 
by  the  confession  of  his  son-in-law,  tho  con- 
spirator John  Somerville.  He  had  incurred  the 
enmity  of  tho  Earl  of  Leicester,  and,  after  an 
unfair  trial,  was  executed  at  Tyburn,  Decem- 
ber, 1583.  His  guilt,  however,  is  very  doubt- 
ful, and  he  probably  fell  a  victim  to  the 
enmity  of  Leicester. 

Ardwnlf  (Eardwulf),  King  of  North- 
umbria  (798—^10),  was  placed  on  the  throne 
after  the  interregnum  which  followed  the 
murder  of  Ethelred.  He  found  anarchy 
throughout  the  kingdom,  but  eventually 
succeeded  in  restoring  something  like  order 
by  making  a  treaty  with  Cenwulf  of  Mercia, 
whose  kingdom  had  been  the  refuge  of 
all  Northumbrian  conspirators.  His  journey 
to  the  Emperor  Charles  the  Great,  and  Ta^o 
the  Pope,  is  the  most  interesting  event  of  his 
reign.     He  obtained  their  mediation  between. 


Arg 


(71  ) 


himself  and  his  rebellious  nobles,  and  by  their 

assistance  was  firmly  re-established  on  the 

throne  of  his  kingdom. 

AwHo-Saxcn   Chron. ;    Simeon  of    Dnrham ; 
"Kginhnrd. 


Battle  of  (Nov.  28,  1803), 
was  fought  during  the  Mahratta  War,  be- 
tween General  Wellesley  and  the  Kajah  of 
Berar.  The  rajah,  who  had  been  long  pur- 
sued by  Wellesley,  attempted  to  raise  the 
siege  of  Havilgur,  a  strong  fortress  in  the 
Berar  territory,  and  was  caught  by  Welles- 
ley  on  the  plain  of  Argaum.  Though  late  in 
the  day,  Wellesley  resolved  to  engage,  but 
his  troops  had  no  sooner  come  within  range 
of  the  enemy's  guns,  than  three  battalions, 
who  had  behaved  with  distinguished  gal- 
lantry on  the  field  of  Ajssaye  under  a  far 
hotter  fire,  broke  their  ranks  and  fied. 
Fortunately  the  general  succeeded  in  rallying 
them,  or  the  battle  would  have  been  lost. 
They  returned  to  the  field,  and  after  some 
hours  of  severe  fighting,  the  Berar  troops 
were  compelled  to  retreat.  The  rajah  aban- 
doned all  his  cannon  and  ammunition ;  and 
few  of  his  troops  would  have  escaped,  if  there 
had  been  an  hour  of  daylight  left. 

Wellesley,  Dwpotcfcm;  Grant  Dnff,  Htat.  of  the 
Mahratta*, 

Argyla,  Archibald  Campbell,  6th  Earl 
OP  {d.  1675),  although  a  member  of  the  Con- 
gregation, attached  himself  to  the  side  of 
the  Regent,  Mary  of  Guise,  and  was  of  great 
service  to  her  in  averting  a  collision  between 
the  Reformers  and  the  French  troops  in 
1559.  He  was  said  to  have  formed  a  plot 
to  carry  off  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  almost  on 
the  eve  of  her  marriage  with  Damley ;  and 
he  acted  as  president  at  the  mock  trial  of 
Both  well  for  Dtonley's  murder,  in  1567.  On 
the  abdication  of  the  queen  he  was  appointed 
one  of  the  Commission  of  Regency  during 
Murray's  absence,  but  on  her  escape,  1668, 
joined  her  party,  and  commanded  her  troops 
at  the  battle  of  Langside.  A  year  or  two 
later,  however,  he  submitted  to  the  govern- 
ment of  Morton  and  obtained  an  indemnity. 
He  married  the  widow  of  the  Regent  Murray, 
and  thus  became  possessed  of  some  of  the 
crown  jewels,  his  enforced  restoration  of 
which  by  l^Iorton  caused  him  to  head  the 
party  then  forming  against  the  Regent. 

Argyle.  Archibald  Campbell,  8th  Earl 
and  also  ^Larquis  of  {b.  1698,  d,  1661), 
succeeded  his  father  in  1638,  and  at  once 
joined  the  Covenanters,  whose  forces  he  com- 
manded when  they  wore  defeated  by  Montrose 
at  Inverlochy  and  Kilsythe.  His  cruelties 
towards  the  Royalists  in  1640-1  earned  him 
the  bitter  hatre<l  of  all  his  opponents,  and  in 
1641  a  plot  to  murder  him,  known  as  the 
Incident,  was  formed.  The  same  year  he  was 
created  a  marquis,  and  in  1651  supported  the 
caoae  of  Charles  II.,  whom  he  crowned  at 


Scone.  Immediately  afterwards,  however,  the 
marquis  was  taken  prisoner  at  Worcester,  and 
was  supposed  to  have  entered  into  close  rela- 
tions with  Cromwell.  In  Richard  Cromwell's 
Parliament  of  1669  he  represented  Aberdeen- 
shire. As  a  consequence,  he  was  impeached 
for  high  treason  immediately  after  the  Res- 
toration. He  was  executed  at  Edinburgh, 
suffering  as  much  for  his  great  power,  which 
was  an  object  of  dread  to  Charles  II.,  as  for 
his  treason. 

S.  B.  Oaidiner,  Bid.  ofBng.;  Burton,  Hi$t.  of 
Sootland,  vi.  206,  vii.  140,  &c. 

Argyla,  Archibald  Campbell,  9th  Earl 
OP  {d.  1686),  was  the  son  of  the  preceding. 
He  was  restored  to  his  estates  and  earl- 
dom in  1663,  which  had  been  forfeited  by 
his  father*s  treason,  and  joined  the  Royalist 
party  in  Scotland.  On  the  passing  of  the 
Scotch  Test  Act,  in  1681,  Argyle  refused  to 
take  the  required  oath,  except  with  a  reserva- 
tion, stating  that  he  did  not  thereby  debar 
himself  from  attempting  any  amendment  in 
Church  or  State.  For  this  he  was  brought  to 
trial,  and  being  found  guilty  of  "  leasing- 
making,"  was  sentenced  to  death.  He,  how- 
ever, managed  to  escape  to  Holland,  where  he 
remained  tUl  1685,  when  he  joined  Monmouth 
in  his  attempt  to  dethrone  James.  But  there 
seems  to  have  been  no  sympathy  between  the 
two,  and  Arg}'le  was  suspected  and  distrusted 
by  the  English.  Argyle  .landed  in  Scotland 
in  May,  1686,  but  found  himself  joined  by 
very  few  followers  except  his  own  clansmen. 
Divisions  were  rife  in  his  councils,  and  after 
an  abortive  inarch  on  Glasgow,  his  followers 
dispersed  without  striking  a  blow,  and  he 
himself  was  captured  in  the  disguise  of  a 
carter,  taken  to  Edinburgh,  and  executed  on 
his  former  sentence  of  death. 

Barton,  UisU  of  Scotland ;  Macaulaj,  Hid.  nf 
fiHjland. 

Argyle,  George  Douglas  Campbell, 
8th  Duke  op  {b.  1823),  was,  as  Marquis  of 
Lome,  verj'  prominent  in  the  controversy  in 
the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland  relating 
to  patronage.  In  1862  he  accepted  office 
under  Lord  Aberdeen  as  Lord  Privy  Seal, 
and  retained  the  aame  office  under  Lord 
Palmerston.  He  was  Lord  Privy  Seal  again 
under  Lord  Palmerston  in  1869,  Postmaster- 
General  in  1860,  and  Secretary  of  State  for 
India  in  Mr.  Gladstone's  Cabinet  from  1868 
to  1874.  He  joined  Mr.  Gladstone's  second 
administration  (1880)  as  Lord  Privy  Seal,  but 
retired  owing  to  a  difference  of  opinion  with 
his  colleagues  on  their  Irish  policy. 

Argyle,  John,  MARauis,  afterwards 
Duke  op  (</.  1743),  as  Lord  Lome,  was 
made  commander  of  a  regiment  of  foot  bv 
William  III.  In  1692  he,  together  with  his 
kinsmen  Breadalbane  and  the  Master  of  Stair, 
planned  the  infamous  massacre  of  Glencoe. 
The  greater  part  of   the    troops  employed 


Arg 


(72) 


in  that  afpHir  were  Campbells.  In  1703 
he  succeeded  to  his  father's  honours  and 
estates,  and  was  sworn  of  Anne's  Privy 
Council.  In  1705  he  was  appointed  Lord 
High  Commissioner  to  the  Scottish  Parlia- 
ment, in  which  he  zealously  advocated  the 
Union.  For  these  services  he  was  created  a 
peer  of  England  and  Earl  of  Greenwich.  In 
1706  he  fought  under  Marlborough  at  Ramil- 
lies,  and  commanded  in  the  attack  on  Menin. 
He  returned  to  Scotland,  where  he  supported 
the  efforts  of  the  Commission  for  the  tJnion. 
He  fought  at  Oudenarde  and  Malplaqaet ; 
but  was  at  enmity  with  Marlborough,  his 
commander-in-chief.  At  this  time  he  was 
closely  connected  with  the  Tories,  and  was 
appointed  to  the  command  in  Catalonia  in 
1710.  The  army  was  demoralised  by  the 
defeat  at  Almanza,  and  he  could  obtain  no 
supplies.  He  returned  to  England,  and  was 
made  commander-in-chief  of  the  land  forces 
in  Scotland.  He  was  soon  at  variance  with 
the  ministry;  and  opposed,  in.  the  Upper 
House,  a  motion  to  the  effect  that  the 
Protestant  succession  was  in  danger.  As 
Queen  Anne  lay  dying,  Argyle  entered  the 
Council  with  the  Duke  of  Somerset,  and  pro- 
posed that  the  queen  should  be  requested  to 
make  the  Duke  of  Shrewsbury  Lord  Treasurer. 
It  was  done ;  and  it  was  owing  to  this  vigor- 
ous action  that  Bolingbroke's  plans  at  once 
fell  to  the  ground.  On  the  accession  of 
George  I.,  Argylo  was  continued  in  his 
employments,  and  on  the  outbreak  of  Mar  s 
rebellion,  in  1715,  Argyle,  as  commander-in- 
chief  in  Scotland,  met  the  rebels  at  Sheriffrauir, 
where  Mar  was  defeated.  But  the  conduct  of 
Argylo  caused  it  to  bo  suspected  that  he  was 
unwilling  to  drive  the  Jacobites  to  extremities. 
Cadogan  was  sent  to  reinforce  him.  As  soon 
as  the  duke  marched  forward,  the  Jacobites* 
retreated  before  him ;  the  Pretender  fled  to 
Franco,  and  the  rebellion  was  crushed. 
Argylo  was  a  follower  of  Walpole  during 
the  greater  part  of  his  long  ministry,  but  in 
1739  he  distinctly  joined  the  Opposition. 
Walpole,  wishing  lo  preserve  so  powerful  a 
support,  kept  him  in  his  places,  but  at  length 
was  compelled  to  dismiss  him.  On  the  resig- 
nation of  Walpole,  Argyle  was  again  placed 
in  office;  but  he  was  dissatisfied  with  the 
arrangement  of  the  ministry,  and  resigned. 
Towards  the  end  of  his  career,  he  intrigued 
with  the  Jacobites.  It  was  only  after  Sir 
John  Hindo  Cotton,  a  noted  Jacobite,  had 
been  placed  on  the  Board  of  the  Admiraltj', 
that  the  duke  condescended  to  join  Pel- 
ham's  administration.  Argyle  was  a  brave 
soldier  and  an  accomplished  orator;  but  his 
political  career  was  one  long  course  of  incon- 
sistencies. 

Coze,  Walpole  ;  Barton,  History  nf  Scotland. 

[L.  C.  S.] 

Arffyla,  Pebhaoe  of.  In  1445  Sir  Duncan 
Campbell  of  Lochow,  the  head  of  the  great 


Argyleshire  family  of  the   CampbeUs,  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  as  Lord  Campbell,  by 
James  II.  of  Scotland.     His  grandson,  Colin, 
was  created  Earl  of  Arg^'le  in  1464.     He 
married  Isabel  Stewart,  daughter  of  the  Lord 
of  Lome,  and  added  to  his  titles  that  of  Lord 
Lome.    Archibald,  the  eighth  earl,  who  was 
subsequently  executed  for  trea.son  in  1661, 
was  created  a  marquis  in   1641.     His  son 
Archibald,    ninth    earl   (who    was    restored 
to  the  family  estates  and  the  earldom),  was 
attainted  for  treason  in  1685.     The  attainder 
was  reversed  at  the  Revolution  of  1688,  and 
Archibald,  the  son  of  the  last-named  carl, 
was  advanced   to   the  dignity  of  Duke  of 
Argyle.     His   son  John,   second  duke,   re- 
ceived a  British  peerage  as  Duke  of  Green- 
wich in  1719.     He  left  no  male  issue,  and 
his  English  honours  ceased ;  but  his  daughter 
Caroline    was    created    in    her    own    right 
Baroness  of  Greenwich.     His  Scotch  honours 
devolved    on   his    brother  Archibald,    third 
duke,  from  whom  they  passed  to  his  nephew 
Archibald,  the  ancestor  of  the  present  holder 
of  the  title.   John,  the  fifth  duke,  was  created 
a  peer  of  England  as  Baron  Sundridge  in 
1766. 


Battle    of   (May   13,  1791). 
After  the  captui'e  of  Bangalore,  during  Ijonl 
CoEnwalli»'s  campaign  in  Mysore,  the  English 
army  marched  to   Seringapatam,  and  (May 
13)  reached  Arikera,  about  nine  miles  from 
lihat  city.  Tippoo  was  encamped  between  them 
and    Seringapatam,  with    his  right  resting 
on    the    Cavery.      Lord    Cornwallis    hoped 
by  a  night  march  to  turn  the  enemy's  left 
before  daylight,  and  cut  off  his  retreat.     A 
terrific  storm  arose,  and  delayed  the  march  by 
repeated  halta,  till  it  became  impossible  to 
carry  out  the  original  plan.     In  the  morning 
Lord  Cornwallis  determined  to  gain  a  hill 
commanding  the  left  of  the  enemy,  and  or- 
ganised an  attack  in  front,  under  cover  of 
which  Colonel  Maxwell  was  to  seize  the  hill. 
Tippoo  perceived  this,  and  made  his  pre])ara- 
tions  accordingly ;  but  in  spite  of  this  ilax- 
well  crossed  a  difficult  ravine  and  gained  the 
hill.    The  attack  became  general  along  the 
front,  and  was  assisted  by  Maxwell's  flank 
attack  along  the  hill,  and  Tippoo's  army  was 
already  wavering  when  Colonel  Floyd  and  the 
cavalry  charged  his  rearguard  and  nearly  de- 
stroyed it,  nothing  but  the  unwieldy  movo- 
ments   of    the    Nizam's    horse,  which    now 
came  up,  allowed  Tippoo's  army  to  escape  a 
total  rout. 

Mill,  Hi«t.  of  India;  Cornwallis,  Despatches. 

Arkanholm,  Battle  of  (May  I,  14 o5), 
was  fought  in  the  vallej*  of  the  Esk  between 
the  supporters  of  James  II.  of  Scotland  and 
James,  Earl  of  Douglas,  and  his  brotliers. 
The  rebels  wore  defeated.  Archibald  Doiifjrias, 
Earl  of  Murray,  fell  in  the  combat;  Hugrh 
Douglas,  Earl  of  Ormond,  was  captured  and 


Ark 


{  73) 


beheaded ;  and  James  Douglas  was  forced  to 
take  refuge  in  England.     [Douglas.] 

Arklow,  The  Battle  of  (1798),  was 
fought  during  the  Irish  rebellion.  The  town 
was  defended  by  General  Needham  with  120 
Ancient  Britons,  800  Irish  militia,  300  Dur- 
ham Fencibles,  and  some  yeomanry,  against 
Father  John  Murphy,  who  led  some  27,000 
rebels  with  a  few  guns  to  the  attack.  In 
spite  of  the  determined  fury  with  which  they 
came  on,  the  rebels  were  beaten  back  wiUi 
great  loss,  and  hnd  to  give  up  the  idea  of 
marching  on  Dublin. 

Arlini^IL,  Uenby  Bennet,  Earl  of  {b. 
1618,  </.  1685),  was  originally  intended  to  take 
orders  in  the  Church,  but  on  the  outbreak  of 
the  Civil  War  he  joined  the  Royalist  army 
as  a  volunteer.  After  the  death  of  Charles 
I.,  he  joined  Charles  II.,  and  was  employed 
by  him  as  ambassador  to  Madrid.  In  1662 
he  was  made  one  of  the  Secretaries  of  State, 
and  in  1664  was  created  a  baron.  In  1667 
he  joined  the  Cabal  ministry.  In  1674  he 
was  impeached  by  the  House  of  Commons, 
and  sold  his  office  to  Sir  J.  Williamson,  pur- 
chasing in  his  tump  the  post  of  Lord  Cham- 
berlain, which  he  held  till  1681.  Arlington 
was  a  Catholic,  but  never  showed  himself 
verj'  zealous  for  his  religion,  though  ready 
to  sign  the  secret  clauses  in  the  IVeaty  of 
Dover.  Sharing  the  want  of  political  prin- 
ciple, and  "the  cosmopolitan  intlifference  to 
constitutions  and  religions"  which  distin- 
guished the  politicians  with  whom  he  was 
associated,  Arlington  was  nevertheless  in 
many  respects  superior  to  most  of  them.  He 
was  resolved  to  maintain  himself  at  court,  and 
in  the  pursuit  of  this  object  he  displayed  great 
subtlety,  resource,  and  flexibility  of  temper ; 
but  "  he  was  regarded  as  the  man  in  Eng- 
land who  least  overstepped  the  line  of  good 
conduct.  He  possessed  the  culture  of  European 
society  at  that  time ;  by  the  excesses  which 
were  in  favour  at  the  court  ho  was  little 
affected :  his  hours  of  leisure  he  devoted  to 
the  ftudy  of  the  literarj'  products  of  that 
fruitful  age."  Kanke,  IIi«t.  of  Eng.y  vol.  iii., 
p.  517.  See  also  Macaulay,  Hiht.  of  Eng.^ 
voL  L,  p.  212.    [Cab.\l.] 

Arliogrton's  I>tt^r«  to  Sir  W.  Temple  (publiiihed 
posthainoaslj  in  17C)1)  are  of  some  importance 
for  the  diplomatic  history  of  Charles  II. 's  reign. 

Axmadftp  The  Spamsk,  is  the  name 
iwnally  applie<l  to  the  great  militory  and  naval 
expedition  de^•patoh(*d  by  Philip  II.  of  Sjxiin 
^  against  England  in  1588.  The  oquipjnng  of 
*  his  great  fleet  was  protracted  by  his  incorrigible 
habits  of  deLiy  and  hesitation,  but  it  is 
probable  that  it  was  r«idy  to  sail  in  L587. 
it  might  in  an^'  onse  have  Ix^en  kept  waiting 
one  year  moie'till  the  Priuce  of  I*arma  had 
his  a'rmv  read v  in  Flanders,  but,  however  that 
"lay  be,' it  was  delayed  by  Drake's  vigorous 
action   on     the     coasts    of    Portugal     and 


Andalusia.     Early  in  1588  the  damage  he 
had  done  was  repaired,  and  the  Invincible 
Armada  sailed  from  Lisbon  in  the  latter  days 
of  May.    It  was  commanded  by  Don  Alonso 
de  Guzman,  Duke  of  Medina    8idonia,  who 
succeeded  to  the  command  on  the  death  of 
Don  Alvaro  de  Bazan,  the  Marquis  of  Santa 
Cruz.    It  consisted  of  130  vessels,  manned  by 
8,450  sailors,  and   2,088  galley-slaves.       It 
carried  19,295  soldiers,  and  2,^80  pieces  of 
artillery.     The  provisions  of  food  and  ammu- 
nition were  abundant,  but  the  ships  were  ill- 
fitted  for  the  navigation  of  the  Channel,  of 
which    the  Spanish    sailors   knew   nothing. 
Fiom  the  beginning  it  met  with  losses  and 
misfortunes.     It  was  scattered  bv  a  gale  im- 
mediately after  leaving  Lisbon,  during  which 
one  galley  went  down,  and  two  were  seized 
by  the  slaves  who  revolted,  and  overpowered 
the  soldiers.     It  was  not  till  Friday,  July 
22  (N.S.),  that  Medina  Sidonia  could  rally 
his    ships,    and    sail    from    Corunna.      On 
lliursday,   Julv   28,   the   fleet   was   off  the 
Lizard,  and  had  its  flrst  sight  of  the  English 
fleet  on  Saturday  the  30th.      The  English 
Lord  High  Admiral,  Lord  Howard  of  Efling- 
ham,  had  thirty  ships  of  the  Koyal  Navy,  and 
a  large  number  of  volunteer  ships,  with  him, 
and  was  assisted  by  Drake,   Hawkins,  Fro- 
bisher.  Winter,  lialeigh,  and  other  seamen. 
The  Armada  was   steered  for    Calais  Koad. 
On  Sunday,  Jidy  31,  some  fighting  took  place, 
in  which  the  unwieldy  Spanish  ships  were 
completely  outmanoeuvred.    They  were  built 
so   extremely  high,  and  drew   so    few   feet 
of  water  in  proportion,  that  they  could  not 
carr>*  enougli  sail.   The  handy  English  vessels 
closed  and  drew  off  as  they  pleased.      Our 
seamen,  acting  on    the   principle  which  has 
always  been  followed  in  the  English  navy, 
trusted  to  their  rapid  and  accurate  artillery 
fire,  and  refused  all  temptations  to  board  the 
enemy,   whose    vessels   were  crowded    with 
soldiers.      The   first    encounter    proved    the 
wisdom  of  tliis  system  of  tactics.     The  flag- 
ship of  the    Andalusian   squadron    was  dis- 
abled, and  fell  into  the  hands  of  Drake  after 
a  long  tight.     The  Armada,  arranged  in  the 
half-moon  formation  which  had  been  adopted 
at   Lepanto,  continued  its  way  through  the 
Channel,     keeping    indifferent    order.      On 
August  2  thtre  was  another  indecisive  can- 
nonade off   Poi-tland,  in  which  the  English 
seamen  followed  th»  ir  usual  svstem  of  atttick ; 
and  though  they  did  not   do  the  S])aniards 
anj'  considerable  damage,  they  further  proved 
their  superiority  in    seamanship,   and    con- 
vinced the  enemy  that  ho  could  only  hope  to 
fight  them  on  their  own  terms.     By  Saturday 
the   6th,  the   Sjianish  Armada  had  reached 
Calais,  and  waited  for  the  Prince  of  Parma, 
who  was  to  join  it  from  Flanders.     But  the 
prince,  by  one  of^the  extraordinary  oversights 
which  ruined  aU  Philip's  plans,  had  no  armed 
ships,  and  was  closely  blo<kaded  by  the  Dutch. 
On  Sunday  night  (August   7)  the  English 


(74) 


admirals  sent  fire-ships  among  the  Spaniards, 
who  cut  their  cables  and  stood  to  sea  in  a 
panic.  On  Monday  they  were  fiercely  attacked, 
and  soon  became  utterly  disorganised.  On 
Tuesday,  August  .9,  the  Armada,  greatly 
diminished  by  loss  of  vessels,  which  had  been 
sunk  or  compelled  to  strike,  or  driven  on 
shore,  was  drifting  helplessly  on  the  coast  of 
Zeeland.  A  sudden  change  of  wind  saved  it 
for  the  moment,  but  the  crews  had  no  more 
stomach  for  the  fight.  By  the  next  day  they 
had  quite  lost  heart  and  begun  to  fly  to  the 
north.  They  were  followed  for  some  dis- 
tance by  a  few  English  vessels,  but  there  was 
no  effectual  pursuit.  Elizabeth's  fleet  had 
been  ill-provided  with  powder  and  shot,  and 
still  worse  with  food.  They  had  put  to  sea 
in  a  hurry,  and  they  had  moreover  been 
now  engaged  almost  incessantly  for  days.  It 
is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  therefore,  that  after 
three  general  engagements  and  numerous 
skirmishes  the  sbips  were  out  of  ammunition. 
The  want  of  provisions  is  less  cKcusable.  It 
appears,  however,  that  the  volunteer  vessels 
were  almost  as  badly  found  as  the  queen's, 
and  that  what  is  often  called  Elizabeth's 
parsimony  was  in  fact  want  of  experience 
in  equipping  a  large  force,  and  was  common 
to  her  with  her  people.  The  brunt  of  the 
fighting  feU  on  the  vessels  of  the  Royal 
Navy;  the  volunteers,  though  they  proved 
the  spirit  of  the  nation,  and  helped  to  make 
a  moral  impression  on  the  Spaniards,  did 
comparatively  little  of  the  real  work.  The 
preparations  on  shore  were  probably  dis- 
tinguished more  by  spirit  than  efficiency, 
but  thev  were  never  tested,  and  it  is  im- 
possible  to  know  what  they  would  have 
done.  It  must  not  be  forgotten,  that  though 
the  Prince  of  Parma  had  a  veteran  force  in 
Flanders,  the  majority  of  the  soldiers  on 
board  the  Armada  were  as  ra'w  as  the  Eng- 
lish militia.  The  Spaniards  straggled  home 
round  the  north  of  Scotland,  through  con- 
tinual storms,  in  which  the  greater  part  of 
their  vessels  went  down  or  were  driven  on 
shore.  Only  fifty-4:fairee  sbdps  reached  Spain, 
and  the  loss  of  life  was  so  terrible,  that 
it  was  said  that  every  family  in  the  country 
lost  a  member. 

The  standard  historians  of  Elizabeth's  reifra^ 
and  Camden,  Fuller,  or  Hakluyt,  need  Bca!rcely 
be  mentioned,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of 
Froude  or  Motley.  There  is  a  very  ifood  ac- 
count of  the  Armada  in  Sonthey's  Life  of  Lor  A 
Howard  of  Effingham,  in  the  Cabinet  Cyclopcedia, 
with  copious  citations  of  antliorities;  and  a 
French  writer,  M.  Fomeron,  has  to'd  the  story 
very  fully  in  his  recent  Life  of  Philip  11.  On 
the  Spanish  side,  may  be  mentioned  Sfroder, 
Herrera,  and  Cabrera,  in  their  Lives  of  Philip. 
Cabrera  was  an  official  hiHtorian,  who  vnrote 
uader  royal  dictation,  and  erives,  of  course,  the 
royal  view.  He  is  chiefly  valuable  as  showing 
whU  the  Spanish  govfrnment  wished  to  be 
believed.  Several  accounts  by  eye-witnesses 
are  to  be  found  in  the  Documentoe  Inedilos 
{Spanish  State  Papers),  particularly  in  the 
fourteenth  and  forty-eighth  yolumes. 

[D.  H.] 


Armaifh,  The  School  (or  Univeksitt) 
OF,  was  the  centre  of  early  Irish  monastic 
civilisation  and  learning.     It  was  from  here 
that  the  scholars  who  made  Ireland  famous  in 
France,  and  those  who  founded  Glastonbury, 
came.    The  most  famous  among  the  Irish 
scholars  trained  at  Armagh  is  of  course  John 
Scotus  Erigena,  whose  death  may  be  placed  in 
the  year  875.     Even  the  capture  of  Armagh 
by  Olaf  8  Danes  was  not  sufficient  to  destroy 
entirely  its  school  and  its  fame  for  leamiu^^ 
The  continuance  of  the  existence  of  a  school 
there  is  vouched  for  by  the  proceedings  of  a 
synod  in  1158,  which  decided  that  no  one  was 
to  be  instituted  as  a  professor  of  theology 
who    had  not    completed    his    education  at 
Armagh.    The  presence  of  foreign  students 
can  be  traced  at  least  as  far  as  the  eleventh 
century.    The  existence  of  a  learned  body  in 
Armagh  is  all  the  more  remarkable  as  the  see 
was,  after  the  ariival  of  the  Ostmen,  almost 
always  in  the  hands  of  laymen. 

Armagh,  The  Synod  op,  was  held  in. 
1170,  when  the  Irish  prelates,  alarmed  at  the 
English  invasion,  wliich  they  regarded  as  a 
divine  visitation,  determined  that  all  English 
slaves  should  be  set  free. 

▲rued  ITentrality.    Ia  1780  a  coali- 

tion  known  as  the  First  Anrnd  Neutrality  was 
entered  into  by  the  northern  powers,  who  re- 
sented the  right  of  search  which  was  claimed 
by  England  in  respect  of  all  neutral  vessels. 
In  the  treaty  then  made  between   Russia, 
Sweden,  and  Denmark,  the  principle  was  pro- 
claimed that  "  free  ships  make  free  goods," 
that  the  flag  covers  the  merchandise,   and 
that  a  port  is  to  be  considered  blockaded  only 
when  a  sufficient  force  for  its  blockade  is  in. 
front  of  it.     There  was  some  ground  for  the 
contention  that  the  rights  of  neutrals  on  tho 
sea  should  be  the  same  as  en  land.     At  this 
time  G^reat    Britain    was   in    the   midst   of 
the  war  with  the  American  colonies ;  Franco 
and  Holland  were  also  at  war  with  her ;  and 
the  right  of  search  was  indispensable,  if  she 
was  to  make  any   use  "of  her   naval   supe- 
riority.   Nevertheless,  pressed  as  she  was,  it 
was  impossible  for  her  to  take  any  active  steps 
in  opposition  to  the  treaty,  though  she  con- 
tinued to  exercise  her  right,  which  had  been 
admitted  by  the  several  powers  in  former 
treaties.     The  armed   neutrality  was   aban- 
doned by  Sweden  in  1787 ;  in*  1793  Russia 
•entered  into  a  treaty  with  Great   Britain, 
which  expressly  recognised  the  right  of  search 
on  neutral  vessels;   and  in  the  same   yeiir 
America  made  a  similar  treaty  with  Great 
Britain.     But  in   1799  Napoleon,  by   a   re- 
markable exercise  of  diplomatic  skill, "induced 
the  Americans  to  adopt  a  maritime  code  on 
the  basis  of  the  Armed  Neutrality  of  1 780 ;  and 
at  the  same  time  the  other  powers  saw    an 
opening  for  a  profitable  trade  with  Franco,  if 
the  right  of  search  were  abolished.    The  prin- 
ciplesof  the  ArmedNeutrality  were  accordingly 


(  76  ) 


revived,  and  the  determined  persistence  of 
the  British  government,  combined  with  the 
skilful  diplomacy  of  Napoleon,  induced  the 
northern  powers  again  to  enter  into  a  coali- 
tion, known  as  the  Second  Armed  H'eutrality 
(1800),  to  enforce  its  principles.  The  English 
government  acted  with  decisive  energy.  A 
fleet  was  despatched  to  the  Baltic ;  and  the 
bombardment  of  Copenhagen,  followed  by  the 
death  of  Czar  Paul,  effectually  broke  up  the 
northern  coalition.  On  June  17,  1801,  the 
Maritime  Convention  of  St.  Petersburg  was 
opened ;  and  finally  a  series  of  treaties  was 
made  between  Great  Britain  and  the  northern 
powers  by  which  the  Armed  Neutrality  was 
abandoned,  but  the  right  of  search  was 
strictly  defined,  and  it  was  agreed  that  block- 
ades must  be  efficient  to  be  valid.     [Nsu- 

TIUUTY.] 

Koch  and  Schoe11«  HM.  d«  TraiUt,  iv.  S4,  and 
vi  92,  MO. ;  Aligon,  Hist,  of  Europe ;  Judgments 
of  Sir  W.  Scott  in  £ob»tiaon'«  ReporU, 

AmniniaiUi  was  the  name  sometimes 
given  to  the  High  Church  party  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  I.  Strictly  speaking,  the 
Arminians  were  those  Dutch  Protestants  who 
followed  Arminius(  Harmenssen) ,  in  opposition 
to  the  more  rigid  followers  of  Calvin.  The 
party  was  the  &uit  of  the  reaction  which  had 
arisen  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century  in  the  minds  of  many  men  against 
what  seemed  the  bigotry  of  extreme  Pro- 
testantism, and  which  made  them  inquire 
whether  the  Reformers,  in  their  desire  to 
get  rid  of  the  evils  of  Popery,  had  not  also 
destroyed  much  that  was  vital  in  Catholic 
Christianity.  In  the  Netherlands  the  con- 
troversy between  the  Arminians  and  "Go- 
marists**  led,  early  in  the  17th  century,  to 
violent  commotions.  To  disputes  of  dogma 
were  added  those  concerning  the  rights  of 
the  Church  with  reference  to  the  authority  of 
the  civil  government  in  ecclesiastical  affairs. 
The  Arminians,  with  their  leanings  to  the 
doctrines  of  Zwingli,  maintained  the  right  of 
the  State  to  conduct  the  government  of  the 
Church,  in  conformity  with  the  model  of 
Scripture,  and  urged  that,  by  the  independence 
claimed  by  spiritual  authority  in  the  Ke- 
formed  Church,  a  new  popedom  was  being 
tet  up.  The  Gomarists,  on  the  other  hand, 
strictly  adhering  to  the  principles  of  Calvin, 
demanded  the  complete  autonomy  of  the 
Church.  This  schism  spread  to  the  political 
world.  The  heads  of  the  municipal  oligarchy 
sided  with  the  Arminians.  The  leaders  of 
the  popular  party,  under  Maurice  the  Stadt- 
holder,  declared  against  their  rivals  for  the 
Gomarists.  At  the  national  Synod  of  Dort, 
which  commence<l  its  sittings  in  1618,  the 
victory  rested  with  the  latter  in  reirard  both 
to  doctrine  and  Church  authority.  The  Synod 
declared  its  adhenmce  to  the  strict  Calvinistic 
views  on  unconditional  election  by  grace,  and 
the  independence  of  the  Church.  Silenced 
in  Holland,  Arminianism  took  firm  root  in 


England,  and  was  welcomed  by  many  who 

shared  in  the  reaction  against  Purittinism. 

A  violent  controversy  began  between  Calvinists 

and  Arminians.  James  I.  attempted  to  silence 

it  (1622) ;  but,  in  fact,  in  his  later  vears,  the 

king,  who  had  been  a  Calvinist  all  his  life, 

and  had  even  written  a  book  against  Yorstius, 

the  successor  of   Arminius,  leaned  towards 

Arminianism.     For  the  Synod  of   Dort,  by 

ascribing  equal  authority  to  all  ministers  of 

God*s  Word,  no  matter  what  their  position, 

indirectly  condemned  the  English  Church. 

The  Puritans  and  Presbyterians  regarded  the 

spread  of   Arminianism   with   great  dislike, 

and  on  March  2,  1629,  the  Commons  resolved 

that  "  whosoever  shall  bring  in  innovation  in 

religion,  or  by  favour  seek  to  introduce  Popery 

or  Arminianism,  shall  be  reputed  a  capital 

enemy  to  the  kingdom  and  commonwealth." 

But  Arminianism  continued  to  gain  influence 

among  the  High  Churchmen,  and  the  term 

came  to  be  applied  generally  to  all  those  who 

objected  both  to  the  Roman  and  Calvinist 

doctrines  and  theory  of  Church  government 

(though  they  considered  the  Roman  Catholic 

Church  as  corrupt  and  unsound),  and  who 

wished  that  the  English  Church  should  occupy 

a  middle  position  between  Rome  and  Geneva. 

Charles  I.  and  Laud  were  claimed  by  this 

party  as  its  champions.    They  were  supposed 

to  be  equally  averse  to  Romanism  and  Puri^ 

tanism,  and  they  were  regarded  by  the  English 

Arminians    as   the   great  defenders   of   the 

Church  from  the  dangers  which  threatened 

her  on  both  sides.    After  the  Restoration  the 

name  **  Arminian"  fell  into  disuse.     [Laud.] 

Banke,  Hiat.  of  Eng.^  i.  425,  ke. ;  Hook,  Arch- 
hUhopt ;  Perry,  Hiat.  of  the  Eng.  Church ;  8.  B. 
Gardiner,  Hist,  of  Eng.,  1609^164Sj  Geffcken. 
Church  and  State. 

Arms,  AssTzx  of.    [Assize.] 

JLmtttrOJlgt  ^^^  John,  of  Gilnockie 
(rf.  1531),  was  the  head  of  a  powerful 
family,  which  held  practically  independent 
power  on  the  borders  of  England  and  Scot- 
land and  the  "  debateable  land."  The  Scots 
government,  however,  regarded  'the  Arm- 
strongs as  robbers,  and  James  V.  deter- 
mined to  suppress  them.  Li  1631  the  king 
entered  the  border  country  at  the  head  of  a 
powerful  force.  Sir  John  Armstrong  came 
to  meet  the  king  m  great  state,  and  attended 
by  a  train  of  gentlemen,  lie  was  immediately 
seized  and  hanged,  together  with  his  brother 
Thomas.  The  Pitscottie  Chronicle  represents 
him  as  saying  to  James,  when  his  entreaties 
for  mercy  proved  fruitless,  **  I  am  but  ane 
fool  to  seek  grace  at  a  graceless  face;  but 
had  I  known,  sir,  that  ye  would  have  taken 
my  life  this  day,  I  should  have  lived  upon 
the  borders  in  despite  of  King  Harry  and  you 
both ;  for  I  know  King  Harry  would  down- 
weigh  my  best  horse  with  gold  to  know  that 
I  was  condemned  to  die  this  day." 

fhron.  of  Piittcnttic;  ArmstroniBr,  Hitt.  </ 
XtddMdala;  Burton,  Hut.  of  ScoU,  iii. 


(76) 


Army.    [Military  System.] 

Army  Plot   (1641)   was  an  attempt  to 
use  the  English  army,  which  had  not  been 
disbanded  after  the  Scotch  War,  to   coerce 
the  Parliament.      There   were   two  distinct 
plots  for  this  purpose :    (1)    Percy  Wilmot 
and  other  officers  and   members  of  Parlia- 
ment proposed  to  induce  the  officers  of  the 
army  to  sign  a  declaration  that  they  would 
stand  by  the  king :  (a)  if  parliamentary  pres- 
sure were  put  upon  him,  either  to  compel  him 
to  assent  to  the  exclusion  of  the  bishops  from 
the  House  of  Lords,  or  to  force  him  to  dis- 
band the  Irish  army  before  the  Scots  were 
disbanded ;  {b)  or  if  the  full  revenue  he  had 
enjoyed  for  so  many  years  were  not  placed  in 
his  hands.     At  the  same  time,  a  plot  some- 
what similar,  but  contemplating  the  direct 
employment  of    force,  was  being  contrived 
by  Sir  John  Suckling  and  Henry  Jermyn 
with  the  approval  of  the  queen.     They  in- 
tended to   commence  operations  by  placing 
the  command  of  the  army  in  the  hands  of  the 
Earl    of    Newcastle    and    Greorge    Young. 
Charles  at  first  endeavoured  to  got  the  two 
p^rtie8  to  work  together,   and   finding  this 
impossible,  decided  against  Suckling^s  plan. 
Young,    seeing    no    prospect    of    becoming 
lieutenant-general,  betrayed  the  plot  to  the 
Earl  of  Newport,  through  whom  it  reached 
Pym   (April   1).     Meanwhile,  SuckUng  had 
by  no  means  abandoned  his  scheme,  and  he 
was  also  arranging    an    attempt  to    rescue 
Stmfford  from  the  Tower.     Pym  made   use 
of  his  knowledge  of  this  double  plot  to  secure 
the  agreement  of  the  two  Houses,  and  the 
support  of  the  people.     On  May  3,  the  Pro- 
testation was  drawn  up,  on  the  next  day  it 
was  taken  by  the  Lords,  on  the  5th  it  was 
agreed  that  a  Bill  should  be  brought  in  to 
provide  against  the  dissolution  of  the  Parlia- 
ment, on  the  8th  that  Bill  and  the  Attainder 
Bill   both  p:issed  their   first  reading  in  the 
Lords.     Tiie  king,  loft  without  any  support, 
gave  his   assi^nt  to  both  Bills  on  the  10th. 
Percy,  Jermyn,  Suckling,  and  others  fled  to 
France,   but   were   declared  guilty   of   high 
treason.     Thus  the  first  attempt  to  use  the 
army  against    the    Parliament    gave    fresh 
strength  to  the  popular  pirty.     (2)   At  the 
end  of  May  or  the  beginning  of  June,  Daniel 
O'Xoill  was  sent  by  the  king  to  sound   the 
officers  of  the  army  as  to  the  feasibility  of 
bringing    up   the  troops    to    I/)ndon   if'  the 
neutrality   of    the   Scots    could  be   secured. 
At  the   same  time,  one   of  the  officers  was 
entrusted   by  the    king   with   a   petition,  to 
which  he  was  to    obtain   signatures   in   the 
army.      The   petition   i)rott'Sted  against  the 
unreasonable  demands  of  the  popular  leaders, 
the  diminution  of  the  king's  "just  regalities," 
and   the    tumultuous   as.seml)lieH    round    the 
Houses  of  Parliamr-nt.     It  concluded  with  a 
promis*^  to  defend  King.  Church,  Parliament, 
and  Laws.     The  leaders  of  the  army  repu- 


diated the  petition,  and  O'Neill  was  obhged 
to  fly,  but  the  king  still  persisted  in  his 
intrigues  for  this  purpose  both  during  his 
journey  to  Scotland  and  his  stay  in  that 
country.  The  knowledge  of  this  new  plot 
made  Pym,  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Irish 
Kebollion,  demand  that  the  king  should 
employ  only  such  ministcTS  as  Parliament 
should  approve;  otherwise  the  Commons 
would  be  obliged  to  provide  for  Ireland  with- 
out the  king.  He  followed  this  by  bringing 
the  evidence  before  the  Commons,  who  passed 
a  resolution  affirming  that  there  was  ''a 
second  design  to  bring  up  the  army  against 
the  Parliament,  and  an  intention  to  make 
the  Scottish  army  stand  as  neutral."  This 
event  did  much  to  secure  the  passing  of  the 
"  Grand  Remonstrance." 

Clarendon,  Hist,  of  the  Rehellinn ;  May,  HUt.  of 
<h«  Long  Pari;  White tocke,  Memoirn;  S.  E. 
Gardiner,  Hist.  ofEng.  [C.  H.  F.] 

AmeOi  Battle  op  {June  7,  1782),  took 
place  in  the  Mysore  War  between  the  British, 
under  Sir  Eyre  Coote,  and  the  troops  of 
Hyder  Ali,  commanded  by  the  Sultan  in 
person.  After  an  indecisive  action,  Uydor 
retreated. 

Arnold,  Benedict  (b.  1740,  rf.  1801),  was  a 
druggist  at  Newhaven,  in  Connecticut,  when 
the  American  War  of  Independence  broke  out. 
On  the  news  of  the  battle  of  Lexington,  he  col- 
lected a  body  of  volunteers,  seized  some  arms, 
and  obtained  a  commission  to  capture  Ticon- 
deroga  on  Lake  Champliiin.      Subsequently 
he  proceeded  on  his  own  account,  after  sur- 
prising St.  John's,  to  equip  a  small  flotilla 
on  the  lake.      He   displayed  great  bravery 
and  skill,  but  he   offended  Congress  by  his 
indepondi»nce,  and  he  was  in  turn  offendt;d 
by  their  want  of  confidence,  though  he  was 
appointed  to  the  command  of   Philadelphia, 
on    its    evacuation    by    the    British    forces. 
At  length,  mortified  by  the  insults  put  upon 
him,  he  entered  into  communications  with  Sir 
H.  Clinton  to  betray  West  Point.    The  proj  ect 
failed  through  the  capture  of  Major  Andre 
(q.v,),  btit  Arnold  managed  to  escape  to  the 
British  lines,  and  for  some  time  he  commanded 
a    corps  of    American    refugees.      Ho    sub- 
sequently  settled   in  the   West  Indies,   and 
after  being  niptured  by,  and  escapinp^  from, 
the   French,  he  came  to  London,  where  he 
died. 

J.  Spurks,  Li/e  of  Arnold;  Bancroft,  Hii*t.  of 
America. 


L,  Defence  of  (1857).  On  July 
25,  the  7th,  8th,  and  40th  Native  Retfiments, 
quartered  in  the  district  of  Shahabad,  Bengal, 
nnitinied,  plundered  the  town  and  station  of 
Arrah,  and,  headed  by  Koer  Singh,  a  Zoniiu- 
dar,  who  had  rebelled,  attacki^d  a  house 
where  sixteen  Englishmen  and  sixty  Sikh 
police  had  tiiken  refuge  and  fortified  thtnn- 
selves.  Mr.  Boyle,  an  engineer,  was  the  life 
of  the  defence,  and  it  was  to  his  services  that 


(  77 


the  Bucceasful  condnct  of   it  was  due.     An 

attempt   to  relieve  the  besieged  from  Dina- 

poor  failed ;  but  Major  Vincent  Eyre,  of  the 

artillery,   formed  a  small  field  force,   with 

which,  he  defeated  the  rebels  with  severe  loss 

on  August  2nd,  and  on  the  3rd  released  the 

gallant  little  garrison. 

Sir  J.  Eaje,  Hut.  0/  the  Sepoy  War,  yoI  iii. ; 
Annual  Begiiter,  1857;  iStotisttooi  Account  of 
Bengal,  zii.  204. 


L,  Peerage  of.  1.  Scotch. — In 
1467,  Sir  R.  Boyd  was  created  Earl  of 
Arran.  Uis  widow  married  James,  Lord 
HamiltoD,  and  the  earldom  passed  into  that 
family.  [Hamilton'.]  2.  Irish. — In  1693, 
Charles  Butler,  Warden  of  the  Cinque 
Ports,  and  Master  of  the  Ordnance  in 
Ireland,  second  son  of  Thomas,  Earl  of 
Ossor}*,  the  son  of  Jamt>8,  Duke  of  Ormonde, 
was  created  Earl  of  Arran.  The  peerage, 
however,  became  extinct  with  him.  The  pre- 
sent peerage  was  conferred  on  Sir  Arthur 
Gore  in  1758.  He  was  the  descendant  of  Sir 
Paul  Gore,  captain  of  a  troop  of  horse  in 
Elizabeth's  reign,  who  arrived  in  Ireland  and 
obtained  large  grants  of  land  in  County 
Mayo. 

Arraiir  James  Hamilton,  2nd  Earl  op 
and  Duke  of  Chatelherault  {d.  1575), 
the  head  of  the  house  of  Hamilton,  and  a 
near  relative  of  James  V.  of  Scotland,  acted 
as  Regent  for  some  time,  until  he  was 
displaced  by  his  rival  the  Earl  of  Angus, 
the  head  of  the  house  of  Douglas.  On 
the  death  of  James  V.  he  again  became 
Rf'gent.  The  confirmation  of  a  treaty  with 
England,  1543,  was  quickly  followed  by 
a  league  on  the  part  of  the  Regent  and 
Cardinal  B«^ton  against  all  English  inter- 
ference, and  soon  afterwards  the  English 
ambassador,  Sir  Ralph  Sadler,  was  requested 
to  withdraw.  In  1547  Arran  was  defeated  at 
Pinkie,  and  in  1554  the  regency  was  trans- 
ferred to  ilary  of  Guise,  Arran  being  re- 
warded for  his  acquiescence  by  the  dukedom 
of  Chatelherault,  conferred  on  him  by  the 
pTPnch  king.  He  joined  the  Lords  of  the 
Congregation  and  supported  the  Reformers; 
and  by  his  opposition  to  the  Damley  marriage, 
incurred  the  resentment  of  Quc^'U  ]VIar>%  so 
that  he  judged  it  prudent  to  retire  to  Eng- 
land. Returning  some  time  afterwards,  he 
was  reconciled  to  the  queen,  and  during  the 
Civil  War  he  and  the  rest  of  the  Hamiltons 
supported  her  against  the  Reforming  Lords. 
f)n  the  abdication  of  Marj',  1567,  he  was 
Banied  one  of  the  Council  of  Regency.     In 

1569  he  was  imprisoned  by  Murray  in 
Edinburgh  Ca.stle.  He  was  a  man  of  fickle  and 
vacillating  character,  of  courteous  manners, 

and  pleasant  address,  but  by  no  means  fitted 

to  fill  the  high  position  to  which  he  was  called. 


Having  left  France,  where  his  life  was  in 
danger  horn  the  Guises,  he  became  one  of  the 
numerous  suitors  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots, 
whom  he  planned  to  carry  off  in  1561.  His 
failure  in  his  suit  seems  to  have  affected  his 
reason.  He  became  mad,  and  continued  a 
maniac  till  he  died. 


Ly  Jam^  Hamilton,  3rd  Earl  of 
(d.  1609),  was  the  son  of  the  Duke  of  Chatel- 
herault   and   the    heir   of    the    Hamiltons. 


James  Stuart,  Earl  of  (rf.  1596), 
was  a  son  of  Lord  Ochiltree,  and  a  brother- 
in-law  of  Knox.  In  1581  he  received  the 
estates  and  title  which  the  house  of  Hamilton 
had  forfeited,  as  the  reward  for  his  zeal  in 
procuring  the  condemnation  of  the  Regent 
Morton.  He  aided  Lennox  in  compassing  the 
ruin  of  his  enemy  Morton  ;  a  prisoner  at  the 
"  Raid  of  Ruthven,"  Arran  quickly  revenged 
himself  by  collecting  an  army  in  the  interest 
of  James  VI.,  and  by  taking  the  lead  against 
the  conspirators ;  and  having  extorted  a 
confession  from  Gowrie  by  fair  promises, 
used  it  against  him  to  his  rum.  Ho 
became  Chancellor  and  Lieutenant-General 
of  Scotland,  and  on  the  strei>gth  of  the 
king's  favour,  sot  himself  in  opposition  to 
the  rest  of  the  Sootch  barons,  rousing  their 
hatred  by  his  arrogance.  The  English 
government  found  means  to  accuse  him  of 
instigating  a  border  raid,  and  he  was  ordered 
to  withdraw  from  the  Scottish  court  in  1584. 
Shortly  afterwards,  on  a  combination  against 
him  of  the  Hamiltons  (whcne  estates  he  held), 
and  the  banished  lords,  Arran  had  to  escape 
as  best  he  could  to  the  hills  of  Avn>hire.  Ho 
was  slain  by  James  Douglas  of  Torthorwold 
in  revenge  for  the  death  of  Morton. 


If  The  Congress  of  (1435),  was 
assembled  for  the  purpose  of  making  peace 
between  England,  France,  and  Burgundy. 
Ambassadors  came  from  England,  Franco, 
Burgundy,  the  Pope,  the  Council  of  Bnsle, 
Castile,  Aragon,  Naples,  Portugjil,  Sicily, 
Cyprus,  Navarre,  Poland,  Denmark,  ll^Iilan, 
and  BrittanJ^  The  IVench  offered  to  code 
Normandy  and  Guienne  to  the  English,  but 
this  was  indignantly  refused,  and  the  Treaty 
of  Troyes  was  insisted  upon,  certain  territories 
south  of  the  Loire  being  off(>red  to  Charles  of 
France.  This  being  rejected,  the  English 
representatives  withdrew,  and  a  treaty  of 
peace  and  alliance  was  signed  between  France 
and  Burgundy,  by  which  the  latter  power 
agreed  not  to  treat  with  the  English  without 
the  stinction  of  the  King  of  France. 


^m^M.9mjj  Commissions  of,  first  issued  under 
Edward  I. — though  their  geims  may  be 
traced  as  early  as  the  reign  of  William  Rufus 
— were  commissions  given  to  certain  in- 
dividuals called  Commissioners  of  Array  to 
press  a  number  of  men  in  their  district,  or 
sometimes  all  men  capable  of  bearing  arms 
for  the  king*s  SCTvice,  and  to  train  them 
in  military  duties.  Under  Edward  I.  the 
forces  thus  raided  were  paid  by  the  king, 
but  under  Edward  II.  and  Edward  III.  the 


(78) 


cost  uBUEilly  foil  on  the  townships  which 
furnished  the  men.  There  was  no  doubt  that 
these  commissions,  when  issued  without  the 
consent  of  Parliament,  were  unconstitutional, 
and  Edward  III.  had  to  promise  that  all 
troops  levied  by  this  means  should  be  paid 
for  by  the  king — a  promise  which,  however, 
was  not  kept.  In  1352  and  1403  it  was  pro- 
vided that  *^  the  common  assent  and  grant  of 
Parliament'*  should  be  obtained  before  these 
commissions  were  issued,  and  the  latter  of 
these  statutes  further  provided  that,  *'  except 
in  case  of  invasion,  none  shall  be  constrained 
to  go  out  of  their  own  counties,  and  that 
men  chosen  to  go  on  the  king*s  service  out 
of  England  shall  be  at  the  king^s  wages  from 
the  day  they  leave  their  own  counties."  Com- 
missions of  Array,  which  were  frequently 
issued  under  the  Plantagcnet  kings,  and  were 
not  uncommon  under  the  Lancastrians  and 
Tudors,  ceased  on  the  creation  of  the  office  of 
Lord  Lieutenant  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The 
latest  bears  date  1557.     [Military  System.] 

Stnbbs,  CoMt.  Hi$t. 

Arrestv  Freedom  from,  is  the  special 
privilege  of  members,  of  both  Ifouses  of 
Parliament,  and  is  enjoyed  by  them  during 
the  session,  and  for  forty  days  before  and 
after,  except  in  case»  of'  treason^  felony, 
or  breach  of  the  peace.  The  earliest  men- 
tion of  an  analogous  privilege  i&  in  a  law 
of  Ethelbert  in  the  sixth  century,  which 
provides  that  "  If  the  king  call  his  people  to 
him,  and  any  one  there  do  them  injury,  let 
him  compensate  with  a  twofold '  bot,*  and  fifty 
shillings  to  the  king."  In  1290  this  privilege 
was  confirmed  by  Edward  I.,  who,  in  reply 
to  a  petition  from  the  Master  of  the  Temple 
that  he  might  distrain  for  the  rent  of  a  house 
held  of  him  by  the  Bishop  of  St.  Davids^ 
replied,  that  "  It  does  not  seem  fit  that  the 
king  should  grant  that  they  who  are  of  his 
council  should  be  distrained  in  time  of  Par- 
liament." So  too  in  the  Prior  of  Malton/'s 
case,  in  1315.  The  first  recognition  of  the  pri- 
vilege by  Act  of  Parliament  was  in  1433,  when 
it  was  enacted  that  any  assault  on  a  member 
on  his  way  to  Parliament  was  to  be  punishable 
by  a  double  fine  ;  though  in  1404  Henry  IV*. 
had  replied  to  a  petition  that  a  threefold  fine 
might  be  inflicted  for  such  an  offence,  that 
though  he  admitted  the  privilege,  the  existing 
remedy  was  sufficient.  The  existence  of  the 
privilege  was  thus,  by  usage  and  by  statute, 
clearly  established;  but  frequent  violations 
occurred  under  the  Angevin  and  Lancastrian 
kings.  In  1301  Henry  Keighley  was  im- 
prisoned by  Edward  I.  after  the  j^arliariient 
of  Lincoln.  In  1376,  Peter  de  la  Mare,  the 
Speaker  of  the  Good  Parliament,  was  im- 
prisoned at  the  instance  of  John  of  Gaunt ; 
whilst  in  1453  occurred  the  famous  case  of 
Speaker  Thorpe,  who  was  imprisoned  during 
the  prorogation  of  Parliament  at  the  suit  of 
the  Duke  of  York.    The  Commons  tried  to 


obtain  his  release  "  for  the  despatch  of  the 
business  of  Parliament,"  but  failed,  though  the 
judges  held  that  **  if  a  member  were  arrested 
for   any    less    cause    than   treason,  felony, 
breach  of  the  peace,  and  sentence  of  Paiiia- 
ment,  he  should  make  his  attorney  and  be 
released  to  attend  in  Parliament.*'    Thorpe, 
however,  was  not  released,  owing  to  the  in- 
fluence   of  the  Duke  of    York.      In  1460, 
Walter  Clerk,  member  for  Chippenham,  was 
arrested  '*  for  a  fine  to  the  king,  and  damages 
to    two    private     suitors,"     whereupon   the 
Commons  demanded  and  obtained  his  release. 
In   1477   John  Atwyll,  member  for  Exeter, 
was  imprisoned  for  debt,  but  was  released  on 
the  petition  of  the  House.     Up  to  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIII.   arrested  members  had  ob- 
tained their  release  either  by  special  Act  of 
Parliament    if    they     were    imprisoned   in 
execution  after  judgment,  or  by  a  writ  of 
privilege  issued  by  the  Chancellor  if  confined 
on  mesne  process  (t.^.,  after  the  commence- 
ment of  a  suit  but  before  judgment) ;   but, 
in  1643,  in  the  case  of  George  Ferrers,  who 
had  hbexL  arrested  as  surety  for  a  debt,  the 
House  demanded  his    release  by  virtue   of 
its  own  authority,  and  on  the  refusal  of  the 
sheriffs  to  liberate  him  committed  them  to 
prison  for  contempt,  their  proceedings  being 
confirmed  by  the    king.       From   this   time 
members  were  usually  released  by  the  Ser- 
laant  by  warrant  of  the  mace,  not  by  writ. 
In  1603.  occurred  the  case  of  Sir  Thomaa 
Shirley,  whom  the  warder  of  the  Fleet  refused 
to  release  for  fear  of  becoming  personally 
liable  for  his  debt.     This  led  to  an  Act  dis- 
charging from  aU  liability  the  officer  from 
whose  custody  a  person  having  the  privilege 
of  Parliament  has  been  delivered,  and  en- 
abling the  creditor  to  sue  out  a  new  writ  on 
the  expiration  of  the  period  of  privilege.    The 
privilege  of  freedom   from  arrest  for  some 
time  belonged  not  only  to  members  of  Parlia- 
ment   but    also    to    their   servants     (as    in 
Smalley's  case,    1675,   and   Johnson's    case, 
1621),  but  in  1770  was  confined  to  the  persons 
of  members,  owing  to  the  frequent  abuse  of 
tiie  privilege,  which  was  used  as  a  means  of 
escape  from  debt.     As  lately  as  1880  it  was 
decided  on  precedents  that  the  duration    of 
the  privilege  is  forty  days  before  and  after 
the  meeting  of  Parliament ;  on  the   ground 
that  the  time  must  be  clearly  defined.     The 
House  of  Commons  has  always  maintained 
its  powers  of  imprisoning  its  own  members 
for  contempt,  as  in  the  case  of  John  Stone 
in    1647,   and  Arthur   Hall   in    1581.       The 
right  of  a  meml)er  of  Parliament  to    claim 
freedom  from  arrest  has  never  been  allovtu^d 
to  extend  to  criminal  offences ;  and  thoiig^h  in 
1672  Lord  Cromwell  obtained  his  release  after 
committal   for  contempt  of   court,    in    more 
recent  times,  members  committed  by  court b  of 
law  for  open  contempt  have  failed  in   obtain- 
ing release  by  virtue  of  privilege,  "  thonirh," 
observes  Sir  Erskine  May,  **  each  case  is  still 


Art 


(79) 


Art 


»» 


open    to    consideration    when    it    arises. 
[Parliament.] 

J.  Hatsell,  PrecedtntMy  vol.  i.  (ed.  of  1818) ; 
Sir  E.  May,  Parliamei^ry  Practice;  Hallam, 
Con»t.  HUt,  [F.  S.  P.] 

Artlmr,  King,  the  famous  British  and 
Christian  hero  of  romance,  had  ah^ady  be- 
come the  centre  of  much  Celtic  legend,  espe- 
cially in  Brittany,  when  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth 
published,  in  1130,  his  HistoHa  Britonum. 
This  work,  though  it  poisoned  the  very  f  oirn- 
tains  of  history,  acquired,  in  spite  of  protest 
(tf.y.,  by  William  of  Malmesbury),  wide  popu- 
larity, and  became  the  source  of  that  elaborate 
legend  of  Arthur  and  his  Round  Table  which 
has  inspired  so  much  that  is  best  in  literature. 
Geoffrey's  fictions  were  largely  regarded  as 
history,  uuti{,  by  an  inevitable  reaction, 
Milton  and  most  of  the  eighteenth  century 
writers  were  led  to  disbelieve  that  any  Arthur 
had  really  lived.  Gildas,  nearly  a  contemporary,. 
madLes  no  mention  of  him,  though  the  fre- 
quent allusion  to  him  in  the  obscure  utterances 
of  the  Welsh  bards,  edited  by  Mr.  Skene,  may 
be  set  against  this.  But  many  deny  the  his- 
torical value  of  the  Four  Booka^  and  the 
earliest  really  historical  notices  of  Arthur  are- 
found  in  "Nennius*'  and  the  Welsh  tenth 
century  chronicle  CAWo^Annalea  Cambria  (MS. 
A.).  Nennius  says  (Mon.  Hutt,  Britan.y  73-4),. 
'*  Artur  pugnabat  contra  iUos  [videlicet  Sax- 
ones]  cum  regibus  Britonum ;  sed  ipse  dux 
erat  bellorum,  et  in  omnibus  bellis  victor 
exstitit.'*  He  then  gives  a  list  'of  Arthur's 
twelve  victories,  ending  with  the  battle  "  in 
monte  Badonis."     This  the  Annates  Cambria 

Slace  in  a.d.  516,  and  make  Arthur  a  Christian 
ero.  The  same  authority  places  his  death 
at  the  battle  of  Camlan,  in  537.  Will  this 
evidence  compensate  for  the  silence  of  Gildas  P 
All  really  depends  on  our  estimate  of  Nennius. 
Many,  like  Milton,  repudiate  Nennius  as  a 
"  very  trivial  author ;"  but  others,  including 
Dr.  Guest  and  Mr.  Skene,  fully  accept  his 
authority,  though  recognising  the  fragmentary 
and  unequal  character  of  the  series  of  treatises 
that  collectively  go  by  his  name.  Mr.  Skene 
(Pour  Ancient  Books  of  Wales,  i.  60—89; 
Celtic  Scotland,  i.  152  ;  cf.  Glennie's  Arthurian 
Localities)  claims  that  Arthur  was  the  leader 
of  the  Northern  Cymry  of  Strathclyde  and 
Cumbria  against  the  Saxons;  and  identifies 
placai  in  those  regions  as  the  scenes  of  the 
twelve  battles — MonsBadonis  being  Bouden 
Hill,  near  Linlithgow.  Arthur,  according  to 
this  view,  is  not  a  king,  but  a  temporary 
general,  the  "  Gwledig,"  who  led  the  combined 
hosts  of  the  princes  of  the  Northern  Britons  to 
unwonted  victories.  He  was  the  successor  of 
the  Roman  generals  of  the  legions  encamped 
along  the  Pictish  wall.  His  victories  led  to 
the  restriction  of  the  Saxons  to  the  country 
east  of  the  Pennine  rane^e,  and  so  created  the 
Cambrian  kingdom.  He  died  defeated  by  a 
revolt  of  the  heathen  British,  perhaps  in 
■lliance  with  the  Saxons.    The  great  authority 


of  Dr.  Guest  (Arehaological  Journal,  Salisbury 
volume,  1849)  also  accepts  Arthur  as  a  real 
person,  but  places  the  scene  of  his  victories  in 
the  western  border-land  of  the  growing  State 
of  the  West  Saxons  (e.g..  Mens  Badonis  is 
Badbury,  in  Dorsetshire).  Mr.  Elton  (OHgins 
of  British  History,  p.  362]  doubtfully  follows 
Mr.  Skene;  while  Protessor  Rhjs  (Celtic 
Britain,  p.  231)  regards  Arthur  as  the  "  ideal 
champion  of  the  Brythonic  race,"  whether  in 
Wales,  Cumbria,  Cornwall,  or  Brittany. 
I'  Whether  he  was  from  the  first  a  purely 
imaginary  character,  in  whom  the  best  quali- 
ties of  his  race  met,  or  had  some  foundation 
in  the  facts  of  long  forgotten  history,  it  would 
be  difiScult  to  say."  Perhaps  nothing  more 
decided  than  this  can  safely  be  said. 

Besides  the  aboye-mentioned  authoritiee,  the 
Hyrajrian  ArchaicXogy  of  Wain  mar  be  referred  to 
as  containiiig  the  texts  of  the  Welsh  legend*  of 
Arthur.  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth's  British.  His- 
torp  is  translated  in  Bobn's  sories,  and  the  Mahi- 
nogion  has  been  translated  by  Lady  Charlotte 
Quest.  For  the  influence  of  the  Arthurian 
legend  on  the  literature  of  Germany,  France, 
and  Scandinavia,  see  an  essay  by  Albert  Schuls 
(Llandovery,  1841)..  There  are  nuny  editions  of 
Les  Bftmans  de  la  TahU  Bonde  (e.a.,  Paris,  I860), 
and  Malory's  Morte  d' Arthur  has  oeen  reprinted^ 
in  1817  by  Southey,  in  1859  by  Wright,  and  by 
Walter  Scott,  1886.  The  literature  on  the 
Arthurian  legend  is  almost  endless^  [T.  F.  T.] 

Arthiir  of  Brittany  (b.  1187,  d,  1203) 
was  the  son  of  Geoffrey  Plantagenet  and  Con- 
stance, Duchess  of  Brittany.  His  niother^s 
championship  of  the  independence  of  her  duchy 
BO  doubt  damaged  her  son's  chances  of  succeed- 
ing to  the  crown  of  his  uncle.  She  had,  more- 
over, completely  alienated  Kichard  and  Queen 
Eleanor,  so  that,  on  Richard's  death,  John 
was  unanimously  accepted  as  king.  Arthur's 
only  hope  lay  in  gaining  the  assistance  of 
Philip  Augustus,  who  at  first  seemed  willing 
to  help  him ;  and  the  Barons  of  Anion,  Maine, 
and  Touraine,  declared  for  him.  War  broke 
out  between  Philip  and  John,  but  the  former 
was  move  eag«r  for  his  own  interests  than  for 
.Arthur,  and  ver)'  soon  peace  was  concluded, 
"by  which  Philip's  eldest  son  Louis  was  to 
marry  Blanche  of  Castile,  John's  niece,  John 
giving  her  the  county  of  Evreux  as  a  marriage 
portion.  Arthur,  who  was  betrothed  to  one 
of  Philip's  daughters,  was  forced  to  do  homage 
to  John  for  Brittany.  Quarrels  very  shorUj' 
broke  out  between  John  and  Philip,  who 
offered  to  receive  the  homage  of  Aiihur  for 
the  count}'  of  Anjou,  and  allow  hie  knights  to 
join  him  in  conquering  it.  Arthur  commenced 
operations  by  attacking  his  grandmother 
Eleanor  at  Mirabel ;  but  he  was  captured  by 
John,  who  imprisoned  him,  first  at  Falaise, 
and  afterwards  at  Rouen,  where  he  died. 
The  manner  of  Arthur's  death  is  unknown, 
nor  is  it  ever  likely  to  be  determined  with 
certainty.  All  that  the  historians  of  the 
next  reign  could  say  was  that  Arthur  disap- 
peared. "  Elapso  igitur  aliquanto  tempore 
Arthurus    evanuit."     (Matt.    Paris,    Chron, 


Art 


(80) 


Art 


Anglic.^  iii.,  p.  221.).  The  generally  received 
account  of  his  death,  which  has  been  conse- 
crated by  tradition  and  poetry,  was,  that  he 
was  murdered  by  his  uncle's  own  hand,  and 
his  body  thrown  into  the  Seine.  The  peers 
of  France  found  John  guilty  of  the  murder, 
but  it  is  doubtful  how  far  this  can  be  held  as 
confirmatory  of  the  accusation. 

The  Chro7\icU%  ot  R.  Hoveden,  Badulf  de 
CoTCeshall,  and  Matthew  Paris  (Uolls  Series) ; 
C.  H.  Pearson,  RitA,  of  Eng.  in  the  Early  and 
Mid.  Ages. 

Arthur,  Princk  {b.  1486,  d.  1502),  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Henry  VII.  His  marriage  with 
Catherine  of  Aragon  was  first  agreed  upon 
between  the  Kings  of  Spain  and  England  in 
March,  1489,  when  he  was  not  yet  three  years 
old,  and  he  was  little  more  than  fifteen  when 
the  actual  wedding  ceremony  was  celebrated 
at  St.  PauFs,  Nov.  14,  1601.  Bacon  describes 
the  young  prince  as  a  studious  youth,  and 
learned  beyond  his  years.  His  name  of  Arthur 
was  a  graceful  acknowledgment  on  Henry's 
part  of  his  own  British  descent  through  Sir 
Owen  Tudor. 

Bacon,  Hitt.  of  Henry  VII. 

ArticleSi  Lords  of  the,  appointed  first 
in  1369,  in  the  reign  of  David  II.,  became 
gradually  a  recognised  part  of  the  legislative 
machinery  of  Scotland.  The  "  Lords  *'  con- 
sisted of  a  committee  chosen  equally  from 
each  estate  to  prepare  the  various  measures, 
which,  when  completed,  were  laid  before  the 
Estates  for  final  adoption  or  rejection. 
William  III.  endeavoured  to  remodel  the 
system  in  1689,  and  ordered  that  the  Lords 
should  consist  of  twenty-four  persons,  eight 
being  chosen  from  each  estate,  and  took  away 
their  power  of  rejecting  absolutely  any  motion 
laid  before  them.  The  Estates,  however, 
voted  that  a  permanent  committee  was  ob- 
jectionable, and  in  1690  William  gave  his 
assent  to  a  measure  abolishing  the  Lords  of 
the  Articles,  and  pro\'iding  for  temporary 
committees,  to  be  elected  as  occasion  might 
arise.     [Estates.] 

Articles  of  GriaTancas,  voted  April, 

1689,  by  the  Scotch  Estates,  protested  against 
sundry  laws  which  were  held  to  be  burden- 
some and  dangerous,  and  were  intended  to 
show  William  III.  in  what  cases  reforms 
were  needed.  The  Estates  complained  chiefly 
of  the  laws  passed  in  the  Parliament  of  1685; 
of  the  reference  of  legislative  proceedings  to 
permanent  committees  to  the  injury  of  free 
parliamentary  discussion ;  and  of  the  Act  of 
1669  which  made  the  Sovereign  head  of  the 
Church.  The  Articles  of  Grievances  differed 
from  the  Claim  of  Bight  in  that  the  former 
laid  down  fundamental  rules  of  the  constitu- 
tion which  had  been  violated  by  James  II.  ; 
the  latter  merely  petitioned  for  certain  neces- 
sary reforms. 

Articlas  of  Selicfion.  In  England, 
as  in  other  European  countries,  the  Reforma- 


tion period  was  marked  by  several  attempts  to 
codify  or  embody  in  an  authoritative  form 
the  articles  of  religious  belief.    With  a  view 
to  putting  an  end  to  discussion,  Henry  VIII., 
with    the    aid    of   his   theological  advisers, 
compiled  a  Book  of  Articles,  which  waa  laid 
before  Convocation  in  1536,  and  subscribed  by 
all  its  members.    These  Articles  established 
the  Bible,  the  three  Creeds,  and  the  first  four 
Councils    as    the    basis    of    belief;    limited 
the  Sacraments  to  tliree,  baptism,  penance, 
and  the  Eucharist ;    declared  that,  though 
the  use  of   images,  the  worship  of   saints, 
and  the  ritual  of  the  church  services  had  not 
in  themselves  power  to  remit  sins,  yet  they 
were  useful  to  lift  up  men's  minds  unto  God ; 
accepted  purgator}%  but  denounced  pardons, 
and  masses  for  the  dead.      These  Articles 
pleased  neither  the  Reformers  nor  the  Roman- 
ists, and  were  accepted  merely  at  the  king's 
command.      In   1539   Henry  VIII.'s  policy 
led  him  to  chock  the  growth  of  the  reforming 
doctrines,  and  Parliament  passed  the  Bill  of 
the  Six  Articles^  which  affirmed  transubstan- 
tiaiion,    the    reception    of   the    communion 
under  one  kind,  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy, 
the  binding  power  of  vows  of  chastity,  private 
masses,  and  auricular  confession.     Soon  after 
the  death  of  Henry  VIII.,  in  the  Parliament 
of  1547  the  Statute  of  the  Six  Articles  was 
repealed.    In  1551  an  order  of  the  Council 
was  issued  to  Archbishop  Cranmer  bidding 
him  frame  Articles  of  Reli^on.    This  task  the 
archbishop  discharged  with  caution  and  de- 
liberation.   He  consulted  with  others,  circu- 
lated a  rough  draft,  and  laid  it  before  tho 
Council.    After  many  revisions  it  was  handed 
for  final  consideration  and  emendation  to  five 
of  the  royal  chaplains,  and  to  John  Knox,  the 
Scottish  Reformer.    Though  it  was  thus  dis- 
cussed and  revised,  the  draft  was  in  the  main, 
the  work  of  Cranmer  and  his  friend  Bishop 
Ridley,   who  is  said  to   have  supplied  tho 
greater  share  of  learning.  There  is  some  doubt 
whether  or  not  these  Articles  were  submitted 
to  Convocation;  but  the  evidence  seems  to 
show  that  they  were.   Finally,  they  were  issued 
in  1553,  with  the  royal  mandate  to  aU  the 
bishops  ordering  tliem  to  call  on  all  clergy, 
schoolmasters,   and   churchwardens,  to   sub- 
scribe.    These  Articles  of  Edward  VI.,  from 
their  number,  are  sometimes  known  as  tho 
Forty-tuo  Articles.    They  show  that  Cranmer 
in  framing  them  used  the  Lutheran  Confes- 
sions of  Faith,  especially  the  Confession   of 
Augsburg,  though  he  did  not  merely  copy 
them.     The  accession  of  Queen  Mary  within 
two  months  of  the  publication  of  the  Forty - 
two  Articles  did  not  give  them  much  time  to 
sink  into  the  minds  of  the  clergy.     On  the 
accession  of  Elizabeth,  Archbishop  Parker  was 
called  on  to  provide  for  the  troubled  condi- 
tion of  ecclesiastical  matters.    In  15»59  1,/evt'n 
Articles  were  issued  by  authority,  to  be  held 
by  all  clergy.   They  were  limited  to  the  defini- 
tion of  fundamental  truths,  and  the  points  in 


Art 


(81) 


Alt 


which  the  Church  of  England  held  the  Roman 
practice  to  be  superstitious.  These  wore  meant 
to  be  temporary  only,  while  Parker  recon- 
sidered the  Forty-two  Articles  of  Edward  VI. 
He  revised  them,  and  laid  the  results  of 
his  revision  before  Convocation  in  1562. 
As  Cranmer  had  used  the  Confession  of 
Augsburg,  Parker  made  further  use  of  the 
Confession  of  Wurtemberg.  In  his  revision 
he  omitted  four  of  the  original  Forty-two 
Articles — ttie  tenth, "  Of  Grace ; "  the  sixteenth, 
**  Of  Blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Ghost ; " 
the  nineteenth,  **  All  men  are  bound  to  keep  the 
Moral  Commandments  of  the  Law  "  (the  fii-st 
part  of  which  was  added  to  the  seventh) ;  and 
the  forty -fiist,  against  "Heretics  called  Mille- 
narii."  Ho  added  four  others — the  fifth, 
twelfth,  nineteenth,  and  thirtieth  of  the 
present  edition.  Besides  these  greater  changes, 
the  phraseology^  was  altered  in  many  points, 
llie  Convocation  made  further  alterations, 
and  several  important  omissions.  It  struck 
out  the  end  of  the  third  Article,  concerning 
the  preaching  of  Christ  to  the  spirits  in 
prison,  and  entirely  discarded  three  articles — 
"  The  souls  of  them  that  depart  this  life  do 
neither  die  with  the  bodies,  nor  sleep  idly  ; " 
*'The  resurrection  of  the  dead  is  not  yet 
brought  to  pass;"  "All  men  shall  not  be 
saved  at  the  length."  The  Articles,  now  re- 
duced in  number  to  thirty-nine,  were  sub- 
mitted to  the  queen,  who  further  struck  >out 
the  present  twenty-ninth  Article,  "  Of  the 
wicked  which  cat  not  the  Body  of  Christ  in 
the  use  of  the  Lord's  Supper.'*  She  further 
added  to  the  twentieth  Article  the  clause, 
**  The  Church  hath  power  to  decree  rites  or 
ceremonies,  and  authority  in  controversies 
of  faith."  The  Articles  were  originally  in 
Latin;  but  an  Enghsh  translation  was  soon 
issued  of  the  Thirty^eight  Articles  as  they 
passed  the  revision  of  the  queen  and  Council. 
In  1571  the  Articles  were  committed,  by 
Convocation  to  Bishop  Jewel  for  editorship. 
They  were  then  put  into  their  present  form, 
and  were  issued  both  in  Latin  and  English — 
both  versions  being  authoritative  and  official. 
The  twenty -ninth  Article  was  restored,  and 
the  other  alteration  of  the  queen,  on  the 
authority  of  the  Church  to  determine  rites 
and  ceremonies,  was  retained  in  the  English 
Articles,  but  omitted  in  the  Latin.  The 
Thirty-nine  Articles  were  then  approved  by 
Parliament,  and  a  statute  was  passed  re- 
quiring subscription  from  all  candidates  for 
holy  orders.  From  this  time  forward  they 
have  been  the  standard  of  the  opinions  of  the 
Church  of  England.  Accordingly,  the  **  Con- 
stitutions and  Canons  Ecclesiastical"  passed 
by  Convocation  in  1603,  and  confirmed  by 
royal  authority,  enacted  excommunication  as 
the  penalty  to  any  one  who  *'  declared  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles  to  be  erroneous,  super- 
stitious, or  such  as  he  may  not  with  a  good 
conscience  subscribe  unto."  But  these  Canons, 
not  hdvmg  been  passed  by  Parliament,  are 


binding  only  as  ecclesiastical  law  on  the 
clergy,  not  on  the  laity.  As  regards  the 
legal  aspect  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  the 
Act  of  1571  enacted  that  no  one  should  be 
admitted  to  a  benefice  till  he  had  Bul)scribed 
the  Articles  in  the  presence  of  the  Ordinary, 
and  publicly  read  them  in  the  parish  church, 
with  a  declaration  of  his  imfeigned  assent. 
The  Canons  of  1603  further  enacted  that  no 
one  should  teach,  either  in  a  school  cr  in  a 
private  house,  unless  he  subscribed  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles  and  obtained  a  licence  from  a 
bishop.  The  Act  of  Uniformity,  passed  in 
1662,  embodied  this  provision.  The  Tolera- 
tion Act  of  1689  exempted  from  the  penalties 
of  existing  statutes  against  conventicles  such 
dissenting  ministers  and  teachers  as  should 
subscribe  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  omitting 
the  thirty -fourth,  thirty-fifth,  thirty-sixth, 
and  the  words  of  the  twentieth  which  declare 
that  the  Church  has  power  to  decree  ritt?8 
and  ceremonies.  Those  who  had  scruples 
about  infant  baptism  were  exempted  from 
subscription  to  part  of  the  twenty-seventh 
Article.  This  Act  was  the  beginning  of  a 
period  of  indulgence  and  security  from  per- 
secution to  Dissenters,  which  went  on  till  in 
1779  was  passed  the  Dissenting  Ministers* 
Act,  enabling  Dissenters  to  preach  and  act  as 
schoolmasters  without  any  subscription  to  the 
Articles.  From  this  time  forward  subscrip- 
tion to  the  Articles  ceased  to  be  a  test  for  the 
■exclusion  of  Dissenters,  except  in  the  Univer- 
sities. At  Oxford,  the  EUrl  of  Leicester  as 
Cliancellor  had,  in  1581,  imposed  subscription 
to  the  Articles  before  matriculation.  At 
Cambridge,  subscription,  since  1616,  was  re- 
quired of  all  who  took  a  degree.  Thus, 
Dissenters  could  not  enter  the  University  of 
Oxford ;  they  might  be  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge, but  were  not  admitted  to  any  of  the 
endowments.  These  disabilities  were  not 
removed  till  the  passing  of  the  University 
Tests  Act  in  1871,  which  exempted  laymen 
from  any  religious  test.  Thus  the  Articles 
have  ceased  to  be  used  as  a  standard  of 
orthodoxy  for  any  save  the  clergy  of  the 
Church  of  England.  Even  in  their  case  it 
was  felt  that  subscription  to  a  body  of 
doctrinal  statements  was  an  excessive  obliga- 
tion, if  it  was  meant  to  imply  literal  agree- 
ment with  every  sentence  contained  in  them. 
To  avoid  further  ambiguities,  and  to  relieve 
scrupulous  consciences  on  this  point,  the 
Clerical  Subscription  Act  of  1866  did  away 
with  subscription  in  the  case  of  the  clergy, 
and  substituted  a  declaration  of  assent  to  the 
Thirty -nine  Articles  and  the  Prayer  Book. 

Gardwell,  Synodalia;    Hardwick,   Uititory   of 

[M.  C] 


the  Artides. 


Articles  of  War  are  framed  by  the 
crown  for  the  better  government  of  the 
armv  and  navv.  Those  which  are  in  force 
for  the  army  were  first  authorised  in  1714, 
and  are  confirmed   annually  in  the  Mutiny 


Art 


(82) 


Act,  the  Articles  of  War  for  the  Navj'  being 
based  on  a  Bill  passed  in  1749.  The  Articles 
of  War,  '*  which  are  to  be  obeyed  as  being 
the  commands  of  a  superior  officer,"  are 
divided  into  sections,  some  of  which  corre- 
spond to  clauses  in  the  Mutiny  Act ;  others, 
however,  though  they  relate  to  subjects  in 
the  latter,  are  occupied  with  definitions  of 
the  crime  and  the  punishment  appropriate 
to  it.  There  are  some  Articles,  moreover, 
which  have  no  counterpart  in  the  Act.  It 
is  to  be  observed  that  the  legality  of  the 
Articles  of  War,  as  of  other  orders,  may 
itself  become  the  subject  of  examination  and 
controversy  in  a  court  martial;  but  the 
Mutiny  Act,  being  part  of  the  statute  law, 
must  be  obeyed  without  question.  [Milita&y 
System.] 

Axriicnli  Super  Cartas  were  certain 

articles,  twenty  in  number,  which  wore,  added 
to  Magna  Charta  when  it  was  confirmed  by 
Edward  I.  in  the  Parliament  which  met, 
1300.  The  most  important  clauses  are  those 
which  appoint  commissioners  to  investigate  all 
cases  in  which  the  charters  had  been  infringed; 
those  which  reform  and  regulate  the  jury 
system ;  those  which  remedy  the  abuses  of  pur- 
veyance and  jurisdiction  of  the  royal  officers; 
and  those  which  order  that  no  common  pleas 
shall  bo  held  in  the  Exchequer  contrary  to  the 
form  of  Magna  Charta,  and.  forbid  the-  issue  of 
common  law  writs  under  the  Privy  Seal.  One 
article,  which  Dr. .  Slubbs  calls  **»  curious 
relic  of  the  ideas  of  1258,"  allows  the  office  of 
sheriff  to  be  elective  in  counties  where  the 
office  is  not  of  fee  or  heritable;  There  were 
also  articles  regulating  administration  of  the 
forests,  and  limiting  the*  royal  jurisdiction 
over  them. 

Statutet  of  ihe  Renlin,  \.  136;    Matthew   of 

Westminster,  p.  433;  Stubbs,  Con$t.  RiKt.,  ii.^cb.. 

xiv.    The  articles  are  given  in  Stubbs,  Select 

Charters. 

Anmdely  Peeraob  of.  Bogerde  Mont- 
gomery, one  of  the  most  trusted  followers 
of  William  the  Conqueror,  besides  grants 
x>t  land  in  Shropshire,  received  vast  estates 
(seventy-seven  lordships)  in  Sussex,. including 
the  castle  of  Arundel.  In  1102,  upon  the 
forfeiture  of  Roger's  son,  Kobert  de  Belesme, 
the  castle  of  Arundel  passed  to*  the  crown, 
and  was  settled  by  Henry  X.  on  his  second 
wife,  Adeliza  of  Louvain,  who^  after  the 
king's  death,  conveyed  it  to  her  second 
husband,  William  de  Albini.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  William  de  Albini,  the  son  of  this 
maiTiage,  received  a  grant  of  the  third  penny 
of  the  county  of  Sussex ;  but  he  is  styled  Earl 
of  Sussex,  as  well  as  Earl  of  Arundel  and 
Chichester.  In  1243  Hugh  de  Albini,  fifth 
Earl  of  Sussex,  died  without  issue,  and  part 
of  his  estates,  together  with  Arundel  Castle, 

?as^ed  to  John  Fitz-Alan,  a  descendant  of 
sabel,  daughter  of  the  third  Earl.  He  and 
his  sons  are  frpquently  styled  Lords  of 
ArundeL    Kichard  Fitz-Alan  (d,  1283)  is  the 


first  of  this  family  actually  summoned  as 
Earl  of  Arundel   (1291 J   by  writ.     His  son 
£dmun(^  was    beheaded    in    1326,  and  his 
honours    forfeited.      They    were,    however, 
restored  to  Richard,  third  Earl,  in  1331.    In 
1580   Henry   Fitz-Alan,   twelfth  Earl,  died 
without   male    heirs,  and  the  earldom  and 
estates  passed   to    Philip,   son    of   Thomas, 
fourth  I)uke  of  Norfolk,  who  had  married 
ISIary,   daughter  of    this  earl.      Philip  was 
summoned  to  Parliament  as  Earl  of  Arundol. 
The  earldom  has  since  continued  in  the  hue 
of  the  Fitz-Alan  Howards,  Dukes  of  Norfolk. 
[Howard.]     The   peerage  of  Arundel  op 
Wardour    was    conferred    in    1605    on  Sir 
Thomas  Arundel,  a  distinguished  soldier,  who 
had  fought  in  tJie  wars  against  the  Turks, 
and  had  been  created  a  Count  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire  by  Rudolph  II. 

For  interesting  qaestions  connected  with  the 
peerage  of  Amndel,  see  the  Lord«'  Fint  Report 
on  tKe  Dignity  of  a  Peer,  esp.  Appendix  ;  and  Sir 
Harris  Micolas,  Hudorio  Peerage. 

Anindalf  Edmund  Fitz-Alan,  2xd  Earl 
OF  {d.  1326),  was  one  of  the  Ordainers  ap- 
pointed in  L310.  He  was  one  of  the  few 
nobles  who  remained  faithful  to  Edward  II. 
after  the  landing  of  Isabella  and  Mortimer. 
He  was  seized  by  the  latter  at  Bristol,  and 
hanged  with  Hugh  Despeaser. 

Anmdely  Richard  Fitz-Alan,  4th  Earl 
OF  {d.  1397),  was  the  son  of  Richard,  Earl  of 
Arundel,  and  Eleanor,  daughter  of   Henry, 
Earl  of  Ijancaster.     He  succeeded  his  father 
m  1376,  and  served  in  the  French  and  Scotch 
wars ;  but  he  was  chiefly  remarkable  for  his 
ralour  and  conduct    at   sea.      He  was   for 
several  years  admiral  and  captain  of  the  east, 
south,  and  west,  gained  several  naval  victories, 
and  captured  Brest.     He  joined  Gloucester 
against  Do  la  Pole  and  De  Vere,  and  was  one 
of  the  first  Lords  Appellant.    In  1397  ho  "was 
involved'  in  Gloucester's  fall,  and  was  seized, 
tried,  and  beheaded. 

Anmdely  Thomas  Fitz-Alan,  10th  Karl 
OF  (d.  1624),  was  one  of  the  chief  nobles  at- 
tacned  to  Henry  VII.'s  court.  On  the  occiision 
of  the  shipwreck  near  Weymouth,  in  January, 
1506,  of  the  Archduke  of  Austria,  Philip,  and 
his  wife,  the  Earl  of  Arundel  was  the  royal 
messenger  sent,  to  congratulate  Philip  upon 
his  recent  escape,  and  to  welcome  him  to 
England.  The  Earl  of  Arundel  had  aliso  done 
the  king  good  service  as  a  soldier  in  Flanders, 
during  the  wars  in  aid  of  Maximilian. 

Amndel,  Henry  Fitz-Alan,  12th  "Earl. 
OP  (rf.  1680),  w^as  in  1547  appointed  one  of 
the  twelve  councillors  who,  under  tho  will 
of  Henry  VIII.,  were  to  assist  the  executors 
in  carrj'inir  on  the  government  durins:  the 
minority  of  Edward  VI.  He  was  one  of  the 
chief  promoters  of  the  attack  on  Somerset, 
which  ended  in  his  downfall;  and  having  piven 
an  unwilling  assent  to  the  alteration  of  tho 
succession  of  Edward  VI.  in  favour  of  L.9.dy 


Am 


(83) 


Asc 


Jaae  Grey,  he  was  regarded  with  suspicion 

by    Northumberland,    who    endeavoured    to 

prevent  his  leaving  London.     However,  he 

managed  to  escape  to  Buynard's  Castle,  and 

at  onc^,  with  the  rest  of  the  Council,  declared 

for  Mary  ;  shortly  afterwards  he  arrested  the 

Duke  of  Northumberland  at  Cambridge,  and 

conveyed  him  to  London.  After  the  accession 

of  Queen  Elizabeth,  Arundel  became  one  of 

her  councillors,  *' feared  by  all  men,  trusted  by 

none,"  and  was  even  named  as  a  probable 

suitor  for  her  hand,  a  fact  which  led  to  a 

bitter  quarrel  with  Leicester  in  1561.  In  1568, 

as  the  leader  of  the  old  nobility  and  the 

CathoUc  party,  he  showed  himseU  violently 

opposed  to  Cecil  and  the  Keformers,  and  was 

present    at    the    Westminster     Inquiry    as 

a  partisan  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots ;  in  the 

following  year  he  was  placed  under  arrest  for 

complicity  in  the  northern  rebellion,  and  in 

1571  was  privy  to  the  Hidolfi  conspiracy. 

Prottde,  HUto/Eng.;  P.  P.  Tytler,  England 
under  Edward  Vl.  and  Mary. 

Ajnindel,*PHiLip  Howard,  13th  Earl  op 
{d.  1595),  son  of  Thomas,  fourth  Duke  of 
Norfolk,  who  was  attainted  and  beheaded  in 
1572,  inherited  the  earldom  of  Arundel  in 
right  of  his  mother.  He  was  restored  in  blood 
and  made  privy  councillor  in  1580.  On  his 
first  appearance  at  court  he  won  the  favour  of 
Elizabeth,  but  quickly  last  it  through  his 
immoral  life.  In  1583  he  was  charged  with 
complicity  in  the  plot  ot  Francis  Throgmor- 
ton,  having  incurred  suspicion  by  becoming 
"  reconciled'*  to  the  Catholic  Church  in.  1581 
on  the  solicitations  of  the  Jesuits;  but  though 
there  was  no  doubt  of  his  guilt,  he  was 
speedily  released.  On  attempting  to  es- 
cape from  England,  in  1585,  he  was  captured 
and  again  sent  to  the  Tower,  where  he 
remained  until  his  death.  In  1589  he  was 
found  guilty  of  high  treason  on  a  charge  of 
having  prayed  for  the  success  of  the  Spanish 
Armada.  He  was  also  charged  with  corre- 
spondence with  Allen  and  other  Catholic 
conspirators.  He  was  condemned  tc  death, 
but  by  the  advice  of  Cecil  and  Hatton  was.  not 
executed.  '*  In  her  conduct  towards  this-  un<- 
fortunate  nobleman,"  remarks  Mr.  Lingard, 
"  the  queen  betrayed  an  unnccountable  spirit 
of  revenge.  He  seems  to  have  given  some 
deep  but  secret  offence  which,  though  never 
divulged,  could  never  be  forgotten." 
Strype,  AnndU;  Lingard,  Hitt,  of  Eng. 

Anindal,  Thomas  (b,eirea  1352,  d.  1413), 
was  the  third  son  of  Richard,  Earl  of  Arundel, 
and  was  made  Bishop  of  Ely  in  1374.     He 

J'oined  Gloucester  in  his  opposition  to  De  la 
J^ole  and  other  ministers  of  Kichard  II.,  and 
in  1386  was  appointed  Chancellor.  On  the 
banishment  of  Neville  he  received  the  arch- 
Wshopric  of  York,  and  retired  from  the 
Chancellorship  in  1389.  He  was  Chancellor 
again  from  1391,  till  his  appointment  to  the 
archbishopric  of  Oanterbury  in  1396.   Shortly 


afterwards  he  was  accused  of  treason,  and  at 
the  king's  request  translated  by  the  Pope  to 
the  see  of  St.  Andrews.  He  was  banished 
from  the  realm,  and  concerted  with  Boling- 
broke  plana  for  regaining  power  in  England. 
He  accompanied  Henry  on  his  expedition  to 
England,  and  on  the  deposition  of  Kichard 
received  the  archbishopric  once  more.  He 
strenuously  supported  the  rights  of  the  Church 
during  the  remainder  of  his  life,  and  was  in- 
strumental in  getting  the  statute  De  Haretico 
Copiburendo  passed.  He  held  the  Chancellor- 
ship again  from  1407  to  1409,  and  from  1412 
to  1413. 

Hook,  ilrchbisfcoiM  o/Cant«rbury;  Fobs,  Judgm 
of  England;  Walion,  Richard  II. 

Anmdaly  Sir  Thomas  {d.  1552),  was  one 
of  the  most  trusted  and  sagacious  of  Henry 
VIII.'s  councillors.  He  enjoyed  much  in- 
fluence with  the  king,  and  was  appointed  one 
of  the  twenty-four  executors  appointed  to 
carry  out  that  sovereign's  will.  He  was  the 
brother-in-law  and  intimate  friend  of  the 
Protector  Somerset,  in  whose  fall  he  was  in- 
volved. He  was  executed  on  a  charge  of 
treason,  Feb.,  1552. 

Asaf-nl-Dowlah  {d.  1797)  succeeded  his 
father,  Sujah  Dowlah,  as  Vizier  of  Oude,  in 
1775,  and  was  ultimatelj'^  recognised  by  the 
Emperor.  A  treaty  was  concluded  with  the 
English,  by  which  the  Vizier  agreed  to  sur- 
cender  Benares  and  certain  other  districts  of  the 
annual  value  of  twenty-two  lacs.  This  Vizier 
misgoverned,  as  his  father  had  done,  and  by 
L781  was  in  a  state  of  the  greatest  pt'cuniary 
embarrassment.  Hastings  therefore  con- 
cluded an  arrangement  with  him,  one  main 
object  of  which  was  to  relieve  him  from 
burdens  which  he  professed  himself  totally  un- 
able to  bear.  It  was  provided  by  the  new  treaty 
that  a  portion  of  the  British  forces  should  be 
withdrawn,  that  the  Vizier  might  resume  all 
jaghires  on  payment  of  compensation.  The 
second  article  enabled  the  Vizier  to  dispossess 
the  Begums  (his  mother  and  grandmother)  of 
Oude  of  their  jaghires,  and  was  the  prelude 
to  the  cruelties  exercised  to  compel  them  to 
surrender  their  treasures,  1782.  The  im- 
poverishment of  the  Vizier,  however,  con- 
tinued steadily,  owing  to  his  misgovemment 
and  debauchery,  and  in  1786  his  repeated 
requests  that  the  British  force  should  bo 
removed  induced  Lord  Comwallis  to  make  a 
fresh  treaty  with  him,  by  which  the  money 
paid  for  the  support  of  the  brigade  at  Futty- 
gurh  was  reduced  from  seventy -four  to  fifty 
lacs  on  the  condition  tliat  it  should  be  punc- 
tually paid.  The  misgovemment,  however, 
continued,  and  the  Vizier  passed  the  rest  of 
his  life  in  oppressing  his  subjects,  and  in- 
dulging in  boundless  sensuality. 

ComvsaUit   Beapatchea;   Mill,  Eist.   of  India; 
Macaalay's  Essay  ou  Warren  Hastinga. 

Ascaloili  a  town  on  the  coast  of  Syria, 
about  tweh'e  miles  from  Gaza,  was  a  place  of 


Asc 


(84) 


Ash 


great  strength  and  importance  in  the  earlier 
Crusades.  It  »'»»  to  this  town  that  Richard 
I.  led  the  crusading  army  after  the  fall  of 
Acre  in  the  early  part  of  1192.  On  the  way 
his  troops  were  intercepted  by  a  great  Saracen 
army,  under  the  command  of  Saladin,  said  to 
amount  to  over  300,000  men.  The  two 
wings  of  the  Christi^i  army  were  broken; 
but  the  centre,  commanded  by  Richard  him- 
self, held  firm,  and  at  last  drove  back  the 
enemy  in  great  disorder.  40,000  of  the 
Saracens  are  said  to  have  perished.  Xbe 
victory  throw  the  town  of  Ascalon  into  the 
hands  of  the  Crusaders. 

Ascension  Island,   situated  in  the 

South  Atlantic,  was  discovered  by  the  Portu- 
guese on  Ascension  Day,  1501.  It  was  never 
colonised  until  it  was  seized  by  the  English 
in  1815,  during  the  captivity  of  Napoleon  in 
the  neighbouring  island  of  8t.  Helena. 

Ascham,  Antony  {d.  1650)l,  an  author 
"  of  much  reputation,"  was  sent  bv  the 
Commonwealth,  in  1650,  as  ambassador  to 
Madrid.  A  few  days  after  his  arrival  there, 
he  was  assassinated  by  some  refugee  Eoyahsts. 
The  murderers,  with  the  exception  of  ©ne  who 
was  executed,  were  allowed  to  escape,  public 
opinion  in  the  Spanish  capital  being  entirely 
in  their  favour.     [Douislaus.] 

AschAniy  Roger  (b.  1515,  d.  1568),  one  of 
the  earliest  of  English  Greek  scholars,  and  at 
one  time  public  orator  at  Cambridge,  became 
successively  Latin  secretary  to  Edward  VI., 
Queen  Mary,  and  Elizabeth,  and  was  also 
tutor  to  the  last-named  princess  in  1548,  being 
charged  with  her  instruction  in  the  learned 
languages.  In  1550  he  accompanied  Sir 
William  lilorysine  in  the  capacity  of  secrotarj' 
to  the  court  of  Charles  V.  On  the  accession 
of  Queen  Elizabeth,  Ascham  was,  in  1559, 
made  a  canon  of  York.  As  a  writer  of  English 
prose  Ascham  deserves  high  praise.  His  style, 
though  somewhat  rugged,  is  pithy  and  vigo. 
reus.  His  work  on  education,  entitled  2'he 
Schoolmaster^  is  interesting  and  valuable.  He 
also  wrote  Toxophilusy  a  treatise  on  archery, 
and  A  Report  of  the  Affairs  and  State  of 
Germany^  which  is  of  some  historical  value. 

Ascham's  IForfcs,  ed.  by  Dr.  Giles,  1856;  A. 
Katterfeld,  "Roger  Ascham  :  nein  Lehen  und  seine 
Werke,  1879.  An  edition  of  The  SchoolvMster^ 
with  notes,  has  been  published  bj  Mr.  J.  £.  B. 
Mayor. 

Ascna  (Askew,  or  Ayscongli),  Anne 

{d.  1546),  daughter  of  Sir  Thomas  Ascue,  of 
Kelsey,  in  Lincolnshire,  was  arrested  as  a 
heretic  for  denying  the  doctrine  of  the  Real 
Presence  in  the  Sacrjimcnt.  From  her  in- 
timacy with  Catherine  Parr,  Anne  Ascue's 
prosecution  for  heresy  is  memorable,  «s  it 
instanced,  among  other  things,  the  hostility 
of  Bishop  Gardiner  and  I^ord  Chancellor 
Wriothesley  to  the  queen;  for  before  being 
handed  over  to  the  executioner  for  the  punish- 


ment of  burning,  Anne,  in  spite  of  her  sex, 
was  made  to  undergo  in  the  Tower  the  tor- 
ture of  the  rack,  with  a  view  of  extorting 
from  her  in  her  agony  some  avowal  implicating 
other  court  ladies,  and  possibly  the  queen. 
Wriothesley's  efforts  are  generally  thought  to 
have  been  entirely  fruitless  ;  though  Parsons, 
in  his  "  Examen  "  of  Foxe's  account  of  her, 
states  that  she  actually  did  so  :  "  By  her  con- 
fession, he  (the  king)  learned  so  much  of 
Queen  Catherine  Parr  as  he  purposed  to  have 
her  burned  also,  had  he  lived." 

Narratives     of    the     Reformation     (Camden 
Soc.) ;  Froude,  Hist,  of  Eng. 

Asgilly  JoHX  {b.  1658,  d.  1738),  was  the 
author  of  various  pamphlets,  including  a  trea- 
tise, published  in  1698,  on  the  possibility  of 
avoiding  death.  He  was  elected  to  the  Irish 
Parliament,  and  subsequently  to  the  English 
Parliament,  but  was  expelled  on  account  of 
the  blasphemy  of  his  book.  The  character 
of  the  treatise  was  animadverted  upon  in  the 
trial  of  Dr.  Sacheverell.  Asgill  wrote  albo  a 
tract.  Be  Jure  JJivino^  on  the  hereditarj'  claims 
of  the  House  of  Hanover;  The  Secession  of 
the  House  of  Hanover  Vindicated;  and  an 
Essay  for  the  Press. 

Asgill,  Sir  Chaules  (i.  1762,  d.  1823),  in 
1 780  was  a  lieutenant  in  the  army  of  Lord  Com- 
wallis  in  North  America,  when  that  genei*al 
capitulated  at  York  Town.     In  the  foUowintj 
year  the  Americans,  to  revenge  the  death  of  a 
certain  Republican  officer,  cast  lots  for  a  vic- 
tim among  their  English  prisoners.     The  lot 
fell  on  Asgill ;  but  his  mother  went  over  to 
France,  and  persuaded  Marie  Antoinette  to 
interest  herself  on  his  behalf  with  the  Ameri- 
can envoy.     The  intercession  of  the  French 
queen  was  snccessfuL      Asgill  was  released, 
continued  in  the  armj',  and  in   1794  served 
under  the  Duke  of  York  in  the  Low  Countries. 
In  1 798  he  was  placed  in  command  of  a  large 
body  of  troops  for  the  suppression  of  the  Irish 
rebellion,  and  after  the  Union  was  for  many 
years  employed  in  various  offices  in  Ireland. 

Ash,  Simeon  (d.  1662),  was  one  of  thoso 
clergymen  who  were  ejected  from  their  li\4njpp3 
by  Land  for  refusing  to  read  the  declaration 
concerning  the  Book  of  Sports.  He  became 
chaplain  to  the  Earl  of  Manchester,  and 
had  considerable  influence  with  Presbytorian 
leaders  in  the  war.  He  was,  however,  a 
strong  opponent  of  the  Commonwealth,  and 
was  one  of  those  who  went  to  Breda  to  con- 
gratulate Charles  II.  on  his  restoration. 

Ash  was  present  at  the  battle  of  l^trston 
Moor,  and  wrote  an  interestiug  aud  vaiuable 
account  of  the  campaign,  A  true  relation  ••/  the 
moste  chiisfe  occurrences  at  and  ninoe  the  fate  haitcll 
aJt  Newberry  ,  ,  .  .  to  vindicate  the  £<i.rle  of 
Manchester  (Loud.,  1644). 

AsliaiLteS  is  a  country  of  western  Africa, 
in  the  interior  of  the  Gold  Coast  and  to 
the  north  of  the  river  Prah.  It  first  came 
under  the  notice   of   Englishmen    in    1807^ 


Aflh 


(85) 


Aflh 


wnen  its  king,  Sy  Tutu,  attacked  Annam- 
aboe,  a  fort  on  the  coast  built  by  the 
English  after  the  settlement  in  1661.  Soon 
afterwards  peace  was  concluded  on  dis- 
graceful terms,  and  it  lasted  until  1824, 
when,  the  Ashantees  having  attacked  the 
Fantees,  over  whom  the  English  had  estab- 
lished a  protectorate,  Sir  Charles  MacCarthy, 
governor  of  Cape  Coast  Castle,  advanced  with 
a  handful  of  men  against  the  king,  but  was 
surprised  and  slain  at  Esmacow.  In  1826, 
the  death  of  MacCarthy  was  avenged  at 
the  battle  of  Dudowah.  Though  there  were 
one  or  two  skirmishes  between  the  Ashantees 
and  the  English  troops,  peace  was,  on  the 
whole,  maintained  from  that  date  until  1863, 
when  on  the  refusal  of  Governor  Pine  to 
give  up  some  runaway  slaves  to  the  King 
of  Ashantee,  war  was  begun  by  the  latter. 
The  governor  drove  the  savages  back  to 
the  Piah,  but  his  West  Indian  troops  fell 
victims  to  the  climate,  and  ho  was  compelled 
to  withdraw.  Once  more  peiico  was  pro- 
claimed. In  1871  the  question  whether  Eng- 
Lmd  or  Aahantee  should  rule  the  territory 
between  the  Prah  and  the  coast,  was  brought 
to  a  final  issue  by  the  cession  to  Ensland  by 
the  Dutch  of  all  their  claims  on  the  Gold 
Coast  on  condition  that  they  should  be  allowed 
to  annex  lands  in  Sumatra.  Thereupon  King 
Coffee  Calcali,  who  had  ascended  the  throne 
in  1867,  objected  to  the  tninsfer  of  the  town 
of  Eimina  on  the  ground  that  it  always  paid 
him  a  fixed  annual  tribute;  he  had  also 
iiiken  captive  some  missionaries,  whom  he 
did  not  wish  to  ransom.  He  therefore 
decided  on  rencwins:  the  war,  and  his  general, 
Anianquatia,  accordingly  crossed  the  I'rah, 
and  drove  the  cowardly  Fantees  before  them 
to  the  coast,  but  was  himself  driven  from 
bf'fore  Elmina  by  Colonel  Festing.  Sir  Garnet 
Wolselev  was  sent  out  in  October  to  take 
dvil  ana  military  command  of  the  Gold  Coast, 
while  Captain  Glover,  R.N".,  who  had  been 
sent  out  by  the  Colonial  Office,  made  an 
attempt  to  raise  a  native  force  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Volta.  Native  troops  were,  however, 
very  untrustworthy,  and  ponding  the  arrival 
of  some  English  soldiers,  all  that  Sir  Garnet 
WoLseley  could  do  was  to  occupy  and  stockade 
the  advanced  posts  on  the  road  to  the  river 
Prah.  With  the  arrival  of  three  English 
r»?j»imentB  and  a  body  of  marines,  in  Decem- 
ber, Sir  Garnet  was  abb?  to  invade  Ashantee ; 
the  Prah  was  crossed  on  Jan.  20th,  and  on 
the  31st  he  cncotintered  the  Ashantees  at 
Amoaful,  and  defeated  them  after  a  severe 
skirmish.  On  February  4th  the  English  tn)op8 
reached  Commaasie,  the  Ashantee  wipital,  which 
they  fired.  'J'h»>  anny  was  oveituken  on  its 
return  march  by  some  envoys  from  King 
Coffee,  and  a  treaty  ^as  concluded,  by  which 
the  king  ofprced  to  ])ay  50,000  ounces  of 
poJd,  to  renounce  all  rightn  over  the  tribes 
formerlv  under  the  protection  of  the  Dutch, 
fallow  free  trad^^  to  keep  the  road  between 


the  Prah  and  Commassie  open,  and  to  discon- 
tinue human  sacrifices. 

Brakenbory,  T/m  Ashantee  War ;  H.M.  Stanler, 
Commaane  and  Magdala;  Beade,  Storu  of  the 
Aehantee  Campaign.  [L.  C.  S.l 

JLahbnmliaiii,  Sir  John  {d.  1671),  a 
descendant  of  an  old  Sussex  family,  sat  in 
the  Long  Parliament,  and  took  a  prominent 
part  on  the  Koyalist  side,  and  at  the  out- 
break of  the  Civil  War  joined  the  king, 
and  was  appointed  treasurer  and  pavmaster 
to  the  army.  Ho  attended  Charles  t.  when 
he  gave  himself  up  to  the  Scots,  and  im- 
mediately afterwards  fied  to  France.  In  1647 
he  returned,  and  became  one  of  the  king's 
personal  attendants,  and  was  the  chief  con- 
triver of  Charles's  escape  from  Hampton 
Court.  The  business  was  mismanaged,  and 
Ashbumham  was  accused  of  treacherv  bv  the 

W  ft 

Royalists ;  for  which,  however,  there  seems  to 
be  little  ground.  He  remained  in  England 
after  the  king's  death,  and  compounded  for  his 
estate,  but  l)eing  detected  in  sending  money 
to  Charles  II.,  he  was  in  1654  imprisoned  in 
the  Tower,  where  he  remained  till  Cromwell's 
death.  At  the  Restoration  he  received  large 
grants  of  land,  and  was  made  Groom  of  the 

Bedchamber  to  the  king. 

Aahbnrnham's  Narrative  of  his  Att&ndance  on 
King  Charlee  the  Firnt  was  published  by  his 
descendant,  Lord  Ashbumham,  iu  1830. 

AsllburtoiL,  JoHX  DuNNrxo,  1st  Lord 
{b.  1731,  d.  1783),  was  the  son  of  an  attorney 
at  Ashburton,  in  Devonshire.  After  being 
articled  to  his  father,  he  came  up  to  London 
and  was  called  to  the  Bar.  In  1760  he  made 
a  great  reputation  by  the  defence  which  he 
drew  up  on  behalf  of  the  Eiist  India  Com- 
pany against  the  Dutch  claims.  In  1763  he 
still  further  increased  his  fame  by  his  elo- 
quence in  the  cause  of  Wilkes  against  the 
legality  of  general  warrants.  In  1766  he 
became  Recorder  of  Bristol;  was  appointed 
in  the  next  yejir  Solicitor- General ;  and  ob- 
tained, in  1768,  a  peat  in  Parliament  as  member 
for  Calne.  In  1770  he  went  out  of  office,  and 
throughout  Lord  North's  long  admini  stmt  ion, 
^^go^oubly  opposed  the  government  policy. 
Ho  warmly  maintaintni  the  legality  of  the 
3Iiddlesex  election,  opposed  the  Test  Act, 
se<;on(lcd  Sir  George  ISavile's  motion  for  an 
inquiry  into  government  pensions,  and  was  one 
of  the  most  persistent  opponents  of  the  policy 
pursued  towards  the  American  Colonies.  In 
1782,  when  the  Murquis  of  Rockingham  came 
into  power,  Dunning  was  appointed  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster,  and  niised 
to  the  peerage.  Sir  William  Jones  has  given 
a  true  estimate  of  his  character  when  he  siiys 
that  '*  his  sense  of  honour  was  lofty  and 
heroic ;  his  intetrrity  stem  and  inflexible  ;  and 
no  love  of  dignity,  of  wealth,  or  of  pleasure 
could  have  tempted  him  to  deviate  in  a  single 
instance  from  the  straight  line  of  truth  and 

honesty." 

Lord  Campbell,  Liven  nf  the  ChancrUors ;  Jesse. 
The  Georgian  £ra;  Chatham  Corrvepowtence. 


Ash 


(86) 


Aslibiirton  Treaty,  The  (1846),  was 

concluded  between  England  and  America 
for  settling  the  frontiers  of  the  two  countries. 
It  defined  them  to  run  along  the  forty -ninth 
parallel  of  north  latitude  from  the  great  lakes 
to  the  middle  of  the  channel  which  separates 
the  continent  from  Vancouver's  Island,  and 
thence  southerly  through  the  middle-  of  that 
chaimel  to  the  Pacific.  It  neglected,  how- 
ever, to  define  the  middle  of  the  channel, 
and  in  consequence  a  dispute,  which  was 
finally  settled  by  arbitration,  arose  as  to  the 
ownership  of  the  little  island  of  San  Juan. 

Asllby,  Sir  Johx  {b,  1642,  d.  1693),  a 
distinguished  naval  ofiicer,  was  appointed 
captain  of  the  Defiance^  and  took  pait  in  the 
engagement  with  the  French  fleet  in  Bantry 
Bay.  In  1692  he  fought  in  the  battle  of 
La  Hogue,  and,  together  with  Delaval,  was 
entrusted  with  the  pursuit  of  the  French 
shi])s.  Nottingham  afterwards  accused  him 
in  Parliament,  together  with  Admiral  Russell, 
of  negligence  in  the  latter  part  of  the  en- 
gagement, and  though  triumphantly  acquitted, 
Ashby  seems  never  to  have  taken  active  ser- 
vice again.     [La  Hogue.] 

Asliby  f'*  White.    [Aylesbubt  Case.] 

Ashdown  (^scdun).  The  name  of  the 
town  on  the  Berkshire  downs,  near  Didcot, 
where  waa  fought,  in  87 !»  a  great  battle  be- 
tween the  West  Saxons,  led  by  Ethelred  and 
Alfred,  and  the  Danish  host,  which  had  spread 
over  East  Anglia  and  invaded  Wessex  this 
year.  The  Danes  had  seized  Reading,  and 
before  this  town  the  Saxons  were  badly 
beaten.  A  few  days  later  they  again  attacked 
their  foes  at  Ashdown.  A  desperate  battle 
was  fought,  lasting  all  day,  and  ending  in  the 
flight  of  the  Danes.  One  of  their  kings  and 
five  of  their  "  jarls  "  fell  in  the  battle.  The 
victory  was  in  great  part  due  to  the  vigour 
and  promptitude  of  Alfred,  who  led  one  of  the 
two  divisions  of  the  Wessex  army.    [Alfeed.] 

An^lo-Sax.  Chron.,Ka.  871;  Asaer,  De lt«b.  Qeet, 
Mlfredi, 

Ashtee,  The  Batfle  of  (181 8),  was  fought 
between  the  English  troops  under  General 
Smith  and  Bajee  Rao.  The  latter,  after  the 
battle  of  Korgaom,  retreated,  pursued  by  the 
British,  who  on  the  19th  of  February  came 
up  with  him  at  the  village  of  Ashtee,  and 
prepared  immediately  for  the  attack.  The 
Peishwa,  heaping  reproaches  on  his  brave 
general,  Gokla,  for  this  surprise,  fled  at  once, 
leaving  his  army  to  cover  his  retreat.  Gokla, 
stung  by  the  insult,  placed  himself  at  the 
head  of  300  horse,  rushed  on  the  sabres  of  the 
British  cavalry,  and  fell  covered  with  wounds. 
After  his  death  the  Peishwa's  army  was  easily 
discomfited,  and  fled  in  hopeless  confusion. 

Aske,  Robert  {d.  1537),  was  a  gentleman 
of  Yorkshire,  and  the  chief  organiser  of  the 
famous  rebellion  of  Henry  VIII.'s  reign, 
known  as   the  Pilgrimage  of    Grace.     Uis 


sympathies  with  the  prevalent  discontent  seem 
to  have  been  excited  originally  by  his  acci- 
dental sojourn  at  Lincoln  during  the  disturb- 
ances there  in  September,  1536.     Hurrying 
thence  to  Yorkshire,  where  his  character  and 
capabilities  were  very  favourably  known,  he 
soon  succeeded  in  organising  a  much  more 
formidable  movement  than  the  one  which  had 
inspired  his  efforts ;  and,  in  an  astonishingly 
short  space  of  time,  almost  the  whole  king- 
dom north  of  the  Humber  was  arrayed  against 
the  government  of  Henry  and  his  minister 
Cromwell.    When   the    king*s    verbal   con- 
cessions and  promises  had  brought  about  the 
disbandment   of    the  Yorkshire   insurgents, 
Aske  and  the  other  prominent  leaders  of  the 
movement  were   at  once   secured   on   some 
plausible  pretext,  and,  in  accordance  with  the 
summary  method  of  dealing  with  suspected 
malcontents  at  that  time,  they  were  put  to 
death  after  the  barest  formality  of  a  trial. 
While   D'Arcy  was  beheaded.  Sir  Thomas 
Percy  hanged  at  Tyburn,  and  Lady  Bulmer 
burnt  at  the  stake,  Robert  Asko  had  the  dis- 
tinction of  being  hanged  in  chains  on  one  of 
the  towers  of  York.    Asko's  talents  for  or- 
ganisation and  command,  his  evident  single- 
ness of  purpose,  and  his  noble  moderation 
and  integrity  make  him  a  very  remarkable 
and  interesting  character. 

Assam.  A  proviilcc  of  British  India,  lying 
along  ^e  upper  valleys  of  the  Brahmaputra, 
and  extending  from  the  frontiers  of  Bengal 
to  Northern  Bui^mah.  The  country  was  con- 
quered in  the  early  Middle  Ages  by  tri\)e3 
from  Burmah,  who,  however,  gradually  assi- 
milated in  language  and  religion  with  tho 
Hindoos.  The  Mohammedans  never  succeeded 
in  conquering  the  country,  though  they  fre- 
quently attempted  it.  In  the  early  part  of 
the  present  century  the  Assamese  becamo 
closely  connected  with  Burmah,  and  their 
hostile  attitude  to  the  East  India  Company 
brought  about  the  First  Burmese  'War,  tho 
result  of  which  was  the  annexation  of  Assam 
in  1826.  It  was  placed  under  the  Lieu-  ' 
tenant-Governor  of  Bengal,  but  was  made  a 
separate  chief  -  commissionership  in  1874. 
[Burmese  Waiis.] 

Assandnn,  The  Battle  of  (1016),  was 
the  last  of  the  battles  between  Edmund 
Ironside  and  Canute.  Owing  to  the  treacYiery 
of  Edric,  the  English  were  defeated.  Assan  dun 
is  identified  by  Mr.  Freeman  with  AsHng-ton, 
near  Rochford,  in  Essex. 

Assassination    Plot,    The,     was    an 
attempt  on  the  life    of  William    III.,    first 
designed  in  1695,  but  postponed  by  William's 
departure  for  Flanders.     It  grew  up  side  bv 
side  with  Berwick's  plot  for  the  invasioix  oi 
England  by  a  French  army.    It  was  entruHtoil 
by  the  court  of  St.  Germains  to  Sir   Georj^o 
Barclay.     Ranke  thinks  that  "  all  direct  evi- 
dence" is  against  the  complicity    o€    T^ouia 
XIV.  and  James  II. ;  though  "  both,  of  tlienx 


(87) 


would  have  been  very  ready  to  pluck  the 
fruit."  Certainly  Barclay  was  given  a  com- 
mission by  James  himself  authorising  him  to 
"  do  such  acts  of  hostility  against  the  Prince 
of  Orange  as  should  most  conduce  to  the 
service  of  the  king."  Barclay  landed  in 
England  in  January ^  and  in  conjunction 
with  Chamock  and  Parkyns  hatched  the 
conspiracy.  Ho  was  joined  by  twenty  men 
of  James's  body-guaid,  whom  he  called  his 
Janissaries.  It  remained  to  gain  twenty 
more  adherents,  and  but  little  care  was  taken 
in  their  selection.  It  was  determined  to 
attempt  the  life  of  the  king  on  Tumham 
Green,  on  his  way  back  to  Kensington  after 
hunting  in  Bichmond  Park,  on  the  15th 
of  February.  But  the  hearts  of  some 
of  the  conspirators  failed  them,  and  in- 
formation was  conveyed  to  the  Duke  of 
Portland.  William  thereupon  postponed  his 
hunting.  Still  the  conspirators  imagined 
they  were  undetected;  but  they  wore  speedily 
undeceived  by  the  arrest  of  some  of  their 
nnmber,  and  the  issue  of  warrants  against 
others.  A  joint  address  was  voted  by  both 
Houses  of  Parliament,  acknowledging  the 
Divine  goodne&s  which  had  preserved  the 
kin^  to  the  people. 

Commoiw'  JbumoZi ;  Bnmet.  Hut.  of  his  Own 
Txtm;  Banko,  Hut.  o/Eng.;  Maoanlay,  Hid,  of 
Bug. 


[ASSYB.] 

{d.  910)  was  a  monk  attached  to  the 

famous  monastery  of  St.  Davids,  of  which  his 

uncle  was  bishop,    llie  fame  of  his  learning 

led  King  Alfred  in  855  to  invfte  him  to  assist 

him  in  his  studies.     He  was  made  by  that 

monarch  Bishop  of  Sherborne,  but  seems  to 

have  resided  a  great  part  of  his  time  at  the 

court,  assisting  the  king  in  the  revival  of 

learning,  which  he  brought  about.     His  name 

occurs  in  some  catalogues  of  Bishops  of  St. 

Davids ;  but  their  historical  value  is  small,  and 

his  occupations  in  England  make  it  highly 

improbable  that  he  ever  attained  the  bishopric 

of  his  native  place.     His  Life  of  King  Alfred 

(De  Rebus  (Pettis  Alfredi)  was  long  considered 

a  thoroughly  trudtwortny  authority.     There 

is,  however,  little  donbt  that  the  work,  as  we 

have  it  now,   coiftains  large  additions  from 

the  hands  of  later  copyists,  the  great  Camden 

being  among  the  number.     Some   scholars 

have  even  gone  so  far  as  to  declare  the  Life 

entirely  spurious.     This  seems  an  extreme 

conclusion  ;  but  there  is  little  doubt  that  the 

work  cannot  be  relied  on  as  a  thoroughly 

aathentic  contemporary  biographv.   Accepted 

with  these  qualifications,  the  work  is  valuable 

ud  extremely  interesting.     [Alfred.] 

No  3CSS.  of  Aaaer  are  in  existence,  nor  any 
printed  copiea  earlier  than  Elizabeth's  Teign.  The 
work  is  printed  in  tf  ontimenta  Rittor,  BriioMi. ; 
sod  tnmalated  in  fiohn's  Antiq^Larian  Xibrary. 

Aaserasaeut.  The  assessment  of  taxa- 
tion begins  to  be  important  when  direct  taxa- 
tion itself  aasumes  so  much  more  importance 


with  the  Norman  reigns.  For  the  century  and 
more  during  which  taxation  was  looked  for  only 
from  the  land,  Domesday  remained  the  great 
rate-book,  and  its  assessment  remained  un- 
altered. A  township  was  rated  in  Domesday 
at  such  and  such  a  number  of  hides,  and  paid 
its  Danegeld  or  hidage  accordingly.  The  towns 
arranged  with  the  sheriif  or  the  itinerant 
justices  what  sums  they  should  pay.  Only  as 
the  knight's  fee  became  the  universal  mode  of 
reckoning  the  liability  of  military  tenants, 
this  liability  had  to  be  expressed  in  a  new 
compilation — ^tho  Black  Book  of  the  Exchequer y 
or  rate-book  for  tenants-in-chief  ;  which 
again  was  revised  more  than  a  century  later 
in  the  Treta  de  lievilL  But  Domesday  itself 
was  a  return  sent  in  to  royal  commissioners  by 
each  hundred  and  township,  a  joint  work  of  the 
royal  and  popular  powers.  When,  after  the 
Saladine  tithe  of  1188  upon  movables  as 
well  as  rents,  taxation  began  to  fall  more  and 
more  on  personal  property,  and  to  advance 
towards  the  subsidy  of  the  fourteenth  and 
succeeding  centuries,  then  more  than  ever  the 
assessment  of  a  tax  required  the  free  co- 
operation of  each  looality.  Only  from  a 
jury  of  neighbours  could  a  due  estimate  be 
reached  of  a  man's  property.  The  assessment 
of  taxation  was  committed  to  representatives 
in  each  district,  and  taxation  itself  was 
rapidly  becoming  a  function  for  the  united 
representatives  of  the  whole  nation.  When 
this  latter  point  is  reached  in  the  Parlia- 
mentary system  of  Edward  I.,  the  matter  ol 
assessment  loses  its  main  constitutional  im- 
portance, having  already  done  its  work.  The 
knights  of  the  shire,  who  in  1220,  for  instance, 
assess  the  average  on  their  neighbours,  in 
1295,  assembled  in  one  body,  g^nt  the  tax, 
and  in  the  Good  Parliament  of  1376  demand 
the  right  to  settle  its  appropriation.  And 
indeed,  as  early  as  1334,  assessment  becomes 
little  more  than  mechanical  when  the  rating 
of  the  fifteenth,  made  in  that  year  and  re- 
corded in  the  Exchequer,  was  thereafter 
taken  as  a  standard.  Henceforth  the 
only  question  which  remains  to  give  trouble 
is  concerned  with  the  assessment  of  the 
clergy.  When,  from  the  date  above  given 
fll88),  their  "spiritualities,"  ».<?.,  revenues 
irom  fees,  &c.,  came  under  contribution,  the 
assessment  was  carried  out  by  the  same 
method  of  juries  of  neighbours,  until,  in  1256, 
the  Norwich  taxation  made  by  order  of  Pope 
Alexander  IV.,  and  in  1291  the  valuation 
superseding  it,  which  was  made  by  order  of 
Nicholas  IV.,  and  which  covered  both  *'  tem- 
poralities "  and  *'  spiritualities,"  gave  the 
clergy  a  permanent  independent  mto-book, 
which  was  acted  on  till  the  Reformation. 
But  it  left  an  opening  for  constant  disputes 
in  the  next  two  centuries  as  to  the  mode  and 
rate  of  assessment  to  be  applied;  first,  to 
lands  acquired  by  the  Church  since  the  valua- 
tion of  1291,  and  secondlv  as  to  the  large 
class  of  chantry  priests  and  private  chaplains 


Am 


(88) 


whom  that  valuation  had  left  out  of  account. 
This  clerical  valuation  and  the  lay  assess- 
ment of  Domesday,  as  well  as  the  rating  to 
subsidies  of  the  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  and 
sixteenth  centuries,  were  probably  far  below 
the  real  value.  Not  only  were  exemptions 
wide  and  numerous,  but  the  niting  itself  was 
e^ndently  at  a  nominal  valuation.  The 
Domesday  hide,   for  example,   omitted  un- 

S reductive  ground:  and  the  later  subsidies 
id  not  fall  on  a  knight's  equipment  or  a 
peasant's  implements.  The  lightness  of  the 
assessment  must,  in  fact,  be  set  against  the 
burdensomeness  of  early  taxation  due  to  its 
uncertainty,  its  wasteful  modes  of  collection, 
and  its  suicidally  short-sighted  principles. 
When  the  methods  of  assessment  ceased  in 
the  fourteenth  century  to  have  a  formative 
effect  on  the  constitution,  their  chief  import- 
ance is  over.  But  here,  too,  the  Tudor  and 
Stuart  kings,  going  back  for  precedents  to 
an  age  before  the  national  liberties  were  set 
on  a  firm  constitutional  basis,  revived  on 
several  occasions  more  arbitrary  methods,  and 
disregarded  the  valuations  which  had  been 
accepted  for  two  centuries.  Thus  the  com- 
missioners under  Wolsey's  great  scheme  of 
taxation  in  1522,  and  again  in  lf525,  were  to 
assess  each  man,  clerk  or  lay,  to  the  value  of 
his  chattels.  In  1621  the  assessors  were  to  dis- 
regard old  rates,  and  to  rate  every  man  accord- 
ing to  their  own  knowledge,  not  oven  accepting 
his  own  declaration,  and  such  was  the  prece- 
dent followed  in  the  raising  of  ship-money. 
The  whole  practice,  too,  of  benevolences  and 
of  forced  loans  levied  according  to  oflieial  esti- 
mates of  the  individual's  property,  was  an 
application  of  arbitrarj-  assessment.  Again, 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  with  the  establish- 
ment of  the  excise  arose  a  question  of  some 
practical  moment,  how  this  was  assessed. 
Similar  points  of  social  interest  are  connected 
with  the  injurious  effects  of  ceilain  taxes, 
assessed  on  a  false  principle,  as  the  window- 
tax;  or  the  introduction  of  the  income  tax, 
in  which  recourse  has  to  be  made  to  a  rude 
method  of  joint  assessment  by  the  payer  him- 
self and  by  an  official  commissioner.  But 
these  methods  arc,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
guaranteed  against  unjustly  operating,  by 
the  right  of  appeal  to  a  higher  body  or  a  court 
of  law. 

Madox,  Higt.  of  the  Exchcqyur ;  Lineard,  Hw*. 
of  England^  iii.  116—119;  Pauli,  Gaachichte  von 
frKjUind,  i.  683—685 ;  Stubt>8,  ton«t.  K\»i.  aud 
Select  Charteia  and  DocumenU ;  Hallam,  ConM. 
Hist.;  M^j,  Const.  Hist.  [A.  L.  S.] 

Assiento,  The  (17 13), or  the  "contract" 
for  supplying  the  Spanish  colonies  in  the 
Western  world  with  negro  slaves,  was  at  first 
an  arrangement  betww^n  France  and  Spain. 
After  the  merchandise  had  been  carried  on  by 
Genoa  and  Portugal,  it  had  been  undertaken 
in  1702  by  a  French  company.  By  one  of 
the  stipulations  of  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  this 
right  was  surrendered  to  England,  and  con- 


firmed by  a  special  treaty  of  forty -two  clauses. 
After    France    had    resigned    the  Assiento, 
Spain  was  to  convey  it  to  England  for  thirty 
years,  at  the  end  of  which  period,  and  a 
further  term  of  three  j'ears,  the  traffic  was  to 
be  wound  up.    England  was  to  furnish  4, 800 
negroes  annually.  With  the  Assiento  England 
was  to  have  the  right  of  sending  two  ships  a 
year,  each  of  five  hundred  tons  burden,  to 
America  with  negroes.     A  contest  for  this 
profitable  monopoly  soon  arose  between  the 
African   and  the  South  Sea  Company;  the 
latter  were  successful,  and  obtained  the  fourth 
part  reserved  for  the  queen  by  the  terms  of 
the  treaty.     On  the  outbreak  of  war  with 
Spain,  England  lost  the  Assiento,  but  it  was 
once  more  renewed  in  1726,  and  was  agsiin 
restored   to    her   by  the  Peace  of   Aix-la- 
Chapelle  (1748),  for  the  remaining  four  years 
which  it  had  to  run.    "  Not  one  person,"  says 
Mr.  Wyon,  **  seems  to  have  imagined  that 
there  was  anything  immoral  or  unjustifiable 
in  the  business  itself." 

T.  H.  Bu'i»n,  Reign  of  Q\teen  Anne;   Wyon, 
Rvign  of  Que«n  Anne;  Lecky,  Hist.  ofEng. 

A8SU6  (assisa-assisia)  is  a  word  of  doubt- 
ful etymology;  probably  at  least  two  words 
have  converged  to  create  the  ideas  under- 
lying the  various  senses  of  the  term;  viz. 
(fl),  attsido  or  assideOy  to  sit  down — t.f.,  a 
session  or  a  settlement,  the  notions  perhaps 
common  to  most  meanings  of  assize;  (fj) 
accido^  to  tax  {cf.  excise  and  a^sisus  redditus). 
Besides  these  (c)  there  must  be  some  con- 
nection with  the  Anglo-Saxon  asetniss,  a 
law  [cf.  etablissement  de  S.  Louis) ;  and  (rf) 
Ducange's  editors  can  explain  assisia  only  by 
reference  to  Arabic. 

Metinings  —  (1)  Session,  and,  specially. 
Judicial  Session. — This  meaning,  which  is 
found  so  early  as  in  the  Pipe  Roll  2,  Henry 
II.,  may  possibly  be  the  original  one ;  cf. 
Watsius,  JJe  Jure  Vet.  Manic.  Norm.,  i.  5G ; 
*'  assize  est  une  assemblce  de  plusicurs  sa^es 
hommes  en  laquelle  ce  qui  y  sera  jugic  doit 
avoir  produmble  fermete."  From  this  come 
the  "Gmndes"  and  *'Petites  Assises"  of 
France,  and  the  Courts  of  Crimitial  Jurisdic- 
tion, called  "Cours  d' Assises,"  in  the  Code 
Na}x)lcon.  The  modem  English  use  to  de- 
note the  court  of  the  justices  on  circuit  is, 
perhaps  by  an  accident,  an  example  of  this 
use  of  the  word.  A  specialised  case  is  tho  old 
use  of  assize  for — 

(2)  Tfie  Select  Body  Engaged  in  Administer^ 
ing  the  Trial — e.g..  Provisions  of  Oxfoixi,  in  tho 
'*  pro  visum  est  quod  nuUus  miles  non  ponatur 
in  juratis  vel  assisis" — i.e.,  all  knights  are 
liable  to  be  jurymen.  The  words  are  cle^irly 
synonymous,  though  the  old  law  books  make 
a  distinction.  The  "  sworn  men  "  are  also 
the  "  men  settled ''  to  try  a  case. 

(3)  A  Latr  or  Ordinnnce  —  i.e.,  tho  **  lox 
assisa,"  the  settled  edict  of  the  king.  la 
reality  a  law,  the  "  Assize  '*  in  this   sense 


(89) 


professed  to  be  rather  an  occasional  enact- 
ment, valid  during  pleasure,  an  executive,  not 
a  legislative,  act.  Thus,  the  mediasval  rever- 
ence for  the  "  written  law,'*  which  sprang 
from  the  solemn  sense  assigned  to  '*  lex  '*  in 
the  Bible  and  Koman  Law,  was  respected, 
and  real  legislative  changes  produced  by  a 
legal  fiction — cf.  the  Praetor's  Edict,  the 
Ciipitularies  of  the  Carolingians,  the  Pro- 
visions of  Henry  III.,  the  "  Establishments  " 
of  St.  Louis,  all  of  which  had  the  same  object. 
Instances  of  such  assizes  are  the  "  Assises  de 
Jerusalem,"  a  code  for  the  Frank  kingdom 
of  Palestine,  drawn  up  by  Godfrey  of  Bouillon 
and  his  barons  (1099),  Henry  II.'s  Assizes  of 
Clarendon,  Northampton,  Woodstock,  Arms, 
Essoines,  &c.  (''novas  leges  quas  assisas 
vocavit "),  for  which  see  below  ;  the  Assizes 
of  Antioch,  Sicily,  Roumania,  and  in  Brittany 
the  Af^izes  of  Count  Geoffrey  in  1185,  and 
the  Assize  of  Count  John  (against  the  Jews) 
in  1239.  Wherever  Norman  or  Frank  in- 
fiuent'o  wont,  twelfth-century  law  assumed 
the  form  of  assizes. 

(4)  State  Megnlationt  of  the  Price,  Quality^ 
Se.y  of  rariotts  CommoditUa. — A  sense  kindred 
to  previous  paragraph.  These  were  the  "  assisie 
rerum  venalium  *'  of  old  English  and  French 
law.  Richard  I.  aimed — not  very  successfully 
— at  uniform  weights  and  measures  (Assize 
of  Measures  in  Hoveden,  iv.  33).  John ''fecit 
general]  ter  acclamari  ut  legalis  assisa  panis 
inviolabiter  observaretur "  (Matthew  Paris, 
A.D.  1201).  This  points  to  pre-existing 
custom.  There  were  also  assizes  of  wine, 
ale,  salt,  boards,  timber,  wood,  coal,  butter, 
and  cheese.  These  restrictions  on  trade  and 
on  adulteration  were  kept  up  quite  late — e.g.,. 
there  were  three  editions  of  the  assize  printed 
in  1528,  1530,  and  1580.  In  6  and  7  Wm. 
IV.,  Acts  regulating  the  assize  of  bread  were 
formally  repealed.  They  were  carried  into 
New  England  and  long  kept  up  there. 

(5)  A  Mode  of  Trial  prescribed  by  an  Assize 
(in  sense  of  law) — eg.,  the  Grand  Assize  of 
Henry  IL  and  the  other  "  real  actions,"  the 
assizes  of  Mort  d'Ancester,  Novel  Dis- 
seisin, and  Darein  Presentment  (see  below). 
Spelman  calls  them  "  brevia  regia  et  litigandi 
formubje."  A&size  here  means  (a)  the  law; 
(b)  the  rule  instituted  by  it. 

(6)  T/ie  7 rial  itself— e.g.,  in  the  assize  of 
Northampton    the    royal    direction    to    the 

i'ustices  to  try  robbers  (ut  faciant  assisam  de 
itronibus) ;  ef.  "  cum  brevibus  assisarum  et 
placitorum  "  in  royal  writ  of  1231. 

(7)  Assessment — i.e.,  the  settlement  of  the 
incidence  of  a  tax — e.g.,  Dialogus  De  Scaceario, 
i.  8.  "  Fiunt  i^er  comitatas  communes  assism 
4  justiciis  errantibus — qum  ideo  dicuntur 
<^ommanefl  quia  cognita  summa  qute  de  comi- 
tata  requimntiir,"  &c. 

(8)  A  Tnx — e.g^j  Liber  Niger  Scacarii,  cap. 
^  Danegeido,  **  ex  constitutis  duobus  solidis 
*wnma  una  qiife  communis  assisa  nuncupatur 
^tiescit ; "  cf-  "  levare  aasiaam,"  to  levy  a  tax. 


(9)  Fines. — Fixed  by  courts  of  justice — 
e.g.,  in  Brittany,  "  le  seigneur  pcut  demander 
pour  son  betail  I'essise  ou  le  dedommage  a 
san  choix." 

(10)  Assisus  Redditus, — The  fixed  rent  which 

customary  tenants  paid  to  the  lord  of  the 

manor,  beyond  which  thoy  were  free.    This 

is  analogous  to  the  preceding. 

The  Tarious  law  gloaaaries,  sach  as  Si)elinaQ 
and  the  modern  works  baaed  on  him,  collect 
the  chief  uses  of  assizeif  cf.  Daconge's  (xlos- 
sanwm,  Medue  ef  Injimm  LalinUalis,  and  the  old 
law  books,  Britton,  Bnicton,  &c.    ff  p  t<  -i 

Assue,  JusTiCBS  OF,  were  originally  the 
judges  commissioned  to  try  the  special  assizes 
or  real  actions  mentioned  in  Assize  (5).  By 
27  Ed.  I.,  s.  1,  c.  3,  it  was  ordered  that  Justices 
of  Assize  should,  if  laymen,  also  make  de- 
liverance of  the  gaol;  and  before  long,  the 
common  law  judges  always  were  laymen. 
Gradually  various  other  commissions  were 
given  to  them,  as  it  was  a  main  object  of 
Edward  I.'s  judicial  reforms  to  simplify  and 
consolidate  the  too  numerous  Acts  which  had 
oppressed  the  nation  under  his  father.  So 
the  commissions  of  nisi  prius,  of  oyer  and 
terminery  and  of  the  peace,  were  added  to 
those  above  mentioned;  until  the  judge,  with 
his  five  commissions  under  the  Great  Seal,  was 
on  his  provincial  circuit  generally  called  the 
Justice  of  Assize,  though,  properly  speaking, 
that  was  only  one  of  his  commiasions.  By  3 
and  4  Wm.  IV.,  the  actions  of  "  assizes  "  were 
abolished,  so  that  the  present  commission  is 
only  fourfold,  but  the  name  has  survived  the 
fact,  and  their  jcourts  are  still  generally  called 
the  ^*  assizes,"  and  the  town  of  their  meeting 
the  assize  towii. 

AssiBe  of  AnuSy  The,  was  an  ordinance 
issued  by  Henry  II.  in  1181.  It  revived  and 
organised  the  old  national  militia,  based  on 
the  obligation  of  all  freemen  to  serve  in  the 
fyrd.  Henry  hoped  it  would  be  a  safer 
support  to  his  throne  than  the  feudal  levies 
or  the  unpopular  mercenaries.  By  this 
assize  all  freemen  were  required  to  provide 
arms  suited  to  their  rank  and  means.  A 
knight,  or  possessor  of  over  sixteen  marks 
yearly,  provided  a  coat  of  mail,  helmet, 
shield,  and  lance:  the  freeholder  of  ten 
marks,  a  hauberk,  iron  cap,  and  lance;  and 
all  burgesses  and  **  tota  communa  libei  orum 
hoininum  "  a  gambeson,  iron  cap,  and  Lmce. 
Doubtful  cases  were  decided  by  a  jury. 
Elaborate  provisions  were  annexed  for  the 
enforcement  of  the  law.  Paralleled  in  most 
other  European  countries,  this  assize  was 
renewed  by  Henry  III.'s  system  of  watch 
and  ward,  and  by  Edward  I.*s  Statute  of 
Winchester. 

Stnbbs,  Select  Cfcortera,  155—157. 

Assise  of  Clarendon  (1166),  Henry 

TI.'s  first  great  measure  of  judicial  reform, 
was  remarkable  as  formally  instituting,  and 
giving  legislative   recognition  to,  the  jury 


(90) 


Aas 


system  in  criminal  trials,  as  connecting  the 
local  with  the  central  jurisdiction,  and  as  the 
first  effort  to  constitute  a  great  administrative 
system.  Henry  I.  had  probably  borrowed  the 
institution  of  justices  itinerant  from  the 
Garolingian  missi.  His  plan  was  now  enlarged 
and  made  permanent.  A  commission  was  sent 
round  to  each  shire,  to  whom,  in  conjunction 
with  the  sheriffs,  grand  juries  of  the  county 
were  to  present  accused  or  suspected  persons. 
The  ordeal  by  water  furnished  a  further 
means  of  discrimination.  This  new  system 
of  presentment  and  ordeal  abolished  com- 
purgation. Other  provisions  required  all 
qualified  persons  to  servo  on  juries,  opened 
every  franchise  to  the  sheriff,  regulated  the 
treatment  of  waifs  and  strangers  on  purely 
Anglo-Saxon  principles,  directed  sheriffs  to 
help  each  other,  to  make  lists  of  fugitives, 
forbade  religious  houses  to  receive  "  aliquem 
de  minuto  populo,"  unless  sick  to  death  or 
of  good  repute,  and  forbade  hospitality  to  the 
heretics  condemned  at  Oxford. 

StubbB,  Select  CharUra,  14a->146. 

Assise  of  Darrein  Presentment. 

An  action  to  determine  the  lawful  patron  of 
a  benefice.  **^  If  a  tenant  in  fee  or  in  tail  had 
himself  presented,  or  if  his  ancestors  had 
presented,  to  a  benefice,  or  if  a  tenant  for 
life  or  years  had  himself  presented  and  the 
nominee  had  been  duly  instituted,  but  after- 
wards the  old  possessor  of  the  advowson  had 
been  debarred  from  exercising  his  right,  ke 
could  institute  a  recognition  of  darrein 
presenttnent.*'  This  inquest  was  originated 
by  Henry  II.,  and  is  alluded  to  in  GlunviL 
By  Magna  Charta  (art.  18)  it  was  to  be  held, 
along  with  the  assizes  of  mort  (Vaneester  and 
novel  diueisin  four  times  a  year,  by  two  jus- 
tices in  the  county  court,  in  conjunction  with 
a  jury  of  four  Imights  of  that  county;  but 
the  Charter  of  1217  reserves  cases  of  darrein 
pretentfMnt  to  the  Justices  in  banco  (art.  15). 
By  the  Statute  of  Westminster  the  first  (3 
Ed.  I.,  c.  51),  the  assize  was  again  assimilated 
to  the  other  two,  and  directed  to  be  held 
every  Advent,  Septuagesima,  and  Lent.  It  be- 
came early  obsolete,  as  the  writ  qtMre  impedit 
gave  an  easier  means  of  prosecuting  claims 
to  advowson,  and  was  abolished,  with  all 
"real  actions,"  by  3  and  4  Wm.  IV.,  c.  27. 

Assise  of  Mort  d' Ancester.    When 

the  heir  to  an  estate  was  deprived  by  a 
stranger  of  part  of  what  had  been  in  the 
possession  of  his  predecessor  (antecessor)  at 
the  time  of  the  latter*s  decease,  he  could 
apply  for  a  po.ssessory  writ  de  morte  ante- 
ceasoria.  GlanWl,  to  whom  we  owe  our 
earliest  knowledge  of  what  was  probably  then 
one  of  Henry  II.'s  novelties,  describes  the 
process  of  the  inquest.  The  sheriff  empanels 
a  jury  of  twelve  lawful  freeholders  of  the 
neighbourhood,  and  the  suit  is  determined  by 
their  testimony.  It  was  held  by  the  justices 
in  the  shire,  mostly  with  a  jury  of  four 


knights  four  times  a  year,  according  to  Magna 
Charta,  §  Id.  But  the  Charter  of  1217  dirocts 
the  assize  to  be  used  only  once  a  year.  By 
the  Statute  of  Westminster  the  first,  it  was 
held  thrice  in  the  year.  It  became  obsolete, 
and  was  abolished  by  3  and  4  Wm.  IV. 

Assise  of  Northampton  (1176).  A 
re-issue    and    expansion    of   the    Assize  of 
Clarendon,  marked  by  the  increased  severity 
of  the  punishments,  the  lessened  trust  reposed 
in  the  sheriffs,  and  the  gradual  limitation  of 
the  ordeal.     Those  presented  by  the  jury  who 
escaped  on  the  ordeal,  had  to  find  bail  for 
gooa  behaviour  if  accused  of  a  small  offence ; 
but  if  felony  or  "murdrum"  had  to  abjure 
the  realm.     Confessions  before  the  jury  must 
not  be  revoked  before  the  judge.     Some  new 
legal  articles   are    of    great    impoiiance  in 
relation  to  land  tenure,  reliefs,  dower,  and 
other  feudal    obligations.      The  concluding 
political  articles  require,  in  reference  to  the 
1173  rebellion,   oaths  of   fealty  even  from 
villains,  the  destruction  of  castles  held  against 
the  king,  the  safe  custody  of  all  others,  the 
registration  of  fugitives  and  outlaws.    The 
justices  are  to  make  exhaustive  inquiries  of 
all  kinds,  hold  all  pleas,  and  look  after  the 
royal  revenue.     The  country  is  divided  into 
six  circuits,  to  be  visited  by  six  commissions. 
Stabbfl,  Select  Chartere,  143—145. 

Assise  of  Novel  Disseisin.  An  action 

that  lay  with  a  tenant  unjustly  dispossessed 
of  his  lands,  tried  by  the  itinerant  justices 
before  a  jury  of  the  neighbourhood.     The 
importance  attached  to  this  assize  illustrates 
the  widespread  lawlessness  of  the  times.     Its 
limitation  to  recent  disseisins  is  equally  signi- 
ficant.    The  Assize  of  Northampton  (chap.  5) 
directs  **Ut  Justitiae  Regis  faciant  recogni- 
tionem  de  dissaisinis  factis  a  temporo  quo 
dominus  rex  venit  in  Angliam  post  pacem,*' 
and  this  seems  to  be  the  origined  text  dl  the 
assize.      The    assize    is    called    by   Bracton 
"Summaria    cognitio    absque   magna    juris 
solennitate,"  and  bv  the  Statute  of   West- 
minster  the   second  "festinum   remedium.'* 
Its  history  is  the  same  as  the  history  of  the 
assizes  of  mort  d'amsester  and  darrein  present^ 
ment.   Analogous  to  it  was  the  assize  of  frtah 
force,  so  called,  because  the  plaint  was  to  be 
within  sixty  daj's  of  the  injury.     It  was   a 
writ  that  lay  by  custom  of  a  town  "when  a 
man  was  disseised  within  the  borough.  Similar 
also  was  the  auize  of  nuitance. 

Assise  of  TJtmm  lay  with  the  x>088ossor 

of  an  ecclesiastical  benefice  to  recover  lands 
of  the  Church  alienated  by  his  pred<»cessor. 
The  term  **  ntrum  "  was  the  emphatic  word 
which  directed  the  jury  to  inquire  u^Jiethe-i 
the  tenements  or  lands  were  in  frank  alinoii>:i 
of  the  descendant's  church,  or  the  lay  fee  o: 
the  t(mant.  It  was  instituted  by  statute  1^ 
Ed.  III.,  c.  17,  and  practically  ended  by  tin 
restraining  statute  13  Eliz.,  c.  10. 


.^ of  Woodstock,  or  the  ABsiie 

of  tlM  ForeBt,  diawu  up  by  Henry  II. :' 

14,  wBs  the  flntt  cods  oE  any  ekborateDe  . 
the  govemmeat  of  the  foresta,  which,  from 
lae  time  of  the  Conqueat  at  leaat,  wer~ 
regarded  as  specially  subject  to  the  imcon 
'irolled  jurisdiction  ot  the  monarch,  Th 
urisdiction  is  arranged  on  just  th 
lea  as  the  county  jurisdiction,  just  a 
lOr  organisation  whh  baaed  on  that  of 
;he  free  towniihip.  The  punishments  are 
said  to  be  milder  than  those  in  vogao  under 
Henry  I.,  but  the  wholo  asaiie  la  full  of 
TEKatious  clauses,  which  musViave  been  very 
irksome  to  dwellers  in  the  forest.  No  one  can 
puasf  as  a  dog  or  a  bow  and  arrows  without  a 
royal  licence.  Elaborate  roguhitiona  have 
reference  to  the  woods  and  clearings  within 
the  forest  that  belon;^  to  private  individuals. 
All  men,  from  archbishop  and  earl  down  to 
the  simple  freeholder,  are  required  to  attend 
the  forest  courts  on  the  summons  of  the 
master  forester  (this  was  rt-pealcd  by  Magna 
Charta),  AU  persons  over  tweWe  years  old 
dwelling  irilhin  the  forest  aie  to  swear  to 
keep  the  peace  of  the  forest.  Hounds  are  to 
have  their  foroclaws  cut  off,  and  no  tanners 
or  bleachers  ef  bidefl  are  tu  dwell  therein, 
beyond  the  limits  of  a  boraugh.  [Fokests.] 
Stirct  Charter!,  190— ISZ  ,  Haeves'  Butoru  (^ 

above  rurmips.  Mcwt  o(  them  m  print«d  is  I>r. 
StubU's  Sdtct  ChnrttTi  (with  iunLlumbla  oom- 
nwnts).    Sea  ■!»  hii  Cimit.  aitt.,  tqI.  i. 

[T,  F.  T.l 
Audse,  The  Qrand.  A  form  sf  inqacflt 
by  sworn  recognitors  in  cusea  of  suits  to 
deternUDe  the  possession  af  «  freehold,  in- 
stituted by  Henry  If.  aa  an  ^tenmtii'a  to 
wager  of  batlle,  which.  slace'lSe  Conqueat, 
had  boeh'the  ordinary  nay  of  trying  such 
suits.    The  procedure.  acoordinK  to  (he  assize. 


their   verdict.      If    not,    thoi 
replaced  by  better  mlormcJ  t 

AesKe  was  only  abolished  by  3  and  4Wm.I  V.. 
cap.  27,  The  text  ot  Henry  II.'s  ordinance 
i»  lost,  but.a  copious  account  of  it  is  gnvcn  in 
Glanvil.  with  much  about  its  equity  and 
luperiority  to  the  "  duellum." 

AssisM,  Ths  Black.  A  name  often  given 
to  the  assizes  at  Oxford  in  1577,  when  "a 
ppstilent  savour"  rose  either  from  the  nDisome 
smell  of  the  prisonera.  or  the  damp  of  the 
ground,  0¥fing   to   which   all   present  were 


seized,  within  forty  hours,  of  fever,  and  many 
died  {some  accounts  say,  with  probable  ex- 
aggeiatiun.  300).  including  the  chief  baron, 
the  sheriff,  and  a  large  number  of  the 
Oxfordshire  gentry. 

Asaues,  The  Bloodt.  a  term  often  ap- 
plied to  the  summer  assizes  of  IGB6,  held  in 
the  Western  Circuit  after  Monmouth's  rebel- 
lion ;  when  Chief  Justice  Jeffreys  sentenced 
more  than  300  rebels  to  death  for  treason 
after  the  barest  mockery  of  a  trial 

UacauLay,  HUlor]/.  ii..  chap.  A.    A  tnct  o&tlad 
Th*  Bloodu  Aaitm  amtAini  coaumporaueous 

AMOCiatad  CoantiflS  was  the  name 
given  to  the  counties  of  Essex,  Cambridge, 
Norfolk,  Suffolk,  and  Hertford,  to  which 
wore  subsequently  added  Huntingdon  and 
Lincoln.  These  counties  formed  un  asso- 
ciation in  Jd2  to  ke<t>  the  war  out  of 
their  own  districts  and  raise  an  army  fur 
the  Parliament.  The  Associiition  was  first 
commanded  hy  Lord  Orey  of  Wark,  and 
subsequently  by  the  Earl  of  Manchesti.T  and 
Cromwell.  Other  counties  formed  similzir 
associations, "  bui,"  says  Carlylo, "  the 'Eastern 
Association'  is  alone  worth  naming.  All  Iho 
Other  aasociations,  no  men  of  emjihasiB  being 
in  the  midst  of  them,  feU  in  a  few  months 
to  pieces;  onlv  this  of  Cromwell's  subaistod, 
enlarged  itael},  )^w  famous;  and,  indeed, 
kept  its  own  borders  cIobt  of  invasion  duiing 
the  whole  oouise  of  the  war." 

AflBodation  in  fitroor  of  WUIiaoi 
III.,  [1)  (1688).  was  devised  by  Sir  Edward 
t^eymour  after  the  prince  had  landed  in 
England,  in  order  to  hind  his  supporters 
by  some  mutual  obligation.  It  was  signed 
first  at  Exeter  and  then  in  all  the  western 
counties.  (2)  ThcuiorefamousaBsociation,that 
of  16M6,  was  foimed  on  the  discovery  of  the 
Asfassinstion  Plot.  The  idea  was  proposed  by 
Sir  Kowland  Gw)'n,  and  eagerly  adopted  by 
Montague,  The  members  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  each  tor  liimself,  solemnly  recog- 
nised William  us  rightful  and  lawful  king, 
and  bound  themselves  to  stand  by  him:  and 
they  vowed  that,  if  his  life  should  be 
shOTtcned  by  violence,  they  would  avenge 
his  murder,  and  support  (lie  order  of  suc- 
cession settled  by  the  Bill  of  Kights.  The 
measure  was  opposed  by  the  Tories  in  the 
Lower  House,  headed  by  Musgrave,  on  the 
ground  that  the  formula  implied  an  ab- 
juration,  and  that  William  could  not  be 
properly  described  as  "  rightful  and  lawful 
king."  Leeds,  in  order  to  conciliate  opposition 
in  the  TJppor  House,  proposed  the  verbal 
alteration  that  it  should  bo  decliired  that 
William  had  a  right  hy  law  to  the  English 
crown,  and  that  no  other  person  had  any 
right  whatever  to  that  crown.  This  quibble 
SHtiaBed  nearly  all  the  Tory  peers.  The  , 
country  in  general  was  seized  with  great 
enthusiasm.    The  municipal  corporaiiuus  all 


Ass 


(92) 


Ast 


over  the  country  appended  their  signatures 

to  similar  documents.      Everywhere   orange 

ribands  were  worn,   on  which  were  written 

in    letters    of    gold    the    words    "  National 

Association  for  King  William." 

Bumefc,    Hist,    of  his    Own    Time,    iv.    299; 
Macaalay,  History ,  iv.  670. 


Project  (1582)  was  the 
name  given  to  the  proposal,  emanating 
from  France,  for  associating  James  VI.  and 
his  mother,  the  Queen  of  Scots,  together  in 
the  government  of  Scotland. 

Association    to    Protect    Qiceeu 

Elisabetlly  Bond  of,  1584,  was  an  attempt 
to  organise  all  English  Protestants  into  **a 
universal  vigilance  committee"  (Froude), 
to  defend  the  queen  against  the  plots  ot  the 
Papists.  In  Nov.,  1584,  Burleigh  and  Wal- 
singham  framed  an  instrument  declaring  that 
the  signers  of  it  bound  themselves  together 
on  oath  to  withstand  any  attempt  against  the 
queen's  person,  and  if  any  such  attempt 
should  be  made  and  should  bo  successftil,  to 
pursue  to  the  death  the  person  or  persona 
who  had  been  concerned  in  it.  The  asso- 
ciation was  primarily  directed  against  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots,  and  was  meant  to  show  her 
partisans  that  her  own  death  would  follow 
closely  on  the  assassination  of  Elizabeth. 
The  oath  of  association  was  taken  with 
enthusiasm  by  the  nobility,  privy  councillors, 
judges,  the  clergy,  and  all  who  held  office 
under  the  crown,  and  a  large  number  of 
private  peraons  throughout  the  country. 
Many  of  the  Roman  Catholic  nobility  and 
gentry  were  among  those  who  signed  the 
Bond. 

State  TriaU,  vol.  i. ;  Calendar  of  State  Pa-pera. 

DaiMslic  Seriee  (1581—1590) ;   Froude,  Hist,   of 

Eng.,  xii.  43. 

Associations  (Ireland)  Bill  (1826), 

6  George  IV.,  c.  4,  was  directed  chiefly 
against  the  Catholic  Associations.  It  for- 
bade periodical  sittings  of  political  associa- 
tions, the  appointment « of  committees  for 
more  than  fourteen  days,  the  levying  of 
money  to  redress  grievances,  the  administer- 
ing of  oaths,  the  exclusion  of  men  on  account 
of  their  religion,  and  the  affiliation  of  societies. 
It  lasted  for  three  years,  but  failed  to  crush 
0*Connell's  agitation. 

Assured  Lords,  The,  consisted  chiefly 
of  Scottish  nobles  taken  prisoners  at  the  battle 
of  Solway  Moss,  Nov.  25,  1542,  who,  from  a 
long  sojourn  at  the  English  court,  had  be- 
come to  a  certain  extent  identified  with  Eng- 
lish interests.  On  their  return  to  Scotland 
after  the  death  of  James  V.,  they  under- 
took to  BBrve  Henry  VIII.  at  the  Scotch 
court,  giving  hostages  to  the  English  king 
for  their  fidelity.  Henry,  however,  soon 
found  that  their  good  faith  was  doubtful,  and 
in  1544  they  openly  joined  the  national 
mrty.  The  assured  Ijords  consisted  of  the 
Earls    of     Cassilis    and    Glencaim,    Lords 


Fleming,  SomerviUe,  Maxwell,  and  Oliphant, 
taken  at  Solway  Moss ;  together  with  the  Earl 
of  Angus  and  his  brother,  Sir  Georgo 
Douglas,  who  had  long  been  refugees  at  the 
English  court. 

Assye,  The  Battle  op  (Sept.  23,  1803), 
during  the  Mahratta  War,  was  fought  between 
an  army   of   4,500,   commanded  by  General 
Wellesley,  and  the  great  army  of  Dowlut  llao 
Scindiah  and  the  Kajah  of  Berar ;  which,  after 
the  capture  of  Jalnapoor  on  the  2nd,  was 
retreating  towards  the  Adjuntee  Pass,  while 
the  English,  in  two  divisions,  under  Welles- 
ley  and  Colonel  Stephenson,  were  attempting 
to    intercept    them.      The    Mahrattas   were 
strongly  entrenched,  with  their  left  resting 
on   Assye,   when  Wellesley  came   up  with 
them,    and    without    waiting    for   Colonel 
Stephenson,  resolved  to  attack  them.    Wel- 
lesley   had    given    the    most    positive    in- 
junctions  to     the    officer   commanding   the 
pickets  to  avoid  the  cannon  planted  in  the 
village,  but  in  spite  of  this  he  led  his  troops 
directly  up  to  the  muzzles  of  the  guns,  which 
poured  an  incessant  shower  upon  the  assail- 
ants.    The  74th  Regiment,  which  supported 
them,  was  thus  exposed  to  a  hotter  fire  than. 
any  troops   had  ever  before  encountered  in 
India.     To  save  it,  more  troops  had  to  be 
moved  up  amid  this  terrific  fire.     The  in- 
domitable courage  and  energy  of  the  British 
troops,    however,    bore  down  all  resistance, 
and    Scindiah's    infantry    gave    way.      The 
English  (javalry    then   charged,  and   forced 
them  off  the  field.    The  victory  w^as  com- 
plete ;  but  it  was  dearly  gained  by  the  losj 
of  one-third  of  the  army. 

Wellington.  Demat^hee;  G.  Duff,  Hiid.  of  th 
Uahrattaas  Mill,  lft>t.  of  India,  tL  520. 

Astley*  Jacob,  Lord  (d.  1651),  had  serve 
in  many  foreign  countries,  and  had  distii; 
guished  himself  in  G-ermany  under  G\istavv 
Adolphus.  He  joined  the  army  of  Charles  1 
and,  having  taken  part  in  the  battles  < 
Edgehill,  Brentford,  and  Newbury,  was  rfiis^ 
to  the  peerage.  At  the  battle  of  Nasol) 
Astlev  commanded  the  infantry,  and  in  IG 
he  made  a  last  stand  at  Stow-on -the-^"o 
against  the  Parliament.  Here  he  was  defeat 
by  Brereton  and  taken  prisoner.  He  coi 
pounded  for  his  estate,  gave  his  parole  i 
to  serve  any  more  against  Parliament,  a 
spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  retirement. 

Aston,  Sir  Arthur  {d.  Sept.  12,  164 
was  a  distinguished  soldier,  who  had  acqui 
Jnilitar>'  experience  abroad.  He  was  ^ovor 
of  Oxford  at  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  ^\ 
but  was  soon  after  disabled  by  a  -wound, 
a  later  period  he  was  governor  of  Readi 
In  1649,  Ormonde  made  him  govemoi: 
Drogheda,  hoping  that  he  would  "be  tiT>U 
hold  out  till  the  rains.  This  he  -was  mi 
to  do,  and  on  the  taking  of  the  place  li«* 
literally  hacked  to  pieces  by  the  Put 
soldiers. 


▲th 


(93) 


▲th 


Athelill^  (^THBLXNo)  was  a  title  of 
honour  among  the  Anglo-Saxons,  meaning  one 
who  is  of  noble  {athsl)  blood.  In  the  earlier 
period,  the  Eorlas  and  ^thel  are  used  to 
designate  the  class  spoken  of  bv  Bede  as 
fuhUeSj  in  all  probability  ''the  descendants 
of  the  primitiTe  nobles  of  the  first  settlement, 
who,  on  the  institution  of  royalty,  sank  one 
step  in  dignity  from  the  ancient  state  of  rude 
independence"  (Stubbe).  As  the  nobility  of 
blooa  became  superseded  by  the  nobility  of 
service,  the  title  of  ^thsling  was  gradually 
confin^  to  the  princes  of  the  blood  royal,  and 
in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries  is  used 
exclusively  for  the  sons  or  brothers  of  the 
reigning  king.  Though  he  seems  to  have 
held  no  official  position  in  right  of  his  birth, 
the  atheling  was  superior  in  dignity  to  all 
men  but  the  king  and  the  great  functionaries 
of  the  Church,  as  shown  by  his  '*  wer-gild." 
In  the  ** north  people's  law"  of  the  tenth 
century,  the  gild  of  the  atheling  and  the 
archbishop  (and  in  this  case  of  the  ''eorl" 
who  corresponds  no  doubt  to  the  Danish 
«*jarl'n,  is  15,000  thrymsas,  while  that  of 
the  bishop  or  ealdorman  is  8,000.  So  too 
in  the  laws  of  Athelstan  of  Wessex.  The 
atheling  attended  the  Witenagemot  as  one  of 
the  magnates  of  the  kingdom,  and  was  one 
of  those  who  were  least  seldom  absent  from 
it.  The  name  was  kept  up  after  the  Norman 
Conquest,  and  is  appliea  not  only  to  the 
young  princes,  the  sons  of  Edmund  Ironside, 
but  also  to  Wmiam  '<Clito,"  the  son  of 
Henry  I.  and  J^Iatilda,  and  possibly  to  Henry 

himself. 

8tabbs»  Can;A,  Hist.,  ch.  tI.  ;  Thorpe,  Anc, 
Xows  and  Iiutitue«  (§ irar-^adA):  Freeman, 
JTorm.  Conq.,  toL  It.,  appendix  E  E. 

Atheliniff  SiH^AB.    [Edoa&Athblino.] 

MkXtubbMff  (Aethelinga  eigge),  the  Isle  of 
Pnnoes,  is  situated  about  seven  miles  from 
Taunton.  Hither,  in  878,  Alfred  the  Great 
repaired  after  his  defeat  by  the  Banes,  and 
here  he  remained  concealed  for  nearly  a  year, 
when,  sallying  forth,  he  defeated  the  invaders 
and  compiled  them  to  make  peace.  At  that 
time  Athelney  was  a  veritable  island  in  the 
midst  of  fens  and  marshes,  but  it  has  since 
been  drained  and  cultivated. 

Athelstaa  (iBrHBLSTAy)  (h,  895,  «.  925, 
A.  941)  was  the  son  of  Kinpf  Edward,  and 
grandson  of  Alfred.  According  to  William 
of  Ifalmesbury,  his  mother,  Ecgwyn,  was  of 
humble  origin,  and  it  has  been  thought  that 
he  was  illegitimate.  On  the  death  of  Edward, 
the  Mercians  and  West-Saxons  chose  Athel- 
stan as  their  king,  and  he  was  crowned  at 
King8ton-Qn*Thame8.  There  appears  to  have 
been  some  opposition  to  his  accession,  and  it 
is  probable  that  a  conspiracy  was  formed 
sgamst  him  by  some  of  the  leading  nobles 
and  princes  of  the  royal  house.  The  plot, 
however,  was  supprMsed,  and  Athelstan 
^eedily  attained  to  a  position  of   greater 


power  and  dignity  than  that  of  any  of  the 
preceding  West*»axon  sovereigns.  One  of 
his  sisters  married  Sihtric,  the  Danish  King 
of  Northumbria,  and  on  his  death  Athelstan 
invaded  the  territories  of  his  successor,  Outh- 
frith,  and  compelled  him  to  hold  his  kingdom 
as  a  tributary  state.  Subsequentlyhe  made 
several  expeditions  against  the  Welsh  of 
Wales  and  Cornwall,  and  reduced  their  rulers 
also  to  the  position  of  subject  princes.  Thus 
under  him  the  state  of  Wessex  became  one 
of  the  great  powers  of  Western  Europe,  and 
was  held  in  high  estimation  by  foreign 
governments.  Of  Athelstan's  sisters,  one, 
Elgiva  (iSlgif  u),  married  Otto  the  Great,  Duke 
of  the  Saxons  (afterwards  Emperor),  and 
another  Ethilda  (Eadhild),  Hugh,  Duke  of  the 
French,  and  father  of  Hugh  Capet.  Athel- 
stan took  a  considerable  share  in  the  poli- 
tics of  northern  France,  and  it  was  chiefly 
bv  his  efforts  that  Louis  d'Outremer,  the  son 
of  Charles  the  Simple,  was  restored  to  his 
throne.  In  937  a  formidable  league  was 
formed  against  this  power  of  Wessex,  between 
the  Danes,  Scots,  and  Britons.  Constantino, 
the  King  of  Scotia,  Anlaf  (Olaf),  the  son  of 
Guthfri&  of  Northumbria,  and  Anlaf  (Olaf) 
Cuaran,  the  Danish  King  of  Dublin,  together 
with  Owen  of  Cumberland  and  other  British 
chieftains,  united  their  forces.  A  great 
battle  was  fought  at  Brunanburh,  in 
Northumberland,  in  which  the  invaders 
were  completely  defeated,  with  terrible 
loss.  [Brunanburh.]  Athektan's  subsequent 
years  were  peaceful  and  uneventful.  Athelstan 
IS  greatly  praised  by  the  chroniclers,  and 
he  appears  to  have  been  a  wise  and  vigorous 
ruler.  Such  of  his  laws  as  remain  show  that 
his  wars  and  foreign  policy  were  far  from 
absorbing  the  whole  of  his  attention.  His 
ordinances  are  more  particularly  directed 
to  the  enforcement  of  the  system  of  mutual 
assurance  and  association,  which  hekl  so 
^  great  a  place  in  Anglo-Saxon  jurisprudence. 
One  of  the  most  important  of  his  acts  was 
that  in  which  it  is  law  that  every  landless 
man  shall  have  a  lord;  and  the  **  Judicia 
Civitatis  LundonisB,"  attributed  to  Athelstan, 
are  highly  valuable  in  connection  with  the 
history  of  gilds  and  civio  associations.  The 
chief  imputation  on  Athelstan' s  character  is 
the  alleged  murder,  by  drowning,  of  his  half- 
brother,  Edwin,  on  the  pretext  that  he  was 
engag^  in  a  conspiracy  against  the  king; 
but  tiie  story  is  doubtful.  It  is  told  in  the 
Chronicle,  but  is  not  accepted  by  William  of 
Malmesbury. 

Anglo-aax,  Chrcn, ;  William  of  ICalmesbury ; 
Henzy  of  Hnntingdon ;  Simeon  of  Dorham. 
Also  Lappenberg,  ulnylo-Soron  Kinm;  and 
Palgrare,  Ming,  CommontocaUh.  For  Athelstan's 
Laws,  M«  Thorpe,  Anexeni  LaxDB  and  lnditvU» ; 
and  Stubbs,  Coiut.  Hut.,  L  87,  Ac.,  and  StledL 
CharUn,  07.  [S.  J.  L.J 

Athanvyf  Thb  Battlb  of  (1316),  was 
fought  between  FeidHm  O'Connor  and  the 
English,  under  William  de  Burgh  and  Richard 


▲th 


(94) 


Atk 


de  Bermmghom.  Eleven  thousand  O'Connors 
fell  beside  their  chief,  and  the  sept  disappears 
from  history.  The  O'Connors  were  ostensibly 
fighting  in  the  interest  of  Edward  Bruce. 

Atharton  Moor,  or  Adwalton,  Thb 

Battle  of  (June  30,  1643),  was  a  skirmish 
fought  between  the  Royalists,  under  the 
Earl  of  Newcastle,  and  the  Parliamentarians, 
under  Fairfax.  The  latter  were  completely 
routed,  and  the  capture  of  Bradford  (from 
which  Atherton  Moor  is  some  four  miles 
distant)  by  the  Royalists  was  the  immediate 
result. 

AtUOUef     GODART     DE    GiNKELL,     EakL 

OF  (b.  1640,  d.  1720),  was  one  of  the  Dutch 
officers  who  accompanied  William  of  Orange 
to  England.  In  1689  he  reduced  some  Scotch 
regiments  who  had  mutinied  at  Harwich 
when  under  orders  to  be  in  readiness  to  cross 
to  the  Continent.  He  accompanied  William 
to  Ireland,  and  commanded  a  body  of  horse 
at  the  battle  of  the  Boyne.  When  William 
left  Ireland,  GinkeU  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief. He  reduced  Bedlymore  with- 
out difficulty  and  proceeded  to  lay  siege  to 
Athlone,  which  he  carried  by  assault,  and 
subsequently  won  the  victory  of  Aghrim 
oyer  St.  Ruth.  This  victory  completed  the 
conquest  of  Ireland  (July  12).  GinkeU  then 
besieged  Limerick,  which  he  captured  (Oct.  2), 
and  granted  fairly  favourable  terms  to  the 
defenders.  A  violent  dispute  arose  between 
Ginkell  and  Sarsfield,  the  Jacobite  leader,  as 
to  the  destination  of  the  Irish  troops;  till 
at  length  it  was  decided  that  they  might  make 
their  choice  between  England  and  France. 
For  these  services  Ginkell  was  created  Earl 
of  Athlone.  The  small  estate  that  was  given 
him  in  Ireland  for  his  services  was  one  of 
the  objects  of  the  Commons'  attack  in  1700. 
[Resumption  Bill.]  After  the  declaration  of 
war  with  France  he  competed  unsuccessfully 
against  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  for  the 
position  of  commander  of  the  Dutch  forces. 
Before  the  arrival  of  the  great  duke  in  Flan- 
ders, his  clever  occupation  of  Nimeguen  pre- 
vented its  seizure  by  Marshal  Boumers. 
GinkeU  had  little  knowledge  or  understanding 
of  English  feelings  and  institutions ;  but  his 
abilities  as  a  general  were  certainly  above 
the  average. 

Athlone^  The  Capture  of  (June  19—30, 
1691),  was  GinkeU's  first  important  suc- 
cess over  the  Irish  followers  of  James  II. 
under  the  French  general,  St.  Ruth.  After 
the  faU  of  BaUymore  the  whole  army  moved 
westward  to  Athlone.  "It  was,  perhaps," 
says  Macaulay,  "  in  a  zmlitary  point  of  view, 
the  most  important  place  in  the  island."  The 
town  was  surrounded  by  ramparts  of  earth, 
and  lay  partly  in  Leinster  and  partly  in 
Connaught,  the  EngUsh  quarter  being  in  the 
former  and  the  Celtic  quarter  in  the  latter.  The 
Shannon,  which  is  the  boundary  of  the  two 


provinces,  rushed  through  Athlone  in  a  deep 
and    rapid    stream,  and   turned   two  large 
mUls  which  rose  on  the  arches  of  a  stone 
bridge.      Above    the    bridge,  on    the   Con- 
naught  side,  a  castle  towered  to  the  height 
of  seventy  feet.    Fifty  or  sixty  yards  below 
the    bridge  was   a   narrow  ford.     On  the 
20th,  Ginkell  assaulted  the  English  quarter 
and  mastered  it  with  trifling  loss.    On  the 
22nd    he    opened    fire    on    the    castle.     A 
struggle  now  began  for  the  possession  of  the 
bridge,    resolutely   defended    by    the   Irish 
under    AlaxweU.      St.    Ruth,   tiiinking   the 
position  perfectly  secure,  had  not  yet  come 
up,  but  lay  about  two  mUos  off,  sending  his 
subordinate,  D'Usson,  to  conduct  the  defence. 
On  June  30th,  GinkeU  resolved  to  try  the 
ford.   With  Mackay,  Talmash,  Prince  George 
of  Darmstadt,  and  me  Duke  of  Wurtembcrg  at 
their  head,  the  soldiers  dashed  into  the  water. 
The    Irish,   greatly    to  the  disgust  of    the 
French  commander,  offered  but  feeble  resis- 
tance, and  the  town  was  taken. 

Bnmet.  Hut.   of  hi»  (hen  Tims;   Tffacanlay, 
But,  of  Bng. ;  Story's  ComUnuaiion, 

AtholOf    John    Stuart,    4tr    Eabi,  of 
{d,  1579^,  was  a  staunch  Romanist  and  sup- 
porter  01  Mary  Queen  of  Scots.  He  was  named 
one  of  the  Conunission  of  Regency  established 
on  the  abdication  of  Mary,  1567.  On  Murray's 
return  from  France  he  accompanied  him  to 
Lochleve^  and  had  an  interview  with  the 
queen.     In  1«569  he  was  suspected  of  plan- 
ning a  rebelUon  against  Murray.     In  1577 
he  combined  with  Argyle  against  the  Regent 
Morten,  whose  deposition  was  in  g^reat  part 
owing  to  his  exertions,  and  about  the  same 
time  was  appointed  ChanceUor  of  Scotland; 
he-  died  soon  afterwards  at  Stirling,  poisoned, 
it  was  said,  by  Morton. 

AtholOf  The  Pberagb  op,  appears  to  date 
back  to  the  time  of  Alexander  I.  of  Scot> 
land,  when  Madach,  a  son  of  Donald  Bane, 
is  styled  Earl  of  Athole.  From  his  de- 
scendants it  passed  by  marriage  to  the 
Strathbogie  family,  one  of  whom,  David, 
eleventh  Earl  of  Athole,  in  the  reign  oJ 
Edward  II.,  married  the  heiress  of  tho  f^oni 
families  of  Comyn  and  Valence,  and  be 
came  possessed  of  vast  estates  in  £ngpland 
His  Scotoh  peerage  was,  however,  f orf  eitod  ii 
1311  for  his  connection  with  the  Baliol  party 
These  Scotch  estates  were  granted  to  Sir  Nei 
CampbeU,  brother  in-law  to  King  Ho\>ei 
Bruce,  whose  son.  Sir  John  Campbell,  wa 
created  Earl  of  Athole.  He  died  (at  MaJido 
Hill,  in  1333)  without  issue,  and  the  earldoi 
was  conferred  on  Sir  W.  Douglas,  f roi 
whom  it  passed  to  Robert  Stuart,  Grew 
Steward  of  Scotland,  and  thus  became  voRt^ 
in  the  royal  family.  In  1457  Sir  Jol: 
Stuart,  of  Balveny,  was  created  Sari  < 
Athole.  The  peerage  became  extinct  in  1 G2 
and  in  162^  was  revived  and  g^ranted 
John  Murray,  Earl  of  TuUibardine,  "wKo  w 


Att 


(95) 


Att 


ascended  by  his  mother  from  the  Stuart 
earlfu  John,  the  third  earl  of  this  family, 
was  created  Duke  of  Athole  and  Marquis  of 
ToUibardine  in  1703,  in  the  peerage  of  Scot- 
land, and  his  third  son  and  successor  claimed 
and  established  bis  right  to  the  barony  of 
Strange  in  the  peerage  of  England. 

Attacottif  Thb,  were  an  ancient  Celtic 
tribe  who  inhabited  a  portion  of  Argyleshire 
and  the  greater  part  of  Dumbartonshire. 

Attainder.  '*  Attainder  imports  that 
extinction  of  civil  rights  and  capacities  which 
took  place  whenever  a  person  who  had  com- 
mitted treason  or  felony  received  judgment  of 
death  or  outlawry,"  whether  such  judgment 
were  pronounced  by  a  royal  justice  after 
trial  and  conviction,  or  were  decreed  by  a 
legislative  Act  of  Parliament,  called  a  Bill  of 
Attainder.  In  ancient  law  this  involved 
(1)  Corruption  of  Bloody  and  (2)  Forfeiture, 
complete  or  partial. 

(1)  The  blood  of  the  attainted  criminal  was 
held  to  be  corrupted  and  stained,  and  the 
virtue  by  which  he  could  inherit,  and  transmit 
and  even  hold,  property  destroyed.  Attainders 
operated,  in  fact,  exactly  like  a  sudden 
discovery  of  illegitimacy  in  the  possessor  of 
property;  the  stream  of  inheritance  was  at 
once  cut  off,  and  could  be  re-established  only 
by  a  special  grant  of  the  Legislature.  From 
this  it  followed  that  the  landJs  of  the  criminal 
rererted  back  or  escheated  to  the  lord  of  the 
fee,  in  subordination,  however,  to  forfeiture 
to  the  crown :  and  that  any  title  of  his  de- 
scendants which  had  to  be  traced  through 
him  to  a  remoter  ancestor  was  obstructed 
and  barred.  This  was  felt  to  be  such  a 
hardship  that,  in  the  creation  of  new  felonies 
since  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  Parliament 
has  always  provided  that  they  shall  not  in- 
volve "corruption  of  blood."  The  statute 
54  Geo.  III.,  c.  145,  still  further  limits  its 
operation  to  treason  and  murder.  The  In- 
heritance Act,  3  and  4  Will.  IV.,  c.  106,  gave 
further  relief  by  enacting  that  the  attainder 
of  an  intermediate  ancestor  should  not  obstruct 
the  tracing  of  the  descent  through  him  if 
his  death  took  place  before  the  property 
devolved. 

(2)  Forfeiture  for  treason  transferred  to  the 

crown  the  entire    property  of    the  traitor. 

Unlike  esch^t,  it  was  no  feudal  innovation, 

but  dates  back  to  Saxon  times,  and,  indeed, 

has  been  the  rule  in  the  early  legislation  of 

most  nations.     So  foreign  to  early  society  is 

any  compunction  against  punishing  the  son 

for   the   father's  crime    that  some    ancient 

codes,  not  content  with  reducing  a  traitor's 

children  to   beggary,  involve    them  in  the 

same  capital  sentence ;  and  the  Golden  Bull 

declarvHS  that  the  sons  of  a  subject  who  kills 

an  elector  have  their  lives  spared  only  by  the 

imperial  bounty.     The  two  kinds  of  property 

recognised  by  English  law,  lands  and  chattels, 

were  both  forfeited  absolutely  to  the  crown 


for  treason,  but  the  forfeiture  of  the  former 
followed  on  judgment,  audits  operation  went 
back  to  the  moment  at  which  the  treason 
was  committed,  making  void  all  alienations 
which  had  been  effected  in  the  interval ; 
the  forfeiture  of  the  latter  followed  on  con- 
viction, and,  from  obvious  motives  of  con- 
venience, had  no  such  retrospective  force. 
The  wife's  dower  was  untouched  by  the 
husband's  attainder  till  expressly  incluaed  in 
the  forfeiture  by  the  merciless  statute  5  and 
6  Ed.  VI.,  c.  11.  In  the  case  of  counterfeiting 
the  coin,  the  statutes  which  made  the 
offence  treason  limited  the  forfeiture  to  the 
life  of  the  offender,  and  expressly  guarded 
the  wife's  dower  (5  Eliz.,  c.  11 ;  8  and  9  Will. 
III.,  c.  26 ;  15  Geo.  II.,  c.  28).  The  celebrated 
statute  of  Queen  Anne  (7  Anne,  c.  21)  extended 
the  same  principle  to  all  treasons  by  enacting 
that  after  the  decease  of  the  Pretender  "  no 
attainder  for  treason  should  extend  to  the 
disinheriting  of  any  heirs,  nor  to  the  prejudice 
of  the  right  or  title  of  any  person"  other 
than  the  offender  himself;  but  this  humane 
provision  was  first  delayed  by  17  Geo.  II., 
c.  39,  and  finally  repealed  by  39  and  40  Geo, 
III.,  c.  93.  Forfeiture  for  felony  was  only 
partial,  and  seems  to  have  arisen  from  an  old 
right  of  the  crown  to  commit  unlimited  waste 
on  the  lands  of  a  felon.  So  detrimental  did 
this  prove  to  the  interests  of  the  lord  of  the 
fief,  and  of  the  country  at  large,  that  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  I.  it  was  commuted  for 
the  right  to  the  profits  for  a  year  and 
a  day,  a  rule  confirmed  by  Magna  Charta. 
The  statute  17  Ed.  II.  confused  the  two, 
enacting  that  the  king  should  have  his  year 
and  a  day  mnd  waste,  and  this  remained  the 
law  till  the  Act  64  Geo.  III.,  c.  146,  which 
limited  forfeiture  to  cases  of  treason  and 
murder.  But  attainder,  along  with  its  effects 
of  corruption  of  blood  and  forfeiture,  was 
finally  swept  away  by  the  Felony  Act,  33  and 
34  Vict.,  0.  23. 


— n— —  ■  Bill  of,  was  a  legislative 

Act  of  the  two  Houses,  introduced  and  passed 
exactly  like  any  other  Bill,  and  requiring  the 
royal  assent,  which  declared  a  person  or 
persons  attainted.  Originally  aimed  against 
offenders  who  fled  from  justice,  and  analogous 
to  the  Bill  of  Pains  and  Penalties,  it  was  soon 
perverted  to  secure  a  more  certain  and  speedy 
destruction  of  political  opponents  than  could 
be  hoped  from  the  impartiality  or  the  routine 
of  tho  law  courts.  No  restriction  was  possible 
in  such  a  mode  of  procedure.  Evidence  was 
usually  heard,  but  not  invariably ;  and  even 
the  presence  of  the  accused  was  decided  by 
the  lawyers  whom  Thomas  Cromwell  con- 
sulted on  the  subject  to  be  unnecessary,  on 
the  ground  that  there  can  be  no  authority 
superior  to  statute.  The  first  recorded  in- 
stance of  its  emplo>Tnent  is  in  the  violent 
banishment  of  the  Despensers  in  1321  by  the 
Parliament  of  Westminster ;  an  act  which  was 


▲tt 


(  96  ) 


Att 


held  by  Tru88el,tho  justice  who  delivered  judg- 
ment on  the  younger  Hugh,  to  have  involved 
attainder.  With  the  deposition  of  Edward  II. 
the  appearance  of  the  more  regular  method  of 
impeachment  attests  a  less  savage  spirit  in 
political  parties,  till  the  outbreak  of  the  Rose 
wars  in  1459.  In  that  year  hostilities  broke 
out  on  an  attempt  of  the  queen  to  have  the 
Earl  of  Salisbury,  the  head  of  the  Yorkist 
Nevilles,  arrested.  He  completely  defeated 
the  force  sent  against  him,  and  both  sides 
rushed  to  arms.  But  the  Lancastrians  were 
better  prepared;  the  Yorkist  leaders  had  to 
fly  the  kingdom,  and  a  Parliament  met  at 
Coventry  which  attainted  them  in  a  body. 
Two  years  later,  after  the  decisive  victory  of 
Towton,  the  Yorkists  retaliated  by  a  similar 
proscription  of  all  the  prominent  Lancastrians, 
Parliament,  by  the  restriction  of  the  fian- 
cJiise  to  40s.  freeholders  (1430),  and  by  the 
terrorism  exercised  through  the  system  of 
Livery  and  Maintenance,  having  become  a 
mere  tool  in  the  hands  of  the  dominant 
faction.  Yet  a  petition,  so  late  as  1432, 
praying  that  trials  touching  freehold  or  in- 
heritance should  not  be  held  in  Parliament 
or  council,  shows  that  the  Commons  had  still 
independence  enough  to  display  their  sense  of 
the  danger.  The  new  monarchy,  which  rose 
on  the  ruins  of  self-destroyed  nobility,  was 
strong  enough  to  content  itself  as  a  rule 
with  the  ordinary  methods  of  indictment 
and  impeachment.  But  in  1539  the  kins- 
men of  Reginald  Polo,  including  his  aged 
mother,  the  Countess  of  Salisbury,  daughter 
of  Edward  IV.,  were  cut  off  by  Bill  of 
Attainder,  and  the  same  fate  overtook,  in 
the  following  year,  the  disgraced  minister 
Cromwell,  condemned  by  a  singular  retribu- 
tion without  being  heard  in  his  own  defence. 
Revenge  in  thQ  one  case,  the  preservation  of 
the  royal  popularity  in  the  other,  demanded 
the  employment  of  a  procedure  which  could 
dispense  with  legal  proof  of  guilt.  The  at- 
tainder of  Strafford,  however,  in  1641  marks 
the  triumph,  not  of  a  political  faction,  but  of 
a  constitutional  theory.  By  the  letter  of  the 
Statute  of  Treasons  (1352),  which  condemned 
attemptfi  on  the  king's  life  and  honour  only, 
the  earl  was  innocent;  but  the  Parliament 
maintained  that  the  spirit  of  the  statute  saw 
in  the  king  the  majesty  of  the  state,  and  so, 
by  implication,  condemned  all  attempts  to 
overthrow  the  existing  constitution.  The 
last  instance  in  English  history  is  that  of  Sir 
John  Fen  wick  attainted  and  executed  in  1697 
for  participation  in  the  Assassination  Plot. 

Beeves,  Hwrf.  ofEng.  Law,  iii.  434,  *c. ;  Hallam, 
Con*t.  Hitil. :  Sir  E.  May,  Parliameniary  Prae- 
tice;  Stephen,  Commentarien  on  the  Ixiws  of 
Eng.,  i  141,  &c. :  Knif^ht,  Political  Cyclopcrdia. 
StatntoB  5  and  6  Ed.  VI. ;  6  Eliz. ;  8  and  9  WiU. 
Ill  ;  7  Anne;  54 Geo.  HI.,  Ac.     ^„  ^  p -. 

Attainder,  Thb  Great  Act  of 
(Ireland),  was  introduced  into  the  Irish 
Parliament  on  Jan.  25,  1689,  and  the  debate 


on  it  lasted  some  time.     James  II.  gave  his 
consent  to  it  with  great  reluctan(5e.    It  natu- 
rally had  a  very  bad  effect  on  the  English 
Jacobites.     Between  2,000  and  3,000  names, 
including  half  the  Irish  peerage,  and  even 
many    prominent    Jacobites,   were   included 
in  the  Bill.     All  those  who  were  in  rebellion 
against  the  king  (James  II.)   were   to  sur- 
render and  take   their   trial  before  August 
10,  otherwise  they  were  to  be  deemed  guilty 
of    high  treason.     All  those   who  had  lelt 
Ireland  before  Nov.  6,  1688,  were  to  appear 
for  the  same  purpose  before  Sept.  1,  1689. 
Those  who  had  left  Ireland  before  Nov.  5, 
1688,  and  were  then  in  England,  Scotland, 
or  the  Isle  of  Man,  were  allowed  till  Oct.  1. 
In  case  of  a  valid  excuse  for  not  presentini? 
themselves,  the  estates  were    to   be  placed 
temporarily  in  the  hands  of  the  king,  but  to 
be  restored  on  the  accused  person's  return. 
The   king's  pardon  granted  before  Nov.  1 
was  to  be  valid,  otherwise  to  be  of  no  avail. 
I^Iacaulay  asserts  that  care  was  taken  to  keep 
the  list  of  attainted  persons  secret,   but  the 
e\'idence  adduced  seems  inconclusive.      Tlie 
same  author  calls  it  an  "  Act  without  pirallol 
in  the  history  of  any  civilised  country."     In 
excuse  for  the  Irish  we  must  look  to  the  his- 
tory of  Ireland  since  1641,  and  to  the  conduc 
of  the  English  Parliament  at  the  same  time. 

Archbishop  King,  Sate  of  the  ProUatants  \\ 
Ireland,  1^2;  Froude,  Eng. in  Ireland;  Macaula^ 
Hi't.  ofEng. 

Atterbury,  Francis  {b.  1662,  d,  1732> 
Bishop  of  Rochester,  was  educated  at  Wvst 
minster  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  distiii 
guished  himself  with  his  pen  as  a  dofend<: 
of  the  reformed  religion  against  the  attacl 
of  James  II.  After  the  Revolution  ho  too 
the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  new  govern meii 
He  took  ordcra,  and,  after  being  preacher  i 
the  Rolls  Chapel,  became  one  of  the  roy 
chaplains  (1702),  but  resided  at  Oxior 
There  he  helped  Bovle  in  his  edition 
the  spurious  Lotters  oi  Phalaris,  and  rovi.'«< 
his  Answer  to  Bentley.  He  now  wrote  sevii 
pamphlets  in  support  of  the  powers  of  t 
Lower  House  of  Convocation.  In  1 704,  h(^  \ 
came  Doctor  of  Divinity  and  Dean  of  CarWs 
In  1710,  however,  he  seized  the  opportuni 
of  the  Sacheverell  prosecution,  and  frain 
the  speech  which  that  divine  prono\iT\ced 
the  bar  of  the  House  of  Lords.  [Sacih 
EKELL.]  He  became  Dean  of  Christ  Chur 
and  subsequently  (1713)  Bishop  of  Rochist 
"because  he  was  so  bad  a  dean."  Ho 
poused  the  Jacobite  cause,  and  on  the  doi 
of  Anne  implored  the  ministry  to  proolt 
James  III.  Disliked  by  George  I.  bocfi 
of  his  refusal  to  sign  the  bishops*  dochirut 
of  fidelity,  he  began,  in  1717,  to  corrospi 
directly  with  the  Pretender.  On  the  f;iil 
of  Atterbury's  plot  to  re^tore  the  Stuarts  i 
below)  he  was  imprisoned,  and  a  Bill  of  T*j 
and  Penalties  being  introduced,  he  w«i8  foi 
to  leave  England,  professing  his  innoco 


▲tt 


(97) 


Anc 


For  a  time  he  resided  at  Paris,  and  was  chief 

adviser  of  the  Pretender.    He  became  "the 

phantom  minister  of  a  phantom  court/'  and 

engag^  in    the    schemes    for   a    Highland 

rebellion  (1723).    Atterbury  was  the  type  of 

the  High  Church  clergy,  most  of  whom  were 

Jacobite  at  heart,  and  he  "  would  have  made 

an  admirable  bishop,"  says  Lord  Stanhope, 

"  had  he  been  a  less  good  partisan."    He  was  a 

clever,  versatile,  but  somewhat  fussy  politician, 

always  full  of  daring  schemes  and  speculative 

adventures. 

F.  WiilumB,  Menutin  and  Corrnpondmiee  of 
Atterbviry,  2  vols.,  1869 ;  Lord  Macanlay,  Bio- 
graphy in  EncyL  i>rUann. 

Atterbnry's  Plot  (1721),  a  Jacobite 
conspiracy,  wats  occasioned  by  the  confusion 
in  England  owing  to  the  failure  of  the  South- 
Sea  Scheme  and  the  revival  of  Jacobite 
hopes  on  the  birth  of  the  Young  Pretender. 
It  was  concocted  by  a  council  of  five — Atter- 
bury, Bishop  of  Hochester,  the  Earls  of 
Arz^  and  Orrery,  Lords  North  and  Gower — 
who  constantly  communicated  with  James 
the  Old  Pretender.  They  quarrelled  a  good 
deal  amongst  themselves,  and  offered  their 
leadership  to  Lord  Oxford,  but  he  declioed 
it-  They  intended  to  procure  a  force  of 
5,000  men  from  abroad,  and,  failing  that,  as 
much  arms,  money,  and  men  as  they  could. 
They  then  proposed  te  seize  the  Bank,  Ex- 
chequer,  and  other  places  where  money  was 
lodged,  and  to  proclaim  the  Pretender  during 
the  absence  of  the  king  from  England,  when 
James  was  to  embark  for  this  country.  Un- 
fortunately for  the  success  of  their  scheme, 
they  applied  for  6,000  men  to  the  Kegent 
of  France,  who  pr«mptly  betrayed  their  de- 
sign to  the  English  envoy,  Sir  Luke  Schaub. 
They  were  allowed  to  continue  for  some  time 
longer,  their  communications  being  opened 
by  the  government;  ultimately,  the  leaders 
were  arrested  and  the  conspiracy  was  frus- 
trated. 

Coze,  WalpoUf  iL  534,  fto. ;  Stanhope.  Hist, 
of  Eng,^  a.  52. 

Attoraay-General,  The,  is  the  chief 

law  officer  of  England,  who  is  appointed  to 
represent  the  crown  in  all  matters  affecting 
its  interests.  The  meaning  of  the  term  is 
thus  explained  in  the  early  text-book.  Lea 
Termea  de  la  Ley :  "  An  attorney  is  one 
appointed  by  another  man  to  do  something 
in  his  stead,  and  is  either  general  or  special. 
Attorney-General  is  he  that  is  appointed  to 
all  our  affairs  or  suits,  as  the  attorney- 
general  of  the  king,  attorney-general  of  the 
dake."  In  modem  times  the  Prince  of 
Wales  is  the  only  person  besides  the  crown 
who  appoints  an  "  Attorney-General,"  who, 
however,  in  usually  spoken  of  as  '*  the  Attor- 
ney-General for  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster  or 
Cornwall"  (as  the  case  may  bo).  The 
Attorney-General  must  be  a  party  to  all 
actions  affecting  the  crown ;  and,  as  repre- 

HJ8T.— 4 


sentative  of  the  crown,  he  prosecutes  for 
crimes,  brings  actions  for  revenue  causes,  and 
allows  applications  for  patents.  Until 
recently,  the  income  of  the  office  was  mainly 
derived  from  patent  fees.  It  is  now  fixed  at 
£7,000  per  annum,  exclusive  of  fees  for  legal 
advice  and  services.  The  first  record  of  the 
designation  "  Attomatus  Kegis "  occurs  in 
the  6th  year  of  Edward  I.  The  second 
named  is  William  de  Giselham  (a.d.  1278), 
who  two  years  afterwards  is  called  **  king^s 
Serjeant."  In  a.d.  1315 — 16,  three  Attomati 
Regis  are  mentioned  in  the  same  year  as 
king's  Serjeants.  It  was  probably  during  the 
reign  of  Mar>'  that  the  person  who  had  been 
originally  chosen  to  represent  the  king  gene- 
rally became  a  royal  officer  with  that  par- 
ticular function.  In  1614,  a  question  was 
raised  as  to  whether  the  Attorney- General 
(Sir  Francis  Bacon)  could  legally  sit  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  '*  because  by  his  office  he 
is  an  assistant  of  the  House  of  Lords." 
Bacon  was  allowed  to  retain  his  seat,  but  in 
1620,  1625,  and  1640,  on  the  bestowal  of  the 
office  on  members  of  the  House,  they  vacated 
their  seats.  On  the  appointment  of  North  in 
1673,  he  retained  his  seat,  and  his  successors 
have  continued  to  sit  without  hindrance. 
[Solicitor-  G  bnbilal.] 

FoBii,  Jttdg«s  of  fitffktnd,  iii.  4i,  207,  iv.  20, 
138,  194;  Manning,  In'yntty  of  a  SerjiMMtat-Lair. 
See  also  Beeves,  HxA.  of  Eng,  Law,  xxv. ;  and 
Termea  de  la  Ley,  sub  nom.  r-p   -p  -^  -i 

AttwOOd,  Thomas  {b.  1784,  d.  1856),  was 
a  banker,  of  Birmingham,  and  Gracechuich 
Street,  London,  and  first  attracted  public 
attention  by  his  vigorous  opposition  to  the 
Orders  in  Council  of  1812.  He  condemned 
the  return  to  cash  payments  after  the  war, 
and  wrote  some  pamphlets  advocating  paper 
money  in  1815  and  1816.  He  was  a  vigorous 
advocate  of  parliamentary  reform,  and  the 
chief  founder  in  1829  of  the  Birmingham 
Political  Union.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
members  for  Birmingham  after  the  passing 
of  the  Eeform  Bill  of  1832. 

Auchmnty,  Sir  Samuel  {b.  1762,^.  1822), 
entered  the  army  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  and 
was  despatched  on  active  sen  ice  to  America 
under  Sir  W.  Howe.  He  was  present  at  most 
of  the  principal  engagements .  in  the  enrlior 
years  of  the  war.  In  1778  he  returned  to 
England,  but  almost  immediately  left  for 
India,  where  he  remained  for  nineteen  years. 
He  served  in  the  campaigns  on  the  ftlalabar 
const,  and  in  Mysore  and  against  the  Hohillas, 
and  he  also  took  part  in  the  siege  of  Seringa- 
patam  under  liOrd  Comwallis.  Returning  in 
1797,  he  was  gazetted  to  a  brevet- colonelcy, 
and  in  1801  joined  Baird's  Indian  force  in 
Egj'pt,  and  became  adjutant-general.  After 
the  surrender  of  Alexandria  in  1802  he 
returned  to  Englnnd,  and  four  years  biter 
was  sent  to  command  a  division  of  the 
troops  in  the  Kio  de    la  Plata,  which  he 


Auc 


(98  ) 


Aud 


found  in  a  dangerous  position.  By  his  skill 
and  energy  he  restored  confidence  to  the 
army,  and  on  the  3rd  February,  1807,  carried 
Monte  Video  by  storm.  Auchmuty,  on  his 
return,  was  appointed  to  the  command  in  chief 
at  Madras,  and  in  18 1 1  gave  valuable  assistance 
in  the  reduction  of  Java.  Two  years  later  he 
returned  to  England,  and  was  appointed  to 
command  the  forces  in  Ireland,  which  post 
he  held  till  his  death  at  Dublin  in  August, 
1822. 

Auchy  (EocHA,  Achaicus),  King  of 
Balriada,  was  the  son  of  Aodhfin,  whom  he 
succeeded,  796.  He  was  on  friendly  terms 
with  Charlemagne,  to  whom  he  rendered 
groat  assistance  in  the  establishing  of 
universities  in  France.  He  is  said  to  have 
married  Erfusia,  a  Pictish  princess,  and  thus 
to  have  bequoiithed  te  his  grandson  Keimeth 
a  claim  te  the  Pictish  crown. 

Aucklandf  William  Eden,  Ist  Lord 
(3.  1743,  d.  1814),  the  third  son  of  a  Durham 
baronet,  Sir  Robert  Eden,  was  educated  at 
Eten  and  Christ  Church,  and  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1769.  In  1771  he  published 
"Principles  of  Penal  Law,"  which  brought 
him  into  notice,  and  he  was  appointed  auditor 
and  one  of  the  directors  of  Greenwich  Hos- 
pital, and  in  the  following  year  an  Under- 
Secretary  of  State.  In  1774  the  Duke  of 
]^larlborough  gave  him  the  family  seat  of 
Woodstock.  Two  3'ears  later  he  was  appointed 
to  the  Board  of  Trade,  and,  again,  after  two 
years,  one  of  the  commissioners  for  making 
terms  with  the  American  colonies.  His 
mission  was  unsuccessful,  but  it  made  him 
acquainted  with  Lord  Carlisle,  who,  in  1780, 
appointed  him  his  secretary  in  Ireland, 
where  Eden  remained  until  the  Rocking- 
ham ministry  came  into  power  in  1782. 
He  conducted  an  active  opposition  to  that 
government,  and  on  their  fall  was  made 
a  privy -councillor  and  Vice -Treasurer  of 
Ireland— an  office,  however,  which  he  soon 
resigned.  In  1 785  he  went  over  to  Versailles 
with  plenary  powers  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of 
commerce  with  France,  and  was  most  success- 
ful. In  1788  he  was  appointed  ambassador 
to  Spain.  On  his  return  a  year  later,  he  was 
raised  to  an  Irish  peerage,  and  was  almost 
immediately  afterwards  sent  out  to  Holland 
as  ambassador.  He  held  this  position  until, 
in  May,  1793,  he  was  raised  to  the  British 
peerage.  In  1798  he  was  appointed  by 
Pitt  to  be  joint  Postmaster-General,  and 
only  gave  up  the  place  when  Pitt  went 
out  of  office  in  1801.  Ho  was  a  warm 
supporter  of  most  of  Pitt's  measures,  and 
especially  of  the  union  with  Ireland,  the 
scheme  for  which  ho  had  himself  helped  to 
prepare.  Lord  Auckland  was  the  author  of 
measures  for  bettering  the  condition  of  crimi- 
nals, for  erecting  penitentiaries,  and  for  sub- 
stituting hard  labour  for  transportation. 


Auckland,  Gbobob  Eden,  Ist  Earl  of 
(3.  1784,  d.  1849),  the  Qaeond  son  of  the  first 
Lord  Auckland,  en^H^j^  Parliament  as  member 
for  Woodstock,  and  in  1814  he  succeeded  to 
the  peerage^.  In  1830  he  was  appointed  Presi- 
dent of  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  in  1834  was 
for  a  few  months  Fiist  Lord  of  the  Admiralty. 
On  the  return  of  his  friends  to  o£Bce,  Lord 
Auckland  was  appointed  Governor-General  of 
India,  and   quitted   England  (1835)  for  the 
administration  of  affairs  in  that  country.    At 
a    dinner    given    to  him  by  the  Court   of 
Directors  before  his  deim^ure,  he  assured 
(^them  that  **betlooked  with  exultetion  to  the 
new  prospects  before  him  as  affording  him  an 
opportunity  of  doing  good  to  his  fellow-man, 
01  «prom»tina  Education  and  knowledge,  and 
of  extending  the  blessings  of  good  govern- 
ment and  happiness  to  millions  in  India.*' 
But  before  ho  liad  been  six  months  in  Cal- 
cutta, he  perceived  a  storm  gathering  in  the 
North -West.   The  complications  which  arose 
brought  on  a  great  political  crisis  with  which 
he  was  not  competent  to  deal.     He  had  little 
reliance  on  his  own  judgment,  and  acted  for 
the  most  part  under  the  influence  of  thoso 
who   surrounded  him.       Ilis  administration 
is  almost  exclusively  comprised  in  the  fatiil 
expedition  to  Afghanisten.    [Afghan  Waks.^ 
In  February,  1842,  the  arrival  of  Lord  Ellen- 
borough  at  Calcutta  brought  Lord  Auckland's 
administration  to  a  close. '    It  comprised  a 
single  scries  of   events— the   conquest,    the 
occupation,    and    the    loss  of    Afghanistan. 
For  administrative  or  material  progress  ho 
had  no  leisure.     Lord  Auckland  on  his  return 
was  created  an  earl.    On  the  accession  of  the 
Russell    Cabinet,    1846,  he  was   once   more 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  Admiralty  Board. 
AnnwdKe^Ur;  Eaje,  4/9hant8<an. 

Audl^,  James  Touch et,  12th  Lord 
(rf.  1469),  served  under  Henry  V.  in  the 
French  wars.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  ho 
took  part  with  the  Lancastrians,  and  was  in 
command  of  the  army  which  intercepted 
Salisbury  at  Blore  Heath,  in  which  battle 
Audley  was  defeated  and  slain. 

Audley,  James  Touchet,  14tii  "Lort 
(d.  1497),  a  man  of  broken  fortune,  wju 
famous  in  the  rei^n  of  Henry  VII.  for  hig 
ill-advised  leadership  of  the  Cornish  rebels* 
and  for  his  adherence,  generally,  to  the  caiisi 
of  Perkin  Warbeck.  In  the  conflict  thai 
took  place  at  Black  heath  between  the  rebel 
and  the  king's  forces  under  the  conrmnand  o 
I^rd  Daubeny  and  the  Earl  of  Oxford,  Lort 
Audley  was  taken  prisoner,  and  was  sooi 
afterwards  beheaded. 

Audley,  Thomas  Audley,  Lord  (A.  148^ 
d,  1544),  was  a  lawyer,  appointed  in  1629,  ti 
the  king's  request,  Speaker  of  the  Hoiiso  c 
Commons.  In  1530  he  became  Attorney  ic 
the  Duchy  of  Lancaster,  and,  in  Novembe 
1531,  he  was   made  King's  Serjeant.        T 


▲vg 


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Atui 


enable  him  to  second  Henry's  designs  with 

a  due  amount  of  personal  influence,  he  was, 

on  May  20th,  1532,  put  in  possession  of  the 

Great  Seal,  which  he  continued  to  hold  till 

shortly  before  his  death.      Audley  profited 

largely  by  ecclesiastical  confiscations, "  carving 

for  himself  in  the  feast  of  abbey  lands,"  as 

Fuller  remarks, "  the  first  cut,  and  that  a  dainty 

morseL*'  The  magnificent  priory  of  the  Holy 

Trinity  in  Aldgute,  London,  which  was  granted 

to  Audley  soon  after  his  advancement  to  the 

chancellorship,  was  converted  by  him  into  a 

private  mansion.      But  his  chief  spoil  was 

the  rich    monastery  of  Walden,  which    he 

persuaded  the   king  to    grant  him    on  his 

elevation  to  the  peerage  in  November,  1538, 

as  Baron  Audley  of  Walden.     He  was  named 

in  the    commission   for  the   trial  of   Anne 

Boleyn  and  for  the  examination  of  Catherine 

Howard. 

AngfnientatioiLSy  Ck>nRT  of.  This  court 
was  instituted  on  the  dissolution  of  the 
monasteries  in  Henry  VIII.'s  reign,  and  was 
established  to  secure  to  the  crown  the  rich 
revenues  belonging  to  suppressed  reUgious 
houses.  Its  business  was  strictly  limited  to 
the  consideration  of  questions  connected  with 
the  confiscated  Church  property,  and  as  this 
property  was  granted  away  with  lavish 
hberality,  the  court  speedily  became  a  nullity 
and  ceaadd  to  exist. 

Alicnurtin.69  St.  {d,  604),  first  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  was  prior  of  the  monastery  of 
St.  Martin,  in  Rome,  and  was  selected  by 
Gregory  the  Great  as  the  head  of  the  band 
of  monks  who  were  to  preach  Christianity  in 
England.  After  a  difScult  journey  they 
landed  in  the  Isle  of  Thanet,  in  596.  and 
obtained  the  protection  of  Ethelbert  of  Kent. 
Ethelbert*8  marriage  with  Bertha  had  fami- 
liarised him  with  the  idea  of  Christianity, 
and  he  immediately  gave  permission  to  the 
missiGnaries  to  preach  and  convert  his  people. 
In  the  next  year  Ethelbert  himself  became 
a  Christian,  and  in  600  Canterbury  was 
made  an  archiepiscopal  see,  with  Augustine 
as  its  archbishop,  with  authority  to  consecrate 
twelve  bishops  under  his  prmiacy.  Kent 
seems  to  have  become  converted  rapidly, 
and  on  Christmas  Bay,  597*  no  less  than 
10,000  persons  are  said  to  have  been  bap- 
tised. Before  his  death  Augustine  was  able 
to  see  almost  the  whole  of  Kent  and  Essex 
Christian.  Augustine's  ministry  was  largely 
occupied  by  a  contest  with  the  British 
bishops.  Their  differences  were  nominally  on 
questions  of  ritual,  bat  the  real  question  at 
issue  was  whether  or  not  the  Celtic  bishops 
should  acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  the 
Pope  and  the  Italian  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury. Conferences  with  the  Welsh  bishops 
were  held  at  Augustine* s  Oak  (probably  Anst, 
on  the  Severn),  in  603,  but  to  no  purpose, 
and  the  breach  between  the  two  Churches 
was  only  widened.    Augustine  was  a  man  of 


somewhat  narrow,  pedantic,  and  unconcilia- 
tory  character — ^tendencies  which  the  monastic 
training  of  his  early  and  middle  life  probably 
did  much  to  confirm;  but  his  firmness,  his 
integrity  of  hfe,  and  his  singleness  of  pur- 
pose, are  undoubted.  The  work  he  did  might 
have  been  greater,  if  he  had  possessed  a 
wider  culture,  a  greater  insight,  and  a  more 
powerful  influence  over  men's  minds  and 
hearts.  Still,  as  far  as  it  went,  it  was  in  the 
highest  degree  important.  **  He  had,"  says 
Canon  Bright,  "  rooted  in  Canterbury  a  defi- 
nite centre  for  any  future  amount  of  Church 
extension." 

Bede,  Kui,  BocHm.j  i.  23,  &o. ;  Gerrase  of  Can- 
terbury, Ad.  Pomiif.  Cantunr.  Eccle$.  (Rolls 
Series),  ii.  324:  Saint  Qr»>gor^.  Epi$t^  vii.  5,  30 ; 
Bright,  Early  Eng.  Church  History, 

AulaBegU.     [Curia  Ebgis.] 

Anldeanir  "^HE  Battle  of  (May  9, 1645), 
was  fought  between  the  Covenanters  and  the 
Boyalists  imder  Montrose,  during  the  latter*s 
irregular  campaign  in  the  north-ea&tem  High- 
lands. In  May,  1645,  he  found  himself  near 
Auldearn  in  Nairn,  in  presence  of  the 
Covenanters,  led  by  John  TJrry  or  Hurry. 
A  mistake  made  bv  one  of  the  latter^s  officers 
led  Montrose  to  make  an  attack.  The  High- 
landers' rush  carried  all  before  it,  and  Urry's 
force  was  broken  and  scattered. 

Spalding.  Memorials,  ii.  474  j  Burton,  Hitt.  qf 
Scot.,  vi.,  chap.  73. 

AnltUI  Plautius  '^as  the  commander  of 
the  Roman  forces  which  Claudius  despatched 
against  Britain  in  the  year  43.  Among  the 
distinguished  officers  who  served  under  him 
were  two  future  emperors,  Vespasian  and  his 
son  Titus.  With  their  aid  he  defeated 
Caractacus,  and  reduced  the  north-eastern 
port  of  the  island.  In  the  year  50  he  was 
recalled.  Rumour  makes  him  the  founder  of 
London. 

Aumfile.  William  op  (rf.  1179),  was  the 
son  of  Stephen,  Count  of  Champagne,  and 
therefore  a  kinsman  of  King  Stephen.  For 
his  valour  in  the  battle  of  the  Standard,  the 
earldom  of  York  was  given  to  him.  He  held 
out  in  Scarborough  Castle  against  Henry  II., 
but  in  1155  was  compelled  to  surrender. 

Auray,  The  Battle  of  (1364),  was  fought 
between  the  English,  who  were  espousing 
the  claims  of  Montfort  to  the  dukedom  of 
Brittany,  and  the  French,  who  supported  his 
rival,  Charles  of  Blois.  The  English,  who 
were  commanded  by  Sir  John  Chandos,  were 
completely  victorious.  Du  Guesclin,  the 
French  commander,  was  taken  prisoner,  and 
Charles  of  Blois  was  slain. 

AuBtin,  John  {b.  1790,  d.  1859),  was  the 
first  systematic  English  writer  upon  the 
formal  science  of  positive  law.  At  an  early 
age  he  entered  the  army,  in  which,  however, 
he  remained  only  five  years.    In  1818  he  was 


AXLM 


(  100) 


▲UJi 


called  to  the  bar  by  the  Society  of  the  Inner 
Temple ;  but,  in  spite  of  great  indoetry  and 
a  consummate  clearness  and  subtlety  of  in- 
tellect, he  was  debarred  from  professional 
success  by  physical  weakness,  and  an  over- 
fastidious  and  exacting  temperament.  In 
1826  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Juris- 
prudence in  the  newly  founded  University  of 
London  (now  University  College),  where  his 
lectures  were  attended  by  numerous  men  of 
future  eminence,  including  Lord  Rom  illy, 
Grote,  Sir  G.  Comewall  Lewis,  and  J.  S. 
Mill.  The  text  of  many  of  the  lectures 
has  been  recovered  from  notes  taken  by  the 
last  named.  But  in  spite  of  this  apprecia- 
tion by  the  few,  the  majority  of  students 
could  not  afford  to  pay  attention  to  a 
study  ,which  was  not  professionally  lucrative, 
and  in  1 832  Austin  resigned  his  chair.  In  1 833 
Lord  Brougham  appointed  him  a  member  of 
the  Criminal  Law  Commission.  In  1834  the 
Inner  Temple  engaged  him  to  deliver  another 
course  of  lectures  upon  the  principles  and 
history  of  law.  But,  as  before,  it  was  soon 
apparent  that  there  was  no  demand  for  a 
scientific  legal  education.  In  1837  Mr.  Austin 
was  sent  to  Malta  as  a  royal  commissioner  to 
inquire  into  native  grievances,  in  which 
capacity  he  was  highly  successful.  After 
a  prolonged  sojourn  on  the  Continent,  he 
returned  to  Weybridge,  where  he  died  in 
1859.  As  a  jurist,  Austin  owes  his  rank  to 
the  fact  that  he  was  the  first  to  define  the 
sphere  of  legal  science,  by  disting^shing  law 
from  history  and  ethics — thus  destroying  a 
confusion  which  has  produced  many  practical 
legislative  evils.  His  writings  are  unfinished, 
and  their  form  is  often  uncouth  and  tedious ; 
but  the  doctrines  which  he  first  enunciated 
are  now  the  common  property  of  every 
thinker. 

Austin's  Works  are  The  Provinoe  ofjurispru- 
denoe  Determined^  Lond.,  1832,  and  Lecture*  on 
Jurisprudence,  Ath  edition,  Lond.,  1875.  The 
latter  work  embodied  the  former,  and  was  pub- 
lished bv  Mrs.  Austin  from  the  author's  notes. 
The  preface  contains  an  interestini?  life  of  Austin. 
For  criticisms  of  Austin's  theories,  eee  Sir  Henry 
Maine,  Ancient  Law,  Lectures  xi.  and  zii.  ; 
Mr.  P.  Harrison  in  FortninhUti  JB^rvnc,  Oct. 
and  Nov.,  1878,  and  Jnn  ,  1879 ;  Prof.  Pollock  in 
Fortnightlf  Review,  Jan.,  1883;  Prof.  Holland, 
Juriaprudmce,  Oxford,  1882.  [B.  R.  W.] 

Australasia,  At  what  date  Australia 
was  first  discovered,  and  whether  by  the 
Portuguese  or  Dutch,  are  questions  which 
may  possibly  never  be  answered.  Certain 
it  is  that,  whatever  may  be  the  probability 
of  a  concoalmeiit,  from  supposed  commercial 
interests,  of  an  earlier  knowledge  of  a 
southern  continent,  the  discovery  was  not 
disclosed  earlier  than  1511,  nor  later  than 
1542.  Between  those  years  the  Portuguese 
published  the  existence  of  a  southern  land, 
corresponding  to  Australia,  which  they  termed 
Great  Java ;  and  subi»oqupnt  Spanish  ex- 
plorers, among  whom  was  Torres,  the  dis- 
coverer of  Torres*  Straits  (1606),  confirmed  the 


correctness  of  the  Portuguese  maps.    Tpon 
the  decline  of  Spanish  maritime  Bupremacy, 
the  Dutch  became  the  chief-  explorers  of  the 
southern  seas,  using  their  colony  of  Java  as  a 
starting-point.     Through    their   efforts  the 
Gulf  of  Carpentaria  was  surveyed  and  named, 
with    many  other    places   on  the  northern 
coasts,  which  retain  their  Dutch  names  up  to 
the  present  day.  Indeed,  such  was  the  extent 
of  Dutch  influence  that  the  whole  continent 
was  called  **  New  Holland  " — a  name  which 
is  even  yet  not  quite  supplanted  by  Matthew 
Fiinders's  more  happy  appellation  of  "  Aus- 
tralia."   The  southern  coast  remained  undis- 
covered until  1627,  when  a  Dutch  vessel,  bound 
for   Japan,   being  driven  from   her  course, 
sailed  along  the  ^ore  of  the  Great  Bight  for 
upwards  of    one  thousand    miles.     Tasman 
(1642)  was  the  first  systematic  explorer  of 
these  shores ;  and  to  him  is  due  the  discovery 
of  New  Zealand,  and  of  Tasmania,  the  latter 
of  which  was  called  by  him  Van  Diemen's 
Land,  after  his  betrothed.   The  first  English- 
man   who    touched  Australian    shores   was 
Dampier,   the  buccaneer   (1688),  whose  ac- 
count was  so  favourable  that  the  English 
government    placed  him  in  command  of  a 
national  expedition.    After  this   expedition, 
by  means  of  which  the  north-west   coasts 
were  first  surveyed,  there  are  few  records  of 
discoveries  until  the  first  voyage  of  Captain 
Cook  (1770).     This  voyage  marks  the  begin- 
ning  of    Anglo  -  Australian    history.      For, 
although  no  permanent  settlement  was  made 
until  1788,  Cook  saw  enough  of  the  country  to 
con\'ince  him  that  settlement  was  desirable  ; 
and  moreover,  by  sailing  along  the  eiistcm 
coast,  he  completed  the  outline  of  the  cot\- 
tinent.      In    his    second    (1773)    and    third 
voyages  (1777),  he  visited  New  Zealand  and 
Tasmania.     The  news  of  his  discoveries,  anc] 
of  the  further  discoveries  of  Barr  and  Flinders 
induced    the  English  government    to    ttikc 
possession  of  the  country ;  and  on  Jan.  '20 
1788,  the  first  English  fleet,  under  the  com 
mand  of  Captain  Arthur  Phillip,  anchored  ii 
Botany    Bay,    a    locality    which    -was    boot 
abandoned  for  the  more  sheltered    C-ove   o 
Sydney.   Inland  exploration  was  firs*t  cluH-ke< 
by  the  chain  of  mountains  which  runs,  undi: 
various  names,  along  the  greater  part  of  th 
eastern  coast  at  a  distance  from  the   sea  c 
from  fifty  to  a  hundred  miles.    Those  -woj 
crossed  in  1813,  imder  the  necessity  for  fiiu 
ing  new  pasture  during   a    long     di'ough 
The  great  rivers   were  next   explored,    ai 
attention  was  directed  to  the  possibility 
traversing    the    continent.       After     varioi 
attempts,  this  feat  was   successfully   a.cHoi 
plished  by  Stuart  in   1860,  journeying   frc 
south  to  north,  and  in  the  following:   year    1 
the  ill-fated  expedition  of  Burke  and  W  il 
These   expeditions  proved  that  the    intt^r: 
of  Australia  was  not  a  des(»rt,  and    sHow 
the   feasibility  of  constructing   the     prcw 
telegraph  'line  between  Adelaide    and.   1^( 


(103) 


Anil 


Darwen.  All  the  Australiaii  capitals  are  now 
connected  by  telegraph,  and  the  railway  sys- 
tem»  which  is  under  govemmental  control, 
has  alflo  been  largely  developed. 

Included  under  the  genenl  designation  of 
Australia,  or  Australasia,  are  the  colonies  of 
(1)  New  South  Walet,  (2)  Victoria,  (3)  South 
Australia^  (4)  JTestem  Australia,  (6)  Queens- 
land,  (6)  Taamania,  (7)  New  Zealand.  These 
colonies  are  not  connected  except  geographi- 
cally, although  a  marked  and  growing  tend** 
ency  has  in  recent  years  been  wown  towards 
federation. 

(1)  N»w  South  Wales  (cap.  Sycbey),  dur- 
ing the  earlier  period  of  its  history,  was  used 
as  a  penal  settlement  by  the  British  Empire. 
Grovemor  Phillip,  however,  speedily  perceived 
the  necessity  for  enoouraging  another  kind  of 
immigration,  and  through  his  efforts  a  settle- 
ment of  freemen  was  established  on  the 
Hawkesbuiy  River  (1802).  In  1808  Governor 
Bligh  was  deposed  by  a  successful  mutiny  of 
the  New  South  Wales  Corps ;  but  the  vigorous 
measures  of  his  successor,  Crovemor  ICac- 
quarie,  restored  order,  and  rapidly  advanced 
prosperity.  After  the  introduction  of  merino 
sheep  by  Mr.  John  Macarthur,  and  the  dis- 
oovery  of  the  pasture-lands  beyond  the  Blue 
Mountains,  the  progress  of  the  colony  was 
very  rapid ;  and  the  arrival  of  a  Chief  Jus- 
tice in  1824,  with  aU  the  apparatus  of 
a  Court  of  Record,  marks  a  more  settled 
order  and  vigorous  society.  Free  imnii- 
gration,  \^hich  his  immediate  predecessors 
had  discouraged,  was  revived  under  Gk)ver- 
nor  Brisbane  (1821).  In  1840  an  Order  in 
Council  suspended  transportation  to  New 
South  Wales,  although  an  attempt  was  made 
to  revive  the  practice  by  Earl  Grey  in  1846. 
This,  however,  was  met  by  the  colonists 
with  the  threat  of  secession;  and,  after  a 
violent  dispute,  the  EngUsh  government  gave 
way  (1852),  and  agreed  to  send  no  convicts 
to  any  Australian  colony  which  should 
object  to  receive  them.  Western  Australia 
was  for  a  long  time  the  only  colony  which 
gave  consent,  but  since  1864  transportation 
has  been  discxmtinued.  In  1842  municipali- 
ties were  first  established,  and  in  1843  the 
Legislatiye  Coimcil  was  made  partially  elec- 
tive; but  government  by  responsible  ministers 
was  not  introduced  until  1866.  The  most 
important  political  questions  in  New  South 
Wales,  as  in  all  the  Australian  colonies,  have 
been  the  questions  of  labour  and  land.  In 
the  earliest  days  of  the  colony,  the  demand 
for  labour  was  met  by  hiring  out  convicts  to 
the  &ee  settlers  ;  but  from  1821  onwards,  the 
system  of  free  immigration  was  largely  ex- 
tended. Not  only  was  every  immigprant 
entitled  to  a  free  passage  and  a  grant  of  land, 
but  the  shipper  also  received  a  bounty  for 
every  person  whom  he  landed  in  the  colony. 
In  consequence  of  this  practice,  the  country 
was  crowided  with  paupers  and  incapables, 
vho  had  often  disposed  of  their  land-grants 


to  speculatois  before  they  had  landed.  After 
the  establishment  of  responsible  government, 
the  bounty  system  was  abolished,  and  state- 
aided  immigration  has  been  jealously  'hatched. 
The  questions  connected  with  the  settlement  of 
the  land  are  still  causing  grave  political  dif- 
ficulties in  New  South  Wales,  as  in  other  Aus- 
tralian colonies.  The  community  is  divided 
into  two  classes — the  "  squatters  '*  (or  lessees 
of  large  pasture-runs),  and  the  small  fanners. 
The  former  class  desires  that  every  facility 
should  be  given  to  the  acquisition  of  large 
landed  estates,  while  the  other  side  maintains 
that  the  alienation  of  the  national  land  is  a 
policy  of  suicide.  The  disposition  of  land 
was  vested  originally  with  the  Governor ;  but 
in  1831  it  was  ordered  that  every  alienation 
of  crown-land  should  be  by  sale  at  a  public 
auction,  and  that  a  minimum  price  should  be 
fixed  of  five  shillings  an  acre.  In  1846  the 
influence  of  the  squatters  culminated,  and  a 
measure  was  passed,  known  as  the  Squatters 
Act,  to  secure  fixity  of  tenure  to  government 
lessees,  with  an  option  of  purchase.  Since 
the  introduction  of  representative  govern- 
ment, the  tendency  of  legislation  has  been  in 
the  opposite  direction.  At  present  any  bonA- 
fide  settler  can  "  select "  not  more  than  640 
acres  out  of  any  unoccupied  land  or  leasehold 
pasture  *'  run,'*  and  can  become  the  absolute 
owner  of  his  seleetion  by  residence  and  small 
yearly  payments.  Great  attention  is  paid  in 
New  South  Wales  and  throughout  Australia 
to  education.  Elementary  schools  and  uni- 
versities are  supported  by  the  state,  and 
the  colony  is  well  furnished  with  technical 
and  secondary  schools.  The  legislative 
power  in  New  South  Wales  is  vested  in 
the  Governor,  as  representing  thb  crown, 
and  a  Parliament  of  two  Houses,  under  Stat. 
18  and  10  Vict.,  c.  64.  The  Upper  House, 
or  Legislative  Council,  consists  of  not  less 
than  twenty-one  members,  who  are  nomin- 
ated by  the  crown ;  while  the  Legislative 
Assembly  or  Lower  House  consists  of 
126  elected  members.  There  is  no  property 
qualification  for  voters,  and  the  votes  are 
taken  by  ballot.  The  population  of  New 
South  Wales  in  1891  was  1,132,234,  of 
whom  411,910  resided  in  or  aboiit  Sydney. 
The  colony  originally  embraced  all  the  terri- 
tory from  Cape  York  to  the  South  Cape. 
But  its  area  has  been  greatly  reduced  by  the 
creation  of  the  separate  colonies  of  South 
Australia  (1836),  Victoria  (1851),  Queens- 
land (1859). 

(2)  Victoria  (pop.  1,170,319,  cap.  Mel- 
bourne) is  the  most  populous  of  the  Australian 
colonies.  It  rose  into  importance  after  the 
discovery  of  gold  in  1848,  and  in  1854  re- 
ceived a  constitution  (18  and  19  Vict.,  c.  55). 
This  measure  was  drawn  up  on  similar  lines 
to  the  Act  conferring  a  constitution  upon 
New  Soutii  Wales,  the  main  difference  being 
that  the  Upper  House  was  elected  by  voters 
with  a  high  property  qualification.    In  this 


Aus 


(  102) 


Arm 


respect  the  constitution  was  altered  in  1881. 
The  colony  is  now  divided  into  fourteen  pro- 
vinces, each  of  which  returns  three  members 
to  the  Legislative  Council.  The  members 
are  returned  for  a  period  of  six  years,  and 
one-third  of  thoir  number  retire  trienmally. 
The  voting  qualification  has  boon  reduced  to 
a  freehold  of  the  value  of  £10,  or  a  leasehold 
of  £25  per  annum.  All  the  land  of  the  colony 
has  been  disposed  of,  greativto  the  benefit 
of  those  who  are  descended  from  the  earliest 
settlers.  The  accumulation  of  land  in  the 
hands  of  single  proprietors  has  been  suoh  that 
an  attempt  has  oeen  made  to  break  up  the 
large  estates  by  the  imposition  of  a  progressive 
land-tax.  The  commercial  policy  of  Victoria 
has  been  strongly  Protectionist. 

(3)  South  Australia  (founded  1836,  pop. 
336,155,  cap.  Adelaide),  originally  part  of 
Kew  South  Wales,  obtained  responsible 
government  in  1856.  The  Parliament  con* 
sists  of  two  elected  Houses.  The  Legislative 
Council  is  composed  of  eighteen  members, 
six  of  whom  retire  every  three  years,  their 
successors  being  then  elected  for  nine 
years.  The  Council  is  elected  by  the  whole 
colony  voting  as  one  district.  A  property 
qualification  is  required  in  the  electors. 
The  House  of  Assembly  consists  of  forty-six 
members,  elected  for  tuee  yeai;^  by  manhood 
suffrage.  The  executive  is  vested  in  the 
Governor  and  an  Executive  Council,  consist- 
ing of  the  cabinet  and  specially -appointed 
ministers.  The  South  Australian  territory 
now  extends  over  the  whole  of  Central  Aus- 
tralia, and  a  great  part  of  the  north-western 
coast. 

(4)  Wbstebn  Australia,  first  called  the 
Swan  Biver  Settlement,  was  founded  in 
1829,  mainly  under  government  auspices.  To 
induce  settlement,  enormous  grants  of  land 
were  made  to  men  of  influence  and  capital, 
who  in  return  were  to  import  labourers.  The 
result  was  disastrous.  Labourers,  who  are 
the  settlers  most  needed  in  a  new  country, 
regarded  the  colony  as  closed  to  them,  while 
those  who  were  brought  out  preferred  to  work 
upon  their  own  account.  In  1850  the  colony 
received  a  fillip  of  prosperity,  by  accepting  the 
convicts  which  the  rest  of  Australia  had  ex- 
cluded. The  colony  only  received  represente- 
tive  government  in  1890.  Under  the  Act 
which  came  into  operation  on  the  2l8t  of 
October  in  that  year,  Western  Australia  is 
ruled  by  a  Governor  appointed  by  the  crown, 
a  Legislative  CouncU,  and  a  Legislative 
Assembly. 

(5)  Queensland  (pop.  421,249,  cap.  Bris- 
bane) was  separated  from  New  South  Wales 
in  1859.  Its  constitution  does  not  essentially 
differ  from  that  of  the  mother-colony.  The 
climate  is  tropical,  and  sugar  is  a  staple  pro- 
duct. The  demand  for  labour  has  been  met 
by  the  importation  of  South-Sea  Islanders 
(Kanuks) ;  the  traflic  in  whom  has  caused 
grave  scandals,  which  have  been  the  subject  of 


investigation.  Queensland  has  of  late  years 
developed  an  extensive  trade  in  wooL  In 
1883  this  colony  took  the  initiative  in  pressiiig 
upon  the  imperial  government  the  creation 
of  an  English  protectorate  over  the  southern 
part  of  New  Guinea. 

(6)  Tasmania,  or  Van  Diemrn'h  Land 
(pop.  153,144,  cap.  Hobart  Town),  has  a  con- 
stitution similar  to  that  of  South  Australia 
(Act  18  Vict.  c.  17,  and  Act  34  Vict.,  cap.  42). 
The  aborigines  of  Tasmania  have  recently 
become  extinct. 

(7)  New  Zealand  (pop.  668,651,  cap.  Wei 
ling^n),  a  group  of  Idands  600  miles  to  the 
eastward  of  Australia,  was  established  as  a 
self-governing  colony  in  1852  (15  and  16  Vict., 
c  72).    The  countiy  was  divided  into  tsix 
provinces  (afterwards  increased  to  nine),  each 
of  which  was  governed  by  an  elective  Superin- 
tendent and  Provincial  Council.    The  pro- 
vincial system  was  abolished  in  1875,  and 
the  legislative  power  vested  in  the  Grovemor, 
appointed  by  the  crown,  and  a  General  As- 
sembly of  two  Chambers,  one  nominated  by 
the  crown  (Legislative  Council),  the  other 
elective  (House  of  Representatives).  Members 
of  both  Houses  receive  £210  each  session  to 
cover  expenses.     The  colony  has  been  dis- 
turbed by  native  wars  [Maobi  Wars],  the 
most  serious  of  which  occurred  in  1864 — 5. 

Haklnyt  Society,  £arly  Foyajyes  to  Atutra7ia ; 
the  jouxiudBof  the  yarioas  explorers  (e.9.,  Stwrt, 
Stuart,  Mitchell,  M«Kinlay,  &cJ| ;  Bonwick, 
History  of  Pott  PhiQip;  Luig,  Rigtory  0/  Now 
South  Wdiet;  Fitzg&nld,  AustralU;.  Creasy, 
BrUauMxe  Empire:  Busden,  B%$t.  ^  ArutraXui. 
1883.  [B.  R.  W.] 

Australian  Colonies  Act,  The,  was 

passed  by  Lord  John  Russell^s  govomment 
in  1850,  for  the  better  administration  of  tho 
Australian  colonics.  It  created  Victoria  u 
distinct  province  from  New  South  ArVales,  and 
conferred  on  the  four  colonies  of  New  South 
Wales,  Victoria,  Van  Diemen's  Land,  and 
South  Australia  the  power  of  choosinj^  their 
own  constitution,  "by  means  of  popular 
assemblies,  composed  of  all  the  inhabitants 
who  were  £10  householders  or  £100  free- 
holders." 


Anstriat  Rblatioxs  with.  Before  t\\< 
sixteenth  century,  Austria  was  merely  ai 
imperial  duchy,  too  remote  and  insipfnifican 
to  have  important  dealings  with  Kn^^larvd 
Under  the  Bamberg  line,  the  captivity  c 
Richard  I.  in  consetiuonce  of  his  quarrel  M,'it 
Leopold  V.  is  the  only  important  exccptiOT 
Rudolf  of  Hapsburg,  who  in  1278  grjintc 
Austria  to  his  son  Albert,  was  a  good  frien 
of  Edward  I.,  but  friendship  for  aetw 
Bavarian  and  Luxemburg  emperors  mm 
England  necessarily  cool  to  Austrian  aspiran 
to  that  dignity.  With  Frederick:  11 
(1439—1493)  and  Maximilian  1.  (1493— -1.511 
the  empire  became  practically  hereditary' 


Anil 


(  103  ) 


Aus 


the  Austrian  house.    The  truditional  friend- 
ship   between.    England     and    the    empire 
[Empire,  Relations  with]  now  necessarily 
involved  closer  relations  with  Austria.  Maxi- 
milian    I.    acquired,    with  the   Burgiindian 
Netherlands,  the  advantages  of  the  old  com- 
mercial and  pohtical  connection  between  Eng- 
land and  Flanders.     Charles  V.  united  Spain, 
England's  third   mediaeval    ally,    with    the 
imperial  crown.     But  it  was  rather  with  the 
Austrian    house   than   Austria,   with   Spain 
rather  than   the  distant   "Erblander,"  that 
England  now  becomes  closely  involved.     On 
(Jharles^s     abdication,    the     Austro-Spanish 
House  split  up  into  two  lines,  but  the  soli- 
darity   betweeh    them   was    such    that   the 
intimate  relations  of  alternate  friendship  and 
hostility     between      England     and     Spain 
practically   aetennined    her    relations    with 
Austria  until  the  death  of  the  last  Austrian 
King    of    Spain    in   1700.      [Spain,    Hela- 
TioNs   WITH.]      Up  to  that  oate  it  is  only 
necessary  to  note  any  peculiarity  of  relation 
Itetween  England  and  Austria.     For  instance, 
when  tbe  Catholic  Keaction  ended  for  a  time 
the    An^lo-Spanish    alliance,    the    superior 
moderation  of  the  imperial  branch  produced 
friendly  relations  between  Elizabeth  and  the 
liberal  and  tolerant  Maximilian  II.  (1664 — 
1578).   Again,  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  close 
relations    with   Ferdinand    II.   (1619—1637) 
resulted  from  James  I.'s  persistent  efforts  to 
obtain    tlie     restoration    of    the    Pfalzgraf 
Frederick,  his  son-in-law,  to  his  hereditarj' 
dominions.     For  some  years  he  hoped  to  get 
this  by  Spanish  mediation.      But  when  he 
and  his  son  Charles  found  they  were  being 
played  with,  they  turned  to  that  alliance  with 
France  which  lasted  with  partial  breaks  till 
1688,  and  much  longer    than   the  political 
balance  demanded.     Fear  of  Louis  XIV.  led 
even   Charles  II.  to  the  Triple  Alliance, 
which    saved  Austria  Franche  Comt^;   and 
again,  in   1677,  he  began  to  incline  to  the 
imperial  side.     With  William  III.  the  whole 
influence  of  England    was   thrown    against 
France,  and  in  the  wars  of  the  League,  of 
Augsburg  (1688—1697)  and  of  the  Spaxish 
SuccBSSiox  (1702—1713)  England  foi^ht  in 
close  alliance  with  Austria.    The  substitution 
of  a  Bourbon  for  a  Hapsburg  monarch  in 
Spain   led   to    a   closer    union    of    interests 
b^ween  England  and  Austria  than  before. 
Yet   there   was  a  constant    strain   in  their 
relations  in  the  early  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century   that    led   to    absolute   hostility   in 
the  second  half.    In  the  Treaty  op  Utrecht 
(1713),  the  Tories  abandoned  their  Austrian 
ally.    The  accession  of  George  I.,  the  head 
of  the  house  whose  long  attachment  to  the 
empire    had    been   rewarded  with    a  ninth 
electorate,   made  relations  easier.      But  the 
commercial  restrictions  imposed  on  Flanders 
in  the  interests  of  the  maritime  powers,  and 
the    Barrier    Trvatt,  negotiated  through 
English  mediation,  that  handed    over   that 


country  to  Austria,  with  its  fortresses  gar- 
risoned by  Dutch  Protestants,  were  warmly 
resented  by  Cliarles  VI.,  who  had  not  for- 
gotten the  failure  of  his  Spanish  hopes.  Verj'- 
unwillingly  he  made  a  defensive  alliance 
in  1716,  and  when  Alberoni's  intrigues 
against  the  Utrecht  settlement  produced 
the  Triple  Alliance  of  1717,  it  was  only 
immediate  fear  of  losing  Italy  that  prevailed 
on  him  to  make  it  a  Quadruple  Alliance,  by 
joining  with  France  and  the  maritime  powers 
to  uphold  the  treaty.  In  1722  his  Ostend 
India  Company  was  established  in  direct 
contravention  of  the  treaty,  and  in  1726 
liipperda  negotiated  the  first  Treaty  of 
Vienna,  that  re-united  Austria  with  Spain 
against  England,  even  more  than  France. 
Charles  secured  a  further  triumph  when 
Prussia  deserted  England  [Treaty  of  Han- 
over, 1726]  for  his  alliance,  and  open  war 
between  England  and  Spain  ensued.  But  in 
1727  peace  was  patched  up  [Pahts,  Peace  of], 
and  in  1731  the  second  Treaty  of  Vienna 
restored  peace  with  England,  and  Charles 
renounced  his  commercial  schemes  for  a 
guarantee  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction.  His 
subsequent  misfortunes  in  the  Polish  and 
Turkish  wars  did  not  prevent  England  from 
loyally  supporting  Maria  Theresa  in  the  War 
of  the  Austrian  Succession  (1741 — 1748). 
But  English  help  was  given  in  an  over- 
bearing and  insolent  spirit  that  destroyed  all 
feelings  of  gratitude.  Robinson,  the  English 
ambassador  at  Vienna,  made  himself  most 
obnoxious,  and  England  compelled  the  em- 
press, much  against  her  will,  to  surrender 
part  of  the  Milanese  to  Sardinia  (Treaty  of 
Worms,  1743),  and  Silesia  to  Frederick  II.  of 
Prussia,  and  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 
(1748)  confirmed  these  cessions,  and  created 
a  patrimony  for  Don  Philip  at  the  expense  of 
Austria.  This  treaty,  coming  after  thirty 
years  of  friction,  produced  a  definite  rupture. 
Count  Wenzel  Kaunitz  became  Maria's  ad- 
viser, and  negotiated  that  alliance  lietween 
France  and  Austria  that  continued  with 
partial  breaks  till  the  Kevolution.  Hence, 
in  the  Seven  Yeabs'  War  (1766—1763), 
Austria  did  its  best  to  ruin  Prussia,  Eng- 
land's constant  ally.  But  George  III.,  intent 
on  the  restoration  of  personal  government, 
paid  but  slight  attention  to  foreign  politics. 
Meanwhile  Austria  approximated  to  the 
Eastern  powers,  and  in  1772  shired  in  the 
partition  of  Poland.  Joseph  II.  became  com- 
pletely fascinated  by  Catherine  II. *s  schemes 
of  Eastern  empire,  and  his  sister's  marriage 
keeping  up  his  friendship  with  France,  ho 
availed  himself  of  England's  difficulties  with 
America  to  repudiate  the  Barrier  Treaty 
(1781),  and  an  attempt  to  reopen  the  Scheldt. 
At  last  the  younger  Pitt's  vigour  restored  to 
England  its  true  position  in  Europe  by 
forming  an  alliance  against  the  Eastern 
powers,  which  in  1790  compelled  Leopold  II. 
(Joseph  was  Just  dead)  to  accept  tlie  Conven- 


Ait0 


(  104) 


Anil 


tioD  of  Eeichenbach,  and  withdraw  from  tho 
Turkish  War.  The  French  Revolution  com- 
pleted the  rapprochement  of  England  and 
Austria.  A  close  alliance  waa  cemented  by 
boavy  subsidies,  and  in  1793  England  joined 
tho  war  against  France.  The  alliance  con- 
tinued till  1815,  only  broken  when  Napoleon 
forced  a  peace  on  Austrui,  and  was  re- 
newed again  at  the  earliest  opportunity.  The 
Tkkaty  of  Vienna  was  successfully  nego- 
tiated (1815)  ;  if  England  did  not  ai  cede  to 
the  Holy  Alliance,  it  did  not  purge  itself  of 
association  with  its  authors  until  the  great 
ministry  of  Canning.  Since  1827  the  two 
countries  have  pursued  very  different  direc- 
tions. While  Austria,  under  the  guidance 
of  Mettemich,  was  the  representative  of 
reaction  and  absolutism  in  Europe,  the  two 
powers  could  hardly  be  on  other  terms  than 
tho^e  of  distant  courtesy.  In  1848—9,  when 
Italy  and  Hungary  tried  to  realise  their  in- 
depend(»nce,  English  sympathy  was  largely 
enlisted  on  the  side  of  the  wronged' nationali- 
ties ;  but  the  sympathy  took  no  active  shape, 
and  Austria  was  allowed  to  subdue  the  Hun- 
garians by  the  aid  of  Russian  armies.  The 
close  alliance  with  Russia  was,  however, 
severed  by  the  Crimean  War,  in  which  Austtia 
took  no  part.  The  overthrow  of  Austria  by 
Prussia  in  1866 — her  consequent  exclusion 
from  German  affairs,  and  the  liberal  in- 
stitutions which  she  found  herself  compelled 
to  set  up — seemed  to  have  removed  nearly 
all  possible  grounds  of  difference.  Since  1867 
the  political  intercourse  between  English 
statesmen  and  those  of  the  Austro- Hun- 
garian monarchy,  has  been  almost  confined  to 
such  questions  as  have  arisen  out  of  the  con- 
dition of  the  Balkan  peninsula. 

Coxe's  HouAe  of  A  i(«t  ria^  largely  drawn  from  des- 
patches, ia  the  be -^t  g'eueral  tinthorit.v.  Banke, 
£119(1^^  Hisfory  in  the  Seventeenth  Century,  is 
exi  ellent  on  all  foreign  relations ;  Amcth's 
Prim  Eugfin  and  MarUi  Theretia  are  indispens- 
able  for  the  eighteenth  oentury.     [T.  F.  T.] 

Austrian  Succession,  The  War  op 

THE  (1741 — 1748),  was  caused  by  the  death  of 
Charles  VI.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  without 
male  issue.  There  was  thus  thrown  open  the 
question  of  tho  succession  to  the  empire,  and 
to  the  Austrian  dominions.  The  latter  had 
previously  been  secured  to  Maria  Theresa  by 
the  Pragmatic  Sanction.  The  chief  claimant 
to  both  was  the  Elector  of  Bavaria ;  the  next 
important  candidate  was  Philip  V.  of  Spain. 
As  both  these  princes  were  allies  of  France, 
it  was  necessary  for  England  to  oppose  their 
designs.  Walpole,  therefore,  had  tried  to 
found  a  grand  alliance  between  Hanover, 
Prussia,  and  the  maritime  powers  "with 
Austria ;  Frederick,  however,  would  recognise 
the  Pragmatic  Sanction  only  if  his  claims  to 
Silesia  were  acknowledged.  This  was  refused 
by  Austria,  and  immediately  the  French  and 
Pnissian  armies  crosst^d  to  the  frontier  (1741) 
Hanover  was  obliged   to   declare  neutrality 


for  a  year.    In  1742  England  and  Holland 
joined  Austria,  and  an  army  of  30.000  was 
sent  into  the  Low  Countries.   In  the  Mediter- 
ranean Commodore  Matthews,  with  the  fleet, 
forced  the  King  of  Naples  to  neutrality,  and 
allowed     Sardinia    to    side    with    Austria. 
Frederick  acquired    Silesia  by  the  treaties 
of  Breslau  and  Berlin,  and  withdiew  from 
the  contest.     The  chief  event  of  1743  was  the 
battle   of  Dettinoen,  which,  though  nearly 
resulting    in    a    disastrous    defeat   for   the 
English,  forced  the   French  to  retire  into 
Alsace.     Negotiations  for  peace  were  begun, 
George  II.  being  willing  to  recognise  Charles 
of  Bavaria  as  emperor  if  he  would  renounce 
his  claims  on  Austria.     They  were,  however, 
broken  oif,  and  the  Treaty  of  Worms,  in- 
cluding England,  Holland,  Austria,  Saxony, 
and  Sardinia  (Sept.,  1743),  was  met  in  October 
by  the  League  of  Frankfort,  the  important 
members  of  which  were  France  and  Prussia. 
Thus  both  England  and    France  were  now 
the  respective  heads  of  two  great  leagues,  and 
the  question  at  issue  was  really  that  of  tho 
naval  supremacy  of  one  or  the  other  pr)Wor, 
rather    than    the    Austrian    succ^ision,  tho 
ostensible    cause    of    the    war.      In    1744, 
after  an  attempted  invasion  of  England  in 
favour  of  the  Pretender  had  been  thwarted 
by  the  elements,  a  formal  declaration  of  war 
was  made.     The  general  war,  in  which  the 
English  troops  were  not  concerned,  need  not 
be  discussed  hero.     Frederick  of  Prussia  wms 
not  well  supported  by  the  French  ;  and  in 
1745,  on  the  death  of  Charles  of   Bavaria, 
Francis,    tho    son    of    Maria    Theresa,   was 
elected  emperor.      It  was  then  possible  to 
have  made  some  general  negotiation.     The 
opportunity  passed.      Large   subsidies  were 
voted  to  German  troops,  and  18,000   Hano- 
verians were  taken  into  English   pay.     In 
Dec,  1746,  Frederick  made  a  separate  peace 
with  Austria,   known  as  that  of    Dresden. 
Meanwhile  the  allies,   under  the    Duke   of 
Cumberland   and    the    Prince    of  Waldeck, 
were  disastrously  beaten  by  the   French   at 
FoNTENOY   (May,  1745),   and  had  to   retire 
to  Brussels  and  Antwerp.      They  had  be<'n 
much   weakened  by  the  necessity  of   with- 
drawing troops  to  defend  England  against  the 
invasion  of  the  Young  Pretender.     [Stuakt, 
Charles  Edward.]     In  1746  Marshal   Sjixo 
became    master    of    the    Austrian    Nether- 
lands.    Deserted,  however,  by  the  Prussians 
and  Bavarians,  the  French  bee^an  to  make 
offers  for  peace.     In  1747  the  Duke  of  Cum- 
berland and  the  Prince  of  Oranare  were  de- 
feated with  grejit  loss  at  Lawfeldt.    Bergcn- 
op-Zoom  fell,  and  Maestricht  was  be8iefj:e<i. 
These  disasters  were  counterbalanced  by  the 
Austrian  successes  in  Italy,  and  by  the  capture 
of  Cape  Breton  Island  in  America.    At  length 
the  struggle  was  brought  to  a  close  by  th(^ 
Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (Oct.,  1748).    The* 
results  of  the  war,  as  a  whole,  were  not   un- 
favourable to  England.     She  had  done  much 


Aiil 


(105) 


Avk 


to  secure  her  maritime  8apremacy,  while  her 

rival,  France,  had  displayed  a  growing  weak- 

neaB  and  incapacity. 

Carlf  le,  Frtderiek  11.;  Coxe,  F^Qiam  and  TFol- 
pole;  Smollett,  Hist,  of  Eng.;  Frederick  II., 
Mimoirea  de  Mon  Temps ;  Voltaire,  Slide  dn  Loui$ 
XIV.;  Stanhope,  Hid.  of  Eng.;  Kanke,  Hist,  of 
iViusia. 

Authorities  on  EB^flish  Sistory. 

In  the  present  article  tlie  leading  authorities 
aire  briefly  considered  under  the  following 
nine  periods : — (1)  Before  the  English  con- 
quest; (2)  fi'om  the  English  to  the  Norman 
conquest ;  (3)  from  the  Norman  conquest  to 
the  close  of  the  12th  century ;  (4)  the  13th 
century;  (d)  the  14th  and  16th  centuries; 
(6)  the  16th  centurj' ;  (7)  the  17th  century; 
(8;  the  18th  century  till  1789;  (9)  from  1789 
to  the  present  time. 

L  Period  betore  the  English  Con- 
quest.— CoNTEJf POKAKY  WuiTEHS  :  CsBSaT,  tk 

licUo  Galiico  (bks.  iv.  and  v.) ;  the  Agricola 
of  Tacitus  and  passages  in  the  Oermania  of 
the  same  writer  are  the  principal  sources. 
To  these  must  be  added  numerous  scattered 
passages  in  various  classical  writers,  enu- 
merated in  Sir  T.  Hardy's  Descriptive  Catalogue 
of  Materiala  relating  to  the  Hintory  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  (vol.  i.),  and  printed  in 
the  Monumenta  Hitttorica  Britanniea  (foL  1848). 
The  Itinerarium  of  Antoninus  supplies  an 
enumeration  of  the  chief  towns  and  roads  in 
Roman  Britain;  the  Notitia  Lignitatum  an 
outline  of  the  organisation  of  the  country. 

Later  Wiutebs  :  A  few  notices  of  the 
condition  of  the  native  population  before  the 
middle  of  the  6th  century,  may  be  gathered 
from  Gildas,  de  Exeidio  Britannia.  The  EccU^ 
tiastieal  History  of  Bede,  commencing  at  the 
Game  time,  but  coming  down  to  a.d.  731, 
is  then  the  chief  authority.  The  Historia 
Britonum  of  Nennius  preserves  some  impor- 
tant fragments  of  earlier  writers,  and  affords 
illustrations  of  the  early  Welsh  traditions, 
but  is  otherwise  of  little  value.  The  work 
bearing  the  same  title,  by  Geoffrey  of  Mon- 
mouth, although  worthless  from  an  historical 
point  of  view,  is  valuable  as  a  soui^ce  of 
numerous  legends. 

MoDEKN'  Wkiters  :  Britannia  Bontana,  of 
J.  Horsley  (1732) ;  Dr.  Guest,  Originea  Celtiea^ 
18S3;  H.  C.  Coote,  The  Jiomana  of  Britain 
(1878) ;  J.  C.  Bruce,  The  Boman  Wall  (1851) ; 
T.  Wright,  The  Celt,  the  Botnan  and  the 
Saxon  ;  C.  Elton,  Origins  of  English  History 
(1882)  ;  Rhf.s  Crltie  Britain;  W.  F.  Skene, 
Celtie  Scot/and  (1880). 

2.  Prom  the  English  to  the  N'orman 
Conquest. — Contemporary  Wkiters:  Bede 
and  the  Ang/o-Sajron  Chronicles  (R.  S.*) ;  thd 
Peterborough  version  of  the  latter  carries  us 

*  The  letters  B.S.  appended  to  a  titl^  in  this 
article  denote  that  the  work  is  included  in  the 
MTieii  Chrfmirlet  ani.  MemoriaU  ofOreat  BrUain  and 
Ireland.  p*ibli8>*ed  by  the  anthority  of  the  Mnster 
of  the  Bol^x.  The  letters  C.  8.  denote  that  it  is  one 
of  the  publications  of  the  Camden  Society. 

Hitfr.-4* 


to  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Stephen ;  Asser, 
Life  of  Xing  Alfred  (probably  in  part  a 
genuine  contemporary  narrative) ;  the  Chro- 
nicle of  Ethelward  (little  more  than  a  compi- 
lation from  Bede  and  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicles);  the  Bncomium  Bmtna  (Life  of 
Queen  Emma),  and  Life  of  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor (B.S.),  have  both  a  certain  though 
secondary  value.  Other  Lives  are  those  of 
St.  Cuthbert,  by  Bede;  St.  Columba,  by 
Adamnan ;  and  that  of  Wilfrid,  Bishop  of 
York.by  Eddius;  and  the  later  onesof  Aldhelm, 
by  Fabricius,  a  foreigner,  used  by  William  of 
Malmesbury  in  his  account  of  Aldhelm  in  the 
Gesta  Potitifieum ;  an  anonymous  Life  of 
Alcuin,  the  foremost  English  scholar  of  his 
age,  whose  Letters  are  also  of  considerable 
value;  and  the  Life  of  St.  Dunstan,  by 
Adclard.  The  Chronicles  and  Histories  up  to 
1066  are  piinted  in  the  Monumenta  Histonca 
Britanniea. 

Later  Writers:  Among  these  are  the 
Chronicle  of  Marianus  Scotiis ;  the  JJistoria 
Begum  and  Jlistoria  Ecclesia  Dunelmensis 
{R.  S.)  of  Simeon  of  Durham ;  the  Hi*toria 
Anglorum  (B.  S.)  of  Henry  of  Huntingdon ; 
and  the  Chronicles  of  Kalph  of  Diceto  [H.  S.) 
and  Peter  Langtoft  (R.  8.).  These  all,  how- 
ever, yield  in  value  to  A\  illiam  of  Malmes- 
bury, whose  Gesta  Begum  Anglorum^  Uistoria 
Novella,  and  De  Gestis  Pontifieum  (R.  S.) — a 
history  of  English  bishops  and  monasteries 
from  the  time  of  Augustine — are  the  best 
sources  for  the  period.  The  Chronicon  of 
Florence  of  Worcester  is  also  of  considerable 
importance.  The  principal  biog^phies  are 
the  Lives  of  Edward  the  Confesoor,  by  Ethelred 
of  Kievaulx,  and  of  St.  Dunstan,  by  Osbem 
and  Eadmcr. 

Modern  Writers  :  J.  M.  Kemble,  Saxons 
in  England^  1849;  E.  A.  Freeman,  Norman 
Conquest,  which  to  a  great  extent,  but  not 
altogether,  supersedes  The  History  of  Eng- 
land and  Normandy  by  Sir  Francis  Palgrnve  ; 
also  Palgrave,  English  Commonwealth  ;  J.  M. 
Lappenberg,  History  of  England  under  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Kings;  Dr.  W.  Stubbs,  Select 
Charters  and  Constitutional  History  ;  Schmidt, 
Gesetze  der  Angelsachsen  ;  B.  Thorpe,  Ancient 
Laws  and  Institutes  of  England  ;  Wm.  Bright, 
Early  English  Church  History  ;  the  J.ives  relat- 
ing to  English  history  contained  in  the  Diction- 
ary of  Christian  Biography  ;  J.  R.  Green,  The 
Making  of  England^  and  The  Conquest  of  England. 

8.  19'orman  Conquest  to  the  C^ose 
of  the  T'welfth  Century.— For  Norm  an 
History  :  the  Historia  Normannorum  of  Wil- 
liam of  Jumi^ges ;  the  Gesta  Willelmi  of  Wil- 
liam of  Poitiers;  the  Bayeux  Tapestry ^  engraved 
by  the  Antiquarian  Society,  and  with  elucida- 
tions by  Rev.  G.  C.  Bruce.  See  also  Freeman, 
Norman  Conquest,  vol.  iii..  Append.  A. 

Contemporary  Writers  :  Peterborough 
edition  of  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  (ends  1154) ; 
Eadmcr,  Historia  Novorum,  and  Vita  Antie/mi ; 
Gaimar,    Ristoire    dee    Angles;     Ordericus 


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Ant 


Yitalis,  Historia  Hceleaiastica  ;  Malmesbury's 
Sittoria  Novella  (above-mentioned)  should 
be  compared  with  the  Getta  Stephani ; 
Chronicles  by  Richard  and  John,  both  priors 
of  the  monastery  at  Hexham  (in  Twysden, 
Deeetn  Scriptores).  For  reign  of  Henry  II.  ; 
William  of  Newburgh,  Miatoria  Jterum 
Anffliearum;  the  Gesta  Regi»  Henriei  {R.  S,), 
wrongly  ascribed  to  Benedict  of  Peter- 
borough ;  the  Chronica  of  Roger  Hoveden 
(R.S.),  a  work  of  high  importance;  the 
Imagines  Sistoriarum  \R.  S.)  of  Ralph  of 
Diceto,  For  the  reign  of  Richard  I. :  The 
Chronicle  of  Richard  of  Devizes  [JR,  S.) ;  the 
Chronicle  of  Gervase,  a  monk  of  Canterbury 
{R.  S.) ;  and  Gesta  Regam  {R,  S.),  by  the 
same  author,  with  continuation  by  unknown 
writers  (of  considerable  value)  ;  Chronicles 
*  and  Memorials  of  Reign  of  Richard  /., 
with  prefaces  by  Dr.  Stubbs  {R.S.),  For 
reigns  of  John  and  Henry  II. :  The  Topo- 
graphia  Mibemia  and  Expugnatio  Hibernia  of 
Gtiraldus  Cambrensis  (R.  S.)  ;  and  for  court 
and  ecclesiastical  life  of  the  period,  the  Gemma 
Ecclesia  and  Speculum  EcclesuB  of  the  same 
writer  (if.  /S.)»  the  poem  of  Walter  Map,  de 
Nugis  Curialium^  and  the  de  Nugis  Curialium 
of  John  of  Salisbury.  In  biogpraphy,  the 
Lives  of  Lanfranc,  by  Milo  Crispin;  of  An- 
selm,  by  Eadmer;  together  with  those  of 
Becket,  in  volumes  edited  bv  Canon  Robertson 
for  Rolls  Series ;  and  the  Magna  Vita  of  Hugh 
of  Lincoln  {R.  S.),  Domesday  Book^  fac-simile 
edition  by  Sir  Henry  James,  by  photozinco- 
graphic  process,  together  with  account  of  the 
whole  in  Freeman,  Norman  Conquest^  vol.  v. 

Modern  Wkitkrs  :  Works  by  Freeman 
and  Stubbs,  named  in  preceding  section ;  also 
Freeman,  History  of  William  Rufus  and 
Historical  Essays  (Ist  series) ;  Kate  Korgate, 
History  of  the  Angevin  Kings  ;  Guizot,  Essais 
and  Histoire  de  Civilisation  en  France  ;  W.  F. 
Hook,  Zives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury  ; 
R.  W.  Church,  Life  of  Anselm;  M,  Rule,  8t. 
Anselm;  Perry,  Life  of  St.  Hugh  of  Lincoln  ; 
Lord  Lyttelton,  History  of  Henry  II.;  Dug- 
dale,  Monastioon  Anglicanum  (1655 — 73). 

4.  Thirteenth  Centiiry  and  'Reign 
of  ISdward  II. — Cqntehpobary  Wrttees  : 
The  Historia  Major  of  Matthew  Paris  {R.  S.), 
abridged  in  his  Historia  Minor  (id.), 
specially  im})ortant,  and  exhibiting  a 
great  advance  in  historical  composition ; 
Chrofiieon  of  William  Rishanger  {R,  5.),  and 
Annates  of  Nicholas  Trivet;  Memoriale  of 
Walter  of  Coventry  (i?.  5.),  useful  for  the 
reign  of  John ;  the  Annals  of  the  monasteries 
of  Burton-upon-Trent,  Winchester,  Waver- 
ley,  Dunstable,  Osney,  and  Worcester,  all 
contained  in  the  Annates  Monastici  (R.  S.)^ 
edited  by  Luard.  For  reign  of  Edwani 
II. :  The  Annates  of  John  of  Troke- 
lowe,  a  monk  of  Tynemouth  (R.  5.),  and 
Life  of  Edward,  by  an  unknown  writer 
(probably  a  monk  of  Malmesbury),  in  Heame; 
also  another  Life,  by  Thomas  de  la  Moor ; 


Chronieon  of  Adam  of  Murimuth ;  Chronicon 
of  Walter  of  Hemingford  (superior  in  con- 
ception and  accuracy  to  the  average  historical 
literature  of  the  period),  comprising  the  rei^ 
of  the  first  three  Edwards ;  Chronicon  Fetro- 
burgense  {C.S.),  as  a  specimen  of  local  history. 
For  civic  history  of  London :  The  Munimenta 
Gildhallte    Londoniensis     {R.  S.)^    edited   by 
Riley,  specially  valuable  for  the  light  they 
throw  on  the  political  and  commercial  condi- 
tion of  the  country  during  the  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  centuries;    the  Domesday  of  St. 
PauVs  (C.  S^ ;  also  Chroniques  de  London  (C.S.) ; 
Chronicle  of  London  frofn  1089  to  1483,  edited 
by  Nicolas ;   Collections  of  a  London  Citizen, 
edited  by  J.  Gairdner  (C  S.) ;   the  Annates 
Londonienses  and  Annates  Fautini,  edited  by 
Dr.  Stubbs  {R.  S.) ;  Royal  and  Historical  Letters 
illustrative  of  Reign  of  Henry  Illy  edited  bv 
W.  W.  Shirley   {R.S,)\    Letters   of  Bishop 
Grossetesfe,  edited  by  Luard  (J2.  S.) ;  Folitical 
Songs  of  England,  from  Reign  of  John  to  that  of 
Edward  II.,  edited  by  Thomas  Wright  [C.  S.). 

Later  Writers  :  Among  these  Walsing- 
ham  is  chief,  and  his  Historia  Anglieana  (R.S.) 
is  for  this  period  little  more  than  a  compilation 
from  earlier  writers  above-named. 

Modern     Writers:      Freeman,     Guizot, 
Norgate's     Angevin     Kings,     and      Hook' a 
Lives,  as  specified  in  preceding  section;  Dr. 
Pauli,    Geschichte    von    England    (in    Gesch. 
d,    Europdischen    Staaten,    by    Heeren    and 
Ukert) ;  W.  Longman,  Lectures  on  the  His- 
tory of  England  ;  the  Prefaces  by  the  difiPcrent 
editors  of  Walter  of  Coventry,  I^Iatthew  Paris, 
the  Monumenta  Franciscana,  Roger  Bacon,  in 
Rolls   Series,   as   above   specified.      Hallam, 
Middle  Ages;  W.  H.  Blaauw,  Barons'  War  ; 
Lives  of  Simon  de  Montfort  by  Pauli  and 
G.  W.  Prothero;  J.  E.  T.  Rogers,  History  of 
Agriculture  and  Prices  in  England  (commences 
A,D.  1259);    Mullinger,  History  of   the    Uni- 
versity of  Cambridge^  vol.  i.     For  rolations  of 
England    to    the    Papacy:    Milman,     Latin 
Christianity  ;  and  the  fifth  volume  of  Green- 
wood's Cathedra  Petri. 

5.  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth.  Cen- 
turies.— Contemporary  Writers  :  Adam 
of  Murimuth,  with  continuation  by  unknown 
writer,  coming  down  to  1380.  For  reign,  oi 
Edward  III. :  Robert  of  Avesbury,  de  Afira- 
bilibus  Gestis  Edwardi  III.,  edited  by  Heame  ; 
Higden's  i\>/yrAro«k»w,  with  version  by  JoYrn 
of  Trevisa  {R.  S.)  ;  Knighton,  History  of 
England  (from  Edgar  to  death  of  Richard 
II.) ;  Chronicle  of  England,  by  a  monk  oi  St. 
Albans  {R.  S.) ;  Walsingham  (see  precodiiif> 
section),  now  of  primary  importance  ;  French 
Chronicle,  relating  to  death  of  Richard  11 
{Eng.  Hist.  Sor.) ;  and  History  of  the  sarrK 
monarch,  also  in  French  {Archeeot.  J^fitafin., 
vol.  XX,) ;  Adam  of  Usk,  with  transhttion  >>i 
E.  M.  Thompson;  Capgrave,  Chronicle  o 
England  and  Book  of  the  noble  Henries  ("boil 
R.  S.) ;  Otterboume,  Chronicon  Regum  u^nfflin 
edited  by  Heame ;  Lives  of  Henry  V.  as  lol 


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Aui 


lowfi:  (1)  by  Thomas  Eluiham,  in  Heame; 
(2)  by  Titus  Livius  (ib.) ;  (3)  "The  Chap- 
lam'a  Account  *'  {En^.  HUt.  8oc.) ;  Puiseux,  Le 
SUge  d*  Rouen  ;  Annals  of  the  monastery  of 
St.  Albans,  by  John  Amundesham  and  John 
^^llethamsted]e  (both  Ji.  S.) ;  Chronicles  of  the 
reign  of  Henry  VI.,  edited  by  Gairdner((7.  S,) ; 
Bekynton*8  Correspotidence^  belonging  to  same 
reign  (22.  S,)  ;  Harding's  Chronicky  continued 
by  Grafton ;  Jehan  de  Wavrin's  Colleeiioti  of 
Chronicles  (R.  6'.) ;  William  of  Worcester, 
Annals  and  Collections^  edited  by  Stevenson 
(i?.  S.)  ;  Chronicle  of  Jehan  le  Bel,  edited  by 
Polain ;  the  Chronicles  of  Froissart  and  Momi- 
trelet,  important,  but  not  altogether  trust- 
worthy; Blondel,  de  Reduetione  Normannia 
{k.S.) ;  Historie  of  Arrivale  of  Edward  IV.  in 
England  (C.  6'.) ;  the  Fasten  LetterSy  edited  by 
J.  Gairdner,  are  important  as  illustrating 
the  manners  and  habits  of  thought  in  the 
fifteenth  century;  Continuation  oi  the  Croyland 
Chronicle  (in  Gale's  Scriptores) ;  Warkworth's 
Chronicle  {C.  S.)  comprises  first  thirteen  years 
of  King  Edward's  reign :  the  Loftdon  Chronicle 
{fi.S.)i  Sir  Thomas  More's  account  of  Ed- 
ward V.  and  Richard  III. ,  virtually  a  contem- 
porary narrative ;  Letters  and  Papers  Ulustra- 
tite  of  the  Reigns  of  Richard  111,  and  Henry 
VIL,  edited  by  Gairdner  {R.  S.) ;  Bernard 
(Andre),  Life  of  Henry  Vll.y  edited  by  Gaird- 
ner {R.  S,) ;  Materials  for  a  History  of  tlie 
Reign  of  Henry  VJI.y  edited  by  Campbell 
(R.  S.)  ;  Life  of  Henry  Vll.y  by  Lord  Bacon, 
in  fif  Ui  Tolume  of  his  Worksy  edited  by  Ellis 
and  Spedding;  the  Venetian  Relation  lC.S.)y 
a  view  of  England  as  it  appeared  to 
an  intelligent  foreigner,  temp.  Henry  YII.  ; 
Fabyan*s  Chronicle;  Wycliris  Works,  to  be 
stttdjed  in  edition  by  Thomas  Arnold,  and 
volume  (with  preface),  edited  by  F.  D. 
Matthew  for  the  Early  English  Text  Society ; 
Fiolitical  Poems  and  Songsy  from  accession  of 
Edward  III.  to  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  edited 
by  Thoma^B  Wright  {R.  S.). 

Later  Writeks:  Polydore  Vergil's  HiS' 
toria  Anglieay  a  record  that  often  assumes  the 
value  of  strictly  contemporary  evidence; 
Hall*s  Union  of  the  Families  of  Lancaster  and 
Yorky  the  main  source  of  Shakespeare's  his- 
torical dramas. 

Modern  Writers:  Among  those  already 
named  are  Hallam,  Middle  Ages  (two  conclud- 
ing chapters) ;  Freeman,  Essays  (first  series) ; 
Hook,  Lives  of  the  ArehMshops;  Rogers,  HiS" 
tory  of  Prices;  Life  and  Times  of  Edward  III., 
by  Longman ;  M.  Wallon,  Richard  II.;  Lord 
Brougham,  History  of  England  under  the  House 
of  Lancaster  ;  Life  and  Reign  of  Richard  Ill.y 
by  Gardiner.  For  academic  life  and  history 
of  learning :  Huber,  English  Universities 
(transl.  by  Kewman) ;  Mackenzie  Walcott, 
William  of  Wykehamand  his  Colleges;  Anstey, 
Preface  to  Munimenta  Aeadetniea  {R.S.). 
Sir  J.  H.  Ramsay,  articles  on  Richard  II. 
and  Henry  IV.  in  Antiquary  for  1882.  For 
Wyclii  and  his  opponents :  Shirley,  Preface 


to  "Fasciculi  Zizaniorum  {R.  S.) ;  article  on 
The  LollardSy  in  Gairdner  and  Spedding's 
Studies  in  English  History, 

6.     Sixteenth    Century.  —  Contempo- 
rary Writers  :  Among  those  named  in  pre- 
ceding section  are  Polydore  Vergil  (now  espe- 
cially important) ;  Hall ;  the  London  Chronicle. 
For  the  question  of   the  royal  divorce,  the 
materials  collected  ia  Records  of  the  Reformation 
(A.D.  1627—1533),  edited  by  Rev.  N.  Pocock; 
Harpsfield,  Treatise  of  the  Ih-etended  Divorce 
(C..S,) ;   the  Catholic   representation   of   the 
facts  is  to  be  found  in  Nicholas  Sanders's 
Historia  Sehismatis  Anglicani  (1585),  of  which 
an  enlarged  edition,  with  continuation,  was 
published  by  Rishton  (transl.,  with  notes,  by 
Lewis,  1877) :  only  a  small  proportion  of  the 
work  is  entitled  to  rank  as  contemporar}'. 
Wriothesley*s  Chronicle;  More,   Utopia,  and 
Starkoy,    England    in    the  Reign  of   Henry 
VIII.;  the  collection  known  as  Holinshed's 
Chronielesy  of  which  Harrison's  Description  of 
England  has  been  reprinted  in  series  published 
by    the    New    Sbakspere     Society.       John 
Stowe,  Summary  of  the  Chronicles  of  England y 
AnnaleSy   and    Survey   of  Lmidon   and  West' 
minster  ;  Foxe,  History  of  the  Acts  and  Monu' 
ments  of  the  Church  (ed.  Cattloy) ;   Chronicle 
of  the  Grey  Friars  of  London  {C.  S.) :  Letters 
on  the  Suppression  of  the  MonasterieSy  edited 
by  Wright  (C.  S.);  Narratives  of  the  Refor- 
mation (C.  S.) ;  Literary  Remains  of  Edward 
VI.    (Roxburgh     Club) ;     Machyn's    Diary 
(C.  S.) ;  Chronicle  of  Queen  Jane^  etc»,  edited 
by  Nichols   {C.  S.) ;  Lives  of  More,  by  his 
son-in-law,  Roper,  and  of  Wolsey,  by  his 
gentleman-usher,  Cavendish  ;  Life  of  Sir  Peter 
CareWy  by  Hooker ;   Life  of  Queen  Elizabethy 
by  Camden ;    Sir  John   Haring^on's  Brief e 
View  contains  a  series  of  sketches  of  the 
principal  bishops  of  Elizabeth's  reign.     For 
original  documents,  the  Calendars  of  Letters 
and  PaperSy  Foreign  and  Domestic,  of  the  Reign 
of  Henry  Vlll.y  edited,  with  important  pre- 
faces, by  J.  S.  Brewer  ;  also  the  "Domestic" 
series  for  reigns  of  Edward  VI.,  Mary  and 
Elizabeth,  edited  by  Robert  Lemon  and  Mrs. 
Everett  Green ;    the  **  Foreign  "  series    for 
same  reigns,  by  Tumbull,  Joseph  Stevenson, 
and  Crosby  (all  in  the  ieries  published  by  the 
Record  Commissioners).      The  Zurich  Letters 
(edited  by  Hastings  Robinson)  contain   the 
correspondence  between  the  English  and  the 
Continental  Refonners ;    see  also  Rrief  Dis- 
course of  the  Troubles  begun  at  Frankfort  (in 
"  The  Phoenix,"  vol.   ii.) ;   and  the  Journals 
of  the  Houses  of  Parliament.     The  Hardwicke 
Papers  are  an  important  miscellaneous  collec- 
tion known  under  this  designation,  although 
the  name  of  the  editor,  the  Etirl  of  Hard- 
wicke, does  not  appear  on  the  title-page  ;  Sir 
Dudley  Digges,  The  Compleat  Ambassador ;  the 
Cahala — a  collection  of  letters  by  eminent 
diplomatists,   &c. ;   the   Somers    Tracts.     For 
ecclesiastical   affairs  in  Scotland,  the  Works 
of    Peterkin,   Calderwood,   and    Archbishop 


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Spottiswoode ;  also  the  Works  of  John  Knox, 
edited  by  Laing.  For  proceedings  of  Parlia- 
ment, the  collections  by  Sir  Simonds  d'Ewes 
and  Heywood  Townsend ;  the  Burleigk 
Papers.  For  Continental  relations,  the  Cor- 
respondence of  Granville ;  the  MeUUions  poli- 
tiqttes  des  Tays-Bas  et  de  VAngleterre^ 
edited  by  fiaron  Kervyn  de  Lettenhove ;  the 
Calendars  (/f.  6.)  relating  to  Venice,  edited 
by  Rawdon  Brown ;  and  those  by  Bex^enroth 
and  Gayangos  relating  to  Spain ;  for  relations 
of  Scotland  and  France,  the  French  Despatches^ 
edited  by  M.  Teulet.  For  questions  connected 
with  the  career  and  character  of  Mary  Queen 
of  Scots,  her  Letters^  edited  by  Prince 
Lobanof-itostovsky ;  the  materials  (some  of 
them  of  doubtful  genuineness)  in  Anderson's 
ColUetions ;  the  Letter-Books  of  Sir  Amias 
Paulet ;  the  Sydney  Papers.  Stubbes'  Anato- 
mie  of  Abusesy  aud  Stafford's  Examination  of 
Complaints  (1580),  published  by  the  New 
Shakspere  Society. 

Latbu  WiUTBRs:  Fuller,  Church  History ; 
Burnet,  Histo}^  of  the  Jteformation  of  the 
Church  of  England  (ed.  by  Pocock),  with 
Harmer's  Specimen ;  Collier,  Ecclesiastical 
History  (edited  by  Lathbury) ;  Legrand,  IliS' 
toire  du  hivoree  ;  Strype,  Ecclesiastical  Memo- 
rialSy  Annals  of  the  Reformation^  and  Lives  of 
Cranmer,  Parker,  Sir  John  Cheke,  Sir  Thomas 
Smith,  Ayhner,  Grindal,  and  Whitgift ;  Neal, 
History  of  the  Puritans  ;  C.  Dodd,  Church  His- 
tory of  En ff  land  (1742),  the  work  of  a  moderate 
Catholic;  Life  of  Henry  VIII.  ^hy  Lord  Herbert 
of  Cherbury  ;  Sir  John  Hay  ward's  Life  of  Ed- 
ward  Fl.f  and  Annals  of  the  first  Four  Years 
©/■  Reign  of  Elizabeth  ;  Fiddes,  Life  of  Wolsey ; 
Fuller,  The  Worthies  of  England;  Lloyd, 
State  Worthies ;  A.  Wood,  Athena  Oxonienses 
(1691);  J.  NicholB,  Progresses  of  Queen  Eliza^ 
beth  (1788). 

Modern  Writers  :  J.  A.  Froude,  History 
of  England;  L.  von  Ranke,  History  of  the  Popes^ 
and  History  of  England^  chiefly  in  the  Sixteenth 
and  Seventeenth  Centuries  ;  J,  Lingard,  History 
of  England;  J.  H.  Blunt,  Reformation  of  the 
Church  of  England;  R,  W.  Dixon,  History  of 
the  Church  of  England;  J.  O.  W.  HaweiB, 
Sketches  of  the  Reformation  ;  S.  R.  Maitland, 
Essays  on  the  Reformation;  J.  B.  Marsden, 
Early  Puritans;  J.  L.  Motley,  Rise  of  the 
Hutch  Republic  and  History  of  the  United 
Netherlands;  W.  Maskell,  History  of  the 
Martin  Marprelate  Controversy ;  H.  M.  Dexter, 
Congregationalism  of  the  last  Three  Hundred 
Tears;  C.  Wordsworth,  Ecclesiastical  Bio- 
graphy ;  F.  Seebohm,  Oxford  Reformers  ;  R. 
Chui'ton,  Life  of  Alexander  No  well;  Sir  H. 
Nicolas,  Lives  of  William  Davison  and  Sir 
Christopher  Hatton ;  Fox  Bourne,  Life  of  Sir 
Philip  Sidney;  J.  S.  Brewer,  English  Studies; 
Mignet,  Histoire  de  Marie  Stuart ;  J.  Hosack, 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots  ;  W.  B.  Devereux,  Lives 
and  Letters  of  the  Devereux;  E.  Edwards, 
Life  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  ;  M'Orie,  Life  of 
John  Knox  and  Life  of  Andrew  Melville  (the 


latter  important  for  the  history  of  learning 
and  education) ;  Athena  Caniabrigiensesy  by 
C.  H.  and  T.  Cooper. 

7.  Seventeenth  Century.— Gontem- 
poRARY  Sources  :  Th&  Calendars  of  State 
Papers,  ** Foreign"  and  "Domestic,"  edited 
by  Mr.  Lemon,  Mr.  Bruce,  Mr.  Hamilton,  and 
Mrs.  Everett  Green,  furnish  the  key  to  the 
most  authentic  and  original  information  until 
nearly  the  close  of  the  seventh  decade ;  while 
other  sources  already  indicated,  such  as  the 
Somers  Tracts,  the  Sydney  Paj^ers,  the  Win- 
wood  Memorials,  the  works  of  Fuller,  Collier, 
Neal,  Dodd,  Nichols,  &c.,  afford  material  for 
either  the  whole  or  part  of  the  centur}^ 

First  Half  of  Seventeenth  Century. 
— Contemporary  Writers  :  For  the  reign  of 
King  Jamee,  C&mdon^a  Annals — a  compilation 
of  comparatively  little  value  ;  other  accounts 
are,  Wilson's  History  of  King  James  I.  (in 
Kennct)  ;  Goodman,  Court  of  James  /.;  King 
James's    own    Works.       For    parliamentary 
transactions,    the    Debates    of    1610    [C.S.], 
together  with  those  of  the  years  1620  and 
1621,   contained   in   the  Parliamentary  His- 
tory ;    Rushworth's    Collections^   commencincj 
with   the    year    1618;    the   Protests    of   the 
House  of  Lords  (commencing  with  the  voar 
1625),  edited  by  J.  E.  T.  Rogers ;   the  Jlel- 
rose    State  Papers  and   Correspondence;    Sir 
David    Dalrymple,    Memorials    and    Letters 
(1762);  the  Carew  Letters.     Narrative  of  the 
Spanish  Marriage  Treaty  {C.  S.) ;  Lord  Her- 
bert of  Cherbury,  Expedition  to  the  IsleofRhe. 
For  Continental  relations,  the  Ambassades  de 
M.  de  la  Boderie^  the  "  Venetian  Reports," 
Winw^ood,  Memorials  ;  Birch,  Historical  View; 
and  the  Mimoires  of  Rusdorf.     For  the  reign 
of    Charles    I.,   Walling^n's    Diary ;     the 
Thomason  collection  of  pamphlets  and  "  Tho 
King's    Pamphlets,"    both    in    the     British 
Museum  ;  Dalrymple,  Monorials  and  Let  tern  ; 
Lord    Clarendon,   History    of   the    Rebellion 
and  State  Papers  ;  Letters  and  Papers  of  the 
Vemey  Family  (C.  S.).     Whitelocke,  Memo- 
rials;  the  Thurloe  Papers;  May,  History  of 
the  Long   Parliament ;    Sir    Ralph   Verney's 
^^otes  {C.  S.) ;  Scobeirs  Collection.     For  par- 
liamentary proceedings :    Stmfford's    Letters 
and   Despatches;    Nalson's    Collection.       The 
Ormonde  Papers  (edited  by  Thomaa   Carte)  ; 
A  Contemporary  History  of  Affairs  in  li-eland 
from  1641  to  1652  (edited  by  G.  T.  Gilbert)  ; 
Guthr}''s  Memoirs;  Ludlow's  Memoirs — (con- 
tain  important  materials  for   Scottish     and 
Irish  hisrtory.     Milton's  Prose  Works  and  the 
writings  of  Bishop  Hall  give  the  chief  points 
in   dispute    between    the   Episcopalian     and 
Presbyterian  parties.     Sprigg's  An^lia  Hedk- 
viva;  John  Wohh^B  Memorials  ;  the  Hamilton 
Papers  (C.  S.) ;  the  Letters  of   Charles    I.   to 
Henrietta  Maria  (C.  S.) — ^belong  to  the  time 
of  the  Civil  War.     The  Puritan  Transactions^ 
edited  by  Heywood  and  Wright^  the  Qtt^rela 
Cantabrigiensis^  and  The  Puritan  Visitation  ot 
the  University  of  Oxford^  edited  by  Professoi 


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Ant 


Montagu  Burrows  [C.  S.),  iUustrate  the  con- 
dition  of  the  univerhities.     The  Fairfax  Cor- 
respondence,  Bucceasively  edited   by  Johnson 
and  Bell,   covers  the  period  1625—70.     The 
important  aeri(»,  Records  of  the  English  Fro- 
vinee  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  edited  by  Father 
Foley ;  the  Life  of  Father  John  Gerard^  by 
Father  Morris;  together  with  the  works  of 
Juvencius,  Bartoli,  and  Tanner,  should  be 
consulted  for  the  history  of  the  Jesuit  move- 
ment.    The  principal  biographies  are  those 
of  the  Lord  Keeper  JFilUams,  by  Racket;  of 
Colonel  Birch  [C.  S.) ;  of  Bishop  Bedell,  edited 
by  Mayor    and    Jones;    of    The    Dukes    of 
Hamilton,  by  Bishop   Burnet.     Among   the 
autobiographies  are    those    of    Sir    Simonds 
d^Ewes,    Sir  Bobert    Carey,   Lord  Herbert    oj 
Cherbury,  Lady  Halket  (C.  S.),  and  Mrs,  Alice 
Thornton* 

Later  Wkfteks  :  The  writers  of  the  last 
century — Kapin  (the  author  of  a  History  of 
England  to  the  Death  of  Charles  I.),  Dr.  Birch 
{Court  and  Times  of  James  L,  Court  and  Times 
of  Charles  I.),  and  Thomas  Carte  {Life  of 
Ormonde)  — together  withBrodie  {Constitutional 
History),  Godwin  {History  of  the  Common- 
wealth),  and  Disraeli  (Commentaries  on  the 
Jieign  of  Charles  I.),  in  the  earlier  part  of  the 
present  century,  although  rendering  useful 
service  in  their  time,  must  be  regarded  as 
almost  superseded  by  later  and  more  syst*^- 
matic  research,  such  as  tluit  represented  by 
Carlyle,  Letters  and  Speeches  of  Cromwell, 
Gui2u>t,  Histoire  de  la  Revolution  d* Angleterre 
and  Etudes  sur  Vhistoire  de  la  Revolution 
d'Angleferre,  and  especially  Professor  S.  R. 
(vardiner,  History  of  England  from  IG03  to 
m42,  10  vols.,  1883—84.  Ranke's  History 
should  also  be  systematically  consulted. 
Other  works  are  J.  B.  Mozley,  Essays; 
Stanford,  Studies  and  Illustrations  of  the 
Great  Rebellion.  The  colonisation  of  America 
may  be  followed  in  Bancroft,  History 
of  the  United  States ;  Palfrey,  History  of 
Xett  England;  Tyler,  History  of  American 
Literature^  voL  i.  The  chief  biographies  are 
those  of  Bacon,  by  J.  Spedding;  Milton,  by 
Professor  Masson ;  Montrose,  by  Mark  Napier ; 
Prince  Rupert,  by  Eliot  Warburton  ;•  Fairfax, 
by  Clements  Markham ;  and  Clarendon,  by 
f  .  H.  Lister. 

Second  Half  of  Seventeenth  Cen. 
tury.  —  CoxTEMPORAHY  Writers:    Among 
those  named  in  preceding  section  are  Fuller, 
^.'oilier,  Thurloe,  Winwood,  Wliitelocke,  Neal ; 
the    Lords    and    Commons    Journals,     the 
Ormonde   Papers,   the   Sydney,  Hatton,   and 
Fairfax    Correspondence.       For    the     Crom- 
wfcUiaa    Parliaments,   Burton's   Diary  is  of 
j(poeiaJ     value.       Burnet's    Hisloi'y    of    hie 
f/WJ9   Times  belongs  to  the  period  from  the 
Restoration    to    a.d.    1713.      Other    sources 
are  Kennet,  Reyieter  and  Chronicle ;  Lives  of 
ciiaries  II.   and  James  IL;  Diary  of  Lord 
Clarendon  ;  Letters  and  Memoirs  of  Sir  Wil- 
liam Temple ;  Sir  John  Reresby's  Memoirs  ; 


Letters  to  Sir  Joseph  Williamson  {C,S,)  ; 
Diary  of  John  Evelyn;  Diary  of  Samuel 
Pepys ;  Memoirs  of  the  Comte  de  Gramont ; 
Diary  of  Narcissus  Luttrell ;  Locke,  Letter's 
on  Toleration;  l\irner,  Vindicatton  of  San- 
croft  and  the  Deprived  Bishops;  Sir  John 
Dfidrymple,  Memoirs  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland.  The  ^negotiations  of  the  Comte 
d*Avaux,  the  materials  collected  by  Mignet 
relating  to  the  Spanish  Succession,  and  the 
Correspondence  of  the  IVlarquis  d'Harcourt 
illustrate  the  aggressive  policy  of  Louis  XIV. 
The  Correspondence  of  the  Duke  of  Shrews- 
bur}%  Macpherson's  Original  Papers,  the  State 
Papers  and  Letters  of  Carstairs,  the  Letters  of 
William  III.  fedited  by  Groen  van  Prinsterer), 
the  Letters  ot  William  III.  and  Louis  XIV. 
(edited  by  Grimblot),  other  Letters  of  William, 
together  with  the  Reports  of  F.  Bonnet  {see 
Ranke,  History  of  England,  vi.  144 — 404)  and 
a  Collection  of  State  Tracts  (3  vols,  fol.),  are 
all  various  and  valuable  material  for  the 
reign  of  William  III.  In  biography  we 
have  Baxter,  Autobiography,  and  Caiamy, 
Account  of  the  F^jected  Ministers  ;  Boyer,  Life 
of  Sir  William  Temple  ;  Roger  North's  Lives 
(of  his  three  brcjthers)  ;  Sir  James  Turner, 
Memoirs.  The  political  poems  of  Dryden 
should  be  carefully  studied. 

Later  Writers  :  A  fragment  by  Charles 
James  Fox  on  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of 
James  II.,  and  a  Life  of  that  monarch  by  the 
Rev.  J.  S.  Clarke,  together  with  Sir  James 
Mackintoshes  Review  of  the  Games  of  the 
Revolution  of  1688,  scarcely  call  for  notice  in 
comparison  with  Macaulay's  great  History  of 
England,  which  deals  in  detail  with  the  reigns 
of  James  II.  and  William  III.  In  connection 
with  special  features  of  the  period,  Marsden^s 
Later  Puritans,  TuUoch's  Rational  Theology 
in  England,  and  Weld's  History  of  the  Royal 
Society  may  be  mentioned.  In  biography  we 
have  Courtenay,  Life  of  Sir  William  Temple; 
Napier,  Life  of  Grahame  of  Clarerhouse ; 
Dixon,  Lives  of  Blake  and  Penn ;  Story, 
Life  of  Carstairs  ;  Memoirs  of  William  Bow- 
yer  (in  Nichols,  Literary  Anecdotes,  vol.  i.)  ; 
Macaulay,  Esstiys  on  Sir  William  Temple, 
War  of  the  Suceession  in  J^ain,  and  Sir  James 
Mackintosh  ;  Christie,  Life  of  Shaftesbury. 

8.  Eighteenth  Century  to  1789.— 
Contemporary  WRrrsRs :  For  ivign  of  Queen 
Anno — Swift,  Journal  to  Stella  and  History  of 
the  Four  Last  Years  of  Queen  Annexe  Reign, 
together  with  his  piimphlets  On  the  Conduct  of 
the  Allies  and  Behaviour  of  the  QueerCs  last 
Ministry ;  Bolingbrcjke,  Letter  to  Sir  W. 
Wyndham,  and  Letter  ott  the  State  of  Parties 
at  the  Accession  of  George  I. ;  also  his  Letters 
and  Correspondence  (edited  by  Parke)  ;  Marl- 
borough's Correspondence;  Boyer,  History  of 
the  Reign  of  Queen  Anne  ;  Tindal,  Continua- 
tion of  Rapines  History;  the  Wentworfh 
Papers  (edited  by  J.  J.  Cartwright).  For 
reign  of  the  Hanoverian  sovereigns — Calen- 
dars of  the  State  Papers  have  appeared  for 


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the  first  nine  yean  only  (R.  S.)y  but  the  pub- 
lished correspondence  of  the  chief  statesmen 
of  the  period  affords  material  of  scarcely  less 
value.  Among  these  are.  The  Orenville 
Papers ;  the  Bedford  Correspondence ;  the 
Chatham  Correspondeyiee ;  Memoirs  of  Lord 
Rockingham  ;  Correspondence  of  George 
III.  with  Lord  North;  the  Maimesbury 
Correspondence;  Burke's  Correspondence  and 
Speeches,  together  with  his  pamphlets.  Obser- 
vations on  a  Late  State  of  the  Nation,  Thoughts 
on  the  Cause  of  the  Present  DiscontetitSy  and 
Letters  on  the  Trade  of  Ireland  ;  Duke  of  Buck- 
ingham, Memoirs  of  the  Court  of  George  III. ; 
the  Cornwaiiis  Correspondence ;  Komilly^s 
Letters  ;  the  Rose  Correitpondence  ;  the  Auck- 
land Correspondence;  Horace  Walpole,  Me- 
moirs  of  the  Reign  of  George  III.  ;  the  Letters 
of  Junius ;  Bubb  Dodington's  Diary.  For 
American  affairs  the  Reader* s  Handbook  of  the 
American  Revolution  (1761 — 83),  by  Justin 
Winsor,  will  be  found  to  afford  ample 
guidance  to  all  the  authorities.  For  debates 
in  the  House  of  Commons — the  Gentleman^s 
Magazine  and  the  Annual  Register;  Caven- 
dishes Debates  (a.d.  1768  to  1744). 

Latbu  Hiktohical  Writers  :  Earl  Stan- 
hope (Lord  Mahon),  History  of  England  frotn 
the  Peace  of  Utrecht  to  the  Peace  of  Versailles 
and  History  of  the  Reign  of  Queen  Anne; 
T.  H.  Burton,  History  of  the  Reign  of  Queen 
Anne;  y^yoTi,  History  of  the  Reign  of  Queen 
Anne  ;  Massey,  History  of  England  during  the 
Reign  of  George  III. ;  Adolphus,  History  of 
England  from  the  Accession  to  the  Decease  of 
King  George  III. ;  Craik  and  Macfarlane, 
Pictorial  History  of  England  during  the  Reign 
of  George  III. ;  W.  E.  H.  Lecky,  History  of 
England  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  ;  Abbey  and 
Overton,  The  English  Church  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century  ;  Leslie  Stephen,  History  of  English 
Thought  in  the  Eighteenth  Century ;  Sir 
Erskine  May,  Constitutional  History  of  Eng- 
land;  Lord  Ilolltind,  Metnoirs  of  the  Whig 
Party  ;  T.  Wright,  Caricature  History  of  the 
Georges. 

In  Biography. — W.  Coxe,  Lives  of  Marl- 
borough, Wulpole,  and  Henry  Pelham;  Sir 
Archibald  Alison,  Life  of  Marlborough  ;  Annals 
and  Correspondence  of  the  Earls  of  Stair,  by 
J.  M.  Graham;  Jesso,  Memoirs  of  the  Pre- 
tenders; Bishop  Monk,  Life  of  Ben t ley ; 
Sir  David  Bi*ewater,  Life  of  Sir  Isaac  Neicton  ; 
Montagu  Burrows,  Life  of  Admiral  Hawke ; 
H.  Craik,  Life  of  Jonathan  Swift;  Mac- 
knight,  Life  of  Bolingbroke  ;  W.  Wilson,  Life 
of  DefoCy  and  W.  Lee,  Life  of  Defoe  ;  John 
Forster,  Biographical  Essay s.  Life  of  Pitt ; 
Bunbur}',  Life  of  Sir  Thomas  Hamner ;  Lives 
of  Chatham,  by  F.  Thackeray,  and  of  Pitt,  by 
Bishop  Tomline  and  Earl  Stanhope ;  Life  of 
Lord  Shelburncy  by  Lord  Edmund  Fitzmaurice; 
Macknight,  Life  of  Burke ;  Trevelyan,  Early 
History  of  Charles  James  Fox  ;  Lord  Shel- 
bume^s  Autobiography;  Lord  Chesterfield's 
Letters;    Romilly's   Letttrs;    Memorials  and 


Correspondence  of  Fox,  by  £ku>l  Russell ;  Sir 
John  Malcolm,  Life  of  Clive ;  Southey,  Life 
of  Wesley ;  .  Life  and  Tin%es  of  Wesley ,  by 
Tyerman ;  Moore,  Life  of  Sheridan  ;  Brougham, 
Statesmen  of  the  Reign  of  George  III.  For 
state  of  Education  and  Learning— J.  G. 
Nichols,  Literary  Anecdotes  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century;  Rev.  C.  Wordsworth,  University 
Life  and  University  Studies  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century  ;  Baker,  History  of  St.  John's  College 
(edited  by  Prof.  John  K  B.  Mayor). 

8.  From  1788  to  the  Present  Time.— 
Besides  works  named  in  preceding  section, 
Duke  of  Buckingham,  Memoirs  of  the  Court 
of  the  Regency  ;  George  Rose,  Diary  (1801 — 
15);    Lord  Cornwaiiis,  Correspondence;  Wel- 
lington, Despatches;   Welleslev,  Despatches; 
Sir    S.   RomUly,  Journal   (1806—18);    Lord 
Colchester,  Diary  and  Correspondence;   Lord 
Sidmouth,  Life   and   Correspondence;    Twiss, 
Life  of  Lo9'd  Eldon;  C.  D.  Yonge,  Life  of  Lord 
Liverpool;  "ErBkine^  Speeches ;  Francis  Homer, 
Memoirs  and  Correspondence;  Briabnont,  Life 
of  Wellington  ;  Southey,  Life  of  Nelson  ;  Nel- 
son, Despatches   (edited  by  Sir  H.  Nicolas)  ; 
Collingwood,  Correspondence ;  Life  of  Earl  of 
Dundonald  (bv  Earl- of  Dundonald  and  Fox 
Bourne)  ;  Lord  Dudley,  Letters   (1814—23. ; 
Alison,    Lives    of    Lord    Londonderrv    and 
Sir  Charles   Stewart ;    IxmdondeiT^',    Corre- 
spondence;     The    Grevills    Memoirs;    George 
Canning   and   his  Times,   by   A.    G.    Stiiplo- 
ton ;  Canning*8  Speeches  (with  Life),  6  vols. ; 
Life  of  Earl  Grey,  by  Hon.   C.    Grey ;    Sir 
Robt.    PeePs     Memoirs,    hy    Stanhope     and 
Cardwell;  also  Life  by  Guizot,  and  Speeches 
(4  vols.) ;  Memoirs  of  John  Charles  Viscount 
Althorp,  by   Sir  Denis  Le  Marchant;   Life 
and  Speeches  of  0*Connell,  by  his  son  ;  Ashle\', 
Life  of  Lord  Palmcrston ;   Torrens,  Life    of 
Lord  Melbourne  ;  J.  Morley,  Life  of  Cohdeu  ; 
Alison,  History  of  Europe  and  CotUinuation  ; 
H.  Martineau,  History  of  the  Peace  ;    Pauli, 
Englische  Gesehickte  teit  1815 ;    Jklolesworth, 
History  of  the  Refonn  Bill ;  Spencer  Walpole, 
History   of    England  from  1S15 ;    Kingrlake, 
History  of  the  Invasion  of  the  Crimea  ;  Irvinj^, 
Annals  of  our  Time  (from  accession  of    Vic- 
toria);  Justin  McCarthy,  History  of  our  Otrn 
Times ;  Bosworth  Smith,  Life  of  Lord  J^tttc^ 
retice  ;  G.  Brandes,  Life  of  Lord  Beaconsfif/d, 

General  Histories  op  Enoland  :  Amonj* 
the  best  known  are  those  bv  Rapin,translatc'd 
bv  N.  Tindal  (1726);  T.  Carte  (1747— oo)  ; 
Hume  fl754),  continued  bv  Smollett  (175S}  ; 
R,  Henry  (1771—93);  Sharon  Turner  (1814 
—29);  J.  Lingard  (1819—25);  C.  Knight 
(1862);  J.  R.  Green  (1881). 

CONSTITTTIONAL   HISTORIES!    Prof.   Stu'b'bs, 

Constitutional  History  of  Efiglandy  invaliia.>>le> 
for  the  earlier  and  mediaeval  period,  and  t"ho 
fifteenth  century  to  the  reign  of  Henry  VII. ; 
Gneist,  Englische  Verifialtungsreeht^  and  *SV//*- 
Government :  and  his  Englische  Verfeutftftnpjt^ 
geschichte,  the  best  short  constitutional  history 


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of  England.     Hallam*8  Camstitutumal  History , 

which  begins  with  the  reign  of  Henry  YII., 

is    specially   useful    for    the    sixteenth  and 

seTenteenth    centuries ;    and    those    by    Sir 

Erskine  May  and  Professor  C.  D.  Yonge,  for 

the  eighteenth  and  present  centuries.    Taswell 

Langmead's  CotutUutumal  History  is  a  useful 

handbook  for  students. 

WoKKS  FOR  General  Bbfb&ence  :  T.  H. 

Burton,  History  of  Scotland  ;  J.  Mill,  History 

oj  British  Jndia^  with  Continuation  by  H.  H. 

Wilson ;    Wheeler,  History  of  India  ;    Miss 

Strickland,  Lives  of  the  Queens  of  England ; 

Lord  Campbell,  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chancellors 

and  Lives  of  the  Lord  Chief  Justices ;  Hook, 

Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury  ;  Foss, 

Lives  of  the  Judges  of  England  ;  Cobbett  and 

Howell's  5ia/«  Trials;  Willis  Bund,  Selected 

State  Trials  ;  Halliweli,  Letters  of  the  Kings 

of  England;  Ellis's  Original  Letters;  Rymer, 

fcBdera  ;  Willdns,  Concilia,  partly  superseded 

by  Haddan   and   Stubbs,   Councils;   Madox, 

History   and  Antiquities  of  the   Exchequer; 

Dumont,    Corps    Universel    Diplomatique   du 

DroU  des  Gens  ;  Eden,  History  of  the  Poor; 

liogers,  History  of  Prices  ;  Porter,  Progress  of 

the  Nation;  Macpherson,  History  of  Commerce  ; 

Leone  Levi,    History  of  British    Commerce ; 

James,  Naval  History  ;  Bruce,  History  of  the 

East  India  Company. 

Of  most  of  the  above  works,  and  xnaDy  othen, 
some  account  will  be  foond,  togefcher  with  brief 
criticisms,  in  the  second  part  ol  An  IntroAvjdtion 
to  the  Study  of  Bnglitk  Historii,  by  S.  B.  Gardiner 
aud  J.  B.  MuUinser.  [For  authorities  on 
Soottteh,  Irish,  and  Welsh  history  see  Scot- 
LAVD,  laaiAVD,  Walbs.]  [J.  B.  M.] 

JLvemhurjf    Robeet    of    {d.    1367), 

registrar  of  the  archiepiscopal  court  at 
Canterbury,  wrote  a  History  of  the  Wonder- 
ftti  Deeds  of  Edward  IIL,  extending  from 
the  birth  of  Edward  to  the  year  1356.  It 
gives  us  a  short  detail  of  pubhc  events,  with 
transcripts  of  original  documents  and  extinicts 
from  letters.  It  was  printed  by  Heame  in 
1720. 

AvraaicheSy  a  small  town  in  the  extreme 
west  of  Normandy,  was  the  scene  of  Henry 
II.'s  reconciliation  with  the  Pope  after  the 
murder  of  Becket.  Here,  on  Ascension  Day, 
1172,  the  king  swore  on  the  Gospels  that  he 
hid  neither  commanded  nor  desired  the  death 
of  Becket;  and  that  he  had  not  so  deeply 
grieved  for  the  death  of  his  own  father  and 
mother.  He  also  agreed  to  abrogate  the 
Constitutions  of  Clarendon  and  all  bad  cus- 
toms introduced  during  his  reign ;  to  re- 
invest the  Church  of  Canterbury  in  all  its 
rights  and  possessions ;  to  pardon  and  restore 
to  their  estates  all  who  had  incurred  his  wrath 
in  Becket*s  cause ;  to  maintain  200  knights 
at  his  own  cost  in  the  Holy  Land ;  and,  if  the 
Pope  should  require  it,  to  make  a  crusade 
himself  against  the  Saracens  in  Spain. 

AylMbnzy  Election  Case,  The  (i  704) 

ifir  the  caae  of  Ashby  v.  White),  produced 


a  violent  collision  between  the  House  of 
Commons  and  the  Lords.  The  vote  of 
a  burgess,  Matthew  Ashby,  had  been  re- 
jected by  the  returning  officer,  William 
White.  Ashby  brought  an  action  in 
the  Court  of  Queen*s  Bench.  There  a 
majority  of  the  judges,  contrary  to  the 
opinion  of  Chief  Justice  Holt,  decided 
against  him  on  the  ground  that  no  harm 
had  been  done  to  him,  and  that  decisions  on 
the  right  to  vote  belonged  to  the  Commons 
alone.  Ash  by 's  supportei-s  thereupon  brought 
the  case  by  writ  of  error  before  the  House  of 
Lords.  Here  the  judgment  g^vcn  at  the 
Queen's  Bench  was  reversed,  and,  by  this 
important  decision,  franchises  were  placed 
under  the  common  law.  In  spite  of  the  wise 
advice  of  the  Whig  lawyers,  William  Cowper 
and  Sir  Joseph  Jekyll,  the  Commons  proceeded 
to  pass  resolutions  to  the  effect  that  (1)  neither 
the  qualification  of  any  elector  nor  the  right 
of  any  person  elected  was  cognisable  else- 
where than  before  the  House  of  Commons; 
(2)  that  Ashby,  having  in  contempt  of  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  House  prosecuted  an  action 
at  common  law  against  William  While,  was 
guilty  of  breach  of  privilege.  The  Lords 
passed  contrary  resolutions,  and  the  quarrel 
became  so  serious  that  early  in  April 
Queen  Anne  put  an  end  to  the  session. 
Ashby,  however,  sued  out  execution  for  the 
damages  awarded  him  at  the  County  Assizes 
against  the  returning  officers  who  had  refused 
to  receive  his  vote.  In  addition,  four  other 
burgesses  were  put  forward  to  sue  the  officers. 
The  Commons  promptly  committed  the  plain- 
tiffs and  their  attorney  to  Newgate.  The 
prisoners,  after  two  mouths,  moved  the  Court 
of  King's  Bench  for  a  habeas  corpus;  but 
these  j  udgos,  contrary  to  the  opinion  of  Holt, 
who  was  for  the  discharge  of  the  prisoners, 
decided  that  the  court  had  no  jurisdiction  in 
the  matter.  It  was  determined  to  bring  this  by 
writ  of  error  before  the  Lords.  The  Commons 
foolishly  voted  an  address  to  the  Queen 
praying  her  not  to  grant  a  writ  of  error. 
Her  reply,  that  the  matter  required  careful 
consideration,  was  looked  on  as  equivalent  to 
a  refusaL  The  Lords  thereupon  passed 
some  important  resolutions:  (l)That  neither 
House  of  Parliament  could  arrogate  to 
itself  any  new  privilege ;  (2)  that  the 
Commons  had  assumed  an  unwarranted 
legislative  power  by  attributing  the  force 
of  law  to  their  declaration;  (3)  that  they 
had  thereby  subjected  the  rights  of  English- 
men to  the  arbitrary  votes  of  the  House 
of  Commons;  (4)  that  every  Englishman 
who  is  imprisoned  by  any  authority  what- 
ever, has  an  undoubted  right  to  his  writ  of 
habeas  corpus ;  (5)  that  for  the  Commons  to 
punish  any  person  for  assisting  a  prisoner  to 
procure  such  a  writ  is  a  breach  of  the  statutes 
provided  for  the  liberty  of  the  subject ; 
(6)  that  a  writ  of  error  was  not  one  of  grace, 
but  of  right,  and  ought  not  to  be  denied  to 


Ayl 


(112) 


Bab 


the  subject  when  duly  applied  for.  A  fairly 
amicttblo  conference  between  the  two  Houses 
produced  no  result,  as  neither  side  would  give 
way.  The  Queen,  therefore,  prorogued 
Parliament  (March  14th),  thus  leaving  a 
g^itt  constitutional  question  wholly  un- 
decided. Hallam  thinks  that  **the  House 
of  Commons  had  an  undoubted  right  of 
determining  all  disputed  returns  to  the  writ 
of  election,  and  consequently  of  judging  upon 
the  right  of  every  vote.  But  as  the  House 
could  not  pretend  that  it  had  given  this  right, 
or  that  it  was  not,  like  any  other  franchise, 
vested  in  the  possessor  by  a  legal  title,  no 
protest  or  analogy  could  be  set  up  for  deny- 
ing that  it  might  come,  in  an  indirect  manner 
at  least,  before  a  court  of  justice,  and  be 
judged  by  common  principles  of  law.'*  [Elec- 
tions.] 

ParliavMntarii  HUt. ;  Stai$  Trials,  vol.  iv. ; 
Hallam,  Connt.  Hist. ;  Stauhope,  Reign  of  Qaetn 
Anne  ;  Hatsell,  PrececUitto  ;  May,  Conei.  if t«t. 

Ayldsfbrdy  in  Kent,  is  generally  sup- 
poseu  to  be  the  place  where,  in  455,  Horaa 
fell  in  a  battle  against  the  Britons.  Near 
this  is  Kit^s  Coty  House,  a  cromlech  stiid 
to  have  been  erected  to  Catigern,  one  of  the 
British  commanders,  who  was  slain  in  this 
battle. 

Aylmer,  John  [b.  1521,  d.  1594),  the  tutor 
of  Lady  Jane  Grey,  was  one  of  the  most 
zealous  reformers  of  Edward  VL*s  reign.  In 
1576  ho  was  made  Bishop  of  London  by 
Queen  Elizabeth,  and  distinguished  himself 
by  his  zeal  against  the  Puritans.  He  pub- 
lished an  Answer  to  Knox*s  celebrated  Bloat 
of  the  Trumpet  agniniit  Monstrous  Regitnent 
of  Women;  but  having  offended  the  queen 
by  preaching  against  dress,  she  requited 
him  by  vowing  that,  "  If  ho  held  more 
discourse  on  such  matters,  she  would  fit  him 
for  heaven ;  but  he  should  walk  thither  with- 
out a  staff,  and  leave  his  mantle  behind  him." 

Ayscongh,  or  Ayscne,  >^ik  Grorob 

{d.  1673?),  was  the  son  of  a  Lincolnshire 
gentleman.  He  entered  the  naval  ser\'ice  at 
an  early  age,  and  was  knighted  by  Charles  I. 
In  1648,  when  the  fleet  revolted  to  Prince 
Uuport,  Ayscoiigh  secured  the  Lion  for  the 
Parliament.  He  was  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  fleet  which  had  to  watch  the 
coasts  of  Ireland,  and  in  1651  to  reduce  the 
Scilly  Islands.  In  1652  he  took  Barl)adoe8 
for  the  Parliament.  He  was  engaged,  in 
compiiny  with  Blake,  in  the  despt^rate  naval 
battles  agjiinst  the  Dutch  in  1652;  but  ho 
was  so  much  annoyed  at  Blake's  retreat  be- 
fore Tix>mp,  after  the  action  of  Nov.  29  in 
that  year,  that  ho  laid  down  his  command, 
and  remained  in  retirement  during  the  r**- 
inaindtT  of  the  Commonwealth.  In  1665,  on 
the  renewal  of  war  with  the  Dutch,  he  was 
made  Rear- Admiral  of  the  Blue,  and  bore  a 
principal  share  in  the  great  victory  obtained 
over  Tromp  and  Ruyter  on  June  3.    In  the 


great  four-days'  battle  of  the  following  year, 

Ayscough  behaved  with  distinguished  bravery ; 

but  his  ship  ran  upon  a  sand-bank,  and  he 

was  forced  to  surrender.    The  Dutch  were 

so  elated  at  the  possession  of  this  formidable 

antagonist,  that  they  exhibited  him  in  triumph 

in  several  of  their  towns.     He  was  afterwards 

confined  for  some  time  in  the  Castle  of  Lcjevc* 

stein.      He  was  subsequently  released,  and 

allowed  to  return  to  England ;  but  he  took 

no  further  part  in  public  affairs. 

Biographic  Briiannica;  Chamock,  B'ogrophia 
Ifavolu,  1794;  Campbell,  Iavks  of  iht  AimiraX*. 

AsoreSy     Expeditions     to    the,    took 
place  (1)  in  1572,  when  Sir  John  Hawkins, 
with  twenty  ships,  sailed  to  lie  in  wait  for 
the  Mexican  gold  fleet.     (2)  In  July,  1587. 
when   Sir  Francis  Drake  took  the  Spanish 
treasure-ship  iSan  Felipe,  doing  so  much  to 
damage  the  Spanish  prestige,  and  to  iuHpirit 
the  disheartened  ministers  of  Elizabeth,  that 
the  expedition  is  said  to  have  been  "worth  at 
the  moment  to  Protestant  England  more  than 
a   general    engagement    fought    and   won." 
(3)  In  1597,  wh<'n  a  fleet  was  sent  out  under 
the    Earl   of    Essex,    Sir    Walter    Rjileigh, 
and  Lord  Thomas  Howard  to  capture  the 
Spanish  vessels  returning  from  the  Indict. 
Raleigh,  having  arrived  first,  took  the  Inland 
of  Fayal  without  waiting  for  Essex,  and  a 
serious  quarrel  arose  between  the  two  ad- 
mirals.   Essex  subsequently  took  Flores  and 
Gradosa,   but    from    his    bad    managemont 
allowed  the  Spanish  treasure-ships  to  e8cai)e, 
taking  three  only.     On  the  return  of   the 
expedition  to  England,  Essex  was  severely 
blamed  for  its  failure. 


Babintftoxi's  Conspiracy  (1586)  oHtd- 

nated  with  Ballard,  a  Jesnit,  and  "a  young 
man  of  family  and  fortune  "  named  Anthony 
Babington,  of  Dethick.  Three  elements  may 
be  traced  in  this  conspiracy:  the  devotcnl 
adherents  of  the  Papacy;  English  Catholits 
whom  zeal  and  harsh  treatment  had  driven 
to  desperation;  and  lastly,  the  paid  ag^onts 
of  Wadsingham.  Babington — who,  whilst  a 
page  at  Sheffield,  had  been  fascinated  l)y  the 
charms  of  the  Queen  of  Scots — was  easily 
persuaded  by  Ballard,  after  the  latter' s  tour 
through  England  in  1585,  to  enter  into  a 
scheme  by  which  Elizabeth  was  to  bo  assassi- 
nated, and  the  countrv  then  raised  for  Marv 
The  conspinitors,  who  numbered  scvora 
gentlemen  of  position,  chose  six  of  tli^'ii 
number  to  commit  the  crime  —  namely 
Savage,  Salisbury,  Abington,  Tilney,  liam 
well,  and  Tichboume— and  felt  confident  o 
success,  ignorant  of  the  fact  that,  throiifj:h  th 
elaborate  system  of  espionage  established  b; 
Burleigh   and  Wakingham,  agents    of     thi 


(  113) 


government  had  actually  been  admitted  to  a 
share  in  the  secret.  Unfortunately  for  the 
Uueen  of  Scots,  Babington  revealed  the 
whole  plot  to  her  in  a  letter,  which,  like  all 
his  otbeiB,  passed  through  Walsingham's 
hands;  and  her  reply,  encouniging  the 
conspirators,  and  urging  them  to  immediate 
action,  ultimately  sealed  her  fate.  Proof 
sufficient  having  been  obtained,  Ballard  was 
arrested  Aug.  4,  1586,  and  Babington,  with 
four  others,  was  captured  ten  days  after  in  a 
ham  at  Harrow,  whilst  the  papers  of  Mary 
Stuart  were  seized  during  her  temporary 
absence  from  her  room  on  a  hunting 
party.  On  Sept.  13th  the  conspirators 
were  tried  by  a  Special  Commission  at  West- 
minster, and  fourteen  were  executed  at  Ty- 
burn on  the  20th  and  2l8t  of  the  same  month. 
Lingard  regards  the  plot  as  in  very  great 
measure  set  on-  foot  by  Walsingham's 
spies: — "There  was  much  in  the  fate  of 
these  young  men  to  claim  sympathy. 
Probably  had  it  not  been  for  the  perfidious 
emissaries  of  Morgan  and  Walsinghara— of 
Morgan,  who  sought  to  revenge  himself  on 
Elizabeth,  and  of  Walsingham,  who  cared 
not  whose  blood  he  shod  provided  he  could 
shed  that  of  Mary  Stuart — ^none  of  them 
would  have  even  thought  of  the  offence  for 
which  they  suffered.*'  On  the  other  hand, 
Mr.  Froade  says : — "  It  is  false,  absolutely  and 
utterly,  that  the  plot  was  set  on  foot  by 
agents  of  Walsingham  to  tempt  her  to  join  it 
in  her  desperation  and  then  to  destroy  her." 

Camden,  Beign  of  On.  El'zaheih;  Llngpard, 
Hut.  of  £#10.;  Froude,  aist.  ofEng. 

Bachelor,  or  Knight  Bachelor  {bache- 
iarius,  baeealnurem),  was  a  simple  knight,  one 
who  had  received  knighthood,  but  had  ob- 
tained no  further  honour,  such  as  that  of 
heing  made  baronet  or  Knight  of  the  Bath. 
The  word  "was  also  used  to  denote  a  squire, 
or  armour- T)earer  not  of  the  dogree  of  knight, 
'•  bachalarii  armorum  niincupati,"  says  Spel- 
man,  "ut  sic  innotescerent,  a  litterarum 
bachalariis."  A  knight  was  required  to  have 
ten  of  these  before  he  could  bo  made  a 
haronet.  "  Bacheloria  "  is  also  occasionally 
iLsed  to  designate  apparently  the  whole 
gentry,  or  the  whole  body  of  military  tenants 
below'  the  defH^ree  of  baron.  Thus  the  "  com- 
munitas  bat-heleriae  totius  Anglije"  (AmwL 
Burton.,  p.  471),  in  1259,  complains  to  PriAce 
Edward  of  the  conduct  of  the  barons. 

Matthew  Paris,  p.  7«  9 ;  Stubba.  Con**,  Ritd.,  \\. 
87  ;  Spelman,  GIo»an«m.  The  derivat-on  of  the 
word  lias  been  varionB'y  connected  with  We'sh, 
hacK,  yonnf?  icf.  O.  Pr.  hacelU^  hacheletXe),  and 
more  plausibly  with  baooa,  i.e.,  iwcci,  a  cow,  and 
with  ba«ttittf,  a  staff.    See  Enc.  Brii.  (ninth  ed.). 

Bachelors,  Taxes  on.  By  the  Act  6  and  7 
Will.  IIT.,  a  tax  was  imposed  on  unmarried 
male  persons  above  the  age  of  twenty-five, 
varying  in  amount  from  £12  10s.  to  Is., 
according  to  the  taxxiayer's  status.  It  was 
lepeolod  in  1706.    In  1785  bachelora'  servants 


were  subjected  to  a  higher  tax  than  those  of 
other  pei-sons.  In  Air.  Pitt's  graduated 
Income  Tax,  in  1799,  the  rate  was  higher  for 
bachelors  than  for  married  men. 

Back   Lane    Parliament  was   the 

name  given  to  an  assembly  of  Catholic 
delegates  from  all  Ireland,  which  met  in 
Dublin  in  Dec ,  1792.  They  drew  up  a 
petition  professing  loyalty  and  demanding 
the  franchise.  The  bishops  signed  it  for  the 
clergy,  and  the  delegates  tor  the  laity.  Five 
gentlemen,  among  whom  were  Byrne  and 
Keogh,  went  over  to  present  it.  Dundas  pre- 
sented them,  and  they  were  assured  that  their 
wishes  would  be  considered. 

Bacon,    Francis.      [St.    Albans,    Vis- 
count.] 

Bacon,  Sir  Nicholas  {b.  1510,  d.  1679),  was 
born  at  Chislehurst  and  educated  for  the  law, 
obtaining  in  1637  the  office  of  Solicitor  to  the 
Court  of  Augmentations.  During  the  reign 
of  Mary,  Sir  Nicholas,  like  many  others,  con- 
formed to  the  Catholic  religion,  although  he 
had  been,  under  Edwnrd  VI.,  an  active 
supporter  of  the  Reformtition.  Having 
married  a  daughter  of  Sir  Anthony  Cooke, 
he  became  Cecil's  brother-in-law,  and  by  the 
latter's  recommendation  obtained  the  post  of 
Lord  Keeper  of  the  Groat  Seal  on  the  at^cession 
of  Elizabeth.  He  speedily  won  the  confidence 
of  the  queen,  and  became  famous  for  his 
decisions  in  equity.  In  1561  ho  did  his 
best  to  bring  about  an  alliance  with  the 
Huguenot  leaders  in  France,  and  subse- 
quenlly  strongly  supported  the  marriage  of 
the  queen,  whose  favour  he  lost  for  a  time 
in  1564,  owing  to  his  having  participated 
in  the  publication  of  John  Hales's  book 
on  the  succession.  The  I^ord  Keeper  was 
for  this  offence  struck  off  the  roll  of  Privy 
Councillors,  at  the  instance  of  his  enemy, 
the  Earl  of  Leicester,  and  "  strictly  enjoined 
to  meddle  with  no  business  whatever  except 
that  of  the  Court  of  Chancery."  Shortly 
afterwards,  however,  he  recovered  his  position 
at  court.  In  1668  he  was  one  of  the  com- 
missioners to  inquire  into  the  guilt  of  the 
Queen  of  Scots  in  the  matter  of  the  Darnley 
murder,  and  he  superintended  the  trial  of 
the  Duke  of  Norl'olk  in  1572,  although 
he  took  no  active  part  in  it.  Lord  Keeper 
Bacon  had  a  great  influence  over  liis  brother- 
in-law  Cecil,  and  is  said  to  have  framed 
the  Acts  aimed  at  the  Queen  of  Scots  and 
her  supporters.  He  died  Fob.  20,  1579, 
having  held  his  oflBce  for  twenty  years.  His 
son  says  of  him:— "He  was  a  plain  man, 
direct  and  constant,  without  all  finesse  and 
doublcnesse,'*  whilst  a  contemporary  descrilies 
him  as  '*  a  man  of  greate  diligence  and  ability 
in  his  place,  whose  goodnesse  preserved  his 
greatness  from  suspicion,  envye,  and  hate." 

Camden,  Kei  m  of  On.  Eli  ahrth ;  Burnet,  Hit- 
tory  of  th*i  Reformnfwn ;  Campbell,  Livm  of  (h« 
ClMitoeUoi-< ;  Foas,  Jvdg$$  of  England. 


(  114) 


Bad 


Bacon,  Roger  (b.  1214,  J.  1294  P),  studied 
at  Oxford  and  Paris,  and  took  orders  as  a 
Franciscan  friar.  His  proficiency  in  natural 
science  exposed  him  to  very  severe  treatment 
on  the  part  of  his  superiors.  Accused  of  deal- 
ing in  magic,  he  was  prevented  from  lecturing 
at  Oxford,  and  ordered  to  go  to  Paris,  where 
he  remained  several  years.  Clement  IV.,  in 
1266,  interested  himself  in  Bacon,  induced 
him  to  publish  his  works,  and  procured  his 
release  and  return  to  Oxford.  In  1271,  in  the 
Compendium  Studii  Fhilosophia,  he  made  a 
violent  attack  on  the  monks  and  clergy.  In 
1278  he  WHS  again  imprisoned,  and  remained 
in  confinement  for  fourteen  years.  As  a 
philosopher  and  man  of  science,  Koger  Bacon 
is  a  personage  of  the  first  importance  in  the 
history  of  mediaeval  thought. 

Bacon's  chief  work  is  the  Opus  Ma^ut,  an 
encyclopffidio  survey  of  existing  knowledge, 
which  has  been  compared  with  tiie  great  work 
of  his  later  namesake.  It  is  printed  by  Jebb, 
Lond.,  1733,    Some  of  Bacon's  minor  philoso- 

Shical  treatises  are  published  in  the  Bolls 
eries,  1859.  A  very  lu*^  number  of  his  writ- 
ings  are  still  in  manuscript.  For  accounts  of 
Bacon's  life,  and  esiimates  of  his  position  in 

ShiliBophy,  M«  £.  Charles,  Roger  Bacon,  1861 ; 
chneider,    JBog«r  Bacon,   1873;   Mr.    Brewer's 
Prefaces  to  Bacon's  Op«ra  InedUa  (Bolls  Series). 

Badajos  was  the  scene  of  the  fiercest 
struggles  in  the  Peninsular  War.  Originally  in 
the  hinnds  of  the  Spaniards,  it  was  surrendered, 
by  the  treachery  of  its  commander,  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1811,  to  the  French;  and  on  the  5th 
of  May  following  the  first  English  siege  was 
begun.  Owing  to  false  information  as  to  the 
movements  of  the  French  army,  the  siege 
was  raised,  after  the  operations  had  been 
carried  on  for  a  week ;  but,  when  the  battles 
of  Fuentes  d'Onoro  and  Albuera  had  checked 
the  armies  of  Massena  and  Soult,  Wellington 
began  his  preparations  for  the  second  siege. 
Circumstances,  however,  prevented  him  from 
taking  as  much  time  as  he  really  required  for 
the  siege;  and  after  two  desperate  assaults 
on  San  Christoval,  an  outlying  fort,  in  June, 
the  siege  was  again  raised.  But  in  the  next 
year  the  two  previous  failures  were  avenged. 
The  place  was  very  strongly  fortified.  On 
the  north  it  was  washed  by  the  Guadiana, 
with  two  outlying  foils  thrown  across  the 
river,  one  of  which  defended  the  only  bridge. 
At  the  north-east  corner  of  the  town,  the 
Guadiana  is  joined  by  the  Ri villas.  On  the 
south-east  beyond  the  Rivillas  an  isolated  hill 
was  occupied  by  a  strong  fort,  called  the 
Picurina.  Within  the  walls,  the  town  was 
defended  by  four  chief  fortresses,  the  castle  at 
the  north-east  corner,  the  Trinidad  bastion 
at  the  east  extremity,  with  that  of  St«  Maria 
close  to  it  on  the  w^est  side,  and  at  the  extreme 
north-west  corner,  by  the  castle  of  St.  Vin- 
cente.  Wellington's  works  were  begun  on 
the  17th  of  March,  and  on  the  night  of  the 
25th  the  Picurina  was  assaulted  and  taken 
after  a  desperate  conflict.  On  the  6th  April 
the  assault  was  made.     Picton  crossed  the 


Rivillas    and    attacked   the    castle  on  the 
right,    while    Major  Wilson    stormed   the 
smaller  fortress  of  Saa  Roque  ;  Colville  and 
Barnard  assaulted  the  breaches;    Leith  was 
to'  make  a  feint   against  Pardaleras,  while 
Walker  made  the  real  attack  at  St.  Vincente. 
The  troops  at    the   breaches   displayed  the 
most  undaunted  courage  and  resolution,  but 
the  terrible  defences  devised  by  Philippon, 
and  the   stern  resistance  of   the  defenders, 
baffled  all  their  efi'orts.    In  two  hours  2,000 
men  had  fallen  without  result ;    and  Wel- 
lington sent  orders  to  the  party  to  retire  and 
re-form.   Meanwhile  Walker's  party  had  suc- 
ceeded in  effecting  an  entrance  through  an 
empty   embrasure    into    St.   Vincente.     By 
sheer  hard  fighting  they  carried  bastion  after 
bastion,  till  the  rumour  of  a  mine  caused 
a  panic,  and  they  were  temporarily  driven 
back.    They  soon  recovered,  however,  and 
sweeping  everything  before  them  took  those 
who  were  defending  the  breaches  in  the  rear, 
and  in  a  very  short  time  made  themselves 
masters  of  the  whole  town.    This  was  the  most 
bloody  of  all  the  struggles  of  the  Peninsular 
War,  and  the  English  lost  5,000  men  in  killed 
and  wounded. 

Napier,  Pm.  War.;  Clinton,  Pm.  War, 

Badby,  Thomas  {d.  1410),  was  a  tailor  or 
blacksmitn  of  Worcestershire,  and  the  first 
person  executed  under  the  statute  De  Hmretico 
Comburefido,  for  denying  the  Real  Presence. 
The  Prince  of  Wales,  who  was  present  at  his 
execution,  made  a  vain  attempt  to  save  him 
by  inducing  him  to  recant.  But  Badby 
remained  firm  to  his  conWctions,  notwith- 
standing the  entreaties  and  promises  of  the 
prince. 

Walsingham,  Hist.  Angl. ;  Foxe,  Martyrs. 

Badges,  Rotal,  are  distinguished  alike 
from  crests  and  coats  of  arms.     They  were 
intended  to  be  worn  on  helmets,  banners,  or 
caparisons,  as  well    as    on    the    breasts    of 
soldiers,  retainers,  and  attendants.     William 
II. *s  badge  is  said  to  have  been  an  eagle 
gazing  at  the  sun;   that  of  Stephen  was  an 
ostrich  plume.     Hanry  II.  used  the  badge  of 
his  house,  the  planta  genista,  or  broom  plant, 
besides  the  carbuncle  and  a  sword  with  an 
olive  branch.     Richard  I.  had  a  variety  of 
badges:    a  star  issuing   from  between    the 
bonis  of  a  crescent;  a  mailed  arm  holding  a 
broken   lance ;   and  a   sun  on  two  anchors. 
John  seems  to  have  adopted  the  first  of  the  so 
as  his  special  badge,  and  Henry  III.   used 
the    same   device.      The  badge  ascribed   to 
Edward   I.  is  "a  rose  or,  stalked  proper," 
while  Edward  II.,  in  token  of  his  deseeit 
from   the    kings  of  Castile,   used    a    castle. 
Edward  IIT.'s  badges  were  ver>'  numerous ; 
amongst  them  were  rays  descending  from  a 
cloud,    the  stump  of    a  tree,   a  falcon,  -  an 
ostrich  feather,  and  a  sword  erect.     Richard 
II.  likewise  had  a  variety  of  badges,  such  ae 
the  sun  in  its  splendour,  the  sun  behind  a 


Bad 


(  116) 


cloud,  and  a  'white  hart.     By  Henry  IV. 
numerous  badges  and  devices  were  employed, 
such  as  an  eagle  displayed,  a  fox's  tail,  a 
panther  crowned,  and  a  crescent.     Henry  V. 
bore  an  antelope,  a  swan,  and    a   beacon. 
Henry  VI.  also  used  the  antelope,  as  well  as 
the  feather.     The  Lancastnan  party,  how- 
ever,  adopted  the  red  rose  as  their  emblem, 
in  opposition    to    the    white    rose    of    the 
Yortista.       Edward     IV.     had    numerous 
badges,  such  as  a  black  bull,  a  white  wolf, 
and  a  fetterlock ;  but  the  most  famous  badge 
of  the  House  of  York  was  the  sun  in  its 
splendour,  to  which  Shakespeare  alludes  at 
the  beginning  of  '^Richard  111."    This  king's 
peculiar  badge  was  a  falcon  with  a  woman's 
face,  holding  a  white  rose.     In  memory  of 
the   finding  of  the  crown   in  a    hawthorn 
bush  at  Bosworth  Field,  Henry  VII.  adopted 
a  crowned   hawthorn    bush   as    his  badge, 
besides  which  he  used  the  red  dragon   of 
Wales  and  a  white   greyhound,  which  last 
was  also  used  by  Henry  VIII.     Edward  VI. 
bore  the  sun  in  splendour.   The  general  badge 
of  the  House  of  Tudor  was  a  rose,  which 
Queen   Mary  frequently  used,  besides    the 
pomegranate  and  a  sheaf  of  arrows.   Elizabeth 
also  used  the  rose,  as  well  as  the  falcon,  and 
James  I.  the  rose  and  the  thistle.    Since  this 
time  royal  badges  have  not  been  used,  but 
the  rose  has  come  to  be  considered  the  emblem 
of  England,  the  thistle  of  Scotland,  the  sham- 
rock of  Ireland,  and  the  harp  of  Wales. 

BadoiLy  Mount  (Mens  Badonicus),  is  the 
name  of  the  place  where  King  Arthur  is  said 
to  have  defeated  the  Saxons  in  620.  Its 
)Kisition  is  unknown ;  one  school  of  historians 
identify  it  with  some  place  in  the  south  of 
England,  as  Badbury,  in  Dorsetshire;  an- 
other with  towns  in  the  district  between  the 
Forth  and  Clyde,  as  Borden  'Hill,  near  Lin- 
lithgow.    [AKTHriu] 

Ba^emond's  Holl  was  the  valuation  by 
Bocamund  de  Vicci,  the  Papal  Conunissioncr, 
in  1275,  of  all  benefices  in  Scotland,  a  tenth 
of  the  revenues  of  which  were  to  be  devoted 
to  the  recovery  of  the  Holy  Land.  This  roll 
wafl  the  basis  on  which  ecclesiastical  taxation 
in  Scotland  rested  down  to  the  time  of  the 
Eeformation. 

BahamaSy  The  (or  Lucayos),  consist  of 
a  number  of  small  islanda  in  the  North 
Atlantic  Ocean,  l>'ing  to  the  north-east  of 
(kba.  The  principal  islands  are  New  Provi- 
dence (in  which  is  situated  Nassau,  the  capital), 
St.  Salvador  (the  first  land  sighted  by  Colum- 
boa  on  his  voyage  in  1492),  Great  Bahama, 
Long  Island,  and  Eleuthora.  Although  the 
Bahamas  were  di.«icovered  by  Columbus  in  1492, 
no  attempt  was  made  to  colonise  them  until 
1629,  when  an  English  settlement  was  planted 
in  New  Providence.  In  1641  the  English 
were  driven  out  by  the  Spaniards,  but  re- 
tamed  again  in  1666,  and  held  the  islands 
until  they  were  compelled,  to  retire  by  a  com- 


bined French  and  Spanish  attack  in  1703. 

For  some  years  after  this  the  Bahamas  were 

chiefly  resorted  to  by  buccaneers,  who  were, 

however,    extirpated    in    1718    by    Captain 

Rogers.     In  1781  the  islanda  were  taken  by 

a    Spanish  force,  but  were    recaptured    by 

Colonel  Devereux,   and  finally   given*  up  to 

England  by  the  Treaty  of  Versailles,  1783. 

The   government,   which    is    representative, 

is    vested    in    a    Governor,    an    Executive 

Council    of    nine    members,    a    Legislative 

Council     of    nine,*   and    a     Representative 

Assembly   of  twenty-eight  members,  which 

meets  at  Nassau,  and  which  is  elected  by 

the  people  of  eleven  different  islands. 

B.  Edwards,  Hut.  of  the  Weft  Indiee  :  B.  M. 
Hartin,  Eiei.  qf  the  Colonue;  Sir  E.  Creaay, 
Britannic  Bmpire, 

Bail  (Fr.  baillery  to  hand  over,  deliver; 
or  Lat.  bajulare,  to  take  up  a  burden)  is  used 
in  English  conunon  law  to  denote  the  freeing 
of  accused  persons  from  imprisonment,  on 
security  being  accepted  that  they  will  appear 
to  stand  their  trial.  Mainprize  has  much  the 
same  meaning  as  bail,  and  the  two  terms  are 
used  almost  promiscuously  in  the  old  law 
books.  By  the  common  law  all  oifences  were 
bailable  except  murder.  By  the  Statute  of 
Westminster,  1276,  the  power  of  granting 
bail  in  cases  of  felony  and  treason  was 
taken  away.  Common  Bail  or  Bail  below 
was  often  required  for  the  release  of  persons 
charged  with  trifling  offences;  but  the  bail 
was  entered  in  the  names  of  John  Doe  and 
Richard  Roe,  and  was  therefore  merely 
formal.  This  was  abolished  by  2  WilL  IV., 
c.  39.  By  7  Geo.  IV.,  c.  64,  justices  of  the 
peace  might  release  persons  charged  with 
felony  if  the  evidence  were  not  such  as  to 
raise  a  strong  presumption  of  their  guilt. 
The  modem  practice  is  regulated  b)'  the  Act 
16  and  16  Vict.,  c.  76. 

Bailiff,  a  word  cognate  with  Fr.  bailli^ 
from  Old  Fr.  bailler,  to  carry  or  govern,  and 
Low  Lat.  ballivusy  or  bajulusy  a  governor,  is  a 
person  who  is  entrusted  with  power  of  super- 
intendence by  a  superior.  The  term  was  in 
common  use  among  the  Normans  both  in 
France  and  in  Sicily,  and  accordingly,  after 
the  Conquest,  we  find  it  applied  loosely  to 
many  officials :  thus  the  sheriff  was  called  the 
king's  bailiff,  and  the  district  over  which  his 
jurisdiction  extended  was  called  his  baili- 
wick ;  so  too  is  the  jurisdiction  of  the  chief 
forester  in  Henry  I.'s  charter ;  the  keeper  of 
Dover  Castle  was  also  called  bailiff,  and  later 
on  the  word  is  used  of  elective  functionaries. 
The  burgesses  of  Colchester  could  elect  bailiffs 
in  the  reign  of  Richard  I.,  and  under  Henry 
III.,  when  the  right  of  choosing  their  mayor 
was  taken  away  from  the  Londoners,  they  were 
allowed  to  elect  bailiffs  instead.  Gradually  the 
word  became  attached  to  definite  offices :  (Ij 
The  presiding  magistrate  of  a  town,  who  assumed 
the  functions  of  the  English  reeve,  called  in 


(  116) 


mercantile  towns  port-reeve^  whose  Latin  title 
prepositna  was  applied  to  him — with  this 
essential  diifcrence,  that  the  reove  before  the 
Conquest  might  be,  and  in  the  old  free  towns 
frequently  was,  chosen  by  the  citizens,  while 
the  Norman  bailiff  was  almost  invariably 
appointed  by  the  lord— e.<7.,  the  bailiff  of 
Beverley  by  the  Archbishop  of  Vork.  His 
duties  were  to  preserve  the  king's  peace,  and 
to  preside  over  the  chief  court  of  the  town. 
Thus  in  Leicester  the  bailiff  was  the  con- 
stituting officer  of  the  portmanmote  until  the 
middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  in 
Beverley  the  archbishop*8  bailiffs  held  the 
court  in  his  name  until  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.  By  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
however,  the  mayor  hud  supplanted  the 
bailiff  nearly  everywhere ;  the  summonses  of 
borough  members  to  a  national  council  are 
addressed  to  the  mayors  of  the  towns  more 
frequently  than  to  the  bailiffs,  and  in  cases 
where  both  are  mentioned  the  mayor  is  placed 
first.  Later  on,  the  citizens  of  Poole,  in  1371, 
were  allowed  to  call  their  chief  magistrate 
mayor  instead  of  preposiius.  Nevertheless, 
the  idea  of  the  bailiff  being  a  great  town 
official  still  lingered  on,  and  the  iaquiries  of 
the  Corporation  Commissioners  in  1835 
showed  that  there  were  120  officers  of  this 
nature  in  the  corporate  towns.  [Reeve.] 
(2)  The  bailifi  of  the  liberty  and  the 
manor^  and  closely  connected  with  them  the 
bailiff*  of  the  royal  demesnCf  wore  officials  of 
.  higher  position  than  those  of  the  towns.  It 
may  be  conjectured  that  the  latter  are  the 
ballivi  mei  mentioned  in  Magna  Charta  on 
terms  of  equality  with  the  sheriffs,  and  they 
are  mentioned  as  officers  of  importance  in 
Henry  II. 's  Inquest  of  Sheriffs.  Before  the 
Conquest  the  presiding  officer  of  the  Courts  of 
the  Liberties,  which  were  jurisdictions  exempt 
from  that  of  the  hundred,  and  of  lands  held 
in  sac  and  soc,  which  corresponded  to  a 
certain  extent  to  the  Norman  manor-system, 
was  the  reeve,  whose  subordiniite  was  the 
bydelf  or  beadle.  The  bailiffs  of  the  Hl)erty  or 
honour  and  of  the  manor,  represented  their 
lords  in  the  court-barony  or  ancient  assembly, 
of  the  township  w^here  by-laws  were  made, 
in  the  court  customary^  whore  the  business  of 
villanas:e  was  transacted,  and  in  the  court  leety 
which  had  criminal  jurisdiction ;  in  the  great 
baronial  honotirs,  whose  85'8tem  com^spondod 
to  that  of  the  shire,  the  bailiff  attended  the 
ehcriff^e  tourn  or  court  for  the  view  of  frank- 
pledge. On  a  liberty  the  lord  and  the  bailiff, 
as  his  lord's  representative,  were  the  only  per- 
sons who  could  execute  the  kinor's  writ  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  sheriff  until  the  Statute  of 
Westminster  the  second  (1295),  when  it  was 
provided-  th:it  if  the  bailiff  neglected  to 
execute  a  writ  within  the  liberty,  a  writ, 
with  a  clause  of  y\on  omiftaM^  should  be  issued 
authorising  the  sheriff  himself  to  enter  the 
liberty  and  execute  the  writ.  During  the 
reigns  of  the  Edwards,  and  subsequently,  the 


power  of  these  bailiffs  was  narrowly  watL-hed; 
they  were  to  be  sworn  to  make  distress,  and 
punished  for  malicious  distress  by  fine  and 
ti'ehle  damage;  to  truly  impanel  jurors,  and 
to  make  returns  by  indenture  between  them 
and  the  sheriffs.    They  could  not  arrest  with- 
out order  of  the  sheriff.    The  exclusive  juris- 
dictions of  the  liberties  still  exist  in  inanv 
parts  of  England,  and  in  1844  the  power  of 
the  bailiff's  was  regulated  by  placing  their 
appointment  in  the  hands  of  the  judge  of  the 
courts,  i.e.,  the  county -clerk  or  under-sheriff 
before  whom  they  are  held,  and  subjecting  them 
to  severe  penalties  for  misdemeanour.    With 
the  decay  of  feudalism  the  bailiff  of  the  manor 
became    an    unimportant    functionary    who 
looked  after  his  lord's  interests  in  the  matter  of 
collecting  rents,  surveying  improvements,  &c. 
(3)  The  bailiff  of  the  hundred  presided,  after 
the   Conquest,  in  the  smaller  court  of  the 
hundred,  the  chief  business  of  which  was  to 
settle  disputes  about  small  debts.     He  repre- 
sented the  king's  interest,  and  was  probably 
the  same  as  the  gerefa^  or  reeve  of  the  hundred, 
of  the  laws  of  Edward  the  Elder  and  Ethel- 
rod.     He  was  sup()osed  to  execute  all  pro- 
cess directed   to   the  sheriff,   to  collect  the 
king's  fines  and  fee-farm  rents,  and  to  att-end 
the  judgep  of  assize  and  gaol-delivery.     From 
Bracton  we  learn  that  another  of  his  duties 
was  to  select  four  knights  of  the  hundred,  who 
wore  in  turn  to  choose  the  jury  of  inquisition. 
These  jurisdictions  of  the  hundreds  fell,  under 
the  Norman  kings,  into  the  hands  of  great 
landowners,   in   which  case   the  bailiff   was 
appointed  by  the  lord,  and  presided  in   the 
manorial  courts    as   well    as    the    hundred- 
court.     The  functions  of  the  bailiff  of   the 
hundred  were,  therefore,  gradually  absorbed 
by  the  bailiff  of  the  manor  on  the  one  si  do, 
and  on  the  other  by  the  improved  machinery 
of    the  county  courts,  which,  in  the  days  of 
Henry    III.,   began   to  obtain  in   England. 
These  fimetions  wore  also,  to  a  certain  extent, 
represented  in  later  times  by  (4)  the  t^heiijTs 
^"^'^ffi  who  is,  however,  mentioned  as  early  na 
1 170  in  Henrj'  IT/s  Inquest  of  Sheriffs.     The 
office  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  of  constitutional 
importance;  bailiffs  executed  writs  and  made 
arrests  within  the  sheriff's  bailiwick,  and  they 
were  usually  bound,  in  an  obligation  to  the 
sheriff,  for  the  due  execution  of  their  offices, 
whence  they  were  called  bound  bailiffg    (vul- 
garly corrupt<'d   into   bum   bailiffs).       Special 
bailiffs  may  also   be    nominated   at    the  re- 
quest of  the  suitor  in  a  case,  and  appro votl 
by  the  sheriff,  for  a  particular  occasion.    Thoi  r 
persons  were  protected,  and  severe  penalties 
laid    on    thom    for    misdemeanour    by    tKt 
Inferior  Couits  Act  (1844). 

McTewi»a*heT  ami  Stepbens,  HiX.  «/  J?ormio?»i 
and     Jtfufitcipal     C«r;>orafionii;     Stnbb?*,      Coy\'<i 
Hvtt..    and   Select   Chavt*rr»;  Atkinson,    Sheriti» 
Knight,  Political  Cyclojurdia.  [L.  C.   S.] 

SaiUwick  signifies  either  a   county    ii 
which  the  sheriff  as  bailiff  of  the  kin^  exex* 


(117) 


Bal 


cifles  jarisdiction,  or  the  liberty  or  franchise 
of  some  lord,  **  who  has  an  exclusive  author- 
ity  within  its  limits  to  act  as  the  sheriif  does 
in  the  county.'*     [Bailiff.] 

Baillie,  Bobert  {b.  1599,  d.  1662),  minister 
of  Kilwinning,  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Covenanters,  and  a  voluminous  writer.  He 
was  one  of  the  Assembly  of  Divines  at  West- 
minster, and  in  March,  1649,  was  one  of  the 
commissioners  sent  to  Charles  II.  at  the 
Hague. 


ird,  Sir  David  (*.  1768,rf.  1829),  entered 
the  army  in  1772,  and  in  1776  obtained  a  com- 
pany in  a  new  reg^nieut,  raised  by  Lord  Mac- 
leod,  and  destined  for  India.  He  arrived  at 
Madras  in  Jan.,  1780,  and  shortly  afterwards 
had  active  employment  made  for  him  by  the 
irruption  of  Hyder  Ali  into  the  Carnutic. 
While  proceeding  with  his  regiment,  under 
Colonel  Baillie,  to  join  Sir  Hector  Munroe,  he 
fell  into  an  ambuscade  which  had  been  set  for 
the  detachment.  Baird,  wounded  in  four 
places,  remained  a  prisoner  till  he  was  released 
in  July,  1784.  In  1789  he  went  on  leave  to 
England,  but  returned  two  years  later  as 
lieutenant -colonel  of  his  regiment.  After 
this  he  was  continually  employed  in  some 
active  service  in  India,  being  present  at  the 
siege  of  Pondicherry  in  1793,  and  leading  the 
storming  party  at  Serin gapatam  in  1799. 
In  1800  he  was  appointed  to  command  the 
expedition  to  Egypt,  where  he  acted  in  con- 
junction with  the  aimy  which  Abercromby 
had  commanded.  Taking  umbrage  at 
Wellealey's  promotion,  Baird  came  to  Eng- 
land in  1803,  and  two  years  later  was  des- 
patched to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  which  he 
reduced  and  formed  into  a  colony.  On  his 
return  to  England  in  1807,  he  was  sent  under 
Lord  Cathcart  to  Denmark,  and  was  twice 
wounded  at  the  siege  of  Copenhagen.  He 
had  no  sooner  returned  from  that  expedition 
than  he  was  despatched  with  10,000  troops  to 
reinforce  Sir  John  Moore.  Having  effected 
a  junction.  Sir  David  shared  in  all  the  hard- 
ships of  the  dreadful  retreat,  and  finally 
rendered  excellent  service  as  second  in  com- 
mand at  Corunna,  where  he  lost  his  left  arm. 

Chambers,  Biog.  Diet,  of  BooUrMti;   Napier, 
P«n.  War. 

B%jee  SaOf  the  son  of  Bagoba,  became, 
on  the  death  of  Madhao  Rao  11.  in  1796, 
the  natural  heir  to  the  office  of  Peishwa. 
On  acceding  to  office.  Lord  Wellesley  made 
it  his  great  object  to  conclude  a  subsidiary 
Alliance  with  Bajee  Rao.  llie  march  of 
Holkar  on  Poonah  (1801)  so  alarmed  the 
Peishwa  that  he  began  to  treat,  while  the 
total  defeat  of  bis  own  and  8cindiah*8  troops 
at  the  battle  of  Poonah,  Oct.  25,  1802,  drove 
him  to  the  English  residency,  and  from 
thence  to  the  coast,  where,  at  his  own  re- 
quest, he  was  transported  by  an  English  ship 
to  Ba^sein.    He  vas  now  eager  for  the  English 


alliance,  and  on  Dec.  31,  1802,  the  memor- 
able Treaty  of  Bassein  was  concluded.  The 
Peishwa  himself,  however,  repented  of  the 
treaty  as  soon  as  he  had  affixed  his  seal 
to  it,  and  commenced  a  series  of  intrigues 
with  Scindiah  and  the  Bhonslah  to  render  it 
ineffectual.  The  treaty,  however,  had  effec- 
tually" curbed  his  power,  and  tlie  victories  of 
the  English  in  the  war  which  followed  set 
a  seal  to  this  by  completely  breaking  up  the 
Mahratta  Confederacy.  Under  the  rule  of 
Sir  George  Barlow,  Bajee  Rao  made  a  vain 
attempt  (1806)  to  reassert  his  lost  power. 
The  Peishwa,  however,  waited  anxiously  for  a 
chance  of  revenge  on  the  English.  A  general 
confederacy  of  Alahrattus  and  Pindan  ies  was 
organised  against  the  English  in  1815.  The 
next  year  Bajee  Rao^s  attitude  became  more 
hostile,  and  he  began  to  inti  igue  with  Scin- 
diah, Ameer  Khan,  and  Holkar,  and 
assembled  a  large  body  of  troops  near  his 
capital.  A  British  force  was  ordered  up  to 
Poonah,  and  the  Peishwa  was  compelled  to 
accept  the  treaty  of  June  5th,  1817,  which 
bound  him  to  dismiss  his  mischievous  minis- 
ter Trimbukjee,  the  great  opponent  of  the 
British ;  to  renounce  the  formal  headship 
of  the  Mahrattas  for  ever;  to  dismiss  all 
foridgn  ambassadors,  and  refer  all  communi- 
cations from  foreign  states  to  the  Company's 
government.  Bajee  Rao  had  no  sooner 
signed  this  treaty  than  he  ])roeeeded  to 
hasten  his  intrigues,  and,  in  the  full  assurance 
of  powerful  support,  he  plunged  into  hosti- 
lities Nov.  5,  1817.  The  defeat  of  Kirkee 
w^as  immediatelv  followed  bv  the  surrender 
of  Poonah  and  the  retreat  of  the  Peishwa. 
He  was  again  severely  defeated,  by  General 
Smith,  at  Korgaom,  on  Jan.  1,  1818,  and  at 
Ashtee,  soon  after  which  battle  he  was  forced 
to  surrender.  He  was  taken  to  Bithoor, 
sixteen  miles  from  Cawnporc,  where  he  re- 
ceived an  annuity  of  eight  lacs  of  rupees  for 
the  rest  of  his  life.  He  died  in  1853,  leaving 
an  adopted  sou,  Nana  Suhib. 

"Wellesley,  De^pafcJieji ;  Grant  Duff,  Hist,  ojihe 
Mahraita*:  Malcolm,  Polit.  Hist,  of  India  j  MiU, 
Hist,  of  India. 

BalaclaTa,THi:  Battle  of  (Oct.  25, 1854), 
during  the  Crimean  War,  was  bmught  on  by 
the  Russian  general,  Prince  Mentschikoff, 
who  moved  a  body  of  30,000  men  on  Bala- 
clava, hoping  to  get  possession  of  the  harbour, 
and  to  cut  the  allies  off  from  their  supplies. 
The  Russians  first  attacked  the  redoubts 
in  the  valley  of  Kadikoi,  defended  by 
the  Turks,  who  fled  almost  immediately. 
The  Russian  cavalry  then  advanced  towai^ds 
Balaclava,  b»it  were  cheeked  by  Sir  Colin 
Campbell's  Highland  Brigade,  and  by  the 
Heavy  Brigade  of  cavalry.  The  charge 
of  the  Heavy  Brigade  was  a  peculiarly 
brilliant  piece  of  cavalry  fighting.  The 
Russians,  though  more  than  twice  as  nu- 
merous as  their  opponents,  were  driven  lack 


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in  confusion.  The  main  body  of  the  English 
and  French  now  came  into  action,  and  the 
fighting  about  the  captured  redoubts  began  to 
thicken.  Lord  Kaglan,  thinking  the  enemy- 
were  retiring  with  the  guns  from  one  of  the 
redoubts,  sent  orders  to  Lord  Lucan,  in  com- 
mand of  the  cavalry,  to  follow  and  harass 
their  retreat.  But  by  the  time  the  Light 
Brigade  was  prepared  to  carry  out  the  order 
the  broken  Russian  cavalry  had  re-formed, 
and  the  main  body  of  Liprandi's  eorpa 
d'at^e  had  advanced  and  formed  at  the 
bottom  of  the  valley.  Notwithstanding, 
Lord  Lucan — "  from  some  misconception  of 
the  order  given,"  as  Lord  Kaglan*s  aespatch 
said,  and  of  the  verbal  instructions  of  Captain 
Nolan,  the  aide-de-ca,mp — ''considered  that 
he  was  bound  to  attack  at  all  hazards,"  and, 
in  spite  of  Lord  Cardigan's  remonstrance, 
insisted  that  the  charge  should  be  cariied 
out.  Accordingly,  the  Light  Brigade  (con- 
sisting of  the  5th  and  11th  Hussars  and  the 
17th  Lancers^,  in  all  673  men,  commanded 
by  Lord  Cardigan,  rode  down  upon  the  whole 
Hussian  army.  They  broke  their  "vay  right 
through  the  enemy's  lines,  and  struggled 
back  again  through  the  valley,  in  which  the 
Russian  guns  played  on  them  from  front, 
flank,  and  rear  as  they  rode,  with  the  loss 
of  113  killed,  134  wounded,  and  15  prisoners. 
Except  for  some  desultory  cannonading,  this 
ended  the  battle.  The  Russians  had  not 
effected  their  object,  but  they  kept  possession 
of  the  ground  they  had  won  in  the  valley,  so 
that  the  victory  may  be  said  to  have  been 
indecisive. 

For  an  elaborate  description  and  a  fnll  discus- 
Bion  of  the  questions  connected  with  the  gallant, 
bat  culpably  reckless,  '*  Charge  of  the  Six  Hun- 
dred/' BM  £inglake,  Invagion  of  the  Crimea. 

Balance  of  Power  may  be  defined  as 
the  existence  of  such  a  connection  and  such 
relations  of  power  among  a  majority  of 
neighbouring  states,  that  no  one  of  them  can 
endanger  the  independence  or  the  rights  of 
any  other  state  without  effectual  resistance, 
and  without  danger  to  itself.  The  term 
seems  to  have  come  into  existence  at  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The 
Due  de  Rohan*s  work,  Trutifta  Statmim 
Europ€e,  was  published  in  1645.  The  first 
attempt  towards  establishing  a  balance  of 
power  in  Europe  was  probably  that  of  Henry 
IV.  and  Sully,  which  dates  from  1603.  Their 
idea  was  to  create  a  confederation  in  Europe 
•  under  the  title  of  the  "Republique  tres 
chretienne."  It  was  to  contain  fifteen  states : 
five  elective  monarchies —the  Pope,  the  Em- 
peror (the  ancient  freedom  of  election  being 
restored,  with  a  provision  that  no  two  suc- 
cessive Emperors  were  to  be  chosen  from  the 
same  house),  the  Kings  of  Poland,  Hungary, 
and  Bohemia;  six  hereditary  monarchies — 
those  of  France,  Spain,  England,  Denmark, 
Sweden,  and  Lombardy,  the  last  a  new  king- 
dom created  for  the  Duke  of  Savoy;   four 


republics  —  Holland,  Venice,  a  republic  con- 
taining Grenoa,  Florence,  and  Central  Italy, 
and  Switzerland,  which  was  to  be  considerably 
enlarged.    Each  of  these  states  was  to  have  its 
limits  so  well  defined  that  it  could  not  exceed 
them  without  being  attacked  by  all  the  rest. 
There  was  to  be  liberty  of  conscience— Roman 
Catholics,  Lutherans,  and  Calvinists  wore  to 
be  on  an  equality ;  there  was  to  be  a  general 
federal  council,  to  keep  peace  at  home,  aud  to 
make    war    upon    the    infidel.      (See  Sully, 
(Economiet   JRoyales   in  Petitot's  Collection  oj 
Memoir H,)     The  plan  of  Henry  IV.  came  to 
nothing,  and  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  (1648) 
is  generally  regarded  as  the  foundation  of  the 
modem  political  system  of  Europe.     It  es- 
tablished a  modus  vivendi  between  Catholics 
and  Protestants;  recognised  the  Republics  of 
Switzerland  and    the    United  Netherlands; 
placed  the  German  Empire  on  a  firmer  foot- 
ing;    and    raised    a    bulwark    against   the 
ambition    of    the  house    of    Austria.     The 
second   great    settlement  was    that   of    tho 
Treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713),  which  put  an  end 
to  the  war  of  rivalry  between  France  and 
Austria  for  the  throne  of  Spain.     Since  the 
Peace    of    Westphalia    the    equilibrium    of 
Europe  had  been  more  seriously  threatened 
by  the  house  of  Bourbon  than  by  the  house 
of  Hapsburg;    but  the   Treaty  of   Utrecht 
gave   Spain    to    a    younger   branch  of    tho 
Bourbon  line.     England  was  the  principiil 
power  in  the  negotiation,  whereas  she  had 
taken  no  part  in  the  Treaty  of  Westphalia. 
The  third  great  settlement  of  Europe  was  iu 
the  Peace  of   Vienna  in   1815.      This  was 
designed  to  restore  to  Europe  the  tranquillity 
which  had  been  broken  by  the  wars  of  tho 
French  Revolution   and  of  Napoleon.      Its 
arrangements  were  based  on  calculations  of 
the  balance  of  power,  but  many  of  them  have 
been  falsified  by  events,    llie  theory  of  the 
balance  of  power  may  at  one  time  have  been 
defensible,  but  it   has  oft^n  given   rise   to 
spoliations  and  violations  of  justice.      It  is 
impossible  to  restrain  every  state  within  the 
limits  which  once  suflBced  for  it.    The  growth 
of  wealth,  of  population,  of  colonisation,  tho 
inevitable  facts  of  annexation  and  conquest, 
are  witnessed    in   all    ages    of    the    world. 
Peace  is  destroyed  if  each  of  these    incre- 
ments is  held  to*  justify  a  similar  addition  to 
neighbouring   states.      The  law  of   projarress 
determines  the  shifting  of  the  balance ;    but 
there  is  no  reason  why  each  of  these  changes 
should  be  the  signal  for  a  European   war. 
The  modem  law  of  nations  depends  rather  on 
securing  the  equality  of  all  states,  great  and 
small,  before  the  law,  and  the  protection   of 
the  weak  against  the  violence  of  the  strong-. 
The  growth  of  one  state  in  power  and  pro.s- 
perity  is  not  necessarily  a  danger  to  the  rest. 
It  may  even  be  sometimes  regarded    as   an 
additional  guarantee  for  peace. 

Besides  the  works  of  Sully  and  the  X>uc   de 
Bohau  mentioned  above,  we  Home,  JBmmay*^  il. 


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7;  and  the  Btaodaxd  works  on  International 
Law.  eap.  Wheaton,  Hist,  c^  the  Law  ot  NationM  ; 
and  Bluntachli,  Droit  Internai.  Codifii. 

[O.  B.] 

Baldocky  Kobekt  {d.  1327),  was  Chan- 
cellor of  England  from  1323  to  1326.  He 
was  one  of  Edward  II.'s  chief  supporters,  and 
shared  with  the  Despensers  the  hatred  of  the 
baronage.  Soon  after  his  appointment  a 
conspiracy  was  formed  to  murder  him,  and, 
though  this  failed,  his  tenure  of  office  was  a 
troubled  one.  In  1326,  on  the  landing  of 
Queen  Isabella,  he  fled  with  the  king  and  the 
Despensers  into  Wales,  where  he  was  seized 
and  sent  to  the  Bishop  of  Hereford's  palace 
in  London.  Hence,  by  the  connivance  of  his 
enemies,  he  was  dragged  by  the  mob,  and, 
after  much  ill-usage,  thrust  into  Newgate, 
where  he  shortly  afterwards  died  from  the 
injuries  he  had  sustained. 

Baldwin,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(1185 — 1190),  bom  at  Exeter,  was  educated 
at  Ford  Abbey.  He  became  Bishop  of  Wor- 
cester in  1180,  and  in  1184,  despite  the 
claims  of  the  monks  of  Canterbury  to  elect, 
was  chosen  by  the  bishops  of  the  province 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He  preached 
the  second  crusade  in  England,  and  himself 
took  the  Cross.  He  was  present  at  the  siege 
of  Acre,  where  he  died  of  a  fever. 

Bale,  JoHX  {6.  1495,  d.  1563),  one  of  the 
most  zealous  of  the  Reformers  under  Henry 
VIII.,  was  made  Bishop  of  Ossory  by  Edward 
VI.,  1552.  He  was  compelled  to  leave  England 
during  the  reign  of  Mary,  and  took  refuge  at 
Basle,  but  returned  on  the  accession  of 
Elizabeth,  and  was  made  Prebendary  of 
Canterbury.  Bale  was  a  voluminous  writer, 
and  wrote,  besides  several  miracle-plays,  fi 
work  of  British  biography,  entitled  Illwtrium 
Majoris  Britannia  Scriplorum  CataloguB^  which 
extends  from  Japhet  to  1549.  In  his  contro- 
versial works  he  is  violent  and  abusive,  so 
that  Mr.  Froude  has  called  him  '*a  foul- 
mouthed  ruffian ; "  but  he  seems  to  have  been 
an  honest,  if  too  zealous,  Beformer. 

A  selection  from  Bale's  TForiu  was  pnblishesd 
bj  the  Parker  Society  in  1819.  The  fullest  ac- 
oonnt  of  him  is  given  in  Cooper,  AihmuB  Cantab. 

Balfbll^  John  (of  Burley),  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Hackston,  his  brother-in-law,  and 
John  Henderson,  murdered  Archbishop  Sharp, 
1674.  He  made  his  escape  after  the  murder, 
and  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Drumclog 
(q.v.), 

Baliol,  The  Family  op,  was  one  of  the 

wealthiest  in  Normandy,  being  possessed  of 
the  lands  of  Ny  velle  and  Bailleul ;  the  house 
also  acquired  considerable  estates  in  the  north 
of  England  after  the  Conquest,  and  held 
Harcourt  and  Barnard  Castles.  Its  members, 
each  as  Bernard  and  Henry  de  Baliol,  are 
found  taking  an  active  part  on  the  side  of 
England  in  all  the  Border  wars.  John  de  Baliol 
having  married  DevorguiUa  (a  daughter  of 


Alan  of  Galloway,  and  Margaret,  daughter 
of  David,  Earl  of  Huntingdon),  transmitted 
to  his  son,  John  Baliol,  a  claim  to  the  Scottish 
crown,  1291. 

Balioly  John  db,  one  of  the  regents  of 
Scotland  during  the  minority  of  Alexander 
III.,  was  deprived  of  his  office  by  the 
English  party,  1255.  He  was  Lord  of  Ny  velle 
in  Normandy,  and  of  Barnard  Castle. 

Balioly  John,  Lord  of  Galloway,  was  the 
son  of  John  de  Baliol,  regent  of  Scotland, 
and    DevorguiUa,    grapddaughter  of  David 
of  Huntingdon,  from  whom  he  derived  his 
claim    to    the    Scottish    throne.      On    the 
death  of  the  Maid  of  Norway  in  1290,  and 
the  consequent  failure  of  heirs  to  Alexan- 
der III.,  Baliol,  in  conjunction  with  Robert 
Bruce,  John    de   Hastmgs,   and   a  host   of 
minor  competitors,  laid  claim  to  the  crown 
of    Scotland.      Together  with  other  Scotch 
nobles,   he   was   summoned   by   Edward    I. 
to  a  conference  at  Brigham,  1291,  where  the 
succession  to  the  Scotch  throne  was  to  be 
settled.    At  this  meeting  forty  commiBsioners 
were  appointed  by  Baliol,  forty  by  Bruce,  and 
twenty-four  by  Edward,  to  report  on  the 
clfidms    of    the    competitors;    the    meeting 
was    adjourned   to    June,    1292,    when    the 
arbiters  announced  that  as  Baliol  was  repre- 
sentative of  the  elder  daughter  of  David  his 
claims  were  .preferable  to  those  of  Bruce. 
Baliol    was    accordingly  declared    King    of 
Scotland  by  Edward,  and  did  homage  to  him 
as   his   liegeman,    Nov.    20,   1292;  he   was 
crowned  at  Scone  ten  days  afterwards,  and 
renewed  his  homage  to  Edward,  Dec.  26,  at 
Newcastle.    Edww^i  soon  began  to  exact  the 
rights  of  an  overlord,  encouraging  appeals  to 
his  own  courts  from  those  of  Baliol ;  on  the 
appeal  of  Macduff  of  Fife,  the  Scotch  king  was 
summoned  to  appear  in  London,  and,  though 
he  disobeyed  this  summons,  he  went  to  the 
English  court  on  the  appeal  of  Sir  William 
Douglas  in   1293.      Little  by  little  Scotch 
feeling  against  the  action  of  the  English  king 
was  'aroused  ;  in  Oct.,  1295,  Baliol,  urged  by 
public  feeling  in  the  country,  concluded  an 
alliance  with  Philip  of  France,  and  in  March 
of    the   following    year   invaded    England, 
laying    waste    the    northern    counties,   and 
also  sent  a  document  renouncing  his  allegiance 
to    the    English    king.      Edward    at    once 
marched  northwards  at  the  head  of  a  large 
army,  and  took  Berwick,  Dunbar,  and  Edin- 
burgh.    On  July  10,  1296,  Baliol,  seeing  that 
further  resistance  was  useless,  made  his  sub- 
mission   at    Montrose,    renouncing    to    his 
liege  lord  the  kingdom  of  Scotland.    Edward 
ordered  his  imprisonment  in  England  for  a 
short  time,  after  which  he  was  permitted  to 
retire  to  his  lands  of  Bailleul  in  France. 

Bishanger,  Chr<micU  (Camden  Soc.);  Scott- 
ehTon%c<m:  Sir  P.  Palgrave,  DocummU  a-d 
Eecvrit  iUugtrative  of  the  Hi»t.  of  Scotland,  In- 
trod.,  liv.,  ftc. ;  Chrtm.  Hcna*t.  8anct.  Albaii, 
(B.  S.),  vol.  iii. 


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Baliolf  Edward,  the  son  of  King  John 
Baliol,  was  in  1324  brought  over  to  EngNnd 
from  tho  court  of  France,  and,  on  the  death 
of  Bruce  in  1328,  secretly  encouraged  by  the 
English  government,  and  joined  by  the 
*•  disinherited  barons,"  he  put  forward  his 
claims  to  the  throne  of  Scotland  through 
hereditary  succession  (although  his  father  had 
Te8i<^ned  all  connection  wilh  the  kingdom). 
In  1332  he  landed  with  an  army  in  Fifeshire, 
and  won  the  battle  of  Duplin  ;  shortly  after- 
wards he  successfully  held  Perth  against  a 
besieging  army,  and  was  crowocd  at  Seone, 
Sept.,  1332.  His  first  act  was  to  render 
homage  to  Edward,  who  at  once  sent  an 
army  to  assist  hitn,  but  the  national  party 
gradually  gathered  strength,  and  Baliol  found 
himself  compelled  to  retire  to  the  English 
court  after  a  defeat  at  Annan.  Having 
obtained  the  aid  of  some  English  barons,  ho 
returned  to.  Scotland,  where  he  met  with  a 
few  successes  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
country ;  in  1 338  he  went  to  reside  in 
England,  where  he  remained  for  some  time ; 
in  1316  he  ravaged  the  Lothians  with  an 
English  army,  but  gained  little  advantage ; 
in  135G  he  resigned  absolutely  his  claims  to 
the  crown  and  kingdom  to  Edward  III. 

Daliympl*),  AnnaU  of  Scot.;  Barton,  HiH.ofSoot. 

Ball,  John  {d.  1381),  one  of  the  loaders  of 
the  Peasant  Revolt  [Cat>b*s  Rbbbllion],  is  said 
to  have  been  one  of  Wiclifs  '*  Poor  Priests," 
and  at  all  events  he  pre^iched  doctrines  very 
similar  to  theirs.  He  had  been  notorious  as  a 
wild  fanatic  for  many  years,  and  was  im- 
prisoned by  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in 
Maidstone  gaol,  whence  he  was  released  by  the 
insurgents,  to  whom  he  preached  a  famous 
sermon  on  Blackheath  full  of  socialistic 
doctrine.  He  took  for  his  text  the  popular 
distich — 

**  When  Adam  dalf  and  Evfe  span. 
Who  was  then  the  gentleman  ?  " 

On  the  suppression   of   the  revolt  he  was 
seized  and  executed. 

Ballads  are  of  great  historical  importance, 
for  they  were  the  literature  of  the  people, 
and  give  indications,  which  can  be  obtained 
nowhere  else,  of  the  popular  feeling  in 
stirring  times.  They  were  numerous  in 
the  old  English  days,  and  were  sung  in  the 
thogn's  hall  and  in  the  churPs  cottage.  Some 
specimens,  chief  of  which  is  the  song  of  the 
Battle  of  Brunanburh,  wore  so  popular  that 
they  were  embodied  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicle.  After  the  Conquest,  the  songs  of 
the  people  no  longer  circulated  amongst  the 
Norman  barons.  Not  till  barons  and  people 
were  united  in  the  attempt  to  assert  their 
common  liberties  did  a  ballad  literature  arise 
which  breathes  the  spirit  of  all  classes.  In 
the  reig^  of  John,  we  again  find  political 
songs,  and  in  the  times  of  the  Barons*  War 
they  were  numerous.  There  are  French 
balladB  which  were  sung  in  the  barons*  halls, 


Latin  ballads  which  were  current  among  the 
educated  class,  and  rude  but  spirited  English 
ballads  which  were  sung  by  the  pi>ople.  Cliief 
in  importance  amongst  these  is  a  Latin  "  Bong 
of  the  Battle  of  Lewes  "  (Wright,  "  Political 
Songs,"  p.  72),  which  is  a  remarkable  assertion 
of  constitutional  principles,  and  might  have 
been  written  by  a  Whig  in  1688.    The  reign 
of    Edward  I.   awakened  a  national  spirit, 
which  found  its  expression   in  national  and 
martial  songs,  accompanied  by  others  which 
grumble    at    oppression.      In  the  reign  of 
Edward  II.   the   latter  kind  prevail,  while 
under  Edward  III.  the  balance  is  restored  by 
the  patriotism   kindled  by  the  French  war. 
The    number    of    English    songs    becomes 
greater:    tho   French  and  Latin   sink  into 
the  background.     The  end  of   the  reign  of 
Edward  111.  saw  the  English  songs  disappear, 
and  the  others  became  less  spirited.     The 
national  impulse  was  spent,  and  the  problems 
of  the  succeeding  period  awakened  no  popular 
expression.     Ballads  gradually  ceased  to  have 
a  direct  bearing  on  politics,  and  were  con- 
cerned  with  chivalry  and  romance.     They 
satisfied  the  popular  desire  for  adventure,  but 
did  not  deal  with  current  events.    The  min- 
strel became  a  recognised  personage,  and  was 
generally  said  to  come  from  "  the  north  coun- 
trio,"  the  land  where  border-raids  still  kept 
alive  the  adventurous  spirit.    The  ballads  of 
Chevy  Chase,  Edom  o'  Gordon,  and  Adam 
Bell,  all  show  thoir  northern  origin.     It  is  of 
them  that  Sir  Philip  Sidney  wrote,  "  I  never 
heard  the  old  songs  that  I  found   not  my 
heart  moved  more  than  with   a  trumpet.*' 
During  the  Reformation  p^^riod  ballads  dealt 
with  jwlemical  topics,  often  in  a  coarse  and 
irreverent  manner.     However,  the  influence 
of  ballads  naturally  declined  before  the  growth 
of  other  forms  of  literature.    The  stage  and 
the   pamphlet  afforded  othrT  means   of  ex- 
pressing popular  opinion.     The  strugjjle  be- 
tween the  Stuarts  and  the  Pjirliament  did  not 
give  rise  to  much  ballad  literature.     But  the 
impopularity  of    James  II.   was   sung    and 
whistled    all    over    England  in  Wharton's 
"  Lillibullero."      A  vein   of  very  beautiful 
ballad-poetry  was  struck  in  Scotland  by  the 
Jacobite  risings  of   the  eighteenth   century. 
In  Ireland  ako  ballads  survive  to  the  present 
day  as  a  political  power.     The  semes  written 
for  the   Xation  newspaper,   collected    under 
the  name   of   "The  Spirit  of  the  Nation,'' 
deserve    their   popularity  by  their    poctiriil 
merits.     At  tho  present' day  there    are    nu- 
merous collections  of  old  ballads;   hut  it  is 
difficult  to  determine  their  date,  and,  in  many 
cases,  their  genuineness. 

Wright,  PolUietil  Sovgs  (Cftmden  Soc.)  ; 
PoHtical  PoeiM  (Bolls  Series);  Eitson,  Ancictit 
Po^iular  Poetry ;  Scottish  ;?o»nji  •  £m?h"jt7i  Srvngm  ; 
Percy,  liellfvenof  Avciettt  Fn-jli^h  Poctru  ;  Scott, 
MinttreUy  of  the  Scottish  Borden.      £M.  C] 

BaUardy  John,  or  Fohtescue  {ri.    1 586")  , 
a  Jesuit  priest  of  Kheims,  and  the   ori^nui 


Bal 


(  121  ) 


Bal 


instigator  of  the  Babington  plot  (q.v.), 
knded  in  England  (1585),  having  previously 
obtained  the  sanction  of  the  Pope  to  the 
queen's  murder.  Ue  made  a  tour  of  the  north 
and  west  of  England,  and  subsequently  re- 
ported to  Mendoza,  who  had  been  ambassador 
at  Elizabeth's  court,  that  the  death  of  the 
queen  was  necessary  to  the  succehs  of  an  in- 
surrection. In  1586  Ballard  returned  to 
England,  and  was  in  close  communication 
with  Babington.  On  Aug.  4,  1586,  he  was 
arrested,  and  executed  at  Tyburn  in  the  fol- 
lowing month. 

BallixLaniiicky  Surrender  of  the 
French  at  'Sept.  8, 1798).  The  French  fonie 
under  General  Humbert,  which  had  landed  at 
Killala  and  routed  the  troops  sent  against  them 
at  Castlebar,  found  their  way  to  Longford 
barred  by  a  large  force  under  Lord  Comwallis, 
while  Creneral  Lake  with  fresh  troops  was 
close  behind,  so  that  Humln^rt  had  no  alter- 
native but  to  surrender.  Eight  hundred 
French,  and  1,500  Irish  surrendered.  JSIany 
of  the  hitter  were  at  once  hanged. 

BallO't,  Vote  by.     The  ballot  is  properly 
a  mode    of  voting  in  which  little  balls  are 
used,  but  it  is  employed  to  signify  any  kind 
of  sefrret   voting.       The  vote  by   ballot  for 
members  of  Parliament  appears  to  have  been 
tiret  proposed  in  the  reign  of  William  III. 
In  1710,  a  Bill  authorising  vote  by  ballot 
passed  the  Commons,  but  was  rejected  by  the 
Lords.       During   the  agitation    for    Parlia- 
mentary reform,  which  resulted  in  the  Reform 
Bill  of    1832,  it  was  not  lost  sight  of  as  a 
remedy  for  bribery;  and  some  disappointment 
was  felt,  on  the  introduction  of  the  Reform 
Bill  by  Lord  J.   Russell,  that  proWsions  for 
sc-cret  voting  were  not  contained  in  it.     It 
was  replied  that  the  reason  why  a  ballot 
clause  was  not  introduced  into  the  Bill,  was 
liecause  it  was  desirable  that  the  two  questions 
should  be  kept  distinct.     When  it  was  found 
that  the  ministry  did  not   intend  to   follow 
the  Reform  Act  bj'  a  Ballot  Act,  the  matter 
was  takf^n  up  by  independent  members  of  the 
Liberal  party.     Mr.  George  Grote  made  his 
tirst  motion  in  favour  of  the  ballot  on  April  25, 
1835.     He  repeated  it  every  year  till  1839.  on 
which  occasicm  the  ayes  were  216,  the  noes  333. 
Mr.  Grote's  plac(;  in  moving  the  adoption  of 
the  ballot  w»»fi  taken  by  Mr.  Henry  Berkeley, 
who  in  1851   carried  his  motion  in  spite  of 
the  opposition  of  Lord  J.  Russell  and  the 
government    by    a    majority    of    fifty-one. 
It  was,  however,  rejected  on  several  subse- 
quent occasions.     Vote  by  ballot  was  one  of 
the  points  of  the  People's  Charter,  and  per- 
haps the  one  to  which  the  greatest  importance 
was  attached.      It    was    advocated,  on  the 
ground  of  its  being  the  only  efficient  safe- 
guard against  bribery  and  intimidation;    it 
vas  opposed  on  the  ground  of  the  safeguard 
beinflf  itself  foanded  on  falsehoods,  and  tho 
probability  of  a  man  promising  to  vote  in  one 


way  and  voting  in  another.  The  revelations 
made  before  a  select  committee  of  the 
House  of  Commons  convinced  many  states- 
men, Mr.  Gladstone  among  others,  that  the 
step  could  not  be  long  delayed.  This 
committee  reported,  in  1869,  that  the  ballot 
presented  many  advantages — ^that  it  would 
put  an  end  to  some  of  the  evils  in  our 
electoral  system,  and  that  it  would  tend  to 
mitigate  rather  than  to  aggravate  those  which 
it  would  not  entirely  remove.  In  1871,  the 
matter  was  referred  to  in  the  Queen's  Speech, 
and  a  Bill  was  introduced.  It  passed  the 
Commons,  but  was  rejected  by  the  Lords  on 
the  ground  that  it  was  brought  before  them 
too  late  in  the  session.  It  was  introduced 
again  in  1872,  and  jtassed  the  Commons,  but 
an  amendment  was  introduced  in  the  Lords 
making  secret  voting  optional.  This  the 
House  of  Commons  would  not  accept,  and 
after  a  struggle  the  Lords  yielded  the  point. 
With  the  establishment  of  secret  voting,  public 
nominations  of  the  candidates  and  public  de- 
clarations of  the  poll,  which  had  frequently 
been  occasions  of  serious  disorder  and  rioting, 
were  abolished. 

R0port»  of  Select  Committee  of  Howe  of  Commont 
on  I'arliamentary  and  Municii>al  EUctum^.  1869 
atid  2870.  [O.  B.] 

Ballymore,  The  Battle  of  (June  3, 
1798),  was  fought  during  the  Irish  Rebellion 
between  Colonel  Wal pole  and  Father  IMurjjhy. 
The  foi-mcr,  marching  carelessly  towards 
Enniscorthy  with  some  600  royal  troops,  was 
Burprist'd  in  a  defile  by  a  body  of  insurgents 
under  Father  Murphy.  Colonel  Walpole  fell 
with  a  considerable  portion  of  his  force,  and 
his  guns  were  captured. 

BalmexinOy  Arthur  Elphinstone,  Lord 
{b.  1688,  d.  1746),  was  a  noted  Jacobite.  He 
early  entered  the  army,  and  held  command  of 
a  company  of  foot  in  Lord  Shannon*s  regi- 
ment under  Queen  Anne;  but  on  the 
accession  of  George  I.  he  resigned  his  com- 
mission. Elphinstone  took  part  in  the 
Jacobite  rebellion  of  1715,  and  fought  at  the 
battle  of  Sheriflmuir.  He  escaped  to  France 
and  served  in  the  French  army  until  1733. 
He  waE  one  of  the  fiist  to  repair  to  the 
Young  Pretender's  standard  in  1745,  and  at 
once  became  colonel,  and  captain,  of  the 
second  troop  of  Charles  Edward's  life-guards. 
Early  in  1746  he  succeeded  to  the  title  of  Bal- 
mcrino  on  the  death  of  his  brother.  I'aken 
prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Culloden  he  was 
tried  for  high  treason  before  the  Lord  High 
Steward's  Court  in  Westminster  Hall,  found 
guilty,  and  executed.  He  maintained  his 
principles  to  the  end,  and  his  last  words  were, 
**  God  bless  King  James.'* 

Scots  Magantie ;  Walpole  Memoire  ;  Stanhope, 
Uitt,  ofEng. ;  Burton,  Sid.  of  Scotland. 

Balnavis,  Henry,  of  Halhill  {d.  1570  ?), 
was  one  of  the  earliest  of  the  Scottish 
Reformers.      He  was  appointed  a   Lord  of 


Bal 


(  122) 


Session  in  1538,  and  sat  in  Parliament  in  the 
samo  year,  and  supported  the  Act  for  the 
translation  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments. 
He  was  one  of  the  commissioners  in  IVIay, 
1543,  appointed  to  treat  of  the  marriage  be- 
tween Edward  VI.  and  Mary.  In  1547,  he 
was  taken  prisoner  by  the  French  force  sent 
to  assist  the  Queen  Regent,  and  conveyed  to 
France  in  company  with  Knox.  Recalled  in 
1554,  he  was  in  1563  reappointed  a  Lord  of 
Session.  He  was  on  the  commission  ap« 
pointed  to  revise  the  Book  of  Discipline,  and 
one  of  those  who  accompanied  Murray  on  his 
mission  to  England  in  connection  with  the 
murder  of  Damley. 

Knox,  RxAorj ;  Sadler,  8taU  PaptrB,  i.  83,  &c. ; 
M'Crie,  Li/flo/Xno*. 

Baltic  Expedition,  Thb  (1854-55), 
occurred  during  the  war  with  Russia.  On 
March  11,  1854,  a  strong  squadron,  consisting 
of  eight  screw  line-of-bHttle  ships,  and  eight 
frigates  and  paddle-wheel  steamers,  sailed  for 
the  Baltic  under  the  command  of  Sir  Charles 
Napier.  Previous  to  the  departure  of  the 
fleet  a  banquet  was  given  to  the  admiral  at 
the  Reform  Club,  whore  speeches  calculated 
to  increase  the  war  feeling  in  the  country 
were  made  by  Lord  Palmcrston  and  Sir 
James  Graham,  and  provoked  much  animad- 
vorsion  in  Parliament.  In  April  Sir  Charles 
Napier,  strongly  reinforced  and  accompanied 
by  a  powerful  French  fleet,  established  a 
blockade  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  and  captured 
man}*^  Russian  prizes.  In  August  Bomarsund 
was  bombarded  and  taken;  but  except  that 
a  large  Russian  army  had  been  kept  in- 
active in  the  Baltic  forts,  and  the  Russian 
fleet  had  been  driven  from  the  sea,  nothing 
further  of  much  importance  was  done  this 
year.  Consequently  the  government  evinced 
dissatisfaction  that  more  had  not  been  ef- 
fected, and  on  the  return  of  Sir  Charles  in 
December,  he  was  treated  with  great  cold- 
ness, and  finally  deprived  of  his  command. 
Rear- Admiral  Bnndas  succeeded  him  in 
1855,  and  in  the  summer  of  that  year 
there  were  eightv-five  English  war  vessels, 
besides  a  large  French  fleet,  in  the  Baltic 
Seas.  The  fleet  consisted  entirely  of  steamers, 
and  was  accompanied  by  a  flotilla  of 
floating  batteries,  mortar  vessels,  and  gun- 
boata.  Some  delay  occurred  in  consequence 
of  a  collision  between  one  of  the  squadron 
and  an  American  emigrant  ship.  On  June 
1st,  however,  the  allied  fleets  met  in  the 
Baltic  and  proceeded  to  bombard  Sveaborg. 
This  place  was  battered  with  shot  and  shell 
for  three  days,  with  an  immense  destruction 
of  life  and  property,  but  without  any  appre- 
ciable result  on  the  coarse  of  the  war.  The 
fleets  then  retired  in  consequence  of  the 
unfavourable  weather,  and  returned  home, 
having  effected  nothing  in  proportion  to  the 
expense  which  they  had  involved,  and  the 
expectations  te  which  they  had  given  rise. 
Annual  BfBffi^tr,  1854—55. 


Baltimorer  Geougb  Calveht,  Ist  Lokd 
[b.  1580,  d.  1632),  was  Secretary  of  State 
to  James  I.,  but  was  compelled  to  resign 
his  office  in  1624,  in  consequence  of  hannt^ 
l)ecome  a  Roman  Catholic.  He  had  always 
taken  a  great  interest  in  colonisation,  and 
obtained  in  the  year  of  his  death  the  chaiter 
of  Maryland  from  Charles  I.  An  expedi- 
tion was  sent  out  in  1633  under  the  patrona^re 
of  Cecil  Calvert,  second  Lord  Baltimore  [who 
died  in  1676),  and  the  colony  of  Marj-land 
was  successfully  planted.  The  capital  was 
named  Baltimore  in  honour  of  its  patron. 

Bamborou^ll,  ancientl}*  "Bebbanburgh/* 
is  mentioned  by  Bede,  and  is  said  in  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  to  have  been  built  by 
Ida,  King  of   Northumbria,  about  the  year 
547,  and  named  in  honour  of  his  wife  BebVe. 
There  is  a  very  strongly-situated  castle,  some 
portions  of  which  possibly  belong  to  a  period 
before   the   Norman   Conquest.      The  castle 
was  besieged  by  Penda  of  Mercia  in  642,  un- 
snccesaf  ully  defended  by  De  Mowbray  against 
William  Ruf  us,  and  it  played  an  important 
part  in  the  civil  wars  of  the  fifteenth  c<»n- 
tury.     In  1720  it  passed  into  the  possession 
of  Nathaniel,  Lord  Crewe,  Bishop  of  Durham, 
who  turned  it  into  an  institution  for  various 
charitable  purposes,  and  fitted  up  apartments 
for  shipwrecked  seamen,  a  library,  schools  for 
poor  children,  an  infirmary",  &c. 

Baabury,  judging  from  the  number  of 
Roman  remains  which  have  been  discovered 
there, was  prol)ably  a  placeof  importance  before 
the  English  Conquest.     It  ai)pear8  in  Domes- 
day Book  as  Banesberic.      In  the  reign  of 
Henry  I.  a    great    castle  was    erected    by 
Alexander,  Bishop  of  Lincoln.      In   1469  a 
battle  was    fought    near   the  town  by   the 
troops  of  Edward  IV.,  under  the   Earl   of 
Pembroke,  and  a  strong  body  of  northern 
insurgents,    in  which   Pembroice    (woakon<^d 
by  the  desertion  of  Tx)rd  Stafford)  was  de- 
feated, and  subsequently  beheaded.     [Edge- 
cote.]      In    the  Civil  War  the    inhabitant  a 
of  Banbury  were  specially  zealous   for  tho 
Commonwealth.     After  the  battle  of  Edgehill 
the  town  was  taken  by  the  king,  and  Btood  a 
desperate  siege  in  1644,  for  fourteen  weeks, 
when  the  garrison  were  reduced  to  the  last 
extremity  before  they  were  relieved  by  tho 
Earl  of  Northampton.    It  was  again  bosiofro'tl 
by  Whalley  in   1646,  but  held  out  till   th<* 
king    had  suixendert^d  to  the  Scots    army. 
The  castle   was  subsequently  destroyed    by 
order  of  the  Parliament. 

Baacrofby  Richard,  was  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  from  1604  to  1610.  lie  wa^ 
bom  in  lisncashire  in  1544,  and  was  educate^*! 
at  Cambridge  University.  Bancroft  eai-l\ 
gained  considerable  fame  as  a  preach c^i* 
and  having  won  the  favour  of  Sir  Christ  <> 
pher  Hatton,  obtained  rapid  prefermont 
becoming   Treasurer  of   St.  Paul's    (1585) 


(  123) 


Ciuioii  of  Canterbury  (1594),  and  Bishop  of 
London  (1597).  Ho  had  already  made  him- 
self very  popular  by  his  denunciations  of  the 
Puritans,  and  Archbishop  Whitgift,  who  was 
old  and  unfit  for  -work,  entrusted  the  sole 
management  of  church  affairs  to  him.  Three 
years  later  ho  was  employed  on  an  embassy 
to  Denmark.  Bishop  Bancroft  took  an 
active  part  in  the  Hampton  Court  Conference 
bi'tween  the  representatives  of  the  Establish- 
ment and  the  Puritans,  at  Hampton  Court, 
in  1604.  Later  in  the  year  he  succeeded 
Whitgift  as  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and 
at  once  proceeded  to  compel  the  clergy  to 
subscribe  the  articles  imposed  in  the  new 
book  of  canons  which  he  had  compiled,  the 
result  being  that  some  three  hundied  of  the 
Puritan  clergy  were  ejected  from  their  livings. 
At  the  same  time  he  was  engaged  in  super- 
intending the  present  translation  of  the 
Bible.  In  the  following  year  he  presented 
to  the  king  a  series  of  articles  of  com- 
plaint against  the  judges,  who,  acting  on  the 
advice  of  Coke,  had  issued  prohibitions  in 
the  Ecclesiastical  Courts  in  order  to  stop  the 
cases  before  them;  t>ut  the  judges  declared 
that  they  would  submit  to  an  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment, and  to  that  only.  The  undaunted 
archbishop,  who  in  the  meantime  had  been 
active  in  securing  the  condemnation  of  the 
Puritan.  Fuller,  renewed  his  appeal  in  1608, 
but  James,  who  was  inclined  to  support  him, 
after  a  Solent  altercation  with  Coke,  thought 
it  best  to  reserve  his  conclusion.  The  same 
result  happened  in  the  following  year,  when 
he,  urged  on  by  the  prayers  of  the  eccle- 
siakstical  lawyers,  brought  forward  his  com- 
plaint a  third  time.  £^croft  is  said  to  have 
used  his  influence  to  soften  the  rigour  with 
which  Parliament  was  inclined  to  treat  the 
Papists  after  the  discovery  of  the  Gunpowder 
Plot ;  but  he  could  not  prevent  the  passing  of 
a  Bill  of  Fains  and  Penalties.  In  1608  he 
was  made  Chancellor  of  the  University  of 
Oxford,  and  just  before  his  death  took  great 
interest  in  James's  scheme  for  an  episcopal 
church  in  Scotland.  Archbishop  Bancroft 
was  a  remarkably  sincere  though  perhaps  a 
narrow-minded  man,  never  deliberately  cruel; 
but  a  firm  believer  in  the  divine  origin  of 
the  Episcopacy — a  doctrine  which  he  was  one 
of  the  firat  to  assert — ^he  suppressed  the 
Puritans  mercilessly,  and  they,  in  return, 
never  ceased  to  abuse  him.  He  has  been 
called  covetous,  but  probably  without  much 
foundation. 

Sti7pe :    Neal,  Hist,  of  the  Pwitans  (1732) ; 
Hook,  Lives  of  the  Arehhuhopa ;  8.  B.  Oaxdiner, 


BiofrapMa  Britmnnica  (1747),  art.  Bancroft. 


HUt.  of  England^  1603— l&tt,  chami  iv.  and  x. ; 

Bancroft. 

[L.  C.  S.] 

^ftHtla  Zslaiiday  in  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago, were  taken  from  the  Dutch  in  1796, 
but  restored  in  1801.  They  were  retaken 
in  1811,  and  again  restored  in  1816. 

BangoriAii Controversy.  [Hoadlby.] 


Banished  Lords  (1583)  was  the  name 
given  to  the  nobles  of  the  Ruthven  party 
who  seized  Stirling  Castle,  but  were  compelled 
by  Arran  and  a  large  royal  army  to  flee 
across  the  border.  They  formed  a  small  com- 
munity, which  they  attempted  to  regulate  on 
strict  religious  principles  at  Newcastle.  The 
Scottish  government  outlawed  them,  and 
demanded  their  surrender ;  this  was,  however, 
refused.  In  1585  the  banished  lords,  with  the 
Hamiltons  and  Maxwells  and  a  strong  force, 
marched  to  Stirling,  captured  the  king,  and 
procured  the  reversal  of  their  outlawry''  and 
the  restitution  of  their  estates. 

Bank  Cliarter  Aotly  Bank  of  Eng- 
land, Bank  of  Ireland,  &c.    [Banking.] 

Bank  Xolidavs  Aet,  Tub,  was  brought 
in  by  Sir  John  Lubbock,  and  carried  in  May, 
1871.  It  declared  that  Easter  Monday,  Whit 
Monday,  the  first  Monday  in  August,  and  the 
day  after  Christmas  should  be  kept  as  public 
holida}'S. 

Bankinif  (l)  seems  to  have  originated  in 
modem  Europe  among  the  Italian  money- 
lenders, especially  those  of  Florence,  of  whom 
the  Bardi  and  Peruzzi,  who  were  ruined  by  the 
inability  of  Edward  III.  to  pay  his  debts,  most 
concern  English  history.  Banking  was  first 
practised  in  England  during  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.  by  tiae  goldsmiths  of  Lombard 
Street,  and  it  soon  became  an  important 
trade,  when  the  advantages  of  cheques  over 
ready  money  payments  became  known,  in 
spite  of  its  dangers  as  displayed  by  the  fre- 
quent bankruptcy  of  the  goldmniths.  Private 
banks  sprang  up,  such  as  those  of  Messrs. 
Child  at  Temple  Bar,  and  of  Messrs.  Hoare 
in  Meet  Street,  and  the  question  of  a  national 
bank  began  to  be  eagerly  discufised. 

(2)  The  Bank  of  England  was  pro- 
jected by  a  Scotchman,  William  Paterson,  who 
submitted  his  plan  to  the  government  in 
1691.  It  was  well  received,  but  was  allowed 
to  lie  dormant  until  1694,  when  Montague,  the 
ablest  financier  in  William  I1I.*8  ministry, 
suddenly  determined  to  establish  the  Bank 
in  order  to  relieve  government  of  its  many 
difficulties  caused  by  war  and  misapplied  tax- 
ation. He  borrowed  £1,200,000  at  eight  per 
cent.,  and  formed  the  subscribers  into  a  com- 
pany, who  treated  the  loan  to  government  as 
part  of  their  capital,  the  mterest  being 
secured  upon  tho  taxes.  By  their  charter,  which 
was  granted  for  cloven  years,  from  July  27, 
the  government  of  tho  bank  was  entrusted  to 
a  governor  and  twenty-four  directors,  who 
wore  to  be  elected  annually  by  such  members  of 
the  company  as  possessed  £500  capital  stock. 
Sir  John  Uomblow  w^as  the  first  governor. 
The  company  was  restrained  from  trading  in 
anything  but  bullion,  bills  of  exchange,  and 
forieitcHl  pledges,  and  from  lending  money  to 
the  crown  without  the  consent  of  Parlia- 
ment.    In  spite  of    tho  popularity  of  the 


(  124) 


Ban 


Bank  of  England,  the  government  loan  of 
which  was  raised  in  ten  days,  it  had  at  first 
to  encounter  much  opposition,  and  several 
crises  occurred,  especially  during  the  year 
1696.  The  goldsmiths,  who  hated  the  Bank 
of  England,  attempted  to  destroy  it  hy 
buying  up  its  paper,  and  suddenly  demanding 
immediate  payment.  The  directors,  however, 
referred  them  to  the  courts  of  law,  and,  during 
the  time  thus  gained,  managed  to  restore 
their  credit  by  extensive  calls  on  their  sub- 
scribers.  They  were  strengthened  by  the  fall 
of  their  rival  the  Zand  Bank,  whose  brief 
popularity  had  seriously  affected  their  opera- 
tions during  the  crisis.  This  was  the  idea  of 
two  men  named  John  Briscoe  and  Hugh 
Chamberlayne,  who  thought  that  a  bank 
could  be  formed  to  lend  money  on  landed 
security,  their  doctrine  being  that  every  one 
who  had  real  property  ought  to  have  besides 
paper  money  to  tne  full  value  of  their  pro- 
perty. The  scheme  was  adopted  in  a  modified 
form  by  Harley ;  he  promised  to  advance 
two  mUlions  and  a  half  to  government 
at  7  per  cent.,  the  interest  being  secured 
upon  a  new  tax  on  salt.  If  a  quarter 
of  the  money  was  paid  in  by  the  1st  of 
August  the  subscribers  were  to  be  incorpo- 
rateid  under  the  title  of  the  National  Land 
Bank.  William,  urged  by  want  of  money, 
grasped  at  the  idea,  and  headed  the  list  with 
£500,  but  the  scheme  proved  an  utter  failure. 
The  subscriptions  never  rose  to  more  than 
£7,600.  Thereupon  the  government  turned 
in  despair  to  the  Bank  of  England ;  the  sub- 
scribers, in  full  court,  resolved  to  lend  it 
£200,000,  and  thus  began  the  itlliance  between 
the  Bank  and  the  Whig  ministries.  In  1708, 
the  Bank  capital  was  doubled,  and  in  the 
same  year  an^  important  Act  was  passed  for- 
bidding the  issue  of  notes  by  associations  of 
more  than  six  persons,  which  chocked  the 
formation  of  joint-stock  banks.  In  1720 
came  the  second  g^eat  crisis  of  the  Bank's 
existence.  The  South  Sea  Company  then  pro- 
posed to  take  over  the  government  debt,  con- 
sisting of  about  thirty-two  millions,  to  its 
capital,  receiving  in  return  interest  at  4  per 
cent. ;  but  such  was  the  anxiety  enter- 
tained by  all  public  companies  to  have  the 
government  for  a  creditor  that  the  Bank  of 
England  contended  against  the  Company  for 
the  privilege,  but  was,  fortunately  for  itself, 
outbidden.  In  a  few  months  the  bubble  burst 
and  the  Bank  stood  secure,  though  it  was 
compelled  by  government '  to  pay  up  two 
millions  out  of  the  £3,500,000  which  in  a 
weak  moment  it  had  promised  to  lend  its 
tottering  enemy.  With  the  exception  of 
a  run  on  the  Bank  during  the  Jacobite 
rebellion  of  1745,  which  was  only  averted  by 
payment  in  sixpences,  and  a  violent  attack 
upon  it  by  the  mob  during  the  Lord  George 
Gordon  Kiots  of  1780,  there  is  nothing  of 
especial  moment  in  the  history  of  the  Bank  of 
England  until  1792,  when  a  violent  commer- 


cial panic  occurred  chiefly  owing  to  the  reck- 
less use  of  paper  by  country  banks,  some  fifty 
of  which  miled  totally.     The  Sutpension  of 
Cash  Faymenti  in  1797  was  caused  chiefly  by 
the  drain  of  bullion  due  to  the  war,  subsidies 
to  foreign  allies,  the  exclusive  purchase  of 
provisions   abroad   owing  to    bad   harvests, 
and  the  hoarding  of  coin  owing  to  fear  of 
invasion.    A  run  on  the  Bank  set  in  from 
all  sides,  and  on  February  25th,  when  little 
over  a  million    remained    in   its  ceUars,  a 
proclamation  was  issued  forbidding  it  to  issue 
cash  in  payment.   This  was  followed  by  a  Bill 
prohibiting  it  to  pay  more  than  208.  in  cash, 
or  to  advance  more  than  £600,000  to  govern- 
ment; at  the  same  time  the  Bill  of  1777, 
which  prohibited  notes  for  less  than  £5,  was 
suspended.     This  measure,  by  which  Bank  of 
England  notes  became  inconvertible,  though 
intended  to  be  temporary,  lasted  until  1821, 
during  which  period  the  value  of  paper  varied 
very  considerably.    The  Resumption  of  Cath 
Payments  was  proposed  by  Mr.  Peel  in  1819  ; 
the  Act  was  to  have  come  into  effect  in  1821, 
but  its  provisions  were  ^dopted  by  the  Bank 
two  years  earlier.    In  1825  another  crisis  oc- 
curred.   During  the  last  six  weeks  of  the  year 
seventy  houses  failed,  and  the  Bank  itself  was 
only  saved,  it  is  said,  by  the  discovery  of  a 
cluster  of  700,000  £1  notes.    The  measures 
of  the  government  were  prompt;   notes  for 
less  than  £5  were  suppressed,  and  the  law  of 
1708  repealed,  banks  with  any  number  of 
pcutners  being  permissible  beyond  sixty-five 
miles  from  London,  while  the  Bank  in  re- 
turn was  allowed  to  esteblish  branches  to  be 
carried     on    by    its     agents.        The     Bank 
Charter  Act   of  1833,  framed  on  the   occa- 
sion of  the  renewal  of  the  Charter  at   the 
instance  of  Sir  R.  Peel,  Lord  John  Russell, 
and  others,  attempted  to  stop  runs   on  the 
Bank  by  enacting  that  notes  of  the  Bank 
of  England  were  to  be  made  legal  tender, 
whereby  the  coimtry  banks  would  be  enabled 
to  meet  a  panic  with  notes  instead   of  ^Id. 
A  deduction  of  £120,000  a  year  was  to  be 
made  in  the  sum  allowed  by  govomnnent  to 
the  Bank  for  the  management  of  the  National 
Debt,  while  in  return  a  quarter  of  £14,686,800, 
the  Slim  due,  was  paid  back.     The  principle 
that   the   paper  issued  and  specie   kept    in 
hand  should  bear  to  each  other  the  ratio  of 
three  to  one  was  established,  and  the   Bank 
was  compelled  to  publish  a  general  statement 
of  its  condition  quarterly.     In  spite   of  this 
remedial    measure,   bullion  was   continually 
lacking  in  London,  and  in  1839  the  Bank   of 
England  was  in  imminent  danger  of  stoppings 
payment,  so  that  Sir  R.  Peel  brought  f  or-ward. 
the  Bank  Charter  ^ rt  o/ 1 844 .    Its  ob j  act  being 
to  regulate  the  issue  of  notes,  it  enacted  tbat 
the  Bank  should  not  be  allowed  to  issue  more 
than  £14,000,000  in  notes,  unless    a    corre- 
sponding   amount  of    specie  were    retained. 
Further,  no  new  banks  established  after  th.e 
measure  became  law  were  to  issue  tlieir  ov?*!! 


Ban 


(  126  ) 


Ban 


notes,  and  the  old  banks  were  not  to  increase 
their  issue.  Sir  R.  Peel's  great  Act  was  the 
last  important  piece  of  legislation  affecting 
the  Bank  of  England. 

.  (3)  Joint-Stock  Banks  were  rendered 
possible  by  the  Act  of  lb2d.  They  increased 
Jargely  in  numbers  after  1836.  By  Sir  R. 
Peers  Bank  Charter  Act  of  1844  they 
were  allowed  to  accept  bills  of  any  amount 
or  date,  and  could  sue  or  be  sued.  Banks 
other  than  the  Bank  of  England  are  regulated 
by  the  Companies  Act  (1862).  This  Act 
provides  that  no  association  of  more  than 
ten  persons  can  carry  on  a  bank  unless 
registered  under  the  Companies  Act,  that  an 
unlimited  company  may  convert  itself  into 
a  limited  one,  that  a  bank  of  issue  shall, 
with  certain  relaxations,  though  registered  as 
a  limited  company,  have  unlimited  liability 
with  respect  to  its  notes,  and  that  accounts 
must  be  audited  and  published  once  a  year. 
There  is  also  the  law  of  1867,  which  provided 
for  minute  rrgistration  with  regard  to  the  sale 
or  purchase  of  shares  in  a  joint-stock  banking 
company. 

(4)  The  Bank  op  Scotland  was  estab- 
lished by  Act  of  the  Scottish  Rarliament 
in  1695.  Its  capital  was  £100,000  sterling, 
of  which  about  £10,000  was  paid  up,  and  it 
had  the  exclusive  privilege  of  banking  in 
Scotland  for  twenty-one  years.  Its  capital 
was  intact  from  state  loans,  and  it  was  also 
temporarily  exempt  from  public  burdens. 
NevertheleBS,  the  greet  African  Company 
started  a  banking  branch  in  rivalry,  but  they 
soon  abandoned  it  for  the  more  exciting  pur- 
suit of  trade.  The  bank  began  to  issue 
notes  and  establish  branches  in  1696,  and 
in  1704  it  issued  £1  notes,  and  still  con- 
tinues to  do  so.  After  the  union  of  Eng- 
land with.  Scotland  it  undertook  the  re- 
coinage,  and  conducted  it  with  great  success. 
Its  capital  was  increased  to  £2,000,000  in 
1774,  and  to  £2,500,000,  its  present  amount, 
in  1804,  with  power,  if  necessary,  to  raise  it 
to  £3,000,000.  It  established  an  office  in 
London  in  1867,  the  restrictions  of  English 
joint-stock  banks  not  affecting  Scottish. 
After  the  monoxwly  of  the  Bunk  of  Scotland 
expired,  many  unchartered  banks  started,  of 
which  the  Royal  Bank  of  Scotland  (1727)  and 
the  British  lanen  Company  (1746)  were  the 
oldest  and  most  successful.  TTie  smaller 
banks,  were,  however,  absorbed  in  the  earlier 
part  of  the  centuiy  into  seven  or  eight  large 
banks  with  constantly  increasing  branches 
still  in  existence.  In  1844  Sir  R.  Peel's  Bank 
Charter  Act  allowed  the  Scottish  banks  then 
issuing  notes  to  continue  to  do  so,  provided 
that  for  everj'  note  issued  above  the  average 
issue  of  the  previous  year,  a  corresponding 
amoimt  of  specie  should  be  kept  in  stock. 

(5)  The  Bank  op  Iheland  was  Fstablished 
m  1783  by  chart«^T  in  pursuance  of  a  request 
from  the  Irish  Parliament,  with  the  same 
constitution  and  privileges  as  the  Bank  of 


England,  and  a  capital  of  £600,000,  increased 
to  £1,000,000  in  1809,  and  lent  to  goveni- 
ment  at  4  per  cent.  It  was  prohibited  from 
lending  money  on  mortgage,  and  this  re- 
striction was  not  repealed  until  1860.  The 
restrictions  on  joint-stock  banks  as  to 
paper  issues  caused  such  an  amount  of  dis- 
tress in  Ireland,  that  in  1821  government 
allowed  the  Bank  of  Ireland  to  increase  its 
capital  to  £3,000,000,  while  joint-stock  banks 
were  to  be  established  beyond  fifty  miles 
from  Dublin. 

Qilbart,  Hitt.  and  Prineivlea  of  Banhimg,  and 
Eigt.  of  Banking  in  Ireland ;  Macleod,  Tatsory 
and  Practice  of  Banking ;  M'CuUocb,  Dictionary 
q/  Commerce ;  Sir  H.  Pamell,  Ob«m>'ition«  on 
Paper;  Molesworth,  Hut.  of  Eiig.  Statutes: 
5  and  6  W.  and  M.,  c.  20;  3  and  4  Will.  IV., 
c.  98;  7  and  8  Yiot.,  c.  32 ;  and  25  and  26  Vict., 
o.  80.  [L.  C.  S.] 

Bankruptcy  Leffislation.     In  the 

English  Statute  Book  almost  the  first  recog- 
nition of  bankrupts  as  distinguished  from 
fraudulent  debtors  is  the  Act  13  Eliz.,  c.  7, 
by  which  the  goods  of  a  trader  who  failed  to 
meet  his  obligations  were  to  be  sold  for  the 
benefit  of  his  creditors.  By  Acts  passed  in 
the  fourth  and  tenth  years  of  Queen  Anne, 
bankrupts  who  had  paid  a  dividend  might, 
with  the  consent  of  their  creditors,  obtain 
their  discharge  from  the  Court  of  Chancer}'. 
Bankruptcy  jurisdiction  belonged  to  the 
Court  of  Chancery,  but  by  the  Act  1  and  2 
Will.  IV.,  c.  66,  proposed  and  carried  by 
Lord  Brougham,  a  special  Court  of  Bank- 
ruptcy was  established.  It  provided  that 
six  commissioners  and  four  judges  should  be 
appointed  to  try  all  cases  of  bankruptcy. 
The  commissioners  could  adjudicate  only  in 
cases  where  there  was  no  dispute ;  if  the 
matter  was  disputed  it  was  to  be  referred  to  a 
judge.  By  an  Act  of  1849  fraudulent  bank- 
rupts were  rendered  more  certainly  liable 
to  punishment,  and  composition  by  arrange- 
ment made  possible.  In  1861  the  provisions 
of  the  Bankruptcy  Acts  were  extended  to 
others  besides  traders.  The  most  important 
of  the  numerous  Bankruptcy  Acts  of  the 
present  century  is  that  of  1869,  which  re- 
modelled the  Court,  and  mude  important 
changes  in  the  law.  The  commissioners  were 
abolished,  and  there  were  to  be  a  Chief  Judge 
(usually  a  Vice  Chancellor)  and  a  number  of 
registrars.  The  county  courts  were  consti- 
tuted local  bankruptcy  couits  with  an  appeal 
to  the  Chief  Judge.  The  property  was  to  be 
placed  in  the  hands  of  trustefjs  appointed  by 
the  cr«?ditors  instead  of  official  assignees, 
and  there  were  provisions  by  which  the 
bankrupt  could  not  obtain  his  discharge, 
except  with  the  consent  of  a  majority  of  the 
creditors,  unless  he  had  paid  ten  shillings  in 
the  pound.  The  Act  also  provided  for 
"liquidation  by  arrangement,"  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  creditors;  and  repealed  or  con- 
solidated all  former  enactments  on  the  subject 


(  126) 


Bap 


of  bankruptcy.  In  1883  a  new  Bankruptcy- 
Act  waa  carried  by  Mr.  Chamberlain.  It 
enacted  severe  punishments  against  fraudu- 
lent bankrupts,  and  abolished  the  system 
of  trustees,  substituting  for  them  a  stafE  of 
official  receivers  appointed  by  the  Board  of 
Trade.  In  Scotland  bankruptcy  was  placed 
on  a  legal  footing  by  the  Act  of  1696.  There 
is  no  separate  Bankruptcy  Court,  but  by 
7  Will.  IV.,  c.  56,  the  Sheriffs  have  juris- 
diction as  well  as  the  Court  of  Session.  In 
Ireland^  by  an  Act  of  the  year  1872,  the  law 
of  bankruptcy  was  assimilated  to  that  of 
England.     [Debt.] 

Banneret,    or    Kniffht-Banneret, 

was  a  degree  of  knighthoocT  superior  to  that 
of  knight  bachelor.  Bannerets  were  privi- 
leged to  carry  the  ^uare  banner  instead  of 
the  pointed  pennon  borne  by  other  knights. 
The  distinction  was  originally  awarded  for 
special  bravery  on  the  battle-field,  and  the 
ceremony  of  cutting  off  the  comer  of  the 
pennon  so  as  to  make  it  a  banner  was  per- 
formed by  the  king  in  person  standing 
beneath  his  own  royal  banner.  Bannerets 
rankf^  before  all  other  knights  except  those 
of  ^he  Garter.  The  dignity  was  altogether 
porponal,  and  was  never  hereditary.  It  has 
been  sometimes  regarded,  but  erroneously,  as 
a  rank  of  peerage  inferior  to  a  barony.  It 
confeired  no  right  to  sit  in  Parliament.  The 
order  gradually  died  out,  and  in  modem  times 
has  become  extinct;  but  a  knight-banneret 
was  created  by  George  III.  as  late  as  1797. 

The  name  is,  of  ooume,  derived  from  banner ; 
bat  it  was  sometimes  supposed  to  be  a  deriva- 
tive or  diminutive  of  boron,  and  the  Latin  form 
haronaixM  occasionally  occurs  in  some  writers 
and  old  State-pajMrs. 

Stubbs's  Const.  Ki'sC,  iil.,  chap.  xz. ;  Selden, 
TitlM  of  Konour,  790—792. 

Bannockbnmy  The  Battle  of  (June  24, 
1314),  one  of  the  greatest  defeats  the  English 
ever  suffered,  was  fought  near  Stirling,  on 
the  attempt  of  Edward  II.  to  relieve  the 
castle  of  Stirling,  which  was  being  besieged 
by  Robert  Bruce.  The  Scots  were  far  outnum- 
bered by  the  English  troops,  who,  including  a 
large  body  of  Welsh  and  Irish  auxiliaries,  may 
have  numbered  nearly  100,000  men.  Bruce, 
however,  gained  the  victory  in  great  part 
by  having  previously  dug  hules  in  the  ground 
so  as  to  impede  the  magnificent  cavalry  of  tho 
enemy,  and  by  massing  his  foot  into  solid 
squares  and  circles — a  system  of  receiving 
cavalry  hitherto  unpractised,  except  at  the 
battles  of  Falkirk  and  Courtrai,  where  it  had 
been  signally  successful.  The  belief  on  the 
part  of  the  English  that  the  camp  followers 
of  the  Scottish  army  formed  part  of  a  reserve 
completed  their  discomfiture ;  the  rout  was 
thorough,  and  an  immense  booty  fell  into  the 
victors*  hands.  The  Scotch  generals,  in 
addition  to  Bruce,  who  slew  in  single  bombat 
Henry  de  Bohun,  one  of  the  bravest  of  the 
English  knights,  were  Randolph,  the  king's 


nephew,  Edward  Bruce,  Walter  Stewart,  and 
James  Douglas;  the  English  were  led  by 
Edward  II.  in  person,  and  the  Earls  of  Pem- 
broke and  Gloucester.  Edward  narrowly 
escaped  being  taken  prisoner,  and  had  to  ride 
at  full  speed  to  Linlithgow,  hotly  pursued  by 
Douglas ;  his  privy  seal  fell  into  the  bands  of 
the  victors.  The  result  of  the  battle  was  a 
futile  meeting  of  Scotch  and  English  commis- 
sioners with  a  view  to  bringing  about  a  better 
understanding  between  the  two  countries. 

Scotichrmdevn,  rii. ;  Dalrymple,  AivnaU  of 
Scotland;  Bobertson,  Scotland  under  Early 
Kingt;  and  eep.  Barbour's  great  poem,  The  Bruce. 

Bantam,  in.  Java,  was  the  site  of  an 
English  settlement  from  1603  to  1683,  in 
which  year  the  English  were  expelled  by  the 
Dutch.  The  place  was  ag^in  in  the  possession 
of  the  British  from  1811  to  1814. 

Bantry  Bay  is  a  deep  inlet  on  the  west 
of  the  county  of  Cork.     Hero,  on  May  Ist, 
1689,  Chateau  Renard  anchored  with  a  French 
fleet  and  put  on  shore  a  quantity  of  stores. 
Admiral    Herbert    followed    him;    but    an 
engagement,  claimed   as  a   victory  by  both 
parties,  was  all  that  took  place.     In  Dec, 
1796,  a  large  French  fleet  of  seven  sail  of  tho 
line,  three  frigates,  and  seventeen  transports, 
sent  to  aid  an  Irish  rising,  anchored  here  for  a 
week.     They  did  not  immediately  land  their 
men,  owing  to  the  absence  of  General  Hoche, 
their  commander,  who  had  got  separated  from 
the  squadron  ;  and  subsequently  a  storm  arose 
and  drove  them  back  to  France.     In  1801, 
the  fleet  under  Admiral  Mitehell  mutinied 
here.    Twenty-two  of  the  ringleaders  in  the 
mutiny  were  condemned  to  death  at  Ports- 
mouth in  Jan.,  1802,   but  only  eleven  were 
executed. 

Baptists,  Thb,  are  a  sect  of  Protestant 
Nonconformists  who  hold  that  the  baptism 
of  infante  is  invalid.     On  the  Continent,  at 
the   beginning  of  the   sixteenth  century,   a 
body  of  men  with  similar  vie^s  were  known 
to  their  opponente  as  the  Anabaptists,  or  re- 
baptisers.      They  spread  over    Switzerland, 
Germany,  and  the  Netherlands,  but,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  violence  of  their  religious 
and  social  doctrines,  were  forcibly  suppressed 
(about  1535)  by  tbe  governments   of   those 
countries.     Some  of  the  Duteh  Anabaptists 
fled  to  England,  and  were  put  to  death  by 
Henry  VIII. ;  but  the  true  sect  never  existed 
here  in  large  numbers,  and  the  name  "was 
vaguely  applied  to  all  who  insisted  on  aduiH 
baptism.  The  Anabaptists  or  Baptists  suffered 
for  their  faith  under  the  Tudors,  by  whom 
their  secret  conventicles  were  forbidden.  TKo 
last  of  them  who  was  burnt  alive  was  "Weigrlit- 
man,  in  1612.     During  the  next  few   years 
their  views  were,   in  part,  adopted   by   tlie 
Browniste  or  Independents,  and  it  is  difldcult 
to  draw  a  distinction  between  the  two  sects. 
In  1633  the  Peculiar  or  Calvinistic  Baptist* 
separated  from  the  Independents,  and  founded 


(  127) 


Bar 


a  church  of  their  own,  and  in  1644  the  London 
Baptist  Churches  published  a  Confession  of 
Faith.     The  story  of  their  persecution  after 
the  Restoration,  and  of  the  gradual  removal 
of  their  religious  disabilities  after  the  Revolu- 
tion, does  not  difi'er  from  that  of  other  dis- 
senting churches.     During  the  seventeenth 
century  the  differences  between  the  Peculiar 
and    General    Baptists,    principally  on    the 
doctrine  of  the  Redemption,  became  wider, 
and  in  1770  the  latter  body  became  separated 
into    the    General  Baptists*   New  and    Old 
Connexion.     The  Scotch  Baptists  appear  to 
have  become  a  recognised  body  about  1760. 
As  each  church  is  complete  in  itself  and  the 
form  of  government  is  congregational,  con- 
siderable differences  of  opinion  prevail  among 
the  Baptists  on  minor  points.   As  a  rule,  neigh- 
bouring churches  unite  into  associations,  and 
the    Baptist   Union  of    Great    Britaiii    and 
Ireland   connects  them   all  together.      The 
Baptists    have    displayed    much    energy  in 
miaaion-work,  chiefly  in  India  and  the  East. 

Price,  ProU^nt  Nonconformity  in  England; 
Bogue  and  Benuett,  Hist,  of  Di^genUrs;  Wilson, 
flwt.  of  Di»»enting  ChurchM ;  Stoughton,  Rut.  of 
Stligion  in  England. 

Bartttariaiuii  ^^  the  title  of  some  letters 
written  in  the  Dublin  journals  by  Henry 
Flood  and  his  followers  m  1767.  Barataria 
was  Ireland,  and  Townshend  was  Sancho ; 
the  members  of  his  council  were  the  officers 
of  Sancho^s  household.  These  letters  created 
much  sensation  on  account  of  their  wit  and 
boldness. 

Barbados,  one  of  the  Windward  Islands, 
is  supposed  to  have  been  discovered  by  the 
Portuguese  about  1518  ;  it  was  first  colonised 
by  an  English  expedition  under  Sir  Oliver 
Leigh,  1605,  and  in  1624  was  granted  by 
James  I.  to  Lord  Ley,  who  sent  out  a  number 
of  colonists.  Shortly  afterwards  the  whole  of 
the  Caribbean  Islands  was  made  over  to 
Lord  Carlisle,  and  a  long  dispute  ensued  as  to 
the  ownership  of  Barbados ;  the  quarrel  lasted 
for  some  years,  and  frequent  collisions  between 
tb?  two  parties  took  place  in  the  island.  In 
1647  Lord  Carlisle  granted  a  lease  of  the 
island  for  twenty-one  years  to  Lord  Wil- 
loughby,  who  fortified  the  island  for  the 
king,  and  in  1651  defeated  a  large  Parlia- 
mentary force  which  had  been  sent  out 
from  England  under  Admiral  Ayscue.  The 
Barbadians,  however,  were  shortly  after- 
wards compelled  to  capitulate,  though  many 
of  the  leading  men  subsequently  received 
from  Charles  II.  substantial  rewards  for 
their  loyalty.  In  1663  the  sovereignty  of 
Barbados  became  vested  in  the  crown,  and 
the  proprietary  government  was  dissolved ;  in 
1675  and  1692  slave  insurrections  broke  out, 
but  were  spcedil}'  suppreesed.  In  the  next 
century,  especially  during  the  administration 
of  Lord  Howe  (1733 — 35),  the  condition  of  the 
Barbadians  was  much  improved,  both  sociaUy 
Uid  politically,  though  property  in  the  island 


was  almost  entirely  destroyed  by  a  severe 
hurricane  in  1780.  The  condition  of  the 
slaves  in  Barbados  was  almost  as  bad  as  in 
Jamaica,  and  in  1826  there  was  an  insurrection, 
which  was,  however,  soon  quell^ ;  the  slaves 
were  emancipated  in  1834,  and  the  apprentice 
system  done  away  with  in  1838.  On  the 
assumption  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  island 
by  the  crown  in  1663,  a  tax  of  4  J  per  cent, 
was  imposed  on  all  native  produce  exported. 
This  tax  proved  a  great  burden  upon  the 
planters,  and  was  abolished  in  1838.  The 
governor  of  Barbados  is  govemor-in-chief 
of  the  Windward  Islands ;  the  administration 
is  representative,  and  is  vested  in  a  legislative 
and    executive    council    nominated    by    the 

? governor,  and  a  house  of  assembly  of  twenty - 
our  members  elected  by  the  freeholders.  It 
is  owing  to  the  opposition  of  the  Barbadians 
that  it  has  hitherto  been  found  impracticable 
to  form  a  federation  of  the  Wicdward  Islands, 
as  has  been  done  in  the  Leewaid  Islands. 
Barbados  was  divided  into  parishes  as  early 
as  1629. 

IdgOD,  Si$t.  of  BoibadoB;  B.  Edwards,  Ht'et. 
of  the  West  Indies;  Creasy,  briiannic  Empire; 
K.  M.  lEartin,  British  Coloniss, 

Barbour,  John  {d.  1395),  was  the  author 

of  the  great  national  Scottish  epic,  The  Bruce. 

Of  his  life  little  is  known.     He  was  probably 

bom  about  the  year  1316 ;  studied  at  Oxford, 

and  became  Archdeacon  of  Aberdeen,  Clerk 

of    the  King's  household,   and  one  of   the 

Auditors  of  the  Exchequer  in  Scotland.     The 

Bruce  extends  from  the  death  of  Alexander 

III.  to  the  death  of  King  Robert.    It  is  a 

noble  epic,  full  of  spirit  and  vigour,  and  true 

chivalrous  feeling;  and  is,  moreover,  highly 

interesting  historically,  as  being  almost  the 

only    Scottish    authority    for    this    period. 

Barbour  also  wrote  a  book  of  Legends  of  the 

Saints,  and  The  Bruie,  dealing  with  the  story 

of  Brutus. 

The  earliest  edition  of  The  Bruce  was  printed 
at  Ediubunrh  in  1570.  The  poem  has  been  care- 
follv  edited  by  Mr.  Innes  for  the  Spaldin^r  Clnb 
(1856) :  and  by  Mr.  Skeat  for  the  fiorly-English 
Text  Society  (18;5). 

Barlmda.  one  of  the  Leeward  Islands, 
and  celebrated  for  the  salubrity  of  its  climate, 
is  the  property  of  the  Codrington  family, 
who  have  held  it  under  lease  from  the  crown 
since  1684. 

Barcelona,  the  chief  town  of  Catalonia, 
played  an  important  part  in  the  Spanish 
Succedsion  War.  In  1704  an  attempt  was 
made  upon  it  by  Sir  George  Rooke,  who 
landed  the  Prince  of  Darmstadt  with  some 
marines,  relying  upon  co-operation  within 
the  city.  The  design,  however,  was  be- 
trayed by  some  of  the  conspiratois,  and 
the  prince  hastily  re-embarked.  In  1706 
the  allies,  under  the  Prince  of  Darmstadt  and 
the  Earl  of  Peterborough,  appeared  before 
the. town.  .The  fortifications  were  ancient, 
but  they  had  been  repaired  and  strengthened. 


(  128) 


and  the  natural  advantages  of  the  town  and 
l^e  strong  castle  of  Montjuich  were  ver}*- 
great.  The  besieging  force  was  weak,  and 
the  Spanish  auxiliaries  showed  little  disposi- 
tion or  capacity  for  regular  siege  operations. 
After  a  fortnight  the  troops  prepared  to 
embark ;  but  Peterborough  suddenly  an- 
nounced his  intention  of  attacking  Montjuich. 
Ascending  the  hill  at  dawn  with  1,400  men, 
he  surprised  the  garrison  and  captured  the 
fortress.  The  castle  of  Barcelona,  now  ex- 
posed to  a  fire  from  the  hill,  soon  surren- 
dered, and  on  Oct.  3rd  the  town  capitulated. 
The  Archduke  Charles  was  besieged  in  Barce- 
lona in  1706,  by  a  fleet  under  the  Count  of 
Toulouse,  and  an  army  of  20,000  men  under 
Marshal  Tesse.  Sir  John  Leako,  with  thirty 
ships,  came  to  the  relief  of  the  town,  but 
hesitated  to  attack  the  French  fleet  till  Peter- 
borough, who  had  put  off  in  an  open  boat, 
arrived  on  board  his  ship  with  instructions  to 
supersede  him.  The  French  army  retired, 
and  the  fleet  followed  its  example.  After 
the  Peace  of  Utrecht  the  Catalans  refused  to 
surrender  Barcelona  to  Philip  of  Anjou ;  but 
the  place  was  captured  by  the  Duke  of 
Berwick  in  Sept.,  1714.  In  the  Peninsular 
War,  Barcelona  was  occupied  by  the  French, 
Feb.  13,  180S.  In  March,  1809,  an  attempt 
on  it  was  made  by  Lord  CoUingwood,  in 
conjunction  with  the  Catalan  levies  and 
Somatenes ;  but  the  French  continued  to  hold 
it  till  the  end  of  the  war. 

Barclay^  William  (3.  1541,  d.  1605),  a 
Scotchman  oy  birth,  after  serving  many  years 
in  France,  came  to  England  in  1603,  and  was 
well  received  by  James  I.  He  had  quarrelled 
with  the  Jesuits,  and,  though  still  remaining 
a  Roman  Catholic,  was  strongly  opposed  to 
the  temporal  power  of  the  Pope.  He  had 
also  written  a  work  in  favour  of  extreme 
views  of  royal  authority,  which  recommended 
him  to  James  I.  His  Catholicism,  however, 
prevented  his  preferment,  and  after  spending 
two  years  in  England  he  returned  to  France 
just  before  his  death.  His  controversy 
with  Bellarmine  respectinaj  the  Papal  power 
earned  him  considerable  fame,  and  his  views 
as  to  the  limits  of  the  Pope's  authority 
were  adopted  by  a  large  number  of  English 
Catholics.  In  politics  he  was  a  vigorous 
upholder  of  extreme  monarchical  principles. 

Barclay's  chief  works  are  De  Bagno  ct  RegaXi 
Pofest'ite  Adver»u»  Bitchananum,  etc.,  and  De 
Potestate  Papce,  printed  together  at  Hanover, 
1617.    See  Locke,  Treaiiae  on  Govemmetd. 

Bardolf,  Thomas,  Lord  (3. 1367,  <?.  1408), 
was  one  of  the  nobles  who  joined  Henry  of 
Lancaster  in  1399,  but  he  subsequently  es- 
poused the  cause  of  the  Percies,  and  joined 
in  the  plot  to  put  the  Earl  of  March  on  the 
throne.  He  fled  to  Scotland  in  1405,  and  in 
1408  took  up  arms  in  Yorkshire  against  the 
king,  and  was  mortally  wounded  at  Bramham 
Moor. 


Bardfl.    [Druids.] 

Barebones'   Parliament   (July  4th 

to  Dec.  12th,  1653)  was  the  nickname  given 
to  the    Assembly    summoned    by  Cromwell 
and  the  council  of  officers  after  the  expulsion 
of  the  Kump  (q.v.).      It  derived  its  name 
from  a  certain  Praise-God  Barbon,  or  Bare- 
bones,  a  leatherseller  of   Fleet  Street,  who 
took  a  somewhat  prominent  part  as  a  member 
of   this    Assembly.      It    consisted   of    139 
persons    simimoned   as   repi^sentatives — 122 
for  England  (including  7  for  London),  6  for 
"Wales,  6  for  Scotland,  and  6  for  Ireknd — 
who  were  chosen  by  Cromwell  and  his  otticei's 
from  lists  of  persons  "  faithful,  fearing  God, 
and  hating  covetousness,"  furnished  to  them 
by  the  various  churches.   Amongst  them  were 
Blake,  Montague,  Monk,  Ashley  Cooper,  and 
other  men  of  position  and  influence.  They  be- 
gan by  electing  Cromwell  and  four  other  officers 
to  be  members  of  their  body.   They  set  to  w^ork 
to  reform  the  administration  of  the  law,  re- 
laxed imprisonment  for  debt,  passed  a  Civil 
Marriage  Act,  commenced  the  codification  of 
the  law,  and  began  the  process  of  abolisliing 
the  Court  of  Chancery.     They  decided  to 
abolish  the  power  of  patrons  to  present  to 
benefices,  and  the  institution  of  tithes.   These 
resolutions,  especially  the  latter,  would  have 
rendered  the  existence  of   a  State  Churcli 
impossible,  and  Cromwell  and  the  country 
at  large  were  not    prepared  to  go  so   far. 
A  sudden  stroke  solved  the  difficulty.     On 
Dec.  12th  Sydenham,  one  of  the  members, 
having  mustered  his  friends  before  many  of 
the  other  party  had  arrived,  suddenly  pro- 
posed, with  the  concurrence  of  the  Speaker, 
that  the  Parliament  (which  he  described  as 
useless  and  injurious  to  the  Commonwealth) 
should  resign  its  power  into  the  hands  of 
Cromwell.     This  motion  was  at  once  carried, 
and  those  who  dissented  were  expelled  by  a 
company  of  soldiers  under  Colonel  Goffe  and 
Major  White.    The   "sober  men"   of   that 
meeting,  as  Cromwell  called  them,  resijoiiMl 
their  power  into  his  hands.     He  accused  the 
other  party  of  an  intention  "to  set  up  tlio 
judicitil  law  of  Moses."  and  to  abolish   all 
magistracy  and  ministrj'  as    anti-christian. 
Some  historians,  objecting  to  the  somewhat 
ludicrous  title  of  Bareboncs'  Parliament,  have 
called  this  Assembly   "  The   Little    Parlia- 
ment," while  others  prefer  to  style  it  "  The 
Assembly  of  Nominees."      It  has  been   de- 
scribed as  an  assembly  of  obscure   fanatics 
but  WTiitelocke  sava  that    "manv    of    thii 
assembly"   were    "persons  of    fortune    am 
knowledge." 

Whitelocke,  MemoriaU;  Ludlow,  Memoirsi 
Banke,  Hi>f.  o/Unj;.  ;  Ginzof,  ( Vomtcrfl ;  Carlyl^ 
Cromwell;  MasBOU,  Life  of  Milton,  vol.  v. 

Sarillon,  French  ambasf^dor  in  Cnsrlan 
(1677—1688),  was  employed  by  Louis  XIV.  t 
keep  Charles  II.  and  James  it.  in  dependonc 
upon  France,  or,  at  any  rate,   inactive    i 


Bar 


(  129  ) 


European  politics.  With  this  object  he 
fomented  the  quarrel  between  the  court  and 
the  country  party,  writing  to  his  master  in 
1687,  *'  It  mav  be  held  as  an  indubitable 
maxim  that  agreement  between  the  King  of 
England  and  his  Parliament  is  not  for  the 
interest  of  your  Majesty."  When  early  in 
1688  the  national  opposition  seemed  likely  to 
endanger  James's  position,  it  was  Barillon 
who  advised  the  bringing  over  of  Irish 
troops.  .Yet  he  allowed  himself  to  be  dupe<i 
bv  Sunderland's  assurances;  and  it  was  for 
this  reason  that,  after  he  had  been  obliged  to 
leave  England  by  William,  he  was  not  ap- 
pointed to  attend  James  in  Ireland. 

Banlcei  Hist,  of  Eng.,  vol.  iy  Extracts  from 
Barillm's  reports  are  trai^lated  iu  Daliymplep 
Memoin  of  Great  Bri'ain,  and  are  given  in  f^ox, 
HM.  of  Jama  xL,  appendix. 

BarUiam,  John  (b.  1571i,  d.  1642),  his. 
torian,  herald,  and  antiquary',  assisted  Speed 
in  his  work,  The  History  of  Great  Britain^  and 
NVTote  the  greater  portion  of  Guillim's  Display 
of  HertUdry, 

BarkiaLg  Abbey  ^as  one  of  the  oldest 
and  richest  nunneries  in  England.  It  was 
ftiid  to  have  been  founded  by  St.  Erkenwald, 
Bishop  of  London,  and  after  being  sacked  by 
the  Danes  in  870  was  restored  by  Edgar. 
The  revenues  of  the  lonvent  were  very  large, 
and  the  abbess,  holding  more  than  thirteen 
knights'  fees  and  a  half,  held  her  lands  from 
the  crown  as  a  barony.  The  nun«»  were  of 
the  Benedictine  order,  and  after  1200  exer- 
cised the  right  of  electing  their  own  abbess. 
The  convent  was  surrendered  to  Henry  VIII. 
in  1539. 

Lysons,  Enviroiu  of  London^  iv. ;  Morant, 
History  ofEs^ex. 

Barkstead,  John  {d.  1662),  a  gold- 
smith  in  the  Strand,  served  in  the  City 
train  bands,  and  subsequently  obtained  a 
colonelcy  in  the  ParliamenUirj'  army.  He 
took  part  in  the  king's  trial,  and  was  one  of 
those  who  signed  the  death-warrant.  Sub- 
sequently he  became  Lieutenant  of  the 
Tower  and  Steward  of  the  Household  to  the 
Protector.  At  the  Restoration  he  fled  to  the 
Continent,  but  was  betrayed,  brought  back, 
and  executed  at  Tyburn. 

Barlow,  Sir  George,  a  civil  servant 
of  the  Bengal  establishment,  had  risen  by 
a  meritorious  sernce  of  twenty-eight  years 
to  a  seat  in  Council,  under  Lord  Wellesley. 
His  industry  and  official  experience  were 
great,  but  he  was  quite  unequal  to  the  re- 
sponsibilities of  empire.  On  the  death  of 
Lord  Comwallis,  the  government  of  India 
was  temporarily  (1805—1807)  in  Sir  George 
Barlow's  hands.  The  result  of  his  determined 
non-intervention  policy  was  the  restoration 
to  Scindiah  and  Holkar  of  many  of  the  ad- 
vantages which  Emcland  had  gained  by  the 
Mahmtta  Wars.  He  was  a  great  opponent 
of  missionary  enterprise  in  India,  and  caused 
Hiax.-fi 


the  Company  to  assume  the  whole  manage- 
ment of  the  temple  of  Juggernaut,  including 
the  three  hundred  dancing  g^rls.  In  spite  of 
the  favour  of  the  Directors,  Sir  George  was 
not  appointed  Governor-General,  but  was 
nominated  Governor  of  Madras  in  1807. 
His  want  of  tact  made  him  very  unpopular 
in  this  position,  and  he  was  involved  in  bitter 
disputes  with  his  subordinates.  His  obstinacy 
ana  violence  did  much  to  produce  the  Madras 
mutiny,  but  he  displayed  much  firmness  while 
it  lasted.  The  result  of  the  mutiny  was  his 
recall  in  1811. 

Malcolm,  FoUi.  Hist,  of  India;  Mill,  Hist  of 
India, 

Barnard  Castle,  in  Durluim,  was  occu- 
pied by  the  Koyalists  under  Sir  George  Bowes 
during  the  Northern  rebellion  of  1569.  It 
was  subsequently  taken  by  the  rebels  under 
the  Earl  of  Westmoreland  in  the  course  of 
the  same  episode. 

Baniard,  Sir  John  {b.  1685,  d.  1764),  was 
an  eminent  London  merchant  who  became 
Lord  Mayor  in  1767.  He  sat  for  London 
from  1722  to  1768.  He  was  a  vigorous  oppo- 
nent of  Sir  Kobert  Walpole's,  and  in  1733 
attacked  chat  minister's  sinking  fund  and 
the  excise  scheme,  which  he  declared  **  could 
not,  even  by  malice  itself,  be  represented  as 
worse  than  it  reallv  was."  In  1737  he 
introduced  a  Bill  (which  was  rejected) 
to  lower  the  interest  of  the  National  Debt  by 
borrowing  money  at  three  per  cent,  to  redeem 
the  annuities  for  which  a  higher  rate  was 
being  paid.  In  1742  be  declined  to  attend 
the  secret  committee  appointed  to  inquire 
into  Walpole's  administration.  He  attempted, 
but  without  success,  to  moderate  the  outcry 
raised  against  Admiral  Byng.  He  was  a  man 
of  high  character,  and  was  much  respected 
by  all  parties. 

Coze,  Wdlpole;  Stanhope,  Hi^.  ofBng, 

Bamet.  The  Battle  of  (14  7 1),  was  fought 
between  Edward  IV.  and  the  Earl  of  War- 
wick and  the  Lancastrians.  On  March  14th 
Edward  landed  at  Kavenspur  and  marched 
towards  London,  no  attempt  being  made  to 
check  him.  Having  been  welcomed  by  the 
citizens  of  London,  Edward,  learning  that 
Warwick  was  posted  at  Bamct,  marched  out 
to  meet  him,  and  drew  up  his  army  on  Hadley 
Green.  The  fight  commenced  at  five  o'clock 
in  the  morning  of  April  14,  which  that  year 
"was  Easter  Day.  The  Lancastrian  right  wing 
under  Lord  Oxford  was  at  first  victorious,  and 
drove  in  Edward's  left ;  but  a  heavy  fog 
occasioned  them  to  mistake  a  part  of  their 
own  army  for  the  Yorkist  force;  confusion 
ensued,  of  which  Edward  took  advantage  to 
retrieve  the  fortune  of  the  day.  After  very 
severe  fighting,  in  which  no  quarter  was 
g^ven  on  either  side,  the  Yorkists  were 
completely  victorious,  and  War\vick  and  his 
brother  Montagu  were  slain.    It  is  impossible 


(  130  ) 


to  give  any  authentic  statement  of  the  num- 
bers or  the  losses  on  either  side. 

Warkworth,  ChnnieUt  vol.  vi.  1883  (Camden 
SoG.) ;  QeniUman'a  Mag.  (Oct.,  1841) ;  HUtorie  of 
th9  Arrival  of  Edvard  IV.  (Camden  Soc); 
ArchcBologia,  vol.  xxix. ;  and  esp.  Tran»act>ona 
of  Lo%d.  and  Midaleaex  Archaolog.  Soc.,  vol.  vi., 
1883. 


Baroda    Commission,   The    (1875). 

The  Guicowar,  Mulhar  Rao,  was  in  this 
year  accused  of  attempting  to  poison  the 
Resident,  Colonel  Phayre.  He  was  tried  by 
a  mixed  commission  of  three  English  ana 
three  natives.  The  commission  failed  to 
come  to  any  satisfactory  conclusion,  as  the 
English  members  considered  the  case  proved, 
while  the  natives  thought  the  charge  had  not 
been  substantiated.  Lord  Northbrook,  the 
Governor-General,  however,  held  the  former 
opinion.  The  Guicowar  was  therefore 
deposed  by  proclamation  of  the  Viceroy,  and 
his  widow  allowed  to  adopt  an  heir. 

Baron.  The  history  of  the  word  baron  is 
one  of  those  cases  in  which  questions  hotly 
disputed  may  be  virtually  settled  by  strict 
discrimination  of  the  meaning  of  a  name. 
The  word,  which  originally  meant  "  man  " 
or  "  freeman,"  has  now  come  to  mean  the 
simplest  grade  of  the  peerage.  Between 
these  extreme  points,  it  passes  through  im- 
portant alterations  of  meaning.  The  word 
first  occuis  in  England  after  the  Norman 
Conquest.  When  William  the  Conqueror's 
"  barons  *'  are  spoken  of,  it  is  auite  clear  that 
this  means  all  who  held  Unds  directly  of  him 
— that  is.  of  course,  if  they  held  by  mili- 
tary service.  In  this  large  body  of  chief 
tenants — some  1,400  in  number,  including 
ecclesiastics — there  was  naturally  from  the 
first  a  tendency  to  a  practical  division 
between  the  great  lord,  who  had  knights 
holding  under  hiiilf  and  the  simple  knight, 
who  held  but  his  own  small  estate.  But  it  is 
unnecessary  to  say  with  Madox  that  this  was 
hIbo  a  clear  legal  distinction,  ''  an  origfhal 
difference  between  tenure  by  barony  and 
tenure  by  knight  service ; "  and  it  would  be 
impossible  as  yet  to  find  any  principle  on 
which  to  base  such  a  legal  distinction.  But 
aln^y,  under  Henry  I.,  the  practical  dis* 
tinction  had  become  accentuated,  and  it  soon 
came  to  be  the  custom  that  the  greater  ^  baron 
of  the  king  "  should  treat  for  payment  of  his 
relief  and  aids  directly  with  the  king,  instead 
of  paying  through  the  sheriff ;  that  on  the 
rates  becoming  fixed  his  relief  should  be 
100  marks,  while  ordinary  chief  tenants  paid 
100s.;  similarly,  that  he  should  lead  his  own 
tenants  to  the  host,  while  the  other  served 
under  the  sheriff's  banner;  that  he  should 
be  amerced  by  his  equals  in  the  King's 
Court,  not  by  the  sheriff ;  and,  most  decisive 
of  all,  that  he  was  sunmioned  propria  nomine 
by  a  special  writ,  not,  like  the  *'  lesser  barons," 
by  a  general  writ  to  the  sheriff  for  each 
shize.     From  the  biography  of  Becket  and 


the    Dialogui    de    SeaceariOf    we   see    that 
this    last    distinction    was    reco<{:nisod  and 
customary  early  in  Henry  II. 's  reign;  while 
in  jSIag^a  Chaiia  it  is  claimed  and  conceded 
in  the  Article  14,  which  deals  with  thu  mode 
of  convoking  the  Great  Council;  and  it  ia 
acted  on  thereafter,  even  though  this  article 
was  dropped  in  the  later  re-issues  of  the 
Charter.      The  greater  barons   had,  in  one 
sense,  a  qualification  by  tenure ;  they  would 
all   be  holders   of    a  barony,   not  (that  is) 
a  definite  number  of  knights*  fees,  as  was 
sometimes  stated — for  some  baronies  consisted 
of  no  more  than  one  or  two  such— but  holden 
of  some  group  of  knights'  fees  which  had  at 
the    Conquest    been    endowed   with  such  a 
si)ecial  character,  or  had  since  come  to  be 
so  regarded ;  and  in  this  sense  the  word  is 
used  in  the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon,  and 
as  early  as  Heiiry  I.'s  Charter.     These  lead- 
ing landowners,  with  the  earls,  could  not 
well  be  loft  unsummoned.    But  outside  this 
inner  necessary  body,  the  king  had  a  wide 
circle  of  holders  of  baronies  out  of  whom  to 
select  those  whom  he  should  by  his  writ  call 
to  special  attendance  in  host  or  in  council. 
And  hero  a  further  exclusion  went  on.    For 
throughout  the  reigns  of  Henry  III.  and 
Edward    I.,   special   summonses  to  the  host 
were  sent  to  more  than  100  barons  ;  while  to 
Edward  I.*s  Parliaments  the  number  so  called 
was  hardly   half  as  great.      And  even  so, 
many  of  those  who   were  called  were  not 
holders  of   baronies,   but  of    much  smaller 
estates;    many,  too,  were  called  only  occa- 
sionally.   Here,  then,  is  to  be  seen  Edward's 
steady  design  of  ''  eliminating  the  doctrine  of 
tenure  from  the  region  of  government."    The 
reluctance  of  all  but  the  greatest  lords  to 
attend  co-operated  in  this    direction ;     and 
*'  Edward  I.  is  the  creator  of  the  House  of 
Lords  almost  as  truly  as  of  the   House  oi 
Commons,"  in  the  sense  that  to  him  was  du< 
the  smallness  of  its  numbers,  the  selection  ^t( 
a  great  exteilt)  of  its  members,  and  the  fina 
establishment  of  the  principle  that  it  is  con 
stituted  by  writ  of  summons,  not  by  tcnuK 
Nor  would  it  be  against  the  desires  of  the  gra 
barons  themselves  to  see  the  substitution  ( 
summons    for   tenure    as    the  qualificatio] 
For  mere  tenure-in- chief,  if  accepted,  migi 
have  flooded  the  House  with  the  lesser  chi 
tenants,  and  have  brought  into  it  any   inc 
purchaser  of  a  baronial  estate.     During:  t 
same  period  the  *'  lesser  barons''  had  lornidiial 
ceased  to  attend  as  burons,  and  ninr^ed  ii 
the  m:iss   of  the  county  fieeholder.s,    wh' 
they  inspired    with   their    high     spirit    8 
traditions  of  constitutional  resistanctN  and 
whom  they  sctod  as  leaders  in  shii-e  m<K)t  i 
in  national  Parliament.    Under  the  policj 
Edward  I.  and  the  operation  of   his  stat 
Quia  Einptorety  and  with  the  introductioTi 
tie  new  idea — representation  for   all    be 
baronial  rank,  whether  chief  tenants  or  tm 
tenure-in-chief  lost  its  constitutional  vs 


(181) 


and  tilie  separation  of  chief  tenants  intolwxons 
■and  knights,  or  nobles  and  gentry,  was  ac- 
complished.     To  complete  this,  it  was  only 
required  that  the  right  to  receive  the  special 
snmmons  should  be  regarded  as  hereditary; 
and  this  too,  as  a  legal  principle,  dates  from 
Edward  I/s  reign.    A  further  limitation  in 
the  sense  of  the  word  baron  was  effected  when 
the  crown  created  barons  by  letters  patent, 
first  in  1387  ;  but  the  instances  are  very  rare 
till  the  dose  of  Henry  YII/s  reign.    In  these 
patents  the  right  is  limited,  as  a  rule,  to  heirs 
male,  while  the  older  baronies,  by  writ  of  sum- 
mons, could  descend  through  females  (so  Sir 
John  Oldcastle  became  Lord  Cobham  in  right 
of  his  wife).     The  mere  personal  summons, 
not  inheritable,  continued  under  Lancastrian 
Icings,  but  definitely  ceased  under  th^.Tudors. 
The  attempt  to  create  a  life  peerage  was 
disallowed  as  obsolete  in    the  Wehsleydale 
<saae,    1856.      Since   the   Earl    of   Bristol's 
case  in  1626  the  receipt  of  such  a  writ  is 
an  inherited  right  which  cannot  be  denied. 
ThoB,  out  of  the  great  mass  of  "barons"  of 
the   Conqnest,    the    leading    families    were 
gradually  selected  (as  it  were)  by  the  crown. 
These  families  have  long  since  disappeared; 
the  crown   has  supplied  their  place  with  a 
body  four  times  as  numerous ;  but  this  body 
has  now  a  right  with  which  the  orown  can 
no  longer  interfere.    When  the  kings  of  the 
fourteenth  century  introduced   new  grades 
(duke,    marquis,    riscount)    beside    the   old 
baronial  body  of  earls  and  barons  proper,  the 
word  baron  sank  to  its  narrowest  meaning-* 
that  which  it  now  bears,  a  peer  who  sits  by 
no  higher  title.    The  bishops,  till  the  Refor- 
mation,  sat  both  in  their  01d£nglish  character 
and  in  their  new  character  as  barons.    But 
Henry  yill.*s   new  sees   had  no  baronies 
attached.      The  numbw  of  abbots  who  sat 
had  fallen  from  100  or  more  in  the  thirteenth 
<:entury  to    a   fixed  number   of   27  under 
Edward  IJJL. ;   those  who  could  claim  that 
they  did  not  owe  the  service  of  a  whole  barony 
^re  glad  to  be  excused.    At  the  Beformation, 
when  the  abbots  were  excluded,  the  balance 
of  numbers,  for  the  first  time,  was  left  with 
the  lay  lorda. 

The  political  history  of  the  baronage  may 
be  briefly  summed  up  in  three  periods: — (1) 
The  feudal  baronage,  whose  poucy  was  tne 
weakening  of  the  central  power,  and  whose 
aUiancee  and  habits  were  tiliose  of  Normans, 
was  nearly  eliminated  by  forfeiture  before 
Magna  Charta.  The  last  great  baron  of  this 
type  may  be  found  in  Ranulf ,  Earl  of  Chester, 
who  died  in  1232.  The  dispersed  character 
of  their  entates,  the  rigorous  resistance  of  the 
Old  Englidi  spirit,  &e  strong  arm  of  the 
Norman  king,  made  this  feudal  class  less 
formidable  than  it  proved  on  the  Continent. 
(2)  On  its  ndns  had  been  rising  the  new 
famiHes  of  the  ministers  rewarded  by  Henry  I. 
and  Henry  £[.,  out  of  which  was  formed  the 
national  baronage  which  ^-ook  the  lead  in 


wiiming  the  Charter,  which  defeated  Henrv 
III.'s  plan  of  personal  government,  and  which 
finally  secured  from  Edward  I.  the  results  of 
a  struggle  of  a  century.  Their  typical 
representative  is  Bichard,  Earl  Marshal  in 
Henry  III.'s  reign.  (3)  As  the  great  fiefs 
began  to  fall  in  to  the  crown,  and  as  the 
constitutional  leadership  passed  on  to  the 
knights,  the  baronage  turns  from  national 
aims  to  dynastic  partisanship,  family  ag- 
grandisement, and  the  ostentation  of  chivalry. 
The  people  are  still  oilly  too  ready  to  believe 
in  and  to  accept  them  as  champions.  But 
they  become  more  and  more  a  narrow  class, 
bound  up  with  one  or  other  of  the  two  royal 
houses ;  and  they  are  left  alone  at  last  to 
fight  out  the  Wars  of  the  Boses  by  the  aid 
of  their  own  retainers,  and  to  be  almost 
exterminated  in  the  struggle.  Yet  when 
they  were  gone,  and  the  Church  was  power- 
less in  its  anti-national  Bomamsm,  the  nation 
was  helpless  at  the  feet  of  the  new  despotism. 
For  England  still  required  its  nobles,  and  in 
their  worst  phases  they  had  played  a  necessary 
part  on  the  political  stage.  Even  the  selfish 
factiousness  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
century  nobility  had  been  obliged  to  adopt 
national  grievances  for  its  faction  cries ;  the 
traditions  of  noble  leadership  had  been  found 
still  to  have  invaluable  strength  for  the 
purposes  of  the  Hundred  Years'  War;  and 
for  the  rest,  the  nobles,  busy  with  place- 
hunting  and  court  intrigues,  left  space  for 
the  silent  growth  of  literature,  of  commerce, 
and  of  municipal  life. 

The  great  barons  may  be  roughly  reckoned 
at  400  in  Domesday,  nearly  half  of  whom 
held  estates  in  two  or  more  counties.  The 
number  of  lesser  barons  was  rather  smaller. 
By  the  thirteenth  century  both  classes  have 
decreased  in  numbers,  but  the  former  have 
increased  the  average  size  of  their  estates. 
By  the  end  of  the  next  centurv  the  baronial 
body  has  sunk  to  something  less  than  100 
fanulies,  still  holding,  however,  a  vast  pro- 
portion of  the  land  of  England.  Soon  after, 
the  two  representative  estates  of  clergy  and 
the  Commons  had  risen  up  to  share  with 
them  the  functions  of  legislation.  The 
baronial  body  retained  separate  and  inde- 
pendent privileges.  They  constituted  a 
great  part  of  the  standing  council,  which 
took  upon  itself  the  adnunistration  when 
the  king  was  a  minor.  They  held  with 
the  king  the  supreme  judicial  power,  both 
original  and  appellate.  They  coudd  be 
ju^ed  only  bv  tneir  brother  peers.  Till 
nearly  the  xorkist  period  they  were  called 
to  give  counsel  and  consent  tor  legislation, 
while  the  Commons  only  had  the  right  of 
petition.  For  general  administration  they 
were  called  to  "  treat  and  give  counsel ; "  the 
Commons  only  **  to  execute  and  consent." 

Selden,  TiUes  of  Honour;  Madox,  Banmia 
Angliea;  Bagdale,  Baronage  of  England;  Sir 
H.  Nicolas,  Sittorie  Peerage;  Lords  Beportt  o% 


(  132  ). 


ih4  .  DigniJtu  qf  Ptv,  1825-86  and  1829,  esp.  U., 
pt,  1 :  Hallam,  ITtddU  Agn  ;  Stubbe,  Coiut.  Hut., 
pacaim  ;  Gneist,  FifnoaUunytrtfcM,  i.  130—136. 

[A.  L.  S.] 

Baronets  were  first  created  by  James  L 
in  1611,  when,  being  in  want  of  money  for 
the  support  of  the  army  in  Ulster,  he  offered 
the  title  of  biux>net  to  all  *'  who  would  pay 
into  the  Exchequer  JB  1,080,  in  three  annual 
pa^nnents,  being  the  sum  required  for  the 
pay  of  a  hundred  foot  soldiers  for  three 
years.'*  In  Ireland  baronets  were  instituted 
in  1620,  and  in  Scotland  by  Charles  I.  in 
1625,  and  called  baronets  of  Nova  Scotia, 
because  it  was  originaUy  intended  to  establish 
them  for  the  encouragement  of  the  settling  of 
Nova  Scotia.  The  principle  of  this  dignity 
was  to  give  rank,  precedence,  and  title  without 
privilege.  A  baronet  was  to  remain  a  com- 
moner, but  his  title  (unlike  that  of  a  knight) 
was  to  be  hereditary.  Since  the  time  of  Charles 
II.  it  has  been  usual  to  remit  the  payment 
due  to  the  crown  on  creation  of  a  baronetcy. 
It  was  intended  that  the  number  of 
baronets  should  be  limited  to  200,  but  the 
numl)er  was  exceeded  even  before  the  death 
of  James  I. 

Barons'  War,  The.  The  first  distinct 
appeal  to  arms  of  this  war  was  made  in  1263 
by  Simon  de  Montfort,  Earl  of  Leicester. 
fHve  years  before,  the  incurable  misrule  of 
Henry  III.  had  provoked  the  more  public- 
spirited  of  his  barons  to  place  him  unobr  the 
control  of  a  commission  of  reform,,  and  then 
of  a  council ;  from  this  control  he  had  now 
been  for  three  years  struggling  to  free  him- 
self, but  with  little  success.  The  situation 
grew  daily  more  distracted ;  England  had  two 
rival  governments,  the  king  and  the  Baronial 
Council,  each  claiming  obedience,  and  for- 
bidding what  the  other  commanded.  From 
time  to  time  efforts  had  been  made  to  arrange 
the  points  in  dispute,  but  in  vain.  Of  these 
points  the  principal  were :  the  observance  by 
the  king  of  the  Provisions  of  Oxford,  the 
right  of  holding  the  royal  castles,  the  power 
of  appointing  and  removing  the  state  officials 
and  counsellors,  and  the  exclusion  of  all 
foreigners  from  places  of  trust  and  profit.  Not 
one  of  these  demands  of  the  iMirons  could 
Henry  be  brought  to  loyally  concede.  Accord- 
ingly, in  June,  1263,  the  smothered  disgust  of 
the  barons  burst  into  open  war.  But  the  cam- 
paign had  barely  begun  when  Henry's  astute 
orother  Richard,  King  of  the  Romans,  inter- 
posed and  patched  up  a  kind  of  reconciliation. 
Some  months  of  troubled  peace  followed,  which 
both  parties  spent  in  diligent  search  after  the 
means  of  getting  a  lasting  peiCce.  In  Decem- 
ber they  agreed  to  submit  their  quarrel  to 
Louis  IX.  of  France  (St.  Loms) ;  and  the 
chief  men  of  both  sides  swore  solemnly  to 
abide  by  his  decision,  whatever  it  might  be. 
At  Amiens,  in  Jan.,  1264,  St.  Louis  heard  the 
case  that  the  king  in  person  and  the  barons  laid 
before  him,  and  gave  judgment. .  This  was  in 


favouj^  of  the  king  on  every  one  of  the  points- 
specified  above,  though  the  *<  liberties,  statutes,. 
and  laudable  customs  of  the  realm  of  England 
that  were  before  the  time  of  the  Provisions  '** 
were  left  intact.    [Amiens,  Misb  of.]    Not> 
withstanding  their  oaths,  the  earl  and  his 
party  easily  found  aa  excuse  that  satisfied 
their-  consciences  for  refusing  to. be  bound 
by  this  decision.    War  was  now  entered  upon 
in  earnest ;  and  in  March  the  hostile  armies 
were,  lying    within    a   few  miles  of  each 
other  —  the    king's    at    Oxford,  the    earl's 
at  Brackley.     Here  a  last   attempt  at  a 
pacification  proved  fruitless.    Then  the  com- 
batants parted,  the  king  marching  to  take 
Northampton  and  Nottingham,  the  barons  to 
add  .the  array  of  the  Londoners  to  their  own, 
and  to  lay  siege  to  Rochester.    This  operation 
brought  on  the  battle  that  decided  the  cam- 
paign..   For  the  king,  alarmed  for  Rochester, 
hurried  to  its  relief,  and  finding  the  siege 
raised  on  his  arrival,  went  on  to  the  reduction 
of  the  Cinque  Ports.    De  Montfort  cautiously 
followed,  and  on  reaching  Fletching  learned 
that  the  royal  army  was  but  ten  miles  off,  in 
and  around  the  town  and  Cluniac  Priory  of 
Lewes.      Thither,   on  May  14,  he  led  his 
followers,  full  of  religious  enthusiasm  and 
patriotic  ardour,  along  the  slopes  of  the  bush- 
less  downs,  and,  almost  with  sunrise,  burst  in 
upon  the  half-prepared  Royalists.    The  fiery 
onset  of  Prince  Edward  routed  and  made  havoc 
of  the  earl's  left  wing,  where  the  Londoners 
fought,  but  only  rendered  the  baronial  victory 
more  sure.    Carried  ojff  the  field  by  his  f  ur>% 
Edward  left  his  father  and  uncle  to  be  crushed 
by  the  right  and  centre  of   the   attacking 
force.      Next  day  the  two   kings,  Edward 
himself,  and  his  cousin  Henry,  were  prisoners 
in   the    earl's    hands.      De    Montfort    was 
now  master    of   king   and  kingdom.      Ho 
strove  hard  to  effect  a  settlement ;  called  a 

*  Parliament  of  the  imperfect  type  then  in  use ; 
drew  up  a  new  scheme  of  government ;  and 
was  diligent  in  framing  measures  of  reform 
At  the  end  of  the  year  he  took  the  step  tha 
has  made  him  immortal:  he  summoned  ii 
Henry's  name  a  national  assembly  that  was  th.i 
first  to  contain  all  the  elements  of  a  full  Parlia 
ment,  duly  chosed  citizens  and  burgesses,  a 
well  as  knights  of  the  shire,  barons,  abbott 
and  bishops.  This  body  began  its  sittin ^^s  f 
London  in  January,  1266 ;  and  did  its  best  1 
strengthen  the  position  of  its  creator.     Di 

,  this  position  was  already  undermined,  '^ri 
baronial  party  had  split  into  sections,  one  ' 
which,  under  Gilbert,  Earl  of  Gloucestc 
openly  thwarted  Earl  Simon's  desig^ns,  and 
last  broke  away  from  the  old  leader  altogetH< 
The  end  came  swiftly  on.  While  De  Mont  f  < 
was  suppressing  disturbances  in  South  Wa.l( 
Edward  escape  from  his  guards,  g^tKei 
round  him  his  father's  friends  and  De  AXo] 
fort's  foes,  and  by  rapid  marches  secured.  1 

\  line  of  the  Severn.   Early  in  August,  ho wev 

i  the  alow  moving  earl  had  for^d  a    passe 


(  133) 


■across  this  barrier,  and,  with  the  king  still  in 
his  possession,  had  reached  Evesham,  hoping 
to  meet  his  son  Simon,  who  was  leading  the 
levies  of  the  south  and  east  to  join  him..  With 
this  object,  on  Aug.  4,  1265,  he  was  starting 
from  Eve^iam  when  he  was  caught  by  his 
active  opponent,  Who  had  shortly  before 
suddenly  fallen  upon  and  destroyed  the 
younger  Simon's  force  at  Kenilworth.  By 
wise  and  well>ezecuted  dispositions  he  now 
enclosed  the  old  warrior  on  eyery  side ;  and 
after  a  stnbbom  contest,  the  great  earl  and 
his  bravest  followers  perished,  fighting  des- 
perately. Yet  the  war  lingered  for  two  years 
longer.  The  harshness  of  the  victors,  who 
pronounced  the  lands  of  the  rebels  forfeit, 
drove  the  vanquished  to  despair.  The  siege 
of  Kenilworth  was  prolonged  till  late  in  1266: 
and  at  Axholm,  in  Lincolnshire,  another 
obstinate  bend  of  outlaws  held  out  stiffly 
against  the  assaults  of  Edward.  At  length 
Axholm  was  taken ;  and  by  this  time  expe- 
rience had  taught  its  captor  moderation.  In 
the  Ihetum  of  Kenilworth  he  offered  milder 
terms  to  the  defenders  of  the  castle ;  and  it 
surrendered  at  last  (Dec,  1266).  In  the 
meantime  others  of  "  the  Disinherited "  had 
seized  Ely,  and  one  more  siege  became  ncces- 
6ary.  This  lasted  till  the  summer  of  1267, 
when  Edward  forced  his  way  into  the  place, 
and  thus  ended  the  Barons  War.  [Mont- 
port,  Sixox  UE.] 

W.  H.  Blaanw,  The  Barone  War;  Panli,  Lift 
tf  Sfinon  d«  Jfontfort ;  Protbero,  L(/0  o/  Simon 
dtf  Mimt/oH ;  StuSbs,  ContL  BiA.,  ch.  xiv. 

[J. ».] 


The    Battle     of    (March    6, 
1811),  was  bought  between  the  English  and 
Spaniards,  and  the  French,  during  the  Penin- 
sular War.     General  Graham,  who  had  been 
blockaded  through  the  winter  in  Cadiz,  learn- 
ing  that    Soult    had   marched  to  Badajos, 
resolved  to  rid  himself  of  Victor's  besieging 
force.    To  effect  this  purpose  he  embarked 
12,000  men,  who  landea  at  Tarifa,  in  the  rear 
of  the  French.    But  with  an  ill-timed  modesty 
Graham  gave  up  the  chief  command  to  La 
Pena,  the  Spanish  general,  who  systematically 
neglected  his  advice.   The  low  ridge  of  Barosa 
vas  the  key  both  to  offensive  and  defensive 
movements,  and  Gtraham  was  very  anxious  to 
bold  it ;  but  La  Pefia  ordered  him  to  march 
through  a  thick  wood  to  Bermeja,  and  left  the 
heights  of  Barosa  crowded  with  baggage  and 
defended  only  by  a  wholly  inadequate  force. 
Victor  no  sooner  saw  Graham's  corps  enter  the 
wood  than  he  attacked  and  took  Barosa,  cut- 
ting off  a  Spanish  division  which  was  on  its 
march.  Gndiam,  on  hearing  of  Victor's  tactics, 
St  once  faced  about,  and,  marching  back  to  the 
p]ain«'without  a  moment's  hesitation  resolved 
to  attack,  although  the  key  of  the  field  of 
battle  was  already  in  the  enemy's  possession. 
He  accordingly  despatched  one  body  of  troops 
to  attack  Lavsl,  who  was  on  the*  fiank,  while 
Brown  and  Dilke  attacked  the  heights.   "  The 


English  bore  strongly  onward,  and  their  in- 
cessant slaughtering  fire  forced  the  French 
from  the  hill  with  the  loss  of  three  g^ns  and 
many  brave  soldiers."  Victor  was  soon  in  full 
retreat,  and  the  British,  having  been  twenty- 
four  hours  under  arms  without  food,  were 
too  exhausted  to  pursue.  In  the  meantime 
La  Pefia  looked  idly  on,  so  that  the  remains 
of  the  French  army,  retreating  in  the  greatest 
disorder,  were  allowed  to  escape. 

Napier,  Penitwular  War;  A.  H.  Delavojs, 
Life  of  LoT^  Lyntdoeh;  iLlison,  Mi»t.  of  ^urofM, 
ix.  SSd. 


^paAjTCMMb^vAvt  sn  important  military 
station  in  Lower  Bengal,  fifteen  miles  from 
Calcutta,  was  the  place  where,  during  the 
First  Burmese  War  (q.v.)  the  47th  Native 
Begiment,  who  were  ordered  for  service,  pre- 
sented a  memorial  (Oct.,  1824),  setting  forth 
the  extreme  difficulty  of  procuring  cattle,  and 
begging  to  be  relieved  of  the  burden  of  pro- 
viding means  of  conveyance.  The  sepoys 
were  informed  that  they  would  receive  no 
assistance.  On  Nov.  1st  the  47th  broke  out 
into  open  mutiny,  and  refused  to  fall  in  at 
the  word.  After  vainly  endeavouring  to 
reason  with  them,  the  Commander-in-chief 
ordered  up  several  European  regiments  and  a 
detachment  of  horse  artillery.  The  sepoys 
were  ordered  to  march  at  once,  or  ground 
arms :  on  their  refusal  a  volley  was  discharged 
on  them  by  the  artillery,  and  the  European 
regiments  fell  on  them.  The  slaughter  was 
very  great.  The  ringleaders  were  subse- 
quently tried  by  court-martial  and  executed ; 
and  others  were  sentenced  to  hard  labour  in 
ironv.  It  was  at  Barrackpore  that  the  first 
mutinous  demonstrations  took  place  during  the 
Sepoy  rebellion  of  1857.  In  Februair  of  that 
year  the  native  troops  quartered  at  this  place 
refused  to  bite  the  ends  of  their  cartridges. 
On  Mar.  29  the  34th  Native  Infantry  muti- 
nied; it  was  disbanded  May  5,  the  10th 
Native  Infantry  having  been  previously  dis- 
banded Mar.  31. 

Kaje,  Sepoy  War,  1.  266  9eq. 


J,  Isaac  (b.  1726,  d.  1792),  in  1746 

entered  the  army,  and  served  in  Flanders  and 
Canada.  In  1769,  he  was  present,  and 
severely  wounded,  at  the  storming  of  the 
heights  of  Abraham.  In  1761,  Lord  Shel- 
bume  gave  his  vacated  seat  for  Chipping 
Wycombe  to  Barr6.  Two  days  after  taking 
his  seat,  he  made  a  most  violent  attack 
on  Pitt.  He  strongly  supported  Bute's 
government  in  the  debates  on  the  Peace  of 
Paris  in  1762,  and  was  rewarded  for  his  ser- 
vices by  being  appointed  Adjutant-General 
to  the  British  Forces,  and  soon  afterwards 
Governor  of  Stirling  Castle.  But  on  the  retire- 
ment of  Lord  Shelbume  from  the  Board  of 
Trade,  Barr6  voted  in  opposition  to  the  Gren- 
ville  ministry  in  reference  to  the  prosecution 
of  Wilkes  for  libel,  and  was  summarily  dis- 
missed from  his  military  appointments  and 


(  134) 


reduced  to  half -pay  In  Dec.,  1763.  He  oon« 
tinned  Btrenuously  to  oppose  the  minigtry  in 
their  action  with  regwrd  to  Wilkee  and  general 
warrants,  and  his  ability  as  a  debater  became 
more  and  more  oonspicuoas.  On  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Stamp  Act  in  1766,  he  was  one 
of  the  *'  two  or  thi^e  g^tlemen  who  spoke 
against  the  Act,  and  that  with  great  reserve 
and  remarkable  temper."  He  was  a  firm 
supporter  of  the  policy  of  the  Rockingham 
^  government,  and  on  Htt's  taking  office  in 
1766  he  received  a  minor  appointment.  But 
in  Oct.,  1768,  he  retired  with  Lord  Shel- 
bume,  on  account  of  differences  with  the 
Duke  of  Grafton,  whom  he  forthwith  attacked 
in  Parliament.  During  the  long  period  of 
Lord  North's  administration  Barr6  was  out  of 
office,  and  was  especially  active  in  advocating 
the  cause  of  the  revolted  colonies  in  America, 
and  the  right  of  Wilkes  to  his  seat.  In  the 
second  Rockingham  administration  in  1782, 
Barr4  was  appointed  Treasurer  of  the  Navy ; 
but  while  Burke  was  proposing  his  Economical 
Reforms,  and  before  the  contemplated  enact- 
ments  could  have  come  to  his  knowledge,  BarrS 
accepted  an  enormous  pension  of  £3,200  a  year, 
which,  however,  he  was  subsequently  inauced 
to  resign  in  return  for  the  clerkship  of  the  Pells. 
It  has  been  attempted  to  identify  Barr6  with  the 
author  of  the  Letters  of  Juniue;  but  the  asser- 
tion rests  on  no  sufficient  evidence.  The  closing 
days  of  Barr^,  like  those  of  his  old  adversary, 
Lord  North,  were  darkened  by  blindness. 

Walpole,  Memoin  of  the  Reign  of  Oeorge  III. ; 
Stanhope,  Ri^i.  of  Bug. ;  TreTelyan,  Early  Teare 
of  C.  J.  Fox;  Britton,  Juniiu  Elucidated. 

Barri,    Gbrald  db.      [Gikaldus  0am- 

BRBNSI8.] 

Barrier  Treaty,  The  (17I5).  The 
project  of  giving  the  States-General  a 
'*  barrier  "  against  France  by  means  of  a  line 
of  fortresses  along  the  frontier  had  been  raised 
in  the  Grand  AUiance  negotiations  of  1701, 
and  again  in  1703,  but  was  defeated  by 
the  hostility  of  Austria.  In  1709,  however,  a 
treaty  was  concluded  between  England  and 
Holland,  by  which  the  former  boimd  henelf 
to  obtain  for  the  Dutoh  the  right  of  supply- 
ing garrisons  for  the  Flemish  fortresses,  in- 
cluding Ypres,  Menin,  Jjille,  Toumai,  Condd, 
Valenciennes,  Charleroi,  Namur,  Damm,  and 
Dendermonde.  The  treaty  was  signed  by 
Townshend  on  the  part  of  England,  as  Marl- 
borough refused  to  be  a  party  to  it.  The 
arrangements  were  revised  and  considerably 
altered,  much  to  the  disadvantage  of  the 
Dutoh,  bjr  a  second  agreement  which  was 
come  to  in  1713,  in  which  the  number  of 
barrier  fortresses  was  greatly  curtailed.  The 
treaty  was,  however,  not  definitively  signed 
till  Nov.  15,  1716.  The  chief  provisions 
were  that  the  Low  Countries  were  guaranteed 
to  the  house  of  Austria,  and  were  not  to  be 
alienated  on  any  conditions  whatsoever. 
The  Dutch  were  to  garrison  Namur,  Tonmai, 


Menin,*   Fumes,    Wameton,    Ypres,    and 
Ejnoque;    and     Dendermonde    was  to   be 
garrisoned  jointly  by  Dutch  and  Austrian 
troops.     The  Dutch  were   very  dissatisfied 
at  this  curtailment  in  the  number  of  towns- 
ceded  to  them,  and  still  more  so  at  the  com- 
mercial stipuh&tions  by  which  England  was 
put  on  the  same  footmg  with  Holland,  as 
regards  the  conmierce  of  the  Belgian  towns. 
But  the  treaty  was  altogether  a  disturbing 
element  in  European  politics,  and  an  especial 
source  of  friction  in  vie  relations  of  England 
and  Austria.      It    was  one  of   the  causes 
of  the  alienation  of  England  and  Austria 
previous  to   the  beginning  of   the   Seven 
Years'    War.      The     Bamer   Treaty    was 
annulled  by  the  Treaty  of   Fontainebleau, 
1786.    [Utbbcht,  Trbatt  op.] 

Koch  and  Sehoell,  Hidoire  dee  TnilU,  ii.,  ch. 
11 ;  Leck^,  Hiet.  of  the  Bighteenlh  Century ; 
Wjon,  Betgn  <tf  Q.  ^nn*. 

Barrowists,    The,  who  derived   their 
name   from    one    of    their   leaders,   Henry 
Barrow,  a  l&vryer,  were  a  sect  of  Separatists 
in  the  reign  of    Queen    Elizabeth,  closely 
allied  in  their  doctrines  with  the  Brownists. 
Henry    Barrow   was    examined    before  the 
Court  of  High  Commission  in  1587,  for  his 
*' schismatical  and  seditious  opinions,"  and. 
imprisoned,   but  continued  to  issue  inflam* 
matory  pamphlets  urging  the    abolition  of 
episcopacy ;  he  was  found  guilty  of  '*  writing- 
and  publishing  sundry  seditious  books  and. 
pamphlets   tending    to    the  slander   of  the 
queen  and  government,  and  was  executed  at 
Tyburn,  April  6,    1693.       The    Barrowists. 
shared  the  aversion  of  the  Brownists  to  legal 
ministry ;  and  were  deemed  still  more  proper 
subjects  for  persecution.     They  refused  to 
hold  any  conmiunication  with  the  Church  on 
the  grounds :  First,  that  the  worship  of  the 
English    Church    was    idolatrous ;     second,, 
that  unsanctified  persons  were  admitted  into 
the  Church;  third,   that  the    preachers    of 
the  Church  of  England  had  no  lawful  calling  ; 
and  fourth,  that  the  government  was    un- 
godly.   For  these  views  many  of  them  wero 
imprisoned,  and  in  1593,  on  the  passing  of 
the  Act  making  a  monthly   attendance   at 
church  compulsory,  a  great  number  of  the 
sect  went  with  the  Brownists  to  Holland, 
and  subsequently  founded  a  new  home   in 
America. 

J.  B.  Marsden,  Chritt'an  Churehee  and  Sects  ;. 
Mosheim,  Eccleiiiattical  Hidory  ;  Bogne  and  Ben- 
nett, Hiet.  of  Diuenten,  i.  175,  kc 

Barton^  Andrew  (£.1512),  was  a  contem- 
porary of  Sir  Andrew  Wood,  and  one  of  Scot- 
land's first  great  naval  commanders.  In  1497,. 
he  was  in  command  of  the  escort  which  accom- 
panied Perkin  Warbeck  when  he  left  Scot- 
land. In  1512,  after  doing  considerable 
damage  to  the  English  shipping,  he  was  killed 
in  an  engagement  with  two  ships  that  liad  been 
expressly  fitted  out  against  him,  and  had  fallen 


(186) 


in  with.  Kim  in  the  Downs.  His  death  was 
one  of  the  grievances  which  led  to  ihe  in- 
yanon  of  Kngland  by  James  V.,  and  the 
batUe  of  Flod£n  Field. 


,    EuzABBTH     (rf.    1634),    better 

known  as  the  Knn,  or  Holy  Maid  of  Kent, 
was  the  servant  of  Richard  Masters,  incum- 
bent of  the  parish  of  Aldington  in  Kent. 
The  awe  excited  by  the  moral  tone  of  some 
of  her  ravings  when  under  the  influence  of 
epilepsy  su^ii^sted  to  her  master  dnd  others 
the  possibihty  of  making  her  a  means  of  fan- 
ning the  growing  discontent  against  the  kdng. 
She  was  accordingly  taught  to  counterfeit  a 
state  of  trance,  and  then  to  give  utterance  to 
prophecies  respecting  matters  declared  to  be 
revealed  to  her  by  &e  Holy  Ghost.  As  her 
words  were  all  in  support  of  the  clerical  party 
and  against  the  king's  recent  legislation,  she 
was  regarded  with  great  favour  by  the  clergy 
generally;  she  corresponded  with  Queen 
Catherine  and  Charles  Y.,  and  became  in  a 
abort  time  a  dangerous  power  in  England. 
When,  however,  she  bololy  declared,  among 
other  things,  that  if  Henry  divorced  Catherine, 
snd  married  again  during  her  lifetime,  he 
should  not  be  a  king  a  month  longer,  but 
die  a  villain's  death,  it  was  thought  high 
time  to  take  particular  notice  of  her  madness, 
and  by  the  king^s  orders  she  and  her  more 
prominent  accomplices  were  arrested.  Having 
confessed  their  imposture  upon  examination 
in  the  Star  Chamber,  Elizabeth  Barton  and 
her  fellow-conspirators  were  ordered  to  read 
their  oonfeesion  the  next  Sunday  at  St.  Paul's 
Cross,  immediately  after  the  sermon.  The 
whole  matter  of  the  imposture  was  then 
brought  formally  before  the  Parliament,  and 
Barton  and  six  others  were  attainted  of  high 
treason,  and  executed  May  5,  1534. 

Hall,    CKronicU;   Froode,  Hut.  o/  Eng.,  il. 
164,  Ac  ;  Statute  25  Hod.  YHL,  c.  12. 

BMilicon  Doron  (The  Royal  Gift)  is 
the  title  of  a  work  written  by  King  James  I. 
in  1599,  and  addressed  to  his  eldest  son,  Prince 
Henry.  In  this  work  he  maintains  that  the 
kingly  office  is  ecclesiastical  as  weU  as  civil, 
and  tiierefore  the  king  is  necessarily  head 
of  the  Church;  and  that  equality  among 
ministers  is  inconsistent  with  monarchy.  The 
tract  advocates  the  esteblishment  of  epis- 
copacy, and  the  banishment  of  the  principal 
Presbyterian  ministers  in  the  country. 

The  Btuiltcon  Doron  was  printed  at  Edinbunrh 
iBia03. 


_  I,  the  seat  of  the  Marquis 

of  Winchciter,  was  one  of  the  Royalist  strong- 
holds in  the  dvil  Wars.  Standing  as  it  did  a 
■hort  distance  from  Basingstoke,  it  commanded 
one  of  the  principal  roads  to  the  West.  It 
was  several  times  attacked  by  the  Parlia- 
mentarian forces  without  success.  Finally, 
after  along  and  brilliant  defence,  it  was  taken 
by  Cromwell,  October  16,  1645,  and  burnt  to 
the  ground.    *'The  jubilant  Royalists  had 


given  it   the  name  of  Batting  House,"  on 

account  of  the  difficulty  experienced  by  their 

opponente  before  it. 

Clarandon,    flite.   of  tJU  £ib«IUoii;  Carljle, 
Cromtoall. 


Thb  Fobtrbss  op,  in  the 
Firth  of  Forth,  was  held  by  some  of  ito  Jacobite 
prisoners,  who  overpowered  their  guard,  for 
James  II.  from  1691  to  1694,  when  the  little 
garrison,  numbering  about  twenty  men,  capi* 
tulated  on  honourable  terms. 


on,  Thb  Tkbaty  of  (Bee.  31^ 
1802),  was  concluded  between  the  English 
and  Bajee  Rao,  the  Peishwa.  Ite  stipu- 
lations were  that  a  British  force  of  6,000 
infantry,  with  a  suiteble  complement  of 
artillery,  should  be  stationed  within  the 
Peishwa's  dominions;  that  districts  in  the 
Deccan,  yielding  twenty-six  lacs  of  rupees  a 
year,  were  to  be  assigned  for  their  suj^rt ; 
that  the  Peishwa  should  entertain  no  £uro- 
peans  in  his  service  belonging  to  any  nation 
at  war  with  th^  English;  that  he'  should 
engage  in  no  hostilities  or  negotiations  with- 
out weir  concurrence,  and  should  refer  all 
his  claims  on  Surat,  the  Nizam,  and  the 
Guicowar,  to  the  arbitration  of  the  Govemor- 
General.  The  treaty  also  guaranteed  their 
righte  to  the  southern  jaghirdars,  feudatories 
of  the  Peishwa.  [Bajbb  Rao  ;  Wbllbslby^ 
Mabquis.] 

WeUesley,  i>MpatchM;  Mill,  H{«f.  of  India. 

BawMty  Philip  (d.  1271),  was  a  member 
of  the  great  judicial  family  which  furnished 
so  many  Judges  and  ministers  to  the  Angevin 
kings.  In  1233  he  joined  in  the  revolt  of 
Richard  Marshall,  but  quickly  returned 
to  his  allegiance,  and  was  one  of  Henry'a 
staunchest  supporters  against  the  barons.  In 
1261  he  was  appointed  Justiciar  of  England,, 
seemingly  in  conjunction  with  Hugh  le 
Despenser,  and  held  the  office  till  1263.  He 
fought  most  bravely  in  the  battle  of  Lewea 
(**  Sir  Philip  Basset,  that  brave  knight,  worst 
was  to  overcome,"  says  Robert  of  Gloucester), 
but  was  eventually  taken  prisoner.  The 
king's  victory  at  Evesham  released  him,  but 
he  was  not  restored  to  his  office,  though 
constantly  employed  in  the  royal  serrice  tiU 
his  death. 

Bavtwiok,  John  {b,  1693),  a  physician, 
published  in  a  work  entitled  Flagellum  Pontic 
jiteU  (1635),  attacks  which  he  declared  to  be 
directed  solely  against  the  Pope  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  clergy,  but  which  were  considered  by 
the  English  bishops  to  reflect  on  themselves. 
For  this  he  was  condemned  by  the  High 
Commission  Court  to  fine  and  imprisonment. 
While  in  prison  he  wrote  two  other  works, 
Apologeticut  ad  Pretules  Anglieanot  (1636), 
and  The  2few  Litany  (1637),  in  which  he 
accused  the  bishops  of  an  inclination  to 
Popen'.  For  this  he  was  sentenced,  in  1637, 
to  a  fine  of  £5,000,  the  loss  of  his  ears,  the 


(  136) 


Bft« 


pillory,  and  perpetual  imprisoninent.  In  1640 
he  was  released  by  the  Long  Parliament,  the 
proceedings  against  him  cancelled,  and  £5,000 
given  him  in  reparation.  Bastwick  was  alive 
in  1648,  but  when  he  died  is  uncertain. 
Clarendon  speaks  of  him  as  "  a  half-witted, 
crack-brainecL  fellow,  unknown  to  either  uni- 
versity or  the  College  of  Physicians,  but  one 
that  had  spent  his  time  abroad  between  the 
Kchools  and  the  camp,  and  had  gotten  a 
•doctorship  and  Latin.*' 

Clarendon,  Uitt  of  the  BMMlum,  iii.  56. 

Basntblaady  the  north-eastern  province 
of  Gape  Colony,  with  \fhich  it  was  incor- 
porated in  1871,  was  annexed  by  Great  Britain 
in  1868.  It  "was  placed  under  the  government 
of  Cape  Colony,  and  its  local  affairs  were 
-administered  by  an  agent  appointed  by  the 
governor  at  Cape  Town  and  by  five  magis- 
tmtes,  each  presiding  over  a  special  district. 
But  the  government  of  the  colony  found 
itself  constantly  in  difficulty  with  the  native 
tribes ;  negotiations  were  entered  into  with  the 
Home  Government,  and  the  country  is  now 
•under  the  control  of  the  Colonial  Office. 

.  Batavia*  Thb  Capture  of  (1811),  is 
chiefly  interesting  as  being  the  conquest  of  the 
last  surviving  French  settlement  in  the  East. 
In  the  year  1810  the  inland  of  Java  had  come 
mto  the  possession  of  France  by  the  incorpora- 
tion  of  thekingdomof  Holland  with  the  French 
empire ;  and  the  Indian  government  was 
bent  upon  its  reduction.  In  March,  1811, 
10,500  men  were  sent  out  under  Sir  8.  Auch- 
muty,  and  early  in  August  landed  about 
twelve  miles  to  the  east  of  the  town  of 
Batavia.  The  united  French  and  Dutch 
troops  abandoned  Batavia,  and  took  up  a 
position  in  a  very  strong  camp  called  Fort 
Cornelius.  On  August  8th  the  outposts 
were  driven  in,  and  the  advanced  works  were 
occupied  by  the  English.  At  length  it  was 
decided  to  make  a  desperate  attack  on  the  main 
fort,  as  the  lateness  of  the  season  necessitated 
speedy  action.  The  attack  was  delivered  from 
three  sides  at  daybreak  on  the  morning  of  the 
26th.  On  the  right  Colonel  Gillespie  burst 
in,  and  pushed  the  defenders  before  him 
until  they  were  met  on  the  other  side  by  the 
assaulting  parties  in  the  centre  and  left,  who, 
after  a  stubborn  fight,  had  almost  simulta- 
neously overthrown  the  defenders  and  burst  in. 
The  storming  force  lost  872  men  in  killed  and 
wounded.  The  few  troops  who  escaped  from 
Fort  Cornelius,  after  resisting  for  a  few  days, 
came  in ;  and  with  them  the  whole  island  was 
surrendered  to  the  British,  to  be,  however,  at 
the  close  of  the  war  restored  to  the  Dutch. 

Alison,  Hiat.  of  Europe,  ix.  684;  James,  Naval 
Mut,;  Annwa  R«gi$t«r,  1811. 

Bate's  Case  (1606).  The  Levant  Com- 
pany, which  had  been  granted  by  Elizabeth  a 
monopoly  of  the  trade  with  Turkey  and 
Venice,  had  allowed  non-members.to  import 


currants  on  payment  of   6s.  6di  pet  cwt. 

Upon  the  dissolution  of  the  company  in  1603, 

the    government  continued  the  imposition. 

In  1606  a  merchant,  John  Bate,  refused  to 

pay,  and  the  case  was  brought  before  the 

Court  of  Exchequer,  which  gave  judgment 

for  the  crown.     It  was  laid  down  from  the 

bench  that  the  royal  power  was  double,— 

ordinary^  unchangeable  without  authority  of 

Parliament,  and  ahsolute^  varying  according  to 

the  king's*  wisdom ; .  under  the  absolute  power 

came    all    matters   of   commerce,  including 

customs,     llelying  upon  this  decision,  Cecil 

published,  in  1608,  a  £ook  of  Mates  imposing 

fresh  duties  on  many  articles.    In  1610  the 

Commons  declared  that  impositions  without 

consent  of  Parliament  were  unconstitutional, 

and  petitioned  for  their  removal ;  from  this 

time  the  question  constantly  recurred  in  the 

struggle  between  Parliament  and  the  crown. 

S.  R.  Oftrdiner,  Hint,  of  Eny.,  2603—1642,  chap, 
xi. ;  Hollam,  Cohtt.  Hint.,  chap.  vi. 

Bathp  Order  of  thb,  so-called  because 
the  recipients  of  the  honour  were  required  to 
formally  bathe  the  evening  before  invertiture, 
is  generally  supposed  to  have  been  established 
by  Henry  IV.  at  his  coronation  in  1399. 
After  that  it  became  the  practice  o!  English 
kings  to  create  Knights  of  the  Bath  previous 
to  thep:  coronation,  and  upon  other  great  oc- 
casions.    But  after  the  coronation  of  Charles 
II.  the  practice  fell  into  abeyance,  till'  the 
order  was  revived  by  George  I.  in  1725.     It 
was  subsequently  remodelled  by  the  Priace 
Regent  in  1815,  and  at  present  consists  of 
thi^    classes  —  Knights    Grand    Cross,    or 
G.C.B.'s ;  Knights  Commandei:%  or  K.C.B.'s ; 
and  Companions,  or  C.B.'s<^ 

Bath,    WlLLIAH    PULTBNBY,    EiLRL    OP     (3. 

1682,  d.  1764),  was  of  good  family  and  in- 
herited a  large  fortune.      He   entered    tho 
House  of  Commons  ^1705)  and  distinguished 
himself  on  the  Whig  side  during  the   last 
years  of    Anne's   reign,  having   contracted 
friendship    with  Walpole.     On   the    acces- 
sion of    George   I.,    Pulteney   became    one 
of  the  Secretaries  of   State.     In  the   poli- 
tical   language   of   the    day   he,    Stanhope, 
and    Walpole    were    known    as    the    three 
"grand    allies."     When  Walpole's    quarrel 
with   Stanhope   resulted   in   his   retirement 
from   office,    Pultoney  followed   his   patron. 
(1717).     When    Walpole    became    supreme 
in    1721,    Pulteney    naturally    expected     a 
position  in  the  Cabinet.    Instead,  a  poerago 
was    offered    him.     In    disgust    he,     after 
some  hesitation,  joined  the  Opposition  (1725), 
and  in  conjunction  with  Bolingbroke  brouprli't 
out    the    Crafttmattf     a    journal    in    which. 
Walpole  was  bitterly  attacked.     In  1728   he 
conducted  a  vigorous  assault  on  Walpole* b 
sinking  fund,  but  without  much  success  ;  hut 
his  speech  against  Walpole*B  excise  schezne 
was  more  successful,  and  the  minister   'waA 
obliged  to  withdraw  the  obnoxious  measure. 


Bftt 


I  13V  ) 


Bki 


Paltene7*8  name  had  previouil^been  struck 
off  the  list  of  privy  councillors.  He  sup-  . 
ported  the  Prince  of  Wales  in  opposition  to  ! 
the  kinjc  and  Walpole.  In'  1 74  0  he  was  oxie  of 
those  who  seceded  from  the  House — ^an  unwise 
step  which  he  attempted  in  vain  to  excuse.-  In  , 
1741  he  conducted  that  last  grand  attack  on 
"Walpole's  foreign  policy  which  drove  him  from 
office.  Pulteney,  however,  declined  to  form  a 
ministry,  and  retired  into  the  Upper  House  as 
Lord  Bath.  He  gradually  sank  into  insignifi- 
cance, and  his  popularity  waned.  In  1743  his 
friends  succeeded  in  persuading  him  to  come 
forward  as  candidate  for  the  premiership  in 
opposition  to  Pelham  ;  he  failed,  however, 
although  supported  hy  the  splendid  talents 
of  Carteret.  In  1746,  he  and  Granville 
(Carteret t  were  commissioned  hy  the  king 
to  form  a  ministry.  This,  the  "  Forty  hours' 
Ministry,'*  was  an  egregious  failure,  and  the 
Pelharas  returned  to  power.  Long  before 
his  death  Piilteney  had  become  altogether 
forgotten  by  the  political  world.  His  tolents 
were  considerable,  and  his  public  life  was 
on  the  whole  respectable,  and  marked  by 
uprightness  and  integrity ;  but  he  was  some- 
what wanting  in  steadfastness  of  purpose  and 
discretion.  His  parliamentary  eloquence  ap* 
pears  to  have  been  of  a  very  high  order. 
Besides  Bome  pooms  which  were  higbJy 
praised  bj  Pope,  Pulteney  was  the  author  ol 
several  vigorous  political  pamphlets. 

Coxa,    Memoin    of    TFoIpoU;    H.    WalM>1e, 
Qw>rg0  IJ,,  and  Cotolo^u*  of  Royol  and  MobU 


Awllunn, 


[L.  C.  S.] 


Bathlirst,  Allen,  Ibt  Earl  {h,  1684, 
d.  1775),  entered  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  in 
1699.  He  was  returned  for  the  borough'  of 
Cirencester  in  1705,  and  was  created  a  baron 
in  1711.  In  1723,  at  the  attainder  of  Atter- 
bur^',  he  bitterly  taunted  the  bishops  for  their 
animosity  against  their  brother.  As  a  Tory 
politician,  he  supported  the  daim  of  Boling- 
broke  to  be  restored  to  his  seat  in  the  House 
of  Lords.  During  Walpole's  administration 
he  was  an  active  member  of  the  opposition. 
From  1757  to  1760  he  was  Treasurer  to 
George,  Prince  of  Wales,  and  in  1762  was 
created  Earl  Bathurst.  A  somewhat  acrimo* 
luous  poUtician,  his  speeches  were  marked  by 
caustic  wit  and  brilliancy  of  metaphor. 

Bathurst,  Hbnut,  2nd  Eabl  {b,  1714, 
d.  1794),  the  son  of  Allen,  first  earl,  entered 
Parliament  for  Cirencester  in  1736.  He  was  a 
steady  opponent  of  Sir  Robert  Walpole,  and 
in  1745  was  made  Solicitor-General  to  the 
Prince  of  Wales  by  the  Leicester  House 
party.  On  the  death  of  the  prince,  he  took 
steps  to  conciliate  the  court,  and  was  re- 
^varied  in  1754  by  a  puisne  judgeship.  On 
the  death  of  Charles  Yorke  in  1770,  he  was 
appointed  one  of  the  three  Commissioners  to 
hold  the  Great  Seal  *'  No  one  of  the  three," 
ttyn  Lord  Campbell,  ^had  any  confidence 
in  himself  or  in  his  colleagues.     And  after 


the  learned'  trio  had  gone  on  for  a  twelve* 

month  floundering  and  blundering,  the  public 

dissatisfaction  was  so  loud  that  some  change 

was    considered    necessary."     The    change 

made  was  the  appointment  of  Lord  Bathunt 

to  the  Woolsack.    Left  to  himself,  be  got  on 

better   than    he   had    done    with    his    two 

"colleagues,  and  relied-  with  such  modesty  on 

the  help  of  better  men  that  he  made  few 

mistakes.    In   177S  he  resigned   the  Groat 

Seal  into  the  hands  of  Ix>rd   Thurlow,  and 

became    President    of    the    Council,  which 

office  he  held  tiU  Lord  North's  -resignation. 

His  last  years  he  spent  in  retirement  in  the 

country.    He  has  been  justly  called  "one  of 

the  weakest,  though  one  of  the  worthiest  of 

our  Chancellors.*' 

Campbell,   Livea   of   ths   CkanedU>ra;    Tom, 
Jitdgeg  of  England. 

Bathnrstf  Henry,  3rd  Earl  {b.  1762,  d, 
1834),  was  tiie  son  of  the  second  Eiarl 
Bathurst.  In  1804  he  was  appointed  Master 
Worker  of  the  Mint.  In  1807  he  became 
President  of  the  Board  of  Trade.  In  1809 
he  was  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Affaira 
which  he  held  only  from  Oct.  1 1  to  Dec  6.  On 
June  11,  1812,  he  was  appointed  Secretory  of 
State  for  the  Colonies,  and  discharged  the 
duties  of  the  office  for  nearly  sixteen  years. 
In  1828  he  was  appointed  President  of  the 
Council,  which  office  he  retained  till  the 
resignation  of  the  Wellington  administration 
in  1831. 

Bats,  The  Parliament  of  (1426),  was 
the'  name  given  to  the  Parliament  which 
assembled  in  this  year  when  the  quarrel 
between  the  Duke  of  Gloucester  and  Cardinal 
Beaufort  was  at  ite  height.  It  received  ite 
name  from  the  bate  or  bludgeons  carried  by 
the  hostile  and  excited  partisans  of  the  rival 
statesmen. 

Battle  Abbey  was  founded  by  William 
the  Conqueror  on  the  site  of  the  battle  of 
Hastings,  the  high  altar  standing,  it  is  said, 
on  the  very  spot  where  Harold  planted  his 
banner.  It  was  not  consecrated  till  1094. 
The  abbey,  which  was  dedicated  to  St. 
Martin,  and  filled  with  Benedictine  monks 
from  Marmoutier  in  Normandy,  was  richly 
endowed  by  the  Con<}ueror,  and  enjoyed 
many  privileges,  including  that  of  sanctuary. 
Hie  abbot  was  mitred  and  was  a  peer  of  Parlia- 
ment. At  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries 
in  Henry  yill.'s  reign,  the  income  of  the 
abbey  was  estimated  at  £880  14s.  7id.  The 
buildings  of  the  abbey,  which  are  partly  in 
ruins,  and  have  been  psjrtly  converted  into  a 
dwelling-house,  show  that  the  structure  must 
ancientfy  have  been  of  great  extent  and 
magnificence.  The  Roll  of  Battle  Abbey, 
which  was  lodged  in  the  keeping  of  the 
abbot,  contained  a  list  of  all  those  who 
fought  on  the  Norman  side  in  the  battle  of 
Hastings.  The  catalogue  was,  however,  much 
tampered  with  by  the  monks  in  later  times. 


(188) 


and  in  of  comparatiYely  little  yalue  as  an 
•athority.  A  remnant  of  the  exceptional 
position  of  Battle  Abbey  is  to  be  found  in 
the  fact  that  the  incumbent  of  the  puiah 
is  still  included  among  the  Deans  of  Peculiars, 
though  he  does  not  appear  to  have  any  special 
duties. 

Camden,  Britannia;  Do^pdale,  Mowuiicon; 
Freeiii«D,  Norman  ConaumAf  iv.  406,  An  aooonnt 
of  two  manuscript  Ghroniolefl  of  Battle,  ap- 
parently of  smail  Talne.  ia  given  by  Hardy,  Bf. 
aenptiM  Catalogna,  iiL  23, 1«& 


rter,  Richard  (b.   1615,  d,  1691),  a 
celebrated  Nonconformist  divine,  was  in  earUer 
life  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  England, 
and  in  1640  was  presented  to  the  living  of 
Kidderminster.   During  the  Civil  War  he  was 
chaplain  to  Whalley's  regiment,  and  in  this 
capacity  was  present  at  the  sieges  of  Bridge- 
water,  Exeter,  Bristol,  and  Worcester.    He 
was  a  very  moderate  supporter  of  the  Presby- 
terian church  polity,  and  in  temporal  matters 
an  adherent  oi  limited  monarchy ;  so  that  he 
was  a  strong  opponent  of  Cromwell  during 
the  later  years  of  the  Protector*s  life.    At  the 
Restoration  Baxter  was  appointed  one  of  the 
royal  chaplains,  and  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
Savoy  conference.    He  was  even  offered  the 
bishopric  of  Hereford,  which  he  refused.     In 
1662,  however,  on  the  passing  of  the  Act  of 
Uniformity,  Baxter  quitted  the  Church  and 
remained  for  some  years  in  retirement.    In 
1672  he  settled  in  London,  and  lectured  at 
several  Dissenting  places  of  worship.    Subse- 
quently, however,  he  was  much  harassed  by 
legal  proceedings  under  the  Conventicle  Act, 
and  in  1685  was  brought  before  Jeffireys,  who, 
treating  him  with  his  usual  brutality,  sen- 
tenced him  to  eighteen  months*  imprisonment, 
and  fined  him  500  marks.    Basrtier  was  an 
extraordinarily  prolific  writer  of  polemics  and 
works  on  divinity,  and  is  said  to  have  composed 
over  160  treatises.     Some  of  them,  e.g.^  The 
Saintt*  EverUuting  Sett,  and  Reasont  for  the 
Christian  Religion,  are  still  widely  popular. 

Baxter'a  Praoiic4a.  Works,  with  Life  by  W. 
Orme,  Lond.,  1890  (23ToIa.);  ToUoch,  Bw^ttak 
Ptiritanicm  and  itt  LeoAeru;  Baxter's  Ifarrotiv* 
of  the  Most  MerMrabU  Pataagea  o^  hit  Life  and 
Timea  (1096) ;  Sir  J.  Stephrai,  JBiiayt  tn  EocU- 
aiaebieal  Biography, 

Bayenz  Tapestry*  The,  was  in  all 
probability  the  iaea,  and  possibly,  in  great 
measure,  the  handiwork,  of  Matilda,  wife  of 
William  the  Conquerpr.  It  is  a  long  narrow 
strip  of  tapestry  or  needle- work  representing, 
in  a  number  of  pictures  worked  in  woollen 
thread,  the  battle  of  Hastings  and  the  events 
which  led  to  it.  It  is  twenty  inches  wide  and 
two  hundred  and  fourteen  feet  long;  and  is 
divided  into  seventy-two  compartments,  with 
Latin  superscriptions  indicating  the  objects 
represented.  The  Tapestry  is  an  authority  of 
the  utmost  value  for  the  period  with  which 
it  deals.  It  was  presented  by  Matilda  to 
the  cathedral  of  Bayeux,  of  which  see  her 
brother-in-law  Odo  was  bishop,  and  it  is  to 


be  seen  at  the  present  day  in  the  Library 

Museum  at  JSayeux. 

The  Bajenz  Tasestiy  has  been  reprodooed  in 
engravings  by  Stothard,  foUo,  1747,  and  in 
photographa  bj  J.  Comte,  4to,  1879.  It  haa 
also  been  engiaved  by  the  Antiquarian  Sodety, 
with  elnoidationa  hy  G.  C.  Brace,  186S.  For 
aa  ezhanative  and  valoable  diacuasion  of  the 
character,  origin,  &c.,  of  the  Tapestsy,  lee  Free- 
man, NomuLH  Conqvmt,  Vd.  MS  aaq. 

B«acliy  HeacL  Thb  Battle  of  (June 
30,   1690),   fought  during   the   war  of  the 
Austrian  Succession  between  the  English  and 
Dutch  on  the  one  side  and  the  French  on  the 
other,  terminated  in  a  victory  for  the  latter. 
Lord  Torrington,  who  commanded  the  com- 
bined English  and  Dutch  fleet,  had  abandoned 
the  Isle  of  Wight  to  the  French,  under  Tour- 
ville,  and  retreated  up  the  Channel,  when 
peremptory  orders  from  the  Privv  Council  to 
engagie  the  enemy  were  sent  him.  Accordingly, 
when  the  enemy  were  sighted,  he  bore  down 
upon  them,  placing  the  Dutch  ships  in  the 
van.    He  had  less  than  sixty  sail  of  the  line, 
and  the  French  had  eighty.     But  his  ships 
were  superior  in  equipment  and  crews  to 
those   ox   the   enemy.     The  Dutch,  under 
Evertsen,  fought  bravely  for  several  hours, 
receiving  very  little  assistance  from  the  rest 
of  the  fleet,  and  they  finally  drew  off  in  a 
shattered  condition.     Torrington  thereupon 
sought  refuge  in  the  Thames.     His  conduct 
and  motives  on  this  occasion  were  loudly  con- 
demned, and  the  action  was  looked  upon  as  a 
highly  disgraceful  one  for  England.      The 
only  use  TourviUe  made  of  his  victory  was  to 
bum  Teignmouth.   [ToaaiNOTON,  Viscount.] 
Macanlay,  Hist.  ofEng.,  iiL  006. 

Beacons,  or  signal-fires  on  the  coast  and 
on  conspicuous  positions  in  the  inland  country, 
intended  to  give  notice  of  the  approach  of  ba 
enemy  or  of  other  danger,  have  been,  used 
from  an  early  period  in  England.    According 
to  Stow,  bee[oons  were  set  up  by  Edward  II. 
when  the  landing  of  Mortimer  and  Queen. 
Isabella  was  expected.    They  were  regularly 
used  at  stated  places  along  the  line  of  the 
Borders,  to  give  warning  of  raids    of   the 
Scots.    Lord  Coke  says  that  regular  beacons, 
*' pitch-boxes  as  they  now  be,"  were  estab- 
lished only  after  the  reign  of  Edward  III, 
Inland  beacons  were  erected  by  the  sheriffs  at 
the  expense  of  the  country ;  Deacons  on  the 
coast  wore  originally  under  the  superintend- 
ence of  the  Lord  High  Admiral,  and  subse- 
quently, by  8  Eliz.,  chap.  13,  transferred    ta 
Uie  corporation  of  Trinity  House. 

B^aconsfield^  Benjamin  Px6iiaeli,  £asx 
OF  {b,  1805,  d.  1881),  was  the  eldest  son  o| 
Isaac  Disraeli,  the  author  of  the  Curiositim 
of  Literature.  He  was  first  destined  for  ^tlx^ 
law,  but  he  soon  turned  to  literature.  In 
1827  he  published  his  first  novel,  Vivi^ 
Greg,  and  subsequently  travelled  on  1^1% 
Continent  and  in  the  East  for  some  yean 
In  the  year  1832  he  appeared  as  the  Radict 


' 


(  139) 


candidate  for  High  Wycombe.    His  opinions 
were  giadually  changing,  and  in   1836  he 
j>ab]iflhed  a  serieA  called  The  Letters  of  Bunny' 
mede,  which  was  a  violent   attack   on  the 
liberal  party.    In  1837  he  was  returned  as 
'Conservative  member  for  Maidstone.      His 
first  speech  in  the  House  was  a  conspicuous 
failure;  it  concluded  with  the  well-known 
^ords:  "I  have  begun  several  times  many 
things,  and  I  have  often  succeeded  at  last.    I 
shall  sit  down  now ;  but  the  time  will  come  j 
when  you  will  hear  me.*'    During  the  first 
years  of  his  parliamentary  career  he  was  a 
-supporter  of  Sir  Robert  Peel ;  but  when  Peel 
pledged  himself  to  abolish  the  Com  Laws  in 
1846  Mr.  Disraeli  turned  towards  the  Pro- 
tectionists, and  at  once  became  their  leader. 
In  December,  1852,  Lord  John  Russell  re- 
signed, and  Lord  Derby  entered  ofifce  with 
lb-.  Disraeli  as  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer. 
In  1858  he  returned  to  office  and  brought  in 
a  Reform  Bill,  which,  however,  did  not  meet 
with  much   support.     The    Liberals   again 
returned  to  office,  and  for  ten  years  longer 
Mr.  Disraeli  led  the  opposition,  and  severely 
•criticised  Lord  Palmerston's  foreign  policy. 
In  1867  the  Liberals  once  more  resigned,  and 
Lord  Derby  and  Mr.  Disraeli  came  into  power. 
They  immediately  brought  in  and  carried  a 
R^orm  Bill  on  the  basis  of  household  suffrage, 
which  was  carried  after  a  violent  and  bitter 
struggle.    In  Feb.,  1868,  Lord  Derby  retired 
•and  Mr.  Disraeli   became  Prime  Minister. 
His  tenure  of  office  was,  however,  very  short. 
Mr.  Gladstone  carried  his  Irish  Church  Resolu- 
tions against  the   government,  and  in  the 
general  election  which  followed  the  Conserva- 
tives were  completely  beaten.    Mr.  Disraeli 
declined  to  take  office  in  1872,  but  in  1874 
Mr.  Gladstone  dissolved,  and  when  a  general 
-election  returned  the  Conservatives  with  a 
majority  of  fifty,  Mr.  Disraeli  became  Prime 
Minister,  holding  office  for  six  years.    Several 
ueasarea  of  domestic  legislation  were  passed 
during  this  period,  including  a  Factory  Act 
(1878),  an  Artisans'  DweUiugs  Act,  and  the 
Agricultural  Holdings  Act.    In  March,  1876, 
public  indignaation  in  England  was  violently 
-ezdted  bv  the  reports  of  atrocious  cruelties 
practised  by  the  Turks  on  the  Bulgarian  Chris- 
tians; and  the  support  given  by  the  government 
to  the  Porte  was  made  the  text  for  vigorous 
attacks  by  some  of  the  leading  Liberal  states- 
men.   In  Aug.,  1876,  Mr.  Disraeli  was  raised 
to  the  peerage  by  the  title  of  Earl  of  Beacons- 
field.    Throughout  1876  and  1877,  the  Prime 
Minister,   in   spite  of   much   opposition  in 
the  country,  and  the  withdrawn  of  two  of 
his  own  eoUeagues,  Lord  Derby  and  Lord 
^Ounarvon,  continued  to  maintain  a  guarded 
-and  even  hostile    attitude  towards  Russia; 
and  when  the  Russians  seemed  about  to  enter 
Constantinople,  the  British  fleet  was  ordered 
to  the  Dardanellea,  and  an  Indian  contingent 
was  brouffht  to  Malta.    When  a  treaty  was 
concluded  between  the  belligerents  at  San 


Stefano,  Lord  Beaconsfield  insisted  that  the 
document  should  be  submitted  to  the  great 
powers.  A  general  congress  at  Berlia. 
followed,  which  Lord  Beaconsfield  himself 
attended  as  one  of  the  representatives  of 
England,  and  in  the  summer  of  1878  the 
Eastern  Question  was  temporarily  set  at  rest 
by  the  Treaty  of  Berlin.  In  the  general 
election  of  1880  the  Liberals  were  .returned 
by  an  enormous  majority,  and  Beacons- 
field resigned.  In  the  early  weeks  of  1881 
he  was  prostrated  by  a  complication  of 
maladies,  and  succumbed,  after  a  severe 
struggle,  on  April  19th.  He  was  buried 
at  Hu^henden,  in  Buckinghamshire,  and  a 
memorial  was  voted  to  him  in  Westminster 
Abbey  by  Parliament.  Lord  Beaconsfield 
was  the  author  of  a  poem,  The  Mevolu- 
tionary  EpiCy  a  Life  of  Lord  George  Bentinek, 
sevend  political  pamphlets,  and  a  number  of 
novels,  in  which  many  of  his  ideas  and 
theories  on  politics  may  be  traced.  The  best 
known  of  tiiese  brilliant  political  romances 
are  Sybil,  Coningeby,  Tanered,  and  Btidymion, 
which  last  was  pubHshed  within  a  few  months 
of  the  writer^s  death. 

O.  BraiidM,  CharakUrhOd;  CacbeTol-Clarigny, 
Lord  BeaconBfidd  •t  ton  Tempt;  T.  P.  0'Conxx>r, 
L{f*;  ClAyden,  England  under  Lord  Btacon^Jd  ; 
Beaconsfield's  BpeeckM  and  LetUn, 

Beadle,  or  Bedell  (Old-Eng.  bydel,  from 
Anglo-Saxon,  beodan,  to  bid),  properly  means 
the  apparitor  of  a  court  who  summoned  persons 
to  appear  in  answer  to  charges  brought  against 
them.  Bedells  seem  before  the  Conquest  to 
have  occupied  a  position  on  the  juriedictions  of 
the  liberties,  and  lands  held  in  sac  and  soc, 
corresponding  to  that  of  under-bailiff.  The 
estate  of  Leominster  had,  according  to  Domes- 
day Book,  eight  propotiti^  or  reeves,  and 
eight  bedelli.  Their  privileges  were,  to  have 
a  little  land  of  their  own,  and  to  be  exempt 
from  manual  labour.  The  king^s  bedells 
were  personages  of  considerable  importance, 
and  are, mentioned  in  the  lists  of  tenants-in« 
chief  in  Bedfordshire.  After  the  Conquest 
the  office  sank  in  importance,  and  the  bedeUs 
appear  as  criers  in  the  manor  courts,  and  in 
Shakespeare*s  time  as  petty  village  function- 
aries;  in  the  forest  courts  they  made  pro- 
clamations and  executed  processes;  while 
rural  deans  employed  bedells  to  cite  clergy  to 
visitations,  whence  came  the  present  parochial 
beadles.  At  Oxford  University  there  is 
one  esquire  bedell  and  three  yeomen  bedellfly 
each  attached  to  the  faculties,  of  law, 
medicine,  and  axis ;  they  are  elected  in  con* 
vocation,  and  can  be  forced,  if  necessary,  to 
resign  at  the  end  of  the  year.  Their  duty 
consists  chiefly  in  bearing  the  maces  before 
the  Chancellor  and  Vice-Chancellor.  At  Cam- 
bridge, where  there  are  three  esquire  bedella 
and  one  yeoman  bedell,  they  are  supposed  to 
attend  professors  as  well. 

Ellis,  Introduction  to  Domeeday;  Stafuta  Univ. 
Oxonienne, 


(  HO  ) 


Bea 


Beaton^  Da-^id,  Cardinal  (b.  1494,</.  1546), 
tho  son  of  James  Beaton,  of  Balfour,  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Paris,  where 
he  became  intimate  with  the  Doke  of  Alban}", 
and  in  1519  was  appointed  ambassador  from 
Scotland  to  the  ]^nch  Court.  He  was 
employed  in  various  negotiations  at  Paris 
and  Home,  in  which  he  acquitted  himself  so 
well  that  he  was  made  a  caitlinal  by  Paul  III. 
in  1538.  On  the  death  of  his  uncle,  Arch- 
bishop James  Beaton,  in  1539,  he  succeeded 
him  as  Archbishop  of  St.  Andrews,  in  which 
capacity  he  showed  much  zeal  in  the  persecu- 
tion of  the  Pitotestants.  Three  years  later, 
on  the  death  of  James  Y.,  he  endeavoured  to 
gei  possession  of  the  in&nt  Queen  of  Scots, 
and  to  obtain  the  regency  by  means  of  a 
forged  will,  but  failed,  and  was  for  a  time 
imprisoned.  On  his  release  he  became 
Chancellor  of  Scotland  in  1546,  and  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  zeal  in  bringing  to 
the  stuke  those  Protestants  on  whom  he 
could  lay  hands.  His  cruelty  towards  the 
members  of  the  Reformed  party,  together 
with  his  French  and  Italian  sympathies, 
caused  the  cardinal  to  be  bitterly  hated  by 
the  Reformers.  A  plot  (to  which  Henry  VIII. 
and  the  English  Privy  Council  were  probably 
parties)  was  concocted  for  his  assassination. 
On  "May  29,  1546,  his  castle  of  St.  Andrews 
was  seized  by  Norman  Leslie,  the  blaster  of 
Rothes,  with  Kirkaldy  of  Grange,  and  others, 
and  he  was  murdered.  His  character  is  thus 
stated  in  the  leonographia  Scot iea  :'^**  The 
cardinal  was  by  nature  of  immoderate  ambi- 
tion; by  long  experience  he  had  acquired 
address  and  refinement,  and  insolence  grew 
upon  him  from  continual  success.  His  high 
station  in  the  Church  placed  him  in  the  way 
of  great  employments ;-  his  abilities  were 
equal  to  the  greatest  of  these,  nor  did  he 
reckon  any  of  them  to  be  above  his  merit. 
....  Ho  was  one  of  the  worst  of  men — a 
proud,  cruel,  unrelenting,  and  licentious 
tyrant." 

leonographia  SeoHea;  Tjtler,  Original  Letten; 
Knox,  History;  PiUootUe  Chron.,  i.  488;  Cook, 
Sist.  of  tht  Rtfoiinaiion  in  Scotland;  T.  H« 
Barton,  Siat,  of  Scotland. 

Beaton.  Jahbs  {d,  1539),  was  made  High 
Treasurer  of  Scotland,  1505  ;  in  1509  he  was 
appointed  to  the  archbishopric  of  Glasgow, 
and  in  1523  was  translated  to  St.  Andrews. 
He  took  part  in  the  fray  of  ''Cleanse  tho 
•Causeway  '*  (1520)  between  the  Douglas  and 
Hamilton  factions,  and  subsequently  became 
an  object  of  intense  interest  to  English  poli- 
ticians, who  sought  to  win  him  over  to  an 
Engh'sh  alliance.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
**very  crafty  and  subtle,"  and  he  certainly 
managed  to  evade  Wolse^'s  elaborate  plans 
for  getting  possession  of  his  person.  At  last, 
in  a  rash  moment,  the  archbishop  quitted  the 
castle  of  St.  Andrews,  and  was  seized  and  im- 
prisoned for  a  short  time.  He  finally  became  an 
ally  of  England  and  a  great  friena  of  Wolsey. 


As  Chancellor  of  Scotland,  he  granted  Qaeen 
Margaret  a  divorce  from  her  husband,  the 
Earl  of  Angus,  though  she  found  it  necessary 
to  obtain  a  papal  disx^ensation  as  well 

Beaton,  James,  a  nephew  of  Cardinal 
Beaton,  obtained  the  archbishopric  of  Glas- 
gow, 1552.  He  was  secretary  to  Mary  Queen 
of  Scots,  in  whose  behalf  he  pressed  on  an 
alliance  with  Spain,  1565.  tn  later  years 
he  became  Mary*s  ambassador  in  France, 
where  he  unsuccessfully  attempted  to  obtain 
aid  for  her. 

Beanclianip.    The    Family    of,    wus 
founded  in  England  at  the  Norman  Con> 
quest  by  Hugh  de  BoUo  Campo  or  Beauchamp. 
The  earldom  of  Warwick  was  conveyed  to 
the  family  by  Isabella,  sister  and  heiress  of 
William  de  Mauduit.     She  married  William 
de  Beauchamp,  Baron  of  Elmsley  {d,  1268), 
the    seventh    representative    of   the   family 
from  Hugh.     Their  son  William  was  first 
Earl  of  Warwick,  and  Guy,  the  second  earl, 
is  known  to  history  as  "  The  Black  Dog  of 
Arden."     Richard,  the   fifth   earl,  married 
the  widow  of  his  uncle,  Richard  Beauchamp, 
Earl  of  Worcester,  and  their  son  Henry  was 
created  Premier  Earl  of  England  and  Duko 
of  Warwick ;  but  he  died  without  male  issue 
in  1445,  80  that  the  dukedom  and  the  male 
line  of  this  branch  of  Beauchamps  expired. 
But  his  other  honours  passed  to  bis  daughter  - 
Anne,  and  on  her  death  at  the  age  of  six 
they  reverted  to  her  aunt  Anne,  who  mar-- 
ried  the  great  King-maker,  Richard  Neville, . 
^rl  of  Salisbury,  subsequently  created  Earl 
of  Warwick.   [Neville.]   On  tiie  death  of  her 
daughters,  Anne's  inheritance  was  restored 
to    her,    and  by  her   transferred    to   King- 
Henry  VII.    The  present  Earl  Beauchamp  is. 
descended  from  the  second  son  of  William  de 
Beauchamp,  Baron  of  Elmsley,  in  the  female 
line.    The  peerage  was  created  in  1815. 

Beanforty  The  Family  of,  was  descended  \ 
from  John  of  Gaunt  and  Catherine,  widow  of 
Sir  Hugh  Swynford.  He  married  her  in  1396, . 
but  all  their  children  were  bom  before  this  • 
marriage.  These  children  were  four  in  number : 
John,  created  Earl  of  "Somerset  and  Marquis  of 
Dorset;   Henry,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Win^ 
Chester  and  cardinal;  Thomas,  Chancellor  and 
Duke  of  Exeter ;  and  Joan,  married  to  KalpK 
Neville,  Earl  of  Westmoreland.   The  name  of 
Beaufort  which  they  bore  was  derived  from  a. 
castle  belonging  to  the  Duke  of  Lancaster  in 
Anjou.  Tliey  were  all  legitimated  by  a  statute 
passed  in  1397,  by  royal  letters  patent  and  & 
papal  decree.    Tne  letters  patent  were  con- 
firmed by  Henry  IV.,  who,  however,  introduced, 
a  restrictive  clause ''excepta  digitate  regali,*^* 
which  now  appears  as  an  interlineation  in  tlxo 
patent  roll  of  20  Richard  II.    From  JoKxi 
Beaufort,  Earl  of  Somerset,  was   descended 
Margaret,  the  mother  of  Henry  VII.,   and 
thus  arose  the  Tudor  claim  to  the  throne. 
[TuDOA.]     Charles  Somerset,  the  illeg^tima^ 


( 1^1 ) 


son  of  Heniy,  third  Duke  of  Somerset,  was 
created  Earl  of  Worcester  by  Henry  VIII. 
The  iifth  earl,  a  distinguished  partisan  of 
Charles  I.,  was  created  Marquis  of  Worcester 
in  1642.  His  grandson,  the  third  marquis, 
was  created  Duke  of  Beaufort  in  1682. 

Beaufort.  Henry,  Oa&dinal  {b.  1377, 
d.  1447),  was  Uie  natural  son  of  John  of  Gaimt 
by  Catherine  Swynf  ord.   In  1 398  he  was  made 
Bishop  of  Lincoln,  and  in  1405  translated  to 
Winchester.      In    1403    he   was    appointed 
Giancellor,  but  resigned  the  Great  Seal  on 
his  appointment  to  Winchester.    During  the 
latter  part  of  Henry  IV.'s  reign,  Beaufort 
sided  with  the.  Prince  of  Wales,  and  was 
•accused,  apparently  not   altogether  without 
reason,  of  urging  him  to  compel  his  father  to 
•abdicate   in   his   favour.     On   Henry  Y.'s 
accession  he  once  more  received  the  Great 
Seal,  which  he  retained  till  141 7,  when  he  pro- 
ceeded to  Constance  to  attend  the  Council 
which  was  endeavouring  to  heal  the  great 
•schism  in  the  Church.    Beaufort  exerted  his 
influence  to  induce  the  Council  to  elect  a 
Pope  before  proceeding  with  the  reformation 
of  the  Church.    In  gratitude  for  his  assist- 
ance,   the   new    Pope,    Martin   V.,    offered 
him  a   cardinaPs   hat,  which,  however,  tho 
king  refused  to  allow  him  to  accept.     On 
ihe  accession  of  Henry  VI.,  Beaufort  was 
appointed  one  of  the  members  of  tho  Co  un- 
til of  Kegency,  and,  in   1424,  was  for  the 
third  time  invested  with  the  office  of  Chan- 
<xllor,  which.he  held  till  1426.    Throughout 
the  whole  of  Henry  VI.*s  minority,  Bcau- 
fort*8  great  aim  was  to  counteract  the  dan- 
gerous influence  of  Gloucester,  whose  selfish 
schemes  both  at  home  and  abroad  threatened 
the  greatest  danger  to  the  State.    The  flrst 
great  quarrel  between  the  rivals  took  place 
in  1425,  when  riots  occurred  in  London,  and 
things  wore  such  a  serious  aspect  that  Bed- 
ford had  to  return  from  France  and  effect  a 
reconciliation.    In  1426  Beaufort  committed 
the  great  mistake  of  his  life  in  accepting  the 
caidmal's  bat ;  it  laid  him  open  to  suspicion, 
and  caused  him  to  be  regarded  with  distrust 
y>y  many  who  had  previously  sided  with  him. 
In  1427  he  led  a  futile  crusade  against  the 
Hussites  in  Bohemia,  and  in  1429  he  preached 
s  crusade  with  the  same  object  in  England, 
got  together  troops,  but  took  them  to  the 
ssdstance  of  the  English  in  France  instead 
of  to  Bohemia.     From  1430  to  1434  Beau- 
fort was   for   the   most  part   abroad,  and 
the  next  six  years  of  his  life  were  chiefly 
occupied  in  labouring  for  peace  with  France, 
Gloucester   being   the    leader   of    the    war 
•i  party.     One  result  of  his  efforts  was  the 
assembly  of  the  Congress  of  Arras,  which, 
however,  jhiled  to  effect  anything.    In  1440 
he  attempted  to  acconoplish  the  same  object 
^  the  release  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  who 
o^  been  a  prisoner  since  the  battle  of  Agin- 
«>art,  on  the  understanding  that  he  should 


do  his  best  to  bring  about  a  treaty.  This 
was  one  of  Beaufort'^  last  public  acts;  he 
gradually  retired  from  political  life,  and  em- 

Sloyed  his  last  years  m  the  affairs  of  his 
iocese.  In  1444  he  had  the  satisfaction  of 
seeing  a  truce  made  between  England  and 
France,  and  thus  his  policy  was  at  last  suc- 
cessful. He  died  peacefully  very  shortly 
after  his  great  rival,  Gloucester,  and  the 
legends  which  make  him  ,the  murderer  of 
the  "  Good  Duke  Humphrey,"  and  paint  the 
agonies  of  his  death-bed,  are  unsubstan- 
tiated by  the  smallest  particle  of  evidence. 
He  had  been  for  many  years,  certainly  since 
the  death  of  Bedford,  the  mainstay  of  the 
house  of  Lancaster.  **  It  must  be  remembered 
in  favour  of  Beaufort,"  says  Dr.  Stubbs, 
''that  he  guided  the  hehn  of  State  during  a 
period  in  which  tho  English  nation  tried  first 
the  great  experiment  of  self-government  with 
any  approach  to  success ;  that  he  was  merci- 
ful in  his  political  enmities,  enlightened  in 
his  foreign  policy ;  that  he  was  devotedly 
faithful  and  ready  to  sacrifice  his  wealth  and 
labour  for  the  kmg ;  that  from  the  moment 
of  his  death  everything  began  to  go  wrong, 
tiUaU  was  lost" 

The  Chronicles  of  Hon8trelet,Whsthani8tede, 
Hardyng*,  and  the  Continuator  ql  the  Croyland 
Chron.:  Stubbs,  Const.  Hid.,  voLiii. ;  M.  Creigh- 
ton,  Sttiory  o/tU  Popocy,  &c.        [F.  S.  P.J 

Beaufortf  Maroaret  (d,  1609),  was  tho 
daughter  of  John  Beaufort,  Duke  of  Somerset, 
and  great  granddaughter  of  John  of  Gaunt 
by  Catherine  Sw}Tiford.  Left  by  the  death 
01  her  father  in  the  guardianship  of  William 
de  la  Pole,  Duke  of  Suffolk,  she  was  married 
by  him  to  his  son  John  at  the  early  age  of 
nme  years.  Suffolk,  however,  was  soon 
afterwards  attainted  and  murdered  at  sea, 
and  Margaret's  marriage  with  John  de  la 
Polo  was,  as  a  consequence,  pronounced  a 
nullity.  In  1455,  when  barely  fifteen  years 
of  age,  Margaret  Beaufort  married  Edmund 
Tudor,  Earl  of  Richmond,  eldest  son  of  Sir 
Owen  Tudor,  a  "Welsh  knight,  by  Eatherine 
of  France,  widow  of  King  Henrj^  V.  This 
husband  died  in  1456,  before  her  son  Henry, 
afterwards  Henry  VII.,  was  bom,  and  she 
then,  in  1459,  married  Sir  Henry  Stafford,  a 
younger  son  of  the  Duke  of  Buckingham. 
In  1481  Margaret  was  once  more  a  widow, 
and  in  the  following  year,  1482,  she  married 
for  the  third  and  last  time,  her  husband 
being  Thomas,  second  Lord  Stanley.  By 
the  Yorkist  princes  Margaret  Beaufort  ap- 
pears to  have  been  treated  with  an  unusual 
aegree  of  leniency,  considering  the  prominent 
position  she  occupied  among  the  Lancastrians 
in  virtue  of  her  son.  Her  wealth,  -^hich 
was  great,  was  simply  transferred,  by  Richard 
III.,  from  her  own  direction  to  that  of  her 
husband.  Lord  Stanley,  whose  control  over 
its  disposal  appears  to  have  been  merely 
nominal.  She  was  the  foundress  of  St. 
John's  College,  Cambridge,  and  gave  many . 


(  H2) 


other  benefactioDB  to  the  two  universities,  and 
to  m^y  religious  houses.  The  Lady  [Margaret 
Beaufort  is  the  reputed  author  of  The 
Jliirroure  of  Golds  to  the  Soul,  adapted  from  a 
French  translation  of  the  Speculum  jiureum 
Peceatorum,  and  printed  hy  Wynkin  de  Worde; 
and  of  a  translation  of  the  Imitation  of  Chriet 
attributed  to  G-erson. 

H.  Walpole,  CaXaloqtLe  of  Boyal  ani  IfohU  Avilion, 

Beangi,  Thb  Battle  of  (1421),  was 
fou£^ht  between  the  English,  under  the  Duke 
of  Clarence,  brother  of  Henry  V.,  and  a  com- 
bined force  of  French  and  Scots,  under  the 
Dauphin  and  the  Earl  of  Buchan.  The 
English  were  completely  routed,  and  Clarence 
was  slain.  The  effect  of  this  battle  in 
strengthening  the  Dauphin's  party  in  France 
was  very  great,  and  Henry  had  to  undertake 
another  expedition  to  France  to  restore  the 
prestige  of  the  English. 

Beanlien  Abboy,  a  famous  abbey  and 
sanctuary  in  Hamp^ire,  was  foimded  by  King 
John  for  Cistercian  monks  in  1204.  There  Anne 
Neville,  widow  of  the  King-maker,  took  refuge 
after  her  husband's  defeat  and  death  at  Bamet 
in  1471 ;  and  to  Beaulieu  it  was  that  Perkin 
Warbeck  fled  in  1497,  after  the  failure  of 
his  attempts  to  seize  the  crown. 

Beaumont,  The  Families  op.  (1)  Turolf, 
descendant  of  one  of  Hollo's  comrades,  married 
the  sister  of  Gunnor,  wife  of  Duke  Richard  the 
Fearless  of  Normandy.  From  this  marriage 
descended  Robert  de  Bellomonte,  or  Beaumont, 
who  inherited  the  county  of  Meulan,  in  Nor- 
mandy, from  his  mother,  and,  following  the 
Conqueror  into  England,  obtained  there 
ninety-one  manors.  In  reward  for  the  support 
he  gave  to  Henry  I.,  he  received  the  earldom 
of  Leicester.  His  eldest  son  Waleran  suc- 
ceeded to  the  county  of  Meulan;  his  second 
son  Robert  to  the  English  earldom.  With 
the  death  of  the  fourth  earl,  Robert,  without 
issue,  1204,  the  earldom  expired.  Simon  de 
Montfort,  afterwards  leader  of  the  crusade 
against  the  Albigenses,  having  married 
Amicia,  eldest  sister  of  the  last  earl,  received 
a  grant  of  the  earldom  from  John.  (2)  Henry 
de  Beaumont,  styled  in  1307  "  consanguincus 
regis,"  and  possibly  a  descendant  of  a  natural 
daughter  of  Henry  I.,  was  summoned  to  Par- 
liament in  1309  as  a  baron.  His  descendant, 
John  Beaumont,  sixth  baron,  was  created 
viscount  1440,  being  the  first  of  that  dignity 
in  England.  His  son,  a  partisan  of  the  house 
of  Lancaster,  was  attainted  1461,  and  his  estates 
conferred  on  Lord  Hastings.  In  1485  he  was 
restored  in  blood  and  honour,  but  on  his  death 
without  male  heir  the  viscounty  became  ex- 
tinct. In  1840  the  abeyance  of  the  barony 
was  terminated  in  favour  of  Miles  Staplcton, 
a  descendant  of  the  last  viscount's  sister. 

Beaumoxit,  Henky  de  {d.  1340),  was 
the  son  of  Louis  of  Brienne,  and  grandson  of 
John  of  Brienne,  King  of  Jerusalem.     He 


was  employed  by  Edward  I.  in  Scotlanc 
became  one  of  Edward  H.'s  favourit 
visers.  In  1311  the  Ordainers  demand) 
banishment,  but  this  does  not  seem  to 
been  carried  out,  as  we  find  him  subseqi 
enjoying  the  royal  favour.  He  de 
Edward  in  1326,  and  joined  Isabell 
Mortimer,  who  confirmed  him  in  his  | 
sions,  and  gave  him  some  of  the  confi 
lands  of  the  Despensers. 

Beoket,  St.  Thomas,  Aechbish 
Can'terbury  (6. 1118,  <f.  1170),  was  the 
Gilbert  Beckot,  a  native  of  Rouen,  a  mei 
and  at  one  time  port-reeve  of  Londoi] 
mother  was  a  native  of  Caen.  Thou 
put  to  school — first  at  Merton  Prior 
then  in  London.  He  was  trained  in  ki 
exercises  in  the  household  of  Rich 
L' Aigle  at  Pevensey,  and  grew  tall  and 
His  father  lost  money,  and  Thomas 
a  clerk  in  the  office  of  Osbem  Eightpei 
kinsman,  and  there  gained  a  good  insij 
business.  He  was  introduced  into  the 
hold  of  Archbishop  Theobald,  and  too; 
orders.  As  Theooald  introduced  th< 
ing  of  canonical  jurisprudence  into  £ 
Thomas,  who  soon  became  his  fa 
devoted  himself  to  that  study.  He 
Bologna,  where  Gratian  was  lecturi 
stayed  there  a  year,  and  then  went  to  1 
On  his  return  Theobald  employed 
some  important  negotiations.  In 
prevailed  on  Pope  Eugenius  to  foi 
coronation  of  Eustace,  and  thus  pji 
way  for  the  success  of  Henry  of  Anj< 
archbishop  richly  rewarded  Becket's 
He  was  made  rector  of  8t.  Mary-le-St 
of  Otford  in  Kent,  and  prebendar>'  of  i 
and  Lincoln ;  in  1 1 54  Archdeacon  of 
bury  and  Provost  of  Beverley.  Whc 
succeeded  to  the  throne  he  made  Tl 
Chancellor.  TTie  early  years  of  t 
must  have  been  full  of  work  for 
Chancellor.  Thomas  was  zealous 
master.  When  Henry  levied  sc 
Church  lands  the  Chancellor  appi 
step,  while  his  old  patron  Theobalc 
it.  The  scant  regard  which  he  had 
siasticol  pretensions  is  proved  by 
which  he  took  in  the  suit  between  tl 
of  Chichester  and  the  Abbot  of  Batt 
de  Bello,  pp.  88—104).  Much  of  tl 
the  Chancellor  was  taken  up  wit! 
causes,  and  he  visited  some  coun 
itinerant  justice.  His  style  of  1: 
splendid,  and  many  youngnobles  wer 
in  his  household,  among  whom  was 
eldest  son,  Henry.  This  splendou 
markably  displayed  in  his  embassi 
VII.,  in  1158,  to  arrange  the  marri 
young  Henry.  In  the  expedition  t< 
the  next  year,  he  fitted  out  and  mt 
large  force  at  his  own  expense,  ai 
armour,  led  his  troops  in  person 
tinguished  himself  in  the  field. 


(143) 


In  1161  Henry  was  anxious  to  make  hia 
Chancellor  archbishop.  Thomas  was  un- 
wiUing  to  accept  the  office,  and  told  the  king 
that  it  would  cost  him  the  royal  favour.  The 
next  year*  he  was  elected  by  the  monks  of 
Christ  Church  and  by  the  sufEragan  bishops  and 
clergy  of  Canterbury.  He  was  ordained  priest, 
and  the  following  day  received  consecration. 
From  that  time  the  life  of  Thomas  was 
changed.  Till  then  his  S3rmpathie8  and  efforts 
had  been  wholly  for  the  king ;  henceforward 
they  were  devoted  to  the  Church.  The  man 
remained  the  same — impulsive,  vigorous,  ob- 
stinate, and  sensitive.  He  was  not  such  as 
would  serve  two  masters,  and  soon  resigned 
the  Chancellorship.  He  made  some  devoted 
friends,  and  already  had  many  enemies. 
Gilbert  Foliot,  Bishop  of  London,  a  strict 
ecclesiastic,  dudiked  the  appointment  of  one 
who  had  led  so  secular  a  life,  and  this  feeling 
was  probably  shared  by  many.  In  reclaiming 
the  property  of  his  see,  Thomas  made  other 
enemies,  and  seems  to  have  acted  with  im- 
politic violence.  In  1163  he  attended  the 
Council  of  Tours,  and  came  back  filled  with 
thoughts  of  the  power  of  the  Church.  He 
sooA  increased  the  feeling  of  distrust  awakened 
in  the  king's  mind  by  the  resignation  of  the 
Chancellorship,  for  he  excommunicated  one  of 
the  tenants  ox  the  crown,  contrary  to  the  rule 
laid  down  by  the  Conqueror.  He  also  opposed 
a  change  which  thet  king  wished  to  make 
with  rderence  to  the  assessment  of  a  tax, 
which  Dr.  Stabbs  has  thought  {Contt,  HULy 
i.  462)  to  have  probably  been  the  Dane- 
geld,  and  high  woros  passed  between  the  king 
and  the  archbishop.  The  same  year  (1163), 
in  a  Council  at  Westminster,  Henry  proposed 
his  plan  of  bringing  criminal  clerks  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  lay  courts.  Though  this 
change  was  necessary  for  the  welfare  of  the 
state,  it  was  naturally  offensive  to  churchmen. 
Thomas  was  not  alone  in  objecting  to  it ;  he 
was  alone  in  daring  to  withstand  it.  Henry 
complained  of  the  exactions  of  the  eccle- 
siastical courts,  and  demanded  whether  the 
bishops  could  agree  to  the  customs  of  his 
grancuather.  By  tho  advice  of  the  arch- 
bishop they  answered  that  they  would  do  so 
"  saving  their  order."  This  answer  enraged 
the  king,  and  Thomas  was  called  on  to 
surrender  the  honours  of  Eye  and  Berkhamp- 
stead.  In  Jan.,  1 164,  at  a  Coun'cil  at  Claren- 
don^ the  famous  Constitutions  were  brought 
forward  which  purported  to  be  declaratory  of 
the  ancient  customs  of  the  kingdom.  These 
Constitutions,  by  bringing  the  clergy  under 
secular  jurisdiction,  by  their  settlement  of 
the  election  and  status  of  bishops,  by  taking 
away  the  right  of  free  appeal  to  liome,  and  by 
other  provisions,  tended  to  destroy  aU  clerical 
immonities.  Thomas  was  persuaded  to  con- 
sent to  them.  After  he  had  done  so  he 
repented,  withdrew  his  consent,  and  begged 
the  Pope  to  pardon  him  for  his  weakness.  In 
October  the   same  year  the  archbishop  was 


cited  to  a  council  at  Northampton.  He  was 
not  summoned  personally,  as  was  his  right, 
but  through  the  sheriff  of  Kent,  to  answer  a 
plaint  made  against  him  by  John  the  MarshaL 
At  this  council  a  violent  attack  was  made 
upon  him,  and  he  was  commanded  to  render 
an  account  of  his  chancellorship,  though  he 
had  received  an  acquittance  on  his  resignation. 
The  bishops  did  not  stand  by  him.  Some; 
like  the  Archbishop  of  York  and  the  Bishops 
of  London  and  Chichester,  were  his  enemies ; 
others  were  afraid  of  the  king.  The  arch- 
bishop saw  that  the  king  was  determined  to 
crush  him.  He  fled,  took  ship,  and,  landing 
near  Gravelines,  found  shelter  in  the  Abbev 
of  St.  Bertin.  Flanders  was,  however,  no  sale 
place  of  refuge.  Louis,  glad  of  an  opportu- 
nity of  embarrassing  Henry,  welcomed  the 
archbishop  to  France.  Alexander  III.  was 
at  Sens,  having  been  forced  to  leave  Italy  by 
the  Emperor  Frederic.  His  fear  of  turning 
Henry  wholly  to  the  side  of  the  Emperor 
made  the  Pope  half-hearted  and  vacillating 
in  his  support  of  the  archbishop,  and  he  com- 
manded mm  to  take  no  steps  against  the 
king  for  awhile.  Henry  confiscated  the 
revenues  of  the  see,  ,and  banished  all  the 
kindred  of  the  archbishop.  His  violent 
measures  were  carried  out  with  g^reat  brutality 
by  Ranulf  de  Broc.  Thomas  found  shelter  in 
the  Cistercian  Abbey  of  Pontigny.  There  he  led 
a  life  of  ascetic  severity,  and  gave  himself  to 
the  study  of  the  Canon  Law,  which  must 
have  strengthened  his  resolution  to  defend  the 
rights  of  the  clergy.  In  1166  Alexander  was 
able  to  return  to  Home.  Freed  from  the 
papal  prohibition,  the  archbishop  at  Yezelay 
solemnly  excommunicated  his  most  violent 
enemies,  and,  with  a  voice  broken  with 
emotion,  declared  that,  unless  the  king  re* 

gnted,  he  would  excommunicate  him  also, 
return  Henry,  by  threatening  the  Cister- 
cians, compelled  them  to  cause  the  archbishop 
to  leave  Pontigny.  He  took  shelter  at  Sens. 
The  Pope  was  still  in  danger  from  Frederic, 
and  disapproved  the  Yezelay  excommuni- 
cations. In  1167  he  thwarted  the  archbishop 
by  sending  legates  to  Henry,  and  thus  sos* 
pending  his  legative  power.  The  destruction 
of  Frederic's  army  by  pestilence  did  not 
enable  the  Pope  to  act  more  firmly,  for  he 
was  forced  to  remain  in  exile.  In  1169  a 
meeting  took  place  between  Henry  and  the 
archbi^op  at  Montmirail  in  the  presence  of 
Louis.  The  archbishop  refused  to  submit  to 
the  judgment  of  the  two  kings,  except  with 
the  condition  ''saving  the  honour  of  God,** 
and  no  good  was  done.  The  same  year 
another  meeting  took  place  at  Montmartre, 
and  ended  in  failure,  for  Henry  refused  the 
archbishop  the  kiss  of  peace.  Alexander  was 
anxious  to  end  the  quarrel.  He  was  annoyed 
by  the  violence  of  the  archbishop,  and  excited 
his  indigniation  by  absolving  the  Bishops  of 
London  and  Salisbury  whom  Thomas  had  ex- 
communicated.   Henry,  in  1170,  caused  his 


9«o 


(.  w-  y 


Bed 


eldest  son  to  be  crowned  by  the  Archbishop 
of  York.  This  was  a  violation  of  the  rights 
of  Canterbury,  and  Thomas  threatened  to  lay 
the  kingdom  under  an  interdict,  which  he 
now .  had  power  from  the  Pope  to  pro- 
nounce. Louis  was  enra^^  with  H-enry,  and 
formed  a  combination  against  him.  [H^nry 
II.]  A  reconciliation  was  effected  at  Freteval, 
July  21..  Even  after  this  the  king  and  the 
archbishop  were  on  anything  but  friendly 
terms.  The  king  complained  because  Thomas 
delayed  his  return  to  England,  for  he  was 
anxious  to  get  him  out  of  France.  The  arch- 
bishop complained  of  the  ini'uries  done  to  his 
see.  Henry  still  put  off  the  kiss  of  peace. 
The  archbishop  landed  in  England  Dec.  1, 
and  was  greeted  with  delight  by  the  people. 
A  morbid  desire  for  martyrdom  had  tasen 
hold  of  his  mind.  He  came  back  with  no 
intention  of  living  in  peace  with  his  enemies; 
he  would  withstand  th^m  to  the  end,  and  lay 
down  his  life  for  the  cause  of  the  Church.  He 
sent  before  him  papal  letters  suspending  and 
excommunicating  the  bishops  who  had  taken 
part  in  the  coronation.  He  went  to  London  to 
see  his  former  pupil,  Prince  Henry,  atid  all 
the  city  was  moved  with  joy  at  his  coming. 
Young  Henry  refused  to  see  him,  and  bade 
him  return  to  his  see.  His  enemies,  and 
especially  the  family  of  De  Broc,  annoyed 
him  in  every  way  in  their  power;  and,  on 
Christmas  Day,  he  uttered  a  violent  anathema 
against  them.  When  the  king  heard  of  the 
excommunication  of  the  bishops  he  spoke  the 
well-known  hasty  words  of  anger  against  the 
archbishop.  Four  of  his  knights.  Hugh  de 
Morville,  He^inald  FitzUrse,  William  de 
Tracy,  and  Hichard  Brito,  acted  on  these 
words.  They  crossed  to  England,  took  with 
them  Hanulf  de  Broc  and  a  band  of  men,  and 
^lurdered  the  archbishop  in  Canterbury 
Cathedral,  Dec.  29,  1170.  The  Archbishop 
was  canonised  1173,  and  his  festival  was  ap- 
pointed for  the  day  of  his  martyrdom.  The 
impression  that  the  martyrdom  made  on  the 
popular  mind  was  very  deep,  and  for  three 
centuries  after  his  death  his  shrine  was  the 
favourite  place  of  pilgrimage  for  Englishmen. 

The  oontexnporary  Lives;  in  verse,  Gamier, 
Vie  <f«  Saint  Thomat,  ed.  Hippean :  in  prose, 
William  FitiStepfaen,  Herbert  of  Bosham, 
Edward  Grim,  B<^r  of  Fontignjr,  and  John  of 
Salisbury.  Dr.  Giles's  imi>erfect  edition  of  the 
Letters  of  St.  Thomas,  of  John  of  Salisbury, 
and  others.  In  Patren  EccIm.  Anglic.,  is  now  being 
superseded  by  MaUnaUfor  the  Hittory  of  Arch- 
luhop  TKomas  Beck«t,  ed.  Canon  Robertson  (Bolls 
Series).  SeetdBO  Becket:  a  Biography.  hvCaaion 
Robertson  :  and  Saint  Thomaa  of  Car^erhury,  in 
Freeman,  Sigtorieal  Estayt,  Ist  Series. 

[W.  H.] 

Beokford,  Alderman  (i.  1708,  d.  1770), 
was  an  extremely  wealthy  merchant,  owning 
large  estates  in  the  West  Indies.  Going 
through  the  regular  steps  of  municipal  dignity, 
he  became  an  alderman,  and  was  also  returned 
to  Parliament  for  the  City  of  London.  Both 
in  Parliament  and  in  the  Common  Council 


)ie-  was  a  firm  and  enthusiastic  supportei 
Jjord  Chatham.  In  1768  Beckford  bec< 
Lord  Mayor,  and  in  the  following  ] 
he  was  re-elected — an  almost  unprecedei 
honour.  AVith  the  City  authorities  the  gov 
ment  was  very  unpopular,  nor  had  it  a  fi( 
opponent  than  the  Lord  Mayor.  A  pet 
from  the  Corporation  of  London  to  the 
had  been  treated  as  unconstitutional 
unworthy  of  an  answer.  A  remonst 
was  next  sent,  to  which  the  king  r( 
with  a  dignified  rebuke'  Nevertli 
Beckford,  on  May  23rd,  laid  another  r< 
strance  before  the  king,  and,  when  the 
had  expressed  his  annoyance  and  displc 
proceeded  to  argue  with  him.  "Tl 
solence  of  Beckford,"  says  an  eye-w 
"  exceeded  all  his  or  the  City's  past  exj 
Within  a  month  he  was  dead  of  a 
which  conmion  report  said  was  caused 
excitement  of  his  interview  with  tb 
Beckford's  enormous  wealth  descendec 
son  William,  the  eccentric  author  of  T 


Bedchamber  Qnestion,  The 

1841).    On  the  resignation  of  Lord  Mc 

in  1839,  Sir  Robert  Peel  was  summ 

form  a  ministry.      On  his   mention 

cidentally  to  the  Queen  the  change 

he  thought  it  necessary  to  make  in  t 

household,   he   received  a    letter    f: 

Majesty   sajnng    that    the    removal 

ladies  of  her  bedchamber  would  be  « 

to  her  feelings.      Finding  that  Si 

would  not  give  way  on  this  jwint,  tl 

summoned  Lord  Melbourne  to  her  ai 

Morpeth's  sister  and  Lady  Normal 

the  two  ladies  to  whom  Peel  spo« 

jected.     The  desire  to  support   tl 

induced  the  WTiig  statesmen,  in  spii 

previous    humiliations,    to    return 

posts.      In   1841,   on    the    downfa 

Whig   ministr)',  the   question    ar< 

ITie  Prince  Consort,  however,  arrj 

three  great  Whig  ladies   should 

situations  which  they  held  in  the 

of   their  own  accord.       This   pru 

promise  settled  the  difficulty,  and 

assertion  of  Peel's  principle. 

Hansard.  Dtlbatef.  Srd   serlen,  xl' 
Bpeuoer  Walpole,  Hi9t.  of  Jing.  fro) 

Bede  (Bjeda)  (6.  672,  d.  73.t 
probably  at  Jarrow,  in  the  terri 
abbey  of  Wearmouth,  founded  1 
Biscop.  By  this  learned  man 
educated,  and  eventually  entered 
teryof  Jarrow,  an  offshoot  of  the 
foundation.  Hete  Bede  spent  th 
of  his  life,  dividing^  all  the 
engrossed  by  religious  teachii 
learning  and  teachin;^.  Ke 
prolific  author,  as  is  sufficient!; 
the  long  list  of  his  'writin.p^a  ^ 
pended  in  his  fifty-ninth.  yea.r 
siastical  Hittory^  and  evon  on.  1 
he  was  busy  with  literary  l&hoii 


L 


(146) 


Bad 


irork  U  tbe    Hittoria    Eeele$\aatiea    Gentis 
Anglorum^  on  which  his  fame  rests.     It  is 
-divided  into  five  books.     The  first  twenty- 
t^'o  chapters  of  the  first  book  form  only  an 
introdaction,  wherein,  after  a  short  descrip- 
tion of  Britain  and  its  ancient  inhabitants, 
>»e  hare  the  history  of  the  country,  readbdng 
irom  Julius  CsBsar  to  the  introduction  of 
"Christianity  among  the  Angles  by  Gregory's 
xuisaionaries.    From  this  point  only  (chap.  25) 
begins  the  independoit    research  of   Bcde. 
rhe  Church  history  of  the  English  is  then 
carried  down  in  tliis  book  to  the  death  of 
J^fegory  the  Great  (604).     The  second  book 
hegins  with  a  long  obituary  of  this  Pope,  so 
important  for  the  English  Church,  and  ends 
with  the  death  of  Edwin,  King  of  North- 
umbria  (633).      The  third  book  reaches  to 
^35.    Here  begins  the  fourth  book,  extending 
to  the  death  of  Cuthbert  (687),  the  famous 
aaint  already  twice  celebrated  by  Bede  him- 
self.   The  last  book  (to  the  year  731)  con- 
dudes  with  a  survey  of  the  several  sees,  and 
^the  general  state  of  Britain  in  that  year. 
Bede's  Mutort/  is  our  main  and,  indeed,  almost 
our  only  authentic  source  of  information  for 
the  centur>'  and  a  half  that  followed  the 
conversion  of  the  English  to  Christianity,  and 
I*  therefore  a  work  of  much  interest  and 
"nportance,  apart   from    its    attractions    of 
%le.     Besides    the    HUtoria    Ecclesiastiea, 
^hich   was    translated    into    Anglo-Saxon, 
Jt  is  aaid,  by  King  Alfred,  Bede  wrote  a  very 
'^^  nomber  of  minor  works,  among  which 
&fe  a  Life  of  St,    Cuthbert;    a    Chronieon, 
^  general  summary  of  history  up  to  the 
year  729;  The  Zivee  of  the  Abbott  of  Wear- 
«ott<A  tmdof  JarrotPy  and  An  Epiatle  to  Egbert, 
'^fcUuhop  of  York,  which  gives  an  interesting 
account  of  the  state  of  the  CJhurch.    All  are 
'^  considerable  historical  importance,  though 
^cy  yield  in  interest  to  tiie  EcclesiastioU 
ffirtory.    The  greater  number  of  Bede's  com- 
P^tions — said  to  have  amounted  to  nearly 
loO—were  probably  theological  treatises  or 
commentaries  on  the  Scriptures. 

.  The  best  edition  of  Bede  is  that  of  Dr.  Giles, 
in  six  vols.,  Lond.,  184S,  &c. ;  and  there  is 
a  g^ood  edition  of  the  Historical  Works  hj 
Mr.  Sterenflon  (Eng.  Hist.  Soo.),  in  two  vols.* 
Loud..  1841.  An  edition  of  the  Httt  SocUf. 
ilN^lor.  baa  been  pabliahed  by  the  Clarendon 
Press,  and  there  is  a  translation  in  Bohn's 
Afitt4|uarian  Library.  A  scholarly  edition  of 
Books  iiL  and  iv.  of  the  fliatory  has  becm  pnb- 
Uihed  by  the  Pitt  Press,  nnder  the  editorship 
of  Prof.  Mayor  and  Kr.  Lnmbv,  which  contains 
a  vast  amomit  of  l«amixig  and  research,  and  is 
enriched  with  a  translation  of  Ebert's  account 
of  Bede,  from  which  the  main  facts  staied  above 
hsTe  been  gathered.  [F.  0.  P.] 

Bedford  first  appears  in  history  in  571, 
"*hea  the  Britons  were  defeated  there  by  the 
•Saxona,  under  Cuthwulf.  The  castle  under- 
went many  sieges.  In  1138  it  was  taken  by 
.^u>g  Stephen,  and  in  1215,  during  the  war 
^wem  c^hn  and  the  barons,  it  was  captured 
'by  Falkes  de  Breaute,  who  continued  to  hold 


it  till  1224,  when  he  took  one* of  the  justices 
prisoner.  Thereupon  a  force  was  levied  against 
him ,  and  Bedford  was  besieged.  On  its  capture, 
the  castle  was  dismantled.  During  the  Great 
Rebellion  Bedford  declared  for  the  Parliament, 
but  in  1643  was  captured  by  the  Royalists. 

Badfbrdf  Pebraqb  of.  In  1415,  John, 
third  son  of  Henry  IV.,  was  created  Duke  of 
Bedford.  In  1549,  John  Russell,  Lord  High 
Steward  of  England,  who  had  received  the 
lands  of  the  Abbey  of  Wobum,  in  Bedford- 
shire, was  created  Earl  of  Bedford.  In  1694 
William  Russell,  fifth  earl,  was  created  Duke 
of  Bedford. 

Bedford,  John,Duke  of  {b.  1390,  d.  1435), 
was  the  third  son  of  Henry  IV.,  and  was 
created  Duke  of  Bedford  in  1415.  In  1416 
he  distinguished  himself  by  defeating  the 
French  fleet,  and  in  the  next  year  commanded 
an  expedition  to  Scotland  to  avenge  the 
*»Foul  Raid"  (q.v.).  During  Henry  V.'s 
absence  in  France,  Bedford  was  appointed 
Lieutenant  of  England,  and  on  his  death-bed 
Henry  Constituted  him  Regent  of  France. 
To  cement  the  Burgundian  alliance,  Bedford, 
in  1422,  married  the  sister  of  "the  Duke  of 
Burgnnd3%  imd  by  the  vig^iu:  and  ability  of 
his  administrati6n  the  English  not  only  buc« 
ceeded  in  maintaining  their  conquests  for 
several  years,  but  even  gained  ground  upon 
their  enemies.  In  1424  he  won  the  great 
victory  of  Vemeuil ;  but  the  relief  of  Orleans 
interfered  with  the  progress  of  the  English 
arms,  and  in  revenge  for  the  powerful  aid 
she  had  given  to  the  enemy,  Bedford  caused 
Joan  of  Arc  when  she  fell  into  his  hands 
to  be  burned  to  death  as  a  witch.  In 
1432  his  wife  died,  and  in  the  next  year  he 
married  Jacquetta  of  Luxemburg,  thereby 
increasing  Burgundy's  estrangement  from 
the  English.  In  home  affairs  Bedford  was 
always  ready  to  act  as  the  mediator  between 
Gloucester  and  Beaufort,  and  by  his  in- 
fluence over  the  former  was  able  to  restrain 
his  reckless  and  extravagant  disposition  to  a 
certain  degree.  The  latter  years  of  Bed- 
ford's life  were  embittered  by  the  follies  of 
Gloucester,  the  successes  of  the  French,  and 
the  defection  of  Burgundy.  With  him 
perished  all  hopes  of  English  supremacy  in 
France,  and  aU  chance  of  retaining  even 
Normandy  and  Guienne.  A  brave  soldier,  a 
skilful  general,  a  prudent  and  far-sighted 
politician,  and,  taken  altogether,  a  just  and 
merciful  governor,  Bedford  had  in  him  many 
of  the  elements  of  greatness.  "  He  was 
certainly  equal,"  says  Mr.  Stevenson,  •'*  pos- 
sibly superior,  to  Henry  the  Fifth.  But 
for  the  treacherous  friendship  of  the  Duke  of 
Burgundy,  he  would  probably  have  overrun 
France  and  expelled  Charles  the  Seventh. 
It  is  questionable  whether  the  hero  of 
Agincourt  would  have  been  able  to  effect  to 
much  as  the  hero  of  Vemeuil  did."  His. 
misfortune  was  that  he  was  the  champion  of 


Bed 


(146) 


Bed 


a  cause  which  was  radically  unjust,  and 
which  was  destined  from  the  beginning  to 
ultimate  failure.  The  greatest  -blot  on  Bed- 
ford's memory  is  his  treatment  of  Joan  of 
Arc,  which  it  is  difficult  to  palliate ;  it  was 
equally  cruel  and  impolitic.  But,  if  we 
except  this  episode,  Bedford  was  seldom  gfuilty 
either  of  hanhness  or  impolicy. 

The  Wan  of  fh§  SnglUh  in  France  (Bolls  Series), 
with  Mr.  StoTenson's  yalnable  introdaccions ; 
Jxxcd.  Brougham,  £iiylaiid  and  JSranee  under  the 
HofUM  o/Lancattmr;  Stubbs,  Cantt,  Hist.,  yol.iii. 

[F.  ^.  P.] 

Bedford,  John  Kcssbll,  Ist  Eajil  op 
(d.  1555),  was  a  gentleman  of  Dorsetshire 
attached  to  the  court  of  Henry  YIII. 
Russell  obtained  considerable  grants  out 
of  the  monastery  spoiU,  and  thus  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  wealth  of  his  family.  In 
1536  he  co-operated  energetically  with  the 
Duke  of  Suffolk  in  repressmg  the  first  seeds 
of  discontent  in  Lincolnshire.  Later  on  in  his 
career  Russell  again  distinguished  himself  by 
the  complete  suppression  of  the  revolutionary 
outbreak  of  1549  in  the  western  counties. 
Defeating  the  insurgents  in  a  pitched  battle 
at  St.  Mary's  Clyst,  he  succeeded  in  re- 
lieving the  city  of  Exeter,  which  had  just 
previously  been  hard  pressed  by  the  rebel 
forces ;  and  in  entirely  destroying  their  hopes 
in  Cornwall  and  Devonshire,  which  were  at 
once  placed  under  martial  law.  In  the 
Council,  Russell,  after  these  events,  took 
part  with  Warwick  against  Somerset,  and 
materially  contributed  to  hasten  the  Pro- 
tector's nJl.  For  his  services  on  this  occa- 
sion Russell,  who  had  been  made  a  peer  in 
1539,  was  now,  in  1550,  created,  by  North- 
umberland's influence,  Earl  of  Bedford.  On 
the  death  of  Edward  YI.  Russell  thought  it 
prudent  to  conform  to  the  Catholic  mode  of 
worship.  He  continued  accordingly  under 
Mary  to  enjoy  the  royal  favour,  and  he  was 
employed  by  her  on  several  embassies  of 
importance. 

Bedford,  Francis  Russell,  2nd  Earl  op 
{b.  1528,  d.  1585),  was  one  of  Elizabeth's  most 
trusted  counsellors  in  the  early  part  of  her 
reign.  In  1561  he  i^'as  sent  on  a  special 
embassy  to  the  Court  of  France,  and  three 
years  later  to  Scotland  in  conjunction  with 
Sir  Thomas  Randolph.  He  subsequently  com- 
manded the  Northern  army  at  Berwick,  and 
in  1566  was  sent  to  represent  Elizabeth  at 
the  baptism  of  James  YI.  In  the  course  of 
his  negotiations  in  Scotland  he  managed  to 
incur  the  displeasure  of  the  queen,  who  ac- 
cused him  of  taking  part  with  the  Scotch  lords 
against  Mar}',  whose  marriage  with  the  Duke 
of  Norfolk  he  subsequently  opposed. 

Burghley  Papen;  Froude,  Hist.  o/Entf, 

Bedford,  Francis  Russell,  4th  Earl 
OP  (rf.  1641),  was  the  only  son  of  Lord  Russell 
of  Thomhaugh,  and  on  the  death  of  his  cousin, 
the  third  earl,  in  1627,  succeeded  him  in  the 


earldom  of  Bedford.    He  was  one  of  1 

chief  promoters  of  the  great  vork  of  diaini 

the  fens  called  the  QteaX  Level,  afterwards 

his  honour,  known  as  the  Bedford  Level. 

politics  he  occupied  a  moderate  position. 

was  a  personal  friend  of  Pj-m,  but  was 

sirous  of  devising  a  modut  vivendi  betv 

king  and  Parliament.    He  was  the  hea 

the  Commiflsioners  who  negotiated  the  'It 

of  Ripon  with  the  Scots  in  1640,  and  in 

early  part  of  the  next  year,  when  Ch 

conceived  the  idea  of  forming  a  ministry 

the  more  moderate  of  the  oppoHition  les 

he  offered  Bedford  the  post  of  LordTrea 

and  practicaUy  that  of  Prime  Minister. 

scheme,  which  seemed  to  promise  suucesi 

frustrated  by  the  sudden  death  of  tho  £ 

Bedford  from  small-pox.   Clarendon  su 

his  character  thus : — "  He  was  a  wise 

and    would    have    proposed    and    a 

moderate  courses ;  but  was  not  incapa\ 

want  of  resolution,  of  being   carric* 

violent  ones  if  his  advice  was  not  sul 

to ;  and  therefore  many  who  knew  hi: 

thought  his  death  not  unseasonable,  i 

to  his  fame  as  his  fortune.'' 

Clarendon,  HitL  of  the  it«b«Uion ;   : 
Hitt.  <tf  BnJbanking  ;  Lodge,  Portrait*. 

Bedfordy  William  Russell,  Ist  1 
(A.  1614,  d,  1700),  was  the  son  of  th 
Earl  of  Bedford.  '  He  was  an  opponoi 
arbitrary  policy  of  Charles  I.  and  t^ 
and  a  moderate  supporter  of  the  Pai 
When  the  Civil  War  broke  out  he  y 
Parliamentary  standard  with  a  body 
and  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Ed^( 
he  separated  from  the  Parliament 
and  joined  the  king.  He  was  prese 
battle  of  Newbury,  on  the  Royalist 
greatly  distinguished  himself.  ¥. 
were  confiscated,  but  he  succeeded 
his  peace  with  the  Parliament  ai 
them  restored.  He  took  some  p 
Restoration,  and  was  a  prominent 
of  William  of  Oranf^  at  tho  Ke^ 
1688,  after  which  event  (in  169 
created  Duke  of  Bedford. 

BedTord,  John  Russelx.,  4t^ 
(b.  1710,  d.  1771),  succeeded  to  t> 
in  1732.    Ten  years  later  he  too 
part  against  Sir  Robert  Walpole. 
was  appointed  a  Lord   Comniiss' 
Admiralty,  and  a  member  of  the 
cil.    He  was  soon  after^rards  apf 
Lord  of   the  Admiralty.      Xtl   1 
resignation    of   Lord     CThestcrfi 
appointed  Secrefairj'  of  State  for 
Department,   but  resigned,    in. 
dismissal   of    Lord  Sand'wic'h. 
later  he  was  sent  to  Ireland  as 
nant.    In  that  office  lie  did   not 
exasperated  the  Irish  "by  aslcing; 
in-law  a  pension  on  tlie  IrisK    ^ 
His  principle  of  govemznont    ^ . 
opposition  by  donatives  :     nor 


B«a 


(147) 


liis  friends,  em>ecia]ly-  Bigby,  in  the  general 
distribution  of  Iriah  money.      In  1761   he 
resided  on  Bute's  accession  to  power.    In  the 
following  yeaf  he  went  to  Paris  as  plenipoten- 
tiary to  negotiate  for  peace.    In  the  GrenviUe 
ministry  he  became  President  of  the  Council. 
He  seems  to  have  acted  an  independent  part  in 
the  king's  closet,  and  to  have  insisted  as  firmly 
as  GrenTiUe  himself  on  the  dismissal  of  Lora 
Bate,  to  whom    he    was    now    thoroughly 
opposed.    He  was  in  advance  of  his  age  in 
the  knowledge  of  political  economy,  and  in- 
curred the  most  Ticuent  hatred  by  o|>poBing  a 
BiU  to  impose  duties  on  foreign  sUks.     In 
1765  he  was  summarily  dismissed  from  office 
along  with  Grrenville,  and,  refusing  the  over- 
tures alike  of  Lord  Chatham  and  the  Duke 
of  Grafton,  remained  for  the  rest  of  his  life 
out  of  office.     But  he  continued  to  take  an 
active  part  in  politics,  and  in  1769  proposed 
to  resuscitate  a  statute  of  Henry   VlII.  in 
order  to  dispense  with  juries  in  the  American 
Colonies.     W^pole  caUs  the  duke  '*  a  man 
of  inflexible  honesty  and  good-will  to   his 
country/'  but  says  that  '^his  manner  was 
impetuous."    To  this  unfortunate  trait  was 
pobably  due  his  almost  universal  unpopu- 
larity.    His  portrait    has    been  drawn  by 
Junius,  exaggerated  and  distorted   by   the 
rancour  of  personal  animosity. 

Bedford  Corrtap.j  Chatham  Corretp.j  Trevelyan, 
Eoriy  Hiat,  of  C.  J.  Fox  ;  Letters  o//«miw. 

Bedford  ^eral  is  the  name  given  to 
a  flat  district  in  the  east  of  England,  which 
comprises  the  Fen  country,  and  indudesparts 
of  Cambridgeshire,  ^^^orfoUc,  Suffolk,  Hunt- 
ingdonshire, Northamptonshire,  and  lincoln- 
shue.  During  the  earlier  Middle  Ages  this 
district  was  a  vast  swamp,  partly  inundated 
by  the  sea.  Attempts  were  made  to  reclaim 
it  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VI.  and  VII.,  and 
an  Act  was  passed  for  this  purpose  in  1601. 
In  1634,  Francis,  Earl  of  Bedford,  and  a 
number  of  other  landowners  of  the  eastern 
counties,  obtained  permission  from  the 
crown  to  drain  the  district  on  condition  of 
receiving  95,000  acres  of  the  reclaimed  lands 
for  themselves.  The  works,  however,  owing 
to  disagreement  with  the  crown,  and  the 
Civil  War,  were  suspended  for  some  years  till 
1649,  when  the  undei-taking  was  renewed. 
In  1664  the  company  was  incorporated  by 
rojTil  charter,  and  it  still  exists.  The  opera- 
tions of  the  original  projectors  have  been 
largely  supplemented  by  drainage  works 
ondertaken  in  more  recent  times. 


— ^^ J  J     an   Indian    word    for   queen, 

princess,  &c.,  is  generally  used  as  the  title  of 
^Tes  of  a  reigning  or  defunct  monarch,  or 
of  a  woman  regnant — e.g,^  Begum  of  Bhopal, 
Begums  of  Oude. 

Bel&ar.    [Clive,  Lord.] 

Bek,  Anthoxy  (rf.  1310),  son  of  Walter, 
Baron  of  Eresby,   accompanied  Edward  I. 


on  his  Crusade  (1271).     On  his  return  h«. 
took    orders,    and    was    made   Archdeacon 
of  Durham  in  the  year  1279,  and  bishop  in. 
1283.     In  1290  he  was  sent  by  Edward  to> 
act  in  concert  with  the  guardians  of  Scotland, 
and  with  the  advice  of  the  Estates  as  lieu- 
tenant for  Queen  Margaret  and  her  husband ; 
and  in  1294  he  was  employed  as  ambassador 
to  the  Emperor.    He  accompanied  the  king* 
in  his  expedition  to  Scotland  in  1296,  com- 
manded a  division  of  cavalr}'  at  Falkirk  in 
1298,  and  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Caer- 
laverock  in  1300.     In  the  same  year  he  be- 
came engaged  in  a  quarrel  with  the  monks  who 
constituted  the  chapter,  which  lasted  the  rest 
of  his  life.    His  &rst  quarrel  with  Edward 
was  occasioned  by  his  refusal  to  show  hia 
franchises   to   the   royal    officers,    but   thia 
difference  was  soon  compromised,  and  in  1295 
Bek  was  apx>ointed  one  of  the  g^rdians  of  the- 
counties  beyond  the  Trent.    He  obtained  the- 
empty  but  high-soimding  title  of  Patriarch 
of  Jerusalem   from    Clement  V.,  to  which 
he  added  the  title  of  '*King  of  the  Isle  of 
Man.' '   After  he  got  possession  of  the  island  by 
mortgage,  Edward  I.  compelled  him  to  hold 
it  "as  of  the  king^s  gift,'*  and  deprived  him 
of  his  palatine  rights  over  Durham;  these  were,, 
however,  restored  by  Edward  11.,  with  whom 
he  was  a  great  favourite,  and  he  enjoyed 
them  till  his  death  in  1310.    Bek  represented 
the  Baronial  party  in  the  Church,  which  saw 
in  Edward  I.'s  consolidating  and  centralising 
policy  the  overthrow  of  its  own  privileges. 

B4>¥<?aggOg,  The  Convention  of  (Oct.  3, 
1805),  was  concluded  between  Great  Britain 
and  Sweden,  in  order  to  enable  Sweden  to- 
loin  heartily  in  the  European  coalition  against 
Napoleon.  The  terms  of  the  convention, 
were  very  much  the  same  as  those  of  the  Con- 
vention of  Helsingborg,  which  had  been  con- 
cluded in  the  preceding  August,  and  consisted 
in  an  arrangement  as  to  the  subsidy  to  be  sup- 
plied by  Great  Britain.  Sweden  agreed  to-, 
employ  12,000  men  in  Pomerania,  for  whom 
England  was  to  pay  at  the  rate  of  £12  10s. 
annually  for  each  man.  Pay  for  five  montha 
was  to  be  handed  over  to  Sweden  in  advance, 
and  £50,000  was  to  be  paid  down  at  once  for 
the  purpose  of  putting  Stralsund  into  an 
efficient  state  of  defence. 

Alison,  Ht*e.  of  Europ* ;  FyiTe,  Modem  Ewrop: 

Beket,  Thomas.    [Beckbt.] 

Bela4iyse,  John,  Lord  {d.  1689J,  was  the^ 
second  son  of  Lord  Fauconberg,  ana,  like  his 
father,  took  a  prominent  part  on  the  Royalist 
side  in  the  avil  War.  He  took  part  in  the 
battles  of  Edgehill,  Newbury,  and  Naseby, 
and  the  sieges  of  Reading  and  Bristol,  and 
subsequently  was  made  Governor  of  'iork. 
He  was  wounded  several  times,  and  three- 
times  suffered  imprisonment  in  the  Tower.  He^ 
was  raised  to  the  peerage  in  1644,  and  at  the 
Restoration  was  appointed  commander  of  the- 


( .U8  •)  ^ 


M 


doTCe  in  Africa  and  governor  of  Tangiers, 
which  offices  he  held  till  1667.  In  the  reign 
-of  James  II.  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  Lords 
•of  the  Treasury. 

Belesm^i  Uohert  of,  one  of  the  Norman 
followers  of  William  the  Conqueror,  and 
eldest  son  of  Earl  lioger  of  Shrewsbury,  was 
created  Earl  of  Montgomery.  He  was  the 
leader  of  the  disaffected  barons  against  the 
Norman  kings.  In^  1077  he  joined  Robert 
■against  his  father,  in  1087  he  opposed  William 
Il.'s  accession  to  the  English  throne,  and  in 
1101  supported  Robert's  claims  against  Henry 
I.  On  this  latter  occasion  he  was  banished 
from  England,  to  the  great  joy  of  the  people, 
and  sought  refuge  in  Normandy.  In  1112  he 
was  sent  to  Henry  as  an  ambassador  by  the 
French  king,  but  Henry  served  him  as  a  rebel 
•and  kept  him  a  prisoner  till  his  death,  the 
date  of  which  is  unknown.  He  stands  out  as 
the  very  worst  example  of  the  feudal  noble. 
"  His  contemporaries,"  says  Lappenberg,  **  are 
unanimous  in  describing  him  as  one  of  the 
most  detestable  characters  known  in  history, 
to  whom  the  most  unheard-of  barbarities 
were  not  merely  acts  of  revenge,  but  an  in- 
satiable enjoyment.'*  Ordericus  Vitalis  ex- 
<'laims,  when  mentioning  his  banishment  from 
England  in  1101,  **  Rejoice,  King  Henr}%  and 
give  thanks  to  the  Lord  God,  for  you  became 
•a  freo  rulor  from  the  day  when  you  banished 
Robert  of  Belesme  from  your  realm." 

Ordericus  Vitalis,  707,  kc, ;  Freeman,  WiXliam 
Ru/iu,  i.  181,  kc.,  and  Norman  Cmujuott. 

Belfast  was  the  site  of  an  important 
Norman  castle  which  was  in  the  possession  of 
the  T)e  Burghs,  Earls  of  Ulster,  in  the  thir- 
teenth century.  In  1333,  William  de  Burgh 
was  murdered  there  by  the  rebellious  English 
of  the  Pale.  The  castle  subsequently  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  O'Ncils,  from  whom  it 
was  taken  after  the  rebellion  of  Shane  O^Neil, 
-and  forfeited  to  the  crown.  In  1604  the 
•tastle  and  district  was  granted  to  Sir  Arthur 
Chichester,  who  settled  there  numerous 
colonists  from  Devonshire.  The  castle  was 
rebuilt,  and  a  town  speedily  grew  up  roimd 
it.  In  1611  the  town  was  constituted  a 
borough,  and  beciimo  ver)**  flourishing.  In 
1637  Strafford  gave  it  certain  trading  privi- 
■leges  which  did  much  to  increase  its  pros- 
perity. The  city  has  ever  since  continued 
to  increase,  and  has  become  the  chief  manu- 
facturing and  commercial  town  in  Ireland. 

Belgte,  The,  were  the  inhabitants  of  part 
of  the  south  and  south-west  of  ancient 
Britain.  Their  districts  included  the  modem 
counties  of  Hants,  Wilts,  Dorset,  and  part  of 
Somerset.  They  were  in  all  likelihood  closely 
-connected  with  the  Continental  Belgae  and 
;  are  generally  considered  to  have  belonged  to 
^*«  the  G-allic  branch  of  the  Celtic  stock,  and  to 
have  migrated  to  Britain  from  north-eastern 
<jkiul.     It  is  probable  that  they  contained  a 


very  considerable  intermixture  of  German 
elements,  and  Mr.  Wright,  and  some  oth 
authorities,  have  maintained  that  the  Bel^ 
were,  in  fact,  a  Teutonic  tril:4,  and  w( 
comparatively  late  settlers  in  this  island. 
directly  opposite  opinion  has,  however,  be 
maintained  Dy  other  Celtic  scholars.  [Buito: 
Celts.] 

See  for  varioos  viewB,  Rb^,  Cetttc  BriU 
Elton,  Origins  of  Erig.  Bitt,;  Wright,  Tht  ( 
the  Soman,  and  ths  boxw.;  Coote,  T)m  £on 
<lf  Britain. 

Belganm,  The  District  of,  in  the  B 
bay  Presidency,  lying  to  the  north-e«is 
the  Portuguese  state  of  Goa,  was  cede( 
the  British  by  the  Peishwa  in  1817. 

Belgian  Question,  The  (1830- 

The  effect  of  the  French  Kevolution  of  , 

1830,  in  Europe,  was  to  cause  a  general 

rising  of  nationalities.  Belgium,  among  o1 

threw  off  the  yoke  of  Holland,  and  all  £i 

now  became  interested  in  the  settlcmo 

the  difficulty.   The  Dutch  government  aj 

to  Lord  Aberdeen  for  troops.    Thereup 

summoned  the    London  Conference. 

Conference  in  vain  attempted  to  solv 

question.     It  lingered  on  till  Sept.  30, 

and  then  separated,  having  effected  nc 

the  final  cause  of  separation  being  a  diff 

of  opinion  between  the  three  Northei 

the  two  Western  powers  as  to  the  cmplc 

of  force.    A  convention  was  immediate 

eluded  'between    England    and    Frar 

carrying  out  the  stipulations  of  the  ti 

November.      This  treaty  was  signed  < 

and  on  the  6th  Nov.  an  embargro  was 

all  vessels  bearing  the  Dutch  flag  in 

ports.    A  French  army  entered  lloll 

captured  Antwerp;   and  the  war  wi 

Bel^um  gained  her  independence  v 

capitulation  of  Antwerp. 

Annwd  Bigigter,  1832;    8.  Wnlpole, 
R%g,  from  1816. 

Belleiflle,  (l)  The  Battle  of,  wi 
Oct.  25, 1747,  and  resulted  in  the  dcf4 
French  by  the  English  fleet  commii 
Admiral  Hawke.  Early  in  the  day  H 
in  with  a  large  fleet  of  merchant  shi 
for  tho  West  Indies,  and  convoy  et' 
men-of-war.  Without  "waiting  for  h 
fall  into  line  of  battle,  he  vig^orousl; 
the  enemy,  and'was  rewarded  with  t 
of  seven  out  of  the  nine  nien-of-^ 
French  were  completely  defeated 
admiral  received  the  honour  of  knig 
the  exploit. — (2)  Thb  Cai»tvue 
place  during  the  Seven  Years' 
1761  (June  7),  a  fleet  under  A.dxni 
convepng  8,000  troops  under  Grcn 
son,  arrived  before  the  Boutiih.-e:i 
the  island.  The  troops,  after  l3oiT 
pulsed,  made  good  their  la.Tidin] 
Palais,  the  chief  town  of  tlie  islan 
polled  the  garrison  to  capitulato. 
was  held  till  the  close  of  tHe  Mrar 


(  149) 


Bellinffliaai,  Sir  Eowasd  (^.  1549),  was 
sent  to  Ireland  as  Lord  Deputy  by  Somerset 
in  1548,  having  previously  won  fame  for 
himself  in  -Hungary  and  at  Boulogne,  as 
well  as  in  the  lale  of  Wight,  where,  in  his 
capacity  of  governor,  he  defeated  the  French 
in  1545.  His  short  period  of  rule  in  Ireland 
was  eminently  successful,  and  was  marked 
by  strong,  wise,  and  vigorous  administration. 

Belnchistan  is  the  territory  of  the 
Khan  of  Khelat,  situated  on  the  Scinde 
frontier,  and  lying  to  the  south  of  Afghanis- 
tan, and  between  that  country  and  the  sea. 

[Khblat.] 


^  The  Treaty  op  (Aug.,  1773), 
w&a  concluded  between  Warren  Hastings  and ' 
the  Vizier  of  Oude.  Its  stipulations  were  that ' 
Hasting  should  lend  the  Vizier  an  English 
force   to  be  used  against  the  RohiUas,  and 
should  cede  the  districts  of  Corah  and  Allaha- 
bad ;  that  the  Vizier  should  give  a  donation  of  • 
forty  lacs  of  rupees,  and  a  monthly  payment  < 
of  two  lacs  for  the  services  of  the  troopd ;  and ! 
that  he  should  pay  fifty  lacs  additionally  for  j 
the  ceded  districts.    [Rohilla  War.]  j 

Benbow,  John,  Admiral  {b.  1650,  d,  1 702), 
entered  the  merchant  service  very  early  in ; 
life.      In   1680    he  was    master  of   a  ship 
which  traded  in  th,e  Mediterranean.    He  is . 
said  to  have  pickled  the  heads  of  a  crew  of  ■ 
Bailee  pirates,  which  he  threw  down  as  salt  \ 
provisions  on  the  table  of  the  Cadiz  magis-  ; 
trates.     On  his  return  James  II.  placed  him  ; 
in  command  of  a  ship  in  the  Royal  Navy.  | 
William  III.  employed  him 'in  checking  the  : 
Butch  privateers,  and   in   bombarding  the 
French  ports,  duties  which  he  carried  out  with 
courage  and  success.  In  1698  he  was  sent  with 
asquaidron  to  the  West  Indies.    There  he 
attempted  to  settle  the  disputes  which  had 
broken  out  between  the  Spanidi  and  Englisn 
settlers  owing  to  the  attempted  colonisation  . 
of  the  isthmus  of  Darien  by  the  Scotch.    On 
his  return  he  was  made  Vice- Admiral  (1700). 
He  was  sent  out  again  in  order  to  engage  the  , 
Spanish  colonies  to  disown  Philip,  the  French 
claimant  to  the  crown  of  Spain ;  or,  if  they 
refused  this,  to  seize  their   galleons.      He 
arrived  at  Barbadoee  in  1701  and  sailed  thence  | 
for  Jamaica,  where  he  heard  that  Du  Casse  '■ 
had  arrived  with  a  squadron  of  French  ships  ! 
in  order  to  crush  the  English  slave  trade.    On  i 
August  19th,  1702,  Benbow,  while  cruising  i 
off  St.  Domingo,  came  in  sight  of  Du  Casse.  ' 
He  resolved  to  attack,  but  the  captains  of  his  , 
tiiree  best  ships,  from  motives  of  personal  dis-  : 
like,  refused  to  bring  their  vessels  into  action. 
Benbow,  however,  with  his  own  ship,  fought 
the  enemy  for  four  days.  At  last  the  captains 
^addressed  a  written  remonstrance  to  him,  in 
which  they  declared  that  the  odds  were  too 
great  for  a  continuance  of  the  conflict.    Ben- 
bow, who  was  badlv  wounded,  returned  to 
Jamaica  to  die.    Berare  his  death  he  had  the 


satisfaction  of  procuring  the  condemnation  of 

two  of  his  captains,  and  the  dismissal  of  the 

third  from  the  service. 

Campbell,   Livet   qf  the  AdmiraU,   vol.    iU.;. 
Biographia  Britanniea. 

B6Xlblirb,  The  Baths  of  (June  5th, 
1646),  was  fought  between  Owen  Roe  O'Neil 
and  General  Monroe  with  the  Scottish  and 
English  troops.  O'Neil  had  his  rear  protected 
by  a  wood,  and  his  right  by  the  Blackwater. 
Monroe  had  ordered  his  brother  to  join  him 
with  a  considerable  force,  but  this  O'Neil  pre- 
vented, while  he  amused  the  Scots  by  feints, 
till  his  own  forces,  detached  for  this  purpose, 
had  rejoined  him.  Monroe  now  tried  to- 
retreat,  but  was  at  once  charged  by  the  Irish, 
his  horse  fled,  and  the  only  formidable  stand 
was  made  by  an  English  regiment  under- 
Lord  Blaney ;  when  they  had  been  cut  to- 
pieces  the  rest  of  the  Scots  fled  in  dis- 
order. Lords  Montgomery  and  Blaney,  with 
21  officers  and  150  men,  as  well  as  all  the* 
artillery  and  ammunition,  were  captured, 
Monroe  himself  escaping  with  difficulty. 
Altogether,  3,243  of  the  English  and  Scots 
fell,  while  the  victors  lost  70  killed  and  200 
wounded.  This  battle  was  the  last  great 
victory  achieved  by  an  Irish  general  on  Irish 
soil. 

Whitelocke,  MnaoriaU:  MacGeoffheffon,  Hist. 
d'Irlande,  1758. 

Bencli,  Kino's.    [Kikg's  Bexch.] 

Boncoolexiy  in  Sumatra,  was  held  by  the 
East  India  Company  as  a  trading  settlement 
from  1682  to  1824.  It  was  attacked  and  laid 
in  ruins  by  the  French  in  1760.  In  1824  it 
was  given  up  to  the  Dutch  in  exchange  for 
their  j^lalacca  settlements. 

Benedict  Biscop  was  bom  of  a  good 
Northumbrian  family,  and  was  in  the  service 
of  King  Oswy.  In  653  he  went  on  a  pilgrim- 
age to  Rome,  and  on  his  return  laboured  hard 
in  missionary  work  in  the  north  of  England. 
After  two  years  he  undertook  a  second  journey 
to  Rome,  and  subsequently  entered  the  Bene- 
dictine monastery  of  Lerins,  where  he  took  the 
tonsure,  and  remained  some  time.  He  then, 
went  to  Rome  again,  and  was  commissioned 
to  return  to  England  as  assistant  and  inter-  * 
preter  to  Archbishop  Theodoric.  On  their 
arrival  in  England,  Benedict  was  made  abbot 
of  the  monastery  of  St.  Peter's,  at  Canterburj'. 
At  the  expiration  of  two  years  he  abandoned 
this  office,  and  undertook  another  I'oumcy  to- 
Rome.  On  his  return  he  received  from 
Egfrith  of  Northumbria  a  grant  of  land  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Wear  (674).  Hero  ho 
founded  a  monastery  with  a  church  of  stone, 
and  glass  windows,  and  endowed  it  with 
numerous  books,  pictures,  and  relics,  obtained 
by  him  on  his  journeys  to  Rome.  In  682  he 
founded  a  second  monastery  at  Jarrow,  where 
Bede  spent  most  of  his  life.  By  the  impulse 
he  gave  to  monasticism  and  to  ecclesiastical 


(160) 


.art  in  England,  Benedict  did  work  of  con- 
jdderable  service  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church. 

BwiodiotiliWi,  Thb,  were  the  most 
important  of  the  monastic  orders,  founded 
529  by  St.  Benedict  of  Nursia  (480—542). 
Up  to  this  time  there  had  been  neither 
uniformity  nor  permanence  in  monastic  so- 
<2ieties.  Benedict's  work  was  that  of  organi- 
sation; instead  of  fluctuating  assemblies  of 
individuals,  there  was  to  be  a  careful  grada- 
tion of  ranks  and  duties;  and  thouffh  the 
abbot  was  bound  to  consult  the  monks,  his 
authority  was  supreme.  Moreover,  though 
the  Benedictine  rule  waa  milder  than  previous 
practices,  the  vow  was  rendered  irrevocable. 
Instead  of  devoting  themselves  entirely  to 
contemplation,  the  monks  were  to  busy 
themselves  in  manual  labour  or  in  reading. 
^Soon  most  of  the  monasteries  of  the  WcMst 
were  subject  to  the  Benedictine  rule.  There 
is  some  doubt  as  to  the  exact  date  of  the 
introduction  of  the  Benedictine  rule  into 
England.  Probably  it  was  introduced  by 
Aug^ustine,  whose  companions  were  in  all 
^  likelihood  Benedictine  monks,  but  the  first  in- 
troduction is  also  claimed  for  Benedict  Biscop, 
•and  for  Wilfrid.  The  order  is  mentioned  in  a 
charter  of  Kenred*s  to  the  monks  of  Evesham 
in  709  ;  but  Bede  has  no  reference  to  it,  nor  ia 
it  alluded  to  in  the  act  regulating  the  English 
clergy  at  Clovesho  in  747.  It  was  not  till 
the  time  of  Edgar  that  the  strict  Benedictine 
rule,  under  the  auspices  of  Ethelwold,  Dunstan, 
and  Oswald  (himself  a  Benedictine  of  Fleury), 
became  generally  prevalent  in  England,  and  a 
**Conconi  of  Rules"  was  promulgated  by 
Dunstan  for  the  guidance  of  English  monks. 
Henceforward  the  Benedictines  became  by 
far  the  richest  and  most  powerful  of  the 
.monaatic  orders  in  England.  All  the  cathedral 
convents,  except  Carlisle,  and  four  of  the 
cathedrals  instituted  by  Henry  VIII.,  namely, 
Chester,  Gloucester,  Oxfonl,  and  Peter- 
"borough,  and  all  the  English  mitred  abbeys 
except  Waltham  and  Cirencester,  belonged  to 
the  Benedictine  order.  So  important  are  they 
in  comparison  with  all  other  orders  of  monks 
in  England,  that  the  history  of  Eiijg^lish  monas- 
ticism  is  to  a  large  extent  the  history  of  the 
'English  Benedictines.  [Monasticisic.]  At 
the  time  of  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries, 
the  number  of  Benedictine  abbeys  and  cells 
was  113,  with  revenues  amounnng  to  over 
£57,000,  besides  73  Benedictine  nunneries 
with  revenues  of  nearly  £8,000. 

MabiUon.  Ann^  OrdinU  S.  BtMdieti ;  Smith 
Mid  Cheetham'8  Diet.  Chri$t.  Aniiq. ;  Dr.  Stabbe's 
Prefacje  to  Kemonalt  of  S.  Dunstan;  and  the 
first  four  vols,  of  Dugd^'g  Jfonostiom. 

Benefice  denotes  "the  right  which  a  clerk 
lias  to  enjoy  certain  ecclesiastical  revenues  on 
condition  of  discharging  certain  services." 
For  the  enjojTnent  of  a  benefice  four  things 
«re  necessary :—(!)  Ordination  em  a  nriest;  a 
deacon  or  a  layman  may  be  presented,  but  he 


must  be  ordained  prieit  before  he  can 
instituted.  (2)  Fretentation  by  the  pati 
In  theory,  a  patron,  himself  a  derk,  i 
petition  for  his  own  admiBsion;  but  the  u 
plan  is  to  make  over  the  right  to  some  o 
person  before  the  benefice  becomes  vac 
(3)  ImtitutioM  to  the  cure  of  souls  by 
bishop,  if  satisfied  of  the  sufficiency  oi 
clerk.  If  the  bishop  refuse,  the  patron  1 
remedy  bv  quare  impedit  in  the  common 
court,  and  must  show  satisfactory  reasoi 
his  refusal.  When  the  bishop  is  Id 
patron,  there  is  neither  presentation 
institution,  but  coUation.  (4)  Itidaction  1 
temporalities  by  the  archdeacon  or  a  i 
bouring  clergyman  upon  the  bishop's  ma 
The  papal  power  of  granting  dispen 
from  that  canon  of  the  Lateran  Com 
1215,  which  forbade  the  holding  o 
benefices  by  the  same  person,  was  tram 
at  the  Reformation  to  the  Archbis] 
Gmterbury.  But  the  evils  of  pluralisi 
so  great  that  by  the  Acts  1  and  2  Vict., 
and  13  and  14  Vict.,  c.  98,  it  was  forbl 
hold  two  benefices  unless  the  church 
within  three  miles  of  one  another,  i 
value  of  one  was  not  greater  than  £1 
1867, 6,403  benefices  were  in  the  patrc 
private  persons,  6,485  in  that  of  the 
public  bodies,  and  functionaries. 

Benefit    of  Clergy  was    tb 

dlu^led  by  the   clergy  to   immuni 

secular  jurisdiction  in  certain  casee 

in  which  it  might  be  urged  were 

affected  the  life  or  limbs  of  the 

with  the  single  exception  of  high  trc 

was  at  first  restricted  to  hond-fide  cl 

subsequentiy  got  extended  to  aU  ^ 

read  a  verse  in  tiie  Psalter,  know 

"neck-verse,"   ^nerally    out    of 

Psalm.    Should  it  be  declared  by  tV 

commissary  that  the  prisoner  rea<^ 

clerk,  he  was  delivered    over  to 

siastical   jurisdiction.     It  waa,   h< 

indictable  offence  at  common  law 

felon  to  read  in  order  that  he  m 

benefit  of  clerg}'.    The  abuse  of  t 

was  very  great,  and  in  the  fifteen' 

teenth  centuries  it  produced  const: 

between  the  judges  and  ordinari 

VII.,  in  1488,  restricted  it  by  de< 

it  should  not  be  allowed  more  tl 

persons  not  actually  in  orders,  ar 

Anne's  reign  the  neck- verso  'w^as  r 

quired  to  be  read.    Benefit  of  clo 

finally  abolished  till  the  reign  of 

Benefit  of  clergy  never   extend e 

tin  they  were  included  by  the  Stt 

WilL  III. 

Blackstone,  iv.,  oh.  28 ;  Sale,  Pic 
Statutes  5  Anne,  cap.  6 ;  7  am 
cap.  28. 

Benevolences,  a  xneans  of  i 

by  extorted  loans,  were  first  use 
ly.    Probably  in  earlier  tixnee  t 


( 1«1) 


'«Epectmg  and  even  asking  for  "  £ree<will  o£Per- 

iiD§^  *'  was  not  unusuail  on  the  part  of  kings. 

Bdwaid  II.  and  Kichard  II.  seem  to  have 

oade  some  use  of  thu  method  of  levying 

noney.  But  Edward  IV.  xaiaed  it  to  a  Bystem, 

■vid  by  hia  popular  nianners  was  wonder- 

My  successful  in  dealing  with  that  large 

nooiber  of  his  subjects  who  did  not  know 

^ow  to  refuse  a  king  s  request.    Such  a  method 

of  nang  ^^ersonal  pressure  was,  of  course,  un- 

institutional,  and  gave  the  king  a  dangerous 

'/*  gleans  of  raising  money  without  Parliament. 

.,y'    ynder  Bichaid  III.,  in  1484,  an  Act  of  Par- 

■u^eat  was  passed  abolishing  benevolences 

^/*new  and  ujilawful  inventions;"  but  in 

^ite  of  this,  Richard  IIL  continued  to  exact 

them.    Henry  VII.  also  revived  them,  and 

obtained  a  quasi-parliamentarv  sanction  by 

an  Act  of  1492,  which  enforced  the  payment 

of  airears   of    money,  promised  by  private 

persons  to  the  king.    It  was  oft^  argued 

seriously   that    the    law    of    Hichaxd   III., 

being  the  act  of  a  **  usurper,*'  was  not  valid. 

Henry's     Chancellor,    Ajchbishop    Morton, 

used  to  beg  for  his   master,  and  invented 

«  dilemma  which  was  known  as  "  Morton's 

iork.*'^    If    a    man   lived    handsomely   he 

told  him  that  he  clearly  had  money  to  spare ; 

if  he  lived  plainly,  that   he    was    saving 

money,  and  must   oe  rich  enough  to  help 

the  king.    Henry  VIII.,  in  1545,  appointed 

•commissioners,  who,  under  the  name  of  a  bene- 

volencOf  were  to  move  men  to  grant  to  the 

king  twenty  pence  in  the  pound  on  the  value 

of  tiieir  lands :  those  who  refused  were  to  be 

vommoned  to  answer  before  the  Privy  CounciL 

Elisabeth  at  times  solicited  loans,  but  she  was 

frugal,  and  generally  repaid  them  in  time. 

James  I.,  in  1614,  had  recourse  to  this,  amon^ 

other    schemes   for   raising    money.       The 

Council  wrote  to  the  sherifEs  requesting  them 

to  solicit    subscriptions   in   their    counties. 

Bacon  defended  the  proceeding,  saying  that 

it  asked  for  a  free  gut,  and  had  nothmg  in 

eom^rai   with    the    extortions    of    previous 

timesjT  So    many   protests,  however,  were 

made  against   this   exaction,  and  so   little 

money  was  raised  by  it,  that  it  was  not  again 

used  by  the  crown.    Even  Charles  I.,  in  his 

worst  straits,  rejected  proposals  for  reviving 

so  unpopular  a  usage. 

Stobbs,  Cofufi.  Hid.,  ill.;  HaUam,  Cond.  Htat. 

[F.  S.  P.] 

BannL  The  province  of  British  India 
which  lies  about  the  lower  portions  and  the 
deltas  of  the  Ganges  and  Brahmaputra.  It 
includes  the  provinces  of  Bengal  Proper, 
fiehar,  Onssa,  and  Chota  Nagpur,  and  has  a 
population  of  over  sixty-six  millions.  Bengal 
was  conquered  by  the  Mohanmiedans  in  the 
thirteentii  century,  and  was  subsequently  ruled 
by  3Iussulman  viceroys  appointed  by  the 
various  reigning  dynasties.  In  the  eighteenth 
century  the  Nawab  of  Bengal  was  a  deputy 
of  the  Mognl  at  Delhi.    The  first  Englii^ 


settlements  were  formed  between  the  years 
1620  and  1640.  In  1696  the  E^lish  bought 
a  small  district  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges,  on 
which  Fort  William  (Calcutta)  was  erected. 
For  many  ^ears  the  English  were  involved  in 
frequent  disputes  with  the  native  governors, 
culminating  in  Suraj-ud-Dowlah's  massacre 
of  the  Europeans  in  1756.  [Black  Holb.] 
This  was  followed  by  Clive's  great  victory 
at  Plassey,  and  some  years  of  fighting. 
rCuvB.]  In  1765  the  dewanny  of  Bengal, 
Behar,  and  Orissa,  was  ceded  to  the  East  India 
Company,  and  the  Nawab,  Meer  JafBer,  was 
pensioned  off.  A  native  dewan  was,  however, 
appointed  to  collect  the  revenues.  In  1773 
Warren  Hastings  abolished  the  double  govern- 
ment, and  placed  the  administration  directly 
in  the  hands  of  the  Company.  The  Governor- 
General  of  India  was  also  Governor  of  Bengal, 
till  1854,  when  the  offices  were  separated, 
and  Bengal  was  placed  under  a  Lieutenant- 
Governor.  In  1793  Lord  Comwallis  effected 
the  ''Permanent  Settlement,"  by  which  the 
zemitidarif  or  tax  collectors,  were  recognised 
pM  nroprietors  on  payment  of  a  land  tax  to 
^^tlTe  government;  but  the  rights  of  the 
-'cultivators  were  recognised  and  extended  by 
the  Bengal  Land  Law  of  1859. 

W.  W.  Hunter,  Oriats,  and  AmnaU  of  Mural 
Btngol ;  Stewart,  Hiat.  of  Bengal,  r-Q^  q^  g  i 

Bengal  Mutixiy  (1795— 6).  One  of  the 
chief  results  of  Lord  Comwallis's  adminis- 
tration had  been  the  abolition  of  sinecures 
and  pen^uisites  in  both  branches  of  the  service. 
The  civilians  had  been  jM)mpensated  by  in- 
creased salaries,  but  this  was  impossible  in 
the  arm^,  and  though  the  pay  was  very  high, 
it  was  disproportionate  to  that  of  the  civilians. 
Sir  John  Shore  therefore  found  he  had  to 
deal  with  a  widespread  spirit  of  mutiny. 
■Delegates  were  elected  from  each  regiment  to 
form  an  executive  board,  and  the  terms  offered 
by  it  were  that  the  Company's  regiments 
should  not  be  reduced;  that  the  king's  troops 
should  be  limited  by  law;  that  promotion 
should  go  by  seniority;  that  all  the  old 
allowances  should  be  restored.  If  this  was 
not  granted,  thev  were  prepared  to  assume 
the  government  tnemselves  by  violence.  The 
matter  was  entirely  mismanaged.  At  one 
time  obnoxious  regulations  were  issued,  which 
merely  enraged  the  mutineers ;  at  another 
ihid  greatest  concessions  were  made,  one  of 
the  ringleaders  being  promoted  to  a  confi- 
dential post  in  the  India  House.  The  arrival 
of  Lora  Wellesley  ended  this.  Seeing  a 
number  of  *  malcontent  commanders  congre- 
gated at  his  first  levief  he  peremptorily 
ordered  them  to  rejoin  their  regiments  within 
twenty-four  hours.  His  commands  were 
obeyed,  and  the  mutiny  was  at  an  end, 
quelled,  it  was  said,  by  a  glance  of  Lord 
Wellesley's  eye. 

Benninffton,  The  Battle  of  (Aug.  16tlu 
1777),  fought  during  the  American  War  of 


(  l«2  ) 


Ami 


Independence,  took  place  at  Bennington,  in 
Kew  Hampshire,  where  the  Americans  had 
stored  large  supplies.  Burgoyne  had  detached 
a  considerable  force,  under  Colonel  Baum, 
to  seize  the  magazines  at  Bennington,  and 
thence  to  march  on  to  Albany  and  join  the 
main  army  there.  Finding  the  place  stronger 
than  he  expected,  Baum  entrenched  himself,  . 
and  sent  for  reinforcements.  Greneral  Stark, , 
with  the  New  Hampshire  men,  in  vain  offered 
him  battle,  and  on  being  reinforced,  determined 
himself  to  attack.  The  movement  was  con-  , 
•ducted  with  great  skill,  and  Baum's  position 
was  secretly  surroimded  before  he  was  aware  of 
an  intended  attack.  The  entrenchments  were 
gallantly  held  until  ammunition  failed  the 
defenders,  who  then  made  a  bold  attempt  to 
cut  their  way  through  the  American  lines. 
Baum,  however,  was  shot,  ^md  the  rest  of  the 
force  laid  down  its  arms. 

BonsiXLgliOXl,  in  Oxfordshire,  near  Wal-  ' 
lingford,  although  now  a. village,  was  in  early  ' 
times  a  place  of  considerable  importance.  It 
was  one  of  the  four  towns  that  Cutha  took  from 
the  Britons  in  571 ;  and  in  775  Offa  defeated 
Cynewulf  of  Wessex  here,  and  took  the  town 
from  him. 

J.  S.  Green,  Th»  Makmg  of  England. 

Bentham,  Jerbmy  (6.  1747,  d.  1832), 
educated  at  Westminster  and  Queen's  College, 
Oxford,  was  originally  intended  for  the  bar, 
but  being  possessed  of  private  means,  he 
determined  to  devote  his  life  to  the  reforma- 
tion, rather  than  the  practice,  of  the  law, 
and  wrote  numerous  works  with  this  object. 
In  spite  of  their  unequal  value,  his  books 
remain  a  storehouse  for  the  politician  and* 
the  law  reformer.  Indeed,  tiiere  are  few 
administrative  reforms  which  have  not  been 
suggested  wholly  or  in  part  by  Bentham's 
writings.  But  his  value  does  not  only  con- 
sist in  being  a  suggester  of  reform  on  the 
details  of  legislation  and  procedure;  he  is 
also  one  of  the  fathers  of  English  juris- 
prudence. His  place  in  that  science  is  mid- 
way between  Hobbes  and  Austin.  Hobbes 
had  first  discerned  the  doctrine  that  whatever 
be  the  form  of  government  the  sovereign 
authority  is  ultimately  absolute ;  but  he  had 
deduced  from  this  the  tiieozy  of  non-resistance. 
Bentham  perceived  the  fallacy  in  this  deduc- 
tion, and  separated  clearly  the  legal  necessity 
for  obedience  from  the  political  duty  of 
resistance.  The  test  of  the  propriety  of 
political  resistance  Bentham  held  to  be 
*' Utility,"  in  the  sense  of  the  greatest 
happiness  of  the  greatest  number.  This 
maxim,  whatever  may  be 'its  value  as  the 
basis  of  a  philosophy,  furnishes  an  excellent 
rule  for  practical  action.  In  fact,  as 
•Sir  Henry  Maine  has  pointed  out,  by  thus 
making  the  good  of  the  community  take 
precedence  of  every  other  object,  Bentham 
offered  a  clear  rule  of  reform,  and  gave  a 
distinct  object  to  aim  at  in  the  pursuit  of 


improvement.  In  this  reipect  bis  influe: 
may  be  compared  with  that  of  the  jm  mt 
in  koman  law. 

Bentham's  works,  which  ue  ▼«▼  iiumei 
have  been  collected  by  his  disciple,  Bov 
(London,  1837),  who  has  prefixed  to  the  co 
tiou  a  sketcli  of  Bentham's  method.  Thoi 
bJs  writings  which  will  best  renj  perusa 
'J  7m  Fra^finent  on  OweniMut  (1776),  ia  answ 
Blackstone;  The  Book  of  FaJOaeiu,  mi  The 
on  Usury,  His  theory  of  panishments  is 
tained  in  The  PtinmpUt  of  Morolt  and  Uqit 
(published  seiMtfately  by  the  Clarendoa  P 
and  in  a  taranwation  from  the  French  of  hi 
<^ple  Dnmont,  entitled  Th«  Thtory  of  Legw 
For  criticisms  of  Bentham's  phuoeoph 
preface  to  Green  and  Grose's  edition  of  i 
and  W.  L.  CoarteaaT,  (MtMiim  on  the  Phil 
^J,a.MiU.  •     [B.R.^ 

Bentinck,  Lord  GBoaoB  (b.  1802,  rf. 

acted  for  some  time  as  secretary  to  Cai 

and  in   1828  entered  Parliament  for 

Regis.    He  was  chiefly  occupied  in  8[ 

matters  till  within  a  few  years  of  bis 

He  came  prominently  forward  in  the 

of  the  Opposition  in  1846,  after  Sir 

Peel    abandoned    the   cause  of   Pro 

Identifving  himself  with  the  Protecl 

he    qmckly   became    their    chief,    a 

them  in  the  bitter  campaign  which  i 

against  PeeL     In  this  position  he  d: 

an    energy,    determination,   and   or^ 

power    which    seemed    to    mark   \ 

for  high   distinction  as  a  political 

He,  however,  died  suddenly  from  h* 

ease,  within  three  years  of   the  tir 

he  had  first  come  prominently  be 

public. 

B.  Disraeli,  Lord  Ooorgo  Beviinck.: 
Biography  (IS61). 

Bontinclc,  Lord  Wili.iam 
d,  1839),  entered  the  army  in  1791 
attached  to  the  headquarters  of 
Suvaroff  during  the  campaign  of  17 
In  April,  1803,  he  quitted  Ex 
Governor  of  Madras,  wMch  post  h« 
Jan.,  1808.  In  August  of  that  y( 
appointed  on  the  staff  of  the  arm 
tiigal  under  Sir  Harry  Burrard. 
at  the  battle  of  Coiiiiina,  and 
appointed  minister  at  the  court 
and  Commander-in-chief  of  all  hi 
forces  in  the  island.  At  tho  1 
expedition  he  landed  in  Catalo 
and,  after  some  successes,  -wo 
at  ViUa  Franca.  In  1814  he 
repaired  to  Tuscany,  and  incited 
to  throw  off  the  French  yok« 
he  went  to  India  as  Goverr 
He  arrived  in  1828,  and  -was  c 
enter  at  once  on  the  nnpopvi" 
retrenchment,  owing  to  the  defic 
the  Burmese  War.  All  alio 
reduced,  and  an  order  ^was  i 
1828)  to  curtail  the  batta  allo^ 
stations  within  400  miles  of  C?a 
impolitic  and  uniust  order 
duced  a  mutiny,  but  -wajs  foi; 
William  by  the  Directors.      Xh 


BM 


(163) 


augmented  by  increasing  the  opium  trade, 
and  by  resuming  aU  lands  fraudulently 
alienated  from  the  state.  In  1832,  on  the 
murder  of  .the  Rajah  of  Oachar  (a  little 
province  on  the  north-east  frontier  of  Bengal), 
liOid  William  annexed  it,  in  accordance 
^th  the  general  wish  of  the  people ;  and  in 
1834  Coorg  was  also  annexed.  In  other 
respects  Lord  William  based  his  policy  on 
the  principle  of  non-intervention.  The 
aasamption  of  the  government  of  Mysore 
was,  however,  forced  upon  him  by  the  in' 
competence  of  its  ruler.  Attempts  were  also 
made  to  establish  a  connection  witii  the 
independent  states  beyond  the  Company's 
territories,  and  to  form  defensive  alliances 
with  the  Ameers  of  Scinde  and  Eunjeet 
■8ing,  of  Lahore,  with  whom  Lord  WilUam 
concluded  treaties  in  1831.  The  civil  ad- 
ministration of  Lord  Willian^  stands  high 
in  the  history  of  British  India  as  an  era  of 
progress,  llae  reform  of  the  law  courts  and 
the  laws,  tho  admission  of  native  Christians 
to  office,  the  settlement  of  the  North- West 
Provinces,  the  abolition  of  suttee  and  the 
suppression  of  the  Thugs,  the  introduction  of 
fAeajD.  communication,  and  the  encouragement 
■of  education,  serve  to  mark  the  period  of  his 
role  with  distinction.  In  1835  Lord  William 
returned  to  England.  He  was  elected  M.P. 
for  Glasgow  in  1837,  but  he  did  not  take  any 
prominent  part  in  home  politics. 

Mm,  Hitt.  oflnd.,  book  iii..  chap.  & 


{d,  1046)  was  the  son  of  TJlf,  and 
consequentlv  the  nephew  of  Gytha,  wife  of 
Earl  Godwme.  He  attached  himself  to  the 
fortunes  of  his  uncle,  and  probably  about  the 
.year  1045  received  an  earldom  which  seems 
to  have  included  the  counties  of  Hertford, 
Bedford,  Huntingdon,  and  Buckingham. 
On  the  outlawry  of  Swegen  in  1046, 
part  of  his  earldom  was  granted  to  Beom. 
On  8weffen*s  return  Beom  consented  to  in- 
tercede for  him  with  the  king,  but  Swegen, 
having  lured  him  on  board  his  ship,  murdered 
him  and  buried  his  body  at  Dartmouth.  His 
remains  were  subsequently  translated  with 
great  pomp  to  Winchester. 

Anglo-Biueon  Ckron, ;  Freeman,  Norm.  CVrnq. 

,     [Mahbattas,  Thb.] 

fengaria.  QvBEy  {d.  circ.  1230),  was 
the  daughter  ofSancho  YI.  of  Navarre,  and 
in  1191  was  married  at  Cyprus  to  Richard  I. 
^  accompanied  him  to  the  Holy  Land, 
and  it  was  owing  to  discourtesy  shown  to  her 
at  Cyprus  that  Richard  I.  attacked  and  con- 
qoerea  the  island.  After  the  death  of  her 
hosbond,  she  resided  chiefly  in  the  dower 
^ty  of  Le  ^lans,  and  compounded  with  King 
John  for  her  dower  lands  in  England,  re- 
•ceiving  in  return  a  promise  of  2,000  marks 
a  year,  which  was  very  irregularly  kept.  She 
retired  in  12S0  to  the  abbey  of  L'Espan,  to 
which  she  was  a  great  benefactress,  and  here 


she  is  supposed  to  have  died  shortly  after- 
wards. 

Berasfbrd,  William  Caril,  1st  Viscount 
{h,  1770,  d,  1854),  a  natural  son  of  the  first 
Marquis  of  Waterford,  entered  the  army 
in  1785,  and  first  saw  active  service  at  the 
siege  of  Toulon  in  1793.  In  17&9  he  went 
to  India,  and  took  command  of  a  brigade 
of  Sir  David  Baird's  army,  which  was  on 
Its  way  to  oppose  Napoleon  in  Egypt.  In 
Egv^t  he  remained  as  commandant  of  Alex- 
andria, till  its  evacuation,  when  he  returned 
home,  and  was  sent  to  Ireland.  In  1805  he 
shared  in  the  ctQi^quest  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  whence  ho  was  despatched  as  brigadier- 
general  with  a  small  forge  against  Buenos 
Ayres,  which  he  took,  only,  however,  in  turn 
to  be  comt>elled  to  surrender  to  an  overr 
whelming  lorce.  After  remaining  a  prisoner 
for  six  months,  he  managed  to  escape,  and  on 
his  return  to  England  wats  sent  in  command 
of  an  expedition  against  Madeira,  of  which, 
on  its  capture,  he  became  governor.  In  1808, 
with  the  rank  of  major-general,  he  joined  the 
British  armies  in  Portugal.  He  accompanied 
Sir  John  Moore*s  expedition,  and  rendered 
good  service,  both  on  the  retreat  and  in  the 
battle  of  Corunna.  In  the  spring  of  1809, 
he  was  appointed  martihal  and  generalissimo 
of  the  Portuguese  armies,  and  proceeded  to 
co-operate  with  the  commander-in-chief.  But 
in  May,  1811,  he  rashly  engaged  the  French 
at  Albuera,  and  by  good  fortune  rather  than 
skill  of  his  own  gained  a  victory,  which, 
however,  weakened  him  so  much  that  he  was 
unable  to  reap  any  benefits  from  it. 
[Albveka.]  In  the  campaigns  of  1812  and 
1813  he  was  second  in  command  to  Welling* 
ton,  and  was  present  at  Nivelle,  Ba^^onne, 
Orthes,  and  Toulouse  [Toulouse],  m  the 
la^  of  which  especially  he  took  a  most 
important  part.  In  1814  he  was  raised  to 
the  peerage,  and  was  immediately  charged 
with  an  important  mission  to  Brazil,  where 
he  was  delayed  just  too  long  to  allow  him 
to  be  employed  at  Waterloo.  In  the  vear 
1815  he  w&s  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
Portuguese  armies  by  the  King  of  Portugal, 
and  for  some  time  held  that  offic^,  until  he 
came  into  political  conflict  with  the  people, 
when  he  threw  up  his  apx)ointment,  and 
returned  to  England  in  1822.  Of  his  victory 
at  Albuera,  Napier  says:  "No  general  ever 
gained  so  great  a  battle  with  so  little  increase 
of  military  reputation  as  Marshal  Beresford." 
But  he  deserves  great  credit  for  the  vigour 
and  energy  he  displayed  in  the  organisation 
of  the  Portuguese  armies;  and,  in  a  subor- 
dinate position,  he  rendered  most  valuable 
service  on  many  occasions  throughout  the 
Peninsular  War. 

Kapler,    Pmtwular   War;    Clark,  JTeor^'an 
JBro, 


/lark,    Qeoraii 
[W.  R.  S.] 


Berlin,  Thb  Treaty  of  (1878),  was  con- 
eluded   between   Great    Britain,    Germany, 


(164) 


Bir 


Austria,  France,  Italy,  Raaaia,  and  Turkey,  for 
the  settlement  of  amum  in  the  East  after  the 
-war  between  Ruflsia  and  Turkey.  Its  chief 
provisions  were,  that  Bulgaria  should  be  an 
autonomous  and  tributary  principality  under 
the  suzerainty  of  the  Sultui,  to  oe  ruled  by 
a  Christian  government  and  a  prinoe  freely 
elected,  and  provisionally  administered  by  a 
Russian  commissary ;  and  that  Eastern  Rou- 
melia  should  remain  under  the  direct  political 
and  military  authority  of  the  Sultan,  under 
conditions  of  administrative  autonomy,  and 
should  have  a  Christian  govemor-^neral, 
to  be  nominated  by  the  Porte  with  the 
assent  of  the  powers.  In  the  event  of  the 
Porte  and  Greece  being  unable  to  agree  as  to 
the  rectification  of  their  frontier,  the  powers 
would  mediate.  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina 
were  to  be  occupied  and  administered  by 
Austro-Hungary.  The  independence  of 
Servia,  Roumania,  and  Montenegro  was 
recognised.  Ardahan,  Kars,  Batoum,  and 
other  portions  of  Armenia,  were  ceded  to 
Russia.  Complete  toleration,  equality,  and 
protcotion  of  all  religions  was  guaranteed  in 
Turkey.  The  plenipotentiaries  who  repre- 
sented England  in  the  Congress  held  under 
the  presidency  of  Prince  Bismarck,  which 
preceded  the  treaty,  were  the  Earl  of  Beacons- 
field  and  the  Marquis  of  Salisbury*. 

,  B6r]niida4ai,  The,  or  Somen  Islaiicbi» 

situated  in  the  west  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
were  discovered  in  1627  by  a  Spaniard  named 
Bermudas,  wl^o  gave  his  name  to  the  islands. 
They  are  about  three  hundred  in  number, 
though  about  twenty  only  are  inhabited.  In 
1609  Sir  George  Somers,  who  was  wrecked 
there  on  his  way  to  Virginia,  took  possession 
of  the  Bermudas  for  the  crown,  and  settlers 
soon  beg^n  to  arrive  from  Elnglajid.  In  1616 
a  Bermuda  Company  was  formed,  and  after  the 
Civil  War  many  Royalists  came  out  to  settle. 
The  islands  were  strongly  fortified  and  ren- 
dered almost  impregnable,  a  precaution  which 
alone  preserved  them  for  England  during  the 
American  War  of  Independence.  The  govern- 
ment,  which  has  been  representative  ever 
since  1620,  is  vested  in  a  governor,  an  execu* 
tive  council  of  nine  members  appointed  by 
the  crown,  and  a  House  of  A^embly  of 
thirty-six  members. 

S.  M.  Martin,  BritUh  Colonies ;  Coke,  Wttt 
Indiu. 

Bernard's  Case  (1868).  On  January 
14th,  1858,  a  desperate  attempt  was  made  by 
a  man  named  Orsini,  and  others,  to  murder 
the  Emperor  of  the  French,  by  throwing 
bombs  filled  with  explosives  at  him  near  the 
Opera-house  in  Paris.  The  attempt  feiiled, 
but  many  persons  were  injured  and  some 
killed.  Dr.  Simon  Bernard  was  indicted  in 
England  for  being  an  accessory  to  the  attempt 
before  the  act.  There  is  little  doubt  that 
Bernard  was  an  active  accomplice  in  the  plot. 
But  a  good  deal  of  political  feeing  had  been 


imported  into  the  matter.  The  Fk 
Foreign  Oflice  had  addramd  a  despatc 
England  on  the  subject  of  the  oonspii 
this  had  caused  great  imtation,  vhich 
increased  by  the  msulting  language  toi 
England  used  by  some  of  the  French  oi 
in  their  address  of  congiatulation  U 
Emperor  Napoleon.  It  was  felt  tha 
conviction  of  Bernard  would  be  a  ma 
subservience  on  the  part  of  England, 
triumph  for  the  unconstitutioual  gover 
of  the  French  Emperor.  The  trial  tool 
at  the  Central  Cnminal  Court  on  Api 
and  after  a  six  days*  hearing  the  jv 
turned  a  verdict  of  2fbt  Guilty. 


ly  Sir  John  BouacHisa, 
{b.  cirea  1469,  d,  1532),  the  holder  o; 
important  state  offices  during  the  fir 
of  the  reign  of  Henry  YIIL,  and  the 
the  early  writers  of  English  prose,  w 
at  Therfield  in  Hertfordshire,  and  { 
educated  at  Balliol  College,  Oxfoi 
1474  he  succeeded  to  the  title  of  hii 
father  —  John  Bourchier — who  hi 
created  Baron  Bemers  in  1455. 
Bemers  aided  in  crushing  the  rebellr 
Comishmen,  who  had  risen  againe 
YII.'s  tax-gatherers,  and  after 
with  the  army  in  France  at  the  takii 
rouenne  (1573),  he  accompanied  the 
Mary  to  Paris,  as  her  chamberlaii 
occasion  of  her  marriage  with  I> 
(1614).  In  1616  he  was  appointed  ( 
of  the  Exchequer,  and  was  sul 
English  envoy  in  Spain,  attended  H< 
at  the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Golc 
installed  in  the  office  of  Deputy  o: 
1520.  Although  in  ill-health,  and  ei 
by  debt,  he  z^ously  p^ormed  th 
the  position  until  his  death  in  153 
at  Calais  that  he  undertook  a  tra 
Froissart's  Chronieles.  Tlie  transla 
skilfully  executed  in  idiomatic  En| 
might  have  been  easily  mistaken  f  o: 
work,  and  to  its  poptdarity  has  be 
the  promotion  of  a  taate  for  histoi 
and  composition  in  England  in  t! 
century.  His  other  works  include 
of  several  French  and  Spanish  jx 
of  the  Golden  Book  of  Marcus  -4  m 
H.  Walpole,  Royal  cmd  K<»bl«  j 
The  tdiiio  pnne«p«  of  Bemers' 
nrinted  by  Pynaon  in  LfOndou. 
1583  and  1585.  After  pcuains 
editions  in  the  sixteenth  ceiiti 
.     printed  by  Mr.  Utterson  in  1812. 

Bemicia.  '[^orthttmbb.ia. 
Bertha    (Bercta),      Qi;ei 

daughter  of  Charibert,  Kiniz: 
the  wife  of  Ethelbert  of  Itc 
marriage  it  was  stipulated  that 
allowed  to  profess  ChriBtianit 
as  she  pleased.  The  little  Roi 
St.  ]^Iartin  at  Canterbury  vra.* 
her  use.    Her  influence   ^was  o 


(166) 


to  Augustine  in  hia  miarionaiy  work.     [Av- 

0U8TIMK.] 

Bade,  Hut  Bedu,,  i.,  cap.  85. 

B«rtric  (Bborhtric)  {d.  800),  King 
of  Weflsex,  succeeded  on  CynewulTs  death. 
He  married  Eadburgh,  daughter  of  Offa, 
and  is  said  to  have  met  his  death  by  drinking 
a  cup  of  poison  prepared  by  her  hands  for 
anotiber  peison.  His  reign  is  chiefly  remark- 
able for  the  banishment  of  Egbert  and  the 
first  appearance  of  the  Danes  on  the  Knglish 
coast.  Peace  was  secured  by  the  practical 
acknowledgment  on  the  part  of  Wessex  of 
the  supremacy  of  Mercia. 

An^o^Saxcn  Cknm, ;  Heniy  of  HmtiAgdon. 

Berwick  was  one  of  the  fortresses  de- 
livered to  the  English  in  1174,  as  security  for 
the  fulfilment  of  the  conditions  of  the  Treaty 
of  Falaise,  and  it  remained  in  their  hancu 
till  1189.  It  was  one  of  the  four  burghs 
(Edinburgh,  Boxburgh,  and  Stirling  being 
the  other  three)  having  a  parliament,  or 
court,  of  their  own,  and  from  its  importance 
and  wealth  was  for  centuries  a  thorn  in  the 
side  of  England.  In  March,  1296,  it  was  taken 
by  Edward  I.,  and  most  of  the  townsmen  put 
to  the  sword,  but  was  recaptured  by  Wallace 
in  September,  1297.  Having  fallen  again  into 
the  hands  of  the  English,  it  was  taken  b^ 
Bruce  in  1318,  and  held  by  the  Scots  until 
after  the  battle  of  Halidon  HiU,  1333,  when  it 
was  seized  by  Edward  IIL  From  this  time  it 
was  rarely  in  the  hands  of  the  Scots  until  it 
was  surrendered  by  Henry  VI.,  in  1461,  in 
order  to  secure  a  refuge  in  Scotland.  It  became 
again  an  English  possession  in  1482.  It  was 
made  independent  both  of  England  and  Scot- 
land in  1551.  In  1836  it  was  created  a  county 
of  itself. 

Berwick,  J  axes  Fitz-Jamxs,  Duke  op  (&. 
1670,  d.  1 734) ,  was  the  natural  son  of  James  II., 
by  Arabella  Churchill,  the  sister  of  the  Duke 
o^  Marlborough.  At  an  early  age  he  was 
lent  to  learn  the  art  of  war  under  Charles  of 
Lorraine,  and  was  present  at  the  siege  of 
Buda  in  1685.  In  1687  he  was  created  Duke 
of  Berwick.  After  the  Bevolution  of  1688, 
Berwick  fought  for  his  father  in  Ireland,  and 
was  present  at  the  battle  of  the  Bo^oie.  He 
accompanied  James  to  France,  and  served 
under  Marshal  Luxembourg  in  Flanders. 
He  was  taken  prisoner  at  Neerwinden,  but 
exchanged.  In  1696  Berwick  took  a  very 
prominent  part  in  the  unsuccessful  plot  for  a 
Jacobite  insurrection,  which  was  to  have  been 
aided  by  a  French  force ;  but  it  is  probable 
that  he  knew  little  of  the  darker  schemes  of 
some  of  the  plotters,  who  aimed  at  removing 
William  III.  by  assassination.  In  1704, 
Berwick,  whose  military  talents  were  now 
highly  esteemed,  was  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  French  army  in  Spain.  In  1705 
he  suppressed  the  Camisard  insurrection  in 
Languedoc.  In  1 706  he  was  again  sent  to  Spain, 
and  he  did  much  to  restore  the  French  cause, 


which  previously  appeared  almost  desperate. 
In  1707  he  completely  routed  the  English  and 
Imperialists  at  tne  great  battle  of  Almanza,  in 
whichhis  opponent  wasa  Frenchman,  Ruvigny, 
Marquis  of  Ghdway.  In  1709,  and  the  follow- 
ing years,  he  was  employed  in  Dauphiny,. 
and  conducted  a  skilful  defensive  campaign. 
In  1713  he  returned  to  Spain  and  captured. 
Barcelona.  In  1716  he  was  appointea  com- 
mandant of  Guienne ;  and  in  1718  he  once 
more  led  a  French  army  into  Spain,  this  time 
in  opposition  to  Philip  V.,  whom  he  had  done, 
so  much  to  place  on  the  throne.  At  the 
conclusion  of  the  interval  of  peace,  which 
terminated  in  1733,  Berwick  was  called  to 
superintend  the  operations  on  the  Rhine. 
He  was  killed  by  a  cannon-ball  at  the  siege  of 
Philipsburff.  Berwick  was  created  a  peer  of 
France  and  a  grandee  of  Spain.  One  of  his 
sons  was  created  Duke  of  Liria,  in  Spain, 
and  the  other  Duke  of  Fitz-James,  in  the 
peerage  of  France.  Berwick's  military 
talents  wore  of  a  very  high  order,  and  per- 
haps not  altogether  unworthy  of  comparison 
with  those  of  his  celebrated  uncle.  In  some 
other  respects  his  characteristics  were  not 
unlike  those  of  Marlborough.  He  had  the- 
same  coldness,  and  could  be  disturbed  neither 
b^  excitement  nor  by  danger.  His  integrity, 
piety,  and  high  sense  of  duty  were  unques- 
tioned, and  his  character  has  been  very  highly 
praised  by  Montesquieu.  BoUngbroke  called 
him  the  best  great  man  that  ever  lived. 


Berwick's  MhnoirM,  written  by  himself  down 

__1734 
repnblished  in  ~ 
Umqm  by  Monteeqnien. 


to  1716,  and  oontinoed   to  1734  br  the  Abb^ 


Hook,  were  published  in  1778,  with  an  Sloge  fl  w- 
"       "     "  [S.  J.  L.] 


Berwick,  Thb  Pacification  of  (1639), 
was  the  name  g^ven  to  the  agreement  con- 
cluded between  Charles  I.  and  five  Scotch  Com- 
missioners,  the  terms  being  that  the  Scottish 
and  the  Royalist  armies  should  be  disbanded^ 
ecclesiastical  matters  referred  to  a  free  general 
assembly,  and  civil  matters  to  a  parliament. 

Barwick.  The  Tkeaty  of  ( Januai^%  1 660), 
was  concludea  between  Queen  Elizabeth  (repre- 
sented by  the  Duke  of  Norfolk)  and  the  Lorda 
of  the  Congregation  (q.v.).  Its  object  was  the 
expulsion  of  the  French  garrisons  and  troops- 
from  Scotland,  Elizabeth  engaging  to  send 
troops  to  the  North  for  that  purpose. 

Bessboroughy  John  William  Pon- 
SONBY,  4th  Earl  of  (ft.  1781,  d.  1847),  better 
known  as  Lord  Duncannon,  entered  Parlia- 
ment for  Knaresborough  in  1805.  He  was 
an  active  member  of  the  Whig  party  for 
many  years,  and  had  a  considerable  share  in 
drafting  the  Reform  Bill.  In  1831  he  was 
made  Chief  Commissioner  of  Woods  and 
Forests,  in  1834  he  received  the  seals  of  the 
Home  Office,  and  in  1836  the  Privy  SeaL  In 
1846  the  Earl  of  Bessborough  was  appointed 
Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland  by  Lora  John 
RusselL  His  accession  was  very  popular^ 
as  he  was  a  resident  Irish  landlord,  and  had 


( 158); 


Bko 


always  displayed  a  patriotic  and  libeml 
interest  in  Irish  affairs.  His  viceroyalty  ex- 
tended over  the  period  of  the  great  famine, 
and  his  efforts  were  earnestly  du>ected  to  the 
alleviation  of  that  calamity.  He  died  in 
May,  1847,  daring  his  tenure  of  office. 

Bozley,  Nicholas  Yanszttart,  Xjord 
(fi.  1766,  a.  1851),  the  son  of  an  East  Indian 
Director,  was  educated  at  Oxford  and 
called  to  the  bar  in  1792.  In  1796  he  was 
returned  to  Parliament  for  Hastings.  In 
Februarj'',  1801j  he  was  sent  with  plenary 
powers  to  detach  the  court  of  Denmanc  from 
the  Korthem  Alliance.  Hetuming  to  England 
he  was  elected  for  Old  Sarum,  and  supported  the 
Addington  ministry,  under  which  he  held  the 
office  of  joint  Secretary  to  the  Treasury.  He 
continued  in  office  when  Pitt  again  resumed 
the  Premiership,  and,  in  1805,  was  appointed 
Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland.  This  place  he 
resigned  in  the  same  year  through  some 
difference  with  Pitt  in  regard  to  Lord 
Melville's  conduct.  In  the  ministry  of  Lord 
Orenville  he  again  became  Secrets^  to  the 
Treasury.  In  1812,  having  published  some 
letters  on  financial  questions,  he  was  appointed 
Chan  cellor  of  the  Exchequer  by  Lord  LiverpooL 
In  this  important  office  he  remained  eleven 
years,  and  on  his  resignation  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  with  the  title  of  Lord  Bexley,  and 
was  at  the  same  time  appointed  to  the  office 
of  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster,  which 
he  held  for  nine  years.  *'  Industrious  and 
plodding,"  says  Mr.  Walpole,  *'  he  had  made 
an  excellent  Secretary  to  the  Treasury  ;  hut 
he  had  neither  the  knowledge  of  finance  nor 
the  dexterity  of  debate  which  would  have 
qualified  him  for  the  post  which,  by  a 
strange  fate,  he  occupied  for  a  longer  period 
than  any  of  his  successors.'* 

MevMin  of  Lord  Liv0rpool;  Castlereaghj  Me- 
moirt  and  DeipatehtB;  Qpenoer  Walpole,  Hut.  of 
JBng.  from  2816, 

Beymaroo,  Thb  Battlb  of  (Nov.  23, 
1841),  was  one  of  the  disasters  which  befell  the 
English  during  the  first  Afghan  War.  The 
English  were  in  cantonments  near  Cabul ;  and 
on  the  14th  of  November  a  large  force  of 
Afghans,  which  had  assembled  with  cannon 
on  the  Bcjinaroo  hills,  was  dislodged  with 
6ome  difficulty  by  Brigadier  Shelton.  On 
the  22nd  they  appeared  again  at  Be^nnaroo. 
On  the  23rd  a  stoong  force  set  out  before 
daybreak  to  dislodge  them.  The  hill  was 
carried  without  difficulty,  but  thousands  of 
men  quickly  swarme^  out  of  the  city,  and  the 
English  were  overmatched,  with  only  a 
single  gun  to  answer  the  long-range  match- 
locks of  the  Afghans.  The  troops,  shot  do^'n 
like  rabbits,  pining  with  cold  and  hunger, 
lost  courage  and  refused  to  follow  their  officers. 
Finally,  the  whole  body  of  English  soldiers 
abandoned  the  field  and  took  to  flight. 
[Afohax  Wars.] 

Koye.  Afghan  War;  Abbott*  4fg)um  War. 


■  B^yrout.  The  Bombakdvint  of  (184 
A  joint  British,  AustriaiijandTorkish  squadi 
in  this  year  sailed  to  th^  coASt  of  Syria,  t 
proceeded  to  bombard  Bejiout,  a  sea-porl 
the  northern  extremity  of  the  Pachalic 
Acre,  which  was  held  by  the  troops  of 
rebellious  Pasha  of  Kgvpt,  Mehemet 
The  town  was  quickly  reduced  to  ruins. 

Bhawulporo,  or  Doodpoutra,  i 

native  state  of  the  Pnnjaab  governed  1 
prince  called  the  Bhawul  Khan,  with  Bhn 

Sore  as  his'  capital.  The  Bhawul  K) 
ominions  extended  at  one  time  acrusi 
Sutlej  to  the  Upper  Indus,  but  he  v 
tributary  of  the  Dooranee  monarch.  Ru 
Singh  demanded  the  same  tribute,  an 
failure  of  paj^ment,  seized  the  tor 
between  the  rivers.  The  Ameers  of  S 
also  took  from  the  Bhawul  Khan  a 
district  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Lower 
Thus  pressed,  ho  readily  accepted,  in 
the  protection  of  the  British,  by  wb 
dominions  were  guaranteed  against  i 
encroachments  on  the  part  of  his  pc 
neighbours. 

Bliopal  is  a  small  Indian  native 
pality  in  Malwa,  in  the  valley  of  i\ 
buddah.  In  1778  the  reigning  prii 
the  only  chief  in  Central  India  who 
any  support  to  Greneral  Groddard  in  hi 
turous  march  across  the  peninsula 
created  an  imdying  friendship  bet'sw 
Bhopal  dynasty  and  the  English,  v 
tected  Bhopal  against  the  Mahrattas. 
during  the  Mahratta  War,  Lord  Hast 
eluded  a  defensive  alliance  with  this  : 
granted  it  five  valuable  pro^Hnces  w 
been  taken  from  the  Peishwa.  Th 
state  has  long  been  governed  by  fen' 
o^  Begums,  who  have  displayed  grea 
for  administration.  The  principali 
to  be  the  best  governed  oi  the  Ind 
states.  In  the  Indian  l^Iutiny  the 
Bhopal  gave  great  assistance  to  th 
and  both  she  and  her  daughter  an 
were  created  Knights  of  the  8tar  o 

BhoiUila  "was  the    family   ni\ 
Rajahs  of  Nagpore  or  Berar.     J,^l 

Bhotan  War,   The  (1864- 

the  year  1862  a  quarrel  arose  1: 
independent  Bhotan  state  in  t 
Himalayas  and  the  Bng^lisK  goyei 
reference  to  some  frontier  te 
Assam.  Various  outraj^es  -were 
by  the  Bhotias  on  Snglish.  siibj 
1863  an  embassy  under  the  1 
Eden  was  insulted  and  ill-treato< 
declared  in  Nov.,  1864.  It  "wa 
ducted,  and  the  country  ^a^  unt 
Bhotias  struggled  desperately, 
were  compelled  to  sue  for  peace. 
ceded  the  frontier  districts  of  Asf 
the  English  agreed  to  pay  a  y* 
25«000  rupees. 


i  157) 


fill» 


Bhnrtporc.  A:n*tiTeBta;tdofItaj^ntana. 
The  town  of  fihuztpofe  has  been  twioo  be- 
sieged by  the  Engliah.  (1)  Ja  1«06,  the 
Bhurtpore  Rajah  haTing  taken  part  with  the 
Hahrattas,  General  Lain  dstermined  on  in* 
Testing  the  place.  It  waa  a  town  and  fortreaa, 
eight  miles  in  circumference,  aimoanded  by 
a  lofW  mud  wiill  of  great  thickness,  and  pro- 
tected by  numerous  bastions,  and  a  deep 
ditch  filled  with  water.'  It  was  garrisoned 
by  about  8,000  of  the  Bajali's  troops  and  thd 
remnant  of  Holkar  s  infantry.  Without  a 
sufficient  siege  train,  without  an  engineer 
officer  of  any  experience,  without  even  a 
reconnaissance,  Lake  resolved  at  once  to  carry 
the  town  by  assault.  Four  unsuccessful 
assaults  were  made,  entailing  the  loss  of  3,200 
men  in  killed  and  wounded,  and  the  British 
finally  were  compelled  to  withdraw.  This 
memorable  siege  lasted  from  Jan.  4th  to 
April  21st.  (2)  In  the  year  1826,  a  disputed 
BQocession  to  the  throne  of  Bhurtpore  occurred. 
The  expelled  prince  had  been  under  British 
protection,  and  so,  though  Lord  Amherst  was 
at  first  inclined  for  non-intervention,  Lord 
Combermere,  the  commander-in-chief,  under- 
took to  reduce  the  hitherto  impregnable 
stronghold.  Having  demanded  the  dismissal 
of  the  women  and  ciuldren,  which  was  refused, 
he  proceeded  to  bombard  the  town.  After 
two  months'  siege,  the  assault  was  g^ven,  and 
in  two  hours  the  town  was  taken ;  l£e  fortress 
was  then  razed  to  the  ground,  and  the  rightful 
prince  restored. 

Bhye,  in  Hindustani,  signifies  "lady,'' 
and  was  affixed  to  the  names  of  all  Mahratta 
ladies  of  distinction'^.^.,  Tara3hye,  the  wife 
of  the  first  Holkar ;  TooUye  Bhye,  the  cele- 
brated concubine  of  Jeewunt  Bao  Holkar,  &c. 

BiUey  English  Tkanslatioks  ov  thb. 
In  the  early  times  of  English  Church  history 
tianalationfl  of  portions  of  the  Scriptures 
were  undertaken  for  the  use  of  the  less 
learned  priests.  Bishop  Aldhelm,  of  Sherborne 
(who  died  in  709),  is  said  to  have  translated 
the  Psalter.  Bede  translated  the  Gospel 
of  St.  John,  and  finished  the  work  on  his 
death-bed  in  735.  King  Alfred  encouraged, 
if  he  did  not  actually  undertake,  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Grospels,  which  was  current  in 
the  tenth,  century-.  Towards  the  end  of  that 
century,  a  Benedictine  scholar,  Mlhio  (who 
died  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1005), 
translated  parts  of  the  Books  of  Moses, 
together  with  Joshua,  Judges,  Kings,  Esther, 
Job,  Maccabees,  and  JudiUi.  After  the 
Norman  Conquest,  the  early  form  of  the 
Eoglish  language  gradually  altered,  and  these 
tnmslations  became  obsolete.  In  the  middle 
of  the  tlurteenth  century  a  version  of  the 
whole  Bible  in  Norman-French  was  ctirrent 
amongst  the  nobles.  In  the  iourteenth 
century,  about  1325,  two  translations  of  the 
Psalms  into  English  appeared  almost  at  the 
■ame  time.    Qne  waa  by  William  of  Shore- 


habi,  a  Kentish  priest ;  the  pfher  by  Robert 
RollO)  who  is  known  as  the  Hermit  of  Ham- 
pole.  The  end  of*  the  fourteenth  century 
saw  the  first  complete  version  of  the  Bible 
into  English,  a  work  directed  by  John 
Wyclif.  Besides  being,  a  philosopher  and 
theologian,  Wyclif  was  also  a  fervent  and 
dOigent  pastor.  He  was  struck  by  tne 
popular  ignorance  of  the  Bible,  and  resolved 
to  remedy  it.  He  himself  undertook  the 
New  Testament,  and  his  friend  and  follower, 
Nicolas  of  Hereford,  began  the  translation  of 
the  Old  Testament.  Nicolas  advanced  in 
his  work  as  far  as  the  Book  of  Baruch,  when 
he  was  called  to  account  for  a  sermon  which 
he  had  preached  at  Oxford.    Wyclif,  most 

frobably,  completed  the  unfinisned  work. 
t  would  seem  that  this  translation  was  done 
by  the  end  of  1382,  and  was  rapidly  dissemi- 
nated among  the  people  by  itinerant  preachers. 
The  traiiQ^tion  was  made  from  the  Latin 
version  of  St.  Jerome,  known  as  the  Vulgate. 
There  was  a  great  difiPerence  in  style  between 
the  work  of  tiie  two  translators.  Nicolas  of 
Hereford  gave  a  literal  rendering  of  the 
Latin  in  a  stiff  and  bald  manner.  Wyclif 
was  less  a  slave  to  the  original,  and  showed  & 
power  of  forcible  and  idiomatic  writing  which 
sets  his  translation  as  the  highest  point  in 
the  development  of  Middle  English  prose. 
No  sooner  was  the  work  done  &an  Wyclif 
was  aware  that  it  needed  revision.  Thia 
task  he  at  once  began,  and  it  was  carried  on 
after  his  death  by  his  follower,  John  Purvey, 
who  finished  the  revision  in  1388,  and  thereby 
gave  greater  uniformity  and  precision  to  the 
work.  The  circulation  of  the  Wyclifite 
versions  in  manuscript  amongst  the  people 
did  much  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  doctrinal 
changes  which  the  infiuence  of  the  German 
reformers  introduced  amongst  a  growing 
party  in  the  English  Church.  But  Wyclif 's 
translation  existed  only  in  manuscript,  and 
the  printing-press  had  begun  to  work  its 
change  in  the  spread  of  literature.  A  printed 
Bible  was  necessary,  and  this  work  waa 
undertaken  by  a  Cambridge,  scholar,  William 
Tyndale.  He  did  not  adopt  Wyclif *8  version, 
because  its  language  was  by  this  time  anti- 
quated, and  it  was  a  translation  of  the  Vul- 
gate, whereas  the  knowledge  of  the  Greek 
text  had  in  his  day  made  considerable  pro- 
gress amongst  learned  men.  Tyndale  trans- 
lated the  New  Testament  from  the  Greek 
text  of  Erasmus,  but  was  obliged  to  withdraw 
to  the  Continent  for  the  purpose  of  printing 
it.  In  1526  this  translation,  which  was 
printed  at  Worms  in  1525,  was  secretly 
mtroduced  into  England,  and  was  largely 
circulated,  though  efforts  were  made  by  the 
bishops  to  seize  the  copies  and  commit  them 
to  the  fiames.  Tjv'ndale  next  began  the 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  pub- 
lished, in  1530,  an  English  version  of  the 
Pentateuch.  He  was  continuing  his  labours 
when,  in  1535,  he  was  imprisoned  at  Antwerp, 


Bib 


(  158) 


and  was  put  to  death  aa  a  heretic  in  the 
following  year  by  the  order  of  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.    At  his  death  his  translation  had 
advanced  as  far  as  the  end  of  the  Books  of 
Chronicles.     His  work  was  roTised  by  his 
frioDd  and  fellow-labourer,  John  Rogers,  and 
its  publication,  under  the  name  of  Thomas 
Matthew  (probably  a  wealthy  merchant  who 
found  the  funds  for  the  undertaking),  was 
^egun   secretly    in   Antwerp.      Meanwhile, 
another  English  translation  of  the  Bible  was 
in  progress  at  the  hands  of  Miles  CoTordale, 
who  was  favoured  by  CromweU.    This  trans- 
lation was  not  made  from  the  original,  but 
was  the  result  of  a  comparison  of  the  Vulgate 
■and  the  German  translations.    It  was  pub* 
lished  secretly  (probably  at  Zurich)  in  1535, 
and  dedicated  to  Henry  VIII.,  to  whom  it 
was  presented  by  Cranmer  and  Cromwell. 
TyncUle's  version,  as  edited  by  Rogers,  was 
completed  from  Coverdale's  translaSion.     It 
was  published  by  Grafton,  an  English  printer, 
in  1537,  and  received   the   king^s   licence. 
The  royal  sanction  given  to  this  translation 
marked  the  final  victory  of  the  party  which 
was  in  favour  of  doctrinal  reform.      From 
this  time  the  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures 
was  no  longer  regarded  as  dangerous  for  the 
people,  but  was  expressly  sanctioned.    The 
circulation  of  translations  of  the  Scriptures 
was  eagerly  promoted.   In  1539  was  published 
at  London  an  edition  of  Matthew's  Bible, 
slightly  revised  by  R.  Tavemer.    In  1540  a 
considerable    revision    of   this    version  was 
made  under  Cranmer's  direction,  and  Cran- 
mer's  Bible,  known  also  as  the  Great  Bible, 
was   the    first  ''appointed   to   be    read   in 
churches*'  b^  royal  command.     In  1542  a 
reacrtion  set  in.    The  Roman  party  objected 
to  Cranmer*s  Bible,  and  endeavoured  to  obtain 
A  revision  in  their  own  favour.    Henry  VIII., 
by  Act  of  Parliament,  forbade  the  perusal  of 
the  New  Testament  in  English  to  women, 
labourers,  and  tmeducated  persons.    During 
the  reigns  of  Edward  YI.  and  Mary  nothing 
:more  was  done  in  the  way  of  translation. 
But  at  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Eliza- 
l)eth  appeared  a  new  version,  known  as  the 
Oenevan  Bible,  because  it  was  the  work  of 
English  exiles  at  Greneva,  where  it  was  first 
published  in  1560.    Chief  among  the  trans- 
lators   were    Goodman,   Whittingham,    and 
Knox.     It  was  translated  from  me  Hebrew 
and  the  Greek,  but,  as  was  to  be  expected, 
betrayed  leanings  towards  the  theology  of 
Calvin.    In  consequence  of  the  existence  of 
"these  various  translations,  Archbishop  Parker 
thought  it  desirable  to  establish  a  uniform 
4ind  amended  edition.    He  accordingly  dis- 
tributed the  various  books  of  the  Bible,  as 
"they  stood  in  Cranmer's  edition,  amongst  the 
bishops  for  revision,  desiring  them  not  to 
•change  the  text  save  where  it  varied  mani- 
festly from  the  Hebrew  or  Greek  original. 
The  result  of  two  years  of  revision  was  the 
publication,  in  1568,  of  the  Bishops'  Bible. 


The  Convocation  of  1571  ordered  that 
Church  officers  diould  provide  copies  for 
in  their  churches.  Finally,  the  Eng 
Bible  assumed  its  present  form  in  the  r 
of  James  I.  For  tbe  purpose  of  securii 
complete  revision,  forty-seven  of  the  : 
learned  men  in  Uie  Idngdom  were  seh 
for  the  task.  They  divided  themselves 
three  companies,  wnich  met  at  Westmii 
Oxford,  and  Cambridge.  Tventy-five  u 
took  the  Old  Testament,  fifteen  the 
Testament,  and  seven  the  Apocrypha. 
worked  under  rules  laid  down  by  the 
for  their  guidance.  They  were  bidd 
take  as  their  basis  the  Bishops'  Bibl< 
depart  from  it  only  when  necessary. 
work  done  by  the  separate  committe< 
afterwards  supervised  and  reduced  to 
larity  by  a  committee  of  six  persons. 
three  years'  labour  the  version  known 
Authorised  Version  was  produced, 
doubt,  however,  exists  as  to  the  nature 
authorisation.  It  bears  on  its  title-p 
words  **  appointed  to  be  read  in  chuj 
but  there  exists  no  record  of  any  i 
tative  or  exclusive  authorisation.  Q 
either  by  royal  authority  or  by 
selection,  the  version  of  1611  has  oi 
predecessors,  and  for  two  centuries  ai 
has  been  exclusively  used  in  Engls 
1870  the  conviction  that  increased  ki 
both  of  the  text  and  of  the  languaf 
original  required  an  alteration  of  tb 
rised  Version,  found  expression  in 
vocation  of  the  Province  of  Ca 
Two  companies  for  the  revisior 
Authorised  Version  were  appointee 
the  Old  Testament,  the  other  for 
The  members  were  chosen  fron 
scholars  of  various  Protestant  dcno 
and  committees  were  formed  in  A 
the  purpose  of  acting  with  th 
revisers.  Following  previous  pre 
object  of  the  revisers  was  the  revi 
Authorised  Version  with  as  few 
was  consistent  with  faithfulness, 
vised  version  of  the  New  Tesi 
published  early  in  1880,  of  the  Olc 
m  May,  1886. 

Anderson,  AnnaU  <^  ths  SnolisK  I 
Eid.  0/  EditioM  of  the  JEngUah  B 
and  Forshall,  TFycli/U«  Tcrsion*. 

Bidassoa,  Thb  Passaob  of 

1813),  by  the  English  in  the  Pen 
was  a  well-planned  surprise  of  s 
strong  position.  The  French  hel* 
of  a  lofty  mountain  gproup — th 
Commissari,  and  the  B&yonettc — 
also  strengthened  their  positioi 
works.  Wellington,  "wrth.  gre 
cealed  the  real  point  of  liis  attac 
in  the  early  morning  of  tlie  7tl 
of  attack  forded  the  river  ^with 
that  the  French  had  not  eve: 
before  the  troops  formed  up  on 
One  after  another    tlie     thre^i 


Big 


(  159  ) 


BU 


Bayonette,  Commissari,  and  Puerto  de  Vera — 

were   saccesaively  carried;    but  Clausel  fell 

back  on  the  Rhune,  the  strongest  of  all,  and 

held  it  during  the  night.    On  the  next  day, 

afraid  of    being  cut  off,  he  retreated,  and 

concentrated  his  forces  on  the  ridge  behind 

Sarre.     The  loss  of  the  allies  was  1,600,  that 

of  the  French  200  less;   but  many  of  the 

reported  losses  among  the  former  were  really 

stragglers,  who  were  becoming  more  numerous 

every  day. 

Napier,  Peninsular  War;  Clinton,  PmituuZcM' 
War, 

Bigody  Family  of.  Roger  Bigod,  a  poor 
Norman  knight,  entered  England  with  Wil- 
liam the  Conqueror,  and  in  1075  received  a 
grant  of  a  large  part  of  the  confiscated  lands  of 
Ralph  of  Wader,  Earl  of  East  Anglia.  His 
elder  son  William  was  drowned  in  the  WhitA 
Ship,  1120;  his  younger,  Hugh,  obtained  the 
earldom  of  Norfolk  firom  Stephen  (date  uncer- 
tain), was  confirmed  in  it  by  Henry  II.,  and 
took  part  in  the  revolt  of  1 174.  His  son  Roger, 
second  earl  and  godson  (afterwards  third 
earl),  was  among  the  twenty-five  executors 
of  Magna  Charta.  Hugh,  third  earl,  married 
^laud,  eldest  co-heiress  of  William  Marshall, 
Earl  of  Pembroke,  and  had  two  sons — Roger, 
fourth  earl,  who  inherited  the  Marshalship  of 
England  through  his  mother,  and  died  with- 
out issue;  and  Hugh,  who  was  appointed 
Justiciar  by  the  Barons  in  1258,  and  whose 
son  Roger  succeeded  his  uncle  in  the  earldom 
in  1270.  It  was  this  Bigod  who  helped 
to  secure  the  Confirmation  of  the  Charters. 
He  surrendered  his  earldom  and  estates,  in 
1302,  to  the  king,  and  received  them  back  for 
life  only ;  and  though  he  left  a  brother,  upon 
his  death  in  ISb^  the  earldom  became  ex- 
tinct in  the  Bigod  family. 

Billeldli^  soldiers  in  private  houses  had  be- 
come such  an  oppressive  burden  under  Charles 
I.  that  one  of  the  clauses  in  the  Petition  of 
Eight  IB  expressly  directed  against  the  practice 
of  quartering  soldiers  or  mariners  on  private 
individuals  against  their  will.  The  practice, 
however,  still  continued  until  an  Act  passed 
in  1681  provided  that  "  no  officer,  military  or 
ciril,  or  other  persons,  shall  quarter  or  billet 
any  soldier  upon  any  inhabitant  of  the  realm 
of  any  deg^ree,  quality,  or  profession  without 
his  consent.*'  This  Act  is  suspended  annually 
by  the  Mutiny  Act,  which  allows  soldiers  to 
be  billeted  on  innkeepers  and  victuallers. 

Bills,  Paruaxentart,  are  either  public, 
dealing  with  matters  of  public  policy,  or 
private,  being  such  as  concern  personal  or 
loail  interests.  The  system  by  which  legis- 
lation was  founded  on  petition  made  it  pos- 
sible to  alter  the  terms  of  the  petition  so  that 
the  statute  should  not  really  answer  to  the 
request,  and  even  to  found  a  statute  on  a 
petition  in  which  the  Commons  had  not  con- 
ciurred.  These  evils  were  remedied  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  YI.,  when  bills  in  the  form  of 


statutes  began  to  be  passed  by  both  Houses. 
As  the  Commons  have  the  sole  right  of  taxa- 
tion, the  larger  number  of  bills  must  originate 
with  them.  Bills  on  certain  subjects,  such 
as  religion  and  trade,  must  originate  in  Com- 
mittee of  the  whole  House.  The  mode  of 
procedure  with  reference  to  bills  is  nearly  the 
same  in  both  Houses.  In  the  Commons, 
however,  a  member  has  to  obtain  leave  to 
bring  in  a  bill,  but  this  is  not  the  case  in  the 
Lords.  When  leave  is  moved  for,  the  title 
of  the  bill  is  read  and  its  object  is  usually 
stated.  If  the  motion  is  agreed  to,  the  bill  is 
ordered.  It  is  then  presented,  and  the  ques- 
tion is  put  that  it  be  now  read  the  first  time. 
This  question  must  be  decided  without 
amendment  or  debate.  If  it  is  negativea, 
the  bill  disappears  fiom  the  orders,  but  the 
question  may  be  again  brought  forward.  If 
it  is  carried,  the  question  is  put  that  it  be 
read  a  second  time,  a  day  is  fixed  for  the 
second  reading,  and  the  bill  is  printed. 
When  the  day  comoH  the  bill  appears  in  the 
orders,  and  the  question  is  put  that  it  be  funa 
read  a  second  time.  This  is  the  critical  stage, 
and  the  whole  principle  can  now  be  made  a 
matter  of  debate.  A  bill  may  be  opposed  at 
all  its  stages,  but  as  it  is  at  this  point  that 
opposition  is  generally  made,  it  is  well  to 
speak  of  this  subject  here.  It  is  usual,  in 
opposing  a  bill,  to  do  so  by  an  amendment  of 
postponement  for  three  or  six  months,  or  by 
some  resolution  contrary  to  the  tenor  of  the 
measure.  '*  The  previous  question  "  may  also 
be  moved.  By  this  means,  however,  the  bill 
is  not  extinguished  and  can  be  ordered  for 
another  day,  while  the  postponement'of  a  bill 
to  a  time  when  Parliament  will  not  be  sitting, 
or  the  adoption  of  an  adverse  resolution,  puts 
an  end  to  it  for  the  session.  It  is  unusual  to 
reject  a  bill  in  direct  terms,  and  such  a  course 
would  imply  that  it  contained  matter  offen- 
sive to  the  House.  When  the  bill  has  been 
read  a  second  time,  it  is  brought  before  the 
Committee  of  the  whole  House,  and  receives 
any  amendments  which  may  be  made  to  it. 
When  it  has  received  its  final  shape  it  is  re- 
ported to  the  House.  It  has  then  to  be  read 
a  third  time,  and  after  that  the  question  is 
put  "  That  this  bill  do  pass,*'  and  on  this  it  is 
not  usual  to  divide.  It  is  then  sent  up  to 
the  Lords  or  down  to  the  Commons,  as  the  case 
may  be,  and  may  be  amended  or  rejected  by 
the  House  which  receives  it.  If  it  is  amended, 
it  is  again  sent  to  the  House  in  which  it  origi- 
nated, and  if  the  amendments  are  disagreed 
upon,  it  is  usual  to  send  a  message  to  state 
the  reasons  of  the  disagreement,  or  to  desire 
a  conference.  When  the  bill  is  passed  by 
both  Houses  it  receives  the  royal  assent, 
which  may  be  given  by  commission,  in  the 
words,  "  La  reine  le  vetilt."  The  form  of 
dissent,  "  La  reine  s*avisera,"  has  not  been 
used  since  1707,  so  that  the  crown  may  per- 
haps be  said  to  have  relinquished  its  right  in 
bi'is  matter.    All  money  bills  must  originate 


(160) 


Bir 


with  the  Commons,  and,  though  the  Lords 
may  reject  a  money  bill,  they  may  not  amend 
it.  This  gave  rise  to  the  nnconstitational 
practice  of  "  tacking,"  by  which,  when  the 
House  of  Commons  wished  to  force  a  measure 
on  the  Lords,  it  was  tacked  on  to  a  money 
bill,  so  that  the  Lords  had  to  pass  the  bill  i 
entire  or  refuse  the  supply.  This  plan  was 
adopted  on  the  questions  of  the  Irish  For- 
feitures, 1699,  and  of  the  Occasional  Con- 
formity  Bill,  1705.  The  rejection  by  the 
Lords  of  the  bill  repealing  the  paper  duty, 
2l8t  May,  1860,  was  viewed  with  much  jealousy 
by  the  Commons.  Such  rejection  is  now  made 
aJjnost  impossible  by  including  the  whole  finan- 
cial scheme  of  the  budget  in  a  single  Act. 

Petitions  to  Parliament  on  private  matters 
occasioned  the  appointment  of  Receivers  and 
Triers  of  Petitions.  These  ofiScers,  if  they 
found  no  redress  for  the  wrong  complained  of 
in  the  Courts,  referred  the  matter  to  Parlia- 
ment. Petitions  to  the  Commons  are  frequent 
from  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  From  these 
petitions  private  bills  took  their  rise.  These 
pass  through  the  same  stages  as  public  bills. 
In  dealing  with  them  the  judicial  functions 
of  Parliament  are  especially  prominent.  Pri- 
Tate  bills  are  brought  in  on  petition  and  at 
the  expense  of  the  promoters.  Before  a 
private  bill  is  brought  in,  it  is  subjected  to 
JSxaminers  of  both  Houses,  who  see  that  the 
standing  orders  are  complied  with.  The 
second  reading  of  a  private  bill  affirms  the 
claim,  but  only  on  the  supposition  that  the 
facts  stated  in  the  preamble  can  be  made 
good.  It  is  referred,  if  opponed,  to  a  Select  or 
Special  Committee  to  decide  on  thin,  and  by 
this  Committee  the  question  between  the 
petitioners  and  their  opponents  is  heard  and 
determined.    [Pabliauext.] 

Sir  T.  E.  May,  Parliamentary  Practice;   and 
the  authorities  given  under  Pablujcsnt. 

[W.  H.] 

Binffliadny  Sir  Richard,  who  was  em- 
ployed in  Ireland,  1580,  was  one  of  Elizabcth^s 
most  able  naval  officers.  In  1586  he  was 
employed  on  service  in  Ireland,  and  cut  to 
pieces  a  Scotch  force  which  had  landed  to  join 
the  rebels  on  the  banks  of  the  Mo  v.     He  was 

» 

subsequently  made  Governor  of  Connaught, 
and,  whilst  holding  that  office,  gained  con- 
siderable notoriety  by  putting  to  death  all 
the  Spaniards  who  were  wrecked  on  the  coast 
of  Ireland  after  the  dispersion  of  the  Armada 
in  1588. 


(</.  650),  the  apostle  of  Wessex, 
was  probably  an  Italian  by  birth,  and  was 
commissioned  by  Pope  Honorius  to  '*  scatter 
the  seeds  of  the  holy  faith  in  those  farthest 
inland  territoiies  of  the  English  which  no 
teacher  had  yet  visited,"  but  landing  in 
Hampshire  in  634  he  found  that  Wessex  was 
still  in  heathenism,  and  accordingly  preached 
the  Gospel  there,  meeting  with  immediate  suc- 
eess.    The  two  kings,  C^-negils  and  Cwichelm, 


were  baptised,  and  Birinus  was  establish 

Bishop  of  Dorchester,  from  whence  ho " 

up    and    down    among  the  West  Ss 

that  is,   from    Dorset  to  Buckinghnrr 

from  Surrey  to  the  Severn,  preachinp, 

chising,  baptising,  calling  many  |x.>ople 

Lord  by  his  pious  labours,  and  buildin 

dedicating  churches." 

Anglo-Saxon  Chron.;  Bede,  Hist.  Ecclo 
Bright,  Early  Eng.  Church  Htst. 

Birmin^fliaiii,  Johk,  Eaul  of 

{d.  1329),  was  descended  from  the  L 
Athenry,  and  was  nominated,  in  131) 
mander-in-chief  of  the  English  fo 
Ireland.  He  won  the  battle  of  Dund; 
sent  Edward  Bruce's  head  to  Edwi 
As  a  reward  for  this  service,  and 
prowess  in  fighting  the  O'ConnorB, 
made  Earl  of  Lcuth.  He  was  at' 
engaged  as  the  ally  of  the  Butlort 
the  Earl  of  Desmond  in  their  feud 
houses  of  De  Burgh  and  Poor.  In 
together  with  some  160  noblemen  an 
men,  was  treacherously  murdered 
"  Germans  and  savages." 

BirminiflLaiii)  as  a  market  tc 
considerable  antiquity.  Previou 
Conquest  it  formed  part  of  the  pos 
a  family  of  the  same  name,  and  thci  i 
tinned  to  belong  to  the  Birminp;hn 
sixteenth  century.  In  Leland's  t 
already  known  for  its  cutlery  and 
manufactures.  During  the  Civil  ^ 
Rupert's  passage  through  the  tow 
was  resolutely  opposed  by  the  i 
and  a  sharp  skirmish  took  i)laco.  I 
shared  largely  in  the  industrial  v 
the  close  of  the  last  century,  : 
reached  a  position  of  the  first 
among  English  towns.  Its  inhal) 
very  prominent  share  in  the  tran^; 
led  to  the  Reform  Bill,  and  have 
guished  by  their  activity  in 
movements  since  that  time.  It 
franchise  by  that  measure,  a  mui 
tution  by  the  Municipal  Corpor 
1835,  and  is  represented  by  seve 

Birmins^ham  l?olitical 

was  an  Hssociation  formed,  in  tVi 
1830.  Its  original  purpose  wi 
repeal  of  the  Act  of  1819  for  t 
of  cash  payments ;  but  it  soo 
programme  of  Parliamentary  1 
came  the  centre  of  the  a^t 
purpose.  As  early  as  Feb., 
noticed  and  dtmounced  in 
Commons  by  Huskisson.  Its  1 
was  Mr.  Attwood,  -who  aftcrv 
reformed  Parliament  for  Hir 
original  design  -was  "to  f 
political  union  bet"weon  tlio  1< 
classes  of  the  people  ;  "  a.nd. 
unions  of  many  other  places 
that  of  Birmingham,  it  may 
reform  agitators  of  tliat  to'wr 


Bir 


(161  ) 


Bis 


at  the  head  of  the  movement.  When  the 
House  of  LordB  showed  a  diHposition  to  reject 
the  Bill,  immense  meetings  were  held  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Birmingham  Union,  in 
which  throats  of  refusal  to  pay  taxes,  and 
even  of  open  violence,  were  freely  used.  In 
1831  a  proclamation  was  issued  against 
political  unions,  and,  in  consequence,  the 
Birmingham  Union  considerably  modified 
its  organisation.  It  continued,  however,  to 
display  great  activity,  and  on  the  7th  of 
May,  1832,  all  the  Unions  of  the  Midland 
Counties  assembled  at  Newhall  HiU,  Birming- 
ham, to  the  number  of  150,000  members. 
Such  proofs  of  the  determination  of  the 
(«untry  had  their  effect  on  the  House  of 
Lords,  and  brought  about  the  final  acceptance 
of  the  BilL 

Birmingliaiii  Siots  (1791)  arose  out  of 

the  intolerant  party  spirit  which  was  largely 
evoked  in  England  by  the  events  of  the 
French  Revolution  of  1789.  In  many  places 
associations  had  been  formed  for  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  14th  July,  as  the  anniversary  of 
the  Revolution.  The  extreme  Tories,  who 
styled  themselves  ''the  friends  of  order," 
everywhere  took  alarm ;  and  in  Birmingham 
a  handbill  was  circulated  in  which  the 
principles  and  objects  of  the  association  were 
groosly  exaggerated  or  misrepresented.  The 
association  at  once  denied  its  authenticity, 
and  at  firsit  thought  of  giving  up  the  meeting 
in  consequence  of  the  feeling  excited  by  the 
circular.  This  opinion  was,  however,  ovor- 
ruled;  and  the  meeting  teok  place  on  the 
14th  July.  While  the  members  of  the 
association  were  at  dinner,  the  hotel  was 
surrounded  by  a  mob,  who,  after  shouting, 
'*  Church  and  King ! "  for  half  an  hour,  retired 
only  to  return  in  redoubled  force.  They 
then  broke  into  the  house,  but  found  that  the 
members  had  fled.  Baffled  and  disappointed, 
they  diverted  their  fury  upon  two  Dissenting 
chapels,  which  they  demolished.  They  next 
attacked  the  house  of  Dr.  Priestley,  and  set- 
ting fire  to  it  burnt  it,  together  with  the  valu- 
able library  of  its  owner ;  and  for  two  days  and 
nights  they  carried  on  the  work  of  destruction 
ae^ainst  the  property  of  prominent  Dissenters. 
On  the  third  day  their  efforte  slackened,  and 
on  the  fourth  several  squadrons  of  cavalry 
toming  into  the  town  soon  restored  onier. 

Langford,  Birm^Kams   Adolphus,  Hid.  of 
Bay. 

Bishop.  The  highest  order  of  clergy  in 
the  Churcn.  The  early  British  Church  was 
organised  under  bishops,  three  of  whom  were 
present  at  the  Council  of  Aries  in  314.  Chris- 
tianity, which  died  away  before  the  invasion 
of  the  English,  was  brought  back  in 
southern  England  M'  the  Roman  missionary 
Augustine,  who,  under  the  direction  of  Pope 
Orcgory  I.,  established  bishops  to  ^rect 
the  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  his  converts.  In 
Northumbria     the     Columban     missionaries 

HiKT.     6 


had  monastic  bishops  after  their  custom. 
When  the  conversion  of  England  was  com- 
pleted, and  the  Church  united  under  the 
Roman  organisation,  Archbishop  Theodore 
(669 — 693)  carried  out  the  work  of  diocesan 
arrangement.  The  whole  of  England  was 
divided  into  dioceses  which  were  the  sphere 
of  administration  of  a  bishop.  England  was 
also  divided  into  two  ecclesiastical  provinces, 
over  each  of  which  was  set  an  archbishop. 
The  mode  of  electing  bishops  seems  to  have 
varied ;  sometimes  the  clergy  appointed,  some- 
times the  king  in  the  Witenagemot.  The 
bishops  sat  in  the  Witenagemot,  and  also  in 
the  shire-moote;  they  had  temporal  juris- 
diction within  t^eir  own  lands;  moreover, 
they  exercised  a  penitential  discipline  over 
moi-al  offenders,  and  judged  the  offences  of 
the  clergy.  The  connection  between  Church 
and  State  was  close,  and  we  find  no  disputes 
between  the  ecclesiastical  and  secular  juris- 
diction. Similarly,  national  or  provmcial 
councils  made  canons  for  the  Church,  fre- 
quently in  the  presence  of  the  king  and 
aaldormen.  Bishops  soon  showed  themselves 
statesmen,  and  Dunstan  may*  be  reckoned  as 
the  first  great  English  minister.  After  the 
Norman  Conquest  William  I.  recognised  the 
political  importance  of  bishops  by  dis- 
possessing the  English  occupants  of  their  sees 
and  setting  Normans  in  their  stead.  Arch- 
bishop Lanfranc  was  in  all  things  WUliam  I.^s 
chief  adviser,  and  by  his  influence  the  eccle- 
siastical courts  were  separated  from  the 
secular  courts.  The  bishops  no  longer  held 
pleas  in  the  hundred  court  or  shire  court,  but 
in  conrte  of  their  own,  which  alone  decided 
spiritual  cases  according  to  canon  law. 
William  II.  applied  to  the  lands  of  bishops 
the  full  rigour  of  feudal  extortion,  and  kept 
bishoprics  vacant  that  he  might  himself 
receive  their  rcNcnues.  Under  Henry  I. 
Anselm  raised  the  question  of  investitures — 
he  refused  to  receive  at  the  hands  of  the 
king  investiture  to  a  spiritual  office.  The 
result  of  this  conflict  was  a  compromise,  by 
which  it  was  agreed  that  bishops  were  to 
receive  the  emblems  of  their  spiritual  oflico 
from  spiritual  persons,  and  were  to  do 
homage  to  the  king  for  their  temporalities. 
By  this  change  the  bishops  were  not  really 
benefited;  their  constitutional  position  was 
made  more  like  that  of  barons,  and  lost  much 
of  ite  distinctive  character.  The  election  to 
bishoprics,  according  to  the  canons,  was  in- 
vested in  the  chapter  of  the  cathedral 
churches;  but  practically  their  right  was 
exercised  in  accordance  with  the  royal  will. 
The  methods  of  capitular  elections  frequently 
led  to  disputes,  which  were  referred  to  the 
decision  of  the  Pope.  In  1206  Pope  Innocent 
III.  rejected  l30th  the  nominee  of  the  king 
and  of  the  Chapter  of  Canterbury,  and  ap- 
pointed Stephen  Langton  archbishop.  From 
this  time  the  Popes  frequently  appointed,  and 
appeals  were  common.     The  system  of  pro- 


Bis 


(  162  ) 


Bii 


visionB  was  in  the  next  century  extended  to 
bishoprics.  But  as  the  crown  grew  stronger 
in  the  next  century  the  king  nominated,  and 
the  Pope  appointed  the  same  person  by  pro- 
vision. Papal  interference  was  strong  enough 
to  overthrow  the  rights  of  chapters,  but  was 
powerless  against  a  strong  king. 

The  bishops  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries  were  a  strong  element  in  the  re- 
sistance to  the  royal  oppression,  and  rank 
amongst  the  stauochest  upholders  of  English 
liberties.  But  the  growth  of  Lollardism  in 
the  fourteenth  century  led  them  to  support 
the  crown,  and  undor  Henry  VIII.  they 
were  unable  to  oppose  the  royal  wilL  The 
alternations  of  religious  policy  in  the  reigns 
of  Edward  YI.,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth,  led  to 
frequent  deprivations,  imprisonment,  and  in 
the  case  of  Cranmer,  Bidley,  and  Latimer,  to 
the  execution  of  bishops.  In  the  reigns  of 
Edward  YI.  and  Elizabeth  tbe  rapacity  of 
courtiers  despoiled  the  sees  of  many  of  their 
possessions.  Elizabeth  showed  her  bishops 
scant    courtesy,    suspended    them    at    her 

Sleasure,  and  even  threatened  them  with 
eposition.  From  that  time,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  bishops 
exercised  little  political  influence.  Under  the 
Commonwealth  episcopacy  was  abolished  and 
bishops  were  dispossessed  of  their  sees  till  the 
Hestoration.  The  petition  of  the  seven 
bishops  to  James  II.  against  his  declaration 
of  indulgence,  and  their  subsequent  trial  for 
libel  and  acquittal,  is  the  last  time  when  the 
action  of  bishops  materially  affected  the  course 
of  English  history. 

At  present  a  bishop  is  the  head  of  the 
clergy  within  his  diocese.  He  has  the  power  of 
ordaining  priests  and  deacons,  of  consecrating 
churches,  and  performing  certain  ecclesiasticiu 
acts  according  to  the  law  of  the  Church ;  he 
is  an  ecclesiastical  judg^  in  certain  cases 
within  his  diocese,  and  exercises  disciplinary 
power  ovei-  his  clergy.  There  are  two  arch- 
bishops and  thirty-two  bishops  in  England 
and  Wales.  Hie  Archbishops  of  Canterbury'' 
and  York,  and  the  Bishops  of  London, 
Durham,  and  Winchester,  always  sit  as  lords 
spiritual  in  the  House  of  Lords ;  and  of  the 
other  bishops,  twenty-one  are  summoned 
to  Parliament  in  order  of  seniority  of  crea- 
tion. The  Bishop  of  Sodor  and  Man  is  in 
no  case  a  lord  spiritual,  and  by  an  Act  of 
1847,  it  was  enacted  that  the  number  of 
lords  spiritual  should  not  be  increased  by 
the  creation  of  new  bishoprics.  The 
election  to  bishoprics  was  settled  by  an 
Act  of  1544;  providing  that  the  king  send 
to  the  dean  and  chapter  his  licence  to  elect, 
called  his  congi  d'elire^  which  is  always  ac- 
companied by  a  statement  of  the  person  whom 
he  would  have  them  elect ;  if  they  delay 
above  twelve  days  the  king  may  nominate. 
In  the  year  184*8  the  Dean  and  Chapter  of 
Hereford  elected,  according  to  the  royal  conge 
(THire,  Dr.  Hampden ;  but  at  the  time  of  his 


confirmation  objections  against  him  were  t 
dered.  The  Court  of  Queen's  Bench  deci 
that  these  objections  need  hot  be  received, 
the  conge  d*Hir$  was  imperative.  Thus 
appointment  to  bishoprics  is  practically  ve 
in  the  crown. 

Stubbe,  CanH.  Hiol ;  Hook,  Um  of  tKe . 
bt«kop«  of  Canterbury ;  Dioctsan  HiatonM, 
liahed  br  the  Society  for  Promoting  Chri 
Knowledge ;  Barms  and  Phillimore,  Eccle 
ool  Jxiio ;  Oodwia,  De  PnnulibiM  ilngluE. 

[M. ' 

Bifllioprio.  The  sphere  within  wl 
bishop  exercises  his  authority.  Ii 
British  Church  there  seem  to  have 
three  bishoprics  corresponding  to  the 
provinces  into  which  Britain  was  divic 
the  Romans.  When  in  597  Pope  Gre^ 
sent  Augustine  to  evangelise  £ngki 
scheme  ror  ecclesiastical  organisatio 
that  London  and  York  should  be  the 
of  the  island.  Augustine  was  to  be  Bi 
London  with  twelve  sufEragans,  and 
send  another  to  York,  who  was  in 
have  twelve  sufiragans.  This  schu 
not  fuUv  carried  out;  but  the  form 
sees  marks  the  progress  of  the  convo 
England,  and  the  sees  followed  the  < 
of  kingdoms  or  tribes.  Augustine  at 
burv  was  Bishop  of  Kent ;  in  604  h 
Justus  at  Eochester  as  Bishop  of  Wi 
and  Mellitus  at  London  as  Bishop  of 
Saxons.  In  625,  Faulinus  was 
Bishop  of  the  Northumbrians  with  \ 
York ;  but  the  work  of  Paulinus  di( 
and  Northumbria  received  Christia 
the  Columban  monks  of  lona,  one 
Aidan,  was  made  Bishop  of  Land 
635.  In  630  Felix  created  the  sc 
Anglia  at  Dunwich.  In  635  the  ^ 
received  as  bishopBirinus,  who  fi.x 
at  Dorchester.  The  see  of  Merc 
650,  set  up  at  Lichfield.  Thus 
kingdoms  received  bishops,  and 
verted  into  ecclesiastical  dioc< 
further  organisation  of  England 
the  energy  of  the  Archbishop  of  * 
Theodore,  a  monk  of  Tarsus,  wl 
from  669  to  693.  He  broke  u 
dioceses,  but  in  so  doing  follow 
of  tribal  arrangements  that  w^cre 
the  seven  kingdoms.  He  dividec 
into  north  and  south,  and  set  a 
the  northern  part  at  Slmham 
established  a  see  for  the  Hecanac 
in  676,  and  for  the  Lindis'wai 
Chester  in  678.  The  Northnm 
had  before  this  conformed  to  th* 
Its  large  extent  was  divided  1 
nation  of  York  as  the  see  of 
while  Bemicia  was  divided  ^be' 
fame  and  Hexham,  'wh.icli  -was 
678  ;  in  681  the  Noi-tbuinbTdaT 
Strathclyde  received  &  "bishop 
In  680  the  Hwinc-a*  bad  a  >>i 
cester,  and  the  Middle     Angl^; 


Bis 


(  163) 


Bifl 


In  705  WeBsex  was  divided  by  a  new  see  at 
Sherborne,  and  in  709  a  mission  see  for  the 
South  Saxons  was  set  up  at  Selsey.  In  909 
King  Ed^irard  the  Elder  divided  the  see  of 
Sherborne,  and  gave  the  men  of  Somerset  a 
bishop  at  Welk,  and  the  men  of  Devon 
a  bishop  at  Crediton.  The  troubles  of 
Northombria  affected  its  episcopal  arrango- 
ments ;  after  814  no  Bishop  of  Hexham  was 
appointed,  and  through  the  ravages  of  the 
Picts  the  bishopric  of  Whithem  ceased  about 
810.  In  875  the  monks  of  Lindisfame  were 
driven  to  quit  their  monastery,  carrying  with 
them  the  body  of  St.  Cuthhert.  In  882  they 
settled  at  Chester-le-Street,  whence  thev  were 
again  driven  in  990,  and  finally  settled  at 
Durham  in  995. 

At  the  time  of  the  Norman  Conquest 
episcopal  sees  were  transferred  from  villages 
to  cities,  as  being  more  convenient.  Already 
in  1050  the  see  of  Crediton  had  been  changed 
to  Exeter.  In  1075  the  see  of  Sherborne  was 
removed  to  Old  Sarum,  that  of  Selsey  to 
Chichester,  and  that  of  Lichfield  to  Coventry. 
The  see  of  Dorchester  was  removed  to  Lin- 
coln in  1085.  In  1088  the  see  of  Wells  was 
transferred  to  Bath ;  that  of  Elmham,  which 
had  been  transferred  to  Thetford  in  1078,  was 
finally  established  in  Norwich  in  1101.  With, 
the  gradual  conquest  of  South  Wales  the 
British  Church  lost  its  independence,  and 
received  Norman  bishops.  The  Archbishop  of 
St.  David's  fwho  had  never  perhaps  exercised 
any  practical  authority ^over  the  other  Welsh 
bi&ops)  became  a  suffragan  of  the  province  of 
Cant^bury  in  1 1 15 ;  Bangor  and  Llandoff  soon 
afterwards;  and  the  see  of  St.  Asaph  was 
established  ^or  possibly  only  re-established) 
in  1143.  Moreover,  Henry  I.  cared  for 
the  interests  of  the  Church  in  England 
by  subdividing  the  huge  diocese  of  Lincoln 
in  1109,  and  setting  a  bishop  over  the  |^reat 
minster  of  E3ly.  In  like  manner  the  allegiance 
of  the  new  English  possession  of  Cumberland 
was  strengthened  by  the  appointment  of  a 
Bishop  of  Carlisle  in  1133. 

From  this  time  till  the  Reformation  no 
new  sees  were  created.  After  the  dissolution  of 
the  monasteries,  Henry  VIII.  made  some  show 
of  restoring  the  goods  of  the  Church  by  the 
creation  of  six  new  bishoprics — ^Westminster 
in  1540,  Gloucester,  Chester,  Peterborough, 
and  Oxford  in  1541,  Bristol  in  1542.  The 
see  of  Westminster  did  not  long  continue. 
Its  first  occupant,  Thomas  Thirlby,  wasted 
its  possessions ;  he  was  translated  to  Norwich 
in  1550,  and  the  see  was  dissolved.  In 
1542  the  ancient  see  of  Sodor  and  Man,  which 
was  founded  by  Pope  Gregory  IV.,  was 
annexed  to  the  province  of  York ;  but  as  the 
island  of  Man  did  not  come  into  the  possession 
of  the  crown  till  1825,  its  bishop  was  never  a 
peer  of  Parliament.  No  further  creations  were 
made  till  the  increase  of  population  in  the 
present  century  led  to  the  formation  of  the 
see  of  Ripon  in  1836,  and  of  Manchester  in 


1847.  In  1886  the  sees  of  Gloucester  and 
Bristol  were  united.  An  attempt  to  unite  St. 
Asaph  and  Biangor  proved  abortive.  Within 
the  last  few  years  new  sees  have  been  created 
by  voluntary  effort,  according  to  the  provision 
of  an  Act  of  Parliament.  The  sees  of  Truro 
and  St.  Albans  were  founded  in  1877,  that  of 
liver^l  in  1880,  that  of  Newcastle  in  1882, 
that  of  Southwell  in  1883,  and  that  of 
Wakefield  in  1888.  [M.  C] 

BiflhopriOy  The.    A  special  title  ^ven  to 
the  patrimony  of  St.  Cuthbert,  which  was 
ruled  by  the  Bishops  of  Durham.     On  Cuth- 
bert*s  consecration  as  Bishop  of  Lindisfame 
in  683,  Egfrith,  the  Northumbrian  king,  made 
him  large  g^rants  of  land  round  Lindisfame, 
as  well  as  the  vill  of  Craik  near  York,  and 
the  town  of  Carlisle.      In  883  the  monks 
of  Lindisfame  were  fleeing  with  the  body 
of    their   patron    saint    before    the    Danish 
invaders.       The    Danish    king    was    dead, 
and  his  host  was  without  a  leader.    St.  Cuth- 
bert appeared  in  a  vision  to  Abbot  Eadred, 
and  bade  him  tell  the  Danes  to  take  as  their 
king  a  young  captive  who  was  a  slave.    The 
Danes  obeyed  the  admonition,  and  their  new 
king  Guthred,  aided  by  the  advice  of  Alfred 
the  Great,  showed  his  gratitude  by  conferring 
on  St.  Cuthbert  the  land  between  the  Tjoie 
and  the  Tees.    Over  this  new  grant,  and  the 
old  lands  of  the  church  of  Lindisfame,  the 
bishop  was  given  the  rights  and  dignities  of 
the  kmg.     Bishop  Cutheard  (900—915)  pur- 
chased Uie  ancient  parish  of  Bedling^n  north 
of  the  Tyne,  with  an  area  of  thirty  square 
miles,  and  received  a  grant  of  similar  juris- 
diction over  it.    It  is  probable  that  William 
the  Conqueror,  finding  this  state  of  things, 
considered  it  desirable  to  leave  it  unchanged, 
and  recognised  the  lands  of  the  church  of 
Durham  as  a  county  palatine.      [Palatikb 
C0UNTIB&]  The  Bishopric  was  not  co-extensive 
with  the  dioeeu  of  Durham.    Ir  consisted  of 
the  modem  county  of  Durham,  and  the  dis- 
tricts known  as  Bedlingtonshire,  Islandshire,. 
and  Norhamshire.     'Within  this  the  bishop 
held  his  own  courts  and  appointed  his  own 
officers ;  writs  ran  in  his  name,  and  he  had 
his  own  mint.    The  men  of  the  bishopric 
were  similarly  privileged,  and  went  by  the 
name  of  Haliwerefole,  men  for  the  defence  of 
St.  Cuthbert  and  his  patrimony.     This  ex- 
ceptional position  continued  tOl  the  Eccle- 
siastical   Uommissioners     recommended    its 
abolition  in   1833,   and  with  the    death  of 
Bishop  van  Mildert,  in  1836,  the  bishopric 
came  to  an  end. 

Snrtees,  Hidcr^  ^  Lwrham ;  Baine,  Bidory  of 
North  Durham.  Symeonis  Monaohi,  Hi<oi'ia 
Bcelena  I>wM}mnm§,  in  Twysdau.  Decern  Sorip- 
tortfc  [M.  C] 

BudlOM,  Thb  Seven,  is  the  appella- 
tion usually  given  to  the  prelates  who 
were  tried  for  their  resistance  to  James  II.*s 


Bla 


(  164 


Bla 


Declaration  of  Indulgence  (q.v.).  On  April 
25th,  1688,  the  king  iBsued  his  second  Declara- 
tion of  Indulgence,  and  on  May  4th  an  Order 
in  Council  enjoined  that  it  should  be  read  in 
all  churches  on  two  successive  Sundays,  the 
bishops  being  required  to  distribute  copies  of 
it  in  their  dioceses.  The  Primate  Bancroft 
and  six  bishops  (Ken  of  Bath  and  Wells, 
White  of  Peterboroughf  Lloyd  of  St.  Asaph, 
Trelawny  of  Bristol,  Lake  of  Cliichester,  and 
Turner  of  Ely)  drew  up  and  preseuted  a 
petition,  declaring  the  loyalty  of  the  Church, 
but  begging  to  he  excused  from  reading  in 
Divine  service  an  illegal  declaration,  since 
Parliament  had  declared  that  the  sovereign 
had  no  power  to  dispense  with  statutes. 
*'  This  is  the  standard  of  rebellion,*'  James 
said  as  he  read  it;  and,  when  oiily  four 
churches  in  London  obeyed  the  order,  he 
determined  to  take  hia  revenge  by  trjdng  the 
bishops  for  publishing  a  seditious  libel.  The 
bishops,  after  having  at  the  king's  command 
acknowledged  their  writing,  were  committed 
to  the  Tower,  where  they  were  visited  by 
many  Whig  peers  and  a  deputation  of  Non- 
conformist sympathisers.  When  the  trial 
came  on,  the  handwriting  was  proved  by  the 
evidence  of  the  clerk,  who  had  heard  the 
bishops*  confession;  and  Sunderland,  whom 
they  had  begged  to  present  it,  proved  the 
publishing.  Among  the  counsel  for  the 
defence  was  Somers,  afterwards  Chancellor, 
whose  speech  on  this  occasion  created  his 
reputation.  After  some  hours'  disputing,  the 
king's  brewer,  who  was  on  the  jury,  was 
persuaded  to  risk  the  loss  of  royal  patronage, 
and  a  verdict  of  Xot  Guilty  was  returned 
(June  30th).  The  action  of  the  king  in  thds 
matter  lost  him  the  active  support  of  the 
Church,  and  disposed  it  to  at  least  acquiesce 
in  the  measures  of  William  of  Orange. 

Macaulay,  Hut.,  ch.  viii. ;  BaQke,lH{st.  o/Eng., 
bk.  zvii.ch.  vii. 

Bla«k  Act,  Th«  (1722),  was  the  name 
given  to  an  Act  passed  to  check  the  out- 
rages committed  by  j^rsons  with  their  faces 
blackened  or  otherwise  disguised,  who  ap- 
peared in  Epping  Forest,  near  Waltham,  and 
destroyed  the  deer.  The  penalty  of  death 
was  imposed  on  all  such  transg^ressions  of  the 
law.  The  Act  was  made  perpetual  in  1758, 
but  was  repealed  in  1&27. 

\  Black  Assise.    [Asbize.] 

Blackburn  Biots,  The  (1826),  were  a 
demonstration  by  the  weavers  of  Lancashire 
against  the  use  of  machinery.  In  April  a 
large  number  of  persons  assembled  at,  Hcn- 
fleld  and  proceeded  to  Accrington,  where  they 
demolished  the  machinery  in  several  mills. 
The  mob  then  proceeded  to  Bkckburn,  and, 
though  a  party  of  drstgoons  arrived  there  as 
soon  as  the  rioters,  they  could  not  prevent 
them  from  breaking;  into  the  factory  of 
McsMin.  HanniRtoi,  Jtkck'8  uitd  (\).    A  colliHicm 


occurred;  stones  and  firearms  w 
used  by  the  mob ;  and  the  Riot  Ac 
A  great  deal  of  Messrs.  Eccles' 
was  destroyed,  and  much  damag 
through  the  town  ;  and  the  cxci 
came  so  dangerous  that  the  dra^ 
ordered  to  clear  the  streets.  Th( 
day  a  great  deal  of  destruction  was 
and  another  collision  occurred  b 
rioters  and  the  mihtary,  in  which 
were  finally  routed  by  a  discharge  c 
nine  persons  being  kiUed  and  sever 
Similar  riots  broke  out  next  dj 
Chester.  Troops,  however,  qui( 
into  the  disturDed  districts,  and 
assemblages  were  at  an  end. 

Black  Death,  The.    Thi 

been  given  to  an  epidemic  disea: 
destructiveness  which  devastate 
in  common  with  the  rest 
in  1348 — 9,  and,  burst  forth  ane^ 
and  again  in  1369.  In  conteii 
later  literature  it  is  usually 
"Pestilence,"  or  the  "Great 
under  the  former  of  which  exp 
mentioned  by  both  Chaucer  an 
It  is  regarded  as  having  bc^ei 
aggravated  outburst  of  the  ord 
which  had  been  smouldering 
population  since  1342,  and  ik 
Kindled  into  fatal  activity  by 
of  special  causes,  due  to  m 
mena  of  rare  concurrence  an' 
power.  The  forces  of  nati 
told,  had  been  let  loose;  for 
mighty  earthquakes,  furious 
wind  and  rain,  violent  flocx 
locusts  darkening  the  air  or  poi 
their  corrupting  bodies,  and  o1 
manifestations  of  elemental  sti 
from  China  to  Europe,  destro 
their  works,  blighting  veget^ 
fruitful  lands  into  noxious 
polluting  the  atmosphere.  '^ 
disturbances  of  nature  were  i 
the  visitation  may  be  quest ioi 
is  abundance  of  evidc^nce  t 
actual  occurrence,  and  the  e 
writer  on  the  subject — Hecker 
of  the  connection  between  tho 
the  air  that  followed  them  an 
of  the  pestilence.  "  This  diw 
"was  a  consequence  of  violi 
in  the  earth's  organiain — if 
cosmical  origin  can  be  bo  <•< 
would  be  safe  at  leant  to  sv 
lingering  traces  of  the  eijider 
the  general  physical  domorali 
by  the  disturbance  of  the 
life,  left  men's  bodies  an  eas 
malignant  agency.  The  qii 
however,  came  from  the  Kn 
commerce  across  the  Black  S< 
Asia  to  Con8tantino2)lo,  the 
widely   and   swiftly    from    t 


{  16^) 


early  in  1847  fell  upon  Sicily,  Maneilles, 
and  seveial  towns  on  the  coast  of  Italy. 
After  a  brief  pause  at  these  places,  it  broke 
out  with  unsparing  fury  at  Avignon  in 
January,  1348 ;  advanced  thence  to  Southern 
France,  to  Spain,  to  Northern  Italy,  and 
early  in  April  appeared  at  Florence,  where  it 
came  under  the  observation  of  Boccaccio, 
who  has  left  a  detailed  account  of  its  action. 
Passing  through  France  and  visiting,  but 
not  as  yet  ravaging,  Germany,  it  made  its 
way  to  England.  This  country  it  entered  at 
some  point  in  Dorset,  where  it  cut  down 
its  first  English  victims  in  August,  1348. 
Thence  it  travelled — by  way  of  Devon  and 
^merset,  of  Bristol,  Gloucester,  and  Oxford 
—to  London,  but  so  slowly  that  winter  had 
begun  before  it  reached  the  capital.  Soon  it 
embraced  the  whnle  kingdom ;  no  spot,  how- 
ever isolated,  escaped  its  rage;  England 
became  a  mere  pest-house.  Its  chief  symp- 
toms in  this  country  were  spitting,  in  some 
cases  actual  vomiting,  of  blood,  the  breaking 
out  of  inflammatory  boils  in  parts,  or  over 
the  whole,  of  the  body,  and  the  appearance 
of  those  dark  blotches  upon  the  skui  which 
suggested  its  most  startling  name.  Some  of 
its  victims  died  almost  on  the  first  attack, 
some  in  twelve  hours,  some  in  two  days, 
almost  all  within  the  first  three.  Before  it 
medical  skill  was  powerlo»;  few  recovered, 
until,  as  the  plague  drew  towards  its  close, 
men  bethought  them  of  opening  the  hard, 
dry  boils  —  a  treatment  that  relieved  the 
system  of  the  venom  and  saved  numy  lives. 
Contagion  bore  it  everywhere;  the  clothes, 
the  breath,  everything  the  patient  touched, 
the  very  air  that  surrounded  him,  were 
poisoned  with  it;  even  a  glance  of  his  eye, 
men  fancied,  might  strike  down  the  onlooker. 
Its  career  in  England  on  this  visitation  lasted 
for  about  a  year ;  but  its  destructive  energy 
▼ould  seem  to  have  been  at  its  height 
between  l^Iay,  1349,  and  the  following 
Michaelmas,  the  summer  heats  doubtless 
stimulating  its  fury.  The  havoc  it  made  in 
the  population  far  exceeded  that  made  by 
any  similar  scourge  recorded  in  history ;  the 
exaggerations  of  a  contemporary  annalist, 
gross  as  they  are,  help  us  to  realise  its 
extent.  "Towns,  once  dose  packed  with 
men,  were  stripped  of  their  inhabitants ;  and 
to  so  pernicious  a  power  did  the  plague  rise 
that  the  living  were  scarce  able  to  bury  the 
dead.  In  certain  religious  houses,  out  of 
twenty  inmates  there  hardly  survived  two. 
By  several  it  was  reckonea  that  barely  a 
tenth  part  of  the  population  had  been  left 
alive.*'  It  is  stated  that  it  slew  100,000 
human  beings  in  London — 50,000  of  whom 
were  buried  in  a  plot  of  ground  which  Sir 
Walter  Manny  had  bought  for  the  purpose, 
a  space  now  covered  by  Smithfield — ^nearly 
60,000  in  Norwich,  and  proportionate  num- 
1>CTB  in  Bristol  and  other  l^idin^  cities.  These 
numbers  are  thought   incredible;    but  one 


scrupulously  careful  living  writer  has  found 
evidence  which  satisfies  him  that  at  least 
half  the  population  died  b^  this  outbreak, 
whilst  another,  of  equal  mdustry,  admits 
that  the  full  sum  of  the  victims  cannot  have 
been  less  than  a  third.  And  the  leaning  of 
historians  is  generally  towards  the  higher 
reckoning,  by  which  the  actual  carnage 
would  amount,  at  highest,  to  2»600,000,  at 
lowest,  to  1,500,000,  for  the  estimates  of  the 
population  at  the  time  range  from  3,000,000 
to  5,000,000.  For  obvious  reasons,  the  mor- 
tality was  greatest  among  the  clergy  and  the 
humbler  classes;  yet  the  contagion  reached 
even  the  highest.  A  newly-elected  Primate, 
Bradwardine,  and  Edward  Ill's,  daughter, 
Joan,  caught  it  and  perished.  For  a  time  its 
progress  seemed  arrested  by  the  Scottish 
border,  and  **  the  foul  death  of  the  English  " 
is  said  to  have  been  a  favourite  oath  with  the 
Scots,  who  felt  a  malicious  pleasure  in  their 
enemies*  misfortunes;  but  the  scoffers  soon 
involved  themselves  in  the  same  disasters  by 
making  a  fooUsh  raid  into  England,  and  the 
work  of  death  went  forwai*d  in  Scotland  also. 
The  disease  passed  over  to  Ireland,  where,  if 
report  can  be  trusted,  it  discriminated  between 
the  intruding  English  and  the  natives;  the 
former  were  taken  and  the  latter  left.  Its 
immediate  effects  on  society  were  of  the  kind 
usual  in  such  frightful  calamities.  Humanity 
showed  itself  at  its  worst  and  its  best :  there 
was  much  reckless  profligacy  and  revolting 
selfishness,  but  not  a  few  examples  of  self- 
sacrificing  devotion.  The  ^rror-stricken 
rushed  to  religion  for  comfort  and  help; 
many  gave  up  lands  and  goods,  and  sought  a 
haven  in  monasteries;  an  earlier  and  fierce 
fanaticism — that  of  the  Flagellants — was  re- 
organised, and  fascinated  or  horrified  men  by 
its  ghastly  ritual.  The  permanent  impression 
that  the  Black  Death  made  on  the  human 
memory  is  shown  in  several  ways — in  this 
conspicuously,  that  it  was  set  up  as  a  fixed 
mark  to  reckon  time  from;  it  was  long  a 
practice  to  date  charters  and  legal  instru- 
ments from  it.  Far  more  important  were 
its  economic  and  remoter  historical  con- 
sequences. The.  great  social  movement  of 
the  fourteenth  centur}''  gained  by  it  an  im- 
petus, if  not  an  originating  force,  and  found 
in  it  the  most  &vourable  conditions  of 
success;  it  led,  by  regular  stages,  to  the 
rising  of  the  commons  under  Wat  Tyler; 
and  &e  whole  system  of  farming  was  revolu- 
tionised by  it.  It  has  even  been  surmised 
that  England  owes  to  it  the  picturesque 
hedge-rows  that  divide  her  fields.  It  is 
certain  that  the  wages  of  labour  at  once 
more  than  doubled  through  the  scarcity  of 
labourers;  that  proclamations  were  issued 
and  statutes  were  passed  fixing  the  price  of 
labour  at  its  former  rate,  and  imposing 
penalties  on  all  who  demanded  or  gave  more ; 
that,  these  proving  ineffective,  others,  and 
agsiin  others,  were  passed  with  the  same  aim 


Bla 


(  166  > 


Blfl 


and  a  like  result;  that  ill  feeling  arose  be- 
tween those  who  lived  ^  and  those  who  lived 
OH  manual  labour,  which  at  last  drove  the 
working  classes  into  rebellion.  And  the 
diiBBiculty  of  getting  their  lands  tilled  by  the 
old  method  of  villein  services  and  hired 
labour  forced  the  lords  and  religious  houses 
to  break  up  their  estates,  hitherto  managed 
for  them  by  bailiffs,  into  farms,  which  they 
let  on  leases  to  the  actual  tiUers  of  the  soil. 
But  this  was  the  issue  of  a  long  and  compli- 
cated process,  the  details  of  which  are  too 
abundant  to  be  given  here.  The  visitations 
of  1361—2  and  1369  were  also  formidable  in 
the  extent  of  their  ravages,  yet  mild  as  com- 
pared with  their  terrible  predecessor.  They 
may  be  regarded  as  stages  in  the  gpradual 
settling  down  of  the  **  great  mortality  "  into 
the  endemic  state  that  it  remained  in  for 
centuries. 

Heoker,  Epidemiot  of  the  Middle  Agw;  J.  IS.  T. 
Bogera,  H.imor\i  of  ^gfruiuUur*  wmL  Priem  in, 
JBiHrlana,  toL  i. ;  Longmaa,  Life  <^  JSdward  III. ; 
Papers  in  vol.  ii.  and  vol.  lii.  >f  Fortnightly 
BevtMD,  by  F.  Seebohm  and  J.  E.  T.  Bogen. 

[J.  K.] 

Bla4sk  Bog  of  Arden,  Tub,  was  the 
nickname  applied  by  Piers  Gkiveston  to  Guy, 
Earl  of  Warwick.  ''  Does  he  call  me  dog  r'  '* 
•aid  Warwick.    '*  Let  him  beware  lest  1  bite 

him." 

Walsingham,  Hut.  Anglic.  (BoUa  Seriee),  vol. 
i.  115, 133. 

Black  Friday  ^"^  ^^^  J^™®  jn^en  to 

the  nth  of  May,  1866,  when  a  commercial 
panic  was  at  its  height. 

Black  Sole  of  Calcutta,  The  (June 
20,  1766).  Suraj-ud-Dowlah,  the  Nawab  of 
Bengal,  a  young  man,  cruel,  effeminate,  and 
debauched,  who  succeeded  Aliverdi  Khan 
early  in  1756,  was  greatly  enraged  with  the 
English  at  Calcutta  for  concealing  a  fugitive 
from  him.  He  marched  down  on  Calcutta  on 
June  18  on  the  pretence  that  the  English  had 
erected  some  new  fortifications  without  con- 
sulting him.  The  town  was  ill-prepared  to 
resist  an  assault,  and  was  moreover  weakened 
by  the  disgraceful  desertion  of  Mr.  Brake, 
the  governor,  with  the  military  comman- 
dant, who  slipped  off  unperceived,  and 
niwed  down  to  the  ships.  Mr.  Holwell  was 
thereupon  placed  in  command  by  common 
consent,  and  the  fort  was  gallantly  held  for 
foity-eight  hours,  when  it  became  necessary 
to  surrender.  The  Nawab  gave  Mr.  Holwell 
every  assurance  of  protection,  and  retired 
about  dusk  to  his  encampment.  In  spite  of 
this  the  prisoners,  146  in  number,  were 
thrust  into  a  narrow  chamber,  some  twenty 
feet  square,  which  had  been  used  as  the 
prison  of  the  garrison,  and,  however  suited  for 
the  confinement  of  a  few  turbulent  soldiers, 
meant  simply  death  to  the  crowd  thrust  into 
it  at  the  sword^s  point  in  one  of  the  hottest 
nights  of  the  most  sultry  season  of  the  year. 


The  agonies   endured  during 

night  were  horrible  beyond  expi 

night  was  intensely  hot,  and  as 

of  thirst  and  suffocation  came 

the  prisoners  struggled  with  on 

a  mouthful  of  &edb  air  at  the  w: 

insulted  the  guards  to  induce  tl 

them.    The  majority  died  in  rai 

and  the  few  who  sumved  owed 

the  freer  ventilation  obtained  \ 

the  bodies  of  their  dead  or  dvin 

Twenty-three  ghastly  suttivo: 

dragged  out  the  next  mommg. 

was  so  broken  that  he  had  to  be 

the  Nawab,  who  manifested  n< 

at  the  results  of  his  infamous  c 

J.  Z.  HolweU'B  G«imtiM  Ifar 
Mill,  Hwf.  of  India.  toL  iv.,  cb 
striking  acoount  in  MacavUay'i 
Glive. 

Black  Kail  was  the  co 
ment  exacted  by  the  border  \ 
the  dwellers  in  tiie  more  civili 
the  English  side  in  return  fox 
of  their  cattle  and  goods.  Tl 
mail  was  made  a  felony  by 
(1601).  The  name  was  also  g 
ment  made  to  the  chiefs  of  soi 
land  clans  bv  those  who 
neighbourhood  in  return  for  1 
their  cattle  from  capture.  It 
till  1745. 


Black  BConntain.  Wa 

The  Hussunzye  tribe  of  Af g 
the   Agror    valley  in  the 
range,  broke  out  into  hostilit 
a  police  station.     As  they 
position  to  submit.  General 
against  them,  Sept.  2Gth,  ai 
operations,  which  lasted  till ' 
reduced  the  insurgents,  wh< 
the    force    was    withdrawn 
[Lawrence,  Lobd.] 

Black  Prince.    [Edw 

Pbimoe.] 

Black   Sea   Coiifer< 

1871,  in  consequence  of  i 
Kussia  that  she  would  no  lo 
the  Treaty  of  Paris  of  18fi 
the  navigation  of  the  Black 
of  the  Powers  was  invited  t 
to  settle  the  questions.  In 
to  abolish  her  own  treaty  ei 
can  be  no  doubt  that  Rut 
some  general  understanding 
with  Prussia,  to  the  effect  th 
would  assist  her  in  effecting 
delay  arose  in  the  asaem't 
ference  owing  to  the  anoi 
France,  but  on  Dec.  18t^ 
received  a  formal  intimati 
plenipotentiary  would  prei 
Conference.  The  emer^ei 
ever,  prevented  this,  and 


(  167) 


Bla 


of  the  other  powers  proceeded  to  deliberate 
without  France ;  but  the  Duke  de  Broglie,  the 
French  plenipotentiary,  eventually  appeared 
on  Blank  13th.  Afl  the  reeult  of  the  Con- 
ference the  Treaty  of  London  was  concluded. 
Its  proyirions  were  that  articles  XI.,  XIII., 
and  XIV.  of  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  1856,  are 
abrogated;  that  the  principle  of  closing  the 
Dardanelles  and  Bosphorus  is  mainUiined 
with  power  to  the  Sultan  to  open  the  said 
straits  to  the  fleets  of  friendly  and  allied 
powers,  in  the  event  that  the  execution  of 
the  stipulations  of  the  Treaty  of  Paris  should 
require  it ;  that  the  commission  for  managing 
the  navigation  of  the  Danube  should  be  con- 
tinued in  its  present  form  for  a  further  period 
of  twelve  years.  The  result  of  this  treaty 
was  to  open  the  Black  Sea  to  Russian  Khips  of 
war,  and  to  aUow  the  Sultan  to  open  the 
Dardanelles  to  foreign  ships  of  war  if  the 
defence  of  his  throne  required  it. 

Black  Watollf  Thb,  was  the  name  ori<2:in- 
ally  given  to  the  semi-independent  bodies  of 
Highlanders  who  were  entrusiod  by  the  English 
government  with  the  duty  of  keeping  order 
in  the  Highlands.  They  were  embodied  as  a 
regiment  of  the  regumr  army  (the  4drd, 
afterwards  the  42nd)  in  1740.  Three  years 
afterwards  they  were  removed  to  London. 
In  May,  1743,  the  greater  part  of  the  regi- 
ment mutinied,  and  set  out  northwards. 
They  were  pursued,  surrounded,  and  com- 
pelled to  surrender.  Three  ringleaders  were 
put  to  death,  and  the  remainder  of  the 
regiment  sent  to  the  West  Indies  and  to 
Flanders.  As  a  regiment  of  the  regular  army 
the  Black  Watch  has  since  borne  a  distin- 
guished part  in  nearly  all  the  wars  in  which 
England  has  been  engaged. 

BlacUieatlL,  Thb  Battle  of  (June  22, 
1497),  was  fought  between  the  troops  of 
Henry  VII.  and  the  Ciomish  rebels.  The 
rebels  had  taken  up  a  strong  position  on  a 
hill  at  Blackheath,  within  sight  of  London, 
'llie  king  had  recalled  the  troops  destined  for 
lervice  against  Scotland,  and  had  collected 
tot^;ether  at  Ix)ndon  a  large  army  composed  of 
all  the  lighting  men  in  the  neighbouring 
ronnties.  He  stationed  one  portion  of  his  army 
(under  his  personal  command)  in  St.  George*s 
i'ields.  A  second  detachment,  under  the 
command  of  the  Earls  of  Oxford  and  Suffolk, 
was  ordered  to  make  a  circuitous  march  round 
the  hill  occupied  by  the  rebels,  and  take  up 
»s  strong  a  position  as  possible  in  their  rear. 
The  remainder  of  his  forces,  under  Lord  Dau- 
beny.  he  sent  forward  to  attack  the  rebels 
in  front.  The  Comishmen  fought  bravely; 
but  ill -armed,  ill -led,  without  horse  or 
artillery,  they  were  unable  to  offer  any 
long  resistance  to  the  disciplined,  well- 
equipped  troops  who  attacked  them  in  front 
and  rear  simultaneonsly.  Two  thousand 
of  their  nnmber  were  slain,  and  the 
rsmainder  surrendered.     Among  the  large 


number  of  prisoners  were  the  rebel  leaders 
Lord  Audley,  Michael  Joseph,  and  Thomas 
Flammock,  who  were  put  to  death. 

BlacUow  Hill,  an  eminence  between 
Warwick  and  Coventry,  was  the  scene  of  the 
execution  of  Piers  Gaveston  by  the  revolted 
batons  un()er  the  Earls  of  Lancaster  and 
Warwick  in  1312. 

Blaokstone,  Sin  William  {h.  1723,  d. 
1780),  was  the  posthumous  son  of  a  Cheapside 
silk-mercer,  and  was  educated  at  the  Charter- 
house and  Pembroke  College,  Oxford.  He ' 
obtained  a  fellowship  at  All  Souls,  and  was 
called  to  the  bar  by  the  Middle  Temple  in  1746. 
His  practice  was  never  large,  and  after  a 
few  years  he  devoted  his  attention  mainly  to 
collegiate  matters.  As  bursar  of  All  Souls 
he  showed  administrative  skill  and  zeal  for 
reform ;  and  the  building  of  the  Codrington 
Library  was  mainly  due  to  his  exertions. 
In  1767  he  was  elected  to  a  fellowship  at 
Queen's  College,  where  his  architectural  acti- 
vities again  displayed  themselves.  A  year 
later  he  was  elected  to  the  newly  founded 
Yincrian  Professorship  of  Law,  and  delivered 
from  that  chair  the  lectures  which  were  sub- 
sequently (1766)  embodied  in  the  *'  Commen- 
taries." The  fame  of  his  lectures  caused  him 
to  return  to  a  more  active  professional  life. 
In  1761  he  was  appointed  I^incipal  of  New 
Inn  Hall,  a  post  which  he  held  for  five  years 
in  the  vain  hope  of  establishing  at  Oxford  a 
college  for  legal  education.  He  also  during 
this  period  sat  in  Parliament  for  Hendon  and 
Westbury.  From  1770  until  his  death  he 
was  one  of  the  Judges  of  the  Common  Pleas. 
As  a  writer  upon  law  his  faults  are  mainly 
those  of  his  age — an  unscientific  arrangemc^nt 
and  a  loose  terminology.  Bentham  has  exposed 
these  faults  with  great  vehemence,  but  at  the 
same  time  does  full  justice  to  Blackstonc's 
merits  as  an  expounder.  **  He  it  is,*'  he  says, 
**  who,  first  of  all  institutional  writers,  has 
taught  jurisprudence  to  speak  the  language 
of  the  scholar  and  the  gentleman."  This 
sentence  accurately  represents  Blackstone^s 
claim  to  be  remembered,  and  will  explain 
why  laymen  regard  his  work  ¥rith  reverance 
and  lawyers  with  indifference. 

Besides  the  Commentariw  on  ike  /.airs  of 
England^  of  which  numerous  editions  have 
appeared,  Blackstoue  wrote  sevenil  tracts  on 
questions  of  oonstitutional  law,  that  on  the 
Middlesex  Election,  and  on  tbe  Extent  of 
the  Powers  of  Parliament,  being  the  two 
best  known.  The  Commttntarien  have  been  re< 
arranged  with  doubtPnl  advantaf^e  by  B.  M.  Kerr 
and  Mr.  Serjeant  Stephen.  A  Life  bj  J.  C. 
Clitherow  is  prefaced  to  Blackstoue's  Reportt 
(folio,  1781).  A  biogittphpr  and  list  of  works 
published,  and  in  mannsonpt,  by  a  "  Gentleman 
of  Lincoln's  Inn  "  (Dr.  Donglass),  appeared  in 
1782.  See  also  Montajrae  Burrows,  Woi-thie*  of 
All  SouU,  aud  Junius,  I^etter  xviii. 

[B  R.W.] 

Blaokwater,  The  Battle  op  (1598),  was 
fought  noar  the  fort  of  thai  name  in  Tyrone. 
Hugh  O'Neil,  called  the  **  arch  rebel,    here 


Bla 


(  168) 


Bla 


defeated  the  English  Marshal,  Sir  Henry 
Bagnall,  who  had  marched  to  the  relief  of 
the  fort.  O'NeU  killed  the  English  leader 
with  his  own  hands.  One  thousand  five  hon* 
dred  of  the  English  fell,  and  all  thetr  stores 
and  ammunition  were  captured  by  the  Irish, 
as  well  as  the  fort  itsell  The  forces  engaged 
on  each  side  amounted  to  something  like 
6,000  men.  This  victory  led  at  the  time  to 
an  almost  general  revolt  of  the  natives. 
Sydney  Papen;  Froude,  Hut.  ofEng, 

Bladensberfy  Thb  Battle  of  (Aug.  24, 
1814),  fought  during  the  American  War,  took 
its  name  from  a  small  Village  on  the  left  hank 
of  the  eastern  branch  of  the  Potomac.  This 
position  commanded  the  only  bridge  over  the 
river;  and  here  the  American  gpeneral,  Winder, 
prepared  to  oppose  the  advance  of  the  British, 
under  General  Boss,  upon  Washington.  To 
effect  their  object  it  was  necessary  for  the 
British  to  carry  the  bridge  and  the  command- 
ing position  of  the  Americans.  Boss  accord- 
ingly formed  his  forces  into  two  columns,  one 
under  Thornton,  the  other  commanded  by 
Brooke.  The  attack  was  entrusted  to  the 
former;  and  so  fierce  an  onslaught  did  his 
column  make  upon  the  defenders  of  the  bridge 
that  it  was  earned  immediately,  together  with 
a  fortified  house  at  the  farther  end.  On  the 
other  side  of  the  river,  Thornton's  column 
was  joined  by  Brooke's  men,  and  a  general 
attack  was  made  upon  the  American  position. 
One  impetuous  charge  carried  it,  and  the 
whole  American  army  broke  in  confusion, 
and,  flying  through  Washington,  never  stopped 
till  they  had  taken  up  a  position  on  the 
heights  of  Oeorgetown.  Aftor  a  short  rest, 
the  British  advanced,  and  on  the  same  evening 
entered  Washington  without  encountering 
any  further  opposition. 

Blake,  Kobbrt  (b.  1597,  d.  1657),  was  bom 
at  Bridgewater  and  educated  at  Oxford.  He 
sat  in  the  Long  Parliament  as  member  for 
Bridgewater.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War  he  raised  a  regiment,  took  part  in  the 
defence  of  Bristol,  and  successfully  held 
Taunton  against  the  Royalists.  In  1649 
Colonel  Blake  was  appointed  one  of  the  com- 
manders of  the  navy,  and  shortly  afterwards 
Warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports.  He  was 
eminently  successful  as  a  naval  commander. 
He  drove  Prince  Rupert  from  the  British 
seas,  and  compelled  him  to  take  refuge  in 
the  Tagus,  and,  in  Janiiar}',  1651,  destroyed 
almost  the  entire  Royalist  fleet  in  Malaga 
Harbour.  Later  in  the  year  he  recovered  the 
Channel  Islands  from  the  Royalists,  and  was 
made  a  member  of  the  Council  of  State.  In 
May,  1652,  he  fought  a  sharp  but  indecisive 
action  with  the  Dutch  in  the  Straits  of  Dover; 
and  on  September  18  defeated  them  in  the 
Downs.  In  November  he  fought  a  terrible 
engagement  against  the  Dutch  under  Van 
Tromp,  whose  forces  were  greatly  superior. 
The  English  were  defoHled  and  compelled  to 


take  refuge  in  the  Thames.  Blake 
in  the  bloody  and  obstinate  enga 
February  and  June,  1653,  but,  os 
health,  took  no  part  in  the  gn 
victory  of  July  29,  in  which  Van 
killed.  When  war  broke  oat  betwc 
and  Spain  in  1656,  Blake  was  a 
command  the  English  fleet  in  tl 
ranean.  In  April  he  performed 
feat  of  sailing  into  the  harbour 
in  spite  of  the  fire  from  the  for 
tureid  a  large  fleet  of  galleons  ^ 
anchor  there.    He  died  the  yea 

J'ust  as  he  was  entering  Plyrn* 
le  was  buried  in  Westminster 
after  the  Restoration  his  remain 
terred  and  hung  at  Tyburn, 
speaks  in  very  high  terms  of  his 
naval  commander.  "He  was  t 
that  declined  the  old  track,  i 
manifest  that  the  science  mighi 
in  less  time  than  was  imagined ; 
those  rules  which  had  been  lon( 
to  keep  his  ship  and  his  men  c 
which  had  been  held  in  former 
of  great  ability  and  circumspect 
principal  art  requisite  in  the 
ship  had  been  to  be  sure  to  coi 
again.*' 

Clazendon,  Hwt.  oftheBebcUu 
MemoriaU:  i^uixot,  CVomwll;  H 
Bob«rt  Blak$ :  ildiiitful  and  Qmier^ 


Blanc]l6|    Daughter    of 
(b.  1392,  d.  1409),  was  married  ii 
of  Bavaria,  eldest  son  of  the  En 

Blanche  of  ILancaste 

TEB.] 

Blanche  of  Navarre,  ^ 

Crouchback  (second  son  of  U( 
mother  of  Thomas  of  Ijancc 
after  the  battle  of  Borough 
was  the  daughter  of  Robert  of 
of  St.  Louis,  and  the  widow  < 
of  Navarre. 

Bland,  John  (July,  1555 
Adisham  in  Kent,  was  one  of 
the  Protestant  persecution  oi 
Being  convicted  of  heresy  b; 
composed  of  Thornton,  Bis 
CoUins,  the  deputy  of  Card 
Nicholas  Harpsfeld,  the  arcl 
burnt  at  Cant^bury. 

Bland's  Case  <io86). 

currier  of  London,  was  broug 
the  House  of  Commons  for  i 
language,  saying  that  the  cur 
justice  in  the  House,  and  tha 
were  unjustly  favoured.  Oi 
poverty  he  was  dismissed  v 
submission  on  his  knees,  an( 
shillings  to  the  sergeant.  T 
tant  precedent  for   the  pow 


( IM) 


Bio 


of  Gommons  to  poniah  even  persons  who  are 
not  memben  for  offences  against  its  privi- 
ifiges. 

D^wes,  J<mnuU$  of  fks  PorttatiMntf  qf  (huen 
muabetk  (1682),  p.  306. 


L  The  name  given  to  a  hody 
of  Manchester  workmen  who  met  at  St. 
Peter's  Field,  March  10,  1817,  each  man 
carrying  a  blanket  or  great  coat  with  him. 
It  was  intended  to  join  tiie  Derby  rioters,  and 
inarch  on  London;  but  the  attempt  proved 
completely  abortive. 

Blaflpliailiy.  Before  the  Reformation, 
offences  against  religion,  of  which  blasphemv 
was  one,  were  almost  exclusively  dealt  with 
in  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  and  several 
statutes,  passed  in  the  fifteenth  century,  gave 
the  bishops  power  to  dee!  with  the  offence. 
These  powers  were  not  finally  dropped  till 
the  temporary  suppression  of  the  ecclesiastical 
coorts  m  1640,  and  their  revival  after  the 
Restoration  without  the  ex^officio  oath.  In  1677 
the  common  law  writ,  de  haretieo  eomburendOy 
was  abolished  by  Parliament ;  but  the  judges 
henceforward  treated  blasphemy  as  an  offence 
at  common  law.  It  has  been  held  to  consist 
of  denial  of  the  being  and  providence  of  GKxl, 
or  uttering  oontumetious  reproaches  against 
Jeeus  Chx^  or  the  Holy  Gnost,  or  denying 
the  truth  of  Christianity.  According  to  the 
celebrated  judgment  of  Lord  Hales  in  the  case 
of  Btx  V.  Taylor,  "  Christianity  being  parcel 
of  the  law  of  England,  to  reproach  the  Chris- 
tian religion  is  to  speak  in  subversion  of  the 
law;  '*  but  in  a  later  case  (1883)  it  has  been 
held  that  a  person  may  attack  the  funda- 
mentals of  religion  without  being  guilty  of 
a  blasphemous  libel  "  if  the  decencies  of  con- 
troversy are  ob6er\'ed.**  Penalties  against 
blasphemy  were  enacted  by  9  and  1 1  Will.  III., 
cap.  32,  and  by  53  (reo.  III.,  c.  160.  In  Scot- 
land a  statute  of  1661  prescribed  the  penalty 
of  death  for  blasphemy,  which  was  mitigated 
to  fines  and  imprisonment  by  6  Geo.  IV.,  and 
7  Will.  IV.,  and  1  Vict.,  c.  6. 

Kir  J.  Stephen,  Uwt.  o/  ike  Criminal  Lair,  U. 
3B6,ftc 


BlenllOtmy  Thb  Battlb  op  (Aug.  13, 
1704),  was  fought  during  the  third  campaign 
in  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession. 
Louis  XIV.  had  determined  to  menace 
Viemia,  hoping  to  strike  at  the  heart  of  the 
Austrian  power,  and  at  the  same  time  to  make 
fall  uae  of  the  assistance  of  his  Bavarian  ally. 
Marlborough,  however,  perceived  his  object 
snd  effected  a  junction  with  Prince  Eugene, 
who  commanded  the  Imperial  forces  in  Wiir- 
tembeig.  They  were  hampered  by  their 
coUeagoe,  Prince  Louis  of  Baden,  a  general  of 
the  old  formal  schooL  The  Schellenberg,  a 
hin  above  Bonauwfirth,  was  stormed,  and 
the  Bavarians  driven  from  it.  Next  day 
Marshal  TaUard  effected  a  junction  with  the 
annies  of  Marshal  Miu«n  and  the  Elector  of 
Bavaria.  Marlborough  and  Eugene  got  rid 
Hw.-C* 


of  Louis  of  Baden  by  persuading  htm  to  attack 

the  fortress  of  Ingolstadt,  and  prepared  for  a 

decisive  battle  near  Blindtheim  or  Blenheim. 

This  village  was  situated  on  the  northern  bank 

of  the  Danube,  near  the  place  where  it  is 

joined  by  a  little  brook,  the  NcbeL  About  two 

miles  away,  and  nearlv  parallel  to  the  river,  is 

a  range  of  low  wooded  hills.  The  small  stream 

of  the  Nebel  runs  from  these  hills.      The 

Nebel  divided  the  two  armies.    Marlborough 

commanded    the  left  of   the    allied    forces, 

Eugene  the  right.     Tallard  was  opposed  to 

Marlborough,  the    Elector  of   Bavaria  and 

Marsin  to  Eugene.    Tallard  committed  the 

great  error  of  throwing  all  his  best  troops 

into  Blenheim,  thereby  weakening  the  centre. 

The  attack  of  Lord  Cutts  on  the  Ullage  was 

repulsed.    Marlborough,  seeing  the  weakness 

of  the  French  centre,  threw  his  cavalry  across 

the  Nebel,  and  after  a  terrific  struggle  cut 

the  French  line  in  two.     Meanwhile,  on  the 

right,  Eugene  only  saved  the  battle  by  the 

steadiness    of  his   Prussian    infantry.      He 

had  been  greatly  hampered  by  the  difficulties 

of  the  ground.    Marlborough's  cavalry  charge 

on  the  French  centre  had  won  the  day.    lie 

French    cavalry    fled;    Tallard    was   taken 

prisoner.     The  French  troops  in  Blenheim 

were  surrounded,  and    surrendered   after  a 

gallant  resistance ;  but    the  forces  opposed 

to  Eugene  retreated  in    good    order-    The 

allies    are    computed   to   have   lost    11,000 

men  out  of  an  army  of  62,000,  the  French 

altogether  40,000  out  of   60,000,   including 

14,000  prisoners.    The  broken  army  of  the 

enemy  retreated  with  extreme  rapidity,  and 

witharew  beyond  the  Rhine. 

Marlborough's  CorT9»gondinc* ;  Coxe,  Hart. 
hwougK;  Aliaon,  Li/«  of  MarVbwovugh ;  Stsjihope, 
Beign  of  Qimch  ilnne. 

Bli^ll,  Captain  William,  well  known  in 
connection  with  the  mutiny  on  the  Bountp, 
in  April,  1789,  which  was  caused  by  his 
tyrannical  conduct,  was  in  1S06  appointed 
Governor  of  New  South  Wales,  but  his  ap- 
pointment was  so  unpopular,  and  his  conduct 
so  harsh  and  despotic,  that  in  January,  1808, 
he  was  deposed  by  the  colonists,  and  the  other 
civil  and  military  officers  of  the  colony,  and 
sent  back  to  England.    [Pitcaikn  Island.] 

Blockftda.  [Neutralitv  ;  Armed  Neu- 
TRALiTT ;  Paris,  Dbclakation  of.] 

Blockade^  The  American.  It  is  a  prin- 
ciple of  international  ^aw  that  a  State  cannot 
blockade  its  own  porte  When,  therefore,  the 
American  Civil  War  broke  out- in  1861^ 
President  Lincoln  had  to  choose  between  the 
blockade  or  the  declaration  that  the  Con- 
federate ships  were  pirates.  The  American 
government  chose  the  former,  and  on  the 
1 9th  of  April  declared  the  ports  of  the  revolted 
provinces  to  be  blockaded.  This  practically 
recognised  the  existence  of  war  with  the 
Confederates,  and  the  English  government 
were  therefore  justified  in    recognising    the 


Bio 


(170) 


Boa 


Southern  States  as  belligerents,  which  was 
done  May  14,  1861.  The  Federal  govern- 
ment protested  that  the  recognition  by  Eng- 
land was  an  unfriendly  act,  but  subsequent 
writers  on  international  law,  both  American 
and  English,  are  agreed  that  England  was 
acting  strictly  according  to  the  recognised 
principles  of  the  law  of  nations. 

Wheaton,    Intematicnal    Law;    Phillimore, 
Tntemaiional  Law. 

■  Bl06t,  Robert,  Bishop  of  Lincoln  {d. 
1123),  though  bom  of  obscure  parentage,  was 
Chancellor  in  1090,  which  office  he  held  till 
his  appointment  to  the  see  of  Lincoln  in 
1093.  He  became  one  of  Henry  L*s  chief 
ministers,  and  is  the  first  man  to  whom  is 

Siven  the  title  of  Justiciar,  indicating  a 
trfinite  office.  He  held  this  office  from  1100 
to  1107,  when  he  probably  fell  out  of  favour 
with  the  king,  and  retired  into  private  life. 
Henry  of  Huntingdon,  who  was  brought  up 
by  the  bishop,  g^ves  an  interesting  picture  of 
his  household,  and  says  that  Bloet  **  excelled 
all  other  men  in  grace  of  person,  in  serenity 
of  temper,  and  in  courtesy  of  speech." 

Henry  o(  Himtingdon,  Hist,  Anglor.,  p.  800 
(Bolls  Series). 

Blois,  Peter  of  {d.  1200),  was  descended 
from  a  noble  family  of  Brittany,  and  studied 
at  Paris  and  Bologna.  Subsequently  he 
opened  a  school  at  Paris,  and  was  invited  to 
England  by  Henry  II.  He  became  Chancellor 
of  Canterbury  Cathedral,  and  afterwards 
Archdeacon  of  Bath,  but  was  deprived  of  it 
for  his  attachment  to  William  Longchamp. 
Afterwards,  however,  he-  was  made  Area- 
deacon  of  London  and  prebendary  of  St. 
Paul's.  He  was  the  author  of  numerous 
letters,  more  than  200  of  which  are  extant. 
Many  of  them  are  very  valuable  for  their 
notices  of  the  politics  and  maimers  of  the 
writer's  age.  The  Continuation  of  In- 
gulfs History  of  Crowlandfrom  1089  to  1117 
professes  to  have  been  written  by  Peter  of 
Blois ;  but  it  is  probable  that  it  was  composed 
at  a  later  date. 

Hardy,  D^xripHv  Catalogue,  ii.  128.  Peter  of 
Blois'  Epistles  were  printed  by  Dr.  Giles  in  the 
Patru  Bed$nai  Anglioance,  Oxford,  1847;  and 
thej  will  be  fooud  in  Migne,  PatrUonia,  vol. 
207. 

Blondel,  or  Blondiaa,  db  Nbslb,  was 

a. celebrated  French  troubHdour  who  became 
attached  to  the  court  of  Richard  I.  He  is 
said  to  have  di8cx)vered  the  place  of  the  king's 
imprisonment  in  Germany  by  singing  the 
king's  own  favourite  lays  before  each  keep  and 
fortress  till. the  unfinished  song  was  at  length 
taken  up  and  answered  from  the  windows  of 
the  castle  of  Loewenstein,  where  Richard  was 
imprisoned.  The  story,  however,  does  not 
appear  to  be  older  than  the  fifteenth  century. 

Blondel,  Robert  {b,  1390  ?  d.  1460  ?),  was 
a  member  of  the  court  of  Charles  VIL 
of  France,  and  was  chaplain  to  Queen  Mary 


of  Anion.  He  wrote  several  work 
to  exaito  his  countrymen  to  shal 
English  yoke,  and  was  the  author 
called  JDe  Reduetione  Normannia,  ' 
highly  valuable  contemporary  narrs 
expulsion  of  the  English  from 
France. 

Blondel's  D«  R«i.  Iforman.  is  pi 
Stevenson's  £«ptU<wm  of  th«  £njli 
mandy  (Soils  SeriesX  186S. 

Blood,  CoLONBL  Thomas  (d. 
an  Irish  soldier  of  fortune  rem 
his  reckless  audacity.    In  1663  1 
conspiracy   to   seize  Dublin  Gas 
plot  being  discovered,  he  lied, 
seized  the  Duke  of  Omiond  in 
of  London  with  the  intention  of  \ 
at  Tyburn,  but  the  duke  fortunal 
In  the  next  year  Blood  distinguii 
by  attempting  to  carry  off  the  i 
the  Tower,  and  very  nearly  suco 
object.     Ciiarles  II.,  however,  pi 
and  gave  him  an  estate  worth  £5( 

Blore  Eeath,  The  Battle  c 
fought,  during  the  Wars  of  th 
tween  the  Lancastrians,  under  1 
and  the  Yorkists,  who  were  comii 
Earl  of  SaUsbury.  The  latter  ^ 
southwards  with  the  intention  < 
junction  with  the  Duke  of  Yo; 
Audley  was  despatched  to  ii 
They  met  on  Blore  Heath,  ab( 
and  a  half  from  Market  Draytoi 
shire.  The  Yorkists,  thougl 
numbers,  were  completely  vit-t 
Audley,  and  many  other  leadir 
same  side,  were  killed,  and  a  la 
prisoners  were  taken.  Salisl 
march  was  uninterrupted,  and 
junction  with  the  Duke  of  Yor 

Boadioea,  Bnddig,  or  S 

ordinary  form  of  the  name  ha 
tised  as  "  the  gibberish  of  editoi 
the  widow  of  Prasutagus,  chi 
and  was  the  leader  of  the  fsx^a 
the  Romans  in  the  time  of  Suet 
The  tyranny  and  oppression  oi 
had  been  brought  to  a  dinifi 
cious  treatment  to  which  Bg 
daughters  were  subjected,  ; 
she  headed  was  a  national  or 
most  of  the  peoples  of  Cent 
Britain.  Her  succors  at  first 
The  Romans  were  slaug^ht 
numbers,  and  many  of  their 
taken,  including  the  colonies  c 
Londinium,  and  VerulaniiuT 
turn  of  Suetonius  and  liis 
the  tide,  and  the  British  w 
feated  in  a  great  battle 
According  to  Tacitus,  Hoa 
suicide,  but  Dio  Cassiiis  asse 
a  natural    death.       Ser     re 


(  171  ) 


Boll 


RomanB  that  the  Britona  were  still  capable  of 
resistanoe  to  oppreenon,  and  the  recall  of 
Suetonius  in  the  next  year  was  the  inaugura- 
tion of  a  milder  and  more  conciliatory  policy. 

T^ftdtofl,  Annala,  zIt.  81,  ko.;  Agricola,  15; 
Dio  OmAxa,  jH.  1,  IS. 

Board  of  Control,  Board  of  Trade, 

kc     [CoMTSOL,  Board  op;  Trade,  Board 

OF,  &C  J 

Booher,  Joan  (Joan  of  Kent),  was  an 
Anabaptist  who  was  condemned  by  the  com- 
missiimers  impointed  to  inquire  into  heresy 
in  1549.  'Hieir  report  bein^  that  she  held 
heretical  and  erroneous  opinions  on  the 
zuiture  of  the  incarnation,  she  was  burnt  to 
death  May  2nd,  1550.  ''She  died,**  says 
Mr.  Froude  {Hi*t.  of  Eng.,  v.  291),  "  being 
one  of  the  very  few  victims  of  the  ancient 
hatred  of  heresy  with  which  the  Beformed 
Church  of  England  has  to  charge  itself." 

Booland,  in  Anglo-Saxon  legal  phrase- 
ology, was  that  land  which  was  held  by  book 
or  charter.  Originally,  it  was  distinguished 
both  from  the  "  Folcland,**  or  public  domain, 
and  from  the  "ethel,"  or  estate,  which  was 
held  by  an  individual  by  prescriptive  right. 
But  in  later  times  the  characteristics  of  ethel 
land  were  lost,  and  bocland  was  equivalent  to 
"alod,"  or  land  which  was  held  in  full 
ownership  by  an  individual,  whether  it  had 
been  inherited  as  part  of  an  original  allot- 
ment, or  whether  it  had  been  separated  from 
the  public  land  and  allotted  to  an  individual 
by  the  king  and  the  Witan,  by  charter  or 
legal  process.  Bocland  might  be  alienated 
inter  vivotj  or  devised  by  will,  and  it  might 
be  entailed  or  otherwise  limited  in  descent. 
The  owner  was  not  liable  to  any  public 
burdens  on  his  land,  except  the  trinoda  neeet- 
tt^s*.    [Laitd,  Tkkurb  of.] 

8ehmid,  OtM$tr§  der  AMtUachMut,  p.  5S8;  Allen, 
Or  tk4  Preropottvtf,  p.  148 ;  Beeves,  tfiat.  of  Bng. 
Law,  i.  5  (ed.  of  1809);  Spelmaa,  QXotaary ; 
Lodge,  FrnoM  <m  itnylo-SoxoA  Lom;  Stabbs, 
CwuL  Ritt.,  L  85. 

Boeoe,  or  BoetilUi,  Hrctob  {b.  1466  ?  d, 
1536J,  Scottish  historian,  was  bom  at  Dundee, 
studied  at  Aberdeen  and  Paris,  and  became 
first  Principa]  of  the  King's  College  at 
Aberdeen.  He  was  the  author  of  a  Iffistory 
of  Scotland,  first  published  in  Latin  in  1526, 
and  translated  into  English  by  Bellenden  ten 
years  later.  It  is  composed  with  a  good  deal 
of  literary  skill,  but  is  altogether  valueless  as 
an  authority,  the  narrative  being  full  of 
legends  and  romantic  tales  of  all  kinds. 
Boece*8  History  was  very  popular,  and 
through  it,  as  Mr.  Burton  says,  "the  won- 
drous tale  of  the  annals  of  Scotland  got  a 
bold  on  the  European  mind." 

A  metrical  verrion  of  the  BwOt  of  iJu  Chronu^et 
of  aeoOand  of  BatAor  BoyU  was  ezeoated  by 
William  Sfeewazd  at  the  ooxnmand  of  Margaret, 
wife  of  Jamea  IV.  It  haa  been  edited  by 
Kr.  W.  B.  Tnmball  in  tbe  Bolla  Series  (1^. 


BollOmia,  Relations  with.  Dealings 
between  England  and  Bohemia  begin  with  the 
grant  of  the  Emperor  Henry  YIL  to  his 
son  John,  which  established  a  German  line 
of  kings  in  Bohemia,  and  involved  it  in 
Western  politics.  John  constantly  resided 
in  France,  and,  as  the  opponent  of  Louis  of 
Bavaria  and  the  friend  of  Philip  of  Valois, 
was  led  by  his  restless  chivalry  to  take  part 
in  the  war  against  England,  which  ended  by 
his  death  at  Crecy  (1346).  His  son,  Charles 
IV.,  was  of  a  more  practical  temperament ; 
and  the  same  Diet  at  Metz  which  accepted 
the  Golden  Bull  witnessed  his  attempted 
mediation  between  France  and  England.  In 
time  more  intimate  relation^  grew  up  on  the 
marriage  of  Anne  of  Bohemia,  his  daughter, 
with  Richard  II.  Under  Wenzel,  her 
brother,  still  more  than  under  Charles,  the 
Luxemburg  house  had  become  national  Kings 
of  Bohemia  at  the  expense  of  the  Imperial 
dig^ty,  which  degenerated  into  a  mere  title. 
Hence  close  dealings  between  Bohemia  and 
England ;  and  as  Catholicism  and  the  Papacy 
were  associated  with  the  hated  German  in- 
fluence, the  Bohemian  national  party  greedily 
listened  to  the  doctrines  of  Wiclif,  which 
aU  the  Bohemians  at  Richard's  court  had 
ample  opportunities  of  learning.  What  in 
Englana  was  mere  abstract  diaufectic,  and  at 
best  the  expression  of  inarticulate,  discontent, 
was  turned  by  Bohemian  patriotism  into  the 
watchwords  of  a  national  party  of  religious 
Puritanism.  Prague  became  a  more  popular 
Oxford.  Jerome  of  Prague  actually  brought 
Wiclif  s  teaching  from  the  Thames  to  the 
Moldau.  The  direction  taken  by  Huss  was 
entirely  the  result  of  English  influence.  In 
one  library  there  are  still  five  treatises  of 
Wiclif  copied  out  in  his  own  hand,  with 
copious  notes.  Henry  V.  had  already  become 
intimately  allied  to  Sigismund,  by  their  com- 
mon efforts  to  restore  the  unity  of  Christen- 
dom. A  fresh  link  of  orthodox  antagonism 
to  heresy  united  the  sovereigns  if  it  separated 
the  peoples.  The  Council  of  Constance 
marks  the  time  of  their  closest  approxima- 
tion. With  the  suppression  of  the  national 
movement,  Bohemia  sinks  into  insignificance 
or  dependence.  Ferdinand  I.  unites  its 
crown  with  the  Austrian  house.  Only  on 
the  last  attempt  at  the  assertion  of  Bohemian 
nationality,  which  in  1618  led  to  the  en- 
deavour to  set  aside  Ferdinand  of  Styria  for 
Frederick  of  the  Palatinate,  the  son-in-law 
of  James  I.,  were  direct  relations  between 
the  two  States  renewed.  But  though  the 
cause  of  the  Protestant  Pfalzgraf,  was 
exceedingly  popular  in  England,  James  re- 
fused to  support  him  until  it  was  too  late. 
The  Wttle  on  the  Weissberg  (1620)  destroved 
at  once  the  fortunes  of  Frederick  and  Ehza- 
beth,  and  the  nationality  and  independence 
of  the  Czech  kingdom. 

Palacky,  GetchicM4  von  BShmtn^  is  perhaps 
the  best  general  authority  on  Bohemian  history. 


Boh 


(172) 


Bol 


Greighton'a  History  qf  tht  Papacy  (Bk.  IL,  ch. 
iii.  and  iv.)  brinfls  out  very  clearly  the  oon- 
neotion  between  HiiBe  and  WfcUf .  Cf .  aCilman, 
Latin  Ckri§tianity  (toI.  viii.),  and  Lena,  KSnia 
Sitf^tmund  «nd  RavnrieK  F.  For  the  history  of 
the  Pfaltnaf'a  relations  with  England.  s«« 
S.  B.  Gardiner,  KiA,  of  Bug,,  leoS^lMi. 

[T.  F.  T.] 

Bohim.  The  Family  of,  was  founded  by 
a  certain  Humphrey  de  Bohun,  said  to  have 
been  a  kinaman  of  William  I.  In  1199 
Henry  de  Bohun  was  created  fkurl  of  Here- 
ford by  John  (apparently  inheriting  the 
office  of  Ck>n8table  from  his  father  Humphrey, 
whose  mother  was  the  daughter  of  Miles, 
Earl  of  Hereford  and  Lord  High  Conatable). 
He  married  the  daughter  of  Geoffrey  Fitz- 
Peter,  Earl  of  Essex,  and  upon  the  death  of 
his  brother-in-law,  the  last  Earl  of  Essex  of 
the  house  of  Mandeville,  succeeded  to  his 
estates.  His  son  Humphrey,  second  Earl  of 
Hereford,  was  created  Earl  of  Essex  about 
1236.  William  de  Bohun — who  fougfht  at 
Crecy — fourth  son  of  the  fourth  Earl  of 
Hereford,  was  created  Earl  of  Northampton 
1337.  His  son  succeeded  to  the  earldoms  of 
Hereford,  Essex,  and  Northampton,  and  died 
1372,  leaving  two  daughters,  Eleanor — who 
married  Thomas  of  Woodstock,  Duke  of 
Gloucester — and  Mary — who  married  Henry 
of  BoUngbroke  (afterwards  Henry  lY.),  who 
thus  gained  the  earldoms  of  Hereford,  Essex, 
and  Northampton. 

Boifl-le-Dno,  Trb  Battle  of  (Nov.  12, 
1794)^  was  fought  during  the  campaign  of  the 
allies  with  the  English  contingent  under  the 
Duke  of  York,  in  Flanders.  For  some  time 
past  great  preparations  had  been  pushed 
forward  by  Moreau  in  obedience  to  the  in- 
structions of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety 
at  Paris,  who  were  resolved  on  subjugating 
Holland  while  the  severity  of  the  winter 
had  neutralised  the  defensive  advantages  of 
the  country.  To  carry  out  this  project,  the 
first  step  was  to  cross  the  Meuse,  and,  with 
this  object  in  view,  boats  for  a  bridge  had 
been  collected  at  Fort  Cr^vectieur  on  that 
river.  When  all  preparations  had  been  com- 
pleted, the  passage  was  attempted  at  day- 
break on  the  12th.  But  the  firm  resistance 
of  the  allies,  under  the  Duke  of  York,  pre- 
vented all  the  attempts  of  the  French,  though 
Moreau  omitted  no  pains  or  skill;  and  at 
length,  seeing  that  it  was  impossible  to  carry 
the  passage,  that  able  engineer  desisted  from 
the  attempt,  and  placed  his  troops  in  winter 
quarters  between  the  Meuse  and  the  Rhine. 
Alison,  H%$t.  of  Europe. 

Bolosrn,  Anne.     [Anne  Boletn.] 

BoloSTlIy  Mary.  An  elder  sister  of  Anne 
Boleyn,  second  queen  of  Henry  VIII.,  and 
at  one  time  herself  an  object  of  the  king*s 
passionate  admiration.  This,  however,  was 
one  of  Henry's  earlier  attachments,  and  took 
place   at  a  period  when  his   affection   for 


Catherine  of  Arragon  was  still 
strong  to  prevent  his  seriously  e 
any  idea  of  a  second  marriage  by 
divorce.  Mary  Boleyn  married 
1621,  Sir  William  Pavey,  a  descoi 
Beaufort  family,  and,  disappearin 
from  the  vicinity  of  the  court, 
any  renewal  of '  the  fickle  king' 
attentions. 

Bolesm,    Sir    Thomas.      | 
Ea&l  of.] 

BoUngbroke,  Henry.    [H 
BoUngbroke,  Henry  St. 

count  (*.  1678,  d.  1751),  th( 
Henry  St.  John,  was  educated 
Christ  Church.  In  the  year  170 
and  in  the  following  year  en 
ment  for  Wootton  Bassett,  t 
himself  to  Harley  and  the  To 
Harley  was  appointed  Secretar 
1706,  St.  John  was  made  Secre 
He  retired  with  Harley  in  1 
turned,  when  the  Tories  cai 
after  the  Sacheverell  episode,  ii 
of  the  Secretaries  of  State.  Tl 
that  party  was  a  doubtful  and  c 
Peace  was  loudly  called  for 
of  the  people,  and  was  in  itse 
enough  object.  But  there  is  lit 
in  excuse  of  the  steps  by  which 
about.  Under  St.  John's  con 
deserted  her  allies,  and,  in  v 
her    agreements,    proceeded 

Private  negotiations  with  Fran> 
'reaty  of.]  At  home  the  To 
engaged  in  a  course  of  intri 
object  of  counteracting  the  prt 
Whigs  were  sui-e  to  gain  uiid< 
Hanover.  The  army  and  tl 
were  being  gradually  filled  ' 
were  really  Jacobites,  and  th 
to  have  been  entertained 
the  succession.  The  strug 
between  Harley,  now  Karl  < 
Bolingbroke  (called  to  the 
as  Viscount  Bolingbroke  i 
fered  with  this  project,  an 
weakened  the  party.  Throu^ 
of  lady  Masham  with  the 
was  dismissed  in  July  2,  171 
broke*s  tenure  of  undivided 
short.  On  the  30ih  of  Jul; 
seized  with  the  attack  of  apo 
to  prove  fatal  to  her,  At  tl 
was  summoned  on  the  omorj 
Dukes  Argyle,  Somerset,  i 
succeeded  in  carrying  the  ret 
the  last-named  became  Lore 
the  death  of  the  queen  (Aug 
deliberated,  and  was  lost.  ' 
seized  the  reins  of  govern xnei 
Elector  king,  and  sent  special 
moning  him  to  England.  Th 
was  violently  Whig.     Holii 


Bol 


(  J73  ) 


Bon 


that  he  would  be  impeached,  fled  to  France 
(March  25, 1715).  On  the  10th  of  June  he 
was  impeached,  and  on  the  16th  of  September 
his  name  was  strack  off  the  list  of  peers  and 
seDtence  of  banishment  was  passed  upon  him. 
He  now  entered  the  service  of  the  Pretender, 
and  was  nominated  by  that  prince  his  Secre- 
tary  of  State;  but  in  1716  he  was  dismissed 
from  the  prince's  employment,  and  a  breach 
took  place  between  him  and  the  extreme 
Jacobites.  For  some  years  he  remained  in 
France,  devoting  bimfwlf  chiefly  to  study 
and  to  the  society  of  the  Marquise  de 
Villette,  a  niece  of  Madame  de  Maintenon, 
whom  he  ultimately  married.  In  1723 
he  was  permitted  to  return  to  England, 
and  an  Act  of  parliament  was  passed  al- 
lowing him  to  enjoy  his  property;  but  he 
was  still  excluded  from  the  House  of  Lords. 
He  joined  the  opposition  against  Walpole, 
and  for  many  years  carried  on  relentless 
hostilities  with  that  minister  by  means  of  in- 
trigue and  political  journalism.  He  con- 
tributed largely  to  the  Craftsman^  a.  periodical 
which  had  a  large  circulation,  and    a  re- 

f  station  very  damaging  to  Walpole*s  cause, 
n  1735,  however,  he  found  it  prudent  onc« 
more  to  withdraw  to  France,  where  he  re- 
mained till  1742.  On  the  fall  of  Walpole, 
he  found  that  his  allies  in  opposition  were 
not  disposed  to  admit  him  to  any  share  of 
power.  He  witiidrew  altogether  from  politics, 
and  spent  the  remaining  nine  years  of 
his  life  in  philosophical  retirement  at 
Battersea.  Bolingbroke*s  writings  produced 
more  effect  on  the  thought  of  the  eighteenth 
century  than  their  intnnsic  merits  seem  to 
warrant.  His  political  and  historical  works, 
of  which  the  diief  are  Lettert  oti  the  Study 
o/  Hittory,  JUmarkt  on  the  Hietory  of  Eng- 
land^ A  DtMnertation  upon  FartUs,  The  Idea  of 
«  Ffttriot  King,  and  A  Letter  to  Sir  WiUiam 
fFrndkaiUfSre  evidently  composed  in  great  part 
to  justify  his  own  action  in  pubHc  life ;  but 
they  contain  a  good  deal  of  suggestive  disqui- 
sition, and  some  flne  passages  of  declamatory 
eloquence. 

B'>lingbn>ke*B  Worke  were  published  by  Mallet 
in  1754  in  5  Tola.  His  Correepcndenee  appeared 
fai  1798,  edited  by  Gilbert  Parke.  See  also  the 
essay  on  Bolingbroke  in  'R4mwaa.ttL*Angleterre  au 
Die-huitiimeSiide ;  G.  W.  Ck)oke,  Menurin  of 
Mingbroke,  1835;  Hackniffht,  Lif»  of  BoHng- 
broke,  1883;  Harrop,  Botingbroke;  Broach,  Bolina- 
broke  und  die  Whigit  von  aeiner  Zeit,  1883 ;  Ck>ze  s 
WaJjtoU  :  and  the  Stuart  Popfrs.      [S.  J.  L.] 

Bdingtooke,  Roger  (d.  1441),  a  chap- 
lain of  flumphrey,  Duke  of  Gloucester,  was 
(executed  for  having  conspired  with  Eleanor 
Cobham,  Duchese  of  Gloucester,  to  destroy 
King  Henry  YI.  by  magical  incantations. 

Bolton  Castle,  in  the  West  Riding  of 
Yorkahire,  was  the  scene  of  Mary  Stusrt's 
imprisonment,  1568.  The  intrigues  of  the 
Queen  of  Scots  caused  her  to  be  removed 
in  the    following    year    to    the    **  straiter 


custody  ''  of  the    Earl   of  Shrewsbury    at 
Tutbury. 

Bombay.  A  presidency  and  govemorslup 
of  British  India.  The  town  and  island  of 
Bombay  were  ceded  to  England  in  1661,  as 
part  of  the  dowry  of  Catherine  of  Braganza 
on  her  marriage  with  Charles  II.  A  few 
years  afterwards  it  was  handed  over  to  the 
East  India  Company  in  return  for  a  nominal 
annual  payment.  In  1687  Bombay  was  con- 
stituted a  separate  presidency ;  but  in  1753 
it  was  under  the  authority  of  the  Calcutta 
government.  The  dominions  of  the  presi- 
dency were  very  limited  in  extent  until  the 
wars  with  the  Mahrattas,  comprehending  only 
the  town  and  island  of  Bombay,  with  Salsette 
and  Bassein ;  but  by  the  end  of  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  Marquis  of  Hastings  it  included 
Surat,  Broach,  Ahmednuggur,  Belgaum, 
Sholapoor,  and  the  whole  dominions  which 
had  belonged  to  the  Poonah  state,  with  the 
exception  of  Sattara,  which  was  annexed  in 
1848.  In  1843,  on  the  conquest  of  Scinde, 
that  province  was  also  placed  under  the 
Governor  of  Bombay. 

Bond  of  Associatioa  (1584).  [As- 
sociation.] 

BonifiEuse  of  Savoj  (<f-  1270),  Arch- 
bishop  of  Canterbury  (1246—1270),  was  the 
son  of  Thomas,  Count  of  Savoy,  and  conse- 
quently uncle  to  Eleanor  of  Provence,  wife 
of  Henry  III.  To  this  connection  he  owed 
his  appointment  to  the  archbishopric.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  unclerical  and  most 
unpopular  of  our  archbishops ;  his  sympathies 
were  with  the  foreigners  at  Henry  III.'s 
court,  and  his  tastes  were  military.  At 
times  when  his  interests  seemed  to  be  opposed 
by  the  Poitevins  he  sided  with  the  Barons, 
but  his  policy  was  a  purelv  selfish  one,  and 
seen  through  by  all  parties.  During  the 
Barons'  War  he  was  absent  from  England, 
but  returned  after  the  battle  of  Evesham, 
and  is  said  to  have  accompanied  Prince 
Edward  on  his  Crusade. 


J,  Saint  (ft.  680,  d.  766),  bom  at 

Crediton,  was  a  monk  of  the  Exeter  monas- 
tery. His  original  name  was  Winfrith.  In 
715  he  set  out  for  Rome,  and  received  a 
commission  to  preach  to  the  heathen  nations 
of  Germany.  His  earnest  missionary  labours 
met  with  the  greatest  success  in  Friesland, 
Thuringia,  and  Franconia,  and  immense 
numbers  were  converted.  He  laboured  in 
Central  Germany  for  more  than  thirty  years, 
and  established  the  bishoprics  of  Salzburg, 
Passau,  Freisingen,  Ratisbon,  Wurzburg,  and 
Erfurt,  and  a  very  large  number  of  monas- 
teries. His  influence  in  civilising  and  evan- 
gelising the  wilder  parts  of  Germany  was 
very  great.  Besides  his  labours  as  a  mis- 
sionary, and  organiser  of  the  newly  converted 
districts,  Boniface  was  equally  great  as  the 
restorer  of  the  older  Churches  on  the  Rhine 


Boa 


(IH) 


Bor 


and  Danube.  He  became  ArchbiBhop  of  Mainz, 
and  his  efforts  made  that  see  the  Canterbury 
of  Germany.  He  was  assisted  by  numerous 
missionaries,  whom  he  sent  for  from  Britain, 
and  was  high  in  favour  with  the  Garolingian 
princes.  Pepin  was  crowned  king  by  Boni- 
face at  Soissons.  In  765  he  made  his  last 
missionary  journey  into  Friesland ;  but  near 
Dokkeim  he  was  attacked  and  slain  by  a 
band  of  the  Pagans.  His  remains  were  buried 
in  one  of  the  most  famous  of  his  abbeys — 
that  of  Fulda. 

The  Work$  of  St.  BonifBoe  were  published  by 
Dr.  Giles  (London,  184S).  See  also  VUa  8. 
Bonifacii  in  Mabillon,  vol.  ivj  Belter,  Boni- 
faciuB,  1846;  Neander,  Church  uittory, 

Bomlagh  Commoay   in   County  Tip- 

Serary,  was  the  place  where,  on  July  29, 1848, 
mith  O'Brien  appeared  before  the  house 
of  a  widow  named  Cormac,  which  had  been 
taken  possession  of  by  fifty  constabulary,  and 
took  up  a  position  in  front  of  it  with  his 
followers.  The  constables  fired,  and,  another 
party  coming  up  at  the  same  moment,  under 
the  command  of  Mr.  Cox  and  of  Mr.  French, 
a  magistrate,  the  rebels  fled,  leaving  eighteen 
dead  and  many  wounded  behind  them ;  none 
of  the  constabulary  were  wounded.  This 
action,  such  as  it  was,  put  an  end  to  the 
Irish  **  insurrection  "  of  1848. 

Bonner,  Edmund  {b,  1496,  d.  1669),  suc- 
cessively Bishop  of  Hereford  and  of  London, 
said  to  have  been  the  natural  son  of  a  ^est 
named  Savage,  studied  at  Broadgates  Hall, 
Oxford,  and  became  one  of  Wolsey's 
chaplains.  He  subsequently  attached  him- 
self to  Cromwell,  and  in  1533  was  sent 
on  a  mission  to  the  Pope  about  the  Divorce 
question.  According  to  Burnet,  his  de- 
meanour greatly  enraged  Clement,  "  who 
talked  of  throwing  him  into  a  cauldron  of 
melted  lead,  or  of  burning  him  alive."  In 
1538  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Hereford, 
and  in  1539  translated  to  London.  During 
Henry  VIII.'s  reign  Bonner  was  a  leading 
member  of  the  Anglican  Conservative  party 
led  by  Gardiner  and  Norfolk,  but  on  the  ac- 
cession of  Edward  YI.  he  declined  to  follow 
the  advanced  Reformers,  and  protested  against 
Cranmer's  homilies  and  injunctions.  For 
this  Bonner  was  committed  to  the  Fleet,  but 
soon  released;  but  in  1549  he  was  tried 
by  a  special  commission,  deprived  of  his 
bishopric,  and  imprisoned  in  the  Marshalsea. 
He  was  restored  by  Queen  Mary,  and  was 
one  of  the  most  active  agents  in  carrying  out 
her  reactionary  policy.  He  restored  the 
Mass  in  St.  Paul's  even  before  the  publi- 
cation of  the  royal  ordinance  which  com- 
manded it,  accepted  the  restoration  of  the 
papal  authority,  despite  his  former  policy, 
and  his  diocese  was  distinguished  by  the 
number  of  persons  burnt  m  it,  and  the 
vindictive  energy  with  which  the  bishop 
pushed  on  the  work    of    persecution.      At 


the  accession  of  Queen  Elizabet 

appeared  before  the  queen  to 

allegiance,  she  shrank  from  hiii 

disguised  aversion.    In  May,  l&i 

to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy, 

prived  and  indicted  for  pramuni 

committed  to  the  Marahaleea,  wh< 

the  rest  of  his  life. 

Calendar  of  8tot#  Paptn;  "* 
Oxonxeneee ;  Biograykia  Britani 
RUL  of  the  fi^ormation  ;  Frouda 

Book  of  Common  Fray« 

Book.] 

Bookof  Diaoiplino.  LDisc 

of.] 

Book  of  Sports,  &c    [8 

OP,  &c.] 

Booth.  Lawrencb  (d.  1480), 
OF  York  (1476—1480),  after  h< 
minor  preferments,  was  in  14 
Bishop  of  Durham.  He  sided  ^ 
castrians,  and  his  temporalities'^ 
Edward  IV.,  but  he  subaequen 
himself  with  the  king,  and  in  1 
Lord  Chancellor,  and  held  the  i 
eighteen  months.  He  was  apj 
archbishopric  of  York  in  1476. 

Borden,  The.  The  En| 
established  in  the  north-east  • 
kingdom  of  Northumberland,  'v 
from  the  Humber  to  the  Fo 
this  the  Celtic  kingdom  of  i:j 
tended  from  the  Dee  to  the 
were  the  Celtic  kingdoms  of 
Scots.  In  827  Northumborlan 
the  supremacy  of  Egbert,  Ki 
and  after  the  repulse  of  th 
supremacy  was  still  further  exi 
the  princes  of  Northumberlai 
and  Scotland  submitted  to  Ed' 
In  945  the  kingdom  of  Strati 
quered,  but  Galloway  and  Ci 
granted  to  the  Scottish  king, 
thian  was  granted  to  the  Scot 
by  Edgar  or  Canute.  In  IC 
took  Cumberland,  and  from 
boundaries  between  'Englan< 
were  the  Solway,  the  Chevio 
River  Tweed.  At  the  time 
Conquest,  Scotland  becanie 
many  of  the  English,  and  L 
the  most  purely  Bnf^lish  \ 
kingdoms.  WiUiam  I.,  findj 
keep  his  hold  on  the  northe 
land,  resorted  in  1069  to  the 
of  ravaging  Northamberlanc 
counties  were  laid  "waste,  an< 
inroads  of  the  Scottish  kin 
work  of  devastation.  Thenon 
omitted  in  the  Domesday  ^ 
because  they  were  not  consi 
trouble  of  examining'.  The 
England  and  Scothuid  expos 
perpetual  ravages.    But  attet 


Bor 


(  175  ) 


Bor 


introduce  order,  and  the  thirteenth,  oentury 
saw  Cumherland  and  Northumberland  toler- 
ably prosperous  in  agricultural  pursuits.  It 
is  probable  that  the  necessities  of  constant 
defence  enabled  the  men  of  the  Borders  to 
retain  many  of  the  old  English  customs  more 
definitely  than  was  the  case  elsewhere.  The 
township  organisation  was  not  superseded  by 
the  manor,  and  traces  of  its  existence  till 
recent  times  are  frequent.  In  1249  an  at- 
tempt was  made  to  promote  peace  on  the 
Borders  by  the  issue  of  Border  laws,  which 
were  determined  by  sin  inquest  of  twelve 
English  and  twelve  Scottish  knights.  They 
related  to  the  trial  of  malefactors  who  fled 
acroas  the  Borders,  and  tbe  redress  of  g^ev- 
anoes  amongst  Uie  Borderers  themselves. 
They  recognised  courts  to  be  held  on  the 
marches,  at  which  English  and  Scots  were 
to  meet  and  tr}'  their  respective  criminals. 
Peace  and  prosperity  were,  however,  destroyed 
by  the  Scottish  wars  of  Edward  I.  From 
that  time  England  and  Scotland  stood  in 
avowed  hostility,  and  a  perpetual  warfare 
was  waged  on  the  Borders  of  the  two  king- 
doms. The  land  was  divided  into  three 
marches,  the  Eastern,  the  Western,  and  the 
Middle,  and  over  each  was  set  a  Warden  to 
provide  for  its  defence.  The  chief  military 
ruad  was  along  the  east  coast,  from  Newcastle 
through  Berwick  or  Coldstream,  and  along 
this  the  chief  battles  between  English  anl 
Soots  were  fought.  But  the  passes  by  the 
valley  which  runs  from  the  Cheviots  were 
mostly  osed  for  the  incessant  plundering  raids 
that  marked  Border  life.  Along  the  valleys 
of  the  Jed,  the  Teviot,  the  Coquet,  the  Tyne, 
and  the  Bede  freebooters  from  both  countries 
were  perpetually  ravaging.  The  state  of  life 
along  the  Borders  is  sufficiently  seen  in  the 
aspect  of  the  country.  It  is  nch  in  ruined 
castles,  vast  fortified  piles  in  strong  positions, 
dating  in  their  main  parts  from  the  fourteenth 
century.  Besides  these  are  ruins  of  monastic 
building^  (those  along- the  Tweed  being  es- 
pecially famous)  which  were  the  ftole  abode** 
of  peace,  yet  even  they  boar  traces  of  careful 
fortification,  and  were  generally  under  the 
shelter  of  a  neighbouring  castle.  The  only 
other  buildings  of  any  antiquity  are  low 
square  towers,  called  peil  towers,  which  sufficed 
as  shelter  against  a  sudden  raid  of  robbers. 
They  probably  stood  in  an  enclosure,  which 
contained  the  cattle  hastily  driven  away. 
Some  of  the  older  churehes  have  towers  of 
the  same  kind,  which  were  used  for  defence. 
The  dwellings  of  the  people  were  mere  hovels, 
and  their  possessions  were  nothing  but  arms 
and  cattle.  Of  Border  frays,  the  battle  of 
Otterbum  (1388)  is  the  most  &mous,  and 
has  passed  into  legend  under  the  name  of 
"  Chevy  Chase.*'  The  great  families  on  the 
Borders  grew  to  be  important  men.  The 
Percies,  Greys,  Dacres,  and  TJmphravilles  are 
famous  in  English  history :  and  the  Dougkses, 
Hepbums,  Lindsays,  and  Durbans  are  no  less 


famous  in  the  history  of  Scotland.  Moreover, 
families  of  freebooters  formed  themselves 
into  powerful  clans,  and  waged  hereditary 
feuds  amongst  themselves — the  Armstrongs, 
Elliots,  Chiurltons,  and  the  like.  After  the 
battle  of  Flodden  Field  (1513)  Scotland  was 
greatly  weakened,  and  Henry  VIII.  made 
use  of  the  robber  warfare  along  the  Borders 
as  a  means  of  still  further  reducing  the  Scot- 
tish power.  The  records  of  plunder  and 
bloodshed  which  have  been  preserved  show 
almost  incredible  barbarity.  The  result  of 
this  long-continued  warfare  was  an  entire 
lawlessness  among  the  Borderers :  they  re- 
garded plunder  as  their  trade,  and  bloodshed 
as  an  episode  in  their  life.  When  peace  was 
made  between  England  and  Sootiand  in  1549, 
it  became  an  object  of  importance  for  both 
countries  to  bring  their  borders  into  order. 
Regulations  were  made  for  that  purpose  ;  but 
they  could  not  be  enforced.  A  watch  was 
set  along  the  English  borders;  each  hamlet 
sent  its  men  to  keep  ^uard  by  night,  and  the 
news  of  a  Scottish  inroad  was  flashed  by 
beacon  light  from  place  to  place.  The 
Wardens'  Courts  were  regularly  held,  and 
the  balance  of  bloodshed  and  rapine  was  ad- 
justed between  the  two  countries.  But  how 
difficult  it  was  to  keep  the  peace  was  shown 
in  1575,  when,  at  a  Wardens*  Court  held  at 
Redeguise,  some  disagreement  led  to  an  ap- 
peal to  arms,  and  the  English  Warden  was 
carried  away  prisoner.  This  occurrence 
threatened  to  l^id  to  a  breach  between  the 
two  countries,  and  gave  rise  to  long  negotia- 
tions. The  carefulness  of  Elizabeth's  govern- 
ment is  nowhere  seen  more  clearly  than  in 
the  steady  attempt  to  introduce  order  into 
the  English  Border.  The  union  of  tl^ 
crowns  of  England  and  Scotland  in  the  person 
of  James  I.  increased  the  general  desire  to 
pacify  the  Border.  There  was  no  longer  war 
between  England  and  Scotland;  but  theft 
and  murder  had  become  hereditary.  The 
dwellen  of  one  valley  were  the  imme- 
morial foes  of  those  in  another.  It  was 
necessary  to  root  out  bloodfouds  and  robbery 
by  strict  justice,  and  Lord  William  Howard, 
known  as  '*  Belted  Will,"  did  much  to  make 
the  law  respected.  The  rudiments  of  civilisa- 
tion had  to  be  introduced,  and  the  bad  habits 
of  the  past  were  slow  in  dying  away.  Redes- 
dale,  Tynedale,  Liddeedale,  and  Teviotdale 
were  wild  and  lawless  places,  and  retained 
traces  of  their  old  characteristics  up  to 
the  beginning  of  the  present  century.  Now 
there  are  no  more  orderly  people  than 
those  of  the  Borders,  and  nowhere  is  agri- 
cultural enterprise  and  prosperity  more 
marked. 

Bishop  Nicholflon,  Leg«$  Marchiarunt;  Bedpath, 
Border  History 'Bura  and  Nioholflon,  Hidoru  ojf 
Cumberland;  Hodgson,  Hiatory  qf  NorthitmUr- 
land;  Sir  W.  Soott,  Border  AntiqiiitiM;  Baine, 
Hiatory  of  Norfk  Durham.  [M.  C] 

Borll.     [Fkankplbdob.] 


Bor 


(  176  ) 


Bob 


L,  Bbrtkand  de  {d,  1200),  one  of  the 
most  famous  troubadours,  played  an  important 
part  in  the  quarrels  between  Henry  II.  and 
his  sons.  He  took  up  the  cause  of  Eleanor 
of  Guienne,  and  subsequently  joined  the  Poi- 
tevin  rebellion  against  Riduird,  inciting  by 
his  verses  -the  young  Prince  Henry  against 
his  father.  Taken  prisoner  at  Limoges,  he 
was  set  at  liberty  by  Henry  II.,  and  even- 
tually ended  his  days  in  tne  monastery  of 
Citeaux. 

Boroughbxidga,  The  Battle  of  (1322), 
during  the  barons^  revolt  in  Edward  XI.  *s 
reign,  was  fought  between  the  royalists  under 
the  command  of  the  kinsf  and  Sir  Andrew 
Harclay,  and  the  baronial  forces  headed  by 
the  Eturls  of  Lancaster  and  Hereford.  The 
barons  were  totally  routed,  the  Earl  of  Here- 
ford slain,  and  the  Earl  of  Lancaster  taken 
prisoner  and  subsequently  executed  at  Ponte- 
nact. 

Borouffh-Sngliflll  'was  the  name  given 
in  Englana  to  a  not  unusual  custom  in  obtain 
manors  **  that  lands  shall  descend  to  the 
youngest  son,  or,  in  default  of  issue,  to  the 
younger  brother  of  the  owner."  Certain 
analogous  extenmons  of  the  custom  which, 
for  example,  gives  rights  of  succession  to  the 
youngest  daughter  or  sister,  though  not 
strictly  included  in  the  x^ognised  custom  of 
borough-English,  may  be  roughly  grouped 
with  it  under  Bnoh  a  term  as  **  ultimogeni- 
ture "  (suggested  by  the  Real  Property  Com- 
missioners), "  junior-right,"  or  "  juniority  " 
(Elton).  The  foreign  "Droit  de  Mainet^," 
"  Juveignerie,"  and  "Jiingsten  Recht,"  are 
closely  analogous  to  borough-English.  Con- 
cerning its  origin  we  can  only  guess.  The  theory 
of  the  old  lawyers  that  the  youngest  was  natu- 
rally the  weakest  and  wanted  most  attention, 
is  obviously  inadequate  to  explain  it.  Neither 
does  8ir  Henry  Maine's  view — ^that  it  sprang 
from  the  "  patria  potestas,"  and  the  youngest 
son  inherited  because  the  least  likely  to  have 
forfeited  his  rights  by  emancipation — wholly 
cover  the  ground.  Mr.  Elton,  while  admit- 
ting that  the  problem  is  difficult,  perhaps  in- 
soluble, suggests  the  theory  that  the  custom 
is  a  survival  of  very  early  times,  perhaps  pre- 
Aryan,  certainly  before  Celt,  Teuton,  and 
Blav  had  branched  off  from  their  common 
parent  stock.  Just  as  primogeniture  sprang 
from  the  Aryan  domestic  worship  which  it 
was  the  special  function  of  the  eldest  to  con- 
duct, so  *'  ultimogeniture "  may  be  a  sur- 
vival of  ancestor- worship  in  a  race  that  saw 
no  pre-eminence  in  the  eldest.  The  wide- 
spread nature  of  the  custom — and  some  more 
direct  evidence— supports  this  view.  We  read 
of  it  in  England  so  fkr  back  as  Glanvil* s  time, 
and  by  its  modem  name  in  the  Year-book  of 
the  First  of  Edward  I.  It  occurs  especially 
in  the  south-east  of  England,  Kent,  Surrey, 
and  Sussex,  and  the  environs  of  London,  and 
less  so  in  the  eastern  counties.     It  is  also 


venr  common  in  Somerset,  but  i 

Midlands,  and  unknown  north  of  tl 

A  very  early  form  of  the  custom 

the  Welsh  laws  of  the  tenth  c< 

also  in  Brittany  and  other  Celtic  ( 

was    also   very  common  in  Noi 

Friesland,  Westphalia,  and,  recent 

Russia. 

Elton,  Or%g%n$  of  Engliih  E\$toi 
with  the  anthorities  there  quot 
Comer,  BorougK-EngXith  in  but 
LavD$  and  InatUuie*  of  Wales  (Roll 
Dim.,  ii.  28,  and  Cod.  fanod.,  ii.  1 

Boroughs.    [Towns.] 

BoBcaweiL.  Edwahd  (b.  17] 
first  distinguished  himself  at  tl 
Porto  Bello  in  1740.  He  was  api 
mander-in-chief  of  an  expeditioi 
Indies  (1747).  In  1765  Boacai 
the  thanks  of  Parliament  for  th 
two  French  ships,  and  became 
and  in  the  following  year  admi 
year  he  commanded  the  exped: 
Breton  Island,  and  took  the  town 
In  the  following  year  he  defeate 
fleet  in  Lagos  Bay,  and  receive 
of  Parliament.  In  1760  he  was 
Priv}'  Council.  Boscawen's  c&n 
but  he  was  not  the  least  rema 
naval  heroes  who  won  such  tri 
sea  during  the  closing  period  of 
reign.  His  personal  courage  v 
displayed  in  every  engagement. 

'  BosCObel,  in  Shropshire, 
Mr.  John  GimLrd,  was  the  h: 
Charles  II.  after  the  battle 
in  1651.  The  fugitive  king  v 
by  Lord  Derby  to  the  charge  o 
cutters  named  Pendorell.  Hor< 
in  concealment  for  some  dayi 
time  it  was  even  thought  t 
he  should  pass  some  time  in  i 
the  Boscobel  woods,  so  hot  h 
become.  The  king  eventual! 
escape.  From  his  hiding  in 
fashion  of  wearing  oak-leaves 
the  Restoration  (May  29)  orij^ 

BostOSf  in  Lincolnshire, 
Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  to  hav 
by  St.  Botolph.  It  rose  to  gr 
in  the  twelfth  century,  and  vj 
chief  ports  in  the  kingpdom. 
made  it  one  of  the  wool  si 
prosperity  continued  till  the  oi 
sixteenth  century,  from  which 
ally  declined. 

Bostoa.,  in  Massachusetts, 
1630  by  John  Winthrop,  mosi 
colonists  coming  from  Lincolr 
the  Great  Rebellion  the  sett 
the  Parliament,  and  even  recc 
regicides  with  rejoicing  in  1 
was  on  bad  terms  with  the  ro; 
all  through  the  latter  half  of 


(  177) 


Bat 


oentniy,  and  in  1689  a  rebellion  broke  out, 
and  the  governor,  Sir  Edmund  Andros,  was 
compelled  to  quit  the  country.    The  Boeton 
people  warmly  supported  the  revolution  of 
1688.    The  town  increased  greatly  in  wealth 
and  oonsequence,  and  was  noted  for  the  stem 
Puritanism  of  its  inhabitants,  and  their  sturdy 
spirit  of  independence.    Boston  took  the  lead 
in  resisting  the  attempt  of  the  English  govern- 
ment to  apply  its  revenue    system    to    the 
Colonies.      On    March   6th,    1770,  the  riot 
known  as  *'  the  Boston  Massacre  "  took  place, 
and  in  Dec.,  1773,  the  attack  on  the  tea  ships 
was  made  in  Boston  harbour.    For  a  time  the 
trade  of  the  town  was  nearly  ruined  by  the 
Boston  Port  Bill  (q.v.),  and  a  large  number  of 
English  troops  were  sent  to  gRirison  the  port. 
Thetown  was  8urrounded(l  775)  by  an  American 
ioioe,  between  whom  and  the  British  the  battle 
of  Honker  Hill  was  fought,  June  17.    The 
British  abandoned  the  place  in  March,  1776. 
After  the  war  Boston  became  one  of  the  chief 
cities  in  the  United  States,  and  the  centre  of 
art,  literature,   and  education.    During  the 
qoarter  of  a  century  preceding  1860,  Boston 
was  the  head-quaiters  of  the  movement  lor 
ttie  abolition  of  negro  slavery. 

Boston  Port  Bill,  Thb  (1774),  is  im- 
portant as  being  one  of  the  immediate  causes 
^  the  outbreak  of  the  American  War  of 
Independence.     In  the  year  1773,  in  order  to 
^d  a  market  for  the  accumulated  stores  of 
^  Bast  India  Company,  Lord  North  with- 
^J  the  whole  of  the  duty  payable  in  Eng- 
r^  on  any  teas  exported  to  America  by  the 
Ootapttky,      The  teas,    however,    were  still 
gnhjed  to  a  colonial  tax  of  threepence  on  the 
pound.     On  Dec.   16,    1773,  the  people  of 
Boston,  excited  by  the  speeches  of  Samuel 
Adams  and  others,  proceeded  to  the  wharf 
where  three  tea  ships  lay,  and  threw  their 
cargoes,  valued  at  £18,000,  into  the  water. 
Popular  indignation  was  aroused  throughout 
England  by  this  act,  and  it  was  resolved 
to  make  an  example  of  the  little  port.    On 
March  14,  1774,  Lord  North  brought  in  the 
Boston  Port  Bill.    The  preamble  set  forth 
that  in  the  present  condition  of  Boston,  the 
commerce   of  his   Majesty's   subjects  could 
not  be    safely  carried  on,  nor  the    customs 
be  duly  collected  there ;  and  it  was  therefore 
proposed  that  from  and  after  the  1st  of  June 
it  should  not  be  lawful  for  any  person  to  lade 
or  unlade,  to  ship  or  unship,  any  g^oods  within 
the  harbour.     The  king  in  Council  was  to 
have  the  power,  when  peace  and  order  should 
be  established  at  Boston,  and  full  compensa- 
tion  paid  for  the  teas  destroyed,  to  restore  the 
town  to  its  former  position.    Some  opposition 
*as  offered  to  the  measure  by  Dowdeswell, 
Burke,  and  Charles  Fox,  but  on  the  whole 
it  was  approved  both  by  Parliament  and  the 
*5<>«»try.    The  Bill,  accompanied  as  it  was 
by  the  Massachusetts  Government  Bill,  was 
''***^  with  great  indignation  in  America. 


The  Ist  of  June — the  day  appointed  for  the 
Boston  Port  Bill  to  come.'into  force — ^was  set 
apart  as  a  solenm  fast  On  the  meeting  of 
the  Massachusetts  Assembly,  General  Gage 
found  the  spirit  of  resistance  so  unanimous 
among  the  delegates  that  he  felt  compelled 
to  dissolve  it  inmiediately. 

PaHiamefUary  Hivt.,  rrij. ;  Chatham  Comnnn- 
denet ;  Banorof  t,  HUi,  of  Amtnca  ;  Mahon,  liist. 
9f  Bng.,  tL  5L 

Bosworth  Field,  The  Battle  of  (Aug. 
21,  I486},  was  fought  between  Richard  III. 
and  Henry,  Earl  of  Richmond,  afterwards 
Henry  VII.  On  August  1,  Henry  landed  at 
Milford  Haven  and  passed  om  without  opposi- 
tion to  Shrewsbury,  being  joined  by  a  large 
number  of  Welshmen.  He  then  marched  on 
to  Tam worth,  where  he  arrived  on  the  18th. 
On  the  20th  he  was  at  Atherstone,  where  he 
was  met  by  Lord  Stanley  and  by  Sir  Wil- 
liam Stanley,  who  both  promised  to  desert 
Richard  during  the  Iwttle.  Meanwhile 
Richard,  having  mustered  his  forces  at  Not* 
tingham,  marched  to  Leicester  and  encamped 
at  Bosworth  on  the  21st.  On  the  next  morn- 
ing the  two  armies  met  between  Boswortb 
and  Atherstone  at  a  place  known  as  White* 
moors,  near  the  village  of  Sutton  Cheneys. 
The  battle  was  mainly  a  hand-to-hand  en- 
counter, the  Stanleys  for  some  time  keeping 
aloof  from  the  fight  till,  at  a  critical  moment, 
they  joined  Richmond.  Richard,  perceiving 
that  he  was  betrayed,  and  crying  out,  "  Trea- 
son, treason!"  endeavoured  only  to  sell  his 
life  as  dearly  as  possible,  and  refused  to  leave 
the  field  till,  overpowered  by  numbers,  he  fell 
dead  in  the  midst  of  his  enemies.  The 
crown  was  picked  up  on  the  field  of  battle 
and  placed  oy  Sir  William  Stanley  on  the 
head  of  Richmond,  who  was  at  once  saluted 
king  by  the  whole  army.  Among  those  that 
perished  on  Richard's  side  were  the  Duke  of 
Norfolk,  Lord  Ferrers,  Sir  Richard  RatclifPe, 
and  Sir  Robert  Brackenbury,  while  the  only 
person  of  note  in  Henrj^'s  army  who  was 
slain  was  his  standard-bearer,  Sir  William 
Brandon,  who  is  said  to  have  been  killed  by 
Richard  himself. 

Continnator  of  the  CroyUnd  Chron.,  574; 
Hall,  Chronicle,  418 ;  J.  (Hirdner,  Richard  III. 

Bdb  was  a  word  which  signified  amends,  re- 
paration, either  in  the  simple  sense,  as  burh  hot 
— i,e.^  repair  of  fortresses — or  more  often  in  the 
sense  of  money  compensation  for  wrongdoing. 
In  the  earlier  laws  of  the  various  Teutonic 
tribes,  most  offences  are  regarded  as  in- 
volving a  breach  of  the  general  peace,  and  as 
putting  the  offender  in  outlawry  and  at  feud 
with  the  community,  till  at  any  rate  he  has 
come  to  terms  with  the  injured  party ;  some 
less  grave  offences  regarded  as  merely 
wrongs  to  the  individual  have  a  fixed  com- 
position attached  to  them;  while  in  some 
cases  is  seen  the  idea  of  crime  as  demanding 
punishment.     It  is  indisputtible  that  these 


Bot 


(178; 


Bot 


oonceptionB  belong  to  ver>'  different  stages  of 
thougnty  and  respectiyely  succeed  each  other. 
Any  offence,  it  is  clear,  originally  put  the 
offender  at  feud  with  all,  and  exposed  him  to 
his  victim*s  vengeance.  'Vhe  right  of  ven- 
geance then  became  limited  by  the  growth  of 
fixed  compositions.  And  lastly,  in  the  most 
developed  codes,  the  idea  of  punishment 
has  intruded  upon  the  region  of  composi- 
tion payments.  In  the  code  of  Alfred, 
a  discrimination  is  made,  and  in  ordinary 
cases  homicides  paid  for  according  to 
the  wergild  of  tne  slain,  while  in  ex- 
traordinary cases,  such  as  wilful  murder  of  a 
lord,  the  crime  is  to  be  punished  by  death. 
The  b<5t,  then,  or  money  payment,  represents 
the  view  of  a  misdeed  wfajch  reguils  it  as  so 
much  damage  to  the  individual,  reparable  by 
payment  at  a  fixed  tariff.  For  less  grave 
offences  the  amends  must,  by  Anglo-Saxon 
law,  be  accepted.  In  graver  offences  only,  if 
the  amends  be  not  paid  or  be  unsatisfactory 
to  the  party  injured,  does  he  re-enter  on  his 
right  01  feud,  under  certain  legal  limitations. 
These  two  are  the  "b<5t-worthy"  class  of 
offences.  And  even  in  the  '*  b6t-le88  "  offences, 
the  king  can  at  pleasure  accept  an  amoids  in 
money  for  them ;  for  instance,  the  perjurer  is 
to  have  his  hand  cut  off,  but  the  king  can 
allow  him  to  redeem  it  at  half  his  wergild. 
In  case  of  treason  against  a  lord,  Alfred 
says  **  the  king  and  his  witan  dare  not  grant 
mercy."  The  relation  of  the  «b<St"  to  the 
*'  wito  *'  is  very  irregular,  and  indeed  inexplic- 
able. The  amount  of  the  b<5t  itself  is  equally 
perplexing ;  6s.  is  the  amends  for  knocking  out 
a  front  tooth,  only  3s.  for  breaking  a  rib ;  6b. 
for  breaking  the  arm,  but  lis.  for  destroying 
the  little  finger,  and  20s.  for  cutting  off  the 
beard.  On  tiie  whole  it  appears  that  the  pay- 
ment was  on  an  estimate  of  the  part  affected, 
and  its  value  or  appearance,  the  degree  of  the 
affront,  and  the  socoal  position  of  tihe  injured 
party,  or  even  that  of  the  offender.  The 
chief  peculiarities  of  this  Anglo-Saxon  system 
compared  with  that  of  other  Teutonic  tribes 
are — (i.)  the  strict  maintenance  of  rights  of 
private  property  by  severe  treatment  of  theft 
and  stringent  enactments  to  secure  bail ;  (ii.) 
the  great  attention  paid  to  the  privileges  of 
the  Church  and  the  enforcement  of  its  pre- 
cepts ;  (iii.)  the  rapid  growth  of  the  kingly 
power  and  its  recognition  as  the  source  of 
justice.  There  are  many  minute  variations  be- 
tween West-Saxon  and  Anglian  law  as  to  the 
ratios  of  the  payments  of  b<5t. 

Wilda,  Da9  Strafrfcht  der  Germanen;  K.  von 
Maurer,  in  Krititehe  Ueher$chaUt  vol.  iii.  (the 
best  modern  treatise  on  the  snbjeot) ;  Schmidt 
Qe$etze  dtr  AngeUachten  ;  Thorpe,  Ancient  LatDs 
and  Inttitvta;  Sharon  Turner,  Hist,  of  the 
ilnylo-Sfluront,  vol.  iii..  Appendix  T;  Kemble, 
Saxons ;  JEJMays  in  Anglo-S<ucon  Law,  Boston, 
1876  (the  best  short  account  in  English). 

[A.  L.  S.] 

Bothwally  Francis  Stewart,  2nd  Earl 
OF,    the    son    of    John    Stewart,    Prior    of 


Ck)ldingham  (an  illegitimate  Bon 
v.),  and  Lady  Jane  Hepburn,  sist 
first  Earl  of  Bothwell,  was  a  fai 
James  VI.,  by  whom  he  was  ere 
of  Bothwell,  1587.  His  life  vm 
of  rebellions  against  the  king, 
attempted  to  seize  at  Holyrood,  161 
tempt  which  was  frustrated  by  the 
Edinburgh.  The  same  year  he  ma 
unsuccessful  attack  on  the  king  at 
and  in  1593  suddenly  appeared  at 
at  the  head  of  an  armed  band,  to  a 
as  he  said,  for  his  treason.  In  169 
attacked  Edinburgh,  being  only  be 
the  citizens;  but  from  ihiM  time 
was  broken,  and  he  was  forced  t 
country. 

Bothwell,  Jahxs  Hepburn,  4' 
(*.  1636,  d.  1578),  was  Lord  War 
Scotch  Marches,  as  well  as  Lord 
mind  of  Scotland,  in  which  capa 
said  to  have  acted  more  as  a  mar 
pirate  than  as  an  officer  of  state, 
was  one  of  the  Lords  of  the  Artit 
the  following  year  distinguished 
partisan  of  the  queen  regent,  and  i 
of  Arran  and  the  refoiming  lore 
one  of  the  nobles  sent  to  Mar] 
after  the  death  of  her  husband ; 
was  made  a  member  of  the  Pr 
He  was,  however,  in  constant 
owing  to  his  turbulence  and  \ 
1662  he  was  impeached  for  ha^ 
to  carry  off  the  queen,  and  outls 
a  few  months  he  returned,  and  i: 
Jane  Gordon,  a  sister  of  Lord  1 
about  the  same  time  began  to  ti 
the' eyes  of  Queen  Mary.  From 
life  becomes  closely  associatod 
the  queen.  After  Rizzio*s  murd 
to  Dunbar  Castle,  of  which  Boti 
custody ;  and  subsequently  he  i 
her  to  Edinburgh.  In  October 
ceived  a  visit  from  her  when  h 
in  his  castle  of  Hermitage ;  and 
compassed  the  murder  of  Dan 
was  in  constant  attendance  on  !A 
An  attempt  on  the  i>art  of  Leu 
the  murderer  of  his  son  to  jiif) 
Both  weirs  acquittal,  owing  t* 
pearance  of  the  accuser,  and 
fresh  proofs  of  the  queon*8 
shape  of  large  gran  to  of  land, 
carried  off  Mary  as  slie  was 
Stirling  to  Edinburgh,  proba 
own  connivance,  and,  bavin 
divorce  from  his  wife,  inarri< 
May  16,  1567.  Shortly  afte: 
bination  of  the  leadings  baroi 
forced  Bothwell,  who  previous 
had  been  made  Duke  of  Ork 
land,  to  fiy  to  Borthwick  Cas 
to  Dunbar.  On  the  queen's 
Kirkcaldy,  after  the  conf erem 
Hill,  Bothwell  had  to  escape  t 


Bot 


(179) 


Bon 


to  the  Orkneys.  Pursued  thither,  and  driven 
to  aea,  he  was  arrested  by  a  Danish  war-ship 
off  the  coast  of  Norway,  on  suspicion  of 
piracy,  and  conveyed  to  Denmark.  There  he 
vas  imprisoned  oy  Christian  IX.,  first  at 
Malmoe  (1567—1573),  then  at  Dragshohn 
(1573—1578) ;  but  the  king  refused  the  de- 
mands of  the  Scottish  government  for  his 
extradition  or  execution.  The  so-called 
"Testament"  he  is  said  to  have  drawn  up 
during  this  period,  is  probably  a  forgery. 
Bothwell  was,  as  Randolph  said  of  him, 
**  despiteful  out  of  measure,  false  and  untrue 
as  a  devil;**  and  it  is  not  the  least  extra- 
ordinary feature  in  Mary's  career  that  she 
should  have  conceived  any  affection  for  this 
brutal,  ferocious,  and  unscrupulous  border 
chief. 

F.  E.  Sohiem,  Lt/«  o/  BothweU ;  trans,  by 
D.  B«R7, 1880. 

Bothwell  Bridtfe,THE  Battlb  of  (June 
22,  1679),  was  fougnt  between  the  Royalist 
troops,  commanded  by  the  Duke  of  Mon- 
mouth, and  the  forces  of  the  revolted  Con- 
venticlers,  or  Covenanters.  The  insurgents 
occupied  a  strong  position,  with  the  Clyde 
between  them  and  the  enemy ;  but,  as  they 
attempted  to  defend  instead  of  destroying  a 
bridge,  Monmouth  cleared  the  passage  of  the 
river  by  his  artillery.  The  insurgents  were 
forced  to  retire  to  a  hill  near  by,  known  as 
Hamilton  Heath,  where  they  were  attacked 
by  the  Royal  troops  and  completely  routed. 
Bothwell  Bridge  is  in  Lanarkshire,  near 
Hamilton. 

Bottle  Plot,  The  (1823).  This  name 
was  given  by  Canning  to  a  riot  hi  a  Dublin 
thea^,  got  up  by  the  Orangemen,  when 
a  rattle  and  a  bottle  were  thrown  into 
the  box  of  Lord  Welleeley,  the  then  Lord- 
Lieutenant,  who  was  supposed  to  favour  the 
Catholics.  The  grand  jury  threw  out  the 
bill  for  conspiracy  with  intent  to  murder 
which  was  brought  in  against  those  arrested. 

^onLofpELBf  Caftitrb  of  (1544).  This 
event,  the  one  important  result  of  the  com- 
bination of  Henry  VIII.  and  Charles  V. 
for  the  subjugation  of  France  in  1544,  took 
place  September  14,  1544,  after  a  pro- 
tracted siege  of  nearly  two  months.  Accord- 
ing to  the  original  plan  of  the  campaign, 
Charles  was  to  strike  across  France  by  Chiun- 
pagne,  Henry  by  Picardy,  and  neither  was 
to  stop  till  he  reached  Paris,  where,  in  their 
united  might,  they  were  to  dispose  of 
the  French  monarchy.  The  first  thing, 
however,  that  Henry  did  was  to  sit  down 
with  the  bulk  of  his  army  before  Boulogne ; 
and  when  Charles  reproached  him  for  not 
adhering  to  the  method  of  invasion  deter- 
mined upon  between  them,  Henry  retaliated 
by  accunng  Charles  of  a  similar  breach  of 
their  contract  The  siege  of  Boulogne  is 
principally  memorable  for  the  length  of  the 


resistance  made  bj  the  garrison  under  the 
disadvantageous  circumstances  of  weak  for- 
tifications, and  besiegers  strong  in  numbers 
and  offensive  eng^es.  So  great,  indeed,  was 
the  gallantry  displayed  on  this  occasion,  by 
the  men  of  Boulogne,  that  when  the  faU' 
of  the  town  was  clearly  an  event  of  a  few 
days  only,  they  were  allowed,  on  the  capitu- 
lation of  the  town,  to  inarch  out  with  their 
arms  and  property;  whereupon,  according 
to  Hall*B  Chronicie,  '*the  king*s  highness, 
having  the  sword  borne  naked  before  him  by 
the  Lord  Marquis  Dorset,  like  a  ^noble  and 
valiant  conqueror,  rode  into  the  town,  and  all 
the  trumpeters,  standing  on  the  walls  of  the 
town,  sounded  their  trumpets  at  the  time  of 
his  entering,  to  the  great  comfort  of  all  the 
king's  true  subjects.**  The  town  remained 
in  ihe  hands  of  the  Finglish  till  1550,  and 
was  restored  to  the  French  on  the  conclusion 
of  peace. 

Eonlter,  Hugh  (b.  1671,  d.  1742),  Arch* 
bishop  of  Armagh,  studied  at  Merchant 
Taylors'  School,  and  was  elected  a  demy 
of  Magdalen  at  the  same  time  as  Addison. 
He  was  subsequently  chaplain  to  Sir  Charles 
Hedges,  and  rector  of  St.  Olave's,  Southwark. 
In  1719  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Bristol, 
and  in  1724  elevated  to  the  archbishopric  of 
Armagh  and  the  Irish  primacy.  He  took  an 
active  share  in  the  political  affairs  of  Ireland, 
was  strongly  opposed  to  Swift  on  the  policy  of 
diminishing  the  gold  coin,  though  he  con- 
curred with  him  on  the  question  of  Wood's 
patent,  and  was  one  of  the  chief  promoters  of 
the  svstem  of  Protestant  Charter  Schools.  He 
founaed  many  charities  in  Armagh,  Drogheda, 
and  elsewhere,  and  was  no  less  than  thirteen 
times  appointed  one  of  the  Lords  Justices  of 
Ireland. 

Biographia  Britannica. 

Bonntyf  QuBEN  Anne's.  [Queen  Anne's 
Bounty.] 

Bonrollier,  Family  of.  The  founder 
of  this  family  was  Sir  John  de  Bourchier, 
Justice  of  the  King*s  Bench  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  IT.  His  son  Robert  became  Lord 
Chancellor  in  1340  (the  first  layman  who 
held  the  office),  was  summoned  to  Parlia- 
ment as  a  baron  in  1342,  and  died  1349. 
The  barony  devolved  on  Henry  Boarchier, 
Count  of  Eu,  grandson  of  his  younger  son. 
He  was  created  Earl  of  Essex  1461,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  grandson  Henry,  upon  whose 
death  the  peerage  became  extinct. 

Bonrclliery  Thomas  {d,  1486),  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  (1454—1486),  was  the 
son  of  William  Bourchier,  Count  of  Eu,  by 
Anne,  daughter  of  Thomas  of  Woodstock, 
Duke  of  Gloucester.  After  holding  minor 
preferments,  he  was  elected  Bishop  of  Wor- 
cester in  1435,  and  was  translated  to  Ely  in 
1443.     On  the  death  of  Archbishop  Kempe, 


Bou 


(180) 


Boy 


the  Council,  at  the  request  of  the  Gonnnons 
prayed  that  the  Pope  would  confer  the 
primacy  on  Bourchier.  Accordingly,  he  was 
appointed  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1454. 
In  1455  he  was  made  Chancellor,  and  held 
the  Great  Seal  for  eighteen  months,  both 
Yorkists  and  Lancastrians  being  anxious 
to  conciliate  a  member  of  so  powerful  a 
family.  Bourchier  was  at  first  inclined  to 
act  as  a  mediator  between  the  contending 
factions,  but  subsequently  became  a  distinct 
partisan  of  the  Duke  of  York.  He  welcomed 
the  return  of  the  Yorkist  leaders  in  1460,  and 
crowned  Edward  IV.  in  the  next  year.  In 
1464  he  was  made  a  cardinal.  He  crowned 
Richard  III.,  and  two  years  after  performed 
the  same  office  for  Henry  VII.  He  was  a 
patron  of  learning,  and  instrumental  in 
introducing  printing  into  England,  and  left 
a  reputation  for  personal  generosity  and 
kindness. 

Hook,  LtVOT  of  the  Arehbi»h&p$, 

BoUvineSy  The  Battlb  of  (July,  1214), 
was  fought  at  a  small  town  between  Lille  and 
Toumay,  between  Philip  Augustus  of  France 
and  the  forces  of  the  Emperor  Otto  IV. ,  with  the 
Flemingfs  and  some  English  auxiliaries,  under 
William,  Earl  of  Salisbury.  John  had  joined 
the  alliance  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  the 
assistance  of  the  Germans  and  Flanders  in 
the  war  he  was  carrying  on  with  Philip  for 
the  recovery  of  his  French  territories.  The 
battle  (in  which  the  forces  engaged  on  both 
sides  would  appear  to  have  been  very  large) 
terminated  in  a  signal  victory  for  the  French. 
The  defeat  consummated  the  separation  of 
Normandy  from  England,  and  by  depriving 
John  of  further  hopes  of  being  able  to  rely  on 
his  Continental  dominions,  as  well  as  by  the 
loss  of  prestige  it  occasioned  him,  had  some 
effect  in  compelling  him  to  submit  to  the 
demands  of  the  baroos.  The  battle  is  memor- 
able as  being  one  of  the  few  occasions  in 
which  men  of  English,  High-German,  and 
Low-German  race  have  fought  side  by  side 
against  the  French  and  have  been  completely 
defeated. 

Boger  of  Wendover,  iii.  287  (Encr.  Hist.  Soc.). 
See  Freem«n,  Norm.  Conq.,  v.  706,  who  speaks  of  it 
as  '*  that  day  of  darkness  and  gloom  when  three 
brsnohes  of  the  Teutonic  race,  the  German,  the 
Fleming,  and  the  Englishman,  sank  before  the 
arms  of  men  of  the  hostile  blood  and  speeeh.** 
In  Sismondi,  Hiat.  de$  Fran^au,  vi.  42i,  a  some* 
what  different  view  is  taken. 

Bowas.  Sir  Robert,  was  a  distinguished 
soldier,  diplomatist,  and  lawyer  in  the  reigns 
of  Henry  VIII.,  Edward  VI.,  and  Mary.  In 
the  great  Northern  rebellion  of  1536,  he  was 
among  the  prisoners  captured  at  the  surrender 
of  Hull  to  the  rebel  forces.  In  1642,  whilst 
in  command  of  a  body  of  3,000  cavalry,  he 
was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  at  Halydon- 
"ST?  ^y  a  Scottish  force  under  the  Earl  of 
Huntley;  and  on  the  termination  of  hostili- 
ties between  the  two  countries,  became 
Warden  of  the  East  and  Middle  Marches. 


During  the  exercise  of  this  office  he  a 
his  Jnfonnations  on  the  state  of  the  M 
and  their  laws  and  customs — a  work 
curious  and  interesting  details.  Ii 
1652,  he  was  made  Master  of  the 
a  position  which  just  then  was  en 
with  dangers.  As  Master  of  the  Ro 
Robert  Bowes  was  ooe  of  the  witni 
the  will  of  King  Edward  VI.,  which  fi 
succession  to  Ihu  crown  on  Lady  Jan 
He  retired  from  his  office  two  montl 
Mary*s  accession  to  the  throne,  and 
the  remainder  of  his  life  he  occupied 
with  his  old  duties  on  the  Scottish 
The  precise  year  of  his  death  is  uncer 

Boyoottillff  vss  the  name  applio 
system   of   social  and  commercial  oe 
which  was  extensively  resorted  to  in 
during  the  land  agitation  of  1880  an 
Landlords  who  were  disliked  by  their 
tenants  who  had  paid   rents  to  un 
landlords,  and   other  persons  who  i 
the  hostility  of  the  local  branches  of  tl 
League  were  rigidly  isolated.    No  on 
be  got  to  work  for  them,  or  even  to 
them  with  the  necessaries  of  life.    Th 
was  derived  from  Captain  Boycott,  of 
Mask  House,  a  Mayo  landlord  and  agi 
of  the  first  against  whox^  the  process 
in  force.    Capt.  Boycott  was  "  relieve* 
number  of  Orangemen,  escorted  by 
military  and  police  force,  Nov.  11.  18^ 

Boyla,  Chahlbs,  1st  Loud  {b. 
1731),  second  son  of  Roger,  Earl  of 
while  an  undergraduate  at  Oxford,  t< 
in  the  controversy  with  Bentley  on  th 
of  Phalaris.     In  1700  ho  entered  Pai 
as  member  for   Huntingdon,   and 
succeeded  to  the  Irish  i>eerage  of  Orn 
1709  he  fought  at  Malplaquet,  and 
was  Envoy   Extraordinary  to  the   h 
Brabant  and  Flanders,  and  on   his 
received  an  English    peerage.      H(» 
favourite  of  George  I.,  but  in  1722  v 
mitted  to  the  Tower  on  a  charge  c 
concerned  in  Layer's  Plot,  of  whic 
ever,  he  was  acquitted.     His  later  ye 
devoted  to  philosophical  studies. 

Boyna,  The  Battle  of  the  (July 
was  fought  between  the  troops  of  Will 
and  the  Irish  under  James  TI.    James 
ing  from  Dublin,  had  taken  up  a 
behind  the  river  Boyne,  and  there  w 
the  invading  army.     His  position  wai 
and    Schomberg    endeavoured    to 
William   from    the   attack.     Earlv 
morning,  however,  the  English  rigl 
young  Schomberg,   was    sent    to    c 
river  by  the    bridge   of  Slane,    son 
higher  up,  and  thus  turn  the   Iris 
The  bridge  was  captired.      Four 
the  south  of  the  Boviie  the  road  tc 
runs  through  the   paaiage   of    Dul 
Schomberg  secured  this  pass   the  1 
treat  would  be  cut  oif.     Lauzun,  cor 


Boy 


(181  ) 


of  the  Flrench  alHee,  marched  to  oppose  him. 
Thus  the  Irish  alone  were  left  to  withstand 
^William.  At  the  head  of  his  left  wing,  con- 
sisting entirely  of  cavalry,  he  forced  the  pas- 
sago  of  the  rivor  not  far  above  Drogheda. 
The  centre  of  his  army  was  commanded  by 
the  elder  Schomberg.  The  Irish  infantry  fled 
without  a  blow ;  &e  cavalry  under  Hichard 
Hamilton  fought  bravely  on.  The  gallant 
Schomberg  fell  while  rallying  his  troops. 
But  at  tius  moment  William  came  up  with 
his  left  wing,  and  the  battle  was  won.  The 
Irish  cavalry  retreated  slowly,  fighting  to 
the  lost;  their  leader,  Hamilton,  was  taken 
prisoner.  James  fled  early  in  the  day  towards 
babHn.  The  fugitives  poured  through  the 
passage  of  Duleek,  where  the  French  had 
steadily  resisted  Meinhart  Schomberg's  attack. 
Considering  the  great  importance  of  the  vic- 
tory, the  loss  on  either  side  was  not  great. 
About  600  English  had  fallen,  and  1,600 
Irish. 

A  striJdBfir  and  detailed  aoooont  of  the  battle 
is  given  is  Maoaolay's  Hi»tory. 

Boy-Patriots  was  a  name  given  by  their 
enemies  to  a  body  of  young  and  rising  men 
who  formed  part  of  the  Opposition  to  Sir 
Robert  Walpole's  administration,  but  who 
coalesced  neither  with  the  Tories  nor  with 
the  malcontent  Whigs.  The  chief  members 
of  this  party  were  Lyttelton,  George  Gren- 
ville.  Lord  Cobham,  and,  above  aU,  William 
Pitt. 


L,  Hkkhy  {d.  1268),  the  writer  of 
a  valuable  commentary  on  the  laws  of  Eng- 
land, was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  law.  In  1245  he  was 
appointed  one  of  the  judges  errant,  and  later 
on  was  one  of  the  king's  clerks  or  secretaries. 
He  is  supposed  to  have  become  an  eccle- 
siastic towards  the  close  of  his  life,  and  to 
have  been  Archdeacon  of  Barnstaple.  His 
work,  entitled  De  Legibu*  et  Cantuetudinibus 
Angi'ue,  is  our  great  authority  for  mediaeval 
English  law.  An  excellent  edition  is  pub- 
lished in  the  Rolls  Series  (1878,  &c.),  with 
a  Translation,  Notes,  References  to  GlanviUe, 
&c.,  and  Introductions  by  Sir  Travers  Twiss. 
The  editor  suggests  that  ^the  immediate 
object  which  Bracton  had  in  view  in  com- 
posing his  work,  was  to  draw  up  a  manual  of 
the  common  law  of  England  for  the  use  and 
instruction  of  the  Justiciaries  of  the  Eyre. " 

8m  Sir  Travers  Twias's  Introduetiotia; 
Baevea,  Hiat.  of  Eng,  Law ;  Ottterbock.  Henriau 
d»  Bration,  una  tein  YerMLtnUt  sum  Bi6mi»elen 
RnkU,  1862. 

Braddook  Down,  situated  between 
Tiiskeard  and  Bodmin,  in  Cornwall,  was  the 
scene  of  a  battle  during  the  Civil' War.  Hen>, 
on  Jan.  19,  1643,  the  Royalist  officers.  Sir 
Ralph  Hopton  and  Sir  Bevil  Grenville,  coming 
from  Bodmin,  encountered  and  defeated  the 
commander  of  the  garrison  of  Plymouth, 
Ruthven,  who,  without  waiting  for  the  sup- 


port of  his  superior  officer,  the  Earl  of  Stam- 
ford, had  crossed  the  Tamar  and  occupied 
Liskeard.  The  result  of  the  battle  was  that 
the  Comishmen  resumed  the  offensive,  drove 
back  Stamford  and  his  forces,  and  carried  by 
assault  Saltash  and  Okehampton. 

There  is  a  full  aoooant  of  the  battle  in  a  letter 
of  Sir  Bevil  OrenTflle.  printed  in  Forster's  Lif« 
of  Pym.  S0«  also  Clarendon's  HtsC.  of  tht  £•- 
union,  vi.  248. 

Braddook,  Gbnbual.  [Dcquesxb,  Fort.] 

Bradsbaw,  John  {b.  1602,  d.  1659), 
was  a  barrister,  but  was  very  little  known, 
either  as  a  lawyer  or  a  politician,  when,  in 
1648,  he  was  made  President  of  the  High 
Court  of  Justice,  instituted  to  try  Charles  I. 
The  reason  for  his  appointment  seems  to  have 
been  the  refusal  of  all  the  leadiug  lawyers  to 
serve  on  the  trial,  and  the  necessity  of  having 
some  one  possessed  of  le^  knowledge  as  the 
president.  For  his  services  ho  was  given  tht* 
house  of  the  Dean  of  Westminster,  the  sum 
of  £6,000,  and  large  grants  of  land,  and 
made  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster. 
He  subsequently  presided  at  the  trials  of 
the  Duke  of  Hamilton  and  other  Royalists, 
and  was  President  of  the  Councils  of  Stato 
from  1649  to  1651.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Parliament  of  1654,  and  was  probably  one  of 
those  excluded  for  refusing  to  sign  the  en- 
gagement recognising  Cromwell's  authority. 
In  1659  he  was  made  one  of  the  Council  of 
Stato,  and  shortly  afterwards  a  commissioner 
of  the  Great  Seal;  but  he  died  before  the 
end  of  the  year.  He  whs  one  of  those  who 
were  styled  "stiff  Republicans,*'  or  "  Common- 
wealth's men,'*  and  was  sincerely  opposed  to 
the  government  of  one  person,  whether  king 
or  protector ;  but  he  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  a  man  of  any  marked  ability.  After  the 
Restoration  his  body  was  disinterred  and 
hung  in  chains  at  Tyburn. 

Bradwardine,  Thomas  (b.  circa  1290,  d. 
1 349 ),  a  native  of  Chichester,  educated  at  Mor- 
ton College,  Oxford,  was  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated of  the  scholastic  philosophers,  and  was 
known  by  the  title  of  Doctor  Profundus,  He 
became  Chancellor  of  the  university,  Professor 
of  Divinity,  and  subsequently  chaplain  to 
Edward  III.  In  1349  he  was  appointed  to 
the  archbishopric  of  Canterbury,  but  within  a 
few  weeks  of  his  coosecration  he  was  carried 
off  by  the  Black  Death. 

Bradwardine'H  great  work,  De  Cau$a  Dn,  was 
printed  in  1618  (Lond.,  folio).  His  other  works 
were  chiefly  mathematiGal. 

Braemar  Oatherinjif,  Thb  (Aug.  26, 

1715),  was  the  name  given  to  the  great 
assembly  of  disaffected  nobles  and  Highland 
chiefs  which  met  ostensibly  for  the  purpose 
of  a  hunting  in  the  Earl  of  Mar's  forest  of 
Braemar,  but  in  reality  to  organise  measures 
for  raising  the  standard  of  insurrection  in 
favour  of  the  Pretender,  which  was  done 
soon  afterwards  (Sept.  6).    Among  those  at 


(  182  ) 


the  Braemar  gathering  were  the  Earl  of  Mar, 
the  Marquis  of  Tullibardine,  Lords  Southesk, 
Errol,  Kilsyth,  Kenmure,  Strathallan,  Sea- 
forth,  and  Glengary. 

Braintraa  Case,  The.    In   1837  the 

majority  of  the  vestry  of  Braintree  postponed 
a  Church  rate  for  twelve  months  ;  the  church- 
wardens, however,  proceeded  to  levy  it  on  their 
own  authority.  A  prohibition  of  the  Court 
of  Queen's  Bench  restrained  them.  It  was 
sugg^ted,  however,  that  the  churchwardens 
and  the  minority  of  the  vestry  might  legally 
levy  a  rate,  as  it  might  be  argued  that  the 
votes  of  the  majority  who  refused  to  perform 
their  duty  were  not  valid.  The  church- 
wardens and  the  minority  of  the  vestry 
voted  a  rate  accordingly  {July,  1841).  On 
the  matter  being  once  more  brought  before 
the  Court  of  Queon^s  Boach,  that  tribunal 
now  declared  the  rate  valid.  The  decision 
was  affirmed  by  the  Court  of  Exchequer 
Chamber,  but  upset  on  appeal  by  the  House 
of  Lords,  which  pronounced  the  rate  invalid, 
and  altogether  denied  the  right  of  the  minorit v 
of  the  parishioners  to  levy  it.  It  was  sucn 
cases  as  this  that  led  to  the  Act  31  &  32 
Vict.,  cap.  109,  which  abolished  compulsory 
Church  rates,  because  ''the  levying  thereof 
has  given  rise  to  litigation  and  ill-feeling." 

May,  Con$t,  Hist.,  ii.  430.  8m  the  case  of 
QosliiiflT  V.  Yeley  in  QuMti't  Bmch  Bep.,  vli.  409 ; 
and  Hou8§  of  Lord*  Comu,  It.  679. 

Bramham  Moor,  The  Battle  of  (1408), 
was  fought  between  the  Earl  of  Northumber- 
land, and  the  other  nobles  who  had  revolted 
against  Henry  IV.,  and  the  royal  troops, 
under  Sir  Thomas  Rokeby.  The  latter  were 
completely  victorious,  Northumberland  being 
killed  on  the  field,  and  his  chief  associate, 
Lord  Bardolf,  mortally  wounded.  Bramham 
Moor  is  in  Yorkshire,  between  Leeds  and 
Tadcaster. 

Brandvwine,  The  Battle  of  (Sent.  11, 
1777),  in  the  American  War  of  Indepenaence, 
was  fought  on  the  shores  of  Brandywine 
Creek,  about  fifty  miles  from  Philadelphia, 
and  ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  Americans, 
under  Washington.  General  Howe  had 
landed  18,000  men  near  the  Brand vwine. 
Washington  had  only  8,000  troops  fit  for 
action.  For  some  days  he  baffled  General 
Howe's  attempts  to  drive  him  back.  At 
length  the  two  armies  encountered  one 
another.  While  Howe  and  Comwallis  made 
a  flank  movement  with  the  greater  part  of 
their  forces,  Washington  resolved  on  a  bold 
attack  on  the  British  in  his  front.  To  render 
such  an  attack  successful,  the  co-operation  of 
Sullivan  was  necessary.  But  that  general, 
using  his  own  discretion  instead  of  obeying 
orders,  laid  himself  open  to  an  attack  while 
his  troops  were  in  confusion.  The  rout  of 
Sullivan's  troops  threw  the  rest  of  the 
American  army  into  confusion,  and  soon  they 


were  everywhere  in  retreat.  The  American 
loss  was  set  down  by  Howe  at  300  killed, 
600  wounded,  and  400  prisoners,  as  against 
90  kiUed  and  500  wounded  and  missing  on 
the  English  side.  Washington  made  good 
his  retreat ;  but  ho  had  to  abandon  the  idet^ 
of  saving  Philadelphia  when  he  found  that 
Comwallis  had  forced  his  way  between  his 
camp  and  that  town. 

Bancroft,    fli«t.    o/    the    UniUd   Sta'ft,   v., 
obap.  TTJii. 

gyft.Ti Inti fflt tLm  BoU  is  the  name  given 
to  the  Issue  Koll  of  the  Exchequer  for  the 
forty-fourth  year  of  Edward  III.,  when 
Thomas  of  Brantingham,  Bishop  of  Exeter, 
was  Treasurer,  containing  an  account  of  the 
various  payments  made  during  the  year.  It 
was  discovered  in  the  office  of  Pells,  and  pub- 
lished in  1835,  with  a  general  introduction 
on  the  character  of  the  Exchequer  Records 
by  Mr.  Frederick  Devon. 

BraosOy  William  de  {d.  eirca  1212),  was 
one  of  the  most  powerful  barons  in  England, 
Hnd  received  from  Henry  II.,  in  1177,  the 
grant  of  the  whole  kingdom  of  Limerick. 
He  was  one  of  the  itinerant  justices  in 
Richard  I.'s  reign,  but  fell  out  of  favour  with 
John,  who  in  1210  stripped  him  of  all  his 
possessions,  and,  it  is  said,  starved  his  wife 
and  son  to  death  in  Windsor  Castle.  De 
Braose  himself  escaped  to  France,  where  ho 
died  shortly  afterwards.  His  youngest  son 
Reginald  received  back  a  great  part  of  his 
father's  possessions,  hut,  dying  without  heira 
in  1229,  the  family  became  extinct. 
Fobs,  Judges  of  Eng. 


j^  Sir  Reginald  {d.  1503),  was  one 
of  Henry  YII.'s  most  trusted  counsellors. 
Together  with  the  Lord  Treasurer  he  was 
the  king's  messenger  in  1485  to  the  city  of 
London  to  ask  the  citizens  for  a  loan  of  6,000 
marks,  obtaining,  after  much  negotiation,  the 
considerably  smaller  sum  of  £2,000.  He  waa 
the  object  of  special  hatred  to  the  Cornish 
rebels  of  1497  as  being  the  instrument  of 
Henry's  extortion. 

Bread  Biota  (18 16).  The  cessation  of 
the  g^eat  war,  which  caused  many  farms  to 
be  thrown  out  of  cultivation,  and  the  failure 
of  the  harvest,  occasioned  severe  distress 
and  riots  in  all  parts  of  England,  especially 
in  the  eastern  counties.  Declaring  that  the 
farmers  had  conspired  to  raise  the  price  of 
bread,  the  mob  set  farm  buildings  on  fire, 
demanded  that  wheat  should  be  sold  cheap, 
and  in  several  places  broke  into  the  bakers' 
shops.  The  riots  were  suppressed  by  military 
force,  and  the  rioters  tried  by  a  special  com- 
mission. There  were  also  occasional  riots 
caused  by  famine  during  the  Chartist  move* 
ment.  The  most  dangerous  were  those  of 
1842,  in  Yorkshire  and  Lancashire. 

Spencer  Walpole,  Hi$t.  of  Eng. ^  i.,  chap.  t. 


Bn 


(188) 


Breaut^,  Falkbs  de,  was  a  Korman  of 
mean  birth,  who  had  served  King  John 
with  iinacrupiilous  fidelity  as  a  mercenary 
captain,  and  was  in  1208  rewarded  by  him 
with  the  shcriifdoms  of  Glamorgan  and 
Oxfordshire,  the  castles  of  Chilham,  North- 
ampton, Cambridge,  Oxford,  and  Bedford,  and 
the  hand  of  Margaret  Bedvers,  widow  of 
Baldwin,  son  of  the  Earl  of  Devon.  On 
John*8  death,  it  was  judged  advisable  to  con- 
ciliate this  soldier,  who  had  taken  Bedford 
Castle,  burnt  the  suburbs  of  London,  and 
terrorised  over  John*s  enemies  in  the  neigh- 
bouring counties.  In  return  for  his  aid 
to  the  royal  cause  against  Louis  and  the 
rebel  barons,  he  obtained  the  sheriffdoms  of 
Rutland,  Cambridge,  Huntingdon,  Bucking- 
ham, Bedford,  Oxford,  Northampton,  for  seven 
years.  But  i^m  1220  onwards  the  vigorous 
work  of  Hubert  de  Burgh  was  putting  an  end 
to  the  state  of  things  in  which  such  a  man 
could  move  freely.  Convicted  at  the  Dun- 
stable Assizes  in  1224  of  thirty-five  acts  of 
violence,  he  audaciously  captured  one  of 
the  justices,  and  imprisoned  him  in  Bedford 
Castle,  under  the  care  of  his  brother,  William 
de  Breaut^,  who  refused  to  surrender  it,  say- 
ing "he  was  no  liegeman  of  the  King  of 
England.'^  The  siege  took  two  montbs, 
"  with  great  slaughter  of  the  king's  nobles ;  '* 
and  it  required  an  elaborate  siege-train. 
The  castle  was  taken  and  the  garrison  at 
once  hanged.  Falkes,  now  under  excom- 
munication, had  fled  to  North  Wales, 
the  prince  of  which  district  married  his 
daughter  Eva ;  but  he  soon  returned  and  sub- 
mitted himself  to  the  king's  mercy.  The 
judgment  of  the  barons  was  that  he  should 
surrender  all  his  ^oods  and  abjure  the  realm. 
His  wife,  too,  obtamed  a  divorce  on  the  ground 
of  constraint ;  and  on  his  first  setting  foot  in 
Normandy,  only  his  crusading  vow  protected 
him  from  being  hanged  bv  the  French  king. 
He  prevailed  with  Uononus  III.  to  send  a 
strong  letter  of  intercession  to  the  king. 
While  on  his  way  back  to  England,  however, 
he  died  in  Normandy.  Falkes  de  Breaut^ 
was  a  typical  example  of  the  unscrupulous 
foreign  adventurers  whom  the  early  Angevin 
kings  introduced  into  England  as  able  tools 
of  royal  misgovemment. 

M&tthew  Paxjn,  Chronica  Majora,  sub  amio 
122i ;  Annaln ofWavtrley,  p.  900;  Boyal  Letten  of 
Henry  m.,  i.  543  «<q.;  and  especiallj  Wiilter 
of  Corentiy,  iL  258,  272  s«4.  [A.  L.  S.] 


i.  The  Declaration  op  (April  14, 

1660),  was  the  manifesto  sent  by  Charles  II. 
to  both  houses  of  the  Convention  Parliament. 
By  this  the  king  granted  a  free  and  general 
pardon  to  all  "  who  within  forty  days  after 
the  publishing  hereof  shall  lay  hold  upon 
this  our  grace  and  &vour,  and  shall  by  any 
pnbHc  act  declare  their  doing  so,"  except 
nu^  as  Parliament  should  except.  It  also 
granted  amnesty  for  all  political  offences  com- 
mitted during  the  Civil  War,  and  the  subse- 


quent interregnum ;  promised  that  the  king 
would  relv  on  the  advice  and  assistance  of  a 
free  parliament;  and  declared  a  libertv  to 
tender  consciences,  so  "  that  no  man  shall  be 
disquieted  or  called  in  question  for  differences 
of  opinion  in  matter  of  religion. "  The  king 
also  undertook  that  no  inquiry  should  be 
made /into  the  titles  of  lands  acquired  under 
the  Commonwealth,  and  that  the  arrears  of 
Monk's  officers  and  soldiers  should  be  paid. 
ParliavMntary  Hiat.t  iv.  17. 

Breda,  The  Treaty  of  (July  31,  1667), 
was  concluded  between  England  on  the  one 
side,  and  France,  Holland,  and  Denmark  on 
the  other.  It  was  entered  into  after  a  naval 
war  between  England  and  Holland,  in  which 
the  victories  had  been  pretty  evenly  distri- 
buted. France  had  joined  the  Dutch,  fearing 
that  England  would  make  herself  supreme  on 
the  seas,  but  she  had  not  taken  much  share 
in  the  war,  her  polioy  being  to  use  the  two 
great  naval  powers  as  checks  one  upon  the 
other.  The  following  were  the  terms  of  the 
Treaty  of  Breda:— 1.  The  islands  of  St. 
Christopher,  Antigua,  and  Montserrat  were 
restored  to  England,  and  the  province  of 
Acadia  (Nova  Scotia)  to  France.  2.  England 
and  Holland  made  peace  on  the  principle  of 
uti  j909»idetu ;  thus  England  retained  New 
York  and  New  Jersey,  and  Holland  retained 
Surinam.  3.  The  Navigation  Act  was 
modified  in  favour  of  the  Dutch.  4.  Friendly 
relations  were  restored  between  Enghwd  and 
Denmark. 

Koch  and  Schoell.  Hut.  dt$  TraitU,  i.  800. 

Brelion,  or,  more  correctly,  Brethom,  in 
Erse  signifies  a  judge.  From  the  earliest  days 
of  Irish  history  of  which  we  have  any  trace, 
this  class  seems  to  have  been  a  distinctly  re- 
cognised one,  and  previous  to  the  conversion 
of  the  Irish  to  Christianity  we  have  proof  that 
the  office  had  become  hereditary.  In  fact,  there 
seems  strong  reason  for  connecting  the  Brehons 
with  the  ancient  Celtic  priesthood  in  Ireland, 
whether  or  no  we  choose  to  give  to  that  priest- 
hood the  name  of  Druid.  [Drvzdr.]  Some 
of  the  chief  Brehons,  whose  names  have  been 
handed  down  to  us,  especially  a  very  cele- 
brated one,  Dubhthach  mac  na  Lugair,  chief 
author  of  the  Senchua  Mor,  is  by  later  writers 
often  called  a  Druid.  Caesar  tells  us  that  the 
Druids  had  acquired  the  office  of  judges  in 
both  civil  and  criminal  cases,  and  that  they 
were  likewise  bards  who  preserved  the  historical 
traditions  of  the  people.  The  Brehons  as 
they  are  known  to  hi8tor5r — ^that  is  to  say,  the 
Brehons  of  Christian  time — seem  to  have 
united  these  two  offices.  "  The  Brehons  and 
feast  poets  of  the  men  of  Erin,"  says  an  open- 
ing paragraph  of  the  Smehu*  Mw.  W«  can 
easily  understand  that  when  a  change  of 
religion  came,  and  the  priestly  functions 
passed  to  the  men  ordained  by  Patrick  and 
nis  Buccessors,  the  more  secular  offices 
would   be  retained  by   the  Brehons.     The 


(184) 


preaching  of  St.  Patrick  began  about  the 
year  432,  and  was  crowned  with  a  rapid  suc- 
oesB.  One  of  the  most  important  among  his 
early  conversions  was  that  of  the  Brehon 
Dubhthach  above  spoken  of.  We  may 
suppose  there  were  some  niatual  concessions 
between  the  two.  Dubhthach,  who  was 
probably  a  Druid,  renounced  his  magical  and 
idolatrous  practices,  and  Patrick  in  his  turn 
*  *  blessed  his  mouth  "  (as  we  are  expressly  told 
in  the  Senchus  Mor)  when  he  uttered  secular 
judgments.  It  was  probably  with  St.  Patrick 
that  the  idea  arose  of  writing  down  the  Brehon 
laws,  or,  as  we  should  say,  of  codifying  them. 
We  must  remember  that  at  this  time  Theo- 
dosius  had  just  codified  the  Roman  law,  a 
precedent  which  would  bo  present  in  the 
mind  of  St.  Patrick.  In  fact,  from  this  time 
forward  we  nearly  always  find  that  the  con- 
version of  any  barbarous  people  to  Chris- 
tianity is  immediately  followed  by  some  sort 
of  codifying  of  their  ancient  traaitioual  law. 
The  first  Saxon  code  is  that  of  Ethelbert, 
King  of  Kent,  which  was  undertaken  by 
St.  Augustine.  Whatever  of  the  traditiomd 
law  is  not  inconsistent  with  the  Christian 
doctrine  or  the  crown  law,  is  in  all  cases 
retained,  but  what  is  opposed  to  these  is  ex- 
punged. Thus,  in  the  introduction  to  the  first 
great  code  of  Brehon  laws,  the  Senehtu  Mor 
(a.u.  438 — 441),  we  find  a  distinction  made 
between  the  "  law  of  nature  "  and  the  "  law 
of  God.'*  The  latter  refers  to  the  laws 
which  came  with  the  revealed  religion ;  the 
former  term  bears  I'eference  to  the  words  of 
St.  Paul  where  he  speaks  of  the  Gkntiles 
**  doing  by  nature  the  works  of  the  law,"  and 
therefore  means  all  in  the  ancient  code  which 
was  not  inconsistent  with  the  revealed  com- 
mandments. The  SetiehM  Mor  is  said  to  have 
had  nine  authors,  or  co-operators,  in  its  con- 
struction, who  are  spoken  of  as  *Hhe  nine 
pillars  of  the  Senchus  Mor."  Three  were 
kings,  viz.,  Laeghaire,  Over-King  of  Ireland ; 
Core,  King  of  Cashel ;  and  Dairi,  King  of 
Ulster.  Three  were  bishops  or  saints, 
namely,  Patrick,  Benen  (B^nignus),  and  Cair- 
nech :  these  we  may  suppose  lookea  after  the 
Christian  portion  of  the  code.  Finally,  we  have 
three  Brehons,  who  were,  of  course,  the  chief 
authors  of  the  law,  viz.,  Dubhthach  before 
mentioned,  assisted  by  liassa  and  Ferghus. 
These  last  two  ai-e  sometimes  spoken  of 
simply  as  "bards; "  but  as  we  have  before 
said,  it  is  not  probable  that  there  was  any 
distinct  line  of  demarcation  between  the 
Brehon  and  the  bard. 

Sm  Aneitnt  La>i«  of  Iveltmd  (Irish  Bolls 
Series);  £.  O'Cnrry,  Manner*  of  tfctf  Ancient 
Irish;  Sir  H.  S.  Maine,  £ai-ly  Hittnru  of  Insti- 
tution*, [C.  F.  K.] 

Brenibar,  Sir  Nicolas  (d.  1388),  was 
Lord  Mayor  of  London  in  1377,  and  again 
from  1383  to  1385.  He  was  the  head  of  the 
royalist  party  in  the  city,  and  in  1387  was 
Mne  of  those  who  were  appealed  of  treason  by 


the  Lords  Appellant.  In  1388  he  was  im^ 
peached  by  Parliament,  sentenced  to  be  be- 
headed, and  shortly  afterwards  execated. 
[Appellant,  Lo&os.J 

Brenneville,  The  Battle  of  (Aug.  20, 

1119),  was  a  cavalry  skirmish  fought  during 

the  campaign  in  Normandy  between  Louis  11. 

of  France  and  Henry  I.,  and  arose  out  of  the 

support  given  by  the  former  to  William  Clito. 

The  French  were  united,  and  shortly  afterwards 

Louis  made  peace  and  abandoned  William. 

There  were  only  about  900  men  engaged  in 

this  combat,  and  not  more  than  three  were 

killed.    Both  kings  were  present  on  the  field. 

OrderieuB  Vitalis.  zii.  8M;    Sismondi,  Hut. 
dsa  Fran^aiSf  v.  145. 

Brentford.  Pat&ick  Ruthvex,  £abl  of 
(d,  1657),  after  having  served  in  many  foreign 
armies,  joined  the  Royalist  troops,  and  was  . 
at  once  made  a  field-marshal  by  Charles  I. 
He  had  an  important  command  at  the  battle 
of  Edgehill,  and  on  the  death  of  the  Earl  of 
Lindesay  was  made  Commander-in-chief  of 
the  Forces.  He  was  created  Earl  of  Forth, 
and  subsequently  Earl  of  Brentford,  by  the 
king,  who  had  a  high  opinion  of  his  military 
ability.  He  was  severely  wounded  in  the 
second  battle  of  Newbury,  and  obliged  to 
resign  his  command,  being  succeeded  by 
Prince  Rupert.  Clarendon  remarks  that, 
**  both  by  reason  of  his  age  and  his  extreme 
deafness  he  was  not  a  man  of  counsel  or 
words ;  hardly  conceived  what  was  proposed, 
and  as  confusedly  and  obscurely  delivered  his 
opinion." 

ClaxendoD,  Hitt,  of  the  ReMlion,  riii.  fiO,  &c. 

Brentford,  The  Battle  of  (Nov.    12, 
1642),  was  fou^t  between  the  Royausts  under 
Prince    Rupert    and    the    Parliamentarians 
under  Denzil  Holies.      After  the  battle  of 
Edgehill  Charles  marched  towards  London, 
touching  Reading  and  other  places   on  the 
way.      At    Brentford    Rupert    encountered 
three  regiments  which  wei-e  stationed  there, 
and  after  a  sharp  skirmish  forced  the  barri- 
cades they  had  erected,  and  occupied  the  town 
of  Brentford,  ttiking  fifteen  hundred  prisoners 
and  eleven  cannons.   The  Parliamentary  army 
being  subsequently  reinforced,  the  king  wa« 
obliged   to   fall    back  from   Brentford,   and 
retired  into  winter  quarters  at  Oxford. 
Clarendou,  Hist  of  the  BsheUion^  vi.  135. 

Brest,  The  Expedition  against  (1694), 
was   a    disastrous    failure.      The    Eng^lish. 
government  liad  attempted  to  keep  the  desti- 
nation of  the  expedition  secret,  but  it   had 
become  well  known  to  the  French  govern- 
ment.    Information  had  been  treacherousiv 
conveyed  to    them    by    various    persons    in 
England,  among  others  by  Marlborough,  "who 
^n-ote  a  letter  to  James  II.  on  the  subject. 
Thus  forewarned,   the   French    government 
sent  Vauban  to  put  the  defences  in  order. 
On  the  6th  of  June  the  fleet,  under  Berkeley, 


(  185  ) 


with  Talmash  in  command  of  the  land  forces, 
was  off  Gape  Finisterre.  It  was  proposed  to 
land  in  Camaret  Bay.  The  Marquis  of 
Caermaztlien,  the  eldest  son  of  the  Duke  of 
Leeds,  entered  the  hasin  to  reconnoitre,  and 
reported  the  defoices  formxdahle.  But 
Berkeley  and  Talmash  thought  that  he  over- 
rated the  danger.  Next  day  Caermarthen, 
with  eight  ships,  was  followed  by  Talmash 
with  a  hundr^  boats  f  uU  of  soldiers.  A 
murderous  fire  from  the  batteries  swept  away 
the  men.  Talmash,  however,  imagining 
that  he  was  confronted  bv  peasants,  refused 
to  retire,  and  fell  mortally  wounded  as  he 
attempted  to  land.  Ships  and  boats  hastily 
retirea  from  the  bay,  but  not  without  the  loss 
of  four  hundred  sailors  and  seven  hundred  sol- 
diers. The  expedition  returned  ingloriously, 
after  attempting  to  blow  up  the  pier  at 
Dunkirk,  and  bombarding  Dieppe,  Havre, 
and  Calais. 

London  Gazette,  16M ;  Sanke,  Hiet.  of  Eng. ; 
MManlay,  R%$t,  of  E%g. 

Bretigny,  The  Treaty  of  (May  8, 1360), 
was  concmdea  between  England  and  France 
after  the  continued  successes  of  Edward  III., 
while  the  French  king,  John,  who  had  been 
taken  prisoner  at  Poitiers,  remained  in  cap- 
tivity in  England.  The  protracted  negotia- 
tions were  brought  to  a  close  by  a  dreadful 
storm,  recorded  in  history,  which  was  inter- 
preted to  be  a  manifestation  of  Divine  wrath 
at  the  continuance  of  hostilities.  The  English 
renounced  their  pretensions  to  the  crown  of 
France,  as  well  as  to  Normandy,  Touraine, 
Maine,  and  Anjou.  France  consented  to 
cede  Ghiscony,  Guienne,  Poitou,  and  their 
dependencies  and  outlying  districts;  and  in 
northern  France,  Calais,  Guisnes,  and  the 
county  of  Ponthieu.  King  John  was  to  pay 
a  ransom  of  3,000,000  gold  crovms.  The 
question  of  Brittany  was  left  open.  The 
French  were  to  break  off  their  alliance  with 
the  Scots,  and  to  abstain  from  assisting  them 
against  the  English,  and  the  English  were  to 
give  no  further  aid  to  the  Flemings.  By  a 
separate  treaty,  the  Kings  of  France  and 
Navarre  were  to  be  reconciled. 

The  articles  are  in  Brmer,  Faderat  ri.  819, 
282L  See  also  FroiMart,  209 ;  Knyghton,  262—4 : 
UDgard,  Eiet,  of  Eng.,  iiL  180. 

Bl'etwttlda.  A  title  of  supremacy  among 
the  early  Anglo-Saxon  kings.  Bed'e  {Mist. 
Scclee.,  iu  5)  gives  a  list  of  seven  kings  who 
had  ruled  over  the  English  south  of  the 
Humber.  The  first  four— Ella  of  Sussex, 
Ccawlin  of  Wcssex,  Redwald  of  East  Ans^lia, 
and  Ethelbert  of  Kent  —  could  have  had  no 
power  over  the  Northumbrians,  even  if  they 
all  really  possessed  the  influence  Bede  as- 
signs to  ihem.  But  the  last  three — ^Edwin, 
Oswald,  and  Oswy  —  were  Northumbrian 
kings,  and  therefore  their  "imperium"  or 
**  dncatus,'*  according  to  Bede,  must  have  ex- 
tended over  all  South  Britain.     Oswald  is,  in 


fact,  called  by  Adamnan  {VU.  S.  Columba), 
**  Totius  BritanniaB   Imperator  ordinatus    a 
Deo,"  and  history  proves  the  reality  of  their 
power.     The  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle   («.  a. 
827),  when    enlarging    on    the    exploits  of 
Egbert,  quotes  Bede's  list,  and  adds  to  them 
Egbert,   saying,    **And  he  was  the   eighth 
kmg  that  was  Bretwalda.^*     West-Saxon  pre- 
judice probably  caused  the  chronicler  to  pass 
over  the  great  Mercians  of  the  eighth  century, 
of  whom  Ethelbald  claimed  to  be  "  King  of 
the  South  English,"  and  Offa*<Kex  Anglorum  " 
{Cod.  Dip.,  I   96,   162,   &c.),  while  Charles 
the   Great  called  the   latter  the   "greatest 
of  the  kings  of  the  West."      Besides  this 
passage,    the    remarkable    word    Bretwalda 
occurs  elsewhere  only  in  a  biling^l  charter 
of  Athelstan  in  934  {Cod.  Dip.,  v.  218),  which 
describes  him  as  "  King  of  the  Anglo-Saxons 
and  Brytaentcalda    of    all  the    island" — in 
Latin,     "  Anglo-Saxonum   nee    non    totius 
Britanniss  Bex."    In  seeking  the  meaning  of 
this  rare  title  we  must  first  distinguish  between 
the  name  Bretwalda  and  the  fact  of  over- 
lordship.     Every  one  admits  the  successive 
hegemony    of    Northumbria,    Mercia,    and 
Wessex  over  English  and  British  alike.    But 
the  nature  of  this  supremacy,  and  the  relation 
of  the  Bretwaldadom  to  it,  have  been  much 
debated.    Rapin  started  a  theory  of  an  elec- 
tive sovereignty,  which  Turner  and  Lingard 
at  least  tacitly  accept,  and  which  Palgrave 
worked  out  to  new  consequences  in  his  Eng- 
lieh  CommontPfolth.     Palgrave  connects  the 
title  with  the  imperial  position  of  the  kings, 
as  inheritors  of  the  remains  of  Roman  Im- 
perialism that  still  survived  the  withdrawal 
of  the  legions,    llie  Bretwalda  was  the  suc- 
cessor of  Carausius,  the  predecessor  of  Edgar. 
He  illustrates  the  continuity  of  Roman  and 
British  influence  after  the  English  Conquest, 
and  the  all-pervading  fascination  of  Rome. 
''  Heptarchic   England  was  a  federal  monarchy 
under  an  elective  Bretwalda,  the  ^*  wielder  of 
Britnin."    Out  of  this  office  grew  the  later 
English  kingship.    Athelstan,  the  last  Bret- 
walda, the  first  **  King  of  the  English,"  marks 
the  contact  of  thjo  two  titles.    Against  this 
brilliant  but    unsupported    theory    Kemble 
{Saxons  in  England)  does  his  best  to  minimise 
both  fact  and  title.    The  word  is  not  "  ruler 
of  Britain,"  but  "  wide  ruler "  (from  bryten, 
broad ;  cf.  brytenei/ninff).    The  idea  of  elec- 
tion among  the  **  kites  and  crows,"  of  con- 
tinuity between  rival  races,  of  a  meeting  of 
Welsh  princes  to  transfer  to  Ella  the  "  Em- 
pire of  Britain,''  is  quite  untenable.     How 
could  the  feeble  princes  of  the  south-east 
make  their  influence  felt  up  to  the  Humber  P 
Hallam  {Middle  uigee,  ii.  352 — 9,  and  ArehaO' 
loffia,    voL    xxxii.)    inclines,    though    with 
more  moderation,  to  a  similar  view.     Mr. 
Freeman  {Norm.  Cong.,  vol.  i.,  note  B)  leans 
to  "  an  intermediate  position  between  Kemble 
and   Palgrave."      Ho   accepts    the   title    as 
significant  of  a   substantial  hegemony,   but 


(  186  ) 


Bri 


rejocts  Palgrave*8  doctrine  of  Roman  in- 
fluence and  continuity.  The  Bi^etwaldadom  is 
of  "purely  English  growth."  Dr.  Stubbfl 
{Const.  Hist.,  i.  162)  seems  to  agree  with  Mr. 
Freeman  in  a  view  that  certainly  best  ac- 
counts for  the  facts.  If  we  could  get  rid  of 
Ella  and  the  earlier  Bretwaldas,  there  would 
be  some  reason  for  connecting  the  triumph 
of  the  Northumbrians  over  Cadwallon,  and 
the  final  catastrophe  of  the  Briions,  with 
Edwin's  assumption  of  imperial  style  and 
emblems.  (See  Rh^s*  Celtic  BrUain,  p.  134, 
for  an  ingenious  recent  development  of  Pal- 
grave's  theory.)  But  there  is  no  evidence  for 
a  consistent  tiieory,  and  there  is  always  the 
danger  of  making  too  much  of  a  name  that 
occurs  only  twice  in  the  authorities. 

Besides  the  authorities  refexred  to  is  the 
text,  see  Freeman,  Norman  Conquettt  i.  542, 
note  B,  wheze  there, is  an  ezhaostlTe  state- 
ment of  all  that  can  be  said  on  both  sides  of  the 
qnestion,  and  a  complete  list  of  the  Tarious  , 
imperial  titles  assnmed  by  early  English  kings. 

[T.  F.  TO 

Brewer,  John  S.     {See  Appendix.) 

Brewer,  William  {d.  1226),  was  em- 
ployed as  a  minister,  a  judge,  and  an  ambas- 
sador by  Henry  II.,  Kichard  I.,  John,  and 
Henry  III.  He  was  a  strong  supporter  of 
the  royal  i)rerogntive  under  the  two  latter 
monarchs,  and  received  valuable  rewards  for 
his  services.  His  generosity  and  piety  are 
celebrated  by  most  of  the  chroniclers  of  these 
reigns. 

Ste  Matthew  Pnriff,  UUA.  iittg'or..  ii.  123,  iii. 
258,  &c. ;  Hoveden,  CKron.,  ilu  lo,  264,  &c. 

Brian  Bom  (or  Boroimhe)  is  said  to  have 
been  the  sou  of  Kennedy,  King  of  Munster. 
His  iirst  warlike  exploits  were  performed 
under  the  banner  of  his  brother,  the  King  of 
CasheL  After  his  brother's  assassination, 
he  became  King  of  Munster,  and  as  such  com- 
pelled the  Danes  of  Dublin  to  pay  tribute. 
He  was  engaged  in  a  long  and  finally  success- 
ful war  against  Malachy,  the  King  of  Tara, 
and  his  nominal  overlord.  In  the  end  he  was 
acknowledged  as  lord  even  by  the  O'Neils,  and 
Malachy,  their  chief,  followed  in  his  train  as 
an  under-king.  The  whole  island  had  now 
submitted  to  him,  but  the  Danes  made  an  effort 
to  re-establish  their  supremacy.  Leinster 
joined  the  Ostmen,  but  they  wore  overthrown 
by  Brian  in  twentv-five  battles  and  finally  at 
Clontarf  (1014).  Brian,  who  is  said  to  have 
been  eii»hty-three  years  of  age,  did  not  com- 
mand in  person,  but  remained  in  his  tent, 
where,  after  the  victory  had  been  won,  he 
was  killed.  Tradition  makes  Armagh  his 
burial-place.  Brian  Boru  must  bo  regarded 
as  the  popular  hero  of  early  Irish  history',  and 
the  stories  told  about  his  reign  led  to  its  being 
regarded  as  a  sort  of  golden  age.  The  O'Briens 
and  many  other  distinguished  Irish  families 
claim  him  as  their  ancestor. 

Anna\»   of  Tni*fall ;  Niala  Saga;  O'Connor, 
JBer.  Eihern.  Script.  Vet. 


Bribery,  (l)  Indirect  Bribeht«  by  the 
bestowal  of  titles  and  ofiices  and  the  like,  has 
at  some  periods  of  our  history  been  frequently 
employed  by  the  crown  and  by  its  ministttn. 
The  practice  became  very  common  under  the 
later  iStuarts,  and  under  William  III.  the 
abuse  had  become  so  great  that  by  the  Act  of 
Settlement,  1701,  it  was  enacted  that  no 
person  holding  an  oflice  under,  or  receiving  a 
pension  from,  the  crown,  should  be  eligible 
for  election  as  a  member  of  Parliament.  This 
Act  was  speedily  repealed  in  favour  of  9ue 
which  rendered  the  holders  of  any  new  office 
created  after  Oct.  the  2dth,  1705,  incapable 
of  sitting  in  the  House,  as  well  as  persons 
who  were  in  receipt  of  a  pension  from  the 
crown  during  pleasure,  and  which  further 
obliged  members  to  vacate  their  seats  on 
accepting  any  of  the  existing  offices,  though 
they  might  be  iounediately  re-elected,  lit 
1742  another  Act  was  passed  against  pla(;e« 
men ;  and  in  1782  govemuient  contmctors 
were  prohibited  from  sitting  in  the  House. 
After  the  beginning  of  Mr.  Hit's  administra- 
tion, the  practice  of  bestowing  places  as  a 
bribe  to  members  gradually  became  nuich  less 
common,  and  almost  ceased,  after  the  Reform 
Bill;  though  a  cei-tain  amount  of  this  in- 
direct form  of  bribery  is  perhaps  a  necessary 
accompaniment  of  our  parliamentary  system, 
which  places  offices  at  the  disposal  of  the 
leaders  of  the  successful  party.      [Pensioxs.] 

(2)  Direct  Bribery  by  sums  of  money- 
may  be  divided  into  three  classes  : — 

(i.)  Bribery  of  Members  of  Par/inment  by  t?te 
Crown  or  its  Mini/tters  was  largely  employed 
during  the  age  of  Charles  II.,  when  the  king 
himself  took  the  money  of  France,  and  partly 
employed  it  in  bribing  members.  Instances 
had,  however,  occurred  under  James  I.,  and 
we  are  told  that  Kichard  II.  occasionally  used 
"gifts"  to  secure  the  passing  of  unpopular 
measures  through  the  House  of  Commons. 
William  III.  found  it  necessary  to  have 
recourse  to  the  same  means  of  propitiating 
obstinate  members ;  and  under  George  II. 
(especially  during  the  administration  of  Sir 
Robert  \\  alpole)  bribery  was  "  reduced  t.o  an 
organised  system."  Under  George  III.,  Lord 
Bute  frequently  bribed  those  whose  votes 
he  wished  to  secure.  In  regard  to  the  peaco 
of  1 762,  Horace  Walpole  says :  "  A  shop  was 
publicly  opened  at  the  Pay  Office,  whither  the 
membera  flocked,  and  received  the  wages  of 
their  venality  in  bank-bills,  even  to  so  low  a 
sura  8s  £200  for  their  votes  on  the  treaty, 
£26,000,  as  Martin,  Secretary  to  the  Treasury, 
afterwards  owned,  were  issued  in  one  morn- 
ing, and  in  a  single  fortnight  a  vast  majority- 
was  purchased  to  approve  the  peace."  In  1763 
Lord  Save  and  Sole  returned  Mr.  Grenville  a 
bribe  of  £300,  saj-insr  that  "  a  free  horse 
wanted  no  spur."  The  practice  continued 
under  Lord  North,  but  gradually  died  out 
under  the  powerful  and  popular  administration, 
of  Mr.  Pitt.     The  union  -with  England   in 


(  187) 


1800  wafly  however,  passed  through  the  Irish 
ParUameut  by  the  systematic  bribery  of  the 
Opposition  members,  carried  out  on  an  enor- 
mous scale. 

•(ii.)  Bribery  of  Judges  and  Ministers  \vaB, 
even  in  early  times,  of  very  frequent  occur- 
rence ;  and  it  was  no  uncommon  thing  to  find 
one  or  more  of  the  judges  corrupt.  In  1401 
a  statute  was  passed,  to  the  etfect  that  all 
judges,  officers,  and  ministers  of  the  king 
convicted  of  bribery  shall  forfeit  treble  the 
bribe,  be  punished  at  the  king*s  will,  and  be 
discharged  from  the  king's  service,  whilst  the 
person  who  offered  tho  bribe  was  held  guilty 
of  a  misdemeanour.  Under  the  Tudors  and 
Stuarts  judicial  bribery  was  common,  the 
best-known  instance  being  that  of  Lord 
Chancellor  Bacon,  who,  in  1621,  was  found 
guilty  on  his  own  confessiou  of  having  re- 
ccivel  extensive  bribes,  and  was  heavil}' 
fined,  sent  to  the  Tower,  and  degraded.  There 
are,  however,  many  other  instances  of  judges 
being  removed  for  corruption.  Judicial  and 
ministerial  bribery  has,  however,  been  prac- 
tically unknown  since  the  Revolution  of  1688. 

(iii.)  Bribery  connected  with  JSleetions.  The 
first  instance  of  a  penalty  inflicted  for  bribery 
in  elections  was  m  1571,  when  a  fine  was 
imposed  on  the  borough  of  Westbury  for  re- 
ceiving a  bribe  of  four  pounds  for  the  election 
of  Thomas  Long  as  their  member,  "  being  a 
ver^'  simple  man,  and  of  small  capacity  to 
serve  in  that  place,"  though  Long  himself 
was  not  expell^  from  the  House.  Under  the 
Stuarta  the  practice  of  purchasing  votes  con- 
tinued, and  had  becoqie  quite  common  by  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.  Li  1696  an  attempt 
was  made  to  pass  a  statute,  which  subse- 
quently became  law  in  the  reign  of  Anne,  to 
impose  a  property  qualification  of  £600  a  year 
from  land  on  county  members,  and  £300  a 
year  on  borough  members,  in  order  to  check 
the  system  bv  which  men  who  had  made 
money  in  trade  or  otherwise,  used  to  buy 
seats  in  places  with  which  they  had  absolutely 
no  connection.  Ten  years  before  this,  how- 
ever, the  first  Bribery  Act  had  been  passed, 
though  bribery  had  even  then  been  recognised 
as  an  offence  by  the  common  law,  and  had 
been  condemned  by  resolutions  of  the  House 
of  Commons.  The  increase  of  corruption 
under  George  II.  led  to  an  Act  in  1729  in- 
flicting severe  penalties  on  persons  receiving 
bribes ;  but  it  seems  to  have  had  little  effect, 
and  in  1762  another  Act  was  passed  inflicting 
pecuniary  penalties  for  briber>*.  There  were 
two  methods  by  which  candidates  might  pur- 
chase a  seat:  they  could  either  buy  the 
borough  outright  from  the  corporation  or 
poprietor,  or,  if  the  electors  happened  to  be 
independent,  they  could  buy  individual  votes. 
Examples  of  the  first  method  are  by  no  means 
xmcommon.  In  1767  the  mayor  and  corpora- 
tion of  Oxford  offered  to  return  their  sitting 
members,  Sir  Thomas  Stapylton  and  Mr.  Ijce, 
at  the  next  election  for  £567.     The  offer  was 


refused,  and  some  of  the  aldermen  were  sent 
to  Newgate,  but  subsequently  discharged, 
after  having  been  reprimanded  on  their  knees 
by  the  Speaker.  The  borough  of  Ludgershall 
was  sold  for  £9,000;  and,  says  Sir  Erskino 
May,  **it  was  notorious  at  the  time  that 
agents,  or  'borough-brokers,'  were  commis- 
sioned by  some  of  the  smaller  boroughs  to 
offer  them  to  the  highest  bidder."  Bribery 
of  individual  electors  also  prevailed  to  a  large 
extent,  prices  generally  ranging  from  twenty 
guineas  to  one  guinea  a  vote ;  though  it  is 
said  that  the  electors  of  Orampound  on  one 
occasion  received  £300  a-piece.  In  1768, 
1782,  and  1786  attempts  were  ineffectually 
made  to  secure  the  acceptance  of  bills  to 
restrain  corruption;  and  it  was  not  until 
1809  that  a  Bill  was  brought  in  by  Mr. 
Curwen  to  prevent  the  obtaining  of  seats  by 
bribery,  and  actually  passed.  Heavy  penal- 
ties were  imposed  by  it  on  corrupt  agreements 
for  the  return  of  members ;  and  in  the  case 
of  persons  returned  by  bribery  or  corruption, 
it  enjoined  the  forfeiture  of  their  seats,  but 
does  not  seem  to  have  been  very  effectual. 
The  Reform  Act  of  1832  made  no  distinct 
provision  for  the  restraint  of  bribery,  which 
continued  to  be  practised  more  or  less  openly, 
in  many  cases  leading  to  the  disfranchisement 
of  boroughs.  In  1841  a  new  Bribery  Act 
was  passed  extending  the  powers  of  election 
committees.  In  1852  an  Act  provided  for 
the  appointment  of  royal  commissioners  to 
inquire  into  cases  of  corruption;  and  two 
years  later  the  offer  or  acceptance  of  a  bribe 
was  rendered  a  misdemeanour,  which  might 
be  punished  b}"^  fine,  imprisonment,  and  for- 
feiture of  franchise;  by  this  Act  also  the 
accounts  of  election  expenses  were  to  be  pub- 
lished. In  1858  another  Act  permitted  the 
conveyance  of  voters  to  the  poll,  though  no 
money  was  to  be  given  to  the  voters  them- 
selves for  the  purpose.  In  1883  an  Act,  called 
the  Corrupt  and  Illegal  Practices  Act,  was 
passed  to  prevent  Inibery,  and  limit  the 
expenses  of  elections.  Stringent  penalties 
against  corruption  are  enacted  in  it.  A  can- 
didate found  guilty  of  bribery  is  incapaci- 
tated for  sitting  in  the  House  of  Commons,  or 
voting  at  an  election  for  seven  years.  Persons 
convicted  of  bribery,  or  ***undue  influence," 
are  liable  to  imprisonment  for  a  year,  and 
a  fine  of  £200.  The  use  of  hired  vehicles 
for  conveying  voters  to  the  poU  is  illegal. 
Since  1868,  when  the  House  of  Commons 
resigned  its  privilege  of  exclusive  juris- 
diction in  cases  of  controverted  elections, 
the  mode  of  questioning  the  validity  of 
an  election  is  to  present  a  petition  against 
it.     This  petition  is  tried  before  one  of  the 

i'udges  of  the  superior  courts  of  common 
iw.  The  judge  certifies  the  result  of  the 
trial  to  the  Speaker,  and  at  the  same  time 
reports  any  violations  of  the  law  relating  to  cor- 
rupt practices  which  have  bpen  proved  before 
him.    The  House  theieupon  takes  the  requisite 


\ 


Bri 


(  188) 


Bri 


action  on  his  certificate  and  report.    [Elec- 

TZON8.] 

Broom*  Cmttt,  Lam;  SirT.  E.  May,  Const. 
Hi$t.;  Walpole,  Metnoin;  Macanlay,  Uitt.  of 
Bng. ;  Mahon,  Hist,  of  Eng, ;  Molesworth,  Hist. 
qftKe  Beform  Bill.  [F.  S.  P.] 

Bridgamaily  Sir  Oulaxbo  {b,  1609,  d. 
1674),  was  the  son  of  a  Bishop  of  Chester, 
and  was  returned  as  member  for  Wigan  to  the 
Long  Parliament  in  1650.  He  took  part  with 
the  king,  and  in  1644  was  one  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Oxford  Parliament.  *In  1645  he 
was  one  of  the  king's  commissioners  at  the 
Treaty  of  Uxbridge.  During  the  Common- 
wealth he  lived  in  retirement,  and  devoted 
himself  to  conveyancing.  Bridgeman  and 
Sir  Geoffrey  Palmer  are  credited  with  the 
invention  of  an  important  legal  expedient 
during  this  period.  *^This  was  the  notable 
contrivance  of  *  trustees  to  preserve  contingent 
remainders,'  of  which  it  is  enon^  to  say  that 
it  protected  the  interests  of  tenants  in  tail 
agamst  the  risk  of  being  defeated  by  the 
wrongful  act  of  preceding  life  tenants.  From 
this  epoch  must  be  dated  the  modem  type 
of  settlement."  On  the  Restoration  he 
was  appointed  Chief  Baron  of  the  Ex- 
chequer, and  very  shortly  afterwards  Chief 
Justice  of  the  Common  rleas.  He  presided 
at  the  trial  of  the  regicides.  In  1667  he  was 
made  Lord  Keeper  of  the  Great  Seal,  and 
held  it  till  1672.  His  eldest  son,  Sir  Henry, 
was  created  Lord  Bradford. 

Brodrick,  English  Land,  p.  58. 

Bridge  of  Bee,  Thb  Affair  of  (1639),  is 
the  name  givun  to  the  forcing  of  the  bridge 
over  the  Dee  by  Montix)se  and  the  Cove- 
nanters. The  bridge  was  gained  by  its  de- 
fenders being  drawn  off  by  a  stratagem,  and 
access  was  thus  obtained  to  the  city  of  Aber- 
deen. In  Sept.,  1644,  Montrose,  this  time  on 
the  Royalist  side,  again  fought  a  successful 
engagement  at  the  bridge  of  Dee.  ' 

Bridge  Street  Chog  (1820).  A  nick- 

name  bestowed  on  the  "  Constitutional  Asso- 
ciation "  formed  for  the  suppression  of  sedi- 
tious, libellous,  and  blasphemous  literature, 
which  made  itself  very  unpopular  by  its 
activity  in  instituting  prosecutions  against 
newspapers  and  other  publications. 

Bridgewater.  An  ancient  town  in 
Somersetshire  on  the  Kiver  Parret,  and  said  to 
derive  its  name  (Burgh-Walter)  from  a  Walter 
of  Douay,  to  whom  the  manor  was  granted  at 
the  Conquest.  A  fine  castle  was  built  here  in 
Henry  II.' s  reign  by  William  do  Briwere.  The 
town  was  taken  by  the  Royalists  in  1643,  but 
in  July,  1645,  it  was  captured  bv  Fairfax.  By 
this  capture  the  Parliamentarians  secured  a 
line  of  forts  extending  from  sea  to  sea  which 
blocked  up  and  practically  isolated  Devonshire 
and  Cornwall.  Bridgewater  was  one  of  the 
places  that  declared  for  Monmouth,  and  it 
was  within  a  few  miles  of  this  town  that  he 
met  with  his  overthrow  at  Sedguraoor.    The 


borough  of  Bridgewater  was  disfranchised  in 
1870. 

Bridlington,  John  of  (d,  1379),  R  regu- 
lar canon  living  in  the  diocese  of  York,  was  the 
author  of  a  curious  poetical  retrospect  of  the 
reign  of  Edward  III.,  "  compiled,"  says  Mr. 
Wright,  "in  a  form  which  is  by  no  means 
unknown  in  modern  literature — namely,  that 
of  a  supposed  old  text,  and  of  a  recent  com- 
mentary." It  has  been  printed  in  vol.  i.  of 
Ml*.  Wright's  Political  Poems  and  Songs  (Rolls 
Series,  1859). 

Bridport,  Alexander  Hood,   1st  Vis- 
count {b.  1726,  d.   1814),  entered  the  navy, 
became  a  lieutenant  in  1746,  and  post-captain 
in  1756.     In  1758  he  served  under  Admiral 
Saunders  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  under 
Sir  Edward  Hawke    in    the  Channel.      In 
1766  he  was  appointed  Treasurer  of  Green- 
wich Hospital.    In  1778,  he  took  an  active 
share  in    the   engagement  off  Ushant.     In 
Sept.,  1780,  he  was  appointed  Bear- Admiral 
of   the    White,    and    in    1782    commanded 
the  centre  squadron  of  the  fleet   sent  out 
under    Lord    Howe     to    relieve    Gibraltar. 
On  Feb.    1,   1793,   he  became  Vice-Admiml 
of   the    Red;    and   on   the   very   next  day- 
France  decided  war.      On  the  1st  of  June, 
1794,    the    division    of    the    Channel   fleet 
commanded   by  Lord    Howe    attacked    and 
utterly  defeated   the  French  fleet   off    th.o 
Hyeres  Islands.     In  this  action  Hood  playe  J 
a   conspicuous   part,   and  in   the   following* 
August  he  was  created  Baix)n  Bridport,  in 
the  Irish  Peerage.     In  the  following  June, 
^having  succeeded  Lord  Howe  in  the  command 
of  the  Channel  fleet,  he  sailed  with  fourteen 
ships  from  Spithead  to  cruise  off  the  French 
roast,    and    chased    a    French    fleet    into 
Port  L'Orient.     During  his  tenure  of  com- 
mand in  the  Channel  occurred  the  mutiny 
of  the  fleet,  which  cannot,  however,  bo  in 
any  way   attributed    to    his    conduct.      On 
the  contrary,  the  men  disavowed  all  intention 
of  giving  personal  offence  to  the  admiral,  and 
called  him  their  father  and  friend.   At  length, 
through  the  combined  efforts  of  Lord  Brid- 
port  and  Lord    Howe,  and    the    tact    and 
prudence  displayed  by  both,  the  men  wero 
brought  bnck  to  their  allegiance,  and  again 
sailed,  in  1799,  under  Lord  Bridport  in  pur- 
suit of  the  French   fleet,  which  this   timo 
eluded  them  and  OBcaped    to  the  Meditor- 
ranean.    On  resigning  his  command  he  he- 
came  general  of  marines,  and  in  1801  "wha 
raised  to  the  rank  of  viscount.    He  lived  on. 
for  thirteen  years,  chiefly  in  retirement. 

AUen,  Naval  Battles;   James,  NavaX  fltst.  ; 
Lodge,  Boriraiis. 


Church,  were  letters  addressed 
by  the  sovereign  to  the  archbishops,  bishops^ 
and  clergy,  empowering  them  to  raise  volun-. 
tary  contributions  for  building  churches,  &nd 
for' charitable  purposes  generally.  They  do 
not  appear  to  have  been  issued  before  t.Ku 


(  189) 


Bri 


Reformation,  and  may  possibly  be  derived 
from  the  briefs  given  by  the  papal  court  to 
mendicant  friars,  empowering  tbem  to  collect 
oontribations.  The  granting  of  briefii  appears 
to  have  led  to  great  abuses.  It  was  regulated 
by  Anne,  cap.  14,  and  practically  abolished 
by  9  Geo.  IV.,  cap.  42,  though  briefs  have 
been  issued  for  special  purposes  since  the 
date  of  the  latter  statute. 

Briefiip  Papal.    [Bulls  ;  Papacy.] 

Briffantas,  The,  were  a  powerful  tribe, 
or  confederacy  of  tribes,  of  ancient  Britain. 
They  occupied  the  whole  of  the  northern  and 
north-western  part  of  Southern  Britain,  as  far 
as  the  Firth  of  Forth  and  Clyde,  and  appear 
to  have  been  driven  northward  from  Uieir 
original  southern  possessions  by  later  colo- 
nists. According  to  the  view  of  some  authori- 
ties, they  were  descendants  of  the  earlier 
[non-Celtic]  inhabitants  of  the  island.  They 
were,  at  any  rate,  among  the  rudest  and 
fiercest  of  the  British  tribes.  Cartismandua, 
the  queen  of  one  of  the  Brigantian  tribes, 
was  an  ally  of  the  Romans,  and  delivered 
Caiactacus  to  them  when  he  sought  refuge  in 
her  kingdom.  But  the  nation  was  weakened 
by  a  civil  war,  which  broke  out  between 
Cartismandaa  and  her  husband,  Yenusius; 
and  after  being  defeated  by  Cerealis  in  69, 
was  subdued,  after  some  difficult  campaigns, 
by  Agricoku  There  was  a  tribe  of  Bngantes 
(possibly  a  colony  from  Britain)  which  occu- 
pied the  present  county  of  Wexford,  in  Ire- 
laud. 

TAcitofl,  Agriecla.  22,  &c. ;  Elton,  Origin*  of 
£«0.  Hist. :  Skene,  CAtic  Scatlaiul,  i.  71 ;  Wxight, 
Celt,  Roman,  and  Saxon, 

Brighaniy  The  Conferekcb  of  (July, 
1290),  was  a  meeting  held  by  the  Scotch  estates, 
near  Berwick,  to  decide  about  the  marriage 
of  the  Maid  of  Norway  and  Prince  Edward  of 
England.  A  treaty  was  made,  and  accepted 
by  Edward,  providing  that  the  rights  and 
liberties  of  Scotland  ^ould  continue  unvio- 
lated ;  that  the  kingdom  of  Scotland  should 
remain  separate  from  England,  divided  by  its 
proper  boundaries;  and  that  no  parliament 
was  to  be  held  beyond  the  frontiers  of  Scot- 
land to  discuss  matters  respecting  that  king- 
dom, and  other  points  favourable  to  Scotland. 
<>n  Baliol  obtaining  the  crown  of  Scotland 
from  Edward,  the  English  king  required  as  a 
(ondition  of  its  bestowal  the  renunciation  of 
the  Treaty  of  Brigham. 

Bjxner,  Fced«ra,  i.  735—6. 

Brijrht,  John  (b.  1811,  d.  1889),  son  of 
Jacob  Bright,  of  Greenbank,  Rochdale,  took  an 
Active  part  in  the  Reform  agitation  of  1831 — 2, 
and  became,  in  1839,  one  of  the  earliest  mem- 
bers of  the  Anti-Corn  Law  League.  In  April. 
1843,  he  unsuccessfully  contested  the  city  of 
parhajQ,  for  which,  however,  he  was  returned 
in  July  following;  and  he  continued  to  sit 
for  Durham  till  1847,  when  he  wus  rotumed 


for  Manchester.    He  made  his  maiden  speech 
in  Parliament  on   Mr.  Ewart*s    motion   for 
extending  the  principles  of  Free  Trade,  Aug. 
7,  1843.      During  the   interval  between  his 
election  for  Manchester  and  the  accession  of 
the    first    Derby    ministry    to    power,    Mr. 
Bright's  activity  in  Parliament  and  on  the 
platform  was  varied  and  continuous.     In  the 
House  of  Commons  he  proposed  to  apply  the 
remedy  of  Free  Trade  in  land  to  the  state  of 
things  which  produced  the  Irish  famine.    Ho 
appealed  unsuccessfully  for  tlie  despatch  of  a 
royal  commission  to  investigate  the  state  of 
India ;  and  in  1849  he  was  appointed  one  of 
the  members  of  the  celebrated  select  com- 
mittee of  the  House  of  Commons  on  official 
salaries.     In  the  Legislature  and  in  the  pro- 
vinces,   especially    at    Manchester,    iio    co- 
operated earnestly  with  Mr.  Cobden  in  his 
attempts  to  obtain  financial  reform,  with  a 
view    to   the    reduction  of   the   naval    and 
military  establishments.     He  also  denounced 
the   Russian   War  with  great    energy,   and 
at    the    general    election    that    ensued,    bo 
was    rejected    by     Manchester,     but    in    a 
few  months   was  invited  to  fill  a   vacancy 
at  Birmingham.     In  1868  ho  accepted  office 
under  Mr.  Gladstone,  as  IVesident  of    the 
Board  of  Trade,  but   was  compelled  by  ill- 
health  to  retire  from  office  in  Dec,  1870.    On 
his  recovery,   he  became  Chancellor  of  the 
Duchy   of   Lancaster,  which   office  he  con- 
tinued to  hold  till  the  downfall  of  the  Liberal 
Government  in  1874.     On  the  return  of  the 
Liberals  to  power,  under  Mr.  Gladstone,  in 
1880,  Mr.   Bright  became  Chancellor  of  the 
Duchy  of  Lancaster.     He  resigned  in  July 
17,  1882,  owing  to  a  difference  with  his  col- 
leagues as  to  their  Egyptian  policy.     In  1886 
he  opposed  the  Home  Rule  Bill. 

J.  Morley,  Life  of  CoMen.  1^81 ;  W.  Robert- 
son, Lif9  and  'jTtmM  of  John  Bright,  1883. 

Bxihtwald  (6.  eirea  650,  d.  731),  An'h- 
bishop  of  Canterbury  (692^731),  belonged  to 
the  royal  houso  of  Mercia.  During  his  arch- 
bishopric, the  much-vexed  question  of  the 
celebration  of  Easter  was  settled  by  almost 
all  the  British  bishops  adopting  the  Roman 
practice.  This  period  also  saw  tihe  beginning 
of  missionary  enterprise  abroad,  and  the 
English  engaged  in  preaching  the  Gospel  to 
their  heathen  kinsmen  in  Germany. 

Bede,  Hist.  Ecelcn.i  Hook,  lAvet  of  the  Arch- 
bishops. 

Bxihuega,  The  Battle  of  (1710),  was  a 
great  defeat  sustained  by  the  English  arms 
during  the  "War  of  the  Succession  in  Spain. 
General  Stanhope,  with  Staremberg,  his 
Austrian  colleague,  had  occupied  Madrid,  but 
it  was  found  impossible  to  hold  the  city. 
They  therefore  retreated  into  Catalonia, 
marching  in  two  parallel  armies.  The  French 
commander,  the  Duke  of  Vendomc,  pursued 
with    remarkable    nipidity.      Stanhope    was 


Bri 


(190) 


Bri 


surprised  and  surrounded  at  Brihucga.  The 
walls  of  the  town  were  battered  with  cannon, 
and  a  mine  sprung  under  one  of  the  gates. 
The  English  kept  up  a  deadly  fire  until  their 
powder  was  consumed,  and  then  fought  on 
with  the  bayonet  against  terrible  odds.  At 
length  the  British  general  saw  that  further 
resistance  could  produce  only  a  useless 
slaughter  of  his  troops.  He  concluded  a 
capitulation  by  which  the  remnant  of  his 
army,  600  in  number,  surrendered  themselves 
as  prisoners  of  war.  Scarcely  was  it  signed 
when  Staremberg  appeared.  His  slowness 
had  ruined  his  cause;  but  the  battle  that 
ensued,  called  that  of  V^illa  Viciosa,  was  ad- 
mirably contested,  when  night  put  an  end  to 
it.  Staremberg  remained  master  of  the  field, 
but  all  the  fruits  of  the  battle  remained  with 
Vend6me.  The  Austrian  general  spiked  his 
cannon,  and,  with  a  sorry  remnant  of  his 
army,  consisting  of  7,000,  took  refuge  in 
Barcelona. 

Stanhope,  Hid.  of  Reign  o/ Queen  Anne,  454. 

BrisbaiL6|  the  capital  of  Queensland, 
was  founded  us  a  penGd  settlement  in  1825, 
and  named  after  Sir  Thomas  Brisbane, 
Governor  of  New  South  Wales,  1822—26. 
It  formed  part  of  New  South  Wales  till 
1859.  The  penal  establishment  was  abolished 
in  1842. 

Bristol  has  from  an  early  period  ranked 
Hi  one  of  the  most  important  of  English 
towns.  Until  the  rise  of  Liverpool  and  the 
manufacturing  towns  of  the  North,  it  was  the 
second  city  in  the  kingdom.  The  castle  was 
granted  by  the  Conqueror  to  Robert  Fitz- 
hamon,  from  whom  it  passed  by  marriage  to 
Robert  of  Gloucester,  natural  sou  of  Henry  I. 
Robert  of  Nonnandy  was  for  a  time  im- 
prisoned here.  In  Bristol  Castle  Stephen 
was  imprisoned  by  the  partisans  of  Matilda 
in  1141,  and  sixty  years  later  the  ill-fated 
Eleanor  of  Brittany  was  incarcerated  at 
Bristol  by  her  uncle  John,  who  was  afraid 
that  her  claims  to  the  throne  might  be  put 
forward  by  his  opponents.  In  1S99  Henry 
of  Lancaster  took  the  town,  and  put  to' death 
many  of  the  adherents  of  Richard  II.  Sebas- 
tian Cabot  was  bom  at  Bristol,  and  sailed 
from  that  port  on  his  famous  voyage,  and  in 
1609  a  colony  of  settlers  from  Bristol  were 
the  first  to  establish  themselves  in  New- 
foundland. Bristol  was  made  the  seat  of 
one  of  Henry  VIII.'s  new  bishoprics.  The 
town  played  a  very  prominent  part  in  the 
civil  war  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  Great  Rebellion 
Bristol  declared  for  the  Parliament,  and 
received  a  garrison  under  the  command  of 
Nathaniel  Fiennes.  In  July,  1643,  the 
Royalist  successes  in  the  west  made  the 
possession  of  Bristol  still  more  important, 
as  commanding  the  valley  of  the  Severn,  and 
Prince  Rupert  was  sent  to  besiege  it.  After 
a  very  brief  attack,  Fiennes  determined  to 


capitulate,   and    Rupert    offered    such  good 
terms  that  a  large  number  of  the  Parliamen- 
tary troops  took  service  in  his  army.    Bristol 
remained  in  the  possession  of  the  Royaliots 
till  September,  1645,  when  Rupert,  who  was 
in  command  of  the  town,  surrendered  it  in 
almost  as  unaccouu table  a  manner  as  i^ennes 
had  done  two  years  before.     In  1656  Bristol 
Castle    was    destroyed  by  the  pfovemment. 
In  1685  it  was  the   one  town  in  Somerset 
that  x-efused  to  receive  Monmouth.    In  1715 
serious  riots  broke  out  here  on  the  occa- 
sion of  the  accession  of  George  I.     Violent 
riots  also  occurred  in  1793  in  opposition  to  an 
unpopular  bridge-toll,  and  many  persons  lost 
their  liveB  before  they  were  suppressed :  and 
great  rioting  took  place  in   1831   [Bristol 
RioTslin  connection  with  the  Reform  Bill.  The 
church  of  St.  Mary  Redcliffe,  one  of  the  finest 
in  England,  was  in  great  part  built  by  Wil- 
liam   Cannynge,    a    wealthy    merchant    of 
Bristol,  in  the  later  part  of  the  fourteenth 
century. 

Seyer,  Memoirs  ofSrietolt  1821 ;  Evs.n8,  CKron<h 
logxeal  Hiet.  of  Brutal,  1824. 

Bristol,    John    Digry,    Ist   Eakl   op 
^b.  1580,  d.  1653).     He  was  bom  at  ColeshiU, 
in  Warwickshire,  was  the  youngest  son  of 
Sir  George  Digby,  knight,  and  of  Abigail, 
daughter  of  Sir  A.  Hevengham  of  Norfolk. 
In  March,  1606,  he  was  knighted  by  James  I. 
In  161 1,  and  again  in  1614,  he  went  as  ambas- 
sador to  Spain.     In  1616  James  conferred  on 
him  the  manor  of  Sherborne,  in  Dorset.     In 
1617  Bigby  went  for  the  third  time  to  Madrid 
with  the  special  mission  of  reviving  negotia- 
tions, commenced  during  his  former  embassies, 
for  a  marriage  between  Prince  Charles  and 
the  Infanta  Maria.     On  his  return  in  1618  he 
was  made  a  peer  with  the  title  of  Baron 
Digby  of  Sherborne.     In  1621  Digby  went 
first  to  Brussels  and  afterwards  to  Vienna,  in 
order  to  prevail  on  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  to 
restore  the  Palatinate  to  James's  son-in-law, 
Frederic.    Digby  strove  to  negotiate  peace  on. 
the  basis  that  the  Emperor  should  restore  th3 
Palatinate,  and  that  Frederic  in  return  should 
renounce  the  title  of  King  of  Bohemia  and 
abandon  the  right  of  private  war  within  tho 
Empire.     But  his  efforts  were  unayailing*. 
If  Digby' s   policy  was  to  succeed,   it   ^waa 
necessary  that  James  should  be  able,  in  case 
of  need,  to  draw  the  sword.    James,  by  his 
angry   dissolution    of    Parliament    in    1621^ 
shattered  the  policy  of  his  ambassador.      In 
1622  Digby  again  went  to  Spain  in  order  to 
conclude  the  marriage  treaty  and  obtain  IKn 
restoration  of  the  Palatinate  through  the   in* 
fluence  of  Philip  lY.    He  thought  that,   in 
return  for  some  modification  in  the  treatment 
of  English  Catholics,  Spain  would  suppoi*t   a 
compromise  in  Germany.     But  in  this  he  ^^'h.h 
mistaken,  since  the  Spaniards  were  aiming  i\t 
no  less  than  the  conversion  of  the  Cn^IiRli 
nation  to  the  Catholic  faith.     In  1622  he  ^-as 
created  Earl  of  Bristol     The  visit  of  CharloR 


Bti 


(191  ) 


and  Buckingham  to  Spain  in  1623  reeulted 
in  the  breaking  off  oi  the  negotiation  and 
the  recall  of  BiistoL  On  his  return  Bristol 
was  ordered  to  remain  in  confinement  at  his 
own  house,  because  he  refused  to  admit  that 
he  had  been  at  fault  and  to  make  apologies  to 
Buckinglt^m.  In  1626  he  appealed  to  the 
House  of  Lords  and  brought  accusations 
against  the  Duke  of  Buckingham.  Charles, 
to  defend  his  favourite,  retaliated  by  ac- 
cusing Bristol  of  high  treason.  In  1628  Bristol 
opposed  the  king's  first  answer  to  the  Peti- 
tion of  Right  When  Strafford  was  im- 
peached, Bristol  sought  to  save  his  life  while 
incapacitating  him  from  holding  «effice.  On 
the  breaking  out  of  the  civil  war,  he  took  the 
king's  side.  At  its  close  he  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  died  Jan.  16,  1653. 

A  few  of  Bristol's  Den>atcbea  are  printed  in 
the  Appendix  to  the  Clarendon  Sws  Papen, 
ToL  L  For  hie  defence  of  his  conduct  in  Spain, 
eee  the  CanuUn  MiBctllany,  vol.  vi. :  for  bis  own 
impeeohment,  and  the  chaiges  that  he  made 


JS4g,  [B.  M.  G.] 

Bristol*  Gborob  Dioby,  2nd  Eabl  of  (3. 
1612,  d.  1677),was  the  eldest  son  of  the  preced- 
ing.   He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  sat  for 
Dorsetshire  both  in  the  Short  and  the  Long 
Fkriiaments.     He  at  first  joined  the  Oppo- 
sition, and  was    one    of    the    managers  of 
Strafford's  impeachment,  but  soon  went  over 
to  the  king,  and  voted  against  the  Bill  of 
Attainder   which  the  Parliamentary  leaders 
had  brought  in  against  Strafford.     He  re- 
ceived a  writ  of  snnmions  to  the  House  of 
Lords  as  Baron  Digbv,  and  became  one  of  the 
king's  confidential  advisers.     He  was  one  of 
the  chief  promoters  of  the  scheme  for  the 
arrest  of  the  Five  Members,  after  the  failure 
of  which  he  was  impeached  by  the  Conmions 
snd  fled  to  Holland.    On  his  return  he  was 
Captured  and  imprisoned  at  Hull,  under  the 
care  of  Sir  John  Hotham,  who  connived  at 
his  escape.     He  joined  the  king,  and  took 
part  in  most  of  the  important  battles  of  the 
Civil  War,    till,    quarrelling    with    Prince 
Kupert,  he  threw  up  his  command.    At  the 
conclusion  of  the   war  he  fied  to  France, 
where  he  distinguished  himself  in  the  war  of 
the  Fronde;   bnt,  having  formed  a  foolish 
idea  of  supplanting  Hazarin  and  becoming 
Prime  Minister  of  France,  he  was  obliged  to 
^cape  to  the  Netherlands.      On  the  Restora- 
tion he  returned  to  England,  but  his  flighty 
and  untrustworthy  character  preventedf  his 
being  appointed  to  any  office.     In  1663  he 
brought  a  chai^ge  of  high  treason    against 
Clarendon,  which  was,  however,  rejected  by 
the  House  of  Lords,  and  after  that  he  took 
no  part  in  pnblic  affairs.    He  was  a  man  of 
undoubted  ability,  and  one  of  the  foremost 
orators  of  his  time,  but  unstable  and  head- 
strong to  the  last  degree. 

Claraidon,  Hiat.  of  the  R«b«<Iion,  and  Life; 
Lodfe,  Portrait*, 


Bristoli  Fkbdbbjck  Augustus  He&vby, 
£a&l  op  [d.  1803),  and  Bishop  of  Derry,  was 
an  eccentric  nobleman  who  affected  to  adopt 
the  character  of  a  prelate  of  the  Middle  Ages. 
He  raised  three  regiments  of  Volunteers, 
which  were  commanded  by  his  nephew.  At  the 
second  Dungannon  Convention  he  was  one 
of  the  leaders.  In  1784  he  entered  Dublin 
in  almost  roy^  state,  and  expected  to  be 
chosen  president  of  the  Convention  there,  but 
he  had  identified  himself  too  much  with  the 
more  extreme  party,  and  was  disappointed. 
When  the  Convention  dispersed,  he  went  to 
Ulster  and  mado  inflammatory  speeches,  so 
that  at  one  time  his  arrest  was  contemplated. 
The  earl  was  in  favour  of  Catholic  Emanci- 
pation, Reform,  and  separation  from  England. 

Bristol  Biots  (Oct.  29,  1831)  were  a 
series  of  outbreaks  produced  by  the  popular 
indignation  which  resulted  from  the  rejection 
of  the  Reform  Bill  by  the  House  of  Lords. 
On  the  occasion  of  the  public  entry  into  Bris- 
tol of  the  recorder.  Sir  Charles  Wetherell,  a 
bitter  opponent  of  the  Bill,  a  mob  which  seems 
never  to  have  greatly  exceeded  a  few  hundred 
persons,  took  possession  of  the  principal 
streets,  broke  into  the  town-hall,  and  set  fire 
to  several  houses.  For  two  da3rs,  the  weak- 
ness of  the  magistrates  allowed  the  disorders 
to  continue  unchecked;  at  length  they  in- 
structed the  military  to  re-establish  order, 
which  was  done  without  much  difficulty, 
though  with  some  loss  of  life.  The  blame 
for  the  long  continuance  of  the  riots  was  laid 
on  Colonel  Brereton,  the  commander  of  the 
military,  who  might  have  used  the  discretion 
with  which  the  magistrates  had  armed  him 
(probably  in  order  to  avoid  the  responsi- 
bility themselves)  to  suppress  the  disturbances 
at  an  earlier  period.  He  was  tried  by  court- 
martial,  and,  unable  to  face  the  consequences, 
committed  suicide.  Four  of  the  ringleaders 
were  lumged,  and  the  town  was  compelled  to 
pay  £68,000  damages. 


[Britannia  ;      Romans     in 

Britain  ;  Bhitonb;  and  Grbat  Britain.] 

Britailif  Coxwt  of  (Comes  Britannise),  was 
a  Roman  officer  who  in  Constantine^s  scheme 
of  governing  the  Empire,  was  the  supreme 
general  of  the  military  forces  in  Britain. 
His  jurisdiction  was,  however,  subject  to 
that  of  the  Masters  of  the  Cavalrj'  and 
Infantry  in  the  West.  His  power  was  not 
localised  within  Britain,  but  under  him  were 
the  J)ux  Britanniarum,  who  seems  to  have 
commanded  the  forces  massed  along  the 
northern  wall,  and  the  Cames  Litoris  Saxonici, 
who  was  in  command  of  the  coast-line  be- 
tween the  Wash  and  Wight,  which  was 
most  exposed  to  piratical  Saxon  assaults. 
The  "  Gwledig  "  is  thought  by  some  to  have 
inherited  the  power  of  the  Dux  Britanniarum. 
Bh^t.  Catio  Britain,  pp.  96.  99 :  Skene, 
Ancient  Book*  of  Walet,  i.  f*fl.;  Httbner  in 
Corpuft  In»orip.  iMt.,  vii.  5. 


(192) 


Britannia^  or  Brittania  (the  latter 

very  rare  form  is  the  *'  theoretically  correct  ** 
spellingf),  a  name  constructed  by  the  Romans 
from  the  tribe-name  Brittones,  known  to 
them  as  Britanni,  and  used  by  them  to  denote 
the  larger  of  the  "  British  Islands/*  originally 
styled  Albion.  After  Csesar's  time  this 
is  the  general  usage,  but  in  an  earlier  form 
'*  cu  fiptTainKal  yri<roi "  are  said  to  have  in- 
cluded leme  (Ireland)  as  well  as  Albion. 
[Britons.] 

Bb^,  Catio  BHtain,  pp.  208—211. 

Britanniay  The  Roman  Divisions  of. 
Originally  only  one  Province  of  Bi-itain  was 
constituted,  but  it  is  possible  that  Severus 
divided  it*  into  Upper  and  Lower  Britain; 
though  whether  this  statement  rests  on  a  mis- 
conception of  Dio  Cassius,  a  merely  popular 
use  of  the  words,  or  a  regular  legal  sub- 
division of  the  province,  it  is  hard  to  deter- 
mine. In  Diocletian  and  Constantino's  reor- 
ganisation of  the  Empire,  the  "  diocese  "  of 
Britain  was  divided  into  four  "provinces," 
Britannia  Prima,  Britannia  Secunda,  Flavia 
Offisariensis,  and  Maxima  Caesarienais.  To 
these  Valentia  was  added  in  369.  It  consisted 
of  the  district  between  the  two  walls  of 
Hadrian  and  Antoninus.  The  situation  of 
the  rest  is  absolutely  unknown,  for  it  is  now 
acknowledged  that  the  chronicle  of  "  Richard 
of  Cirencester,"  from  which  the  ordinary 
identification  comes,  is  an  eighteenth-century 
forgery. 

Hlibner,  Preface  to  vol.  vii.  of  Corpus  luBcrip. 
Lot.,  gives  a  well-diKested  summary  of  all  that 
is  known  on  this  subject.  Of.  Bh^s,  Celtic 
Britain,  and  Elton,  OrigiM  ofEng,  Hittory. 

Britanuy,  Relations  with.  There  is 
no  sufficient  evidence  to  warrant  the  belief 
that  Britanny  received  its  present  population 
from  Britons  who  fled  from  the  Saxon 
invaders.  Individual  cases  of  emigration, 
settlements  from  the  days  of  the  soldiers  of 
^laximus  downwards,  there  may  well  have 
been.  Intimate  relations  certainly  existed 
between  Welshmen  and  Britons  in  the  earliest 
times.  Similarity  of  language,  place-names, 
institutions,  and  traditions  pomt  to  the  racial 
unity  of  Gaul  and  Briton.  In  their  western 
sea-girt  highlands,  each  alike  struggled 
against  the  ever-flowing  tide  of  Roman  and 
Teutonic  influences,  yot  preserved  unimpaired 
their  tongue  and  nationality.  But  the  coloni- 
sation theory  is  rather  a  popular  attempt  to 
explain  these  phenomena  than  a  proved  fact. 
If  the  Britons  did  conquer  Armorica,  whom 
did  they  expel,  and  how  did  fugitives,  dis- 
organised by  defeat,  manage  to  win  so  large 
and  fair  a  territory  ?  The  popular  legends, 
moreover,  speak  as  much  of  migrations  from 
Armorica  to  Britain  {e.ff.^  the  legend  of  St. 
Padam  in  Rees*  irehh  iSaifttei)  as  from  Britain 
to  Armorica.  With  the  establishment  of  the 
English  monarchy  over  Britain,  the  early 
relations  of  Wales  and  Britanny  became 
fewer.     But  even  in  England  Alfred  sends 


gifts  to  Breton  Abbeys,  and  Athclstan  gives 
a  shelter  to  Alan  when  the  Breton  revolt 
against  William    Longsword  of   Normandy 
had  been  put  down.     The  superiority  which 
Rolf  had  previously  established  over  Britanny 
thus  continues,  and  accounts  for  the  number 
of  Bretons  in  the  Conqueror's  army,«Hnd  their 
large  graats  of  land  in  the  west  of  England. 
Alan  of  Britanny  received  that  Honour  of 
Richmond  which   so  long  remained  a  link 
between  England  and  Britanny.    It  was  from 
Britannv  that  Walter  Map  brought  the  old 
Welsh  Book  of  Legends  of  Arthur  that  is 
professedly  the  basis  of    Geoffry  of   Mon- 
mouth's   iSstory,    and    Rhys  Ap  Tewdwr'a 
return  from  his  exile  in  Armorica  marks  a 
new    era    in    Welsh    literature.      Like   the 
Welsh,  the  Bretons  were  constantly  harassed 
by  war  and  faction;  and,  in  1148,  when  the 
dount  of  Porhoet  defeated  Hoel  VI.,  the 
defeated  party  invoked  the  aid  of  Henry  of 
Anjou  as  Rolf's  successor.     Henry  granted 
the  duchy  to  his  brother   Geoffry,    whose 
death  was  succeeded  by  the  triumph  of  the 
native  prince,  Conon  I V.     But  Henry,  since 
1154  King  of  England,  compels  Conon  to 
abdicate  and  marry  his  daughter  Constance 
to  his  son  Geoffry.    Thus  Henry  II.  practi- 
cally adds  Britanny  to  the  Ange^nn  Dominions. 
Geoffry  died  in  1186,  and  the  rivalry  of  John 
and  Philip  Augustus  for  his  territory  ulti- 
mately led  to  his  son  Arthur's  murder,  the 
French  triumph,  and  a  new  line  of  Breton 
princes  sprung  from  Geoffry 's  daughter.     In 
1342  Edward  III.  found  another  opportunity 
of  intervention  in  favour  of  John  of  Mont- 
fort,  the  native  claimant,  against  Charles  of 
Blois,  the  friend  of  Philip  VI.     For  many 
years  the  Breton  succession  war  was  an  epi- 
sode in  the  great  hundred  years'  struggle  of 
France  and  England.     Left  unsettled  at  the 
Treaty  of  Bretigny,  the  question  was  at  last 
decided,  at  the  battle  of  Auray,  in  favour  of 
the  house  of  Montfort    In  the  early  stages 
of   England's  second   struggle  for    France, 
Britannj*^,    though    less    energetically    than 
Burgundy,   sided    with   the    English.      But 
Arthur  of  Richmond,  brother  of  the  duke, 
and  inheritor  of  the  old  Honour  of  Alan, 
broke  with  the  English,  and  became  the  great 
supporter  of  Charles  VII.     In  1488  the  death 
of  Francis  II.  produced  a  European  contest 
for  the  hand  of  his  daughter  Anne  which, 
despite  the  exertions  of  Henrj'  VII.,  resulted 
in  her  marriage  with  Charles  VIII.,  and  tho 
ultimate  annexation  of  Britanny  to  France. 
Thus  the  old  ally  of  England  became  a  pro- 
vince of  her  hereditary  enemy. 

Bede,  Nenuins,  the  Anglo-Sojeon  Chron.   an.d. 
the  Brut   y  Tyioyjioyion,  contain   the  eikrliest 


De  Ck>ur9on.   Freeman's  Norman  Conq^teat  ( vol. 
i.  199,  a06 ;  vol.  iiL  313 ;  vol.  It.  172,  296)   fti ve 
an  account  of  later  dealings.    For  H«nry  XI.' 
relations,  see  Lyttelton,  History  of  Henry  Tl . 

[T.  F.  X.] 


<i«3  ; 


Britisll  XiOgioiLy  Thb.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  war  betweeQ  Isabella  of  Spain 
and  Dou  Carlos,  in  1835,  an  Order  in  Council 
wad  issued,  on  Lord  Palmerston's  sugges- 
tion, authorising  **any  persons  to  engage 
during  the  next  two  years  in  the  military 
and  naval  service  of  her  ^lajesty  Isaljella  II., 
Queen  of  Spain."  De  Ijacy  Evans,  a 
colonel  in  the  British  army,  was  selected 
for  the  command.  Hecruits  to  the  number 
of  10,000  were  rapidly  enlisted,  and  des- 
patched under  hia  orders  to  the  Peninsula. 
They  did  not  effect  much.  In  1837  Evans 
returned  to  England;  and  in  1838  the 
Ministry  withdrew  the  Order  in  Council, 
and  the  corps  was  dissolved. 

Thb  North.    [Wilkbs.] 


I.  Hie  general  name  given  by  the 
Romans  to  the  inhabitants  of  South  Britaiit. 
Its  etymolog>'  has  generally  been  traced  to 
the  Welsh  brith  (spotted  or  tattooed),  but  it 
is  more  probably  kindred  with  brethyn,  the 
Wels^  for  cloth.     Thus,  the  Britons  were 
the  clothed  people,  as  opposed  to  the  pre- 
Celtic  occupants,  who    probably  wore    but 
little  clothing.      The  classical  form  **Bri- 
tanni*'  passed  away  with  the  Romans,  and 
was  superseded  by  the  more  correct  form, 
'*  Brittones.'*   Modem  inquirers  have  sought  a 
remedy  for  the  vague  use  of  the  word  Briton 
by  linutiog  it  (in  its  Welsh  form,  Brython) 
to  that  bsranch  of  the  Celtic  stock  otherwise 
called  the  Cymric  ;  and  it  has  been  pointed 
out  that   large  Gaelic    survivals  prevented 
South  Britain  from   being   exclusively  the 
property  of  either  group  ox  tribes.    [Celts.  1 
But    aa    these    vestiges   of   the    Gael    hna 
almost  passed  away  before  regfular  history 
begins,  we  cannot  do  much  hann  in  treating 
of  the  Britons  in  the  more  general  sense  of 
the   ancient  writers.      But,  politically  and 
tocially,  we  have  not  sufficient  information  to 
draw  a   clear   line   between   Brython    and 
Goidel  (Gael) ;  especially  if,  with  Mr.  Elton, 
we  reject  the  accounts  in  Bede  and  his  school. 
The  absence  of  heroic  kingship,  the  nearer 
approximation     (especially    in    the    South- 
Efist)  to  the  higher   culture   and    civilisa- 
tion of  Gaul,  the  predominance  of  Druidism 
[Druius]  ower  the  ordinary  Aryan  polytheism 
are,  perhaps,  the  chief  marks  of  the  "Bry- 
thonic'*    tribes.       Linguistically,    they   are 
distinguished  from  the  Grael  by  the  use  of 
"p"  instead   of  the  older  "qu"  or  "qv." 
The  tribes  of  the  south  were,    from  ^eir 
neighbourhood  or  their  affinity  to  the  Gauls, 
the  most  advanced  in  culture,  and  the  Cantii 
were,  according  to  Coesar,  the  most  civilised 
nation.    Besides  these,  the  chief  tribes  of  the 
Britons  were  the  BelgsB,  Atrebatii,  the  Regni, 
the  Durotriges,  and  the  Dumnonii  (Goidelic) 
of   the  South;    the    Dobuni,  Catuvellauni, 
Coritavi,  and  Comarii  of  Middle  England; 
the  Iceni,  Cenimagni,  and  Trinobantes  of 
toe  Eastern  Counties;   the  Silnres,  Demetas, 
Hut.— 7 


and  Ordovices  of  South-Eastem,  South- 
western, and  Northern  Wales;  the  Bri- 
gantes,  and  some  less  important  tribes — such 
as  the  Parisi,  Segantii,  Otadini,  Selgovte,  and 
Damnonii — of  the  district  between  the  Uum- 
ber  and  the  Northern  Wall.  Beyond  thia 
latter  the  Britons,  in  any  precise  sense, 
hardly  extended. 

Elton,  Oriffins  of  £nylt«h  Kittorv  (espedallj 
chap,  ix.),  with  Bbfa's  later  Celtic  Britain  ;^ 
Skene,  CeUtc  Scotiand,  gives  a  rather  different 
view;  Camdeu,  Britannia,  has  the  fullest  local 
and  arohsological  details. 

For  the  ethnology  and  general  oharacteiiatfos 
of  the  Britons,  •#«  Celts.  The  chief  tribes  are 
mentioned  under  their  various  names.  For 
the  iwlitical  histoxy  of  Britain,  »ee  Romars  ur 
BaxTAur.  [T.  F.  T.] 

Bxitton  is  the  title  of  an  early  summary 
or  abstract  ("  Summa  de  legibus  Anglias  quie 
vocatur  Bretone'')  of  English  law  purport^ 
ing  to  have  been  written  by  command  of 
Edward  I.  Nothing  is  known  with  certainty 
as  to  the  authorship  of  the  work.  The  theory 
that  it  was  the  work  of  John  le  Breton, 
Bishop  of  Hereford,  is  untenable,  because 
there  are  allusions  in  the  work  to  events 
which  occurred  after  the  death  of  that 
prelate  in  1275.  Selden  and  others  havo 
thought  that  the  book  was  written  by  Henry 
de  Bracton,  and  is  an  abridgment  of  his 
great  work.  [Buacton.]  Britton  is  a 
yery  useful  guide  to  the  English  legal  system 
of  the  thirteenth  century.  It  has  been 
printed,  in  1640,  by  Edward  Win^te,  and 
by  Mr.  F.  M.  Nichols,  with  an  English  trans* 
lation,  Oxford,  1865. 

Broad    Bottom   Administration^ 

The  (1744 — 1764),  was  a  cant  name  given 
to  the  ministr)'  formed  by  the  Pelhams, 
after  they  had  contrived  to  rid  themselves  of 
Carteret  by  threatening  to  resign,  because  its 
supposed  policy  was  to  admit  to  ofiSce  the  heads- 
of  Opposition,  both  Whig  and  Tor>',  except 
Carteret  and  Bath.  Chesterfield  and  Pitt 
were  persuaded  to  relinquish  their  opposition 
(the  former  becoming  Lord-Lieutenant  of 
Ireland),  the  Privy  Seal  was  given  to  the 
Tory  Lord  Gower,  and  Sir  John  Hinde  Cotton, 
an  undoubted  Jacobite,  was  given  a  place  about 
the  court;  while  other  posts  were  given  to 
the  Dukes  of  Devonshire  and  BedfoiS,  Lordf 
Cobbam  and  Hobart,  and  Bubb  Dodington 
In  1746  the  Pelhams,  finding  themselves  iit. 
danger  of  being  once  more  supplanted  by 
GhranviUe  (Carteret),  demanded  the  admission 
of  Pitt  to  office,  and  on  the  king's  refusal 
resigned ;  but  on  Granville's  failure  to  form 
a  ministry  they  returned  to  office. 

Coze,  Ptflfcam;  Stanhope,  Uht.  ofEng. 


Xon  was  the  name  applied  by 

the  Scottish  government,  in  the  fifteentn 
centur}'  and  subsequently,  to  such  persons  in 
the  Highlands  as  had  no  chief  to  be  respon- 
sible for  them.  The  government  had  so  far 
recognised  the  tribal  institutions  that,  by  an. 


Bro 


(194) 


Act  of  Council  of  the  reigpi  of  James  IV., 
the  chiefs  were  held  reeponsihle  for  the 
execution  of  writs  against  their  followers. 

Bromley,  Sir  Thomas  {b.  1530,  (L  1587), 
was  in  1566  made  Recorder  of  London,  and  in 
1570  Solicitor-General,  in  which  capacity  he 
took  a  leading  part  in  the  trial  of  the  Duke 
of  Norfolk,  1572 ;  he  was  subsequently  em- 
ployed in  the  attempt  to  extort  concessions 
from  the  Queen  of  Scots ;  and,  on  the  death 
of  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  was  made  Lord  Chan- 
cellor, 1579.  In  1586  he  took  an  active  part 
in  the  prosecution  of  the  conspirators  in 
Babington*s  plot,  and  was  President  of  the 
Commission  for  the  trial  of  Marv  Stuart, 
whilst  he  shared  with  Burleigh  and  Davison 
the  responsibility  of  despatching  the  wanant. 
He  died  shortly  afterwards,  having  never  got 
over  l^e  anxiety  of  the  presidency. 

Bromptoxif  John,  Abbot  of  Jervaulx, 
•compiled  a  chronicle  about  the  middle  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  consisting  of  selections 
<5aref ully  made  from  older  chroniclers.  This 
work,  which  embraces  the  period  from  697  to 
1199,  possesses  little  authority,  but  curiously 
•enough  is  constantly  quoted  by  historians. 
It  was  printed  by  Twysden  in  his  SeHptoret 
Deeeittj  1652. 

Brooke,  Sir  James  {b.  1803,  d.  1868), 
after  serving  with  credit  in  the  Bengal  army, 
visited  Borneo  in  his  yacht  in  1838,  and 
-assisted  the  Sultan  against  the  revolted  Dyak 
tribe.  In  return  he  received  a  grant  of  the 
•district  of  Sarawak  from  the  Sultan  of  Borneo 
with  the  title  of  Rajah.  He  did  much  to 
ameliorate  the  condition  of  the  iiatives,  to  de- 
velop  the  resources  of  the  island,  and  to  sup- 
press piracy,  and  earned  on  several  occasions 
the  thanks  of  the  British  government,  to  whom 
he  more  than  once  offered  to  surrender  Sarawak. 
The  island  of  Labuan  having  been  acquired 
I)y  the  British,  Brooke  was  appointed  its 
governor,  1847 ;  but  in  1851  senous  charges 
of  cruelty  were  brought  against  him  by 
Joseph  Hume.  A  Royal  Coomiission  was  ap- 
pointed to  investigate  the  matter,  but  came  to 
no  definite  conclusion.  Sir  James  Brooke 
was,  however,  deprived  of  his  governorship. 
His  later  years  were  spent  in  England ;  but 
he  made  frequent  visits  to  Sarawak. 

Pari.  Dtiba*e»  (3rd  ser.),  vol.  118,  p.  439,  $eq,  A 
oollection  of  Sir  J.  Brooke's  LetUra  was  israed 
in  1853. 

Brougham  and  Vatiz,  Hbkry,  Lord 
{b.  1778,  d.  1868),  the  eldest  son  of  Henry 
Brougham,  of  Brougham  Hall,  Westmore- 
land, educated  at  the  High  School  and 
University  of  Edinburgh,  was  admitted  to 
the  Scottish  bar  in  1800.  When  the 
Edinburgh  Review  was  established  in  1802, 
Mr.  Brougham  became  one  of  its  most 
active  contributors,  and  exhibited  an  eztra^ 
ordinary  variety  and  extent  of  knowledge. 
In  1807  he  resolved  to  qualify  himself  for  Sie 


English  bar,  and  in  1808  he  began  to  practido 
in  the  Court  of  Ring's  Bench,  and  on  the 
northern  circuit.     In  1809  he  was  returned 
to  Parliament  for  the  borough  of  CamelfonL 
His  powers  of  debate  were  soon  recognised, 
and  he  became  the  rival  of  George  Canning, 
and  his  most  formidable  opponent.     In  the 
election  of  1811,  Mr.  Brougbam  was  beaten 
at    Liverpool    by    I^ir.    Canning,    and   was 
excluded  from   parliament  till   1816,   when 
he  was  returned  for  Winchelsea.     In   1820 
he  undertook,  with  Denman,  the  defence  of 
Queen  Caroline.     During  the  whole  of  the 
trial  his  popularity   was    as  unbounded  as 
the  queen's.     On  Feb.  11,  1822,  he  moved  a 
resolution  in  the  House  of  Commons  for  the 
consideration  of  the  public  burdens,  particu- 
larly those  pressing  on  the  agricultural  in- 
terest.    This  motion  was,  however,  negatived. 
In  the  same  year  he  moved  a  resolution  con- 
demnatory of  the  unconstitutional  influence 
of  the  crown  in  the  government,  which  was 
also  lost.     In  1823  he  delivered  a  powerful 
speech  exposing  the    designs    of   the  Holy 
Alliance.     On  April  l/th  of  the  same  year, 
he  exchanged    abuse   of  such   an  insulting 
nature  with  Canning,  that  the  Speaker  waa 
compelled  to  order  both  into  the  custody  of 
the  Serg^eant-at-Arms,  and  they  only  escaped 
this  by  retractfitions.     In  the  same  year  he 
was  engaged  with  Mr.  Birkbeck  in  founding 
the  first  Mechanics'  Institute.     In   1825  he 
took  a  large  share  in  the  foundation  of  the 
Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Know- 
ledge, and  also  of  the  London  University. 
In  1828  he  delivered  his  famous  six  honn^ 
speech  on  Law  Reform.      In  1830  he  came 
prominently  forward    as    the    champion    dt 
Parliamentary  Reform,  and   the   House   of 
Commons  had  no  sooner  met   than  he  an- 
nounced his  intention  to  bring  in  a  Bill  em- 
bracing a  comprehensive  measure  of  refomu 
A  ministerial   crisis,    however,   supervened. 
The  Duke  of  Wellington,  having  been  de- 
feated on  a  government  measure,  resigned; 
and  the  formation  of  a  new  government  under 
Earl  Grey,  including  Brougham,  who  wit^ 
some  difficulty  was    induced  to  accept  the 
Chancellorship,  placed  in  the    hands  of  the 
ministry  the  great  question  of  Parliamentary 
Beform.    But  though  no  longer  a  representa- 
tive of  the  people,  and  personally  relieved 
from  the  charge  of  the  Reform  BiU,  his  beet 
powers  were  called  forth  in  support  of  it ;  and 
his  speech  on  the  7th  Oct.,   1831,  when  the 
Bill  was  read  a  second  time  in  the  House  of 
Lords,  was  a  display  of    eloquence  of  the 
highest  order.  As  LK)rd  Chancellor,  Brougham's 
success   was ,  not  very  great.     He  was  un- 
acquainted with  the  details  of  English  equity, 
jurisprudence,  and  with  the  practice  of  his 
court,  and  his  manners  gave  great  offence  to 
the  distinguished    advocates   who   practised 
before  him.    His  extraordinary  energy,  how- 
ever, atoned  for  many  defects,  and  he  had 
the  distinction  of  getting  through  the  airears 


(196) 


in  his  court  with  unexampled  rapidity.  In 
1884  Brougham  resigned  with  the  Whig 
government.  In  1836  they  returned  to 
power  under  Loitl  Melhoume,  but  Lord 
Brougham,  who  had  never  acted  cordially 
with  the  leaders  of  his  i>arty,  did  not 
return  with  them,  and  Cottenham,  greatly  to 
Brougham's  anger  and  chagrin,  was  made 
Lord  Chancellor.  Released  from  party 
ties  he  now  acted  independently,  and  even 
showed  a  disposition  to  court  the  Tories,  and 
especially  the  Dake  of  Wellington.  But  for 
the  remainder  of  his  lon^  life  the  part  he 
played  in  politics  was  unimportant,  though 
his  restless  vanity  still  kept  him  before  l£e 
public  eye.  As  a  law  reformer,  and  a  member 
of  the  Privy  Council^  he  continued  to  do 
useful  work  ;  and  many  of  his  judgments  in 
House  of  Lords  appeals  are  of  great  import- 
ance. Lord  Brougham's  powers  of  mind,  his 
remarkable  activity,  his  ardent  love  of  liberty 
and  justice,  his  versatility  and  his  eloquence, 
made  him  one  of  the  most  conspicuous 
figures  in  English  politics  for  many  years; 
and  had  these  great  qualities  not  been 
neutralised  by  defects  almost  as  striking — an 
unbounded  recklessness,  an  extraordinary 
want  of  self-control,  and  an  eccentricity  which 
sometimes  bordered  on  insanity — ^he  could 
hardly  have  failed  to  rank  among  the  most 
illustrious  of  English  statesmen. 

liord  BroQgbam'B  AHtohiography^  wbich  was 
written  during  the  closing  yean  of  bis  life 
when  his  memory  was  failing,  is  often  nntrust- 
worthj.  The  same  must  be  said  of  Lord  Camp« 
hell's  Ltf0  of  Brougham,  the  work  of  a  not  too 
generotis  rivaU  I^rd  Brongham  wrote  lamly 
on  a  great  variety  of  topics,  but  his  wximigs 
ore  now  little  read.  The  beet  of  his  historical 
works  are  the  Htstory  of  England  under  th* 
HouM  of  Lanetut^r,  and  Skatchn  of  the  SUUetrntn 
0/  tht  TivM  of  Qtorge  III.  His  Sp<Mch«»  were 
coUeoted  in  four  volnmes,  1838.      [S.  J.  L.] 

Broughton,  John  Cam  Hobhousb,  Lord 
(b.  1786,  d.  1869),  the  eldest  son  of  Sir 
Benjamin  Hobhouse,  was  educated  at  West- 
minster School  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge. He  was  the  intimate  friend  of  Lord 
Byron,  accompanied  him  on  his  travels  in 
1809,  and  was  with  him  during  his  first  visit  to 
Turkey  and  Greece.  He  adopted  advanced 
Liberal  views  in  politics,  and  was  a  zealous 
advocate  of  Parliamentary  Reform.  In  1816 
he  wrote  a  work  called  Letters  written  by  an 
£ngli»h  Oentleman  retident  at  Parie,  which  gave 
great  offence  to  the  English  government.  In 
becember,  1 8 1 9,  in  consequence  of  one  of  these 
letters,  which  contained  some  severe  remarks 
on  certain  members  of  the  House  of  Commons, 
and  which  was  therefore  declared  a  breach  of 
privilege  by  that  assembly,  he  was  arrested 
and  imprisoned  in  Newgate,  but  was  liberated 
a  few  weeks  after,  when  Parliament  was 
dissolved  by  ihi  death  of  George  IV. ,  in  1820. 
The  same  year  he  was  elected  with  Sir  F. 
Burdctt  memlwr  for  Westminster.  In  1832  he 
joined  Earl  Grey's  government  as  Secretary 
for  War.    In  1833  he  was  appointed  Chief 


Secretary  for  Ireland ;  and  in  1834  Chief  Com« 
missioner  of  Woods  and  Forests.  He  was 
President  of  the  Board  of  Control  from  1835 
to  184 1 ;  and  again  from  1846  to  1862.  He  suc- 
ceeded to  the  baronetcy  in  1 831 ;  and  was  raised 
to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Broughton  in  1851. 

Browxiistfli  The,  were  a  religious  sect 
founded  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  by 
Robert  Brown,  a  dergyman  of  the  Churcn 
of  England,  who  began  to  preach  his  doc- 
trines about  1680.  They  were  ultra- 
Puritans,  regarded  the  Church  of  England 
as  impure,  and,  assuming  the  character  of 
Separatists,  refused  to  hold  any  commimi- 
cation  with  her.  They  were  8ti*ong  op- 
posers  of  episcopacy,  and,  in  consequence, 
suffered  much  persecution  at  the  hands  of  the 
bishops.  In  1593  a  statute  was  passed  enact- 
ing the  penalty  of  imprisonment  against  any 
person  above  the  age  of  sixteen  who  should 
forbear,  for  the  space  of  a  month,  to  repair  to 
some  church  until  he  should  make  such  open 
submission  and  declaration  of  conformity  as 
the  Act  appointed.  In  consequence  of  the 
rigorous  enforcement  of  this  Act,  a  large  pro- 

Strtion  of  the  Brownists  sought  an  asylum  in 
olland,  whence  subsequently,  in  1670,  many 
of  them  sailed  from  Amsterdam  to  found  a  new 
home  in  America.  The  members  of  the  sect 
who  remained  in  England  endured  consider- 
able persecution,  until  the  principle  of  Tolera- 
tion was  recognised.  During  the  Civil  Wars 
of  Charles  I.'s  reign  they  became  merged  in 
the  sect  of  the  Independents.  The  Brownists 
objected  alike  to  Episcopacy  and  to  the 
Presbjierian  form  of  Church  government, 
and  favoured  a  purely  congregational  system, 
without  convocation  or  8)^10^,  and  without 
any  separate  order  of  priests.  [Bakkowxsts  ; 
Independents.] 

Fnller,  Church  Ei$t. ;  Neal.  Mitt,  of  the  Puri- 
tan* ;  Moabeim,  Ecde*.  flist. ;  Masson,  Life  of 
Milton,  vol.  ii. 

BmcOy  The  Family  of  (or  de  Brus),  was 
of  Norman  descent.  The  foimder  of  the  Eng- 
lish branch  came  over  with  William  the  Con- 
queror and  obtained  large  grants  of  land  in 
Northumberland,  where  the  family  quickly 
assumed  a  powerful  baronial  position,  being 
frequently  involved  in  border  warfare  with  the 
Scotch.  David  I.  of  Scotland  made  over  to 
the  house  of  Bruce  the  lands  of  Annandale 
about  1 130,  and  thus  it  obtained  its  recognition 
as  a  power  in  the  south  of  Scotland.  Isabella, 
second  daughter  of  David,  Earl  of  Huntingdon, 
the  brother  of  Malcqlm  IV.,  married  Robert  de 
Brus,  Lord  of  Annandale,  and  their  son  became 
a  competitor  for  the  crown  of  Scotland,  1291. 
Their  grandson  was  the  great  Robert  Bruce, 
King  of  Scothmd  1306—1329. 

BracOi  Edward  (^.1318),  was  the  brother 
of  Robert  Bruce.  He  commanded  the  reserve 
at  Bannockbum,  and  dispersod  the  English 
archers.  His  restless  spirit  gave  much  trouble 
to  his  bnither,  who  gladly  let  him  go  to 
Ireland,  to  assist  the  native  rebels  against 


» 


] 


(196) 


England.  On  May  25Ui,  1316,  he  landed  from 
a  fleet  of  300  sail  at  Lome,  on  the  coast  of  An- 
trim. With  some  600  men  he  took  Dmidalk, 
and  was  joined  hy  a  large  native  force.  The 
O'Neil  resigning  his  claims,  he  was  crowned 
king.  At  the  Kiver  Boyne  he  defeated  the 
O'Connors  and  the  Red  Earl  of  Ulster,  and 
proceeded  to  hesiege  Carrickf  ergus.  In  Meath 
the  Lord  Justice  Mortimer  succumhed  to  him, 
and  the  flight  of  another  English  force  before 
him  led  to  a  rising  in  Munster  and  Leinster. 
In  1316,  however,  want  of  provisions  oom- 
pelled  the  Scots  to  retire  into  Ulster  and 
leave  the  Wicklow  septs  to  their  inte.  The 
De  Burghs  and  Genildines  also  agreed  to  a 
truce  in  face  of  a  common  foe.  But  Bobert's 
arrival  counteracted  all  this,  and  was  at  once  fol- 
lowed by  the  capture  of  Carrickf  ergus,  though 
the  English  victory  at  Athenry  restored  we 
balance  somewhat.  The  Bruces,  however, 
followed  by  20,000  men,  now  marched  straight 
on  Dublin,  and  the  De  Lacys  openly  joined 
them.  Dublin  was  not  taken,  but  the  country 
was  wasted  as  far  as  Limerick ;  and  so  com- 
pletely was  this  done  that  the  Scots  themselves 
■offerod  severely,  on  their  retreat,  from  want, 
and  it  was  only  the  supineness  of  the  English 
which  enabled  them  to  regain  their  old 
position.  In  1317,  Robert  Bruce's  good  sense 
mduced  him  to  give  up  the  contest  and  leave 
Ireland;  all  his  forces,  however,  remained  with 
his  brother.  The  Anglo-Irish,  still  fighting 
among  themselves,  were  unable  to  gain  any 
idvantage.  In  1318,  however,  Edwud  Bruce 
and  the  De  Lacys,  joining  their  forces,  marched 
to  Dundalk,  but  were  met  near  that  place,  on 
Oct.  5th,  by  the  now  united  English,  were 
routed,  and  Bruce  himsc^  kiUed.  His 
body  was  quartered,  and  the  head  sent  to 
Edward  II. 

Wnlsingham,  HUA.  AngUe, ;  Moore,  Ritt.  of 

Ireland. 

BraoOt  Robert,  Kino  of  Scotland  (3. 
1274,  «.  1306,  d.  1329),  was  the  grand- 
ton  of  Robert  de  Bruce,  the  rival  of  John 
Baliol.  In  1297  he  fought  for  Edward  I. 
against  Wallace,  then  joined  the  Scottish 
army,  and,  in  the  same  year,  returned  to  his 
allegiance  to  the  English  king  until  1298, 
when  he  again  joined  the  national  party 
in  Scotland,  and  was  chosen  one  of  the 
guardians  of  that  kingdom.  In  1304  he 
entered  into  an  aUiance  of  mutual  support 
with  LambertoD,  Bishop  of  St.  Andrews, 
and  about  the  same  time  became  reconciled 
to  Edward,  at  whose  court  he  resided  until 
Feb.,  1306,  when — ^hearing  that  the  king, 
owing  to  some  information  that  he  h^l 
obtained  from  Comyn,  intended  to  put  him 
to  death — ho  fled  to  Scotland.  Having 
stabbed  Comyn  at  Dumfries  in  a  quarrel,  he 
determined  to  assert  his  right  to  reign  over 
Scotland  as  the  represontative  of  Da^dd  of 
Huntingdon.  He  was  accordingly  crowned 
at  Scone  (March  27th,  1306)  by  the  Coun- 
tess of   Buchan,   of  the  house  of  Macduff. 


Edward  I.  at  once  procured  from  the  Pope 
the    excommunication    of    Bruce,    and   was 
on  his  way  to  revenge  the  death  of  Comyn 
when    he    died  at    JBurgh-on-the-Sands,  in 
1307.     Before    this,    however,     Bruce    had 
been    twice     defeated     (at     Methven    and 
Dulay),     though    he    had     somewhat    re- 
trieved his  fortunes  at  Loudoun  Hill.     It 
is    to    this    period    of    his    life    that    the 
marvellous  stories  told  by  the    chrooiclers 
about    him    mainly    refer.     There    is    no 
doubt  that  Bruce  had  to  conceal  himself  in 
the    fastnesses    of    the    mountains^  and   to 
support  himself  as  best  he  could.    In  1308 
he  routed  his  old  enemy,  the  Earl  of  Buchan, 
at   Inverury,    harried  Lome,  and   received 
additional  support  by  a  declaration  of  alle- 
giance on  the  part  of  the  clergy.    A  feeble 
incursion  into  Scotland,  undertaken  by  Ed- 
ward II.,  1310,  was  revenged  by  Bruce  in 
the  two  following  years,  when  he  invaded 
England    and    laid    Durham     waste.      In 
1313  Bruce  ravaged  Cumberland,  and  laid 
violent  siege  to  the  castle  of  Stirling,  the 
attempted  relief  of  which  by  the  English  led 
to  the  Scotch    victory  of  Bannockbum  in 
1314,  a  battle  in  which  Bruce  displayed  as 
mucii  generalship  and  valour  as  he  after- 
wards £d  moderation  in  the  use  he  made  of 
his  victory.     His  attempts  to  bring  about 
peace  were,  however,  unsuccessful.    In  1316^ 
when  he   left   Scotiand  for  a  time   to  aid 
his  brother  Edward  in  Ireland,  his  absence 
was   made   the    occasion   of   many    unsuc- 
cessful  inroads    by  the   English.      An    at- 
tempt at  mediation  on  the  part  of  the  Pope 
(John  XXII.)  having  failed,  Bruce,  in  1318, 
took  Berwick,  and  harried  Northumberland 
and  Yorkshire.    The  next  year  Edward  II. 
tried  unsuccessfully  to  recover  Berwick,  only 
drawing  down  on  his  kingdom  retaliatory 
raids  on  the  part  of  Bruce,  who,  in   1322, 
entered    into    negotiations    with    the    rebel 
Earl  of  Carlisle.    At  length,  on  March  30th» 
1323,    a    truce    was    concluded  at   Thorpo,. 
in  Yorkshire,  for  thirteen  years,  and  was 
ratified  by  Robert  Bruce  at  Berwick.     The 
peace  was,  however,  soon    broken,  and   in 
1326    Bruce    again    ravaged    the    north    of 
England,  evading  the  English  army,  which, 
he  reduced  to  great  straits  by  destroying  all 
their  provisions.     In    1328,  another  treaty- 
very  favourable   to  Scotland  was  made    at 
Northampton,  by  which  Robert's,  son  David 
married  Joanna,   daughter    of   Edward   II. 
"The  good  King  liobert"  died  at  Cardroas, 
June  7,  1324,  and  by  his  patriotism,  wisdom^ 
and  courage  left  behind  him  the  character  of  a. 
good  man.   He  married,  first,  Isabella,  daughter 
of  the  Earl  of  Mar,  and,  secondly,  Elizabeth, 
de  Burgh,  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Ulster. 

Fordnn,  Soottchronioon  ;  Barbonr's  great  poexxx. 
Tht  BmcB,  which  is  the  fullest  aeoonnt  of 
Brace's  exploits,  and  is  valaable  as  beinfr  tlie- 
work  of  a  nearly  oontemporaneons  writex*  ^ 
Walsintrhwm,  flM.  iingliG.;  Barton,  Hitl  <^ 
Scotland. 


(197) 


Bvc 


>,  KoBEUT  DB  (d.  1295),' and  Lord  of 
Annandale,  ^vrus  of  Norman  origin,  and  the  son 
of  Robert  de  Bruce  and  Isabella,  daughter 
of  David  of  Huntingdon.  He  was  one  of  the 
Scotch  Commissioners  who  went  to  Salis- 
bury to  confer  about  the  marriage  of  Prince 
Edward  and  the  Maid  of  Norway  (1286). 
On  the  dispute  for  the  succession  to  the 
Scotch  crown,  after  the  death  of  the  >Iaid  of 
Xorway  (1290),  Bruce  put  in  a  claim  as  the 
descendant,  in  the  nearest  degree,  of  David 
of  Huntingdon.  He  also  declared  that  in 
1240  Alexander  II.  had,  in  an  Assembly  of 
the  Estates,  recognised  him  as  his  heir  in  the 
event  of  his  dpng  childless  (since  that  time, 
however,  other  male  descendants  had  been 
bom).  The  only  competitor  whom  Bruce 
had  need  to  fear  was  John  Baliol,  in  whose 
favour  Edward  finally  decided  (Nov.,  1292). 
On  the  resignation  of  Baliol  in  1295,  Bruce 
tried  ineffectual!}'-  to  persuade  Edward  to 
bestow  the  kingdom  on  him.  He  died 
shortly  afterwards. 


\,  Sox  OF  Marlin,  was  &  powerful 
Pictish  monarch  {b.  656,  d.  583)  who  had  his 
capital  at  Inverness.  In  660  he  defeated  the 
Scots  of  Dalriada,  slaying  their  king,  Gabran, 
and  driving  them  back  to  Kintyre.  This 
defeat  was  important,  as  it  led  to  the  mission 
of  St.  Columba,  by  whom  Brude  was  baptised 
in  563.     [PicTs.] 

Bmnanbnrh,  The  Battle  of  (937),  was 
fought  by  Athelstan  against  the  combined 
forces  of  Anlaf  the  Dane,  who  came  over 
from  Iri'land,  Constantino  of  Scotland,  and 
Owen  of  Cumberland.  This  powerful  com- 
bination was  thoroughly  routed  by  Athelstan, 
and  in  commemoration  of  the  great  Saxon 
victory  over  this  great  Danish  and  Celtic 
league  a  noble  war-song  was  composed,  which 
is  preserved  in  the  Afu^lo-Saxon  Chronicle. 
The  site  of  the  battle  is  very  doubtful; 
it  has  been  placed  in  the  Lothians,  in  North- 
umberland, in  Yorkshire,  and  it  has  been  iden- 
tified, with  pome  plausibility,  with  Brumby, 
in  Lincolnshire. 

Ang.-Sax.  Chron.,  L  290  (Bolls  ed.);  Free- 
mao,  Jforman  Ccnq.,  i.  61.  For  a  spirited 
translation  of  the  "Song  of  the  Fi»it  at 
Bmnanhorh,"  see  Hr.  Freeman's  (Hd-SnglUh 
Hiataryt  p.  155. 


(or  Brvte)  was  the  name  assigned 

to  the  fabulous  hero  who  was  supposed  to 

have  given  his  name  to  the  island  of  Britain. 

According  to  the  accoimt  given  by  Geoffrey  of 

Monmouth,  and  universally  believed  in  the 

Middle  Ages,  Brutus  was  the  great-grandson 

of  .£nea8.   Having  been  banished  from  Italy, 

he  retired  to  Greece,  where  he  became  the 

champion  of  the  oppressed  Trojans.    After 

many  difficulties,  he  succeeded  in  reaching 

Albion,  which  at  that  time  was  inhabited  by 

giants.     Having  destroyed  these  monsters, 

the  Trojaxa   occupied  the  country,  which, 


in  honour  of  their  leader,  they  called 
Britain.  Brutus  died  in  the  twenty-fourth 
year  after  his  arrival  in  the  island. 

Bmt  y  TvwyBOgioiiy  or  The  Chbo- 
NXCLE  OF  THE  Frinces  OF  Wales,  is  the  name 
of  a  most  important  Welsh  chronicle  which 
extends  from  the  abdication  of  Cadwal  at 
Home  in  the  year  681  to  the  conquest  of 
Wales  in  1282,  It  is  printed  with  an 
English  translation  in  the  Holls  Series  (1860). 

Buceaaeers  (the  name  is  derived  from 
a  word  used  by  the  Caribbean  Indians  de- 
noting dried  or  cured  meat)  were  associations 
of  piratical  adventurers  which  flourished  in 
the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  The 
buccaneers  were  chiefly  English  and  French, 
and  owed  their  origin  to  the  attempts  made 
by  other  European  nations,  in  the  early  part  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  to  acquire  a  share  in  the 
rich  American  trade  which  the  Spaniards  at- 
tempted to  engross.  The  buccaneers,  though 
in  later  times  they  carried  on  general  piracy, 
directed  their  chief  efforts  against  the 
Spaniards,  whom  they  regarded  as  their 
natural  enemies.  In  1625  they  took  St. 
Christopher,  and  in  1630  Tortuga,  which  they 
made  their  head-quarters.  In  1670,  under 
Henry  Morgan,  thev  captured  Panama  with 
immense  booty ;  and  in  1683  and  1684  made 
the  expeditions  to  the  Soutli  Seas  which  are 
described  in  Dampier*s  famous  Voyages,  In 
1670  a  treaty,  caUed  "  The  Treaty  of 
America,'*  was  concluded  between  England 
and  Spain  for  the  suppression  of  the  buccaneer 
associations,  but  it  was  quite  ineffectual.  Hie 
wars  between  England  and  France,  by 
making  the  English  and  French  buccaneers 
enemies,  did  much  to  weaken  thejn,  and  after 
the  Treaty  of  Ilvswick  they  gradually  disap- 
peared. The  most  noted  buccaneer  chiefs 
were  Montbars,  Francois  Lolonois,  Mans- 
velt,  and  especially  Henr)'  Morgan,  who  was 
knighted  by  Charles  II.,  and  made  deputy- 
governor  of  Jamaica. 

J.  Bumey,  Hist,  of  th§  BuccanMr$t  IBIQ. 

Bnch,  Jean  de  Gbailly,  Captal  de  {d, 
1377),  was  one  of  the  most  famous  of  the 
English  commanders  in  the  French  wars  of 
Edward  III.'s  reign.  He  was  a  native  of 
Ac^uitaine,  and  attached  himself  to  the  Black 
Ptince,  with  whom  he  fought  at  Poitiers  and 
Navarrete.  In  1372  he  was  taken  prisoner 
by  the  French,  and  died  in  captivity  five 
years  later. 

Bnchail,  John  Comyn,  Earl  of,  was  a 
staunch  adherent  of  Edward  I.  He  was  de- 
feated by  Bruce  at  Inverury,  and  had  his  ter- 
ritory harried  by  the  victorious  troops.  His 
wife,  Isabella  I^Iacduff,  sister  of  the  Earl  of 
Fife,  was  a  supporter  of  Robert  Bruce,  and 
crowned  that  Inng  at  Scone,  March  27,  1306. 
For  this,  she  was  imprisoned  by  Edward  I.  in 
a  cage  at  Berwick,  as  a  warning  to  those  who 
dared  to  support  Bruce. 


Bno 


(  198) 


Bno 


Bnchaaiy  John  Stbwabt,  Eabl  of  (d, 
1424),  the  second  son  of  Robert,  Duke  of  Al* 
bany,  led  a  Scotch  army  of  about  6,000  men  to 
France,  to  aid  Charles  V.  against  the  English. 
After  winning  the  battle  of  Beaug^,  he  was 
created  Constable  of  France  and  Count  of 
Aubig^y,  and  was  slnin  at  Vemeuil,  1424. 

BnchaiiaiLt  Gborob  (b.  1606,  d.  1582), 
rtudied  at  Paris  and  at  St.  Andrews,  and  be- 
came tutor  to  the  Earl  of  Caasilisin  1632,  and 
subsequently  to  a  son  of  James  V .  He  bitterly 
assailed  the  friars  in  his  FranciscanuSy  which 
subjected  him  to  much  persecution  from 
Cardinal  Beaton.  He  found  it  unsafe  to 
reside  in  Scotland,  and  retired  to  Bordeaux. 
In  1644  he  went  to  Paris  and  taught  at  the 
College  of  Bourbon.  Three  years  later  he 
went  to  Coimbra  in  Portu^.  Here  he  was 
seized  as  a  heretic,  and  imprisoned  in  a  monas- 
tery, where  he  began  his  version  of  the  Psalms. 
On  his  release  he  remained  for  some  years  in 
France,  and  in  1660  came  to  Scotland  as  Latin 
tutor  to  Queen  Mary.  He  received  a  pension 
from  the  queen,  and  in  1667  was  made 
Moderator  of  the  General  Assembly.  He  ac- 
companied the  Regent  Murray  to  England, 
and  took  a  considerable  share  in  political 
affairs,  being  among  the  most  violent  oppo- 
nents of  the  Queen  of  Scots.  He  was  present 
at  the  Commission  of  Inquiry  at  York  in 
1668  as  the  representative  of  the  Scottish 
lords,  and  has  been  charged  with  the  forgery 
of  the  *'  Casket  Letters  '^  (q.v.).  In  1571  he 
printed  his  tract  De  Maria  Seotorum  Heghm,  a 
very  bitter  attack  on  Mary.  Meanwhile,  in 
1670  he  had  become  tutor  to  the  young  prince 
James,  and  soon  afterwards  was  made  Director 
of  the  Chancerj'  and  Lord  Privy  Seal,  and  sat 
in  Parliament  for  some  years.  He  was  a  volu- 
minous writer  of  Latin  verse,  and  is  among  the 
first,  if  not  the  very  first,  of  non-classical  poets. 
He  was  the  author  of  two  important  prose 
works.  The  famous  treatise,  DeJure  Rcgni  apud 
8eot08j  published  in  1679,  is  a  political  dialogue 
on  the  source  and  origin  of  kingly  power.  It 
is  filled  with  the  principles  of  liberal  and  con- 
stitutional monarchy,  and  its  author  has  been 
not  inaptly  styled  *'  the  first  Whig."  The 
Rerum  Seotieanvn  Hittoria,  published  in  1682, 
is  an  authoritative  record  of  Scotch  affairs  in 
the  sixteenth  century. 

Bacbanan'8  Work*,  2to1b.,  1725  (ed.  Burman) ; 
Irving,  Memoir  of  BucKanan. 

Buckillgliaill  was  an  ancient  borough 
at  the  time  of  the  Domesday  Survey.  It  had 
been  fortified  by  Edward  the  Elder  in  the 
early  part  of  the  tenth  century,  and  captured 
by  the  Danes  in  1016.  It  was  a  place  of 
considerable  trade  in  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
Edward  III.  fixed  one  of  the  wool  staples 
there.  It  received  a  charter  from  Alary  in 
1564,  which  was  surrendered  and  restored  in 
1684.  The  borough  formerly  returned  two 
members  to  Parliament ;  but  it  was  deprived 
of  one  of  its  representatives  in  1868. 


Buekili^liailli  Pbbraoe  of.  (i.)  William 
Oiffard  is  said  to  nave  received  the  earldom 
of  Buckingham  from  WilUam  I.   His  son  died 
without  issue,  1164.     (ii.)     Thomas  of  Wood- 
stock, youngest    son   of  Edward  III.,  was 
created  Earl  of  Buckingham  1377,  died  1397. 
His  son  Humphrey  died  without  issue,  1399. 
(iii.^    Humplu«y,  Earl  of  Stafford,  who  in- 
herited the  earldom  of  Buckingham  from  his 
mother,  sister  of  the  last  earl,  was  created 
Duke    of    Buckingham,   1444.      His   great- 
grandson,  third  duke,  was  beheaded,  1521, 
and  his  honours  forfeited,     (iv.)     George  Vil- 
liers,  created  Earl  of  Buckingham  1616,  mar- 
quis 1618  (his  mother,  being  later  in  the  year 
created  Countess  of  Buckingham  for  life,  died 
1632),    and   duke    1623.     George    Villien, 
second  duke  of  this  line,  died  without  issue, 
1687.     (v.)     John  Sheffield,  Marquis  of  Noc- 
manby,  created  Duke  of  Buckinghamshire, 
1703.     His  son  Edmund,  second  duke,  died 
without  issue,  1736.    (vi.)    George  Grenville, 
Earl  Temple  (son  of  George  Grenville,  Ptemier 
1763 — 66,   and  brother  of  Lord    Greni^e, 
Premier   1806 — 7),  created  Marquis  of  the 
town  of  Buckingham,  county  Bucks,  1784. 
His  son  was  created  duke  in  1822. 

ipTi5»Vitiglia.iti^  Hexry  Staffohd,  Dukb 
OF  (d.  1483),  was  the  eldest  son  of  Humphrey, 
Duke  of  Buckingham,  by  Margaret  Beaufort, 
daughter  and  heiress  of  Edmund,  Duke  of 
Somerset.    He  was  doubly  connected  with 
the    royal  family,  and  his    marriage    with 
Catherine  Woodville,  daughter  of  Earl  Rivers, 
made  him  brother-in-law  to  Edward  IV.     He 
was  one  of  Richard  in.'s  great  supporters, 
and  was  the  chief  agent  in  obtaining  the 
crown  for  him.     But  before  Richard  bad  been 
on  the   throne  many    months  Buckinghani 
became  alienated  from  him,  the  chief  reason 
being  apparently   Richard's  refusal  to   give 
him  any  portion  of  the  inheritance  of  the 
Bohuns,  to  which  Buckingham  had  a  claim. 
Infiuenced  by  Morton,  Bishop  of   Ely,   he 
entered  into  a  project  for  calling  over  Henry, 
Earl  of  Richmond.    This  scheme  was  sup- 
ported  by  the  Woodville  party,  and  Bucking- 
ham arranged  that  he  should  head  a  rising  in 
the  west  of  England,  while  Richmond  was  to 
land    in    the    south.     But    the  insurrection 
ended  in  failure.     Buckingham  had  raised  a 
small  force  in  Wales,  but  all  the  bridges  over 
the     Severn     were     broken     down,     while 
unusually  heavy  rains   had    so  swelled  the 
rivers  as  to  make  them  impassable.     Being; 
imable  to  get  provisions,   most  of  his   men. 
deserted,    and    Buckingham    himself    took, 
refuge  in  Shropshire,  but  was  betrayed   \^ 
one  of  his  retainers,  taken  to  Salisbury,  and 
executed  there. 

Buddnffhaniy  Edward  Stafford;  Dukb 
OF  (rf.  1521),  the  eldest  son  of  Henry,  Dulco 
of  Buckingham,  was  restored  by  Henr^~ 
VII.  to  all  his  father's  dirties  and  p08ses<~ 
sions.    In  1621  he  was  tried  and  ex6cute<i. 


(  1»9) 


Buo 


for  high  treason,  the  chief  evidence  for  the 
disrge  being  that  he  had  unguardedly  let  fall 
some  expreosiona  to  the  effect  that  he  would 
be  entitled  to  succeed  to  the  throne  should 
the  king  chance  to  die  without  issue.  No 
doubt  his  connection  with  the  royal  line  was 
his  real  offence  in  the  eyes  of  the  king.  The 
office  of  Constable,  which  the  Duke  of  Buck- 
ingham inherited  from  the  Boh'uns,  Biarls  of 
Hereford,  was  forfeited  by  his  presumed 
offence,  and  was  never  afterwards  revived  in 
England. 

l^ffViti  gli 0.1*1  J  Georob  Yilliebs,  Duke 
OF,  bom  Aug.  20,  1592,  was  a  younger  son  of 
Sir  Qearge  YilHers  of  Brooksley.  In  1614 
he  was  first  brought  before  the  notice  of 
James  I.,  and,  being  an  active,  handsome, 
and  intelligent  youth,  his  companionship 
'served  to  amuse  the  leisure  hours  of  the 
idng.  In  1615,  after  the  fall  of  the  former 
favourite,  Carr,  Earl  of  Somerset,  ViUiers 
was  left  without  a  rival  in  the  king^s  favour. 
In  1616,  he  was  created  Yiscount  Yilliers; 
in  1617  he  became  Earl;  in  1618,  Marquis  cf 
Buckingham.  By  the  royal  bounty  he  was 
made  one  of  the  richest  noblemen  in  England, 
and  all  the  patronage  of  the  court  was  placed 
in  his  handk  Few  men  could  endure  such 
npid  and  unmerited  advancement  without 
detriment  to  their  character.  Buckingham 
was  a  vain  and  arrogant  man,  not  ready 
to  take  advice,  and  not  content  that  any 
should  hold  office  who  did  not  owe  their  pro- 
motion to  his  good-wiU.  Charges  of  malver- 
sation were  brought  against  various  officials, 
and  several  noblemen  of  high  birth  deprived 
of  their  offices.  But  although  some  reforms 
were  effected  in  the  pubUc  service,  and 
although  Buckingham  was  not  personally 
avaricious,  the  atmosph^e  of  the  court  re- 
mained venal.  Those  who  sought  promotion, 
if  they  had  not  directly  to  purchase  office, 
were  expected  to  requite  the  service  in  one 
form  or  another,  to  win  the  favour  of  Buck- 
ingham's dependants,  or  possibly  marry  one 
of  his  needy  relations.  Over  the  direction 
of  James's  foreign  policy  Buckingham,  during 
the  first  part  of  hiR  career,  exercised  no 
appreciable  influence.  In  1619  the  Pro- 
testants of  Bohemia  had  risen  in  rebellion 
against  their  king,  the  Emperor  Ferdinand, 
and  had  bestowed  the  crown  on  James's 
Protestant  son-in-law,  the  Elector  Palatine. 
The  Palatinate  had  been  in  consequence 
invaded  by  a  Spanish  army.  James  hoped 
to  get  it  restored  to  the  Elector  by  nego- 
tiating a  treaty  of  marriage  between  Prince 
Charles  and  the  Spanish  Infanta.  Bucking- 
ham, as  personal  motives  prompted  him,  joined 
those  who  approved  of  a  Spanish  alliance  or 
those  who  desired  to  render  assistance  to  the 
Protestant  party  in  Gk^rmany.  In  1620  he 
had  marricKl  a  Catholic,  Lady  Catherine 
Maaners,  and  in  1622  his  attitude  became 
more    decided.      He    entered   into   a    close 


friendship  with  the  Spanish  ambassador, 
Ghmdomar,  and  the  following  year  prevailed 
on  James  to  let  him  and  the  prince  go  to 
Spain,  under,  the  belief  that  once  there  they 
could  readily  prevail  on  Philip  lY.  to  restore 
his  lands  to  the  Elector.  Arrived  at  Madrid 
Buckingham  soon  discovered  his  delusion. 
The  Spaniards  wanted  toleration  for  the 
English  Catholics,  but  refused  in  return  to 
bind,  themselves  in  any  way  about  the  Pala* 
tinate.  During  his  absence  James  conferred 
on  Buckingham  the  title  of  duke.  The  new 
duke  and  Charles  both  returned  home,  irate 
with  the  Spaniards  and  eager  to  declare  war. 
A  Parliament  was  summoned  and  its  support 
asked  (1624).  For  a  time  the  duke  was 
immensely  popular,  but  his  popularity  was 
short-lived.  Ue  had  many  schemes  m  his 
head  for  the  recover}*  of  the  Palatinate,  but 
he  had  not  the  qualities  of  a  statesman,  and 
did  not  understand  the  first  conditions  of 
success.  A  treaty  was  agreed  on  for  the 
marriage  of  Charles  with  Henrietta  IVIario,  the 
sister  of  Louis  XIIL,  in  which  concessionB 
were  made  in  favour  of  the  English  Catholics, 
although  a  distinct  promise  had  been  given 
to  the  Parliament  liiat  nothing  of  the  sort 
should  be  done.  James  and  Buckingham 
expected  that  in  return  Louis  would  aid  them 
to  recover  the  Palatinate,  but  they  were  soon 
undeceived.  Dire  misery  and  misfortune 
bofell  an  isolated  body  of  12,000  men  sent  to 
pass  through  Holland  and  fight  their  way  into 
the  heart  of  Germany.  In  March,  1625, 
James  died,  and  Charles,  who  was  deeply 
attached  to  the  duke,  came  to  the  throne.  A 
Parliament  was  summoned  from  which  Charles 
parted  in  displeasure  because  it  expressed 
distrust  of  the  duke*8  capacity.  A  fieet 
despatched  to  Cadiz  to  seize  Spanish  treasure- 
ships  returned  without  effecting  its  object. 
Want  of  money  led  to  the  summoning  of  a 
second  Parliament,  which  impeached  the  duke 
and  was  angrily  dissolved  by  the  king  (1626). 
Buckingham,  always  buoyant  and  sanguine, 
believed  that  if  he  could  achieve  success  he 
should  recover  popularity.  Anger  against 
the  French  king  led  to  a  declaration  of  war 
with  France,  and  Buckingham  sailed  in  com- 
mand of  a  fleet  to  succour  the  Protestant 
town  of  La  Rochelle,  which  had  rebelled 
against  Louis  (1627).  He  effected  a  landing 
on  the  Isle  of  Rh6,  but  was  subsequently 
driven  off  by  the  French  with  heavy  loss. 
The  king  summoned  a  third  Parliament, 
which  passed  the  Petition  of  Right  and  after- 
wards drew  up  a  Romonstnmco  Mskiiig  that 
Buckingham  should  be  removed  from  office 
(1628).  In  consequence,  the  Parliament  was 
dissolved,  and  popular  feeling  became  more 
excited  than  ever  against  the  duke.  Ho  was 
at  Portsmouth,  preparing  a  second  expedition 
for  the  relief  of  Rochelle,  when  as  he  left  the 
room  where  he  had  breakfasted  he  was 
stabbed  to  the  heart  by  a  discontented  officer, 
John  Felton,  who  had  served  under  him,  and 


\ 


Buc 


(  200  ) 


BtB 


who  thought  yffith.  one  blow  to  avenge  his 

piivate  wrongs    and  rid    his   country  of  a 

public  enemy  (Aug.  22,  1628). 

The  fullest  account  of  Buckingham  is  to  be 
found  in  John  Forster's  Life  of  miot^  and  S.  B. 
Gardiner,  Mitt,  of  England,  1603    1642,     ' 

[B.  ^.  G.] 

Bnckingliainy  George  Yillieus,  2nd 
DuKB  OF  {b.  1627,  d,  1688),  was  the  son  of  the 
first  duke.  He  served  in  the  Royalist  army ,  and 
was  present  at  the  battle  of  Worcester,  after 
which  he  retired  to  the  Continent.  He  re- 
turned to  England  in  1657,  and  married  the 
daughter  of  Lord  Fairfax,  through  whose  in- 
fluence he  was  able  to  recover  a'  portion  of  his 
large  estates.  At  the  Hestoration  he  was  made 
blaster  of  the  Horse  and  a  Privy  Councillor. 
In  1666  he  took  part  with  the  Opposition  in 
Parliament,  and  on  a  charge  of  having  en- 
deavoured  to  excite  a  mutiny  in  the  fleet  he 
was  committed  to  the  Tower,  but  in  less  than 
a  year  he  was  pardoned.  On  the  formation 
of  the  Cabal  ministry  in  1668,  he  became  one 
of  its  chief  members,  and  when  it  fell  in  1673 
he,  like  Shaftesbury,  j  oined  the  Opposition.  B  ut 
his  health  was  so  Imd  that  he  took  little  further 
part  in  public  aifairs,  and  spent  the  rest  of 
his  life  at  his  seat  in  Yorkshire.  In  his 
private  character  he  ranks  as  the  most 
profligate  member  of  the  most  profligate  court 
England  has  ever  seen.  Ho  was  strongly 
suspected  of  having  hired  Colonel  Blood  to 
assassinate  the  Duke  of  Orinond,  while  his 
seduction  of  the  Countess  of  Shrewsbury  and 
the  death  of  the  earl  in  a  duel  with  Bucking- 
ham created  a  fearful  sensation  even  in  those 
days.  He  is  thus  described  by  Dryden,  under 
the  name  of  Zimri,  in  some  famous  Unes  of 
**  Absalom  and  Achitophel " — 

**  A  man  so  various  taat  he  seemed  to  be. 
Not  one,  but  all  mankind's  epitome ; 
Stilf  in  opinions,  always  in  the  wrongr> 
Was  eveiything  by  starts,  and  nothing  long  .  .  . 
Bailing  and  praising  were  his  usual  themes ; 
And  both,  to  show  nis  judgment,  in  extremes   .  . 
He  laughed  himself  from  court ;  then  sought  relief. 
By  forming  parties,  but  could  ne'er  bo  ohief." 

**  Buckingham,"  says  JRanke,  "  is  a  forecast 
of  the  Kegent  [Orleans]  and  Dubois.  In 
natures  of  this  kind  everj-thing  works  to- 
gether, amusement  and  labour,  distraction 
and  exertion,  good  and  bad ;  the  most  refined 
culture  can  go  with  intolerable  insolence :  for 
such  men  have  every  kind  of  ambition,  they 
must  be  first  in  everything  and  remain  first. 
Social  considerations  and  sympathies  caused 
by  hiitred  of  predecessors  determine  their 
political  action  or  inaction."  ^lacaulay  de- 
scribes him  as  **a  sat-ed  man  of  pleasure, 
who  turned  to  ambition  as  to  a  pastime." 

Carte,  Life  of  Ormonde ;  Burnet,  HiH.  of  Hi» 
Own  Time ;  Ranke,  Hiat.  of  Eng. ;  Macaulay, 
Hiet.  of  Eng.  Buckingham's  misoellaaeous 
WorkB  were  printed  in  one  vol.,  Svo,  1704. 

BTic¥iTigha.Tnffihire,   John  Sheffirld, 
DxJKB  OF  (*;  1649,  d.  1721),  was  the  son  of 


Edmund,  Lord  Mulgrave.      On.  his  father's 
death  (1658),  he  became  Earl  of  Mulgrave. 
In   1666  ho   ser\'ed  against  the  Dutch  and 
returned  home  to  take  command  of  a  troop  of 
horse.    Again,   in    1672,   he  was   appointed 
captain  of  a  ship  of  eighty-four  guns,  and  as 
soon  as  he  came  back  from  sea  was  made 
colonel  of  a  regiment  of  foot.     Subsequently 
he  passed  over  to  France  to  learn  the  art  of 
war  under  Turenne.     On   his  return  Mul- 
grave engaged  in  a  professional  quarrel  with 
the  Duke  of  Monmouth,  and  bitterly  offended 
the  royal  family  by  entertaining  hopes  of  the 
hand  of  Princess,  afterwards  Uueen,  Anne. 
In   1680  he  was    sent    to    destroy  Moorish 
pirates  who  were  attacking  Tangiers.     On 
the  accession  of  Jtfmes  II.   he  was  created 
Privy   Councillor    and    Lord    Chamberlain. 
After  fihe  Kevolution  Mulgrave  readily  took 
the  oath  of  allegiance  to  William  and  Mary. 
William  created  him  Marquis  of  Normanby, 
and  named   him  a  Cabinet  Councillor.     Id 
1703  Tie  was   created   Duke  of  Normanby, 
and  soon  afterwards  Duke  of  Buckingham- 
shire, and   in  this  year  built   Buckingham 
House.     He  was  compelled  to  resign  oflice 
for  caballing  with  Nottingham  and  Rochester 
against  Godolphin  and  Marlborough.    Forth- 
with he  became  a  violent  member  of  the  Oppo- 
eition,  and  was  struck  off  the  list  of  the  Privy 
Council  (1707).    In  1710,  however,  when  the 
Tories  were  restored  to  power,  he  was  made 
Steward  of  the  Household,  and  on  the  death 
of  Rochester,  Lord  President.      He  entered 
eagerly  into  the  plot-s  for  the  restoration  of 
the  Htuarts,  and  is  said  by  Swift  to  have  been 
the  only  man  he  knew  who  was  sincere  in  his 
intentions.    The  death  of  Anne  destroyed  his 
hopes.    The  remainder  of  his  life  was  spent 
in    political   disgrace.     Buckingham    wrote 
some  poems,  the  best  known  of  which  are  the 
JBasay  on  Satire  and  the  Essay  on  Poetry. 

Jdhnaon.  Lives  of  the  Paete ;  Burnet,  Hist,  of 
Hie  (htn  Time. 

B116ILOS  A3rV68«  Expeditions  against 
(1806—1807).  In  the  spring  of  1806,  Sir 
Home  Popham,  who  was  in  command  of  the 
naval  forces  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  with* 
out  any  authority  from  the  home  government 
sailed  from  the  Cape,  taking  with  him  all 
the  naval  force,  and  1,500  troops.  The  arma- 
ment arrived  off  Buenos  Ayres  on  the  24tr» 
June.  No  time  was  wasted,  and  on  the  28*^^\ 
the  land  forces  surprised  and  captured  Buenos 
AjT^s,  while  a  femt  was  made  bv  the  fleet 
against  Monte  Video.  But  the  inhabitants 
secretly  organised  an  insurrection  which  broko 
out  on  August  4th,  and  was  assisted  from 
without  by  the  militia  of  the  surrounding 
districts.  The  British  garrison,  after  a  stout, 
resistance,  was  overpowered:  and  the  sur- 
vivors were  made  prisoners  of  war,  though. 
Sir  Home  Popham  escaped  with  the  squadron^ 
and  anchored  for  a  while  at  the  mouth  ot 
the  river,      A  fresh  force  of   3,000  troops 


Bol 


(201  ) 


deftpatched,  under   Sir   Samuel    Aiich- 
muty,   who,    on    the    2nd    February',    1807, 
aHBHulted   Monte  Video,  and  carried   it  bv 
storm  after  a  most  stubborn  conflict,  in  which 
the  British  loss  whs  600.  In  June,  Auchmuty 
was  joined  by   General  Craufuid   with  re- 
inforcements, which  brought  up  the  total  of 
the  British  forces  to  9,000  men :  and  Geneml 
Whitelocke  was  sent  out  to  take  command  of 
the  whole  force.      On  the  oth  July,  an  utttick 
was  made,  without  due  proi)aration  or  design, 
on  Buenos  Ayres.      The  town  had  no  regular 
fortifications,  and  the    inhabitants    trustt'd 
solely  to  their  advantageous  position  on  the 
roofs    and    towers.     From    these    points    ot 
vantage  the  attacking  troops  wore  met  by  a 
ciiwtructive  fire.     On  the  right,   Auchmuty 
iseizod  the  Plaza  de  Toros,  with  its  large 
stores  of  all  sorts;   but  this  advantage  wus 
more    than    counterbalanced  by  the  defeat 
of  the  English  at  all  other  quarters.     Next 
morning  the  Spanish  general  offered  to  re- 
store all  British  prisoners  on  condition  of  the 
evacuation  of  Monte  Video,  and  all  the  rest 
of  the  region  of  the  La  Plata ;  and  the  situa- 
tion was  so  hopeless  that  the  English  general 
was  glad  to  obtain  such  easy  terms. 
Alison,  Hiat.  of  Europe. 

Bnllfl,  Papal,  are  the  letters  issued  by 
the  Popes  in  their  ofiidal  capacity,  addressed  to 
individuals  or  communities,  usually  on  matters 
of  doctrine.  Papal  letters  may  be  either  Bhibfs 
or  Bulls.  The  latter  are  considered  the  more 
aothoritative  and  important.  They  are  in- 
variably written  in  Latin  on  thick  parchment, 
in  angular  archaic  characters,  and  sealed 
with  the  bulla  or  globular  seal  of  lead  attached 
to  the  document  by  threads  of  silk  or  hemp. 
The  brief  is  written  in  cursive  characters,  on 
paper  or  thin  parchment,  and  sealed  in  wax 
with  the  seal  of  the  Fisherman  (sub  ammlo 
FiMeaioru),  It  generally  refers  to  matters  of 
discipline.  By  an  ordinance  of  the  Conqueror, 
ecclesiastics  in  England  were  forbidden  to  re- 
ceive letters  from  the  Pope,  unless  they  had  pre- 
viously obtained  the  royal  permission.  Koyal 
letters,  forbidding  the  introduction  of  papal 
bolls  withont  licence,  were  issued  by  Edward 
II.  in  1307,  a|id  by  Edward  IIL  in  1327  and 
1376.  To  procnre  or  publish  them  was  de- 
clared high  treason  by  13  Eliz.,  cap.  2.  [For 
the  various  bnllsof  importance,  see  under  their 
titles,  e.g,^  Clbkicis  Laicos;  and  for  the 
whole  subject  see  Papacy.] 

The  Tsrions  balls  relatliig  to  Enfrland,  as  wsll 
ss  to  other  ooimtries,  are  to  be  found  in  the 
BicQan'wR  Jfoyimm  Boinantim,  Lnzembnrg,  1727, 

',   Eowasd    Lyttoic.      [Lyttok, 


LoHI>.] 


>y  SxK  Hbkbt.    [Dallikg,  Lord.] 

BnndeUckimd.  The  name  of  the  district 
between  Cade,  Malwa,  Berar,  and  BengaL 
It  was  oonqnored  by  fiajput  tribes  in  the 

Hisr.-7* 


fourteenth  lontnry,  and,  though  exposed 
to  frequent  attacks  from  the  Mohammedans,, 
it  always  maiuiged  to  resist  them  success- 
fully^ In  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  however,  large  portions  passed  into- 
the  possession  of  the  Peishwa,  and  towards 
the  end  of  the  century  the  whole  provinco 
was  in  ^lahratta  hands.  The  Treaty  of 
Bassein  ceded  a  poition  of  the  territory  to 
England,  and  soon  afterwards  the  Bajah 
Bahadur  was  induced  to  part  with  his  large 
territories  in  Bundelkhund,  receivint^  com> 
pensation  elsewhere.  On  the  extinction  of 
the  Peishwa*s  independence  in  1818,  all  his. 
sovereign  rights  in  bundelkhund  were  finally 
ceded  to  the  British. 

Bunker  Sail,  The  Battle  of  (June  IT, 
1775),  is  noticeable  as  the  first  important 
battle  of  the  War  of  American  Independence. 
Boston  is  separated  by  a  narrow  channel  or 
arm  of  the  sea  from  the  suburb  of  Charleston. 
On  June  12th  General  Gage  had  declared 
martial  law,  and  was  in  possession  of  Charles- 
ton and  Boston.  To  secure  his  position  in 
the  former,  it  was  necessary  for  him  to. 
occupy  two  hills  which  commanded  it — 
Breed  Hill  and  Bunker  Hill.  The  latter  was> 
farther  from  Charleston,  but  was  the  higher 
of  the  two,  and  dominated  Breed  Hill  and 
Charleston.  On  the  night  of  the  16th  a  body 
of  American  militia  were  sent  to  seize  it. 
When  on  the  next  morning  they  were 
descried  on  the  top  of  Breed  Hill,  which 
they  had  occupied  by  mistake,  Gage  deter- 
mined to  attack  them.  Three  thousand 
regulars,  under  Howe  and  Pigot,  assaulted 
the  position  in  front,  unsupported  by  any 
movement  from  the  rear.  Twice  they  wero- 
driven  back,  but  in  the  third  attempt  they 
were  joined  by  Clinton,  and  succeeded  in 
dislodging  the  defenders,  who,  however, 
made  good  their  retreat  to  Prospect  Hill, 
where  thev  encamped.  The  loss  of  the 
assailants  m  so  fierce  an  assault  was  226 
killed  and  828  wounded  and  missing.  In 
the  course  of  the  assault,  Charleston  had 
been  set  on  fire  by  the  British  troops  under 
Howe,  and  the  exasperation  caused  by  thia 
act  far  more  than  counterbalanced  any  gain 
resulting  to  them  from  the  battle,  especially 
as  they  remahied  idly  watching  Washing^n,, 
who  was  in  the  greatest  difficulties,  and  quite- 
imable  to  ofPer  any  serious  resistance  to- 
vigorous  measures. 

Bancroft,  Hut.  of  America ;  Stanhope,  KiU. 
ofSng, 

Burdfltt,  Sir  Francis  (b.  1770,  d.  1844), 
the  son  of  Sir  Robert  Burnett,  entered  Par- 
liament in  1796  as  member  for  Boroughbridge 
In  1797  he  brought  forward  a  motion  for 
Parliamentary  Reform,  and  in  the  following 
year  vigorously  protested  against  the  attempts 
of  the  government  to  gag  the  press.  ^  Two 
years  later  he  devoted  all  his  energies  to 
prevent  the  suspension  of  the  Habeas  Corpua 


(  202  ) 


Act,  and  ti>  secure  better  provision  being 
made  for  political  prisoners.  In  1802  he  was 
elected  for  Middlesex,  and  was  re-elected  at 
the  head  of  the  poll  on  the  former  election 
being  declared  void.  At  the  election  of  1806 
he  issued  a  celebrated  address  to  the  Middlesex 
electors,  and  on  being  re-elected  gave  a  warm 
support  to  the  administration  of  Fox  and 
Loixl  Grcnville.  On  the  resignation  of  that 
government  he  stood  for  Westminster,  and 
was  easily  elected.  In  1810  he  was  convicted 
by  the  House  of  Commons  of  having  com- 
mitted a  breach  of  privilege  in  a  certain 
letter  addressed  to  his  constituents.  Bnrdett 
refused  to  surrender  to  the  Speaker's  warrant, 
and  the  people  defended  his  house.  The 
result  was  a  series  of  riots,  in  which  the 
people  were  fired  upon,  and  some  of  them 
killed.  Burdett  proceeded  to  bring  actions 
against  the  Speaker,  and  nearly  over}''  one 
who  had  had  a  hand  in  his  commitment  to 
the  Tower,  but  was  unsuccessful.  His  im- 
prisonment terminated  with  the  prorogation 
of  Parliament,  and  he  resumed  his  place  at 
the  beginning  of  the  session  of  1811,  when 
he  chiefly  occupied  himself  in  opposing  the 
Regency  Bill.  In  1819,  after  in  vam  attempt- 
ing to  induce  the  House  to  consider  the  con- 
duct of  the  Manchester  magistrates  at  Peter- 
loo,  he  vented  his  feelings  in  a  letter  to  his 
constituents,  for  which  he  was  sentenced  to 
three  months*  imprisonment,  with  a  fine  of 
£2,000.  In  1822  he  supported  Lord  John 
Kusseirs  proposed  Reform  Bill,  and  continued 
one  of  its  warmest  advocates  till  it  was 
earned.  After  this  Sir  Francis  gradually 
fell  away  from  the  Liberals.  He  denounced 
the  alliance,  which  took  place  shortly  after- 
wards, between  the  ministry  and  O'Connell, 
retired  from  Brookes's  Club,  and  openly 
joined  the  Tories.  In  1837  he  was  returned 
as  Conservative  member  for  North  "Wilts. 
Till  his  death  in  1844  he  continued  to  repre- 
sent that  constituenc}'. 

Lord  Holland's  Memoir*;  Life  and  Opinxont 
of  Earl  Qrey;  Peel's  Metnoira;  Walpole,  Hist. 
of  Eng.  from  1816 ;  Boebtick,  Reform,  Parlia- 
ment. 

Bxurford,  The  Battle  op  (752),  between 
the  West  Saxons,  under  Cuthred,  and  the 
Mercians,  under  Ethelbald,  resulted  in  the 
victory  of  the  former  and  the  maintenance 
of  the  independence  of  Wessex. 

Bur^Oflfl,  A,  is,  properly  speaking,  the 
inhabitant  of  a  borough  or  town  exercising 
a  trade  there,  and  enjo}ing  the  rights  of 
freedom  or  citizenship.  In  the  early  days  of 
-the  boroughs,  the  burgesses  were  *'  the  owners 
of  .land;  the  owners  of  houses,  shops,  or 
gardens;  the  burgage  tenants,  from  whose 
burgages  the  firma  burgi,  or  rent,  was  origi- 
nally due.  In  a  trading  town  they  would 
be  .the  members  of  the  gild,  and  in  the 
judicial  work  of  the  town  they  were  the  class 
who  furnished  the  judiees  and  curatores." 


They  were  also  the  electors  of  the  muniei^d 
magistrates  in  cases  whero  the  corponttionb 
had  not  become  close,   and   were   in  most 
cases    the    holders    of    the    parliamentary 
franchise.     The  prisilcges  of  the  burgesses 
were  in    former   times   very  considerable— 
e.^.f    participation    in    the    income   of    the 
corporation,  exclusive  right  of  trading  within 
the  borough,  Hnd  the  like.    These  privileges 
have,   however,    been    swept    away  by  ihe 
Municipal  Corporations  Act  of  183o,  and  the 
burgesses  are  now  simply  the  constituency 
which  elects  the  borough  council.    The  term  . 
burgess,  too,  is  often  applied  to  the  i*epre8en- 
tatives  of  a  borough  in  Parliament.    By  a 
law  of  Edward  V II.,  the  burgesses  returned 
for  any  town  Wero  entitled  to  two  Khilling^ 
a    day  for    expenses,   and    the    practice  of 
paying  members  of    Parliament  was  occa- 
sionally   resorted    to    up    to    the    reign   of 
Charles  II.     By  an  Act  of  Henr>'  V.  it  wa^ 
decroed  that  a  burgess  of  Parliament  must 
be  resident  in  the  borough  which  returned 
him ;  but  this,  however,  was  not  enforced  for 
long.     [Towns;  Elections.] 

Hereweather  aud  Stephens,  Ui$t.  of  Boroughs  ; 
Grant,  On  Corporaiione;  Madoz,  ^rma  fiuryi  ; 
Biudy,  OnBorovghe;  btepben,  Coiumentarir* ; 
Sttibbs,  Contt.  Hi«t,  especially  chaps,  xi.  oud 
xzi. ;  Gneist,  Self-Govermnent, 

Burgh,  Hubert  de  {d.  1243),  first  appears 
in  history  as  one  of  Richard  l.*s  mioisterfi. 
In  1199  John  made  him  his  Chamberlain.   On 
the  capture  of  Prince  Arthur,  in  1202,  he  was 
entrusted  with  the  charge  of  the  imprisoned 
prince  at  Rouen,   and  continued  a  faithful 
and  active  servant  of  John  during  the  re- 
mainder  of  that  king's  reign.     In  1215  he 
was  appointed  Justiciar,  and  in  the  next  year 
Tiravely  defended  Dover  Castle  against  the 
French,  who  were  compelled  to  raise  the  siege, 
and  shortly  afterwards  defeated  by  De  Burgh 
in  a  naval  engagement  in  the  Channel.   On  the 
death  of  William  lilarshall  he  became  Bagent 
of  the  kingdom,  the  custody'  of  the  king*8  per- 
son being  entrusted  to  Peter  des  Roches.    Be- 
tween these  two  there  was  constant  rivalry,  De 
Burgh  representing  the  English,  Des  Roches 
the  foreign  interest.      In  1224  the  reckleiss 
turbulence  of  Falkes  de  Breaut6  gave   I>e 
Burgh  an  opportunity'  of  getting  rid  of  thi* 
foreigners.    De  Breaute  was  banished,   and, 
on  the  king  attaining  his  majoiity  in   1227, 
De  Burgh  attained  supreme  power  by   the* 
exile  of  his  great  rival,  Des  Roches.     In.  this 
year  also  he  was  niised  to  the  earldom,    of 
Kent;    and,    in    1228,    he    was    appointe><l 
Justiciar  for  life.     From  this  date  till    123*2 
England  was  entirely  in  his  hands,  and  ^kths, 
on  the  whole,  well  governed.     Jn  1232   the 
intrigues  of  Des  Roches,  who  had  been,  per- 
mitti'd  to  return,  and  the  king's  wearinefis  ox 
restraint,  occasioned  his  falL    He  was  acciiseti 
of  connivance  with  Twenge  in  his  attaclcs  on. 
the  Italian  clerg}',  and  theemptim'ss  of  tHe 
treasury  was  attributed  to  the  misman«g;-o- 


(  203  ) 


ment  of  the  minister.  He  was  driven  from 
office,  and  for  the  next  two  years  suffered  the 
cruellest  persecution  at  the  hands  of  the 
monarch  for  whom  he  had  done  so  much. 
The  disgrace  of  Des  Koches  in  1234  restored 
him  to  favour,  but  he  did  not  resume  his 
office,  and  the  remainder  of  hie  life  was  spent 
in  retirement,  broken  only  by  occasional 
appearances  in  the  political  arena,  as  in  1238, 
when  he  supported  the  king  against  the 
powerful  baronial  confederacy  headed  by 
Richard  of  Cornwall.  Hubert's  policy  was  a 
thoroughly  national  one.  He  resisted  the 
'  encroachments  of  the  Pope  and  the  rapacity 
of  the  foreigners,  as  well  as  the  arbitrariness 
of  the  king  and  the  turbulence  of  the  barons. 
His  aim  was,  however,  limited  to  a  restora- 
tion of  the  administnntivo  system  and  policy 
of  Heniy  11.  It  is  said  that  an  Essex  black- 
smith, when  ordered  to  put  chains  on  Hubert, 
replied,  "  Do  what  you  will  with  m© :  rather 
"would  I  die  than  put  fetters  on  him.  Is  not 
he  that  faithful  and  magnanimous  Hubert, 
who  hath  so  often  Bnatch(>d  England  from  the 
ravages  of  foreigners  and  restored  England 
to  England  ?  " 

Roger  of  Wendover ;  Mntthew  Paris,  Chronica 
Majora  ;  Fo«8,  Judgn  o/  JSny.  [F.  g.  p.] 

BnrffhyWALTEK  Hdssey  (b.  1743,  d,  1783), 
iraa  a  celebrated  Irish  bairister  and  politician. 
He  made  a  most  sucoessful  practice  at  the 
bar,  and  was  appointed  Prime  Sergeant  in 
1779.  As  a  member  of  the  Irish  Parliament 
he  belonged  to  the  national  party  of  Flood 
«nd  Grattan,  he  approved  of  the  Volunteers, 
and  for  a  brilliant  speech  Km  a  free  trade 
motion  of  Grattan's,  in  which  he  deacribed 
the  condition  of  Ireland  as'one  of  "  smothered 
war,*'  he  thought  it  necessar}'  to  resign  office. 
Towards  the  end  of  his  life  he  cooled  towards 
the  Volunteer  movement,  fearing  that  it 
would  embroil  England  and  Ireland,  but 
sapported  the  cause  of  Irish  independence 
at  the  risk  of  a^  chances  lof  preferment.  Just 
before  his  death  he  was  aippointed  Chief 
Baron  of  the  Exchequer.  Hussey  Burgh  is 
described  as  the  best  everv-iday  speaker  of  the 
Irish  Parliament,  though  his  manner  was 
that  of  a  lawyer.  He  was  a  vain  and  ostenta- 
tious man,  and  died  heavily  in  debt,  bu^  his 
liabilities  were  paid  by  a  Parliamentary  grant 
proposed  by  Grattan  <m  account  of  his  in- 
tegrity and  patriotism. 

L«ck7,  Lead*m  of  FuUic  OinnUm  in  Ireland  ; 
Grattan,  L^9  and  Ti  in»  of  Grattan, 

Bnrtfhheady  The  Battle  of  <1040),  was 
fought  oetween  Thorfinn,  Earl  of  Orkney 
and  Caithness,  sad  King  Duncan,  who  was  at- 
tempting to  seize  the  territories  of  the  Earls 
of  Orkney  on  the  mainland.  It  resulted  in  a 
Tictory  for  Thorfina. 

Bnrgherahy  Heniely  de  (b,  -eWea  1290,  d, 

1340),  was  a  siepliew  of  Lord  Badlesmere, 

through  whose  iBfluence  he  was  made  Bishop 

<A  Lincoln  in  1'320.    He  was  susptoted  ca 


complicity  with  his  uncle  in  1322,  and  was 
deprived  of  his  bishopric,  though  ho  seems  to 
have  been  restored  before  the  end  of  the 
reign.  He  sided  with  the  queen  and  Mortimer 
against  Edward  II.,  and  for  his  support  he 
was  made  Treasurer,  and,  in  1328,  Chancellor, 
which  office  he  held  till  the  fall  of  Mortimer. 
He  was  frequently  employed  by  Edward  III., 
and  died  at  Ghent,  whither  he  had  gone  on 
diplomatic  business. 

Burtfoyue,  John,  Lxeut.-Gex.  {b,  1730, 
d.  1792),  a  natural  son  of  Loi*d  Bingley,  in 
1762  acted  as  brigadier-general  under  LK)rd 
Tyrawley  in  Portugal,  where  he  greatly 
distinguished  himself  by  a  most  daring  and 
successful  raid  upon  a  strong  body  of  troops 
who  were  guarding  the  magazines  at  Valentia. 
In  1775  he  was  appointed  to  a  command  in 
America.  The  next  vear  he  was  summoned 
home  to  advise  the  king  on  colonial  questions, 
but  returned  to  his  command  in  1777,  when 
he  at  once  issued  an  invitation  to  the  natives 
to  join  the  English  flag.  He  then  organised 
an  expedition  in  order  to  join  Clinton,  who 
was  advancing  from  the  south.  Before  they 
could  meet,  however,  Burgoyne  had  en- 
countered such  difficulties  that  he  was  com- 
pelled to  surrender  on  the  17th  Oct.  at 
Saratoga.  He  was  allowed  to  come  home  on 
parole,  and  no  sooner  had  he  arrived  than  the 
Opposition  made  overtures  to  him  to  la}'  the 
blame  of  the  disaster  on  the  ^vemment. 
He  thus  became  odious  to  the  ministry,  whom 
he  charged  with  mismanagement  in  not 
supphdng  him  with  proper  resources;  and 
the  king  meanwhile  refused  to  see  him,  or  to 
allow  him  a  court-martial,  which  he  demanded. 
This  the  ministry  also  strenuously  opposed, 
knowing  that  the  corruption  of  the  War 
Department  would  come  out  if  any  inquir}' 
were  held.  In  1779  Burgoyne  refused  to  gp 
back  to  America,  on  the  ground  that  his 
honour  did  not  compel  him  to  do  so-;  and  the 
ministry  seized .  the  opportunity  to  dismiss 
him  from  the  arm^*.  On  the  Kockingham 
ministry  coming  in  m  1782,  he  was  reinstated, 
and  appointed  Commander-in-chief  in  Ireland. 
Burgoyne's  previous  services  lead  us  to  infer 
that  the  disaster  of  Saratoga  was  not  entirely 
due  to  himself ;  and  this  idea  is  confirmed  by 
the  steady  refusal  of  the  government  to 
allow  any  inquiry.  In  the  absence  of  that 
inquiry,  it  is  difficult  to  form  a  just  estimate 
of  Burgoyne's  merits. 

Snasell,   Fox;  Letter$  of  Juniut;  Stanhope, 
Hiat.  oj  Eng, 

Burgoyne,  Sir  John  (&.  1782,  d.  1871), 
the  son  of  General  Burgoyne,  was  educated  at 
Eton  and  Woolwich,  and,  in  1793,  received  a 
commission  in  the  Boyal  Engineers.  In  1800 
he  sailed  for  the  Mediterranean  with  Sir 
Ralph  Abercromby,  and  saw  active  service 
throughout  the  French  wars  in  Sicily,  Egypt. 
Sweden,  Portugal,  and  Spain-  He  was  with  Sir 
John  Moore  at  the  retreat  to  Corunna ;  and. 


Bur 


(  204  ) 


in  most  of  the  great  battles  and  sieges  of  the 
Peninsular  War,  he  was  first  or  second  in 
command  of  the  Engineers.  In  1812  he  was 
sent  to  New  Orleans  as  commanding  Engineer 
under  Sir  Edward  Pakenham,  and,  in  conse- 
quence, was  nbt  present  at  Waterloo,  though 
he  returned  in  time  to  form  one  of  the  army 
of  occupation  at  Paris  in  the  middle  of  July, 
1815.  During  the  long  peace  he  held  some 
important  civil  appointments.  Wlien  the 
liussian  War  was  on  the  verge  of  breaking 
out  he  was  sent  to  Constantinople  to  report  on 
the  measures  necessary  for  the  defence  of  the 
Ottoman  Empire,  and,  on  his  return,  was 
appointed  Lieut.-General  'on  the  staff  of  the 
army  of  the  East.  It  was  Sir  John  Bur- 
goyno  who  was  most  strenuous  in  dis- 
suading Lord  Raglan  from  attacking  Sebas- 
topol  on  the  north,  and  supported  with  equal 
warmth  the  flank  march  and  attack  on  the 
south  side.  From  the  first  he  pointed  out  the 
Malakoff  as  the  key  of  the  entii*e  position ;  and 
conducted  the  siege  operations  before  Sebas- 
topol  up  to  the  middle  or  end  of  March,  ISoo, 
when  he  was  recalled  to  England,  leaving 
Sir  Harr)'  Jones  to  complete  the  work.  Soon 
after  he  was  created  a  baronet,  and  subse- 
quently received  a  field-marshal's  bdtoft,  and 
tiie  appointment  of  Constable  of  the  Tower. 

Burgtuicly,  Kblations  with.  Of  the 
ten  Burgundies  that  history  knows,  England 
liad  important  dealings  only  with  the  l^Yench 
lief,  the  duchy  of  Burgundy,  under  its  List 
lino  of  Valois  dukes.  The  imperial  free 
county  of  Burgundy  (Franche  Comt6)  also  be- 
longed to  them.  They  began  with  Philip  the 
Bold  (le  Hardi),  whose  valour  at  Poitiers  was 
rewarded  by  his  father  John  with  the  grant 
of  the  vacant  duchy  on  his  taking  the  hand  of 
its  heiress  (1 363) .  The  acquisition  of  Flanders, 
so  closely  bound  to  England  by  economical 
and  political  ties,  hostility  to  Louis  of  Orleans, 
whose  championship  of  Richard  II.  and 
absolutism  involved  his  hostility  to  the  Lan- 
castrian monarchs,  first  brought  the  house 
into  intimate  relations  with  England.  The 
Burg^ndians  and  Armagnacs  fought  for 
supremacy  under  the  mad  Charles  YL,  and 
their  feuds  gave  ample  opportunity  to 
English  intervention.  Both  united  to  with- 
stand Henry  V .,  and  met  a  common  defeat  at 
Agincourt  (1415).  But  the  murder  of  John 
the  Fearless  (1407—1419)  on  the  bridge  of 
Montereau,  at  the  instance  of  the  Dauphin  and 
the  Armagnacs,  led  to  Burgundy  throwing 
its  whole  weight  on  the  English  side.  Paris, 
the  centre  of  Burgundian  influence,  welcomed 
the  entr}'  of  Henry  V.  and  the  new  duke, 
Philip  the  Good  (1419—1467).  Up  to  1436, 
this  close  alliance  enabled  the  English  to  re- 
tain thoir  hold  of  North  France.  But  the 
nationalist  reviN'al  stirred  even  Philip,  the 
death  of  the  Duke  of  Bedford  broke  his  close 
family  tie  to  the  English  house,  and  the 
mad  attempt  of  Humphrey  of  Gloucester  on 


Holland  and  Hainault  completed  the  alien- 
ation which  led  to  the  Peace  of  Arras  (1435) 
between  Burgundy  and  Fmnce,  and  even  an 
attack  on  Calais  from  our  old  all}"^.    In  the 
Wars    of    the    Roses,   Philip   and    his  sou 
Charles    generally    sympathised     with    the 
Lancastrians.     Charles  the  Bold  (1467 — 1477) 
regarded  his  descent  from  John  of  Gaunt 
through  his  Spanish  mother  as  making  him  a 
member  of  the  Lancastrian  house;  and  he 
showed  the  greatest  sympathy  with  the  exiles 
whom  Edward  IV.'s   accession  had  driven 
to  the  Netherlands.    But  he  could  not  afford 
to  quarrel  with  Edward,  and  as  Louis  XI. 
definitely  supported  Warwick,  and  reconciled 
him  with  Margaret  of  Anjou,  Charles  very 
unwillingly  joined    the   Yorkist  cause,  an^ 
married  Edward's  sister  Margaret.    When  in 
1469  Edward  was  driven  from  England  by 
IVIargaret  and  Warwick,  he  found  refuge  in 
the  [Netherlands,  but  a  personal  interview 
only  produced  personal  hostility  between  him 
and  Charles.    Despite  Charles's  inadequate 
support,  Edward  won  back  his  crown;   and 
fear  of  France  caused  the  renewal  of  the 
political  alliance.      In  1474   a  common  ex- 
pedition against  France  was  determined  upon, 
but  Charles  lingered  at  Neuss,  and  came  at  last 
without  an  army ;  so  Edward,  in  the  Treaty  of 
Pecquigny  (1475),  abandoned  Burgundy  for 
France.     The  marriage  of  Mary,  Charles's 
daughter,     with     Maximilian    I.,     brought 
Flanders  and  England   into   new  relation -i 
that  passed  on  to  the  Austro- Spanish  Alliance. 
But  the  conquest  of  Burgundy  by  Louis  on. 
Charles's  death  (1477)   put  an  end  to   th(^ 
independent     existence    of    the    House    of 
Burgundy. 

Comiaes,  Mdmoires;  Barante,  Hi$toire  dem 
Due*  de  Bourgogne ;  Eirke,  CharUs  the  Bold  »*> 
J.  Qairdiier,  frefaces  to  The  Pa»tcn  Lettertt. 

[T.  F.  T.] 

Burke,  The  Famh^y  of,  was  founded  in 
Ireland  by  William  Fitaaldelm  de  Burgli, 
a  descendant  of  Robert    Mortain,  and    first 
cousin  of  the  great  Justiciar,  Hubert  de  Burg^h. 
He  was  the  seneschal  of  Henr}-  I.,  and  -was 
made  Viceroj'  of  Ireland  in  1176.    In  1225 
Henrj'  III.    bestowed  the  province  of  Con- 
naught  on  Richard  de  Burgh,  son  of  Fitz> 
aldelm,  who,  after  a  violent  struggle  with  the 
O'Connors,  succeeded  in  establishing  himself 
there.    His  son  Walter  became  Earl  of  Ulstep 
in  right  of  his  wife  Claude,  daughter  of  Hug^h 
de  Lacy,  and  at  this  point  the  De   Burg-ha 
split  up  into  two  families — those  of  Ulster  and 
Cannauffht.     Of  the  Ulster  line,  Richard   do 
Burgh,  known  as  the  Bed  Earl,  taking    ad- 
^'antage  of  the  weakness  of  the  FitzgeraldjB^ 
raised  the  De  Burghs  to  the  position  of   tli& 
most  powerful  family  in  Ireland.    The  Ulster^ 
earldom  expired  with  his  grandson  Williaixi^ 
murdered  m  1333  by  the  English  of  Ulster. 
His  dau^ter  Elizabeth  afterwards  married 
Lionel,   Duke  of  Clarence,  son  of  Edw&rd. 
III.,  whereby  the  earldom  of  Ulster  becctxne^ 


Bur 


200  ) 


eventually  attnched  to  the  royal  fuinily 
in  the  person  of  Edward  IV.  The  Do 
Burghs  of  Connaught,  scorning  to  hold  their 
lands  of  a  woman,  and  fearing  that  their 
possessions  might  pass  by  marriage  into 
other  hands,  declared  themselves  independent 
of  English  law,  and  renounced  English 
customs.  They  assumed  the  name  of  Burke, 
and  divided  Connaught  between  them,  8ir 
William,  ancestor  of  the  Clanricardes, 
taking  Galway  with  the  title  of  Mac  William 
Oughter  ^the  Upper),  and  Sir  Edmund, 
ancestor  ot  the  Mayos,  taking  Mayo  with  the 
title  of  Mac  William  Eighter  (the  Lower). 
The  first  Earl  of  Clanricanle,  created  in  1543, 
was  William,  or  Ulick,  "  of  the  heads,"  so- 
called  from  his  victories  over  the  Geraldines. 
In  1576  the  Burkes,  fearing  that  Connaught 
was  to  be  colonised  as  Ulster  had  been, 
broke  out  into  open  rebellion.  Thereupon 
their  territories  were  utterly  laid  waste, 
and  the  race  was  nearly  extinguished.  In 
1635,  Wentworth's  commission  of  inquiry 
into  defective  titles  declared  the  lands  of  the 
Burkes  to  have  lapsed  to  the  crown.  Ulick, 
however,  the  fifth  earl,  and  second  Earl  of 
SL  Albans,  was  created  3Iarquis  of  Clanricarde 
for  his  services  in  subduing  the  rebellion 
of  1641,  and  he  is  the  direct  ancestor  of  the 
present  marquis. 


t,  Edmvkd  (A.  1729,  d.  1797),  bom  in 
Dublin,  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  and 
came  to  London  to  study  at  the  Middle 
Temple  in  1750.  The  study  of  law  was  not 
congenial  to  him ;  and  he  soon  deserted  it 
for  literature.  His  first  attempts  in  this 
field  were  made  in  1756,  and  consisted  of  A 
rindieatum  of  Xatural  Societ^^  which  was 
intended  as  a  satire  on  Bolingbroke's  theory 
ef  the  origin  of  society,  and  A  Fhilosophieal 
Inquiry  itUo  the  Origin  of  our  Ideat  on  the 
Mlime  and  Beautifuly  which  was  warmly 
praised  by  such  judges  as  Lessing  and  Kant. 
In  1759  the  first  volume  of  the  AnmuU  Regia- 
ter  was  published,'  and  contained  a  survey  by 
Burice  A  the  chief  events  of  the  year.  In 
1761  he  accompanied  "  Single-speech  '*  Haxhil- 
too,  who  was  private  secretory  to  Lord  Halifax, 
to  Ireland.  The  connection  lasted  four  years, 
at  the  end  of  which  time  Burke  threw  up 
a  pennon  which  Hamilton  had  procured  for 
him,  and  returned  to  England.  In  tne  same 
year  Kooking^ham  came  into  office  and  ap- 
pointed Burke  his  secretary.  In  Deo.,  1765, 
through  the  influence  of  Lord  Yerney,  Burke 
was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Wendover, 
and  lost  no  time  in  making  himself  known  to 
the  House  by  a  speech  on  the  American 
i  colonies,  which  won  for  him  a  compliment 
from  Pitt.  In  1769  he  wrote  his  remarkable 
pamphlet,  Ob$ervntion»  on  the  Present  State  of 
the  Nation.  Burke  was  always  on  the  side 
of  constitutional  order  and  liberty  on  such 
questions  as  the  right  of  a  constituency  to 
choose  its  own  representative,  the  freedom 


of  the  press,  the  legality  of  general  wan-uiils 
issued  by  Parliament,  and  tho  rchitions  of  a 
colony  to  tho  mother  country.  In  1770  he 
published  Thoughts  on  the  Present  IHseoutentSy 
which,  though  unsuccoseful  as  a  pamphlet, 
phiced  its  author  in  the  front  rank  of  politic  al 
philosophers.  In  1772  he  was  offered  the 
direction  of  a  commission,  which  was  to  ex- 
amine the  details  of  every  dei>artmciit  in 
India;  but  loyalty  to  his  party  made  him 
decline  tho  offer..  In  April,  1774,  he  made 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  all  his  g^eat 
speeches — that  on  American  taxation.  In 
November,  1774,  ho  was  invited  to  stand  for 
Bristol,  and  represented  that  city  for  six 
years.  In  March,  1775,  he  moved  his  resolu- 
tions in  favour  of  conciliation  with  America ; 
he  urged  the  government  to  recognise  the  old 
constitutional  maxim  that  taxation  without 
representation  is  illegal,  to  return  to  the  old 
custom  of  accepting  what  grants  the  general 
assemblies  of  the  colonies  should  freely  con- 
tribute, and  above  all  things  not  to  enter  upon 
civil  war.  Two  years  later  Burke  addressed 
a  letter  to  the  Sheriffs  of  Bristol,  in  which, 
in  the  clearest  and  most  independent  way,  he 
explained  to  his  constituents  the  principles 
which  had  guided  him  in  his  policy  towardf 
the  colonies.  In  Feb.,  1780,  he  brought  in 
his  resolutions  for  the  amendment  of  the 
administration.  His  first  project  was  directed 
against  the  corruption  of  Parliament  and  the 
sources  of  that  corruption,  and  was  contained 
in  a  plan  for  the  better  security  of  the  inde- 
pendence of  Parliament,  and  the  economical 
reformation  of  the  civil  and  other  establish- 
ments. In  the  same  year  Burke  retired  from 
the  representation  of  Bristol,  finding  that  his 
independence  was  distasteful  to  the  electors. 
Lora  Rockingham*s  influence,  however,  ob- 
tained for  him  the  seat  of  Malton  in  York- 
shire ;  and  on  that  nobleman  succeeding  Lord 
North  in  1782,  he  accepted  the  Paymastership 
of  the  Forces.  On  the  death  of  Lord  Rocking- 
ham in  July,  his  ministry  became  divided 
against  itself;  Lord  Shelbume  succeeded  to 
the  Premiership ;  and  Burke,  Fox,  and  Sheri- 
dan resigned.  The  combination  against  him 
proved  too  strong  for  Shelbume,  and  in  April, 
1783,  he  made  way  for  a  coalition  ministry 
under  the  nominal  lead  of  the  Duke  of  Port* 
land.  Burke  returned  to  the  Pay  Office,  and 
immediately  committed  a  grave  indiscretion 
in  restoring  two  clerks  who  had  been  sus- 
pended for  malversation.  The  most  important 
act  of  this  administration  was  the  introduction 
of  Fox*s  India  Bill,  which  seems  to  have  been 
devised  and  drawn  by  Burke.  Burke  and  Fox 
advocated  the  measure  with  all  their  energy 
and  power ;  but  the  king  saw  his  opportunity 
of  getting  rid  of  a  ministry  which  he  disliked, 
and  successfully  used  his  influence  to  have 
the  Bill  thrown  out  by  the  Peers.  This  sue 
cess  he  followed  up  b}*"  dismissing  the  minis- 
try and  sending  for  Pitt,  who,  in  Jan.,  1784*, 
became   Prime   Minister.      The  India  Bill, 


C  206  ) 


Snr 


which  Pitt  introduced,  was  a  compiomiBe,  of 
much  narrower  scope  than  Fox's  Bill,  and 
seems  to  have  escaped  any  violent  attack 
from  Burke.  He,  however,  vigorously  attacked 
Pitt's  Irish  policy,  as  well  as  the  commercial 
treaty  with  France.  A  more  glorious  tield 
for  the  exorcise  of  his  powers  was  now  opened 
for  Burke  in  the  prosecution  of  Warren 
Hastings.  In  April,  1786,  Burke,  in  answer 
to  a  challenge  from  Hastings^s  friends,  laid 
before  Parliament  his  charges.  The  first 
charge  was  thrown  out :  the  second  and  third 
were  supported  by  Pitt  and  carried  by  so 
large  a  majority  that  in  IMay,  1787,  Burke 
brought  forward  a  resolution  to  impeach 
Hastings.  The  management  of  the  prosecu- 
tion was  entrusted  by  the  Commons  to  Burke, 
Fox,  Sheridan,  Windham,  and  Grey.  The 
trial  began  in  Feb.,  1788,  and  was  opened  by 
Burke  in  a  speech  peculiarly  impassioned 
and  persuasive.  Seven  years  went  by 
before  the  Lords  brought  in  their  verdict 
of  acquittal.  In  the  same  year  which 
saw  the  impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings, 
politics  were  thrown  into  confusion  by 
the  illness  of  the  king.  Pitt's  Kegency 
Bill  was  vehemently  attacked  by  the  Opposi- 
tion, and  by  no  member  of  it  more  bitterly 
than  by  Burke.  The  king's  unexpected  re- 
covery, however,  rendered  all  the  prepara- 
tions of  the  Opposition  unnecessar}',  and 
gave  Pitt  a  further  lease  of  office.  In  the 
following  year  the  outbreak  of  the  French 
Hevolution  was  the  beginning  of  the  last  act 
in  Burke's  career.  For  the  remainder  of  his 
life  his  thoughts  continued  to  be  centred  on 
France.  His  passionate  love  of  order  and 
reverence  for  the  past  prevented  him  from 
ever  sharing  in  the  generous  enthusiasm 
which  the  earlier  efforts  of  the  French  people 
awakened  in  Fox,  Wordsworth,  and  Coleridge. 
He  distrusted  the  Parisians,  and  foresaw  too 
surely  that  the  popular  outbreak  would  end 
in  something  very  different  from  liberty.  It 
was  not,  however,  till  Feb.,  1790,  that  Burke, 
in  the  House  of  Commons,  openly  avowed  his 
horror  of  the  principles  that  were  being 
worked  out  in  Paris.  His  avowal  was 
couched  in  such  terms  that  it  occasioned  a 
breach  of  his  long-standing  friendship  with 
Fox.  In  the  next  month  the  breach  had  so  far 
widened  that  Burke  deserted  Fox  on  a  motion 
for  the  repeal  of  the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts 
which  he  himself  had  suggested.  At  length, 
in  November,  appeared  the  Reflection  on  the 
French  Hevolution.  Its  success  was  wonderful, 
and  it  did  much  to  alienate  the  majority  of 
Englishmen  from  all  sympathy  with  the 
Kevolution.  In  the  course  of  the  next  year 
Burke  finally  renounced  his  connection  with 
Fox.  In  August  he  published  his  Appeal 
from  the  AVm?  to  the  Old  irhi^M,  He  continued 
in  Parliament  to  storm  against  the  murderous 
atheists  in  France,  and  their  advocates  on 
this  side  of  the  Channel.  In  1794  ho  lost  his 
brother  and  his  only  son,  and  he  never  re- 


covered from  the  blow.    In  the  same  year  h& 
retired  from  Parliament,  but  he  still  watched 
France  i^nth  the  same  unmitigated  apprehen- 
sion.   He  found  time,  nevertheless,  to  give  to 
the  world  his  sound  views  on  the  com  trade 
in  his  Thouffhte  and  Details  on  Scarcity.    In 
1796  he  wrote  his  Lettei-  to  a  ^oble  Lord— a 
scathing  answer  to  some  objections  raised  hy 
the  Duke  of  Bedford  to  the  pension  which 
Pitt  had  generously  bestowed.     In  the  same 
year  appeared  the  first  two  Letters  on  a  Regi- 
cide I*eace,   brilliant    specimens    of    Burke'» 
most  gorgeous  rhetoric,  in  which  he  protested 
against  any  peace  with  the  national  govem> 
ment   of  France.     His  work,  however,  was 
ended,  and  he  died  at  Beaconsfield  on  the  9tk 
of  July,  1797.     It  is  impossible  within  our 
limits    to    give    any   adequate    estimate   of 
Burke's  character  and  genius.     We  may  per- 
haps   be   permitted   to   quote  the  words  of 
a    competent   critic     (Mr.    John    Morley) : 
"  There  have  been  more  important  statesmen, 
for   he  was   never  tried    by  a   position  of 
supreme    responsibility.      Tliere    have  been 
many  more   effective    orators,  for    lack    of 
imaginative  suppleness  prevented  him  from 
penetrating  to  the  inner  mind  of  his  hearers. 
.  .  .  There  have  been  many  subtler,  more 
original,  and  more  systematic  thinkers  about 
the  conditions  of  the  social  union.     But  no 
one  that  ever  lived  used  the  general  ideas  of 
the  thinker  more  successfully  to  judge  the 
particular  problems   of  the  statesman.     No 
one  has  ever  come  so  close  to  the  details  of 
practical  politics,  and  at  the  same  time  re> 
membered  that  these  can  only  be  understood 
and  onl^'  dealt  with  by  the  aid  of  the  broad 
conceptions  of  political  philosophy." 

The  best  edition  of  Burke's  Works  is  that  by 
Sogers,  1834.  The  standard  biography  is  Sir 
J.  rrioT's  lAfe ;  and  there  are  more  recent 
memoirs  by  MoKniglit,  Bisaei,  and  McCormick. 
See  also  John  Morley,  Edmvnd  Burke:  an 
Historical  Study  ;  and  the  article  in  the  Eney- 
dcmctdia  Britannica  (ninth  ed.),  by  the  same 
writer.  Also,  Hazlitt,  Politusal  Essays  and  Elo- 
quence of  tlte  Brit,  Senate;  Robertson,  Leeturem 
on  Burke;  E.  J.  Payne,  Select  Works  of  Burke  with 
excellent  introductory  essays;  Ro€kingham 
Memoirs ;  Bedford  Papers  ;  Jesse,  George  III.  i 
Stanhope,  Life  of  Pitt,  and  Sist.  of  Eng. 

[W.  R.  S.] 

Burleigh,    or    Bnrffliley,  Williak 

Cecil,  Lord  {o.  1520,  d.  1698), bom  at  Boumo 
in  Lincolnshire,  was  the  son  of  Robert  Cecily 
blaster  of  the  Robes  to  Henry  VIII.,  who 
educated  him  for  the  law.  Having  married 
the  sister  of  Sir  John  Choke,  he  became  inti- 
mate with  the  Protector  Somerset,  his  friend- 
ship being  increased  by  his  second  marria^ 
with  the  daughter  of  Sir  Anthony  Cooke,  the 
tutor  of  Edward  VI.  In  1547  he  accompanied 
the  Protector  on  his  expedition  to  Scotland, 
and  in  the  following  year  became  Secretary 
of  State.  On  the  fall  of  the  Protector,  he 
was  imprisoned  for  a  short  time,  but  speedily 
restorea  to  favour,  and  throughout  the  reign 
of  Edward  VI.   continued  to  perform     the 


(  207  ) 


duti^  of  S(K:retar>*  of  State.  Though  no 
favourer  of  Northumberland's  scheme  for 
altering  the  succession,  he  was  at  length 
induced  to  sign  **  the  device  "  as  a  witness ; 
and  at  this  most  critical  ^riod  of  his  career 
managed  to  avoid  the  displeasure  of  Mar}-; 
he  conformed  to  the  Catholic  religion,  and 
became  very  friendly  with  Pole.  Before 
Mary's  death,  Cecil  entered  into  coiTespond- 
ence  with  the  Princess  Elizabeth,  on  whose 
accession  he  found  himself  at  once  in  high 
favour  at  court;  he  was  immediately  ap- 
pointed Secretary  of  State,  and  for  forty 
years  enjoj'ed  the  entire  confidence  of  the 
queen,  to  whom  he  was  **  the  oracle  she  con- 
sulted on  every  emergency,  and  whose 
answers  she  generally  obeyed."  During 
almost  the  whole  of  Elizabeth*s  reign,  Sir 
William  Cecil  may  be  said  to  have  practically 
directed  tlie  affairs  of  the  mition ;  though  on 
one  or  two  occasions,  disgusted  at  the  treat- 
ment he  received  from  his  bitter  enemies,  the 
courtiers,  chief  of  whom  was  Leicester,  ho 
was  on  the  point  of  retiring  altogether  frooi 
public  life.  In  1560  he  went  to  Scotland,  as 
Commissioner,  to  end  the  war,  and  on  his 
return  counteracted  the  progress  which  the 
Spanish  ambassador,  De  duadra,  had  made  in 
his  absence,  by  strongly  advocating  an  alliance 
with  the  Huguenot  leaders.  In  spite  of  his 
anti -Spanish  policy,  Cecil  was  no  favourite 
with  the  people ;  and  the  court  |)arty,  headed 
by  Leicester,  whose  marriage  with  the  queen 
he  strenuously  opposed,  strove  hard  to  work 
his  ruin.  The  perfection  to  which  he  brought 
his  system  of  espionage,  by  which  every  plot 
against  the  queen  was  known  to  her  ministers 
almost  as  soon  as  it  was  hatched,  undoubtedly, 
on  more  than  one  occasion,  saved  Elizabeth 
from  assassination  and  the  country  from  an 
internal  war,  though  it  provoked  against 
Cecil  the  wrath  of  men  Uke  Arundel  and 
Norfolk,  whose  aims  he  thwarted.  His  great 
scheme  was  the  formation  of  a  Protestant  con- 
federacy, to  consist  of  England,  Sweden,  Den- 
mark, the  German  princes,  the  Scotch  iSrotes- 
tants,  and  the  Calvinists  in  France  and  Flan- 
ders, against  the  Catholic  powers ;  his  great 
stumbling-block  was  the  Queen  of  Scots, 
whose  execution  he  did  not  cease  to  advise  as 
absolutely  necessary  for  the  safety  of  the 
queen  and  of  the  reahn.  More  than  once 
was  the  assassin's  dagger  directed  against 
Cecil  himself,  and  in  1572  the  plot  of  Bemey 
and  3ilather  might  have  been  successful  but 
for  the  ministerV  spies*  The  great  blot  on 
his  character  and  on  his  administration  is  the 
persecution  of  the  Catholics  for  practising  the 
rites  and  ceremonies  of  their  religion,  to 
which  Cecil,  and  even  Elizabeth  herself,  had 
not  scrupled  to  conform  in  the  time  of  their 
need.  To  his  economical  spirit,  too,  may  be 
ascribed  that  unprepared  state  of  the  arsenals 
and  the  navy  whic3i  so  materially  increased 
the  danger  to  be  apprehended  from  the  Ar- 
mada.   The  history  of  Cecil,  who  in  1571  had 


been  created  Lord  Burleigh,  from  the  accrs- 
sion  of  Elizabeth  to  his  death,  August  4, 1598. 
is  the  history  of  England,  so  closely  is  his 
name  identified  with  the  whole  current  of  the 
foreign  and  domestic  policy  of  the  reign.  He 
can  hardly,  perhaps,  claim  to  be  called  a  great 
man ;  but  he  was  an  adroit,  skilful,  and  sen- 
sible statesman,  of  tried  judgment,  untiring 
perseverance  and  application,  and  boundless 
industry  in  mastering  details. 

The  BurghUy  Papen,  ed.  by  Miirdin,  1750; 
Jfeiiiotrt,  Ac.,  by  lir.  £.  Nares  (S  vols.,  4to , 
1828—^1).  For  verv  different  estimates  of  BuT' 
leigh  see  Froude,  Ui§t.  of  Eng.  :  Lingard,  Hi»t, 
of  Eng.;  and  Mocaolay's  weU-known  iSMay. 
For  general  onthorities  see  Exjsabeth. 

[F.  S.  P.] 

Burmese  Wars,  (l)  First  Burmese 
War  (1824—1826).  At  the  time  CUve  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  English  Empire  in  India, 
Alonipra  had  established  a  great  dominion 
on  the  other  side  of  the  Granges.  He  united 
under  his  sway  the  kingdoms  of  Siam,  Pogu, 
Ava,  and  Aracan.  Both  nations  extended 
their  dominions  until  they  became  contermi- 
nous ;  and  the  Burmese  became  so  confident 
in  their  own  success  that  they  demanded  of 
Ix)rd  Hastings  that  he  should  surrender 
Chittagong,  Dacca,  and  some  other  places, 
which  they  claimed  as  original  dependencies 
of  Aracan.  His  refusal,  and  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  Burmese  in  seizing  Cachar,  a 
district  of  Bengal,  and  a  little  island  on  the 
coast  of  Chittagong,  produced  war.  In  March, 
1824,  the  English  attacked  and  occupied  Kan- 
goon  at  the  mouth  of  the  Irawaddi.  From 
then  to  December  the  Burmese  again  and 
again  assaulted  Kangoon,  which  had  become 
the  stronghold  of  the  English.  Stockade 
fighting  continued  till  March,  and  then  Sir 
Archibald  Campbell  found  it  possible  to 
advance  up  the  Irawaddi  to  Prome,  and 
found  it  deserted.  The  English  remained 
there  during  the  rainy  season.  In  November 
hostilities  were  renewed,  and  the  English 
gradually  forced  their  way  up  to  within  forty- 
five  miles  of  Ava,  the  capital  There  at  lengtli, 
in  February,  1826,  the  Treaty  of  Yandaboo 
was  concluded,  by  which  the  Burmese  ceded 
Assam,  Aracan,  and  the  coast  south  of  Martii- 
ban,  and  gave  up  their  claims  to  tiie  lowci- 
provinces. 

(2)  Second  Burmese  War  (1852).  After 
the  Peace  of  Yandaboo,  however,  and  espe- 
cially after  a  change  of  d}'na8ty,  which  oc- 
curred in  1837,  the  English  continued  to  be 
treated  with  great  insolence,  and  even  out- 
rage, by  the  court  of  Burmah.  The  successive 
residents  were  insulted,  and  the  traders  were 
subject  to  perpetual  extortion.  In  1851  Com- 
modore Lambert,  in  the  Fox^  appeared,  and  to 
him  the  English  residents  in  Rangoon  com- 
plained. Communications  were  opened  with 
the  court  of  Ava,  but  without  success,  and 
thereupon  Commodore  Lambert  proceeded  to 
blockade  the  port  of  Rangoon.  The  matter 
was  referred  to  the  government,  and,  after  three 


Bur 


(  208  ) 


Bur 


applications  had  been  made  in  vain  for 
redress.  Lord  Dalhousie  (12th  February*,  1852) 
determined  on  war.  Two  expeditions  were 
sent  from  Bengal  and  ^ladrus,  and  the  Bengal 
column  iHndcd  in  the  Bangoon  Biver  on  the 
2nd  April.  After  some  stockade  fighting  the 
town  of  Martaban  was  captured,  and  on  the 
11th  April  the  siege  of  Rtuigoon  commenced. 
On  the  14th  the  place  was  carried  by  storm. 
On  the  17th  ^lay,  Bassein  was  captured. 
In  September  the  army  moved  on  rrome, 
which  was  captured  9  th  October.  On  the 
20th  December  a  proclamation  was  issued, 
^ith  the  consent  of  the  Directors,  annexing 
Pegu.  A  treaty  of  peace  was  drafted,  but 
the  commissioners  could  not  come  to  terms. 
The  war  therefore  ended  without  any  treaty 
being  concluded.  In  1867  a  treaty  was  con- 
cluded by  which  British  vessels  were  al- 
lowed to  navigate  Burmese  waters.  In  the 
autumn  of  1885  the  oppressive  conduct  of 
King  Theebaw  towards  British  merchants 
and  traders  led  to  a  war.  A  force  of  nearly 
15,000  men  under  General  Prendergast  was 
sent  up  the  Intiwaddy,  and  entered  Man- 
dalay  on  November  28.  Theebaw  was  de- 
posed, and  on  Jan.  1,  1886,  the  whole  of 
iJpper  Burmah  was  annexed  to  the  British 
Empire.  The  dacoit  bands  were  gradually 
exterminated,  and  the  country  has  since  been 
steadily  quieting  down.  In  the  summer  of 
1886  a  convention  was  signed  with  China,  by 
which  the  transfer  of  the  country  to  Great 
Britain  was  recognised. 

MUL  Hui.iif  India:  Snodgrass,  Burmne  War, 
1887 ;  Yale,  Namiive  of  theUitnon  to  Ava,  1856 ; 
licMahofOfThe  Karmit,  1876 ;  Coloqahonn,  ^oroM 

Burned  Candlemas  was  a  name  be- 
stowed by  the  Scots  on  the  spring  of  1355 — 6, 
at  which  time  Edward  III.  completely  ravaged 
East  Lothian. 

Bnmell,  Robert  (</.  1292),  was  one  of 
Edward  I.'s  great  ministers.  In  1265  he  was 
Secretary  to  Prince  Edward,  and  soon  after 
the  accession  of  that  king  was  raised  to  the 
Chancellorship.  He  was  a  great  lawyer,  and 
assisted  the  Icing  in  his  legal  and  constitu- 
tional reforms.  From  1274  to  his  death  he 
was  practically  Prime  Minister,  and  it  was  at 
his  manor-house  at  Acton  Bumell,  in  Shrop- 
shire, that  the  important  statute  De  Merca^ 
toribug  was  passed.  He  was  an  ecclesiastic, 
and  in  1275  was  made  Bishop  of  Bath  and 
Wells.  *'As  a  statesman  and  a  legislator,*' 
aays  Lord  Campbell,  "he  is  worthy  of  the 
highest  commendation.** 

Campbell,  Livet  of  the  Lord  Chancellor: 

Blimes,  Si&  Albxandeb  {b,  1803,  <f.  1841), 
when  a  young  officer  in  the  Bombay  army, 
was  selected  by  Sir  John  Malcolm,  in  1830,  to 
take  charge  of  a  niission  to  Runjeet  Singh, 
which  was  to  proceed  up  the  Indus,  and  at 
the  same  time  make  an  attempt  to  establish 
friendly  relations  with  the  chiefs  on  its  btmks. 


He  was  badly  received  in  Scindc,  and  it  was 
only  the  energetic  remonstrances  of  Colonel 
Pottinger,  Resident  at  Cutch,  which  procured 
him  means  of  transporting  his  convov  up  the 
Indus.     Ho  was  well   received  by  kimjeet, 
and  proceeded  to    Simla   and   submitted  a 
report.    He  was  directed  to  return  to  Bom- 
bay, through  Afghanistan,  Balkh,  and  Bok* 
hara,  and  to  explore  and  report.     In  1837 
Capt.  Bumes  made  his  appearance  at  Calml, 
where  he  unsuccessfully  attempted  to  con- 
clude an  alliance  with  Dost  ^Iohamme<i.    In 
1839    he   accompanied    the    Afghan    Expe- 
dition, and  was  entrusted  with  the  important 
task  of  concluding  an  alliance  with  ilchmb 
Khan,  ruler  of  Beloochistan,  which  he  accom- 
plished.    In  1840  he  was  created  a  baronet, 
and  was  left  in  Cabul  to  succeed  Sir  W.  Hac- 
naghten  as  envoy.    In  1841  he  was  murdered 
in  the  Cabul  massacre.    [Afghan  Wars.] 

Kaye,  Indian  C^fieen, 

Bnmet,  Gilbert  {b.  1643,  d.  1715),  Bishop 
of  Salisbury,  was  bom  at  Edinburgh.  He 
studied  at  Aberdeen,  and  visited  England, 
France,  and  Holland.  In  1665  he  was 
ordained  and  presented  to  the  living  of  Sal- 
toun  by  the  father  of  the  celebrated  Fletdier 
of  Saltoun,  who  himself  became  Bumet*s 
pupil.  In  1668  he  was  appointed  Pro- 
fessor of  Divinity  at  Glasgow,  and  became 
known  to  the  Duke  of  Hamilton,  a  relation  of 
whom  he  married.  He  incurred  the  resent- 
ment of  Lauderdale,  by  whom  he  was  ac- 
cused of  instigating  the  opposition  to  the 
government,  and  thought  it  advisable  to 
leave  Scotland  and  to  settle  in  London.  In 
1675  he  was  appointed  preacher  at  the  Rolls 
Chapel.      He    became    very   popular   as   a 

Treacher,  and  was  well  known  at  court. 
>uring  the  Popish  Plot  he  made  great  efforts 
to  save  the  victims  of  that  delusion.  In  1681 
he  published  the  first  volume  of  his  JIi$tory  of 
the  Refortnation^  and  received  the  thanks  of 
the  zealously  Protestant  Commons  for  it.  In 
1683  he  accompanied  Russell  to  the  scaffold, 
and  was  examined  by  the  Commons  on  tho 
charge  of  having  'written  his  dying  speech. 
On  the  accession  of  James,  he  witndrow  to 
the  Continent,  and  after  trayelling  for  a  year 
arrived  at  the  Haggle,  where  he  soon  gained 
the  confidence  of  William  of  Orange,  and 
succeeded  in  bringing  about  a  reconciliation 
between  the  prince  and  his  wife.  He  wrot4) 
numerous  tracts  directed  against  James, 
whose  bitter  enmity  he  excited.  He  acconk 
panied  William  to  England  as  his  chaplain, 
and  after  the  Revolution,  was  rewarded  with 
the  bishopric  of  Salisbur>'.  He  was  a  zealous 
advocate  of  the  claims  of  Mary  to  a  share  of 
the  throne.  In  religious  politics  he  took  i^ 
unpopular  latitudinarian  side.  While  most 
vigorously  opposed  to  granting  any  rights 
to  Catholics,  he  was  in  favour  of  toleration 
for  Dissenters.  Accordingly,  he  attempted, 
with  his  friend  Tillotson,  to  draw  up  a  schemo 


Bur 


{  209  ) 


of  reconciliation  with  the  Presbyterians,  and 
he  supported  Nottingham's  Comprehension 
BilL  In  politics  he  was  a  thoroughgoing 
Whig.  He  proposed  to  insert  the  name  of 
the  Princess  Sophia  as  secured  in  the  Bill  of 
Rights,  bat  the  clause  was  rejected  by  the 
Commons.  He  was  therefore  regarded  by  the 
adherents  of  the  house  of  Brunswick  as  the 
chief  supporter  of  their  cause.  He  also  claims 
to  have  inserted  in  the  Bill  of  Rights  the 
clause  which  forbids  the  sovereign  to  marry 
a  Papist.  In  1693  it  was  resolved  by  the 
C-ommons  that  a  pastoral  letter  of  lus,  in 
which  ho  had  spoken  of  England  as  being 
conquered  by  William,  should  be  burnt  by  the 
hangman.  On  the  death  of  Mary  he  wrote  a. 
warm  eulogy  on  her  character.  In  1698  he 
was  appointed  tutor  to  the  young  Duke  of 
(Gloucester,  the  heir  to  the  throne,  whose 
education  he  carefully  superintended.  In  1701 
his  Exposition  of  the  Thirty'Hine  Articlet  was 
censured  in  Convocation ;  and  the  same  year 
an  ineffectual  attempt  was  made  in  the  House 
of  Commons  to  get  him  removed  from  his 
ixwt  about  the  yoimg  prince.  He  violently  at- 
tacked the  Occasional  Conformity  Bill  in  1704. 
He  was  a  staunch  supporter  of  the  Union 
with  Scotland,  and  was  chairman  of  the  Com- 
mittee for  considering  the  Articles  in  the 
Lords.  His  care  for  the  welfare  of  the  Church 
was  shown  by  his  scheme  for  the  augmenta- 
tion of  small  livings,  which  ultimately  ri- 
pened into  Queen  Anne's  Bounty.  In  the 
•Sacheverell  episode  he  enunciated  the  doctrines 
of  the  Whigs  in  a  speech  against  passive 
obedience.  He  upbraided  Queen  Anne  with 
her  supposed  design  of  settling  the  crown  on 
the  Pretender,  axid  towards  the  close  of  his 
life  vehemently  opposed  the  Tory  Peace  of 
Utrecht. 

The  Hw^oru  of  the  ReforvMiiion  of  ihs  Church 
f>f  B^UmA  la  a  valuable  piece  of  historical 
oompoiiition,  despite  its  cnazncter  of  parti- 
aanshtp.  Burnet  a  other  important  work  is 
the  m^oT^  of  HU  Ovn  Tune  (1600-1713), 
pabliahad  posthnmonfllj  by  his  son  in  1724 — 
84.  From  fear  of  glying  oflfence  the  editor 
bad  snppreeaed  many  passaeres  in  the  original 
mannsmpt ;  but  the  euppresaed  -Muagem  are 
restored  in  tbe  edition  pnbliahed  by  Boath 
in  18S3.  The  Hietonr  is  the  ^ork  of  a  violent 
Whig,  distorted  ^d^disoolooM  by  the  author's 
preiodioes  and  ttitMialities ;  and  it  is  written 
with  8infl[alar'want  of  discretion  and  self-com- 
mand. Still  it  is  highly  valuable  as  a  copious 
oontemporazy  record  of  events  as  Chey  appeared 
to  one  who  had  bonie  a  prominent  share  in 
tbem.  Bmmet  also  wrote  numerous  polemical 
pampbleta,  and  several  otber  historical  and 
litenxy  works,  including  The  Life  and  Death  of 
John,  Earl  of  Roeheater.  1080;  The  Life  of  Sir 
Motthev  HaU,  1082;  Memoire  of  tU  DvJkee  of 
HamCUon,  1677;  and  a  tnnslation  of  More'a 
Utopia^  1686. 

Tbe  best  edition  of  the  Hut.  of  the  ReformatUm 
is  that  in  7  vols,  by  N.  Pooook,  1885 ;  and  of  the 
Biet.  ofHie  Own  Time,  that  of  Oxford  in  6  vols., 
18S3.  For  an  able  criticism  of  the  latter  work 
see  Ooixot,  Holice  tur  Burnet ;  see  also  Oldmixon, 
CrttiMl  Hist,  of  Bnq,,  1784 ;  and  P.  Kiciron,  Ui- 
noire*.  For  Bnniet*s  life  and  character  see  the 
Life  by  Sir  Thos.  Burnet  preiixed  to  the  first  vol. 
c(  the  Hist,  of  Hit  Own  Time  in  the  edition  of 


1724;  and  Bircb,  raiot«on,*  Macaulay,  Hist,  oj 
Bug.;  Biographia  Britanntca;  Wyon,  Reign  ^ 
Queen  Anne.  [S.  J.  L.] 


l'»  g^lli  The  Battle  of  (1847),  was 
fought  in  Kaihrland  between  a  British  force 
which  was  endeavouring  to  seize  Sandilli,  the 
Kaihr  chief,  and  the  Kaffirs;  the  British 
were  defetited. 


,,  SfK  Hahry  (6. 1765, rf.  1813), en- 
tered the  army  early  in  life,  and  first  saw  active 
service  in  the  American  War,  being  present 
at  Camden,  and  under  Lord  Rawdon  in  South 
Carolina  in  1781.  In  1798  he  distinguished 
himself  in  the  unfortunate  expedition  to 
Ostend.  At  Alkmaar  he  was  posted  on  the 
left  in  command  of  the  brigade  of  Guards,  and 
rendered  good  service  in  supporting  Aber- 
cromby*8  attack.  In  1807,  he  went  as  second 
in  command  of  the  expedition  to  Copenhagen; 
and  on  his  return  he  was  made  a  baronet. 
In  the  following  year  he  was  sent  out  with 
reinforcements  to  tortugaL  He  arrived  just 
in  time  to  find  that  Wellesley  had  defeated 
Junot  at  Vimiero  and  was  arranging  every- 
thing for  a  hot  pursuit.  Burrard  at  once 
forbade  any  further  advance,  and  recalled  the 
troops  to  their  positions.  The  results  of 
this  prohibition  were  disastrous,  since  they 
prevented  Wellesley  from  totally  destroying 
Junot's  army,  and  rendered  the  Convention 
of  Cintra  necessar}\  A  court  of  inquiry  was 
held,  in  which  Sir  Harry  was  exonerated 
from  all  blame ;  but  popular  indignation  pre- 
vented him  from  ever  being  employed  again. 
Xapier,  a  not  too  gentle  critic,  says  that  "  it 
is  absurd  to  blame  Sir  H.  Burrard  for  not 
adopting  one  of  those  prompt  and  daring 
conceptions  that  distinguish  great  generals 
only."  Wellesley  himself  acknowledged  that 
Sir  Harry  Burrard  had  acted  on  fair  military 
grounds. 

Natvisr,  Ben.  War  ;  Rose,  Biog,  Bic^, 

BlirrOW68»  Peter,  was  an  Irish  poli- 
tician and  barrister.  He  began  life  as  tutor 
to  one  of  the  Boresfords,  and  was  offered  a 
seat  in  the  Irish  Parliament,  but  declined  to 
become  a  mere  placeman  and  to  vote  against 
his  convictions.  He  preferred  to  go  to  the 
bar,  and  soon  became  famous.  In  1783  he 
was  a  delegate  to  the  g^reat  Volunteer  Con- 
vention. He  entered  the  Irish  Parliament 
shortly  before  the  Union,  and  was  one  of  the 
many  barristers  who  declined  to  be  bought 
over  by  Lord  Castlereagh,  his  friend  Charles 
Bushe,  afterwards  Solicitor-General,  being 
another.  When  Lord  Comwallis  was  sent  to 
Ireland  as  Lord-Lieutenant,  Burrowcs  pro- 
posed to  his  friends  that  an  appeal  shoula  be 
made  to  the  Yeomanry  to  defeat  the  Union,  but 
he  was  dissuaded  from  the  step,  much  to  his 
subsequent  regret.  His  speeches  were  among 
the  best  that  were  made  on  the  anti -Union 
ride.  In  1811  he  appeared  as  counsel 
for  the  arrested  delegates  of  the  Catholic 


C  210  ) 


But 


Convention,   and  won  his  case.     He  was  a 

particularly  earnest  inan,  and  thoroughly  in- 

corruptihle. 

Lecky,  Lead9r§  of  Pvhlie  Opinion  in  Ireland ; 
Qratton,  Life  and  Timee  of  Qrattan, 

Burton,  Hbxry  {b.  1579,  d.  1648),  was 
Clerk  of  the  Closet  to  Prince  Charles,  but 
after  Charle8*s  accession  to  the  throne  he  was 
removed,  and  for  accusing  Laud  of  Popery 
was  forbiddeu  the  court.  In  1637  he  was 
accused  before  tho  Stir  Chamber  of  writing 
scbismatical  and  libellous  books  against  tho 
hierarchy  of  the  Church,  and  to  the  scandal 
of  the  government.  For  this  he  was  sen- 
tenced to  stand  in  the  pillory,  lose  his  ears, 
be  fined  £5,000,  and  imprisoned  for  life. 
The  first  part  of  the  sentence  was  carried  out, 
and  he  remained  in  prison  till  1640,  when  ho 
was  released  by  the  Long  Parliament,  the 
proceedings  against  him  annulled,  and  £5,000 
compensation  g^ven  him. 

Burton,  John  Hill  (h.  1809,  rf.  1881),  bom 
at  Aberdeen,  studied  at  I^Iarischal  CoUege, 
and  became  an  advocate  at  the  Scotch  bar, 
1831,  but  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  litera- 
ture. He  became  Secretary  to  tho  Prison 
Board  of  Scotland  in  1854,  Historiographin* 
Koyal  in  1867,  and  a  Commissioner  of  Prisons 
in  1877.  Ho  wrote  Xtrw  of  Simon  Lord  Lovat 
and  Duncan  Forbes  of  Cnliod^n,  1847 ;  Narra- 
tivet  from  Criminal  Triah  in  Scotland^  1852 ; 
several  works  on  legal  and  general  subjects ; 
A  Hietory  of  Scotland  to  16SS,  1867;  A  Hit- 
tory  of  Scotland  from  th^  Revolution  to  1/45^ 
1853;  and  A  History  of  the  Reign  of  Queen 
Anne  J  1880.  "Mr,  Burton*  8  History  of  Scotland 
(issued  in  8  vols.,  1873)  is  a  verj'-ablc,  careful, 
and  accurate  work,  and  is  the  best  general 
Scottish  history  which  has  appeared  in  recent 

times. 

A  memoir  of  Mr.  Bnrton  is  prefixed  to  his 
work.  The  Bookkunter  (new  ed.,  1882). 

Bury  St.  Bdmnnds,  in  Suffolk,  was 
probably  a  Roman  settlement  of  some  im- 
portance. Previous  to  the  ni nth  centurj^  it  was 
known  as  Beodric*8-worthe.  It  derived. its 
modern  name  from  St.  Edmund,  King  pf  tho 
East  Angles,  who  was  taken  prisoner  hero  by 
the  Danes  in  870,  bound  to  a  tree,  and  shot 
to  death  with  arrows.  In  his  honour  an 
abbey  was  founded  here  which  became 
famous  in  monastic  history,  and  is  now  a 
ruin  of  great  interest.  It  was  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  Benedictine  foundations  in  Eng- 
land, and  at  the  Dissolution  was  found  to  be 
possessed  of  enormous  wealth.  In  1*214  a 
great  meeting  of  the  barons  took  place  at 
Burj',  when  they  swore  solemnly  to  compel 
King  John  to  grant  a  charter.  It  was  one  of 
the  centres  of  the  Peasants*  revolt  of  1381. 
Frequent  Parliaments  were  held  here,  the 
most  famous  in  1446,  at  which  Duke  Hum- 
phrey of  Gloucester  was  arrested. 

B.  Tates,  History  of  St.  Bdmundthury,  1803. 


BusaOO,  The  Battle  ok  (Sept.  27,  1810), 
secured    Wellington's    retreat    to  the   linen 
which  he  had  prepared  on  Torres  Vedras. 
He  had  taken  up  a  strong  position  on  the 
Busaco   range  of   hills,    with  a   very  steep 
front.      On   the   29th,   in    the  early  dawn, 
Massena  ordered  the  English  position  to  be 
assaulted    in    the    centre,    where    the   as- 
cent was  easiest.     Picton  was  in  command; 
and  here  the  French   assault  was  so  rapid 
and    determined    that    after    driAnug    back 
the    skirmishers   they   gained   the    crest  of 
the  hill,  and  threw  the  third  division  into 
confusion.     At  that  moment  Crencral  Leith, 
who    was    on    Picton*B    right,    seeing    the 
danger,  moved  up  a  brigade  to  his  assistance ; 
and  the  French  were  driven  over  the  hillside. 
Meantime  Ney,  on  the  French  right,  had  led 
his  men  over  more  diflBcult  ground,  but  with 
equal  gallantry  attacked  Oraufurd,  who  com- 
manded on  the  extreme  left  of  the  aUied  line. 
When  the  French  were  on  the  point  of  carry- 
ing the  position,  Craufurd  launched  against 
them  a  reserve  of  1,800  men,  whose  onslaught 
it  was    impossible    to    withstand,    and   the 
second  assault  of  the  French  failed.    It  was 
clearly  impossible  to   take  this  strong  post 
by  assault;   and  Massena,   in  the  evening,, 
hastily  began  to  execute  a  flanking  march 
round  the   hills  on   the  left  of    the  allied 
forces.     Wellington  perceived  the  movement 
only  just  in  time,  and  ordered  a  retreat  to 
meet  it.      The  allied  troops  were  in   g^reat 
danger  on  several  occasions ;  but  the  disorder 
and  confusion  of  the  French  army  rendered 
its  movements  slow,  and  saved  the  fUlies  from 
defeat.     As  it  was,   they  were  worsted  in 
several    skirmishes    with    French    8coiU;ing 
parties,  and  the  negligence  of  Craufuid  at  the 
last    moment    imperilled  the    safety  of  the 
allied  army ;  but  at  length  Wellingtoa  had 
the  satisfaction  of  ha^'ing  all  his  forces  en- 
sconced behind  the  lines  6f  Torres  Vedras. 

Napier,  Penineular  War,  book  xi.,  chaps.  7  and  8. 

Biu»7-Cajitelnau,    Chaklec^   Joseph, 
Marquis  of  (b.  1718,  d.  178a),  a  distinguished 
French  officer,  was  Dupleix's  able  lieutenant, 
and  was  mainly  instrumental  in  maintaining^ 
French  influence  in  the  Deccan  and  Camatic. 
In  1748  (Oct.  17)  he  caused  the  Englirfi  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Pondicherry.  On  the  arrival 
of  Lally  in  India,  Bussy  found  himself  subor- 
dinate to  that  officer,  who  rendered  his  plan» 
ineffectual.      Bussy  was   taken  prisoner   at 
Wandewash  and  conveyed  to  England,  but  at 
the  trial  of  Lally  he  was  released  on  parole 
and  allowed  to  return  to  Franco  to   clear 
himself.     He  wrote  a  Memoire  contre  M,  de 
Lally y  Paris,  1766. 

Ses  the  Proo0«  de  "LaWyi  in  Voltaire's  Works. 

Bute,  John  Stuaht,  Sun  Eaulop  (4.  1713,. 
d,  1792),  son  of  James,  second  eari,  married,. 
in  1736,  Marj',  daughter  of  the  celebrated 
Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montague,  in  whose 
right  he  inherited  a  large  fortune^      In  early 


But 


(211  ) 


But 


life  he  became  by  accident  acquainted  with 
Frederic,  Prince  of  Wales,  and  soon  acquired 
great  influence  over  him,  though  it  is  difficult 
to  see  what  were  the  charms  which  endeared 
him  to  the  prince,  since  he  is  described  as 
*'cold  and  unconciliating  in  his  manners, 
proud  and  sensitive  in  his  nature,  solemn  and 
sententious  in  his  discourse."  During  the  later 
years  of  George  II.  he  had  remained  attached  to 
the  court  of  the  widowed  Princess  of  Wales ; 
and  scandal  attributed  to  their  relations  a 
character  which  there  is  no  real  evidence  to 
show  that  they  possessed.  But  no  sooner  was 
George  III.  seated  on  the  throne  than  Bute  took 
advantage  of  his  ascendency  over  the  young 
Uing  to  come  to  the  front  in  politics.  After 
the  dissolution  of  Parliament  early  in  1761,  he 
IxiCHme  one  of  the  Secretaries  of  State  as  the 
colleague  of  Pitt,  to  whom  he  was  warmly 
opposed  on  the  question  of  the  Continental 
war.  Pitt  resigned  in  October,  leaWng  Bute 
supreme.  The  discovery  of  the  Family  Com- 
p»(?t  between  France  and  Spain,  which  Pitt 
had  suspected,  led  to  a  necessary  rupture  with 
Spain ;  but  Bute  was  none  the  less  resolved  to 
come  to  terms  with  France  and  to  desert 
(iermany,  and  to  reverse  the  policy  of  his  pre- 
decessors. On  Nov.  3,  1762,  the  preliminaries 
were  signed  at  Fontaineblcau,  and  peace  was 
•definitely  concluded  in  the  following  Februar}'. 
But  the  ministry  was  unpopular;  and  this 
unpopularity  gradually  developed  into  a 
fierce  hatred,  which  amused  itself  in  burn- 
ing the  Prime  Minister  in  effig^"*  in  almost 
every  public  place.  This  extreme  feeling 
(^an  scarcely  be  said  to  have  been  justified 
by  Bute's  public  measures ;  and  two,  at 
any  rate,  of  his  chief  sins  in  the  popular 
view  are  well  set  forth  by  a  contem- 
poraiT  writer,  who  says  that  he  was 
titterfy  *•  unfit  to  be  Prime  Minister  of 
England,  because  he  was  (1)  a  Scotchman, 
(2)  the  king's  friend,  (3)  an  honest  man." 
In  April,  1 763,  he  had  to  yield  to  the  storm 
of  indignation  which  he  had  aroused;  and 
he  never  afterwards  filled  any  prominent 
office  in  the  State.  But  he  retained  his 
influence  over  the  king,  and  was  all-power- 
ful in  the  Closet,  until  George  Ght^nville, 
after  the  failure  of  Bute's  attempted  in- 
trigues with  Pitt,  insisted  on  his  complete 
dismissal  from  the  court  as  a  condition  of  his 
own  return  to  power.  From  this  time  for- 
ward, there  is  little  evidence  that  Bute  had 
any  hand  in  the  politics  of  the  day,  though 
his  withdrawal  could  not  remove  the.  suspicion 
of  his  secret  influence  at  the  back  of  the 
throne.  Daring  the  last  twenty-five  years  of 
his  life  he  lived  in  almost  complete  retirement 
at  Christchurch,  in  Hampshire,  in  the  midst 
of  his  family. 

Walpole,  Mnnoin  of  the  JRHgn  of  George  III, ; 
Albemarle,  fiocfeinyhani  ondKie  Contemporariee  ;. 
JtMe,  George  Selwyn  and  Hie  XJontemp&rariee, 
and  George  HI.  ;  LtUere  of  Jvmiue  ;  ICacaiilay't 
on  Chatham        ^.   ^  g  j 


Butler,  The  Family  op,  was  founded  in 
Ireland  by  Theobald  Gualtier  or  Walter  (a 
brother  of  Hubert  Walter,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  and  Chancellor  of  England),  who 
received  grants  of  land  in  Leinster  from 
Henry  II.,  together  with  the  hereditarj'  office 
of  Pincema,  or  Butler,  to  the  Kings  of 
England.  The  Butler  family  did  not  play 
a  very  prominent  part  in  Irish  history'  until 
the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
when  Edmond  le  Boteler  was  created  Earl  of 
Carrick  for  his  exertions  against  Edwai-d 
Bruce  and  the  Scots.  From  him  sprang  two 
lines,  those  of  the  f^rls  of  Ormonde  and  the 
Earls  of  Carrick.  The  earldom  of  Ormonde 
was  created  in  1328,  and  James,  the  second 
earl,  who  married  Elennor,  daughter  of  Hum- 
phrey Bohun,  Earl  of  Essex  and  first  cousin  of 
Edward  II.,  niised  the  family  to  a  position  of 
equality  with  the  Burkes  ana  the  Fitzgeralds. 
The  Butlers  were  powerful  chiefly  in  the  Pale, 
and  though  they  adopted  some  Irish  customs, 
yet,  on  the  whole,  they  were  faithful  to  their 
English  origin.  They  almost  alone,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  Fitzgeralds,  supported  the  house 
of  Lancaster  and  the  English  connection. 
Kilkenny  and  part  of  Tipperar}^  formed  their 
Palatinate,  and  thev  stood  next  in  power  to  the 
Fitzgeralds.  The  title  of  Ossory  was  created  in 
1 52  7,  when  Pierce  Butler  consented  to  resign  the 
title  of  Ormonde  to  Thomas  Boleyn,  Viscoiist 
Rochfort,  but  the  latter  honour  was  restored 
to  him  after  the  execution  of  Rochfort.  The 
Butlers  joined  the  Desmonds  in  the  Munster* 
insurrection  of  1569.  They  played  an  im- 
portant part  in  English  history  during  the 
seventeenth  century;  they  were  now  Pro- 
testants, and,  though  Irish  in  sympathy, 
thoroughly  Ko}'alist  in  their  views,  and  anxious 
to  keep  up  the  English  connection.  James, 
Duke  of  Ormonde,  who  was  created  marquis 
in  1642  and  duke  in  1661,  commanded  the 
Royalist  troops  for  the  suppression  of  the 
Irish  rebellion,  and  after  the  liestoration 
was  governor  of  the  country.  His  son 
Ossory  died  in  the  service  of  William  of 
Orange.  James,  the  second  duke,  was  one  of 
tiie  staunchest  supporters  of  the  old  Pretender; 
in  consequence  of  his  intrigues  during  the 
last  years  of  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  his 
honours  were  extinguished  and  his  immense 
estates  forfeited  (1716).  His  brother  and 
heir,  Charles,  was  created  Baron  Butler  of 
Weston,  Hunts. 

Butler,  Sami'el  {b.  I6I2,  d.  I68O),  is  the 
author  of  one  of  the  greatest  political  satires  in 
the  English  language.  The  early  years  of  his 
life  are  obscure,  but  he  is  Raid  to  have  been  at 
one  time  employed  by  Selden  as  an  amanuen- 
sis, and  to  have  been  recommended  by  him 
to  the  Countess  of  Kent.  He  subsequently 
entered  the  service  of  Sir  Samuel  Luke, 
a  rigid  Presbyterian,  where  he  had  the  op- 
portunity of  observing  the  various  traits  of 
bigotry  and  absurdity  which  he  subsequently 


But 


(  212  ) 


wovo  into  Hudibras.  This  work  was  pub- 
litihcd  in  throe  parts;  the  first  in  1663,  the 
second  in  1664,  and  the  third  in  1678.  The 
work  is  a  satire  on  the  Independents  and 
Presbyterians,  and  is  of  .considerable  his- 
torical interest  as  giving  a  striking  picture 
of  many  of  their  peculiarities.  Its  abounding 
wit,  and  the  extraordinary  copiousness  and 
variety  of  diction  displayed  in  the  dialogues, 
as  well  as  the  genuine  humour  of  some 
of  the  comic  situations,  have  made  it  one 
of  the  most  popular  of  political  satires. 
Butler  was  tho  author  of  a  satire  on  the 
Koyal  Society,  The  Elephant  in  the  Moon;  a 
collection  of  Charccicra,  and  some  other  works. 
He  seems  to  have  gained  little  or  no  solid 
reward  from  the  court,  and  is  said  to  have 
died  in  the  extremest  poverty  in  London. 
In  1721  a  cenotaph  was  erected  to  his 
memory  in  Westminster  Abbey  which  pro- 
voked from  Samuel  Wesley  a  well-known 
epigram. 

An  edition  of  Hudibrcu  with  oopioos  and 
useful  explanations  of  allusions,  &o.,  is  tliat  of 
Qroy,  Lond.,  1741. 

Butt,  Isaac  {b,  1812,  d.  1879),  tho  son  of 
an  Irish  Protestant  clerg^^man,  educated  ut 
Trinity  Ck>lWe,  Dublin,  in  183*5,  was  made 
Professor  of  Political  Economy  the  following 
year.  In  1838  he  was  (tailed  to  the  Irish  bar 
and  began  to  take  an  active  part  in  politics 
on  tho  Conservative  side.  He  was  a  strenuous 
opponent  of  (^'Connell.  In  1 844  he  was  made  a 
Queen^s  Counsel,  and  in  1848  defended  Smith 
O'Brien.  From  1852  to  186d  he  sat  in  Par- 
liament  as  member  for  YoughfU,  but  did  not 
distinguish  himself.  In  1871  he  was  elected 
as  Home  Rule  member  for  Limerick,  and 
assumed  the  leadership  of  tlie  new  party, 
and  in  1872  founded  the  Home  Rule  League. 
But  he  was  opposed  by  the  more  extreme  and 
violent  section  of  his  party,  and  by  the  end 
of  his  life  he  had  little  authority  left  in  the 
Home  Rulo  ranks. 


r.  The  Battle  op  (Oct  23,  1764), 

was  fought  between  the  English,  commanded 
bv  Major  Munro,  and  the  army  of  the  Vizier 
of  Oude.  The  latter  was  completely  routed, 
and  obliged  to  abandon  his  camp,  with  all  its 
stores  and  130  pieces  of  cannon.  This  \ictor>' 
was  scarcely  less  important  than  that  of 
Plassey.  It  demolished  tho  power  of  the 
Vizier  Sujah-Dowlah,  the  only  chief  of  im- 
portance m  the  north,  and  made  the  English 
masters  of  the  valley  of  the  Ganges. 

Buzton«  SiK  Thomas  Fowell  {b.  1786, 
d,  1845),  a  member  of  the  brewing  firm  of 
Truman,  Hanbury,  and  Co.,  in  1816  esta- 
blished a  well-organised  system  of  relief  for 
the  poor  in  Spitalfields,  and  soon  after 
examined  the  state  of  the  prisons,  in  which 
he  was  aided  by  his  sister-in-law,  Mrs.  Fry. 
He  wrote  a  pamphlet  exposing  the  horrors  of 
t^e  prison  system,  which  excited  great  atten- 


tion, lie  now  stood  for  Weymouth,  and 
was  triumphantly  returned.  He  continued 
to  represent  this  borough  till  1837,  when  he 
was  acfoated  by  Mr.  Villiers.  In  Parliament 
he  proved  himself  an  important  ally  of  J^tack- 
intosh  on  the  question  of  the  Amelioration 
of  the  Criminal  Code.  In  1823  he  brought 
forwai-d  a  resolution  "that  slavery,  being 
repugnant  to  the  Cliristian  Religion  and 
the  British  Constitution,  ought  to  be  abolished 
at  the  earliest  period  coinpatible  with  the 
safety  of  all  concerned."  It  was  not,  how- 
ever, till  1831  that  the  principle  of  eman- 
cipation was  conceded,  chiotly  owing  to 
Mr.  Buxton^s  efforts,  and  in  1833  govern- 
ment introduced  a  measure  of  emancipation. 
Mr.  Buxton  did  not,  however,  relax  his 
efforts,  but  laboured  to  effect  the  abolition 
of  the  system  of  apprenticeship  which  was 
still  sanctioned  by  the  law.  In  1837,  on 
his  defeat  at  Weymouth,  he  quitted  Par- 
liamentary' life;  and  in  1839  he  published 
The  Slave  Trade  and  its  Hemedyy  in  which 
he  proposed  the  colonisation  of  Africa. 
An  expedition  with  this  object  was  sent 
to  the  Niger,  but  it  proved  a  complete 
failure.  In  1840  Mr.  Buxton  was  created  a 
baronet. 

Bye  Plot,  The  (1603),  was  set  on  foot 
by  a  Roman  Catholic  priest  named  Watson, 
and  was  joined  by  ardent  Catholics  liko  Sir 
Griffin  Markham  and  Anthony  Copley,  as 
well  as  by  Puritans  like  Lord  Grey  of  Wilton 
and  G^rge  Brooke,  who  were  discontented 
with  thd  policy  of  James  I.  Their  plan  seems 
to  have  been  to  secure  the  person  of  the  kingf, 
compel  him  to  dismiss  his  ministers,  and  to 
grant  toleration  to  Catholics  and  Puritans. 
Many  were  inveigled  into  joining  on  the 
pretence  that  the  meeting  was  merely  for  the 
presentation  of  a  petition  in  favour  of  general 
toleration.  The  scheme  was  badly  arranged, 
no  definite  plan  had  been  agreed  upon,  and  it- 
proved  a  complete  failure.  It  is  certain  that 
tho  Bve  Plot  had  no  connection  with  the  ]^in 
or  Italeigh*8  Plot,  with  which,  however,  ^cil 
and  the  other  ministers  managed  to  mix  it  up 
in  popular  belief.  Watson  was  executed, 
Markham  reprieved  on  the  scaffold,  Gi€pfe^ 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower,  and  Copley  biuiishedL 
S.  S.  Gardiner,  KUt,  of  En^g,,  vol.  i. 

Bynify  Sm  Geobos.  [Tokkinotox,  Vis- 
count.] 

BynCTf  John,  Admiral  (^.  1704,ef.  1757),  was 
the  fourth  son  of  Lord  Torrington,  and 
served  at  sea  under  his  father.  In  1756  lie 
was  sent  out  with  a  fieet  of  ten  ships  of  war, 
poorly  manned  and  in  bad  condition,  witK 
orders  to  relieve  Minorca  in  case  of  attack. 
Only  three  days  afterwards  the  French  flee't 
attacked  the  castle  of  St.  Philip  in  thAt 
island.  Byng  arrived  off  St.  Phihp  on  Mn.^ 
19th,  and  tried  in  vain  to  communicate  witH 


(  '-213  ) 


Cab 


Ihe  governor.  On  the  following  day  the; 
engageiiicnt  took  pluce.  Kear-Adiniml  West 
on  the  right  attacked  the  enemy  with  vigour, 
2Uid  drove  them  back ;  but  Byng  held  aloof* 
and  the  action  was  indecisive.  After  u 
council  of  war,  he  sailed  off  to  Gibraltar 
and  left  Minorca  to  its  fate.  Bjnig  was 
brought  home  under  arrest,  and  tried  by 
court-martial.  His  judges  acquitted  him  of 
treachery  and  cowardice,  but  it  was  decided 
that  he  had  not  done  his  utmost  to  relieve 
8t.  PhiUp,  or  to  defeat  the  French  fleet. 
He  was  recommended  to  mercy.  Ktt  in 
xidn  tried  to  induce  the  king  to  pardon 
him.  Byng  was  shot  at  his  6wn  request 
on  the  qwirter-deck  of  his  ship  in  Ports- 
mouth Harbour ;  he  mt.'t  his  fate  with  great 
courage.  Voltaire,  who  h&d  tried  to  help 
him  by  sending  him  a  laudatory  letter  of  the 
Duke  of  iiichelieu,  says  that  he  was  slain 
"  pour  encourager  les  autres."  It  is  probably 
trae  that  Byng  had  not  done  as  much  as  he 
might  have  done  for  the  relief  of  Minorca. 
But  there  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  harsh- 
ness and  injustice  of  applying  the  severe 
penalties  prescribed  by  the  twelfth  article  of 
the  naval  code  in  the  v&ae  of  an  officer  who  was 
rightly  acquitted  of  treachery  and  cowardice. 
Though  Byng  was  perfectly  honest  and 
sufficiently  brave,  it  may,  however,  be  con- 
ceded that  he  was  wanting  in  capacity.  "  He 
trembled  not  at  danger,  but,  like  many  other 
weak  men  in  high  places,  he  did  tremble  at 
responsibility."    [Minobca.] 

Lnndan  Gazette,  17oS—S7 ;  Stanhope,  HitL  of 
England. 

Byron,  John,  Lord  {fi.  165e),  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Sir  John  Byron.  He  was 
one  of  Charles  I.'s  personal  attendants,  and 
was  by  him  made  Lieutenant  of  the  Tower 
in  1641.  As  he  was  strongly  attached  to  the 
royal  cause,  the  Parliament  was  anxious  to 
get  rid  of  him,  and,  in  1642,  the  king  con- 
sented to  appoint  Sir  John  Conyers  in  his 
place.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  Byron 
rii^ied  a  troop  for  the  king,  and  at  the  battle 
of  Edg^hill  was  in  command  of  the  reserve. 
He  showed  great  braverj-at  Roundaway  Down 
knd  Newbury,  and,  in  1643,  was  created  a 
peer,  and  shortly  afterwards  Governor  of 
Chester,  where  he  sustained  a  long  siege,  capi- 
tulating only  when  all  the  provisions  were 
exhaurted.  He  was  subsequently  appointed 
Governor  to  the  Duke  of  York.  He  took 
part  in  the  second  Civil  War,  and  on  the 
failure  of  the  Royalists  returned  to  his  charge 
of  tile  Duke  of  York,  and  died  at  Paris. 

Whitelocke,  MemjonnU. 


Cabal,  The  (1667  7-1673),  was  the 
name  given  to  the  ministry  formed  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  IL ,  after  the  fall  of  Clarendon. 


The  word  **  Cabal "  had  been  used  previously 
to  denote  a  secret  Committee  or  Cabinet, 
and  answers  to  the  **  Junto"  of  a  somewhat 
later  date.  [Cabinet.]  It  happened,  how- 
over,  rather  curiously  that  the  initials  of  the 
statesmen  who  formed  this  administration 
spelt  the  word  *'  Cabal."  These  ministers  were 
Clifford,  Arlington,  Buckingham,  Ashley- 
Cooper  (Lord  Shaftesbury),  and  Lauderdale. 
**  They  agreed,'*  says  Kunke,  "  in  wishing  to 
strengthen  the  royal  prerogative  by  moderat- 
ing the  uniformity  laws  with  the  help  of 
France,  and  during  the  excitement  caused  by 
a  foi*eign  war ;  but,  otherwise,  they  were 
attached  to  widely  different  principles. 
I^uderdale  was  a  Presbyterian;  Ashley- 
Cooper,  a  philosopher;  Buckingham,  if  he 
held  any  opinion  at  all,  an  independent; 
Arlington,  a  moderate  Catholic;  Clifford,  a 
zealous  one."  At  first,  in  foreign  policy,  a 
new  departure  was  taken  by  the  £>rmation  of 
the  Triple  Alliance  (q.v.),  which  compelled 
Louis  to  desist  from  his  schemes  of  aggression 
in  the  Spanish  Netherlands.  But  tlus  line  of 
policy  was  not  long  pursued.  War  with  the 
Dutch  and  alliance  with  France  followed, 
with  the  infamous  Treaty  of  Dover  (1672). 
^loney  was  obtained  by  seizing  that  which 
bad  been  deposited  for  security  in  the  Ex- 
chequer, while  Parliament,  which  might 
have  proved  obstructive,  was  prorogued.  A 
Declaration  of  Indulgence,  granting  liberty 
of  worship  to  all  sects,  was  issued.  But  the 
war  ended  ip  Mlure,  and  the  Declaration 
was  received  with  great  suspicion  even  by 
the  Dissenters.  The  Treasury  was  empty, 
and  in  1673  I^arliament  had  to  be  summoned 
to  grant  supplies.  Charles  was  compelled  to 
withdraw  the  Declaration,  and  to  assent  to 
the  Test  Act,  which,  by  excluding  all 
Catholics  from  office,  obliged  Clifford  and 
Arlington  to  resign,  and  put  an  end  to  the 
Cabal  Ministry. 

Rauke,  Hi»t  of  Eng.,  iiu  515  ;  Macaiday,  But. 
ofEiuj.,!  213. 


;,  The,  although  familiar  by 
name  to  every  one  as  the  most  powerful 
body  in  the  Executive  Grovemment  of  the 
State,  is,  properly  speaking,  unknown  to 
the  Constitution.  Theoretically,  the  Cabinet 
is  only  an  irregular  Committee  of  the  Privy 
Council.  By  the  theory  of  the  Constitution, 
the  Privy  Council  is  the  proper  body  to 
advise  the  sovereign ;  yet  the  members  of 
the  Privy  Council  do  not  attend  unless  they 
are  specially  summoned,  and  they  have  only 
formal  business  to  transact.  The  Cabinet 
Council  took  its  rise  under  the  Tudors,  but 
was  then  only  a  sm'all  irregular  body,  con- 
sisting of  the  members  of  the  Privy  Council, 
whom  the  sovereign  chose  from  time  to  time 
to  consult.  After  the  Restoration,  when  the 
distinction  between  the  ordinary  Council  and 
the  Priv^'  Council  had  censed  to  exist,  and 
when  all  members  of  the  Council  were  sworn 


' 


Cab 


(  214  ) 


Cab 


as  Privy  Councillors,  Iho  Privy  Council  be- 
came unwieldy  from  its  numbers.  Charles  II. 
complained  that  the  great  number  of  the 
Council  made  it  unfit  for  the  secrecy  and 
despatch  which  are  necessary  in  great  affairs. 
He  formed  a  select  Committee  of  the  Council, 
called  the  Cabal  or  Cabinet,  which  deliberated 
on  all  matters  of  business  before  they  were 
submitted  to  the  larger  CouneiL  This  method 
of  government  was  very  unpopular — partly 
from  the  character  of  the  ministers  who 
composed  the  Cabinet,  and  partly  from  the 
imperfect  undei-standing  of  the  doctrine  of 
ministerial  responsibility.  In  1679  an  at- 
tempt was  made  by  Sir  William  Temple  to 
restore  the  Privy  Council  to  its  former 
position.  Its  numbers  were  to  be  reduced 
from  fifty  to  thirty,  of  whom  fifteen  were  to 
be  the  chief  officers  of  State,  and  the  rest 
made  up  of  ten  Lords  and  five  Commoners. 
The  joint  income  of  the  Council  was  not  to 
be  less  than  £300,000,  which  was  thought  to 
be  nearly  equal  to  the  estimated  income  of 
the  House  of  Commons.  Charles  promised 
that  he  would  be  governed  by  the  advice  of 
this  Council,  but  he  continued  to  consult  his 
Cabinet  as  before.  The  Cabinet  assumed 
more  definite  duties  under  William  III.,  who 
also  introduced  his  principal  ministers  into 
Parliament.  At  the  same  time,  the  king 
<:ho8e  his  Cabinet  from  the  two  great  parties, 
until,  in  1693,  he  formed  a  Ministry  ex- 
<dusivoly  of  Whigs, called  the  "  Junto."  The 
accession  of  George  I.  made  a  great  difference 
in  the  position  of  the  Cabinet,  because  the 
king,  not  understanding  English,  cc^ised  to 
attend  its  meetings.  Both  he  and  his  suc- 
cessor, George  II.,  cared  more  for  the  affairs 
of  Hanover  than  for  those  of  England.  Under 
their  reigns,  the  fabric  of  constitutional 
government  was  consolidated,  although  the 
Tories,  in  consequence  of  the  remains  of  Jaco- 
bite sympathies  among  them,  wore  excluded 
from  power.  George  III.,  on  his  accession, 
determined  to  free  himself  from  the  domina- 
tion of  the  Revolution  ^Vhig8.  He  did  not, 
liowever,  give  up  Cabinet  government, 
•although  he  was  accused  of  consulting  *^an 
interior  Cabinet "  other  than  his  responsible 
advisers.  It  was  not  till  the  accession  of 
Pitt  to  office,  in  1 783,  that  the  Prime  Minister 
]i88umed  the  authority  with  which  we  are 
familiar.  As  Mr.  Traill  says  {Central  Govern^ 
uient,  p.  20),  there  are  three  ways  in  which 
'Cabinet  government  has  been  matured  and 
strengthened  during  the  last  hundred  years, 
viz.  :  1.  Political  Unanimity — the  principle 
that  a  Cabinet  should  be  formed  on  some  defi- 
nite basis  of  political  opinion,  or,  in  the  case  of 
u  coalition,  of  agreement  on  certain  specified 
points,  2.  Unity  of  Responsibility — that  is, 
that  the  members  of  a  Cabinet  should  stand 
or  fall  together;  the  first  instance  of  this 
dates  from  1782.  3.  Concert  in  Action — 
that  the  Cabinet  should  not  consist  of  a 
Jiumber  of  units,  each  governing  his  own 


department  independently  of  the  rest,  but  of 
a  body  of    men  acting  in  concert    for  the 
common  welfare.      In  theory,  the  choice  of 
the   Cabinet  belongs  to  the  crown,  but  in 
practice  it  is   in  the  hands  of    the   Prime 
Minister,  and  even  he  has  no  abs  jlute  choice  in 
the  matter.     As  Mr.  Bugehot  says  {Engluih 
Const Uutiony  p.  14),  '*  Between  the  compulsory 
list,  which  he  must  take,  and  the  impossible 
list  that  he  cannot  take,  a  Prime  Minister's 
independent  choice  in  the  formation   of  u 
Cabinet  is  not  very  large :  it  extends  rather 
to  the  division  of  the  Cabinet  offices  tlmn  to 
the  choice  of  Cabinet  Ministers.     Parliament 
and  the  nation  have  pretty  well  settled  who 
shall  have  the  first  places."    The  numbers  of 
the  Cabinet  generally  vary  from  twelve  to 
fifteen.   The  following  ^linisters  have  usually 
been  members  of  it : — The  Fii-st  Lord  of  the 
Treasury,  the   Lord  Chancellor,  the   Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer,  the  President  of  the 
Council,  the  Lord  Privy  Seal,  the  Home,  the 
Foreign,  and  the   Colonial  Secretaries,   the 
First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  the  Secretaries 
for  India  and  for  War,  the  President  of  the 
Board  of  Trade,  and  the  Chancellor  of  the 
Duchy    of     Lancaster.       The    Postmaster- 
(xeneral,  the  Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland,  the 
President  of  the  Local  Government  Board, 
are  sometimes  members,  and  sometimes  not. 
The  meetings   of  the   Cabinet  are  entirely 
secret,     no    minutes    of    proceedings     are 
taken,  and  what  passes  is  not  supposed  to 
be  divulged. 

Alpheus  Todd,  Parliamentorv  Qovemment  in 
England,  1867;  W.  Bagehot,  The  Bngliih  Con- 
ttiintion;  the  Constttutioiial  Histories  of 
Hallam  and  M47 ;  H.  D.  Tndll,  Central  Qorem- 
m$nt ;  Sir  B.  Peel's  Jfcmotrs ;  and  the  politi- 
oaJ  histories  of  tbe  aeventeentb,  eighteenth, 
and  nineteenth  ok  itaries  —  e.g.y  those  of 
Hacaulay,  Lord  Stac  dope,  Massey,  and  Spencer 
Walpole.  [O.  B.] 

Cftboti  JoHX  {d,  1499),  was  a  Venetian 
merchant,  who  settled  at  Bristol  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  VI.  In  1497,  having  obtained  a 
patent  from  the  king  for  the  discovery  of 
unknown  lands,  he  set  sail  from  Bristol,  with 
his  son,  in  order  to  discover  the  North- West 
Passage  to  India.  In  the  course  of  the 
voyage,  they  discovered  Nova  Scotia,  Nev,^ 
f  oundland,  and  Florida.  John  Cabot  thus  de- 
serves the  honour  of  discovering  the  mainland 
of  America,  which  he  reached  June  24th,  1497» 
a  year  before  Columbus. 

Cabot,  Sebastian  {b,  1477,  d.  eirca  1557), 
was  the  son  of  John  Cabot.  In  1497  he  accom- 
panied his  father  on  his  great  vo^'a^,  in  the 
course  of  which  the  adventurers  visited  Nova 
Scotia,  Newfoundland,  Labrador,  and  Florida, 
In  1512  Ferdinand  the  Catholic  induced  Cabot 
to  enter  the  service  of  Spain ;  but  on  the  death. 
of  the  king,  in  15 IG,  he  returned  to  England, 
and  in  the  following  year  made  jinotlier 
attempt  to  discover  the  North-West  ~ 


Cab 


(  21«  ) 


Cad 


visiting  Hud8on*8  Bay.  In  1525  he  sailed  on 
a  voyage  in  the  interests  of  Spain,  and  dis- 
covered St.  Salvador  and  the  liiver  Plate, 
returning  to  Europe  in  1531.  In  1548  he 
again  settled  in  England,  and  received  a 
penmon  from  Edward  VI.,  with  the  title  of 
"  Grand  Pilot  ot  England."  In  1553  he  did 
jood  service  to  English  commerco  by  being 
instrumental  in  establishing  the  trade  with 
Russia. 

J.  F.  Kicfaolla,  Life  of  Sebastian  Cahot,  1809. 

Cabul,  ^Iassacbe  at  ;  Ketkeat  f&om,  &c. 
[Afghan'  Waks.] 

Cade's  i&ebellion  is  the  name  generally 
given  to  the  rising  in  south-eastern  England 
in  the  summer  of  1450.  Parliament  was 
sitting  at  Leicester  vainly  striving  to  frame 
measures  to  check  the  enormous  evils,  finan- 
cial and  political,  from  which  the  country  was 
suffering,  when,  e^irly  in  June,  news  came 
that  the  commons  of  Kent  had  risen  in  arms 
under  a  captain  who  called  himself  Mortimer, 
and  whom  Thomas  Grascoigne,  an  Oxford 
theologian  of  the  day,  represents  as  "a 
descendant  of  Roger  Mortimer,  the  bastard," 
whoever  he  might  be.  But  the  captain  proved 
to  be  one  Jack  Cade,  described  by  later  writers 
as  an  Irishman  who  had  killed  a  woman  of 
Sussex,  fled  to  France,  fought  there  against 
the  English,  come  back  to  England,  and 
wedded  the  daughter  of  a  squire.  Ho 
undoubtedly  gave  proofs  of  military  capa- 
city; and  we  are  told  that  the  Primate, 
in  a  conference  with  him,  found  him 
"  sob«»r  in  talk  and  wise  in  reasoning,"  if 
**  arrogant*  in.hoart  and  stiff  in  opinion."  At 
any  rate,  the  rising  he  led  was  no  wanton 
one.  3[isrule  at  home  and  failure  abroad 
had  brought  on  men  in  power  a  hatred  and 
contempt  almost  imiversal.  The  amiable  king 
was  as  clay  in  the  hands  of  his  headstrong 
queen  and  the  friends  of  the  late  unpopular 
Duke-  of  Suffolk.  The  royal  income  had 
dwindled  by  improvident  grants ;  the  £x- 
cheqoer  was  well-nigh  bankrupt;  grievous 
taxes  oppressed  the  commons,  whilst  their 
favourite,  the  Duke  of  York,  was  excluded 
from  the  government.  The  bonds  of  law 
were  relaxing  on  all  sides.  The  lawless 
murder  of  the  Duke  of  Suffolk  at  Dover,  on 
May  2nd,  had  liecn  followed  by  a  report  that 
the  king's  vengeance  would  fall  on  the  county 
of  Kent.  The  men  of  Kent  were  in  no 
humour  to  submit  to  royal  severities ;  they 
resolved  on  an  immediate  appeal  to  arms;  and 
in  combination  with  the  men  of  Surrey  and 
Sussex,  and  headed  by  Cade,  who  called  him- 
self "  Captain  of  Kent, "  assembled,  on  Juno 
Ist,  in  considerable  force,  on  Blackheath. 
This  was  nc  tumultuous  gathering  of  a  mere 
clownish  mob,  but  an  organised  enterprise, 
ddiberately  carried  out  by  means  of  the 
regular  local  machinery;  and  men  of  good 
birth  are  known  to  have  taken  port  in  it.    In 


their  fornuil  complaint  we  learn  the  provoca- 
tion and  aims  of  the  rebellion.  Prominent 
among  the  firi^t  were  the  heavy  taxation,  the 
abuse  of  purveyance,  the  appointment  of  up- 
starts to  high  office,  the  treasonable  loss  of 
France,  undue  interference  of  great  men  at 
elections,  and  exactions  under  colour  of  law ; 
among  the  second  it  was  m*gcd  that  the 
alienated  crown  lands  should  be  resumed,  the 
friends  of  Suffolk  discarded,  and  the  king's 
coniidenco  given  to  York  —  in  fact,  redress 
of  grievances  and  change  of  counsellors. 
The  king  at  once  mustered  an  army,  and 
marched  to  London:  and  thence,  after  some 
delay,  moved  on  Blackheath.  Cade  fell  back 
l)cforc  his  advance ;  and  Henr}',  thinking  thc> 
brunt  of  the  danger  over,  sent  only  a  small 
force,  under  Sir  Humphrey  and  William 
Stafford,  in  pursuit  of  him.  Cade  faced  round 
at  Scvenoaks,  and  there,  on  June  18th,  a  fight 
ensued,  in  which  the  king's  force  was  routed, 
nnd  both  the  Staffords  kUled.  Cade  returned 
to  Tjondon,  and  occupied  Southwark.  The 
I<iondoners  resolved,  by  a  vote  of  the  Common 
Council,  to  open  their  gates  to  the  rebels;  and 
on  July  2nd,  Cade  led  them  across  the  bridge 
and  took  formal  possession  of  the  city  by 
btriking  London  Stone  with  his  sword.  For  a 
time  he  preserved  the  show,  and  something  of 
the  reality,  of  discipline,  making  his  men  re- 
spect the  persons  and  properties  of  the  citizens, 
and  returning  with  them  ever}'  night  to 
Southwark.  But  he  took  Lord  Say  and  Sole, 
the  Treasurer,  who  was  in  special  ill-odour 
with  the  countx}',  out  of  the  Tower,  and  had 
him  arraigned  "before  the  Lord  Mayor,  but 
afterwards  caused  him  to  be  carried  off  and 
beheaded  in  Cheap.  Crowmer,  Say's  son-in- 
law  and  Sheriff  of  Kent,  and  another  were 
also  murdered.  Then  discipline  gave  way; 
robberies  became  frequent,  Cade  himself  plun- 
dering friend  and  enemy  alike.  This  conduct 
enraged  the  Londoners;  they  turned  upon 
Cade :  and  under  the  command  of  Matthew 
(rough,  a  soldier  of  renown  in  the  French 
wars,  sought,  on  July  5th,  to  hold  the  bridge 
against  the  rebels.  Cade  promptly  made  a 
furious  onslaught  upon  them ;  drove  them 
with  heavy  loss  to  the  drawbridge  at  the 
centre,  which  he  set  on  lire;  and  killed  their 
leader.  The  contest  lasted  through  the  night; 
but  the  Kentish  men  fell  back  the  next  morn- 
ing. The  Chancellor  (Archbishop  Kemp) 
seized  this  moment  of  discouragement  to 
tempt  the  insurgents  with  offers  of  pardon. 
These  were  produced  by  Bishop  Waynflete 
at  a  conference  with  Cade,  and  were  ghidly 
accepted.  Soon  almost  every  man  of  the 
rebels  was  making  for  his  home.  But  their 
captain,  distrusting  his  pardon,  or  yielding  to 
his  instincts,  flung  open  the  gaols,  and  turned 
the  released  prisoners  .into  a  new  force. 
With  this  he  went  to  Rochester,  whither  his 
booty  had  been  sent  by  water.  A  price  wa« 
now  set  on  his  head ;  and  his  men  quarrelled 
with  him  over  the  plunder.     He  left  them 


Cad 


(216) 


Cad 


and  fled  into  Sosaex.  He  wcu^  headin*/  towards 
Jjewes,  when  he  waa  caught  at  lleathiiold 
in  a  gai-den,  by  Iden,  the  new  Sheriff  of 
Kent,  and  strugghng  against  capture,  was 
cut  down  and  wounded  to  the  death.  He 
died  before  his  captors  could  got  him  to 
London. 

FaBton  Letters,  with  Mr.  Gkurdner' s  Preface 
to  Tul.  ir. ;  iVtr.  J.  E.  Thorold  Bogers'g  Introduc- 
tion to  Loci  0  Libro  Veritalum ;  H^ok,  Life  of 
btaflord  in  L^tn  of  the  ArchJbishttys,  vol.  iv. 

[J.  It.] 

Cadis,     E.KPEDITION8    AGAINST.      Tho  Jtrnt 

f  1596)  was  undertaken  to  create  a  diversion  in 
lavour  of  Henry  IV.  of  France,  in  accordance 
with  the  terms  oi  the  Treaty  of  Melun.  In  June, 
1596,  a  combined  fleet  of  English  and  Dutch 
under  I^ord  Howard  of  Effingham  and  the 
Earl  of  Essex,  entered  Cadiz  harbour,  where 
Sir  Francis  Drake  h:id  burnt  tho  shipping 
nine  years  before,  and  completely  defeated 
the  Spanish  vessels  assembled  there  for  the 
defence  of  the  city.  Essex,  with  3,000  men, 
landed  at  Puntal,  and  captured  the  town,  cx« 
torting  a  ransom  of  120,000  crowns  from  the 
citizens.  The  expedition  returned  ten  weeks 
after  it  had  left  Plymouth,  having  done  much 
to  lower  the  prestige  of  Spain,  and  to  assert 
the  naval  superiority  of  the  English.  The 
»ee<md  (1625)  resulted  from  the  rupture  of  the 
negotiations  for  tho  Spanish  marriage,  and 
the  restoration  of  tho  Palatinate  by  Spanish 
aid,  and  tho  consequent  expedition  planned  by 
the  Duke  of  Buckingham  to  seize  a  Spanish 
ix}tt  and  intercept  the  treasure  fleet.  Aii  ofien 
ttreach  took  place  in  September,  1625,  when 
Charles  concluded  an  alliance  with  Holland 
(Sept.  8th),  and  a  joint  expedition  was  agrcHxl 
on.  Sir  Edward  Cecil  ^Lord  Wimbledon) 
was  entrusted  with  the  chief  command,  with 
Lord  Denbigh  as  rear-admiral  and  the  Earl 
of  Essex  as  vice-admiral.  The  combined 
fleet  arrived  in  Cadiz  Bay  on  Oct.  22nd ;  but 
instead  of  at  once  attacking  the  ships  in  the 
liarbour  and  assaulting  the  city,  the  next  day 
was  spent  in  capturing  the  fort  of  Puntal, 
which  guarded  the  entrance  of  the  harbour. 
Tho  delay  gave  the  Spaniards  time  to  garrison 
the  before  def encel(»s  city,  and  made  a  surprise 
impossible.  On  the  24th  Wimbledon  landed 
his  troops,  and  marched  northwards  to  moot 
a  Spanish  force  of  whose  approach  he  had 
heard ;  but  the  Spaniards  retreated,  and,  after 
a  useless  and  disorderly  march,  he  returned 
next  morning  to  his  fleet.  The  fleet,  which 
was  to  have  destroyed  the  Spanish  vessels  at 
the  head  of  the  harbour,  found  them  posted 
in  an  inaccessible  creek,  and  accomplished 
nothing.  Cadiz  was  now  too  strong  to 
attack;  so  on  Oct.  27th  the  soldiers  were 
re*  embarked,  the  fort  of  Puntal  was  aban- 
doned, and  the  fleet  put  to  sea  to  intercept 
the  treasure  ships.  This  portion  of  the  enter- 
prise  also  failed ;  the  ships  were  unseaworthv, 
and  disease  raged  among  the  crews ;  and  in 
December   the    fleet   returned   to  England. 


The  third  (1702)  occuiTod  during  the  \\'?ii 
of  the  Spanish  Succession,  and  the  idci 
appears  to  have  been  suggested  by  the  Prince 
of  Hesse  Darmstadt,  who  was  convinced  thai 
the  Spaniards  were  to  a  man  in  favour  of  the 
Archduke  Charles,  and  that  Cadiz  would 
form  a  good  basis  of  operatiomi.  Accordiugly 
a  joint  exi)edition  of  English  and  Dutch  was 
fitted  out  and  placed  under  the  command  of 
the  Duke  of  Ormonde ;  Sir  George  Uooke,  who 
disapproved  of  the  whole  plan,  being  in  com- 
mand of  the  fleet  of  thirty  ships  of  the  Hue. 
The  land  forces  amounted  to  14,000  men.  It 
was  first  designed  to  attack  Gibraltar,  but 
this  idea  was  given  up.  For  a  fortnight  the 
fleet  was  delayed  by  storms.  Cadiz  was 
strongly  fortified  and  was  defended  by  the 
veteran  genonil  Villadrias.  Ormonde  first 
attempted  to  gain  over  the  governor  Bran- 
caccio,  and  then  the  inhabitants,  but  without 
success.  As  the  town  itself  was  supposed, 
though  utterly  without  reason,  to  be  impreg- 
nable, Villadrias  having  only  200  men,  thi; 
allies  occupied  the  port  of  Santa  Maria,  which 
they  ruthlessly  pillaged,  the  officers  being 
as  unprincipled  as  the  men  (July  18th).  An 
attempt  to  take  Fort  Alatagorda  proved  an 
utter  failure;  dysent(:ry,  too,  broke  out 
among  the  troops.  Accordingly,  on  the 
30th  of  September,  Ormonde,  sorely  against 
his  will,  was  constrained  to  re-embark 
his  troops,  and  they  set  off  homeward 
**with  a  great  deal  of  plimder  and  in- 
famy." On  their  way  home,  however,  the 
expedition  partly  retrieved  its  character  by 
the  destruction  of  the  Spanish  galleons  in 
Vigo  Bay. 

Cadogaa,  William  Ist  Eakl  of  (d. 
1 726),  was  one  of  the  officers  whom  IMarl- 
borough  most  trusted.  He  was  made  colonel 
of  the  2nd  Regiment  of  Horse  in  1703,  and 
general  in  the  following  3'ear  for  his  gallant 
attack  on  the  Schellenberg.  In  1705  he 
was  elected  member  for  Woodstock.  He 
fought  at  liamillies,  and  towards  the  end 
of  1706,  he  was  taken  prisoner,  but  soon 
exchanged.  In  1708  he  was  appointed  am- 
bassador to  the  States  GeneraL  Cadogan 
led  the  van  at  Oudcnarde,  having  boon  sent 
on  to  construct  pontoons  across  the  Scheldt^ 
by  which  the  army  effected  the  passage. 
He  also  supported  General  Webb,  in  his 
gallant  fight  with  the  enemy  at  Wynen- 
dale.  At  the  end  of  the  year  he  was  made 
lieutenant  -  general.  He  was  again  ap> 
pointed  envoy  to  the  States  General,  but  was 
recalled  by  the  Tory  ministr}%  In  Marl- 
borougVs  last  campaign  he  surprised  Bon- 
chain  and  Cambrai,  and  broke  the  barrier 
which  Villars  had  termed  his  "  non  plus  ultra.** 
On  the  disgrace  of  l^Iarlborough  he  xesigned 
his  appointments.  On  the  accession  of 
George  I.  he  was  made  Master  of  the  Horse« 
and  envoy  to  the  States  GeneraL  \VhexL 
the  Jacobite  insurrection  of  1715  broke  out. 


Cad 


(217  ) 


Cal 


C}ul<^n  was  sent  to  Scotland  after  the  dila- 
toriness  of  Argyle  had  been  proved,  and  soon 
brought  the  campaign  to  a  conclusion.  He  was 
raised  to  the  Peerage  in  1716.  He  signed  the 
defensive  alliance  between  England,  France, 
and  Holland,  and  subsequently  carried  out 
the  execation  of  the  Barrier  Treaty,  and 
signed  the  Quadruple  Alliance.  His  influence 
in  Holland  was  partly  owing  to  his  friendship 
with  Marlborough,  and  partly  because  he 
had  nuuried  a  Dutch  lady  of  good  family. 
On  tho  death  of  the  Duke  of  I^Iarlborough, 
he  was  appointed  Commander-in-chief  and 
Haster-Oeneral  of  the  Ordnance.  .Later  on 
he  supported  Carteret  in  his  quarrel  with 
Walpole. 

Marlboroogh's  DeMpatchea ;  Coxe,  Marlborough; 
Wyon,  Reign  of  {^een  Anne. 

Cadflandt  Thb  Battlb  of  (1337),  the 
first  fight  of  the  Hundred  Years*  War  against 
France,  was  brought  about  by  the  attack  of 
the  Count  of  Flanders  on  the  party  of  Van 
Artevclde,  who  sought  aid  from  ^gland. 
Sir  Walter  Manny  was  sent  with  a  small 
force,  and  having  effected  a  landing  at  Cad- 
sand,  an  ialand  at  the  mouth  of  the  Scheldt, 
inflicted  a  serious  defeat  on  the  troops  of  the 
count. 

Caen.  The  Treaty  of  (1091),  was  made 
between  William  Rufus  and  Robert  of  Nor- 
mandy, under  the  mediation  probably  of  the 
King'of  France.  Robert  renounced  his  claim 
to  England,  and  was  allowed  to  retain  his 
capital  and  the  greater  part  of  his  duchy ;  but 
he  recognised  the  commendations  which  many 
of  the  Norman  nobles  had  made  to  William 
Rufus,  who  thus  became  a  Continental  neigh- 
bour to  his  brother,  "  hemming  in  what  was 
left  of  Normandy  on  every  side  "  (Freeman). 
Cherbourg,  Fecamp,  and  St.  Miehaers  Mount 
were  among  the  places  surrendered  by  Robert. 
The  treatj'  provided  that  if  cither  Robert  or 
William  should  die  without  an  heir  tho  sur- 
Tivor  should  succeed  to  his  dominions. 

Freeman,  WiUiam  Bvfu»^  ii.,  in  the  A]ppendiz 
the  different  veonrions  ot  the  treaty  are  given. 

,  CaerlaToroclc  Castle,  on  the  Nith, 

in  Dumfriesshire,  was  held  for  some  days  in  the 
jrear  1300  by  sixty  men  against  an  overpower- 
ing force  commanded  by  Edward  I.  It  was  the 
place  where  James  V.  of  Scotland  died,  De- 
cember 14th,  1542.  In  lo45,  Hertford  per- 
suaded Lord  Miiicwell,  its  owner,  to  surrender 
the  castle  to  the  English,  by  whom,  however, 
it  was  not  held  for  long.  The  castle  was 
destroyed  by  Cromwell. 

The  siege  of  Caerlaverock  by  Edward  I. 
forms  the  snbjeet  of  a  enrioits  French  poem 
giving  a  oatalogne  of  the  vai-ious  barons  and 
ksights  present,  with  a  description  of  their 
arms,  persons,  and  characters.  It  was  printed 
by  Orore  in  1B08,  and  Sir  H.  Nicolas  m  1828. 
An  elabon^  edition  has  been  issued  by  Mr. 
Tbos.  Wright.  Lend.,  1864.  4th  ed. 

Cagliari  AfUr,  The.     In  June,  1857, 
■ome  of  the  passengers  on  a  trading  steamer, 


the  Cagliari,  seized  the  ship  and  attacked  the 
island  of  Perga.  The  ship,  after  being  aban- 
doned by  its  captors,  was  taken  at  sea  by  a 
Neapolitan  war-vessel,  and  two  English  engi- 
neers aboard  were  imprisoned  Ull  Mar.,  l^JoS, 
until  one  became  mad,  and  the  other  seriously 
ill.  The  afiair  formed  the  subject  of  much 
discussion  in  Parliament,  representations  from 
the  English  government  to  that  of  Naples 
ending  in  the  pa3rment  of  £3,000  compensa- 
tion by  the  latter  in  June,  1868. 

Cairns,  Hugh  McCalmont,  1st  Eakl  (h, 
1819,  d.  1884),  second  son  of  William  Cairns, 
of  Co.  Down,  Ireland,  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1844,  and  entered  Parliament  as  member  for 
Belfast  in  1852.  In  1858  he  was  appointed 
Solicitor-General  by  Lord  Derby.  On  the 
return  of  Lord  Derby  to  power  in  1866,  he 
was  made  Attorney- General,  and  subsequently 
a  Lord  Justice  of  Appeal.  In  1867  he  was 
elevated  to  the  peerage.  He  became  Lord 
Chancellor  in  1868,  and  held  that  office  till 
the  downfall  of  Mr.  Disraeli's  ministry.  In 
Mr.  Disraeli's  second  administration  he  again 
held  tho  Chancellorship. 

CaitlmdSS  is  mentioned  in  the  Pictish 
Chronicle  as  the  territor}'  of  Cait,  one  of  the 
sons  of  Cinge.  The  district  seems  to  have 
embraced  the  whole  of  the  northern  part  of 
the  island  from  sea  to  sea.  It  passed  under 
the  rule  of  the  Norwegian  Earls  of  Orkney  in 
the  ninth  century,  though  the  Kings  of  Scot- 
land claimed  the  territory  as  part  of  their 
kingdom.  William  the  Lion,  about  1196,  de- 
prived Earl  Harold  of  that  part  of  the  dis- 
trict of  Caithness  which  comprises  Sutherland, 
and  bestowed  it  on  the  Morays.  The  Nor- 
wegian Earls  of  Caithness  held  of  the  Scotch 
king,  and  not  of  the  King  of  Norway,  as  did 
the  Earls  of  Orkney.  The  old  line  of  earls 
came  to  an  end,  in  1231,  with  the  death  of 
Earl  John,  ^nd  for  the  next  century  the  etirl- 
dom  was  held  by  the  family  of  Angus,  after 
which  it  passed  to  the  St.  Clairs,  or  Sinelairs. 
The  bishopric  of  Caithness  was  founded  by 
David  I.,  with  the  cathedral  at  Dornoch. 
Skene,  (U^iw  Scotland^  iii.,  Appendix. 

Caithness,  John,  Earl  of  {d,  1231), 
son  of  Harold,  was  supposed  to  have  connived 
at  the  murder  of  Bishop  Adam.  He  was 
in  consequence  deprived  of  half  his  earldom 
by  Alexander  II.,  from  whom,  however, 
he  bought  it  back  a  year  later.  The  earl 
was  burnt  to  death  in  his  own  castle,  1231. 

Calais  first  passed  into  the  possession  of 
the  English  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  It 
was  invested  by  the  English  in  August,  1346, 
and  after  the  battle  of  Crecy  Edward  III 
appeared  in  person  before  the  wuUs  with  tho 
army  that  had  won  the  victory.  Tho  tOTO 
endured  a  siege  for  nearly  a  year  with  heroic 
bravery,  and  finally  surrendered,  Aug.  4, 
1347.  According  to  Jean  Le  Bel,  six  of  tho 
chief  citizens  offered  their  lives  to  the  king  in 


Cftl 


(  '-^18  ) 


Cal 


ranaom  for  their  fellow-townsmen,  but  were 
niared  by  the  intervention  of  Queen  Philippe. 
The  town  wus  unsuccessf ully  besieged  by  the 
Duke  of  Burgundy  in  1436,  and  remained  in 
English  hands  as  the  sole  vestige  of  the 
English  conquests  in  France  at  the  close  of 
Henry  VI.*8  reign.  In  1465,  Warwick  was 
made  Captain  of  Calais,  but,  in  1470,  he 
and  Clarence  were  refused  entrance  to  the 
city.  In  July,  147o,  Edward  IV.  landed  at 
Calais  to  begin  his  projected  campaign  in 
France.  In  January,  1558,  the  town  was 
invested  and  easily  captured  by  the  Duke  of 
Guise,  owing  to  the  apathy  of  the  English 
government,  which  had  Lift  the  town  wi^out 
men  or  supplies  to  withstand  a  siege.  By  the 
peace  of  Cutoau  Cambresis  the  French  bound 
themselves  to  restore  Calais  to  the  English  at 
the  end  of  eight  years,  on  pain  of  forfeiting 
a  large  sum  of  money ;  but  the  engagement 
was  never  carried  out.  It  was  while  lying 
off  Calais  on  Aug.  7,  1588,  that  the  great 
Spanish  fleet  [Akmada]  was  dispersed  by  the 
fireships  of  Uie  English.  In  1596  Calais 
was  taken  from  the  French  by  Philip  of 
8pain,  a  circumstance  which  so  alarmed 
England  as  to  occasion  the  expedition  to 
Cadiz  under  Lord  Howard  of  ElfiKngham. 
Calais  was  restored  to  France  in  1598,  and 
has  since  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
French. 

Calathrofl.  A  district  in  the  ancient 
kingdom  of  Dalriada,  lying  between  the 
Boman  wall  and  the  Kiver  Avon,  now  called 
Callander.  The  Battle  of  Calathroa  (634) 
resulted  in  the  defeat  of  King  Donald  Brec, 
who  was  attempting  to  wrest  t&e  district  from 
the  English. 

Calcutta  first  became  an  English  trading 
station  in  1686,  when  the  small  factory  estab- 
lished at  Hooghley  was  removed  to  this  place. 
In  1696  Fort  William  was  built,  and  became 
the  head-quarters  of  the  Bengal  servants  of 
the  East  India  Company.  In  1707  it  was 
constituted  a  Presidency,  and  its  trade  soon 
became  considerable.  In  1710  the  population 
was  computed  at  nearly  12,000.  The  city 
was  strongly  fortified,  and  in  1742  the  trench 
called  the  **  3Iahratta  ditch  "  was  dug  round 
it  to  protect  it  from  the  predatory  Mohratta 
horsemen.  In  1756  the  town  was  captured 
and  sacked  by  Surajah  Dowlah,  and  the 
tragedy  of  the  "  Black  Hole"  enacted  [Black 
Hole  of  Calcutta].  In  Jan,  1757,  the  to\^^l 
was  reconquered  by  Clive,  and  rebuilt.  In 
1773  it  became  the  capital  of  British  India 
as  well  as  of  Bengal,  by  an  Act  of  Parliament 
which  gave  the  Fort  William  government 
superiority  over  those  of  the  other  Presidencies. 
The  Governor  of  Bengal  was  henceforth 
called  the  Governor-General,  and  in  1834  his 
title  was  changed  to  that  of  Governor-General 
of  India.  iMany  magnificent  buildings  were 
erected  in  the  European  quarter,  including  the 
splendid  Government  House  built  by  Lord 


Wellesley  in  1804.  In  1854  the  supreme 
government  was  separated  from  the  local 
Bengal  government  by  the  creation  of  a 
Lieutenant-Governor  of  Bengal,  who  also  has 
his  seat  at  Calcutta,  llie  population  of  the 
city  in  1894  was  466,460. 

Caledonia.  The  name  given  generally  by 
the  Komans  to  that  part  of  Britain  lying 
north  of  the  Firths  of  Forth  and  Clyde,  and 
first  laid  open  by  the  conquests  and  explora- 
tions of  Agricola.    The  name  first  occurs  in 
Lucan,  vi.  67,  and  Valerius  Flaccus,  Argonaut., 
i.  7.    Tacitus  says  that  the  red  hair  and  laxge 
limbs  of  the  Caledonians  point  to  a  Grerman 
origin.  The  Caledonians,  according  to  Ptolemy, 
extended  from  the  Sinus  Lcmannonius  (pro- 
bably Loch  Long)  to  the  Varar  Aestuaiium 
(Beauly  Firth).     They  occupied  the  tract  of 
wild  country  called  Caledonia  Silva,  or  Forest 
of  Celyddon,  and  were  the  most  powerful  of 
all  the  tribes  north  of  the  Brigantes.    At  a 
later    period    the    name    came    to    include 
apparently  all  the  barbarian  and  paxtialljr  un- 
subdued natives  of  the  northern  moimtainous 
district.    In  201  the  Caledonians  joined  the 
revolt  of  the  Meatse.    Keverus  conducted  a 
campaign  against  them    in  208 ;  but  they 
again  revolted  a  year    or  two   afterwards. 
In  the  fourth  centur>',  and  subsequently^  the 
name  is  used  as  equivalent  to  the  whole  of 
Northern  Britain — ^modern  Scotland,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  England  and  Ireland. 

Tacitus,  Aaricola ;  Ptolemy,  ii.  3 ;  Pliny,  iv.  16 ; 
AmmianvM  tfarctfUiniu,  xxvii.  8,  9 ;  Skene,  Cettic 
Scotland,  L  40,  to. ;  Elton,  Origint  o/Eng.  Hiat. 

Calendar,  The  Reformation    of    the 

il7dl),  was  in  great  part  due  to  the  efforts  of 
jord  Chesterfield.    The  "Old  Stvle,"  which 
was  now  eleven  days  in  error,  had  long  since 
been  abandoned  by  most  civilised  nations. 
England,  however,  with  Russia  and  Sweden, 
still  clung  to  the  antiquated  system.     **  It 
was  not,"  wrote  Chesterfield,  "  very  honour- 
able for  England  to  remain  in  a  gross  and 
avowed  error,  especially  in  such  company." 
Accordingly,  having  paved  the  way  to   his 
measure  by  some  letters  to  the  irorldy  Chester- 
field drew  up  the  scheme  in  concert  with  Liord 
Macclesfield  and  Bradley  the  astronomer.   The 
Bill  successfully  passed  both  Houses  of  Parlia- 
ment.   It  ordained  that  the  year  1752  should 
begin  on  the  1st  of  January'  instead  of  the  Ist  of 
l^Iarch,  and  that  the  3rd  of  the  month  of  Sep- 
tember should  be  called  the  14th,  so  as  to  lose 
the  eleven  days.  Further,  such  changes  should 
be  introduced  as  would  make  the  solar  yeax- 
and  the  lunar  year  coincide.     In  the  matter 
of  payments,  it  was  enacted  that  these  should 
not  be  altered,  and  that  the  5th  of  April,  tHe 
5th  of  July,  the  10th  of  October,  and  the  oth 
of  January  should  still   continue  to  be   the 
days  on  which  the  dividends  of  the  pu^blic 
funds  became  due.     This  change  met  with  a 
good    deal    of    ignorant    opposition.    ^  The 
common  Opposition  election  cry  was,  "Give  xi» 
back  our  eleven  days.'* 


Qmm 


(219) 


Cun 


Gamlirid^  was  the  site  of  a  Boman 
station,  named  Gamboritum.  After  the 
English  conquest  the  name  of  the  town 
was  changed  to  Grantchester,  the  modem 
name  being  derived  from  the  great  stone 
bridge  across  the  Cam.  In  1267  it  was  forti- 
fied by  Henry  III.,  and  afterwards  taken  by 
the  beurons.  In  1381  it  was  attacked  by  the 
insurgents,  and  many  of  the  colleges  were 
piilatred  and  their  charters  burned.  Daring 
the  Great  Bebellion  it  was  occupied  bv  the 
Parliamentarians.  The  town  returned  two 
members  from  Edward  I.'s  time  till  the  last 
Bedistribution  Act  reduced  the  number  to  one. 

Caaiiliridg6y  TJnivsrsxty  of.  [Uniybs- 
srriBS.] 

Camliridge,  Richakd  Plaxtagbnbt,  Eabl 
of  (d.  1415),  was  the  second  son  of  Edmund 
of  Langley,  Duke  of  York.  He  was  created 
Earl  of  Cambridge  by  Henry  Y.,  but  in  1415 
was  concerned  in  the  conspiracy  with  Liord 
8crope  of  Masham  and  others,  to  dethrone 
Henry  and  place  the  Earl  of  March  on  the 
throne.  On  the  dis(;oyery  of  the  plot  Cam- 
bridge was  beheaded.  He  married,  first, 
Anne  Mortimer,  sister  of  the  Earl  of  March, 
through  whom  the  claims  of  the  house  of 
Mortimer  were  transferred  to  the  family  of 
York;  and,  secondly,  Maud,  daughter  of 
Thomas,  Lord  Cliiford. 

Camliridge,  George  Fredfjiick  Wil- 
UAX  Ckarles,  Dt'KE  OF  {b.  1819),  son  of 
Adolphus  Frederick,  seventh  son  of  Greorge 
HI.,  was  bom  at  Hanover.  He  became  a 
colonel  in  the  British  army,  1837 ;  a  maior- 
goneral  in  1845 ;  and  a  lieutenant-general  in 
1854.  In  the  latter  capacity  he  saw  active 
service  at  the  battles  of  the  Alma  and  Inker- 
mann,  as  commander  of  the  two  brigades  of 
Guards  and  Highlanders.  In  1862,  he  be- 
came field-marshal ;  and  on  the  resignation 
of  Viscount  Hardinge  was  appointed  Com- 
mander- in-chief. 

CrambiUikexineth.  The  Battle  of. 
[Stirling,  Battle  of.] 

CamdexiyTHE  Battle  OF  ^ugust  16, 1780), 
fought  during  the  American  War  of  Indepen- 
dence, arose  out  of  an  attempt  made  by  the 
Americans  to  save  the  Carolina  provinces 
from  falling  into  BritiRh  hands.    In  the  early 

gLTt  of  the  summer,  Washington  despatched 
e  Kalb  with  3,000  men  to  join  Gates  in  the 
South :  and  Virginia  sent  out  a  lar^e  body  of 
Militia.  The  centre  of  the  British  force, 
which  was  widely  extended  over  South  Caro- 
lina, lay  at  Camden,  but  Comwallis,  on  hear- 
ing of  Gatea^s  advance,  concentrated  a  large 
body  on  that  place.  A  skirmish  at  daybreak 
of  August  16  between  the  vanguards  of  the 
two  armies  soon  developed  into  a  general 
battle.  The  British  were  outnumbered,  but  a 
great  part  of  the  American  force  was  raw  and 
ondiaciplined,  the  steady  attack  of  the  regulars 
was  irresistible,  and  the  flight  soon  became  a 


hopeless  rout.  The  American  losses  were 
very  heavy  both  in  men  and  stores.  Among 
the  former  was  De  Kalb  himself.  The  victor}" 
was  the  most  decisive  advantage  gained  by 
the  British  during  the  war.  It  placed  South 
Carolina  and  Georgia  almost  entirely  in  the 
power  of  the  British.    [Cornwallis.] 

Bancroft,  Hurt,  of  America^  !▼.,  chap.  15 ;  Stan- 
hope, Ui$t.  of  Sng.,  chap.  62. 

Camden,  Charles  Pratt,  1st  Eakl 
(b.  niZyd.  1794),  was  the  son  of  Chief  Justice 
Sir  John  Pratt.  He  was  educated  at  Eton, 
and  called  to  the  bar  in  1738.  In  Feb- 
ruary, 1752,  he  defended  a  printer  who  was 
prosecuted  for  an  alleged  libel.  His  practice 
and  his  reputation  continued  steadily  to 
increase,  until  when  Pitt  came  into  office  in 
1757  he  was  appointed  Attomey-GeneraL 
When  Pitt  resigned  in  October,  1761,  Pratt 
continued  in  office  as  Attorney-General,  and  in 
the  following  January  became  Chief  Justice  of 
the  Common  Pleas.  While  he  held  this  posi- 
tion, he  continued  to  maintain  constitutional 
principles  against  tyrannical  attempts  to 
oppress  tho  subject,  and  decided  in  nu- 
merous cases  agamst  the  legality  of  general 
warrants.  To  him  Wilkes  applied,  and  the 
Chief  Justice  ordered  his  release  on  the 
nx>und  of  his  privilege  as  a  member  of 
Parliament.  On  the  formation  of  the  Kock- 
ingham  cabinet,  in  1765,  he  was  raised  to 
the  peerage  as  Baron  Camden.  In  February, 
1766,  he  made  a  great  speech  in  favour  of  the 
repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act,  and  against  the 
Declaratory  Act.  In  the  following  July 
Camden  was  raised  to  the  woolsack.  Lora 
Camden's  opinion  on  the  right  of  Parliament 
to  expel  Wilkes  seems  to  have  been  at  variance 
with  the  action  taken  by  the  cabinet,  though 
in  his  perplexity  as  to  the  right  course  to  take 
he  continued  to  belong  to  the  government; 
but  in  January,  1770,  he  openly  declared 
his  differences  with  his  colleagues  on  that 
subject  of  the  Wilkes  question,  and  re- 
signed the  Great  Seal.  In  1772  he  warmly 
opposed  the  Hoyal  ^larriage  Act.  In  January, 
1782,  he  supported  Lord  Shelburne's  amend- 
ment to  the  address  on  the  King's  Speech. 
On  the  formation  of  the  second  Kockingham 
cabinet  in  March,  1782,  Lord  Camden  pre- 
ferred the  office  of  President  of  the  Council 
to  the  Great  Seal.  In  1783  he  resigned,  and 
offered  a  vigrorous  opposition  to  the  "Coali- 
tion" Ministry.  Soon  after  Pitt  became 
Prime  Minister,  Camden  was  again  made 
President  of  the  Council.  In  May,  1786, 
he  received  an  earldom.  He  conducted, 
in  the  House  of  Lords,  the  measures  adopted 
by  the  government  in  relation  to  the 
Regency  BilL  The  last  occasion  on  which 
he  addressed  the  House  of  Lords  was  the 
debate  on  Fo.x's  Libel  Bill.  On  the  eve 
of  fourscore  years,  he  made  his  final  and 
successful  effort  to  put  on  the  statute-book 
those  principles  as  to   the  rights  of  juries 


Cam 


(  220  ) 


Can 


which    he    had    so  consistently  maintained 

throughout  his  life. 

State  Trialtt  ▼ola.  xviii.— xx.  ;  Parliamentary 
Hi«t.,  Tols.  xtL— xxix. ;  Campbell,  Live$  of  the 
ChanceHox-B ;  Stanhope,  Hid,  of  Eng. 

Camdeily  John  Jefpubys  Phatt,  Ist 
Makquis  (*.  1759,  d.  1840),  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, entered  Parliament  in  1780  as  mem- 
ber for  Bath.  In  1795  ho  succeeded  Lord 
Fitzwilliam  as  Viceroy  of  Ireland.  On  his 
entry  into  Dublin  in  March,  1 796,  there  was 
a  serious  riot,  which  could  only  be  quelled 
by  bloodshed.  In  1797  he  was  bitterly  de- 
nounced by  Grattan,  on  account  of  the 
severities  he  had  found  it  necessary  to 
authorise  in  Ulster ;  but  the  Parliament,  now 
thoroughly  alarmed  by  the  progress  of  dis- 
affection, was  on  his  .  side.  The  English 
government  was  more  uncertain  how  to  act, 
but  ultimately  supported  Lord  Camden,  and  • 
took  his  side  in  the  dispute  in  which  he  was 
involved  with  (ieneral  Abercromby.  He 
was,  after  the  beginning  of  1797,  in  full 
possession  of  all  the  rebel  plans,  but  was 
unable  to  act  on  his  information  during  the 
Kebellion  of  1798.  He  was  consequently 
urging  the  graWty  of  the  situation  on  the 
English  cabinet,  but  it  was  only  after  Father 
Murphy's  successes  that  the  Guards  and 
other  English  troops  were  sent  out  to  support 
him.  The  Whigs  in  England,  meanwhile, 
continued  to  attack  him  as  a  tyrant  of  the 
worst  kind,  Sheridan  moving  for  his  recall 
in  the  Commons,  and  the  Dukes  of  Leinster 
and  Norfolk  in  the  Jjords.  Both  motions 
wore  defeated,  but  popular  clamour  was  so 

rit  that,  in  Juno,  1798,  he  was  recalled. 
1804  he  was  in  the  cabinet,  and  in  1812 
was  made  a  marquis.  For  nearly  sixty  years 
he  held  the  lucrative  post  of  Teller  of  the 
Exchequer ;  but  during  more  than  half  that 
period  he  patriotically  declined  to  draw  the 
enormous  emoluments  of  the  office. 

Camden,  William  (b.  1551,  d,  1623), 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  English  anti- 
quaries, was  bom  in  London  and  educated  at 
St.  Paurs  School  and  at  Oxford.  In  1575— 6  he 
became  a  master  at  West  minster  School;  in  1589 
received  a  prebend  at  Salisbury  Cathedral; 
in  1593  he  became  Head  Master  of  West- 
minster, and  in  1597  Clarencieux  King-at- 
arms.  la  1607  he  was  commissioned  by 
«Tames  I.  to  translate  into  Latin  the  accoimt 
of  the  trial  of  the  Gunpowder  Plot  conspira- 
tors. In  1622  he  founded  his  Professorship 
of  History  at  Oxford,  and  died  at  Chiselhurst 
the  next  year.  Camden* s  most  celebrated 
work  is  the  Britannia  sire  Florfntvtsiinottttn 
Regnornm  Anfflia,  Scoti/e,  Hihernia,  et  Intu- 
larum  Adjncentiumy  ex  Intima  Antiquitate 
Chorographica  Deseriptio,  which  first  appeared 
in^  1586,  and  had  gone  through  a  ninth 
edition  in  1594.  A  new  and  enlarged  edition 
was  published  in  1607.  It  is  an  interesting 
work,  and  the  en  re  and  learning  shown  in  i^ 


compilation  still  make  it  of  great  value  t 

scholars.     Though  many  of  Camden's  ant 

quarian  theories  have  been  dispelled  by  lat 

research,  his  work  is  important  as  a  great  stoi 

house  of  facts.  He  also  wrote  an  English  an 

quazian  work  of  less  elaborate  character,  call 

Jientaifies  Conner niug  JiritaiHf  1605,  which  1 

been  fi*equently  reprinted.    In  1616  he  pi 

lished  the  first  part  of  his  Annakz  Kir 

Anglxcarum  Rcgnante  JSlizabetha^  the  t>ec-( 

pai't  of  which  did  not  appear  till  after 

author^s  death.     It  is  not  a  work  of  spe 

value. 

The  Bntannta  wu  tranalated  into  Englis 
P.  Uollaud  1610;  aud  by  Bishop  Uibaon  iu 
which,  tznnslatiou  wu  reprinted  in  1722 
enlarged  in  1752  and  1772.  An  enlarged  t 
latiou  was  published  by  Qougli  in  3  vols., 
An  edition  of  Camden's  Work$  iu  6  vols,  wan 
lished  in  1870. 

Camden  Society,  The,  was  found 

1838  for  the  purpose  of  printing  an 
chronicles,  documentSi  and  mumorials  rcl 
to  English  history  and  antiquities.  T 
publisned  some  150  volumes,  many  of  ' 
are  of  the  greatest  importance,  and 
indeed,  indispensable  to  the  historical  sli 
The  Camden  Society's  works  bear  es^x 
upon  the  history  of  England  undo 
Tudors  and  Stuarts.     [Autuokities.] 

Cameron  of  LochieL   "a  g 

master,  a  trusty  ally,  a  terrible  enem^ 
one  of  the  staunchest  adherents  of  Jar 
in  the  campaign  of  1689.  He  was  i 
mand  of  the  Camcrons  at  Killiecranki( 
but  after  the  death  of  Claverhoiisc  he 
to  serve  under  his  successor.  Cannon,  t 
commander,  and  retired  to  I^ochab' 
1692  he  took  the  oaths  to  William  I 
the  other  Highland  chiefs. 

I  

Cameron,  Richard   {d.  July  2( 
the  founder  of  the  Cameronians,  w 
at    Falkland,    in    Fife,    and    w^as 
of   a   village    tntdesman.     Ho    ent< 
ministr}"  and  distinguished   himsel' 
violent    opposition    to    the     restor 
episcopacy.    He    proceeded    to    stil 
lengths  by    the    Sanquhnr    I>eclan 
which     he    and    his     followers    y 
declared    themselves   rebels,    and   u 
their  intention  of  offering    armed 
to  the  government.     In    1677,   Car 
compelled  to  flee  to    Holland ;    b 
spring  of  1680  he  returned,    and 
in  the  skirmish  of  Aird's  Moss. 

Cameronians,  The,    took    t 

from  Kichard  Cameron,  tbe  autl 
Sanquhar  Declaration.  Thoy  v 
times  called  "  Covenanters,*'  froin 
adherence  to  the  Solemn  lLioac:u<> 
nant,  and  afterwards  "  Mc^Iillani 
the  name  of  their  first  miniBlc 
Hevolution)  and  "Mountain  jNIi 
creed  considered  as  eneniios  to   r:i 


Cma 


(  221  ) 


Cua 


Bomamsts,  EpisoopalianB,  and  more  espe- 
cially those  modeiate  Pt^sbyteiians  who  had 
accepted  the  indulgence  of  Charles  II.  Be- 
sides holding  the  binding  obligation  of  the 
Covenant  on  the  three  kingdoms,  they  main- 
tained the  Westminster  Confession,  and  the 
IScriptores  as  the  absolute  rule  of  faith  and 
conduct.  The  sect  was  not  extinguished  by 
the  defeat  of  Aird's  Moss,  and  the  death  of 
their  leader.  They  issued  a  defiance  to  the 
royal  authority,  Oct.  28,  1684,  and  in  return 
were  proscribed  and  hunted  about  from  place 
to  place  by  the  royal  troops.  The  Came- 
ronians  were  most  numerous  in  the  wilder 
parts  of  south-western  Scotland,  when;,  on 
the  accession  of  William  III.,  their  warlike 
temperament,  which  had  been  so  unfortu- 
nately displayed  at  Dunbar,  Bothwell  Bridge, 
and  Aird's  Moss,  was  utilised  bv  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Cameronian  Regiment.  The 
Bcyolution  secured  for  Scotland  a  Presby- 
terian church  government;  but  many  of  the 
more  extreme  Cameronians  refused  to  swear 
allegiance  to  William  UI.,  or  to  attend  the 
established  places  of  worship.  These  Cove- 
nanting nonjurors  became  the  "Reformed 
ftesbyteriana,"  or  the  "Old  Presbytemn 
Dissenters,"  and  formed  a  Presbytery  and 
subsequently  a  synod  in  1 743.  They  founded 
numerous  churches  in  England,  Ireland,  and 
America,  and  their  number  in  Scotland  in 
1»40  was  estimated  at  about  6,000. 

Bobertoon,  Hitt.  of  the  Soottuh  Church. 

Cuapbell,  The  Family  of,  is,  according 
to  tradition,  descended  in  the  female  line  from 
the  ancient  kings  or  chiefs  of  Argylo,  and 
from  one  of  these,  a  certain  Diarmid,*the  clan 
is  supposed  to  derive  its  name  of  Scol  Diarmid, 
by  which  it  was  known  in  Erao  and  Gaelic. 
In  the  reign  of  ]^Ialcolm  Canmore  the  name 
was  changed  to  Campbell  by  the  marriage 
of  the  heiress  of  the  house  with  a  person  of 
that  name.  A  Sir  Colin  Campbell,  Lord  of 
liochow,  was  among  the  Scottish  knights  and 
barons  summoned  to  the  Council  of  Berwick 
in  1291.  His  son,  Sir  NeU  Campbell,  was  a 
strong  supporter  of  Robert  Bruce,  whose 
aster  he  married.  His  son,  Sir  Colin,  received 
krge  giants  of  land  in  Arg^'leshire  from  King 
Robert  and  his  successor.  His  grandson, 
Bonran,  was  made  Chancellor  of  Scotland  by 
Jamess  I.,  and  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Lord 
Campbell.  The  grandson  of  this  peer,  CoUn,  was 
made  Earl  of  Argj-le  in  1457.  Ai-chibald,  the 
eighth  earl,  was  created  ISIlurquis  of  Argj-le  in 
1641 ;  but  was  executed,  and  his  honours  for- 
feited in  1661.  The  earldom  was  restored  to 
his  son,  Archibald,  the  ninth  earl,  in  1663,  who 
was  beheaded  in  1685.  His  son,  Archibald, 
was  restored  under  William  III.,  and  created 
iHiko  of  Argylo  in  1701.  [Argyle,  Pbehage 
or.] 

Caanplially   Johk,   1st    Lord   (d.   1779, 
d.  lS61)j  descended  from  a  juniot  branch  of 


the  ducal  house  of  Argjle,  was  the  son  of 
Dr.  George  Campbell,  minister  of  Cupar. 
He  was  educated  at  the  Grammar  School  at 
Cupar,  and  at  the  University  of  St.  Andrews, 
and  was  called  to  the  bar  of  Lincoln's  Inn  in 
1806.  He  soon  obtained  a  good  practice. 
In  1827  he  obtained  a  silk  govm,  and  in 
1830—31  he  represented  Stafford  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  In  1832  he  was  made 
Solidtor-General,  and  in  Feb^,  1834,  was 
appointed  Attorney-General  During  his 
period  of  office  he  inaugurated  several  im- 
portant law  reforms,  among  which  were  the 
Act  called  Lord  Campbell's  Act  for  the 
amendment  of  the  law  of  libel  aH  it  affects 
newspapers  [Likel,  Law  of],  and  an  Act 
limiting  the  power  of  arrest  in  cases  of 
disputed  debt.  He  was  also  engaged  as 
counsel  in  several  cases  of  great  importance, 
notablv  the  trial  of  Lord  Cardigan,  before 
the  House  of  Lords,  for  shooting  Captain 
Tuckett;  the  case  of  Stoekdale  v.  Hansard; 
and  the  defence  of  Lord  Melbourne  in  the 
action  for  damages  raised  by  Mrs.  Norton. 
In  June,  1841,  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage 
and  received  the  Irish  Chancellorship,  which 
post  he  held  for  only  sixteen  days.  In  1846 
Lord  Campbell  joined  the  Whig  cabinet  as 
Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster.  In  1 850 
he  became  Lord  Chief*  Justice,  and  held  that 
office  till  he  was  appointed  Lord  Chancellor  of 
Great  Britain  by  Lord  Palmerston  in  1859. 
Lord  Campbell  published,  in  1849,  Th^  Livct  of 
the  Lord  Chancellort  and  Keepers  of  the  Great 
^Seal  of  Eiiglandj  in  seven  volumes.  It  is  a  work 
disfigured  by  inaccuracy,  carelessness,  and  (in 
the  case  of  the  more  recent  Chancellors)  by 
the  prejudices  and  personal  jealousy  of  the 
author;  but  it  nevertheless  contains  a  good 
deal  of  interesting  matter.  He  also  wrote 
Livea  of  the  Chief  Jtutiees,  a  much  inferior 
work.  He  was  found  dead  in  his  chair  on 
the  morning  of  Sunday,  June  24th,  1861. 

Lord   Campbell's    Metnoiv,   edited    by    bU 
daughter,  Mrs.  Hardcastle,  1879. 

Campbell,  John,  LL.D.  {b.  1708,  d. 
1775),  was  the  writer  of  many  useful  historical 
works  which  had  a  considerable  reputation  in 
the  last  centuiy.  He  was  largely  concerned 
in  the  Ancient  Universal  History^  and  was 
editor  of  the  Modem  Universal  History.  He 
also  wrote  A  Folitical  Sut^ey  of  Great  Britain, 
1772,  and  Lives  of  the  Admirals^  the  latter  of 
which  is  a  careful  and  intercsting  work. 

Campbelly  Sir  Colin.     [Clyde,  Lord.] 

Camperdown,  The  Battle  of  (Oct.  11, 
1797),  was  fought  between  the  English  and 
the  Dutch.  In  the  autumn  of  1797  a  great 
Dutch  fleet  was  prepared  to  co-operate  with 
the  French  in  the  invasion  of  Ireland,  Oct. 
9.  The  Dutch,  under  De  Winter,  weighed 
from  the  Texel.  Admiral  Duncan,  who  had 
been  Ipng  in  Yarmouth  Roads,  crossed  the 


Can 


(  222  ) 


Can 


German  Ocean,  and  came  in  sight  of  the 
Datch  on  the  morning  of  Oct.  11th,  nine  miles 
from  the  coast,  near  Camperdown.  At  half-past 
eleven  Duncan  made  the  signal  for  the  fleet  to 
engage,  and  at  twelve  o'clock  determined  to 
pass  through  the  enemy's  lioe  in  two  divisions 
and  engage  to  leeward.  But  the  weather  was 
so  hazy  that  the  signal  was  not  seen  by  many 
of  the  ships,  which  accordingly  engaged  in 
close  action  as  each  captain  saw  an  opportu- 
nity. The  two  flag-ships  passed  through  the 
line,  followed  by  a  few  leading  ships,  while 
the  others,  for  the  most  part,  engaged  the 
enemy  to  windward.  The  action  was  fought 
with  the  desperate  stubbornness  which  had 
always  been  so  marked  a  characteristic  of  the 
two  nations.  Do  Winter  in  the  Vrigheid, 
assailed  by  the  English  admiral's  ship  and 
two  others,  after  a  desperate  contest,  sur- 
rendered, when  ho  was  totally  dismasted,  and 
had  scarcely  enough  men  left  to  fight  his 
guns.  One  after  another  the  Dutch  ships 
followed  his  example,  and  it  only  remained 
for  the  British  to  secure  the  prizes  before 
night  set  in.  Eight  of  the  Dutch  ships,  with 
over  6,000  prisoners,  were  taken.  The  English 
lost  1,040  and  the  Dutch  1,160  kUled  and 
wounded.  In  the  action  the  English  had 
16  line-of-battle  ships  carrying  8,221  men, 
and  the  Dutch  16  line-of-battle  ships  carrjdng 
7,157.  The  Dutch  prizes  were  so  shattered 
AS  to  be  quite  useless. 

Allen,  NaxcA  BatU4s;   James,  Naval   Hi$t,, 
ii.  78,  &o.  i  Alison,  Hitt,  of  Europe,  ir.  273. 

Campiaa,  Edmund  (b.  Io40«  d.  1581),  was 
bom  in  London  and  educated  at  Oxford,  where 
lie  became  a  Fellow  of  8t.  John's  College; 
but  hanng  openly  embraced  the  Catholic  faith, 
to  which  he  had  long  secretly  inclined,  suf- 
fered a  short  imprisonment.  On  his  release 
he  went  to  Cardinal  Allen*8  college  at  Douay, 
where  he  became  noted  for  his  learning  and 
xirtues.  His  affability  and  high  moral  cha- 
iBctor  made  him  an  invaluable  assistant  to 
the  Jesuits,  and  in  June,  1581,  he  undertook 
a  "  missionary  journey  "  to  England,  in  com- 
pany with  Robert  Parsons.  Their  7^1  yras 
such  as  to  cause  the  Parliament  of  ^1581  to 
pass  the  harsh  statute  against  any  one  har- 
bouring a  Jesuit,  and  active  measures  were 
taken  for  the  apprehension  of  the  two  mis- 
sionaries. In  July,  1581,  Campian  was  taken 
at  Lyfford,  in  Berkshire,  and  sent  to  the 
Tower,  where  he  was  tortured,  in  order  to 
extort  from  him  the  names  of  Catholics  who 
had  given  him  shelter.  Hh  was  then  indicted 
for  compassing  and  imagining  the  queen*s 
death,  and,  after  what  appears  to  have  been 
a  very  unfair  trial,  was  executed  at  Tyburn, 
Dec.,  1581. 

State  Trial* ;  Fronde,  Hut.  of  Sng. ;  Camden, 
Annalee  ;  Lingaxd,  Hitt.  of  Eng, 

Ca]ll1llo€lliniUI&,  a  town  of  Celtic  and 
Boman    Britain,   is  now   generally  allowed 


to  be  identical  with  the  modem  Colchestt 
It  became  the  capital  of  the  Trinobuntes  und 
Cunobelin,  or  Cymbeline  (q.v.).  In  44  it  ^ 
taken  by  Aulus  Plautius,  and  in  60  was  nu 
a  Roman  colony.  Two  years  later  Boadii 
and  the  Iceni  captured  and  burnt  < 
city  and  defeated  Petilios  Ccrt^lis, 
shortly  afterwards,  in  the  neigh)>ourh 
of  Camulodunum,  Suetonius  Paulinas 
trieved  b}'  a  complete  victory  the  honoui 
Rome. 

CaaacUl  ^as  probably  discovered  by  J 
Cabot  in  1497,  and  by  him  taken  posses 
of  for  England,  though  the  occupation  of 
coimtry  was  never  formally  enteretl  upon 
1525  an  expedition,  sent  out  by  Fninc 
under  the  leadership  of  Giovanni  Verra: 
a  Morentine,  took  possession  of  tho  con 
which  had  previously  boon  claimed  for 
land  by  Cabot,  giving  it  the  name  of 
Nouveile  France."  In  1541  another  Y 
expedition,  under  M.  de  Robesval, 
Canada  its  present  name,  mistaking  the  I 
word  •*  kantita  "  (huts)  for  the  native 
of  the  country.  In  spite  of  various  att 
on  the  part  of  England  to  establish  her 
on  Canada,  the  couutrv  remained  i 
hands  of  the  French  until  1763,  when 
ceded  to  Great  Britain  by  the  terms 
Treaty  of  Paris.  The  Quebec  Bill,  pa 
1774,  established  the  government  of  C 
with  a  careful  regard  to  the  rights  ai 
ings  of  the  French  inhabitants,  and  ^ 
means  of  securing  the  allegijinco  of  th 
mass  of  French  Canadians,  by  whose 
American  in\'asion  of  Canada,  in  17 
easily  repulsed.  In  1790  the  pro\ 
Canada  was  divided,  at  the  augi^es 
Pitt,  into  Upper  (or  Western)  and  L< 
Eastern)  Canada,  mainly  for  pur] 
representation,  whilst  the  division  al:? 
to  mark  out  the  locality  where  tho 
and  French  elements  respectively 
derated.  Each  province  had  a  < 
and  an  Executive  Council,  a  \a 
Council  appointed  by  the  crown,  a 
presentative  Assembly  appuintiMl 
people.  For  some  years  after  the  esta^ 
of  the  Houses  of  Assembly,  thert> 
quent  disputes  between  them  and  t 
iktive  Council,  giving  rise  to  such  < 
that,  in  1812,  the  Americans  pm 
invasion  of  Canada,  under  tho  iinprc 
they  would  bo  joined  by  a  lar;?e  n 
the  inhabitants.  The  Canadians, 
stood  firmly  by  the  I^ritish  di 
American  War  of  1812 — 15,  and  t 
on  East  and  West  Canada  ■wero  le]; 
the  conclusion  of  peace  in  Marcb 
disputes  again  broke  out,  varying 
according  as  the  policy  of  iHe  i^ov 
conciliatory  or  tho  reverse.  The 
of  the  French  or  national  party  se 
had  real  existence.  The  Execiiti 
Upper  Legislative  Chamber    ^wer< 


Can 


(  223  ) 


Can 


of  crown  nominees,  and  in  no  senile  repre- 
sented the  feelings  of  the  bulk  of  the  in- 
habitants.    The  administration  (especially  in 
matters  of  local  government)   was  clumsy, 
inefficient,  and  perhaps  corrupt.    The  discon- 
tent among  the  French  Canadians  continued 
to  increase.     The  refusal  of  the  government 
to  make  any  concessions  at  length  brought 
matters  to  a  crisis,  and  in  1837  a  rebellion 
broke  out  in  Lower  Canada.    This  insurrec- 
tion, though  crushed  almost  at  its  first  out- 
break,  had  still  the  efEect  of  opening  the  eyes 
of  the  Home  Government  to  the  danger  of 
neglecting  any  longer  the  demands  for  reform 
which  were  being  urged  upon  them  by  the 
French  Canadians,  and  accordingly,  in  1838, 
Lord  Durham  was  sent  out  to  Canada  to 
report  on  the  best  method  of  adjusting  the 
future   government  of    the  province.     The 
result  was  the  union  of  the  two  Canadas  in 
1840,  from  which  time  discontent  and  insur- 
rection have  been  at  an  end.    The  changes 
introduced  by  the  union  were  considerable. 
A  single  government  was  instituted,  with  a 
single  parliament,  consisting  of  a  Legislative 
Council  of  twenty  or  more  life  members,  and 
a  Lower  House  of  eighty -four  deputies,  ap- 
pointed by  popular  election  every  four  years. 
The  reforms  of   1840  were  consolidated  by 
Lord  Elg^in  (1847),  to  whose  practical  and 
fstr-sighted  administration    of   his  office    of 
Governor- General  much  of  the  prosperity  of 
Canada  is  due.    In  1856  the  Upper  House 
was  made  elective.     In  1867  Canada  and  the 
other  provinces  of  British  North  America 
were  united,  under  the  title  of  ^  the  Dominion 
OP  Canada.     The  Dominion,  embracing  the 
whole  of  British  North  America,  with  the 
exception    of    Newfoimdland,    includes   the 
various    provinces    of    Upper    and    Lower 
Canada,     New    Bnmswick,    Nova    Scotia, 
Prince  Edward    Island,    British    Columbia, 
Kanitoba,  and  the  North-West  Territories. 
The  government  of  the  Dominion  is  exerctised 
by  a  Governor-General,  who  is  advised  by  a 
IVivy  Council ;  whilst  there  are  two  Legisla- 
tive Chambers  called  the    Senate   and  the 
House  of  Commons,  the  members  of  which 
meet  at  Ottawa,  the  capital  of  the  Dominion 
and  the  seat  of  the  Executive  Government. 
The  various  provinces  are  administered  by 
Lieutenant-Governors,    appointed    by    the 
Governor-Genera],  and  have  separate  cham- 
bers of  legislature.    The  Province  of  Canada 
proper  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada  consists  of 
the  two  districts  of  Ontario  and  Quebec,  each 
having  a  provincial  government,  vested,  in 
the  case  of  Ontario,  in  a  Lieutenant-Governor 
and   a  Legislative  Assembly  consisting   of 
eighty-two  members  elected  for  four  years; 
in   the    case    of    Quebec,  in   a   Lieutenant- 
Governor,  a  Legislative  Assembly  of  sixty- 
five  members,  and  Executive  and  Legislative 
Councils  appointed  by  the  Governor.     Since 
the  constitution  of  the  Dominion,  the  connec- 
tioQ  with  England  has  shrunk  to  very  slight 


proportions.  Canada  has  a  supreme  Court  of 
Appeal,  and  there  is  therefore  now  no  appeal 
from  the  law-courts  of  Canada  to  the  Juaicial 
Committee  of  the  Privy  Council,  or  any  other 
EngUsh  court  of  law.  The  legal  system  in 
the  older  provinces  is  somewhat  complicated, 
and  in  Quebec  the  old  laws  and  customs  of 
French  Canada,  founded  on  the  jurisprudence 
of  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  the  edicts  of  the 
French  kings,  and  the  Civil  Law,  are  still 
recognised  by  the  courts  for  certain  purposes 
The  trade,  population,  and  agricultural  pros- 
perity of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  have  ad- 
vanced greatly  of  late  years,  especially  in 
the  North -West  Territory.  The  area  of 
the  Dominion  of  Canada  is  about  3,500,000 
square  miles,  and  its  population,  which 
is  increasing  fast,  is  about  5,000,000,  oi 
whom  over  a  million  are  of  French  de- 
scent. 

F.  Parkman,  Th«  Old  Regime  in  Canada ;  J. 
MacMuUen,  HU.  of  Canada,  1868 ;  H.  C.  Lodg«, 
Short  Eist.  of  the  JEng.  Coloniee  in  America  ,*  A. 
Todd,  Parliamentary!^  Oovt.  in  the  Bntiah 
Coloniee;  B.  M.  Martin,  BHtieh  Colonies;  'M.ut- 
doch.  Life  of  Lord  Sydenham.  [F.  S.  P.] 

Canning,  Geokob  (6.  1770,  d.  1827), was 
bom  in  Loimon,  the  son  of  a  poor  barrister. 
His  mother,  left  in  needy  circumstances,  went 
upon  the  stage,  and  afterwards  married  an 
actor.  George  was  sent  by  his  uncle,  Strat- 
ford Canning,  a  London  merchant,  the  father 
of  Lord  Stratford  de  Kedcliffe,  to  Eton,  where 
he  had  a  brilliant  career.  Whilst  at  school 
he  founded  and  contributed  largely  to  a 
school  magazine  called  The  Microcosm.  In 
1787  he  went  to  Oxford,  where  he  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  Pitt,  and  formed  a 
close  friendship  with  Mr.  Jenkinson,  after- 
wards Earl  of  Liverpool,  which  was  of  great 
service  to  him  in  later  life.  He  was  at  this 
time  a  Whig,  devoted  to  Fox  and  Sheridan, 
and  inclined  to  look  favourably  on  the  French 
Kevolution.  On  leaving  Oxford,  he  at  first 
went  to  the  bar,  but  in  1793  was  induced  to 
enter  Parliament  as  member  for  Newport 
(Isle  of  Wight),  and  as  a  follower  of  Mr. 
Pitt.  He  spoke  frequently  during  his  first 
years  ii.  the  House  of  Commons,  and  always 
as  a  supporter  of  the  ministry.  In  1796  he 
became  member  for  Wendover  and  Under- 
Secretary  for  Foreign  AfEairs.  In  the  autumn 
of  1797  he  published,  in  conjunction  with 
John  Hookham  Frere,  Jenkinson,  George 
Ellis,  and  Gifford,  a  satirical  paper  called  The 
Anti-Jacobin.  Some  of  Canning^s  contribu- 
tions have  taken  a  permanent  place  in  litera- 
ture. In  the  year  1799  Canning  laboured 
earnestly  with  Pitt  to  effect  the  union 
with  Ireland,  on  the  basis  of  giving 
equal  political  rights  to  the  Roman  Catholics. 
When  this  measure  failed,  owing  to  the  per- 
sistent opposition  of  the  king,  Canning  left 
the  government  with  his  chief.  Pitt  was 
succeeded  by  Addington,  who  was  assailed 
by  Canning 'with  untiring  ridicule.    **  Pitt  is 


Can 


(224) 


Can 


to  Addin^^n/'  he  eaid,  **  as  London  to  Pad- 
dington.**    In  1799  he  married  the  daughter 
of  General  John  Scott,   who  brought   him 
a  large  fortune.     In    1804   he  returned   to 
office,  with  Pitt,  as  Treasurer  of  the  Navy. 
On  the  death  of  Pitt  in  1806,   Fox  came 
into  office,  and  Canning  had  to  retire.     In 
March,  1807,  he  took  office,  under  the  Duke 
of  Portland,  as  Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs. 
In  this  capacity  he  executed  the  bold  stroke 
of  securing  the  Danish  fleet  lest  it  should  fall 
into  the  hands    of  Napoleon  (Sept.,  1807). 
He  also  organised  the  assistance  given  by 
England  to  Spain  against  Napoleon,  which 
eventually  tended  more  than  anything  else 
to  effect  the  emperor's  down&ll.    He  could 
not     agree    with    Lord    Gastlereagh,     the 
Secretary  at  Wa'r,  and  after  the  failure  of 
the    disastrous    Walcheren    expedition,    for 
which  Gastlereagh  had  been  largely  respon- 
sible, resigned  his  office.    Gastlereagh  became 
aware  that  Ganning  had  intrigued  against 
him  with  the  Duke  of  Portland,  and  chal- 
lenged him  to  a  duel.    They  met  at  Putney, 
and  Ganning  was  wounded  in  the  shoulder. 
Ganning's  resignation  of  office  was  an  event 
which  long  retarded  his  advancement.    He 
remained  a  strong  advocate  of  the  Emancipa- 
tion of  the  Gatholics.    After  the  murder  of 
Perceval  in  Mar,  1812,  Ganning  and  Wellesley 
received    the   ling's  commands  to    form   a 
ministry,  but-  they  were  unable  to  come  to 
terms  with  Grey  and  Grenville.    Lord  Liver- 
pool became  Ih:imo  ^linister  instead.    Lord 
Liverpool  offered  him  the  post  of  Foreign 
Secretary,  which  Ganning  refused.    In  1814 
he  went  as  ambassador  to  Portugal.     Two 
years  later  his  impatience  of  being  out  of 
office  led  him  to  accept  the  post  of  President 
of  the  Board   of  Gontrol  m   Lord   Gastle- 
reagh's  cabinet.     In  this  ministry  ho  was 
forced    to    sanction  measures  of  repression 
•f  which  he  could  not  approve.    He  agreed 
with    his    colleagues    in    their    dislike    of 
Parliamentary  reform,  but  differed  from  them 
both  with  regard  to  the  Emancipation  of  the 
Catholics   and  the  harsh  measures  adopted 
towards  the  Princess  of  Wales.    During  the 
trial  which  followed  at  the  accession  of  George 
III.,  Ganning  travelled  abroad  and  refused 
the  Homo  Office  offered  him  by  Liverpool. 
In  November,   1820,   he   came   to   London, 
resigned  office,  and  then  returned  to  France. 
In  1822  the  directors  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany appointed  him  to  succeed  Lord  Hastings 
as  Govemor-Greneral.     He  made  all  prepara- 
tions for  departure,  and  went  down  to  Liver- 
pool to  take  loave  of  his  friends,  when  Lord 
Gastlereagh   (the  Alarquis  of   Ix)ndondeiT}', 
and  Secretarj'-  for  Foreign  Affairs)  suddenly 
committed  suicide.     Ganning    gave   up  the 
brilliant  prospect    of    the  Viceroyalty,  and 
succeeded    Londonderry.     He    now  showed 
his    resemblance   to    those    English    states- 
men,   who,    like   Chatham    and  Palmerston, 
have  been  able  to  sympathise  with  the  as- 


pirations of  foreign  liberals.  He  supports 
constitutional  principles  against  the  r 
actionary  efforts  of  Mettenii(£.  He  protest 
against  the  Congress  of  Venice,  and  ugaiustt! 
intervention  of  France  in  the  affairs  of  Spai 
He  opposed  the  policy  of  the  Holy  Alliam 
He  was  the  first  to  recognise  the  in( 
pendence  of  the  Spanish  colonies  in  Amen< 
as  he  said  he  "  called  a  new  world  into  exi 
ence  to  redress  the  balance  of  the  old." 
protected  constitutional  government  in  P 
tugal,  and  effected  the  severance  of  Portu 
and  Brazil.  He  stiU  longed  anxiously 
the  Emancipation  of  the  Gatholics,  but 
was  temporarily  hindered  by  the  agitatioi 
O'Gonnell,  and  was  not  effected  till  two  y 
after  Canning^s  death.  He  supported  1 
kisson  in  preparing  the  way  for  free  ti 
and  laboured  to  effect  the  abolition  of 
slave  trade.  On  the  death  of  Lord  L 
pool  in  Feb.,  1827,  Ganning  became  P 
Minister.  His  last  act  was  to  secure 
liberation  of  Greece  by  the  Treatj 
London,  July,  1827.  He  died  on  the  fo 
ing  August  8th.  His  death  was  felt 
shock  to  the  whole  of  the  civilised  v 
for  he  was  the  most  prominent  opp 
of  the  system  of  reaction  which  wa 
deavourinfl:  to  stamp  out  aspiration 
liberty  wherever  they  were  found. 

Canning's  Sfpeechn,  6  vols.,  London,  1821 
best  anthorities  for  hia  life  are  the  two  w 
hie  private  secretary,  Btapleton,  The  P 
lAfe  of  the  Bt.  Hon.  Qeorge  Canning^  3  vols 
and  George  Canning  and  His  Tiinea,  18 
fnrther  collection  of  Caxming'a  Lette 
Papen  has  been  edited  by  tb.  F.  Sb 
(1887).  There  is  a  brilliant  sketch  of  hu 
in  Lord  Dalling's  Hiatorioal  Characters 
brief  Memoir  by  Mr.  F.  Hill  in  the 
If  orthtct  series.  [Q 


Caaninflr,  Charleh  John,  Visco 
1812,  d.  1862),  third  son  of  George  C 
was  bom  at  Gloucester  Lodge,  Kcni 
Dec.  14,  1812.  He  was  educated  at  E 
Ghrist  Ghurch.  In  August,  1836, 
returned  for  Warwick,  and  remained  a 
of  the  House  of  Gommons  for  six  'wet') 
the  death  of  his  mother,  ViscountesM  ( 
li^Iarch  15,  he  succeeded  to  the  title 
sequence  of  the  deaths  of  his  ts 
brothers.  Ho  gradually  acquired  th< 
tion  in  the  House  of  Lords  of  a  consc 
painstaking  young  statesmsji,  ^nthoi 
any  very  prominent  part  in  the  deb 
1841  he  was  offered  office  bv  Sir  Ro\ 
as  Under  Secretary  for  Foreign  Afl 
1846  ho  became  Chief  Gommisaioner  ' 
and  Forests,  and  began  to  take  a  lai 
in  the  business  of  the  House.  In 
supported  the  Jewish  Disabilities 
1850  he  supported  Lord  Derby's 
condemning  Lord  Palmerston^s  foroi 
and  spoke  against  Lord  John  Hussc! 
siastical  Titles  Bill.  In  1851  1a 
offered  him  the  Foreign  Office,  but  1 
feeling  himself   really  a    Xiibcral. 


CSaa 


(  226  ) 


Can 


tiie  Coalition  Ministry  of  Lord  Aberdeen 
came  into  office,  and  Canning  became  Post- 
master-General. This  office  he  continued  to 
hold  under  Lord  Palmerston.  In  1855  he  was 
wpointed  Gtovemor-Gteneral  of  India,  and  on 
Feb.  Ist,  1856,  he  disembarked  at  Calcutta. 
He  was  a  cold,  impassive  man,  to  whom 
few  would  have  ventured  to  make  known  the 
public  agitation  at  the  close  of  1856  and 
opening  of  1857 ;  and  he  may  be  entirely 
acquitted  of  the  charge  of  not  having  made 
himself  acquainted  with,  or  not  following  up 
if  he  did  hear  them,  what  were  as  yet  intan- 
gible and  confused  rumours.  When,  however, 
the  mutinies  did  begin.  Lord  Canning  issued 
order  after  order,  warning  the  sepoys  against 
any  false  reports,  and  disclaiming  any  idea  of 
deprivation  of  caste.  Unfortunately,  stronger 
measures  than  these  were  nece68ar\'  to  have 
stifled  the  Indian  Mutiny.  When  once  it 
had  broken  out  he  did  his  best  to  bring  up 
troops  to  the  front,  and  he  endowed  every 
person  in  authority  with  extra  powers,  while  at 
uie  same  time  refusing  to  allow  any  retaliatory 
massacnes.  In  1858,  on  the  texmination  of 
the  Mutiny,  he  ordered  the  confiscation  of  all 
Oude,  though  this  was  repudiated  by  the 
Boai'd  of  Control.  In  August,  1858,  he  issued 
from  Allahabad  the  proclamation  providing 
lor  the  sole  dominion  of  the  crown,  and  put- 
ting an  end  to  the  rule  of  the  East  India 
Company.  The  rest  of  Lord  Canning's  ad- 
ministration was  chiefly  remarkable  for  the 
judicial  reforms  in  1860 — 61,  the  completion 
of  many  railways  and  canals,  and  the  famine 
in  the  North-west  Provinces,  1860 — 61.  In 
1862  Lady  Oanning  died:  this  hastened  the 
departure  of  the  viceroy.  His  health  had 
been  considerably  impaired  by  the  cares  of 
the  previous  six  years;  and  he  died  three 
months  after  his  arrival  in  England  (June  17, 
1862),  '*  leavingthe  reputation  of  an  industrious 
and  conscientious  public  servant  *'  {Times), 

Canon   3aw.      [Ecclesiastical  Juris- 
McnoN.] 

Caaterblizy  was  probably  a  place  of  no 
importance  before  the  Roman  occupation  of 
Britain.  By  the  Romans  it  was  called  Duro- 
vemum,  a  Latinised  form  of  its  Celtic  name, 
which  means  the  town  of  the  rapid  river. 
The  fact  that  the  Saxons  called  it  the  burgh 
of  the  Kent  men  would  show  that  it  was  the 
most  important  place  in  the  province.  Under 
the  descendants  of  Hen^st  it  became  the 
capital  of  Kent,  and  owing  to  this  circum- 
stance the  first  bishopric,  and  the  metropolitan 
see,  of  England.  The  town  was  ravaged 
several  times  by  the  Danes,  and  almost  de- 
stroyed by  them  in  101 1.  In  1067  the  Danes 
burnt  down  the  cathedraL  It  was  rebuilt  by 
Lanfranc  and  Anselm ;  but  partially  destroyed 
(including  the  choir)  in  1 174.  It  was  rebuilt 
by  Williazn  of  Sens  immediately  afterwards. 
Important  additions  were  made  in  the  two 
following  centuries,  but  it  was  not  till  1495 

HttT.-8 


that  the  great  central  tower  was  completed. 
Its  importance  was  considerably  increased 
after  the  canonisation  of  Becket,  when  it  be- 
came the  principal  centre  of  pilgrimage  in 
England.  It  was  a  town  on  the  royal  demesne, 
and  was  governed  by  a  portreeve,  or  provost, 
till  the  time  of  John,  when  two  bailiffs  were 
appointed :  the  right  of  electing  the  bailiffs 
bieing  granted  in  the  eighteenth  year  of 
Henry  III.'s  reign.  A  charter  was  gi-anted  in 
26  Henry  VI.,  which  established  a  mayor, 
aldermen,  and  common  eouncilmen.  Edward 
IV.  enlarged  the  jurisdiction  of  the  city,  and 
formed  it  into  a  county.  The  city  came  under 
the  operation  of  the  Municipal  Reform  Act  of 
1835.  The  city  returned  two  members  under 
23  Edward  I.,  but  now  has  only  one. 

Canterbury,  AHCHuisHors  of;  See  of. 
[Archbishop.] 

Cantarlmry,  Charles  I^Iakkbrs  Suttox, 
Iht  Viscount  (6.  1780,  d.  1845),  the  eldest  son 
of  Charles  AXanners  Sutton,  Arehbishop  of 
Canterbury',  was  called  to  the  bar,  1805,  and 
rirst  snt  in  Parliament  for  Scarborough,  1807. 
In  1817  he  succeeded  Mr.  Abbot  as  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Commons,  which  office  he 
held  till  1834.  The  activity  of  commercial 
enterprise  which  followed  the  re-establishment 
of  peace  led  to  a  rush  of  private  business  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  and  lilr.  Manners  Sutton 
showed  great  skill  in  dealing  with  it.  When 
Earl  Grey  resigned  in  1832,  Manners  Sutton 
assisted  the  Duke  of  Wellington  to  form  his 
temporary  ministry;  this  was  apparency  to 
oblige  the  king,  who  rewarded  him  with  the 
order  of  the  Bath.  In  1834,  when  Lord 
Melbourne  was  suddenly  dismissed  from 
office,  a  rumour  was  started  that  Manners 
Sutton  was  to  be  the  Tory  premier ;  and  in 
consequence  of  this  and  of  his  active  negotia- 
tions in  forming  the  Peel  ministry,  the  Whigs 
threw  him  out,  and  elected  Mr.  Abercromby 
Speaker  in  his  place.  In  1835  he  was  called 
to  the  Upper  House. 

Cautii,  The,  were  a  British  tribe,  occu- 

gring  a  portion  of  the  present  county  of 
ent  (which  derives  its  name  from  them)  and 
a  part  of  Surrey.  They  were  divided  into 
four  kingdoms,  and  were  the  most  important 
of  the  peoples  of  south-eastern  England. 
From  their  proximity  to  Gaul,  they  seem 
likewise  to  have  been  the  most  cinlised  of  all 
the  native  tribes  at  the  time  of  Cfesar's 
invasion. 

Cantiliipe.  Walter  db  (</.  1265),  was 
the  son  of  William  de  Cantilupe,  one  of  the 
itinerant  justices,  and  in  1231  he  was  himself 
appointed  an  itinerant  judge.  In  1236  he 
became  Bishop  of  Worcester,  when  he  boldly 
resisted  the  exactions  of  the  Pope.  He  sup- 
ported Simon  de  Montfort  in  the  Barons' 
War,  and  was  one  of  the  twenty-four  coun- 
cillors appointed  to  watch  the  execution  of  the 
Oxford  Statutes;  and  he  solemnly  absolved 


Can 


(  226  ) 


Cao 


the  barons  before  the  battle  of  Lewes.  For 
the  part  he  took  in  the  contest,  he  was  ex- 
communicated by  the  Pope. 

Cantilnpe,  St.  Thomas  de  {d.  1282), 
the  nephew  of  Walter  dc  Cantilupe,  was  a 
man  greatly  respected  for  his  piety  and  learn- 
ing. In  1265  he  was  appointed  Chancellor 
by  8imon  de  Montfort,  but  relinquished  the 
office  in  the  same  year,  after  the  battle  of 
Evesham.  He  is  remarkable  as  being  the 
last  Englishman  who  was  canonised. 

Canton  was  first  visited  by  the  Englisli 
about  1634.  From  1689  to  1834  the  East 
India  Company  had  a  monopoly  of  the  trade 
with  that  port.  In  1841,  during  the  first 
China  War,  Canton  surrendered  to  Sir  Hugh 
Gougb,  and  the  following  year  foreigners 
were  granted  permission  to  settle  in  the  town. 
In  1856,  after  the  affair  of  the  lorcha  Arrow ^ 
war  was  declared  between  England  and  Chixia, 
and  Canton  was  bombarded  by  the  English. 
The  bombardment  led  to  an  exciting  debate 
in  the  House  of  Commons  (beginning  Feb. 
26, 1857),  in  which  men  of  all  parties  strongly 
condenmed  the  action  of  Lord  Palmerston*8 

government,  and  a  motion,  proposed  b^  Mr. 
obden  and  seconded  by  Mr.  Milner  Gibson, 
was  carried  against  the  ministry  by  a  majority 
of  16.  Canton  was  occupied  by  the  English 
and  French  4n  Dec.,  1857,  and  held,  under 
English  and  French  Commissioners,  till  Octo- 
ber, 1861. 

Canute  (called  Cnut  in  the  English  of  his 
own  day — a  word  that  Pope  Paschal  II.  could 
not  pronounce,  and  therefore  Latinised  into 
Canutus),  King  (b,  eirea  995,  s.  1017, 
d.  1035),  was  the  vounger  son  of  Swegen, 
or  Sweyn,  King  of  Denmark,  and  the  first 
foreign  conqueror  of  all  England.  His 
connection  with  England  began  in  1013, 
when,  being  still  a  lad  in  years,  he  accom- 
panied his  father  on  the  great  expedition  that 
forced  the  English  to  tike  Swej'n  as  their 
king  and  drove  Ethelred  into  exile.  Young 
as  he  was,  his  father  entrusted  him  with  the 
command  of  the  fieet  and  the  care  of  the 
hostages  when  starting  on  his  southward 
march  from  Gainsborough.  But  a  few 
months  later  (Candlemas,  1014)  Swe}'n  ended 
his  days;  and  the  Danish  fleet,  with  one  voice, 
chose  Canute  as  his  successor.  By  his 
father's  death  he  became,  for  a  time,  a  land- 
less viking,  a  splendid  adventurer;  for  the 
English  at  once  restored  their  native  king  to 
the  throne,  and  the  Danish  crown  fell  to 
Sweyn's  elder  son  Harold.  Caught  unpre- 
jjared  by  a  sudden  march  of  Ethelred,  he 
sailed  away  from  Lindesey,  cut  off  the  hands, 
ears,  and  noses  of  the  hostages,  put  the 
wretches  ashore  at  Sandwich,  and  went  off  to 
Denmark.  Next  year  (1016)  he  was  back 
again  at  Sandwich  with  a  powerful  fleet  and 
army.  Coasting  round  to  Poole  Bay,  he 
landed  his  men,  and  in  a  few  months  was 
master  of  Wcssex.    The  first  days  of  1016 


saw  him  in  Mercia  also;  his  bumiii! 
ravagings    soon    compelled  8abmL9si( 
Easter  he  was  getting  ready  to  lay  u 
Ltf>ndon,  the  only  part  of  England  th 
defied  his  power.     But  at  this  monu 
death  of  Ethelred,  and  the  accession 
vigorous  son  Edmund  to  the  command 
national  cause,  gave  a  new  turn  to  tbe  c 
Inside  London,  Edmund  was  chosen 
outside,  Canute ;  and  a  fierce  and  ch 
struggle  between  the  riyals  began.    1 
rallied  the  men  of  Wessex  to  his  st 
there  were  two  Danish  sieges  of  Lond 
unsuccessful ;    five    minor  battles, 
which  are  given  as  English  victories 
doubtful;  and  one  last  great  battle, 
Assandun,  in  Essex  [Aahington  or  . 
This  was  a  terrible,  seemingly  a  c 
overthrow    of    Edmund.      But   wh 
triumph  assured  Canute  a  kingdom 
land,    it   failed   to  tear  Wessex  f; 
indomitable    Edmund.     At  Olney, 
Severn,  the  rivals  came  together,  an 
on  a  division  of  the  land  between  the 
made  the  Thames  the  oonmion  boi 
their  doaiinionB.    This  compact  had, 
but  a  brief  triaL    On  St.  Andrew's  I 
30)  Edmund  died;  and  in  1017  O 
accepted  as  king  of  the  whole  kingd 
— 1035).  Hisreignwascomparativel} 
fuL     He  began  it  by  dividing  the  r 
four  earldoms,  giving  two  of  them 
a  third  to  Edric,  the  treacherous  En 
and  keeping  Wessex  under  his  own  ; 
rule.      He  put  away  his  Danish 
married  Emma,  King  Ethelred's 
lady  nearly  double  his  age.     He  sh 
son  of  Ethelred  who  was  within 
Edwy,  and  sent  the  two  little  sons  • 
antagonist  to  Norway,  to  be  made 
there.     He  had  three  other  Eng 
high  rank  put  to  deaCh,  and  soon  to< 
course  with  the  traitor   Edric. 
(1018)  he  wrung  from  the  country 
of  £83,000  to  satisfy  his  fleet,  t 
which  thereupon  carried  liis   arr 
Denmark.    Hanng  thus  establiahec 
he  entered  upon  the  line  of  condi 
gained  him  the  good   word   of  i 
torians,    purposing    henceforwai* 
England  for  the  English  and  by  1 
One  by  one  the  leading  men  of  I 
were  removed  from  England   or 
their  places  g^ven  to  En^Iishmci 
famous  Godwin  and  renowned  1 
to  hold  posts  of  the  hig^hest  tri 
after  a    little,   Canute    handed 
former  his  own  special  care,  th< 
Wessex.     He  confirmed   the    la 
Edgar,  who  had  made  no  distinc 
the  Danish  and  purely  Kng^lisfa 
kingdom,  treating  all  his  subjects 
the  same  body  politic.     H!e  soug 
favour  of  the  people  by  religioui 
by    gifts   to  monasteries    and 
doing  reverence  to  the  saints  ai 


Cap 


(  227  ) 


Car 


they  rwvered,  by  preferring  the  church- 
men they  honoured,  and  by  many  other 
graciouB  and  politic  acts.  Though  other  coun- 
tries demanded  his  care,  he  bestowed  the 
largest  share  of  his  time  and  attention  on 
flngland,  making  her  interests  his  peculiar 
concern.  We  are  told  that  he  even  placed 
English  bishops  in  Danish  sees,  and  brought 
English  workmen  to  instruct  his  Danish  sub- 
jects iu  their  handicrafts.  And  in  England 
itself  he  seems  to  have  favoured  Wessex  moRt. 
Nor  is  this  strange.  It  is  true  that  he  was 
supreme  lord  of  many  lands ;  Harold's  death 
in  101 S  gave  him  Denmark ;  Norway  he  con- 
quered in  1028  ;  in  1031  he  invaded  Scotland, 
and  made  King  Malcolm  admit  his  superiority; 
Sweden  is  also  reckoned  among  his  %'as^ 
kingdoms.  But  no  one  of  these  could  in  real 
worth  compare  with  England;  and  of  England, 
Wessex  was  the  fairest  portion.  In  1027  he 
made  a  journey  to  Home,  and  wrote  from 
thence  a  letter  to  his  English  people,  full  of 
penitence  for  the  past,  good  promises  for  the 
future,  and  lofty  moral  sentiment.  He  was 
in  high  esteem  among  foreign  princes ;  his 
sister  Edith  married  Robert,  the  Norman 
duke;  his  daughter  Gunhild,  King  Henry 
III.  of  Germany.  He  died  at  Shaftesbury"  in 
November,  103o,  perhaps  still  under  forty 
years  of  age.  Canute  has  been  greatly 
praised  by  some  modem  historians.  Dr.  Stubbs 
reckons  him  among  the  '*  conscious  creators 
of  English  greatness;"  Mr.  Freeman's  judg- 
ment of  his  policy  and  character  is  exceedingly 
farourable.  Clearly  his  rule  brought  many 
blessings  to  England ;  under  it  she  enjoyed 
long  unbroken  peace,  a  firm,  yet  humane, 
administration  of  the  laws,  and  a  comparative 
freedom  from  vexatious  imposts  and  oppres- 
sions. In  his  later  years  he  issued  a  body  of 
laws  which  testify  to  his  preservation,  in  full 
integrity,  of  the  national  constitution,  to  his 
regard  for  religion,  to  his  strict  impartiality, 
and  respect  for  the  people's  rights.  The  quiet 
that  settled  down  on  the  land  may,  perhaps, 
be  explained  in  part  by  his  institution  of  the 
JSiUearlsj  a  permanent  force  of  fighting-men, 
3,000  or  6,000  in  number,  owing  obedience  to 
a  military  code — the  earliest  approach  to  a 
standing  army  in  England.  Tsot  without 
reason  did  the  common  folk  cherish  his 
memory,  if  only  by  repeating  simple  tales  of 
his  sayings  and  doings. 

AnaUhSaxon  ChronicU;  Freeman,  Uitiory  of 
(fc«  AWman  C<m<7«e»t,  vol.  i. ;  L&ppenberg, 
.4ii92o-S(uo»  iCln^  vol.  ii.  [J.  R.] 

Cap6  Breton,  which  lies  to  the  east  of 
Nova  Scotia,  and  is  now  incorporated  with  it, 
was  first  discovered,  by  Cabot  in  1497,  but 
lemained  practically  uninhabited  until  1714, 
when  it  was  occupied  by  the  French  for  fish- 
ing purposes ;  a  few  years  later  the  town  of 
Lonisbonrg  was  built,  and  the  French  estab- 
liflhed  a  regular  settlement  on  the  island, 
which  formed  a  convenient  basis  for  hostilities 
against  Nova  Scotia.     In   1744,  an  attack 


was  made  upon  Port  Royal,  the  capital  of 
Nova  Scotia,  by  De  Quesnay,  the  Governor  of 
Cape  Breton;  the  English,  in  retaliation, 
attacked  and  took  Louisbourg,  and  held  Cape 
Breton  until  the  peace  of  Aix-k-Chapelle  m 
1748.  In  1758  Louisbourg  was  again  taken 
by  the  English  under  the  command  of  Admiral 
Boscawen  and  General  Wolfe,  and  all  its 
fortifications  destroyed.  A  few  years  after- 
wards. Cape  Breton  was  created  a  separate 
coloAy,  and  Sydney,  its  present  capital,  was 
founded  in  1820.  However,  it  was  incorpo- 
rated with  Nova  Scotia,  and  has  ever  since 
that  time  remained  a  county. 

B.  Brown,  Hitt.  of  Cape  Breton,  1869. 

Cape  Coast  Castle.    [West  Africa.] 

Cape  Colony.    [South  Africa.] 

Capgrave,  John  [b.  1393,  d,  1404),  was 
Prior  of  Lynn  in  Norfolk,  and  provincial  of  the 
order  of  Augustinian  Friars  in  England.  He 
wrote  a  Chronicle  of  England  extending  from 
the  creation  to  the  year  1417,  and  a  work  ' 
entitled  Tlie  Book  of  the  IlluBtriotu  Henriet, 
which  contains  the  lives  of  great  men  who 
have  borne  the  name  of  Henry.  Capgrave  is 
one  of  our  few  contemporary  authorities  for 
the  early  part  of  the  fifteenth  century  and 
reign  of  Henry  VI.,  and  his  works  are  of 
some  value.  His  Chronicle  and  Book  of  the 
Illuttrious  Henrie*  have  been  edited,  in  the 
Rolls  Series,  by  Mr.  F.  C.  Hingeston. 

CaradoC  (Cakactacus)  (d.  circa  d4).  A 
British  chief,  said  to  have  been  son  of  Cuno- 
belin  or  Cymbeline.  At  the  head  of  the 
Silurians  of  the  West,  Caradoo  carried  on  a 
struggle  of  nine  years  against  the  Romans 
under  Vespasian  and  Plautius.  After  sus- 
taining frequent  defeats,  he  was  at  length 
driven  out  of  his  own  district  and  compelled 
to  take  refuge  with  the  Brigantes,  whose 
queen,  Cartismandua  (q. v.),  delivered  him  up  to 
Ostorius  Scapula  (a.d.  51).  He  was  carried 
in  chains  to  Rome,  where  his  dignity  and 
noble  bearing  are  said  to  have  induced  the 
Emperor  Claudius  to  order  his  n^lease.  His 
subsequent  history  is  unknown. 

Tacitofl,  Annal.,  lib.  zii.,  and  Siet.,  lib.  iii ; 
Die  CasaiuB,  lib.  ix. 

Carausius  {d,  293)  was  a  native  of 
Batavia,  and  the  first  *'  Comes  Littoris  Saz- 
onici."  In  this  office  he  managed  to  accumu- 
late great  wealth,  and,  in  286,  with  the  aid 
of  some  Frankish  warriors,  seized  the  great 
naval  station  of  Gesoriacum,  and  proclaimed 
himself  one  of  the  Emperors  of  Rome.  His 
talents  enabled  him  to  keep  this  position  and 
maintain  his  power  in  Britain  till  293,  when 
he  was  murdered  by  his  own  oflicer,  Allectus. 

Carberry  '*T4n  (near  Musselburgh)  is 
the  place  where  the  forces  of  Bothwell  and 
Queen  Mary  met  those  of  the  Confederate 
Ijords,  June  14,  1567.  There  was  no  actual 
collision,  but  Bothwell,  seeing  that  his  chances 
of  victory  were  almost  hopeless,  made  his 


Car 


(  228  ) 


Cir 


escape,  while  Mary  surrendered  herself  to 
Kirkoaldy  of  Grange. 

Cardmaker,  John,  a  prominent  preadier 
of  the  Reformed  doctrines,  was  burnt  at 
Smithfield  during  the  Marian  persecution, 
May,  1565.  He  recanted  when  examined 
before  Oardiner,  but  subsequently  withdrew 
his  recantatioiu 

Cardwallf  Edward,  Viscount  {b.  1813, 
d,  1886),  was  educated  at  Winchester^  and 
Balliol  GoUege,  Oxford,  where  he  was  elected 
fellow.  He  entered  Parliament  in  1842 
as  member  for  Clitheroe.  He  supported  Sir 
K.  Peel  iu  the  financial  changes  of  1845 — 
46.  He  was  !Secretar}'  to  the  Treasury  from 
1845 — 46,  and  President  of  the  Board  of 
Trade  in  Lord  Aberdeen's  administration.  In 
1859  he  accepted  the  office  of  Chief  Secretary 
for  Ireland  under  Lord  Palmerston,  and  was 
Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster  from 
1861  to  1864,  when  he  became  Secretar^^  of 
State  for  the  Colonies.  In  Dec.,  1868,  he 
became  Secretary  for  War  under  Mr.  Glad- 
stone, and  a  member  of  the  Committee  of 
Council  on  Education.  In  his  former  capacity 
his  name  is  associated  with  the  abolition  of  pur- 
chase in  the  army.  In  1874  he  resigned  with 
his  colleagues,  and  was  raised  to  the  peerage. 

Cartfnage  Bay,  in  St.  Lucia,  is  famous 
as  having  been,  in  1778,  the  scene  of  a  severe 
conflict  between  the  French,  under  the  Count 
d'Esfcaing,  and  the  British,  under  Admiral 
Barrington  and  General  Meadows.  The 
French  were  completely  defeated. 

Carew,  Sir  George  {d,  1613  P),  was 
secretary  to  Sir  Christopher  Hatton  and  a 
distingiushed  diplomatist,  being  sent  by 
Eliza&th  as  her  ambassador  to  Poland,  1597, 
and  by  James  I.  to  France,  1605 — 9.  He 
was  the  author  of  A  Relation  of  the  State  of 
France,  printed  by  Dr.  Bird  in  1749. 

Carew,  Sir  Nicholas  (d.  1539),  was  a 
courtier  and  favourite  of  Henry  VIII.,  who 
made  him  a  Knight  of  the  Garter.  He  was 
executed  March  3,  1539,  for  the  offence  of 
having  held  conversations  with  the  Marquis 
of  Exeter  about  '*a  change  in  the  world," 
which  was  supposed  to  imply  a  design  of 
setting  Cardinal  Pole  on  the  throne  in  place  of 
the  king.  Bletchingley  Park,  in  Surrey,  one 
of  his  forfeited  possessions,  was  subsequently 
granted  to  Anne  of  Cleves,  as  a  portion  of  her 
separation  allowance. 

Carew,  Sir  Peter  {d.  1575),  of  Mohun 
Ottery,  in  Devonshire,  spent  his  boyhood  at 
the  court  of  France,  and  on  his  return  to 
Engluid  entered  the  service  of  Henry  VIII. 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  Western  rebellion,  in 
1549,  Sir  Peter  and  his  brother  were  sent  down 
to  Devonshire  with  orders  to  crush  the  insur- 
gents ;  they  were,  however,  unable  to  make  head 
against  them  until  the  arrival  of  reinforce- 
ments under  Lord  Russell  and  Lord  Grey; 
in  fact,  the  violence  of  the  Carew  party  was 


said  bv  Somerset  to  have  widely  extend 

the  rebellion.    After  the  defeat  of  the  mw 

gents,  Carew  espoused  the  cauee  of  Ma 

whom  he  proclaimed  in  Devonshiie,  15 

Verj'  soon  afterwards,  however,  he  joined 

anti-Spanish  party,  and  was  entrusted  v 

the  task  of  raising  Devonshire,  while 

lliomas  Wyatt  was  to  raise  Kent.  His  act 

however,  in  the  rebellion  of  1549  had  n 

him  so  unpopular  with  the  country  pe 

that  ho  was  unable  to  do  an^'thing  effe( 

against  the  government,  and  was  compi 

to  seek  an  asylum    in  France  for  th( 

mainder  of  Mary^s  reign.    In  lo60,  C 

was  appointed  one  of  the  conimissionci 

negotiate  the  Treaty  of  Leith  (q.v.),  a: 

the  same  year  was  entrusted  with  a  m; 

to  reorganise  the  army  in  Scotland.    J 

years  later  Sir  Peter  became  one  o 

colonists  of  Munster,  where  many  on 

are  attributed  to  him.    He  joined  the  e: 

tion  of  Essex  in  1575,  but  died  the  same 

Carew's  Life,  by  John  Vowel,  was  ed 
Mr.  Maclean,  Lond.,  18S7. 

Cargill,  Donald,  one  of  the  most  e 
of  the  Covenanting  clergy,  was  a  chii 
moter  of  the  Sanquhar  DeclaratioQ, 
For  ha\*ing  excommunicated  Charles  ] 
the  Duke  of  York,  he  was,  on  his  ca] 
Glasgow,  taken  to  Edinburgh  and  C3 
July  26,  1681.     [Camebonians.] 

CarletoHy  Sir  Dudley.  [Dorc 
Lord.] 

Carleton,  Guv.     [Dorchester, 

Carleton,    Henry    Boyle,    Ist 
(d,  1725),  was  a  leading  Whig  politic 
1701  hewascreated  Lord  Chancellor  ai 
Treasurer  of  the  Exchequer.    He  w 
those  who  opposed  the   '*  tacking  * 
Occasional  Conformity   Bill.      He 
ployed  by  Godolphin  to  reqaest  A 
write  a  poem  on  the  battle  of  Blenl 
result  of  his  negotiations  being  The 
In  1707  he  was  made   Secretary 
He  was  one  of  the  managers  of  8ai 
trial,  and  in  consequence  of  that 
step  was  compelled  to  resign  his 
the  accession  of  George  I.,  Boyle 
to  the   peerage,  and  created  Liorc 
of  the  Council,  an  office  h.e  lielc 
death.    "  He  was,"  a&ys  Budgcll, 
with  great  prudence   and  'winnii] 
his  long  experience  in  public  affai] 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  businese 
Budgell*«  Live$  of  the  JBoyle«. 

Carlisle  was  probably  a  Hoi 

and  has  been  identified  'witb  l^Uj 
the  Itinerary  of  Antoninus,  from  in 
the  name  has  been  derived — Caex 
town  was  sacked  by  the  X>axie8  in 
built  with  a  strong  castle  by  'Wi 
It  was  held  by  the  Scots  < 
tenure  of  Cumberland,  and  the 
the  great  church  of  St.  AI&ry'*8  i» 


Car 


(  229  ) 


Car 


DaTid  I.,  King  of  Scotland.  Subsequently 
it  was  frequently  besieged  in  tiie  course  of 
the  border  wars,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
aieges  being  the  unsuccessful  one  by  William 
the  Lion  (1173).  The  place  suirendered  to 
Charles  Edward  in  1745,  and  the  mayor  and 
corporation  proclaimed  him  king.  The  cathe- 
dral, begun  in  the  reign  of  William  Ruf  us,  was 
partly  destroyed  by  Cromwell  in  1648. 

Carlisle,  Gbobob  William,  7th  Earl 
OP  (b,  1802,  d.  1864),  was  educated  at  Eton 
and  Christ  Church.  In  1826  he  accompanied 
bis  uncle,  the  Duke  of  Devonshire,  on  his  visit 
to^  Russia  at  the  coronation  of  the  Emperor 
Nicholas.  He  was  afterwards  returned  to  the 
House  of  Conmions  for  the  family  seat  of 
Morpeth,  and  one  of  his  earliest  speeches 
waa  in  defence  of  the  character  of  the 
Russian  emperor.  During  the  agitation  of 
the  Reform  Bill  he  enlisted  on  the  side  of 
Earl  Gre^v,  and  on  the  dissolution  of  Parlia- 
ment which  followed  the  success  of  General 
Ga8coyne*8  motion,  he  was  returned  for  York- 
shire, which  seat  he  held  till  the  passing  of 
the  Reform  Bill  in  1832.  He  was  Chief 
Secretary  for  Ireland  from  1835  to  1841,  and 
Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster  from 
1849  to  1851.  In  1855  he  became  Lord- 
Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and  began  a  career  of 
popularity  almost  without  parallel  among 
Insh  A-icero}'s.  A  change  in  the  government 
removed  him  for  a  short  time;  but  he  re- 
turned again  in  1859,  and  held  this  office  till 
the  summer  of  1864,  when  ilbiess  compelled 
him  to  lay  it  down. 

Carlialay  Lucy,  Col-ktess  of  (5.  1600, 
d.  1660),  was  the  daughter  of  Henry  Percy, 
ninth  Earl  of  Northumberland.  Li  1617  she 
was  married  to  the  Earl  of  Carlisle,  who  died 
in  1636.  She  was  a  favohrite  attendant  of 
Qneen  Henrietta  Maria,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  been  Strafford's  mistress.  After  his 
death  she  became  the  conjldant^,  and  it  was 
aai^  the  mistress,  of  Pym,  to  whom  she  be- 
trayed all  the  secrets  of  the  court,  and  it 
was  b^  her  that  he  was  made  acquainted  with 
the  king's  desire  to  arrest  the  f^ve  Members 
in  January,  1642.  In  1648  she  seems  to  have 
aasiated  the  Royalists  with  money  towards 
nising  a  fleet  to  attack  England,  and  on  the 
Restoration  she  was  received  at  court,  and 
employed  herself  in  intriguing  for  the  return 
of  Qneen  Henrietta  to  'England,  which  was 
opposed  by  Clarendon  and  others.  Very  soon 
uter  the  queen's  return  she  died  suddenly. 

Carliala^  The  Statute  of  (1307),  passed 
/  b^  Edward  L  in  Parliament,  after  he  had  pre- 
viously obtained  the  consent  of  the  barons  to 
it  in  1305,  was  intended  to  prevent  the  drain 
of  English  gold  to  Rome  by  clerical  exactions. 
It  forbade  the  payment  of  tallages  on 
monairtie  property,  and  rendered  illegal  other 
imposts  hy  which  money  was  to  be  sent  out 


of  the  countr>'.  Though  never  acted  upon, 
this  statute  is  most  important  as  the  precedent 
on  which  the  Acts  of  Provisors  and  Pnemunire 
and  the  whole  series  of  anti-papal  assertions 
of  the  independence  of  English  nationality 
were  based. 

Statutes  e^tlit  Realm,  i.  150. 

Carlow,  the  seat  of  one  of  the  great 
castles  founded  by  the  Norman  conquerors  of 
Ireland,  was  often  taken  and  re-taken  in  the 
rebellion  of  1641.  In  July,  1660,  it  was 
occupied  by  the  Royalists,  and  after  a  short 
siege  taken  by  the  Parliamentarians,  under 
Sir  Hardress  Waller.  In  May  25,  1798,  a 
skirmish  took  place  between  the  royal  troops 
and  the  rebels,  in  which  400  of  the  latter 
were  killed. 

CamarvoilfUENRY  Howard  Molynbvx 
Herbert,  4th  Earl  of  (b,  1831,  d,  1890), 
was  Colonial  Under  Secretary  of  State 
in  Lord  Derby's  second  administration, 
1868 — 9,  and  Secretary'  of  State  for  the 
Colonies  in  Lord  Derby's  third  administra- 
tion, 1866.  He  resigned  on  account  of  a  dif- 
ference of  opinion  respecting  Parliamentary 
Reform,  in  1867.  In  Mr.  Disraeli's  cabinet 
in  1874  he  was  again  Colonial  Secretary. 
In  1878  he  resigned  upon  the  Eastern  ques- 
tion. In  1886  he  became  Lord  Lieutenant  of 
Ireland  in  Lord  Salisbury's  first  administra- 
tion, resigning  in  January,  1886. 

Camatio  was  the  name  formerly  given 
to  the  district  in  south-eastern  India  ex- 
tending along  the  coast  from  the  Guntoor 
Circar  to  Cape  Comorin,  now  included  in  the 
Presidency  of  Madras.  In  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century  the  country  was  governed 
by  the  Nabob  of  the  Camatic  at  Arcot.  It  was 
cut  up,  however,  in  the  south  by  the  Mah- 
ratta  kingdom  of  Taniore,  the  British  and 
French  s^lements,  and  the  almost  indepen- 
dent districte  of  the  Polygan  of  Macmra, 
Tinnevelly,  &c.  It  was  feudally  subject  to 
the  Viceroy,  or  Kizam,  of  the  Deocan.  In 
1743  Anwur-ud-Deen  was  appointed  Nabob 
by  the  Nizam-ul-Mulk.  On  his  death,  the 
succession  was  disputed  between  Chunda 
Sahib,  who  was  assisted  by  the  French,  and 
Mohammed  Ali,  who  was  supported  by  the 
English.  The  latter  succeeded  in  establishing 
their  nominee  as  Nabob  over  the  greater  part 
of  the  Camatic;  but  both  he  and  his  son, 
Omdut-ul-Omrah,  who  succeeded  in  1796, 
failed  to  raise  themselves  from  a  position  of 
dependence  on  the  English.  The  discovery 
of  their  correspondence  with  Tippoo  Sahib 
(q.v.)  determined  Lord  Wellesley  on  annex- 
ing itie  country,  under  the  conviction  that  the 
alliance  treaties  had  thereby  been  broken. 
On  the  death  of  Omdut-ul-Omrah,  therefore, 
an  arrangement  was  made  (1801)  with  Azim- 
ul-Omrah,  his  nephew,  to  the  effect  that  the 
entire  ci\-il  and  militar}'  government  of  the 
state  should  be  resigned 'to  the  Company,  and 


Car 


(  230  ) 


Car 


one-fifth  of  the  revenue  should  be  reserved 
for  his  support.  On  his  death,  in  182*5, 
the  title  was  continued  to  his  infant  son,  and 
on  the  death  of  the  latter,  childless,  in  1853, 
the  title  was  exting^uished. 

Carney  Sik  Edward  (d,  1561),  was  a 
graduate  of  Oxford,  where  he  became  Doctor 
of  Civil  Law  in  1524.  He  was  frequently  em- 
ployed as  envoy  to  various  foreign  princes  by 
Henry  VIII.  In  1530  he  was  sent  by  the 
king  to  Home  to  argue  against  the  citation  of 
Henry  to  appear  at  the  Papal  Court.  He 
frequently  represented  the  English  sovereign 
at  Home  under  Mar}%  and  in  the  earlier  years 
of  Elizabeth's  reign ;  but  was  finally  detained 
by  Paul  IV.  at  Rome,  and  compelled  to 
become  governor  of  the  English  Hospital 
there.  This  was  declared  to  be  a  gross 
violation  of  the  privilege  of  an  ambassador; 
but  it  is  probable  that  Sir  Edward,  who  dis- 
liked the  religious  changes  of  Elizabeth,  was  a 
willing  captive. 

Caroline,  Quefn  (6.  1682,  <l.  1737), 
wife  of  King  George  II.,  was  the  daughter 
of  John  Frederick,  Margrave  of  Branden- 
burg Anspach.  Tn  the  year  1705  she  married 
Prince  George  of  Hanover,  over  whom,  in 
spite  of  his  immorality,  she  maintained  the 
g^reatest  influence  during  his  life.  During 
the  quarrels  of  her  husband  and  his 
father,  she  retained  her  influence  over  the 
first  without  forfeiting  the  esteem  of  the 
second.  In  1727  she  was  crowned  with  her 
husband.  When  Walpole  was  displaced  from 
power,  at  the  commencement  of  the  reign, 
she  espoused  his  cause,  being  persuaded  of 
his  financial  abilities,  and  attracted  by  the 
jointure  of  £100,000  a  year  he  secured  in  her 
favour.  She  therefore  persuaded  the  king  that 
Gompton  was  unfitted  for  the  post  of  minister. 
Daring  her  life  she  continued  the  firm  friend 
of  Walpole,  and  upheld  his  policy  of  peace 
at  home  and  abroad.  She  was  deeply  morti- 
fied when  he  was  obliged  to  relinquish  his 
Excise  scheme.  In  1737  she  reprieved 
Porteous,  who  was  condemned  for  firing  on 
the  crowd  at  Edinburgh.  On  the  outbreak  of 
the  quarrel  between  Frederick,  Prince  of 
Wales,  and  her  husband,  she  violently  es- 
poused the  cause  of  the  latter.  In  consequence, 
she  and  her  son  were  on  extremely  bad 
terms,  and  the  queen  often  expressed  a 
wish  for  the  prince's  death.  Her  influence 
over  the  kinp:  continued  unimpaired  till  the 
end  of  her  life,  and  on  her  death-bed  the 
monarch  gave  a  rather  curious  testimony  of 
it.  The  dying  queen  besought  her  husband 
to  marry  again.  *'Non,**  answered  the 
sobbing  prince,  "j'aurai  des  mattresses." 
"  Oh,  mon  Dieu ! "  was  the  reply ;  "  cela 
n'emp^che  pas."  Caroline  was  a  woman  of 
considerable  intellectual  ability.  She  knew 
something  of  philosophy  and  theology,  and 
aJSected  the  character  of  patroness  of  litera- 


ture and  poetry.     She  took  creditable  ) 

to  get  the  higher  posts  in  the  Church 

by  men  of  learning  and  character.    Sh( 

a  valuable  ally  of  Walpole,  and  matei 

assisted  him  in  carrying  out  his  policy. 

The  best  account  of  the  queen  is  gainec 
Hervey's  Mmaoirt,  See  abo  Horace  Wi 
Memoir$,  and  Stanhope,  Hut.  of  Eng. 

Caroline    of   Bmnswiok,    Q 

wife  of  George  IV.  (b.  1768,  d.  1821),  w 
daughter  of  Duke  Charlss  William  Fre 
of  Brunswick,  who  died  after  the  bati 
Jena  and  Aucrstadt,  1806,  and  sister  of 
William  Frederick,  who  was  killed 
battle  of  Ligny,  1815.    Her  mother,  Ai 
was  daughter  of  Prince  Frederick  of 
and  sister  of  George  III.    At  the 
twenty-seven  the  princess  was   man 
George,  Prince  of  Wales,  afterwards 
and  king.    A  more  unfortunate  choic 
not  have  been  made.    The  prince  was 
married  to  ^Irs.  FitzHerbert,and  althoi 
marriage    was   considered   void   unc 
Royal  Marriage  Act,  he  was  averse 
tracting  any  other  similar  tic.    The 
had  been    badly    brought   up,    was 
but     uneducated     and    undisciplinc 
pulsive  and  indiscreet,  with   a   goo 
but    devoid    of    regulating  judgmei 
marriage  took  place  on  April  8,  1' 
daughter,  afterwards  Princess    Cha 
Wales,  was  bom  on  January  7,  1796 
before  this  the  prince  had  treated  hi 
badly  as  to  call  forth  a  remonstrance 
father.     He  now  wrote,  on  April  30, 
say  that  they  were  to  live  apart, 
pudiation  of    his  wife  without  an 
except  personal  dislike,  within  a  yea 
marriage,  is  sufficient  to  account 
almost  to  excuse,  any  conduct  of  i 
might  afterwards  have  been  guilty, 
remained  thus  for  the  next  ten  yc 
princess  lived  quietly  at  BlackheatV 
year  1806  rumours  were  set  afloal 
conduct  of  the  princess  had  been 
She  always  had  a  fancy  for  chi 
before  her  death  had  adopted  ha 
At  this  time  she  had  adopted  n  cli 
William  Austin,  and  scandal  said  i 
mother.  A  delicate  investiiration  ^v 
eWdence  was  laboriously  collected,  i 
laid  before  the  king.     The   repor 
the  princess  of  improper  conduct, 
to  fix  upon  her  the  charge  of   i 
Assisted  by  Perceval  and  otKers, 
ously  defended   herself^     and     'w 
acquitted  by  a  Minute  of   Count 
Princess  Charlotte  of  Wales  -was 
crown.    As  a  child  she  liad  bee 
see  her  mother  regularly,    but 
growing  up  the  permission  bo^ 
fused.      Canning    and     Hrough 
themselves  on  the  side  of  CaroUn 
the  whole  force  of  popular  opin' 
for  the  prince  was  very  much. 
the  wrongs  of  the  prinoese  -were 


Car 


(231  ) 


touch  the  heart  of  the  maltitnde.    The  queen 
took  a  strong  dislike  to  her,  and  ahout  1813 
she    was    forbidden    to    attend    the    royal 
drawing-room.      In  June,    1814,   she   went 
abroad,  with  an  allowance  of  £35,000  a  year. 
She  went  first  to  Brunswick,  and  then  to 
Switzerland  and  Italy.     Her  conduct  was 
very  eccentric,  and  her  suite  gradually  left 
her,   upon  which  she  feU   into    the  hands 
of  an  Italian  family  named  Bergami.     She 
went  to  Jerusalem,  and    then  returned  to 
Italy,  living  at  the  Villa  d'Este,  on  the  Lake 
of  Como.     On  January  29,  1820,  George  IV. 
succeeded  to  the  throne,  and  his  wife  assumed 
the  title  of  queen.     Before  this  a  commission 
had  been  sent  out  to  Milan  to  collect  evidence 
of  the  queen's  conduct  during  her  sojourn  at 
the  Villa   d'Este.      The    king  ordered  her 
name  to  be  omitted  from  the  Liturgy,  and 
forbade  royal    honours  to    be    paid  her  at 
foreign  courts.     The  queen,  finding  herself 
thus  treated  at  Bome.  determined  to  come  to 
Bngland.    Immediately  after  her  airival  steps 
for  bringing  her  to  trial  were  taken.    On 
November  6  a  Bill  of  Pains  and  Penalties, 
the  proceedings  in  connection  with  which  are 
popularly  known  as  the  Queen's  *'  trial,''  was 
passed  iu  the  House  of  Lords  by  a  majority  of 
twenty-six,  but   on    the    third  reading  the 
majority  was  only  nine,  and  it  was  with- 
drawn.   This  result  was  received  with  general 
delight  throughout  the  country.  On  November 
29  the  queen  weut  in  procession  to  St.  Paul's, 
to  return  thanks  for  her  deliverance  from  a 
^reat  peril  and  affliction.     In  the  next  session 
of    Parliament    she    accepted  a  pension   of 
£60,000  a  ^ear  from  the  government,  and 
from  that  time  her  popularity  gradually  de- 
clined.   In  1821  George  IV.  determined  to  be 
crowned  with  great  pomp  in  Westminster 
Hall.      The    queen    claimed,    according    to 
ancient  precedent,  to  share  the  ceremony  with 
him.    At  an  early  hour  on  the  morning  of 
the  coronation  the  queen  set  out  with  a  coach 
and  six.    She  had  no  ticket  of  admittance, 
and  was  repulsed  by  the  ofiicials.     As  she  re- 
treated the  jeers  of  the  crowd  followed  her. 
This  was  on  July  19,  and  she  died  on  August 
7.     However  much  she  may  have  been  defi- 
cient in  moral  dignity,  we  may  feel  convinced 
that  there  was  no  foundation  for  the  grave 
charges  brought  against  her  character ;  and  for 
the  lighter  indiscretions  of  her  life  her  educa- 
tion and  the  treatment  of  her  husband  are 
quite  sufficient  both  to  account  and  to  atone. 

Paali,  Engliaehe  Oetehickte  text  181S ;  Spencer 
Wolpole,  Hi»i.  of  Biiji.  tince  28 IS ;  The  QrevUU 
Memoir'*;  G.  Bose,  Diary;  Bake  of  Buckiiig- 
hiun,  Memoire  of  the  Court  of  the  Regencu, 

[0.  B.J 

CaratareSy  William  {b.  1649,  d.  1715), 
was  educated  at  Utrecht,  where  he  became  ac- 
quainted with  William  III.  He  was  accused 
of  being  implicated  in  the  Kye  House  Plot, 
and  was  tortured  at  Edinburgh.  After  the 
Revolution,  he  acquired  great  influence  with 


William,  to  whom  he  acted  as  a  sort  of  un- 
official secretary  for  Scotch  affairs.  The 
king  appointed  Carstares  his  chaplain  in  Scot- 
land. In  1704  he  became  Principal  of  Edin- 
burgh University,  and  was  one  of  the  active 
supporters  of  the  Union.  "Sprung  of  that 
respectable  middle  class,"  says  Mr.  Burton, 
*'to  whom  it  has  been  in  a  manner  the 
peculiar  pride  of  the  Scots  priesthood  to 
belong,  he  rose  to  hold  in  his  hands  the 
destinies  of  the  proudest  heads  of  the  proud 
feudal  houses  of  Scotland."  Carstares  was 
a  man  of  undoubted  ability,  and  is  honour- 
ably distinguished  among  the  public  men  of 
his  age  by  his  firmness  and  honesty.  A 
volume  of  his  State  Papers  and  Letters 
was  published  in  1774,  and  is  of  considerable 
value  as  illustrating  Scottish  affairs  during 
the  Revolution. 

M'Cormick,  Life  of  Caretaree  prefixed  to  the 
State  Papers;  Story,  Character'  and  Career  of 
William  Caretaree^  1874;  Macanlaj,  Hist,  of 
Eng. ;  and  Barton,  Kitt.  of  Scotland. 

Carte,  Thomas  (b.  1686,  d.  1754),  bom 
at  Clifton,  studied  at  Oxford,  and  entered  the 
Church.  He  was  a  strong  partisan  of  the 
Stuarts.  He  declined  to  take  the  oath  to 
George  I.,  and  abandoned  the  priesthood ;  and, 
being  suspected  of  complicity  in  the  Jacobite 
plots  of  1715  and  1722,  ho  was  obliged  to  flee 
to  France,  where  he  resided  for  twelve  years. 
He  was  the  author  of  a  Life  of  Jatnee^  Luke  of 
Onnondey  3  vols,  folio ;  and  a  History  of  England 
to  the  year  1654.  Both  are  valuable  works, 
showing  much  learning  and  industi'y  on  the 
part  of  the  author,  though  his  strong  Stuart 
partisanship  is  very  marked,  especially  in  the 
hf  e  of  Ormonde. 

Carteret,  Lord.  [Gramvillb,  John 
Carterbt,  Eaul.] 

Cartkiudans,  The,  one  of  the  regular 
monastic  orders,  was  an  offshoot  of  the 
Benedictines.  The  order  was  instituted 
at  Chartreuse,  by  Bruno  of  Cologne,  in 
1080.  The  rule  resembled  that  of  the  Bene- 
dictines, but  was  much  more  rigorous  and 
austere.  The  Carthusians  came  into  England 
about  1180;  but  they  failed  to  make  much 
way  in  the  country.  There  were  only  nine 
monajBteries  of  the  order  in  England :  the 
Charterhouse  (the  name,  of  course,  is  a 
corruption  for  Chartreuse)  in  London,  and 
those  at  Witham,  Henton,  Beamed,  St.  Anne's 
Coventry,  Kingston-on-HuU,  Mountgrace, 
Eppworth,  and  Shene.  There  were  no  Car- 
thusian nunneries  in  England. 

Cartisnuuidlia  was  the  Queen  of  the 
Brigantes,  from  whom  Caractacus,  after  his 
defeat  by  the  Romans  (a.d.  51),  sought  shelter 
and  assistance,  nnd  by  whom  he  was  treacher- 
ously betrayed  to  his  enemies.  [Caradoc] 
According  to  Tacitus,  Cartismandua  quitted  her 
husband,  Venusius,  and  married  his  armour- 
bearer,  Vellocatus.  Venusius  drove  her  from 
I  her  territories,  and  forced  her  to  seek  an  asylum 


Car 


(  232  ) 


Cbb 


in  the  camp  of  the  Komans,  who  marched 
into  the  district  and  took  possession  of  it. 
Ttecitus,  Annal.,  xU.  36,  40 ;  Hut.  ii.  45. 

Cartwright,  Thomas  (b.  1535,  d.  1603), 
the  leader  of  the  Church  of  England  party  in 
Elizabeth's  reign  which  advocated  the  aboli- 
tion of  episcopacy,  was  educated  at  Cambridge, 
whence  he  was  compelled  to  withdraw  during 
the  Marian  persecution.  On  the  accession  of 
Elizabeth  he  returned,  and  acquired  great  re- 
putation as  a  preacher,  becoming  so  active 
a  Buppoi'ter  of  a  Presb}i;erian  polity  and  so 
determined  an  opponent  of  episcopacy  that 
he  was  prohibited  from  occupying  the  pulpit, 
and  expelled  from  the  university.  In  1572 
he  puluished  his  Admonition  to  Farliament 
(q.v.),  and  was  drawn  into  a  long  controversy 
with  Archbishop  Whitgift.  In  1584  he  was 
imprisoned  by  order  of  Bishop  Aylmer,  but 
released  bv  Uie  queen.  In  1590,  after  the 
death  of  his  patron,  Leicester,  Cartwright 
was  examined  by  the  Court  of  Star  Chamber, 
and  sent  to  the  Fleet  Prison,  *'  for  setting  up  a 
new  discipline  and  a  new  form  of  worship,^' 
remaining  in  confinement  for  nearly  two  years. 
Hook,  Lives  of  fht  ArchbuKops. 

Caracage  was  a  tax  on  ever>'  carucate  or 
hundred  acres  of  land,  and  was'  first  imposed 
over  the  whole  countr}'  by  Richard  I.  in  1198, 
when  the  tax  was  five  shillings.  John,  in 
the  first  year  of  his  reign,  fixed  it  at  three 
shillings.  A  carucate  was  original!}'  as  much 
land  as  could  be  ploughed  by  one  team  in  a 
season,  but  it  afterwards  became  fixed  at  one 
hundred  acres. 

Caahelf  The  Synod  of  (1172),  was  a  great 
assembly  of  the  Irish  Church,  attended  by 
all  the  archbishops  and  bishops.  The  eccle- 
siastical disorders,  which  had  formed  one  at 
least  of  the  causes  which  led  to  the  Bull  of 
Pope  Adrian,  and  the  invasion  of  Ireland  by 
Henry  II.,  were  condemned.  Thus  the  mar- 
riage of  the  clergy  was  forbidden,  the  tithe 
introduced,  the  appropriation  of  benefices  by 
laymen,  and  levying  of  cashery  on  the 
olergy  abolished.  In  other  ways,  too,  the 
Bonuin  discipline  and  the  authority  of  the 
Pope  were  recognised. 

GHxaldcu  Cambreiuds,  Dt  Bxpuqnat.  fitb^m. 

Caakat  ^attars  are  a  celebrated  col- 
lection of  documents,  supposed  to  bo  the 
correspondence  between  Bothwell  and  3Iary 
Stuart.  Bothwell  left  in  Edinburgh  Castle 
a  casket  containing  some  papers,  for 
which  he  sent  after  his  flight  from  Car- 
berry  Hill.  His  messenger  was  intercepted 
whilst  returning,  and  the  casket  and  its 
contents  ft^ll  into  the  hands  of  the  Earl  of 
Morton.  On  a  letter  from  the  queen  to  Both- 
well  contained  in  it,  the  charge  that  she  was 
an  accomplice  in  Damley*s  murder  was 
founded.  The  letters  were  laid  before  the 
Scotch  Council  of  Government,  and  the 
Hcotch     Parliament     adjudged    the    chitrge 


proved  (Dec.   1567).    They  were  again  J 
duced  before  the  EngUsh  Gommissionen 
Westminster,  compared  with  other  writ! 
of    the    queen*s,    with   which  they   ool 
sponded.  (Dec.,  1568).    The  letters  dcsoen 
from  one  ScottltQi  regent  to  another, 
finally  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  £a 
Gowrie.    After  his    execution  (1584) 
disappeared.      They    had,    however, 
traiuuated  into  different  languages  and 
lished.     Mar}'  continually  asserted  thei 
be  forgeries,  and  demanded  first  to  set 
ori^nals,   then  to  be  provided  with  c< 
Neither  of  these  requests  was  granted. 
argument  in  favour  of  the  theory  tha 
letters  were  forgeries  is  furnished  by  th 
that  the  two  most  criminatory'  letters 
evidently  originally  written  in  Scotch 
the  copies  published  were  a  translation  < 
Scotch  original  into  Flinch.   But  Marx- 
after  her  flight  into  England,  always  us 
French  language  in  her  letters.    The 
the  conclusion  is  that  she  could  not 
written  these  letters.    But  the  question 
genuineness    of   non-existent    documc 
naturally  diflScult  to  solve.    Amongst  £ 
historians,  Froude,  Burton,  and  Laing 
the  letters  genuine ;  Caird  and  Hosac 
the  opposite  view.     Of  foreign  writers 
subject,  Rankc,  Pauli,  Mignet,  and  C 
accept  the  letters,  whilst  &chiem,  Phi] 
Grauthier,  and  Chantelauze,  deny  their 
ticity. 

Ghiuthier,  Maris  Shi  »rf  ;  Mignet,  Ifuri 

Schiem,  BUhnM ;  Philippsou,  Wtwk  E 

ZMilkaJiUrwnFhUippn, 

Cassiterides,  The,  or  Tin  Islai 
mentioned  bv  Heit>dotus,  and  allude 
Polybius  and  other  early  writers,  ar 
ally  identified  with  the  8cilly  Isles ;  b 
the  name  Cassiterides  it  is  very  probi 
the  adjacent  parts  of  Devon  and  < 
were  included.  [Scilly  Isles,  j 
Elton,  Origi'M  of  Bug.  HUt. 

CassiTellannus  (Caswallon] 

time  of  Cassar's  second  invasion  of  Br 
54),  was  chief  of  the  Cassi,  and  ha 
before  usurped  the  sovereignty  of  tl 
bantes  and  murdered  the  Lawful  ki 
Roman  invasion  drove  the  tribes  of  1 
east  of  Britain  to  form  a  league,  at  t 
which  Cassivellaunus  was  placed,  f 
time  he  succeeded  in  repelling  th< 
but  his  stronghold  being  capturec 
other  tribes  having  deserted  hinr 
mitted  to  Caesar,  gave  up  the  cout 
Trinobantes  to  Mandubratius,  son 
king,  and  contented  himself  vritK  1 
own  domains.  After  the  departux 
we  hear  nothing  more  of  CcMsivella 

Castillon,  The  Battle  op  ( 
the  last  engagement  in  tlie  Miiii< 
War  between  England  and  Franci 
the  Gascons  rose  against  tlie  IT 
besought  aid  from  fkigland.      Tal 


Cam 


(  233  ) 


Cas 


Shrewslniry,  was  sent  oat,  and  was  at  first 
very  successful.  In  June,  1453,  hearing  that 
the  French  were  besieging  CastiUon,  a  fortress 
on  the  Dordogne,  he  marched  with  a  smull 
force  to  relieve  it,  but  the  French  were 
stronger  than  he  imagined,  and  he  was 
defeated  and  slain.  With  his  death  all  the 
hopes  of  the  Kngliah  were  at  an  end. 

CasUebar  Baces  (1798).  The  name 
given  to  tiie  engagement  fought  near  Castle- 
bar  on  August  26,  1798,  during  the  French 
raid  on  Ireland.  Generals  Lake  and  Hutchin- 
eon,  with  2,000  Irish  militia,  a  large  body  of 
yeomanr>%  and  Lord  Roden's  fencibles,  ad- 
vanced against  General  Humbert,  who  had 
landed  at  Killala  on  the  17th  of  the  month. 
Humbert  had  with  him  800  French  troops, 
and  about  1,000  of  the  Irish  rebels.  The 
militia,  however, would  not  stand  their  gpK)und, 
and  at  once  ran ;  and  the  yeomanry  following. 
Lake's  guns  were  taken,  and  Roden*s  horse 
were  unable  to  save  the  day.  Of  Lake's  men 
fifty- three  were  killed  and  tlurty-f our  wounded; 
the  French  loss  was  heavier,  but  they  took 
fourteen  guns  and  200  prisoners,  and  the  town 
of  Oastlebar  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  insur- 
gents, with  whom  it  remained  for  about  a 
fortnight,  till  the  surrender  of  Humbert  at 
BaQinamuck,  on  September  8th. 

Cfeurtlereagll,     Viscount.       [London- 

DERBY.] 

CastleSy  of  which  there  are  remains  of 
nearly  500  in  England  alone,  belong  chiefly  to 
the  period  between  the  Norman  Onquest  and 
the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century.  It  is  true 
that  strong  places  were  fortified  by  Alfred 
and  his  successors ;  but  these  would  rarely 
be  more  than  a  mound  and  a  ditch,  with 
vrooden  tower  and  palisade;  and  Domesday, 
virhich  mentions  forty-nine  castles,  gives  only 
one  stone  castle,  viz.,  Arundel,  as  existing  under 
the  Confessor.  They  were  a  Norman  product, 
even  when,  as  at  Hereford  and  Warwick, 
strong  earthworks  in  place  of  masonr}'  show 
that  the  Norman  builder  used  an  existing 
English  fortress.  They  are  identical  in  type 
with  the  great  castles  of  Normandy,  and 
keep  pace  with  them  in  development.  Thus 
the  essential  point  of  the  Norman  castle  is  the 
massive  rectangular  keep,  with  walls  as  much 
as  20  feet  thick,  and,  as  at  Rochester,  over  100 
feet  high,  with  its  stairs,  chapel,  chambers, 
kitchen,  well — making  it  complete  in  itself  as 
a  last  resort.  The  base  court  in  the  castles 
built  immediately  after  the  Norman  Conquest 
{e.p,,  Oxford,  London,  Newcastle)  was  for 
4Mnne  years  left  to  the  protection  of  a  stockade. 
When  this  was  replaced  by  circuit  walls,  with 
a  strong  gatehouse,  we  have  complete  the 
Norman  system  of  fortification  by  solid  works 
ot  great  passive  strength.  The  "  Edwardian*' 
castle  (e,ff,,  Carnarvon)  exhibits  a  system, 
which  completely  superseded  this,  of  concen- 
tric works,  with  skilful  arrangement  of  parts, 
BO  as  to  include  a  far  larger  area.    Such 

HiST.— 8* 


a  castle  as  Bamborough  could  accommodate 
a  large  garrison  with  stores,  horses,  and 
cattle,  and  could  be  stormed  only  in  detail. 
The  duke  in  Normandy  had  exercised  the  right 
of  holding  a  garrison  in  the  castles  of  his 
barons,  and  the  Norman  kings  of  England 
jealouslv  maintained  the  requirement  of  a  royal 
licence  lor  their  erection.  Of  the  forty-nine  in 
Domesday,  thirty  were  built  by  the  Conqueror 
himself.  In  the  anarchy  of  Stephen's  days,  375 
were  built,  or,  according  to  Ralph  de  Diceto, 
1,115.  Henry  II.,  on  his  accession,  had  to 
besiege  and  recover  for  the  crown  the 
"  adulterine  "  castles ;  and  after  the  revolt  of 
1 173  it  became  a  definite  policy  of  the  crown 
to  keep  down  their  numbers,  and  have  a 
voice  in  the  appointment  of  castellans.  One  of 
the  first  steps  of  the  barons  of  1258  was  to  sub- 
stitute nineteen  of  themselves  for  the  alien 
favourites  as  guardians  of  the  royal  castles, 
and  the  last  stand  of  the  defeated  party  was 
made  in  De  Montfort's  castle  of  Kenilworth 
from  Oct.,  1265,  to  Dec.,  1266.  After  this  the 
castles  ceased  to  be  a  menace  to  toxhI  power. 
The  Edwardian  castles  were  chiefly  national 
defences  on  the  coast  or  the  Welsh  and  Scotch 
Marches.*  The  number  of  licences  to  "crenel- 
late  and  tenellate  '*  rises  to  its  height  in  the 
i*eigns  of  Edward  II.  and  Edward  III.; 
the  Commons  in  1371  even  petition  that 
leave  to  do  this  ma}^  be  given  freely  for  all 
men's  houses  and  for  the  walls  of  boroughs. 
But  these  were  castellated  mansions  rather 
than  true  castles.  In  them  the  keep  sinks  to 
a  guardhouse,  the  waUs  are  less  solid,  the 
windows  are  adapted  to  convenience  rather 
than  defence.  However,  under  the  Stuarts 
such  fortified  mansions  proved  capable  of 
standing  a  siege.  But  the  last  castles  are  not 
later  than  Tudor  times,  and  even  the  "  Peel " 
towers,  for  defence  against  the  Scots,  fell 
into  ruin  after  the  union  of  the  kingdoms. 
The  castles  had  been  a  heavy  cost  and 
trouble  to  the  crown.  Bridgnorth  alone  had 
cost  in  repairs  £213  during  Henry  II.'s  reign ; 
the  Constable  of  Bridgnorth  besides  was  paid 
40  marks  salar}';  and  the  jurors  of  1258 
declared  it  required  £20  a  year  to  keep  it  up 
in  time  of  peace.  The  tenure  of  castle  guard, 
at  the  rate  of  forty  days'  service  for  a  knight's 
fee,  commuted  often  for  a  mark  on  the  fee, 
was  a  burden  vexatious  both  to  nobles  and 
gentry'.  Some  castles,  like  Lancaster  and 
Richmond,  were  associated  with  a  quasi-royal 
jurisdiction  over  the  district.  In  others  the 
lords  would  be  only  too  ready  to  arrogate 
such  rights.  Many,  no  doubt,  like  Bridg- 
north, served  as  centres  of  tyranny,  even 
when  in  royal  hands.  And  this  tendency 
probably  accounts  for  the  frequent  changes 
made  by  the  crown  in  the  persons  chosen  as 
royal  constables,  and  for  the  fact  that  Ed- 
ward I.  finds  it  necessary,  even  after  Henry 
II. 's  determined  assertion  of  royal  rights,  to 
make  the  Qito  Warranto  inquiry  into  the 
jurisdictions  claimed  by  each  of  his  barons. 


Cat 


(234  ) 


Cat 


It  ia  only  by  closely  tracing  the  local  histor}' 
of  some  one  great  castle  that  the  justice  can 
be  realised  of  Matthew  Paris* s  description  of 
them  as  **  nests  of  devils  and  dens  of  thieves/' 
or  the  bitter  words  of  the  contemporary  Eng- 
lish monk  of  Peterborough  on  the  castles  of 
Stephen's  reign  :— "  They  filled  the  land  full 
of  castles,  and  when  they  were  finished,  filled 
them  with  devils  and  evil  men ;  .  .  .  then 
they  tortured  men  and  women  for  their  gold 
and  silver ;  .  .  .  then  plundered  they  and 
burned  all  the  towns;  .  .  .  they  spared 
neither  church  nor  churchyard;  .  .  .  they 
robbed  the  monks  and  the  clergy;  .  .  . 
the  earth  bare  no  com;  the  land  was  all 
ruined  by  such  deeds;  and  it  was  said 
openly  that  Christ,  slept  and  His  saints/' 
The  castles  of  England,  on  many  sides 
illustrate  the  national  history.  Berkeley  has 
its  story  of  royal  tragedy,  Kenilworth  of 
constitutional  struggle,  Carlisle  of  border 
romance.  The  names  of  Montgomery  and 
Balliol  and  Granville  recall  the  baronial 
families  who  brought  into  England  the  titles 
of  their  Norman  castles.  And  the  immense 
households  which  the  later  spirit  of  chivalry 
gathered  together  into  Alnwick,  or  Lancaster, 
or  Warwick  made  the  castle  of  the  fourteenth 
and  fifteenth  centuries  a  local  centre  of  vast 
social  influence,  even  when  the  days  of  its 
military  and  constitutional  domination  had 
passed  away. 

VioUet-le-Duc.  Es$ay  on  Military  Architec- 
ture; J.  H.  Parker,  DonusBtic  Architecture; 
Q.  T.  Clark  in  Archaolog,  Journal,  i  93,  zziv. 
92 ;  King,  Munimenta  Antiqua ;  the  Regiatrum 
de  Richmunde ;  Selden,  Title*  of  Honour;  Mudoz, 
Baronia  Analica;  Dugdale,  Baronage  of  Eng- 
land; Lord/  Report  on  the  Dignity  of  a  Peer, 
1825-9,  2nd  Beport,  pt.  i. ;  and  the  good  county 
histories,  such  as  Sortees,  Durham.  Evton, 
Shropehire,  Ac.  [A.  L.  ».] 

Catean  Cambresis,  Thb  Treaty  op 
(April  2, 1559),  was  concluded  between  France, 
Spain,  and  England  after  the  accession  of 
Elizabeth.  The  chief  diflSculty  in  bringing 
about  the  peace  had  been  the  question  of 
Calais,  which  the  French  were  determined  to 
keep.  Finally  it  was  arranged  that  the 
French  should  keep  the  town  for  eight  years, 
and  then  restore  it.  The  {""rench  gave  up 
their  claims  on  Milan  and  Naples ;  tiiey  also 
agreed  to  evacuate  and  raze  the  fortresses 
they  had  built  on  the  Scottish  border,  and  to 
give  substantial  bonds  for  the  restitution  of 
Calais.  The  Dauphin  and  Bauphiness  were 
to  confirm  the  treaty,  and  to  agree  to  re- 
cognise Elizabeth's  right  to  the  English 
orown. 

The  treaty  is  given  in  Bymer,  FoMUro,  xt.  505. 

Catesby,  William  {d.  1488),  one  of 
Hichard  IIl.'s  ministers,  was  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Commons  in  1484,  and  seems  to 
have  owed  his  rise  to  Lord  Hastings,  of 
whom  he  was  at  first  a  close  follower,  though 
be  afterwards  deserted  his  cause  when 
Hastings    fell    under    the    displeasure    of 


Hichard.    He    was   taken  at  the  ba 

Bosworth  and  put  to  death  by  tho  oi 

Henry  VII.     The  three  principal  ad\ 

Kichard  III. — Catesby,  Sir  Richard  ] 

and  Lord  Level,  are  held  up  to  oppi 

with  him  in  the  well-known  contei 

rhyme : — 

"  The  Cat,  the  Bat,  and  Lovel  the  D 
Bole  all  England  under  the  Hog." 

Cathedral  is  properly  the  chief 
of  the  diocese,  in  which  the  bishop's 
established.  The  ecclesiastical  orp:^ 
on  the  Continent  generally  followed  t 
of  the  political  organisation  of  the 
Empire.  The  province  usually  bee 
diocese,  and  the  diurch  of  the  provinci: 
became  the  seat  of  the  bishop.  In  ] 
however,  Christianity  was  largely 
by  missionaries,  who  lived  togeth 
monastic  rules.  Hence,  among  others 
the  English  cathedrals — «.^.,  Worcest 
originally  monaster}'  churches,  over 
bishop  was  set.  In  other  cases  tl 
was  set  over  a  district,  and  chose 
cathedral  church.  Hence  the  bisb 
were  frequently  changed,  till  after  th 
Conquest  they  were  ordered  to  be  fixe 
and  waUed  towns.  Thus,  among  o1 
older  cathedrals  of  Sherborne,  Sc 
Dorchester  gave  place  to  those  of  ! 
Chichester,  and  Lincoln.  [B] 
English  cathedrals  were  of  two  class* 
ing  to  their  origin.  The  elergj*  attach 
were  in  some  cases  monks,  in  othc 
canons.  Tn  the  first  case  the  bisho] 
as  abbot  of  the  monastery,  in  the  s 
he  was  the  head  of  his  chapter, 
cases,  however,  the  ^ular  and  offi 
of  the  bishop  tended  to  sever  hin 
cathedral,  and  the  chapter  took  pc 
it.  The  dean  became  more  pow 
the  absent  bishop,  who  was  gradu 
from  his  own  church,  and  retained 
a  visitatorial  power  over  his  cha 
annals  of  most  medisBval  episcopal 
of  the  quarrels  between  the  bish* 
monks  or  chapter,  leading  to  const 
to  Home  and  a  diminution  of  th 
authority.  In  the  reig^  of  He 
after  the  suppression  of  the  mom 
monastic  cathedrals  were  re-model 
"cathedrals  of  the  new  found 
Canterbury,  Carlisle,  Durham,  El 
Rochester,  Winchester,  and  Wore 
bishoprics  founded  by  Henry  VI] 
Chester,  Gloucester,  Oxford,  P< 
and  "Westminster — were  provided 
drals  after  the  same  model.  \ 
though  it  lost  its  bishop,  has  rctai 
and  its  position  as  a  cathedral 
recent  times  new  bishoprics  have  b 
and  the  bishop's  seat  establis 
collegiate  and  parish  churches, 
been  turned  into  cathedrals  at 
JRipon,  Liverpool,  St.  Albans,  Nc 
Southwell.     [Chapter.] 


Cat 


(  236  ) 


Cat 


Walcott,  Cathtdralia;  Freeman,  Cathedral 
Church  of-WtlU,  and  Norm.  Conq.,  iv.  414—120; 
Dioc«»an  Historimj  published  by  Uie  Society  for 
Promoting  Christian  Knowledge.        T^I.  C.] 

Catherine  of  Araffon,  Qubbn,  first 

wife  of  Henry  VIII.  (b,  I486,  d.  1536),  wrs 
the  youngest  of  the  four  daughters  of  Ferdi- 
nand, King  of  Aragon,  and  Isabella,  Queen 
of  Castile.     The  foreign  policy  of  Henry  VII. 
was  baaed  on   a   renewal  and   development 
of  the  traditional  mcdituval  alliance  between 
England  and  the  Spanish  kingdoms.     Hence, 
as  early  as  1492  a  treaty  was  made  between  the 
two  monarchs  to  cement  their  friendship  by 
intermarriage.     In  1498,  Arthur,  the  eldest 
son  of  Henry  VII.,  was  contracted  to  Cathe- 
rine by  proxy,  and  in  1601,  when  Arthur  was 
fifteen  years  old,  Catherine  was  sent  to  £kigland. 
The  marriage   was   then    celebrated  in    St. 
Paul's  Oithedral;  but  four  months  afterwards 
Arthur  died.     It  was  agreed  that  Catherine 
should  be  married  to  Henry,  Arthur's  younger 
brother.    A  papal  dispensation  was  obtained 
to  legalise  such  a  marriage,  and  a  contract  of 
marriage  was  made.      When  Henry   VIII. 
ascended  the  throne,  in  1609,  his  first  act  was 
to  marry  Catherine.     He  was  then  eighteen 
years  old,  and  she  was  twenty- four.    CaUierine 
was  not  handsome,  but  she  was  lively,  of  an 
amiable  disposition,   well-informed,  and  de- 
voted to  her  husband.     Her  married  life  was 
at  first  happy.     But  of  her  three  sons  and 
two  daug^hters,   all  died  in  infancy  except 
Man*.      She  ceased    to   bear  children,   and 
showed  the  effects  of  advancing  years  much 
more  than  did  Henry  VIII.     She  had  lost 
Henry's    affections,    but    still    retained    his 
esteem,   when  Anne  Boleyn  appeared  upon 
the  scene.     With  the  growth  of  the  king's 
attachment     to    Anne    scruples    about    the 
validity    of    his    marriage    with    Catherine 
arose  in  his  mind.      In  1627  these  scruples 
went  so  far  that  he  consulted  with  Cardinal 
AVolsey  how  to  obtain  a  divorce.    Through- 
out the  complicated  negotiations    for    that 
purpose  Catherine,  alone  and  friendless  as  she 
was,  preserved  a  firm  and  dignified  attitude. 
She  was  submissive  to  Henry's  will  on  all 
email  points,  but  refused  to  make  any  ad- 
missions which  might   facilitate  a  divorce, 
^he  stood  upon  the  justice  of  her  cause,  and, 
though  Wolsey  and  the  papal  nuncio,  Ca'm- 
peggio,  plied  her  in  every  way,  she  remained 
film.     On  June  1,  1529,  she  and  the  king 
appeared    before    the    legate    at    Windsor. 
Catherine  refused    to    admit    the    jurisdic- 
tion of  the  court,  saying  she  had  appealed 
to  Rome.    The  Pope,  Qement  VII.,  being 
in  the  power  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V., 
who  was  Catherine's  nephew,  was  driven  to 
receive  the  appeal  and  advoke  the  case  to 
Home.    Wolfley  had  failed,  and  his  disgrace 
foUowed.     Still  Henry  patiently  pursued  his 
object  of  obtaining  a  divoi*ce  from  Rome; 
as  this  became  more  improbable,  he  attempted 
to  intimidate- the  Pope.    In  1631  Catherine 


was  ordered  to  leave  Windsor ;  she  retired  to 
Ampthill,  and  was  no  longer  treated  as  queen. 
She  still  remained  firm  in  her  position  that  she 
was  the  king's  wife  by  lawful  marriage,  and 
would  so  abide  till  the  court  of  Rome  shall 
have  made  thereof  an  end."  But  Henry  VIII. 
made  an  end  his  own  way.  On  March  30, 
1533,  Cranmer  was  made  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury.  He  cited  Catherine  to  appear 
before  him  at  Dunstable.  Catherine  paid  no 
heed  to  his  citation,  and  was  pronounced  con- 
tumacious. On  l^Iay  23  Cranmer  gave  his 
decision  that  the  max^iage  was  null  and  void 
from  the  beginning,  as  contnicted  in  defiance 
of  the  Divine  prohibition.  From  this  time 
Catherine  was  styled  in  England  the  Dowager 
Princess  of  Wales.  At  Easter,  1534,  Pope 
Clement  VII.  pronounced  Henry's  marriage 
with  Catherine  to  be  lawful,  and  ordered  the 
king  to  take  back  his  legitimate  wife.  Henry 
VIII.  replied  by  an  Act  of  Parliament  de- 
claring the  marriage  unlawful,  and  making  it 
treason  to  question  the  lawfulness  of  his 
marriage  with  Anne  BolejTi.  Catherine 
lived  in  retirement  in  one  of  the  royal 
manors.  Henry  VIII.  did  not  cease  to  en- 
deavour to  procure  from  her  submission  to  his 
will,  but  she  constantly  asserted  the  lawful- 
ness of  her  marriage.  She  died  at  Kimbolton 
in  January,  1 636,  and  on  her  deathbed  wrote 
Henry  a  letter  assuring  him  of  her  forgive- 
ness, and  commending  to  his  care  their 
daughter  Mary.  By  Henry's  orders  she  was 
buried  with  becoming  pomp  in  the  abbey 
church  of  Peterborough,  which  was  soon 
after  erected  into  a  cathedral. 

The  Stat*  Pop«r«  of  Henry  VHI.'s  re'gn  ; 
J.  8.  Brewer,  The  Reign  of  Henry  VIII. ;  Froude, 
Hiatory  of  England;  Strickland,  Livea  of  the 
Qu00n«  of  England,  [M.  C.] 

Catherine  of  Bragansa,  Qubex,  wife 

of  Charles  II.  [b.  1638,  d,  1705),  was  the 
daughter  of  John,  King  of  Portugal.  She  was 
married  to  Charles  II.  in  1662.  Her  married 
life  seems  not  to  have  been  happy,  owing  to 
her  husband's  infidelities  and  the  harshness 
and  neglect  with  which  he  treated  her.  She 
mixed  very  little  in  politics,  and,  though  a 
sincere  Roman  Catholic,  never  made  any  real 
attempts  to  get  Romanism  re-established  in 
England.  Notwithstanding  this,  she  was  ac- 
cused by  Titus  Oates  of  plotting  against  the 
king's  life,  but  the  informer's  equivocations 
were  detected  by  Charles,  and  the  charge  was 
dropped.  After  her  husband's  death  she 
lived  quietly  in  England  till  1692,  when  she 
returned  to  her  native  country,  where  she 
spent  the  rest  of  her  life. 

Catherine  of  France,   Queen,  wife 

of  Henr>'  V.  {b.  1401,  d.  1438),  was  the  daughter 
of  Charles  VI.  In  1420  she  was  married  to 
Henry  V.,  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of 
the  Treaty  of  Troves.  By  him  she  had  only 
one  son,  Henry  VI.  In  'l423  she  took  for 
her  second  husband  Owen  Tudor,  a  Welsh 


Cat 


(  236  ) 


Cat 


g^ntleinin  attached  to  the  court,  "  tho  sinall- 
neas  of  whose  estate  was  recompenced  by  the 
delicacy  of  his  person,  being  every  way  a 
very  compleat  gentleman."  By  him  she  had 
three  sons,  the  eldest  of  whom,  Edmund 
Tudor,    was    the    father    of    Henry    VII. 

[TuDOliS.] 

Catherine  Howardi  Queen,  fifth  wife 

of  Henry  VIII.  (*.  P1522,  d.  1542),  was  the 
daughter  of  Lord  Edmund  Howard,  the  son 
of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  Educated  under  the 
care  of  the  Dowager  Duchess  of  Norfolk,  she 
early  developed  a  taste  for  levity  and  frivolity. 
Henr>'  VIII.  was  captivated  by  her  beauty 
and  vivacity,  and  married  her,  July  28,  1540. 
But  the  levity  which  had  marked  her  before 
her  marriage  continued  afterwards,  and  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  she  was  guilty  of 
improper  conduct  with  at  least  one  of  her 
former  lovers,  Derham.  In  Nov.,  1541,  she 
was  charged  with  adultery,  and  sent  to  the 
Tower.  On  Deo.  10  two  of  her  paramoui^, 
Derham  and  Culpepper,  were  beheaded.  In 
1542  a  Bill  of  Attainder  against  her  was 
passed;  and  on  Feb.  12  following  she  was 
executed.  Immediately  afterwards  a  bill  was 
passed  making  it  high  treason  for  any  woman 
whom  the  king  married  or  sought  in  marriage 
to  conceal  any  questionable  circumstances  in 
her  past  life. 

Strickland,  Quteng  of  England. 

Catherine  Parr,  Qubbn,  sixth  wife  of 

Henry  VIII.  {b.  1613,  d,  1548),  daughter  of 
Sir  Thomas  Parr,  was  connected  by  birth 
with  the  Nevilles  and  other  great  ^milies. 
She  was  carefully  educated,  and  married,  at  an 
unusually  early  age,  to  Edward,  Lord  Borough, 
who  left  her  a  widow,  and  in  her  sixteenth 
year  she  was  married,  for  the  second  time,  to 
John  Neville,  Lord  Latimer,  with  whom  she 
lived  happily  for  several  years.  During  this 
period  she  became  greatly  attached  to  the 
doctrines  of  the  Reformers.  Lord  Latimer 
died  in  1542,  and  Catherine  was  besieged 
by  many  suitors.  She  was  beautiful,  and 
famed  for  her  accomplishments,  and  her 
husband^s  death  had  left  her  in  possession  of 
one  of  the  finest  properties  in  the  kingdom. 
The  most  favoured  of  her  suitors  was  Sir 
Thomas  Seymour,  who,  however,  prudently 
withdrew  his  pretensions  when  the  King  cast 
his  eyes  upon  the  lady.  In  July,  1543,  she 
was  married  to  Henry,  and  this,  unlike  the 
king's  previous  matrimonial  alliances,  excited 
no  dissatisfaction  among  any  class  of  his 
subjects.  In  the  very  difficult  position  of 
queen  she  acted  with  great  prudence.  She 
ministered  to  the  gix>wing  bodily  infirmities  of 
the  king,  and  endeared  herself  to  his  children. 
But  there  is  no  doubt  that  she  was  a  sincere 
and,  as  far  as  prudence  allowed  her,  an  active 
supporter  of  tiie  Reformers.  In  spite  of  her 
great  caution,  Henr}'  conceived  a  mistrust  of 
her  theological  learning,  and  was  prevailed 
npon  by  Bishop  Gardiner  to  sigpn  articles  of 


impeachment  against  her,  and  to  on 

arrest;  but  Catherine's  skilful  manaj 

succeeded    in    averting   the   danger. 

probable,  however,  that  Henry  was  nfec 

a  fresh  charge  of  treason  against  her  v 

was  overtaken  by  death.    Almost  immi 

after  this  event  Catherine  married  her 

suitor.  Sir  Thomas  Seymour  of  Sude 

Lord  High  Admiral.     Her  husband,  h 

neglected  her,  and  had  obviously  fi 

affections  on  the  Princess  Elizabetl: 

union  was  unhappy,  and  in  August,  1 

died  in  childbirth.     From  some  wordj 

by  Catherine  during  her  last  illness 

been  supposed  that  Seymour  poison 

but  there  is  no  evidence  to  confirm 

picion.     Catherine  was  the  author  of  c 

of    Frayera   and    MeditatiotUy    and 

called,    The  Lmnentatums  of  a  Sinnet 

is  written  with  a  good  deal  of  vigou 

parts  with  some  genuine  eloquence. 

Starype,   MemoriaU;    Strickland, 
England. 

Catholic    Association,    Ti 

founded  by  Daniel  O'Connell  in 
embraced  all  classes,  and  was  real 
sentative  in  character,  though  not  r 
BO.  It  received  petitions,  appoint 
mittces,  ordered  a  census  of  the  Cath< 
lation,  and  collected  the  Catholic  Rei 
was  a  subscription  raised  all  over  I 
means  of  officers  called  Wardens,  apj 
the  Association.  O'Connell  mana^ 
money  that  came  in,  without  accoi 
I  it  to  any  one.  In  1825  Parliament 
to  put  down  the  Association  by  mc 
Convention  BiU,  but  the  Associatioi 
itself  before  the  Bill  came  into  foi 
however,  was  merely  in  appeara 
matter  of  fact,  it  continued  to  exit 
Catholic  Rent  was  still  raisod.  In 
the  victory  won  at  the  Clare  el 
Convention  Bill  having  expired,  th 
ciation  was  renewed,  and  it  de< 
none  but  Catholics  should  in  f  utur 
for  Irish  constituencies.  The  m( 
began  to  assemble  at  monster  it 
which  they  marched  in  military 
a  proclamation  against  these  mc 
obeyed  by  the  Association.  Wher 
cipation  Act  was  passed  it  was  a 
by  a  measure  for  suppressing  the 
But,  its  object  being  fulfilled,  the 
was  dissolved  before  the  Bill  1 
Shell  and  Wj-re  were  the  leaders, 
**  Liberator  "  himself. 

Catholic  Committee,  T"^ 

sociation  of  some  of  the  leading 
Ireland,  which  was  established 
of  William  II L,  and  was  intend 
over  Catholic  interests.  The  C< 
came  extremely  active  during:  th< 
the  last  quarter  of  the  eig^htc*(> 
In  1791  there  was  a  split  in  th 
the    bishops  and   the   nobleniei 


Gat 


(  237  ) 


Gat 


Fingal  and  Lord  Eenmare,  separating  from 
the  more  violent  party;  the  latter  pressed 
for  instant  emancipation,  while  the  former 
were  willing  to  wait.  The  violent  party 
determined  on  a  convention,  and  on  an 
alliance  with  •  the  United  Irishmen,  under 
Byrne  and  Keogh.  The  consequence  was  the 
Back  Lane  Parliament  (q.  v.).  Meanwhile,  how- 
ever, the  Committee  itoelf ,  after  a  hot  debate, 
accepted  the  Relief  Bill  of  1793,  and  the  Back 
Lane  Parliament  dissolved.  But  from  this 
time  the  moderate  party  lost  influence,  and  in 
1798  the  Committee  dissolved  itself.  In  1809 
and  1871  it  was  reconstituted,  and  reassembled 
fora  short  period.    [Catholic  Emancipation.] 

Catholic    Emancipation.     In    the 
reign  of  William  III.  various  statutes  had 
been    passed  against    the  Roman  Catholics 
which  forbade  Uiem  to  hold  property  in  land, 
and   subjected  their  spiritual  instructors  to 
the  penalties  of    felony.      These   acts  had 
ceased  to  be  applied,  but  they  were  a  blot 
upon  the  statute  book,  and  served  as  a  temp- 
tation    to    informers.      In    1778    an    Act, 
brought  in  by  8ir  G.  Savile,  repealed  these 
penalties    with     general     appro^Til.      These 
Acts    did   not    apply    to    ^»tland,    but    it 
was  contemplated  to  repeal  similar  enactments 
which  fstill  disgraced  the  Scotch  statute  book. 
This  stirred  up  fanaticism  in  Edinburgh.and 
Glasgow  in  1779;   riots  took  place  in  the 
Scotch   capital,  and  the  houses    of    Roman 
Catholics  were  attacked.    A  Protestant  Asso- 
ciation was  established  in  iScotland,  and  Lord 
George  Gordon,  who  was  more  than  half  a 
madman,  was  chosen  as  its  president.    The 
Association  spread  to  England,  and  a  branch 
was  established  in  London,  and  in  consequence 
the  disturbances  known  as  the  Gordon  Riots 
(q.v.)  broke  out.   In  1791  Mr.  Mitford'brought 
in  a  Bill  for  the  relief  of  **  Protesting  Catholic 
Dissenters  " — ^that  is,  Roman  Catholics  who 
|irotested  against  the  Pope's  temporal  author- 
ity, and  his  right  to  excommunicate  kings  and 
absolve  subjects  from  their  allegiance,   and 
the  right  of  not  keeping  faith  with  heretics. 
Hr.  Fox  opposed  the  measure  on  the  ground 
that   relief  should  be  given  to  all  Roman 
Catholics.    Mr.  Pitt  expressed  similar  senti- 
ments.   The  Bill  was  altered  during  its  pro- 
gress, and  at  last  it  passed  in  a  form  which 
allowed  Roman  Catholics  who  took  an  oath 
of  allegiance  to  secure  to  themselves  free- 
dom of  education,  of  holding  property,  and 
of  practising  the  profession  of  the  law.     It 
also  allowed  Catholic  peers  to  approoc-h  the 
Iring.     Roman  Catholics  were  still  worse  off 
in  Ireland.      Their  public  worship  was  pro- 
scribed; they  were  excluded  from  all  offices 
in  the  learned  professions:  they  were  deprived 
of  the  guardianship  of  their  children ;  if  they 
had  landed  estates  they  were  forbidden  to  in- 
termarry with  Protestants.     In  1792  some  of 
the  worst  of  these  disabilities  were  removed  by 
the  Irish  Parliament,  and  in  1793  this  relief  was 


further  extended.  The  restraints  on  worship 
and  education,  even  the  disposition  of  property, 
were  removed ;  they  were  admitted  to  vote  at 
elections  on  taking  the  oath  of  allegiance  and 
abjuration ;  they  could  hold  some  of  the 
higher  civil  and  military  offices,  and  could 
enjoy  the  honours  and  endowments  of  the 
University  of  Dublin.  In  the  same  year  a 
similar  Bill  was  passed  for  the  relief  of  Scotch 
Roman  Catholics.  In  1799,  when  the  Union 
with  Ireland  was  in  contemplation,  Pitt  in- 
tended to  admit  Irish  Roman  Catholics  to  the 
Parliament  of  the  United  Kingdom.  But 
George  III.  was  strongly  opposed  to  this  step, 
and  would  not  allow  his  minister  to  give  any 
direct  pledge.  When  Pitt  attempted,  aft^ 
the  Union,  to  carry  out  his  tempered  scheme 
of  relief,  the  king  refused  his  consent,  and 
Pitt  resigned  office.  After  this  the  question 
slept,  but  in  1803  the  Catholics  obtained  a 
further  slight  measure  of  relief  on  condition 
of  subscribing  the  oath  of  1791.  In  May, 
1806,  Lord  Grenville  moved  for  a  committee 
of  the  whole  House  to  consider  a  petition 
from  the  Roman  Catholics  of  Ireland;  but 
his  motion  was  negatived  by  a  majority  of 
129.  A  similar  motion  was  made  by  Fox  in 
the  House  of  Commons,  but  it  was  lost  by  a 
majority  of  112.  In  1807  an  attempt  was 
made  by  the  ministry  to  admit  Roman  Catholics 
in  Ireland  to  the  higher  stafi  appointments  of 
the  army.  This  attempt  they  were  obliged  by 
the  king  to  abandon,  and  as  his  Majesty  went 
on  to  require  from  them  a  written  declaration 
that  they  would  propose  to  him  no  further 
concession  to  the  Catholics,  they  were  obliged 
to  resign.  Their  successors,  under  the  Duke 
of  Portland  and  Mr.  Perceval,  were  opposed 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  claims ;  still*  numerous 
petitions  were  presented  by  Irish  Roman 
Catholics,  and  similar  petitions  were  presented 
in  1810  in  favour  of  English  Roman  Catholics. 
Many  Protestants  began  to  petition  for  the 
relief  of  their  Catholic  brethren,  and  the  feeling 
in  the  universities  became  less  strongly  opposed 
to  change.  After  the  murder  of  Mr.  Perceval 
the  Marquis  Wellesley  was  charged  with  the 
formation  of  a  ministr}%  and  made  the  settle- 
ment of  the  Catholic  claims  the  basis  of  his 
programme.  He  did  not,  however,  succeed. 
In  the  same  year  Mr.  Canning  carried  a 
motion  for  the  consideration  of  the  laws 
affecting  Catholics  by  a  majority  of  129.  In  the 
Lords  a  similar  motion  was  lost  by  a  single  vote. 
A  Catholic  Association  (q.v.)  had  been  formed 
in  Ireland  in  1823.  During  Mr.  Canning's 
tenure  of  office  it  had  been  dissolved,  in  the 
hope  that  he  would  be  sure  to  cairj'  out  his 
well-known  views.  After  his  death,  in  1827, 
it  was  reconstructed.  In  1828  it  secured  the 
return  of  Daniel  O'Connell  for  the  county  of 
Clare.  Mr.  Peel  and  the  Duke  of  Wellington 
were  convinced  that  the  time  for  settling  the 
question  of  the  Catholic  claims  had  now 
arrived.  Besides  other  difficulties,  they  had 
to  face  the  strong  opposition  of  the  king, 


Gat 


(  238  ) 


Gay 


George  IV.,  who  now  expressed  as  much  ob- 
jection to  the  measure  as  his  father  had 
done.  At  last  the  king  was  persuaded  to  allow 
the  ministry  to  draw  up  three  measures, 
one  to  suppress  the  Catholic  Association,  one 
a  Relief  Bill,  and  the  third  to  revise  the 
franchise  in  Ireland.  After  some  delay 
caused  by  the  king,  Peel  introduced  the 
measure  of  Catholic  Relief.  It  admitted 
RomaQ  Catholics,  on  taking  a  new  oath  instead 
of  the  oath  of  supremacy,  to  both  Houses  of 
Parliament ;  to  all  corporate  offices ;  to  all 
judicial  offices,  except  in  the  ecclesiastical 
courts ;  to  all  civil  and  political  offices,  except 
those  of  Regent,  Lord  Chancellor  in  England 
and  Ireland,  and  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland. 
Roman  Catholics  were  still  restrained  in  the 
exercise  of  Church  patronage.  The  motion 
to  go  into  Committee  was  agreed  to  by  a 
maiority  of  188.  The  Duke  of  Wellington 
said,  on  the  second  reading  of  the  Bill,  in  the 
House  of  Lords :  **  I,  my  Lords,  am  one  of 
those  who  have  probably  passed  a  longer 
period  of  my  life  engaged  in  war  than  most 
men,  and  principally,  I  may  say,  in  civil  war, 
and  I  must  say  this,  that  if  I  could  avoid,'  by 
any  sacrifice  whatever,  even  one  month  of 
civil  war  in  the  country  to  which  I  am 
attached,  I  would  sacrifice  my  life  in  order  to 
do  it.*'  The  Bill  was  opposed  in  the  Lords 
by  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  several 
others  of  the  episcopal  bench,  but  it  was 
carried  on  April  10, 1829,  by  a  large  majority. 
The  king  gave  his  consent  with  great  reluc- 
tance. 8ir  Robert  Peel  writes  in  his  memoirs 
a  solemn  declaration  that  he  acted  throughout 
in  this  measure  from  a  deep  conviction  that 
they  were  not  only  conducive  to  the  general 
weUare,  but  that  they  had  become  impera- 
tively necessary  to  avert  an  imminent  and 
increasing  danger  from  the  interests  of  the 
Church,  and  of  the  institutions  connected 
with  the  Church. 

Peel's  Memoir*;  Stwleton,  Qtorge  Cannitig 
and  his  Tinuw ;  Pauli,  Eng,  GMchichU  teU  1816 ; 
Adolphus,  Hi^i.  of  Eng. ;  May,  ConA.  Hitt.  of 
Sng,  [O.  B.] 

Gato  Street  Gonspiracy  (1820)  was 

the  name  given  to  a  wild  plot  formed  by  a 
number  of  desperate  men,  having  for  its  chief 
object  the  murder  of  Lord  Castlereagh  and 
the  rest  of  the  ministers.  The  originators 
were  a  man  named  Arthur  Thistlewoud,  who 
had  once  been  a  subaltern  officer,  Ings,  a 
butcher,  Tidd  and  Brunt,  shoemakers,  and 
Davidson,  a  man  of  colour ;  and  they  had 
arranged  to  murder  the  ministers  at  a  dinner 
at  Lord  Harrowby's  on  the  night  of  the  23rd 
February,  to  set  fire  to  I^ondon  in  several 
places,  seize  the  Bank  and  Mansion  House, 
and  proclaim  a  provisional  government.  The 
plot,  however,  had  been  betrayed  to  the 
police  by  one  of  the  conspirators,  named 
Edwards,  some  weeks  before.  The  conspira- 
tors were  attacked  by  the  police  as  they  were 
arming  themselves  in  a  stable  in  Cato  Street, 


near  the  Edgware  Road.  A  scuffle  ensi 
which  one  policeman  was  stabbed  and  i 
of  the  criminals  escaped.  Thist] 
was  among  these,  but  he  was  capturei 
morning.  He  and  four  others  were  ex( 
and  five  more  were  transported  for  li 
good  deal  of  discussion  took  place 
House  of  Commons  on  the  employm 
the  informer  Edwards  by  the  authoritii 
Annual  Register,  1820. 

Gatyeuclilani  (or  Catuvellani] 

were  an  ancient  British  tribe  occupy 
present  counties  of  Hertford,  Bedioi 
Buckingham. 

Gavaliers.  In  December,  1 64 1 ,  f 
tumults  took  place  round  the  Hoi 
Parliament,  in  the  course  of  whici 
than  one  collision  occurred  between  t 
and  the  officers  and  courtiers  wh 
Whitehall  their  head-quarters.  T! 
parties  assailed  each  other  with  nicl 
and  the  epithet,  "  Cavalier,"  was  ap 
the  people  to  the  Royalists.  The 
meaning  of  the  term,  which  was  to  be< 
designation  of  a  great  political  party, 
cult  to  discover.  Professor  Gardiner  a 
it  "  carried  with  it  a  flavour  of  opprol 
implying  a  certain  looseness  and  id] 
military  life."  Mr.  Forster  thinks  tli 
used  as  a  term  of  reproach  on  this  oca 
connect  its  French  origin  with  the  un 
character  of  the  defenders  of  the  q\ 
her  French  papist  adherents,  to  who 
chiefly  applied."  Accoi*ding  to  the  s 
of  William  Lilly,  aneye-witnessof  the) 
referred  at  first  rather  to  the  persona 
ance  of  the  Royalists  than  to  anythin, 
or  sinister  in  their  characters.  "  The 
having  long  hair  and  locks,  and  aXvn 
ing  swords,  at  last  were  called  by  t 
'  Cavaliers  ; '  and  so  aU  that  took  pa 
peared  for  his  Majesty  were  termed  < 
few  of  the  vulgar  knowing  the  scr 
woixi  *  Cavalier.' "  It  thus  exactly  con 
to  the  term  Roundhead  [Roundhej 
earliest  uses  of  the  word  in  the  Joui 
S.  D'Ewes  are  found  under  the  dat 
1 0,  and  March  4,1641.  The  king  com 
its  use,  accusing  his  opponents  of  a 
**  to  render  all  persons  of  honour,  coi 
reputation  odious  to  the  common  pc( 
the  stvle  of  Cavaliers,  insomuch  as 
ways  and  villages  have  not  beer 
gentlemen  to  pass  through  withoi 
or  affront."  The  name  at  first 
reproach  came  to  be  adopted  by  thu 
themselves  as  a  title  of  honour.  "  2 
Cavalier,"  wrote  Dr.  Symons,  in 
preached  before  the  royal  army,  "  ii 
honour.  He  is  the  only  i-esorvo 
gentility  and  ancient  valour,  and  h 
rather  to  bury  himself  in  the  tomb 
than  to  see  the  nobility  of  his  r 
salaged,  the  dignity  of  his  country 
or  obscured  by  any  base  domestic 


Car 


(  239  ) 


C«a 


by  any  foreign  fore-conquered  foe."  The 
name  thus  originated  continued  to  be  used  to 
describe  the  Church  and  King  party  till  the 
introduction  of  the  epithet  **  Tory."    [Tory.] 

OardiiMr.  Hi$L  ofEng.  ie03—l64it  Fonter,  Fiv9 
Membtra;  WarlmrtOD,  iUmoin  and  CorrttpondUnca 
of  Prince  Rupert  and  ths  CavoiiUrt.  For  a  list  of 
CaTsUer  Members  of  Parliament  see  Sanford, 
Studin  MA  HhutrQiione  of  ths  Qrtai  Rebellion ; 
and  for  a  list  of  oAoers,  Peacock,  Army  Liate  o/ 
CavaUere  and  Rmindheade.  [C.  H.  F.] 

CavfmdlBh,  Family  of.     [Devonshire 

PSBRAOB.] 

Cavendislly  William,  &c.  [Dbtoxshire.] 

CaTancliflhy  William.    [Newcastxe.] 

CaYendish,  Thomas  (b.  1564,  d.  1592),  a 
gentleman  of  Suffolk,  fitted  out  in  1586  an 
expedition  for  discovery  and  pri\'ateering, 
having  imbibed  a  love  for  sea  adventure 
daring  a  voyage  with  8ir  Humphrey  Gilbert 
in  1585.  A  futile  attack  on  Sierra  Leoue  was 
followed  by  a  descent  on  the  coasts  of  Chili 
and  Peru,  where  he  met  with  more  success, 
capturing  some  of  the  Spanish  treasure-ships, 
notably  the  **  Santa  Anna  '*  from  the  Manillas. 
He  rptumed  to  Pl)naiouth  in  September,  1588, 
by  the  Moluccas,  Java,  and  the  Cape  of  Good 
Ilope,  with  the  honour  of  being  the  second 
"Knglishman  who  had  circumnavigated  the 
^lobe,  and  was  knighted  by  the  queen.  He 
died  off  the  coast  of  Brazil  whilst  engaged  in 
Another  vo}*age  of  discovery. 

Cawnporev  Massacre  of  (1857).  On 
June  5th  the  Cawnpore  regiments  mutinied, 
plundered  the  treasury,  and  set  off  to  Delhi. 
On  the  6th  they  were  brought  back  by  Nana 
Sahib,  and  invested  the  Residency.  Not  less 
than  1,000  persons  had  taken  refuge  there, 
and  they  prolonged  the  defence  from  June  6th 
to  June  24th,  till  the  ammunition  and  pro- 
Tisions  were  all  gone.  Then  Nana  Sahib 
offered  to  transmit  them  safely  to  Allahabad 
<m  condition  of  surrender.  The  offer  was 
accepted,  and  on  the  27th,  the  survivors,  men, 
women,  and  children,  were  marched  down  to 
the  boats  which  had  beenprepared  for  them, 
in  number  about  450.  They  had  no  sooner 
embarked  than  a  murderous  fire  was  opened 
on  them  from  both  banks.  ' '  l^lany  perished, 
others  got  off  in  their  boats ;  but  their  crews 
had  deserted  them,  and  one  by  one  they  were 
again  captured.  A  considerable  number  were 
at  once  diot,  and  otherwiseput  to  death,  but 
122  were  reserved."  After  Havelock*s  victory, 
July  15th,  it  was  decided  that  they  should  be 
put  to  death  with  those  who  had  escaped  from 
Fttttehgurh.  They  were  all  brutally  destroyed 
on  the  16th;  some  by  shot,  some  by  sword* 
^  cuts;  the  bodies  were  cast  into  a  well,  and 
there  is  no  doubt  that  many  were  thrown  in 
while  still  alive.  [Indian  Mutiny.] 
Kaje,  Sepoy  War. 

CaaciOBL  William  {b.  ?  1421,  d,  ?  1491),  the 
tet  "Rngliid^  printer,  was  bom  near  Hadlow, 
ia  Kent^  and  apprenticed  to  a  rich  London 


mercer  in  1438.  He  left  England  in  1441  to 
transact  business  in  connection  with  his  trade 
in  the  Low  Countries,  and  finally  took  up  his 
residence  at  Bruges,  where  he  remained  for 
thirtv-five  years.  He  joined  there  the  gild 
of  Merchant  Adventurers,  who  had  a  dep5t  in 
the  city.  In  1463  Caxton  was  promoted  to  the 
office  of  governor  of  the  gilcL  Soon  after- 
wards he,  together  with  another  English 
envoy,  was  entrusted  by  Edward  IV.  with 
the  task  of  renewing  an  expiiing  commercial 
treaty  between  EngUnd  and  Burgundy.  In 
1470,  Caxton  used  his  influence  at  Bruges  in 
behalf  of  Edward  IV.,  who  was  taking  refuge 
there  from  the  Lancastrians,  and  in  the  next 
year  the  Duchess  of  Burgundy  offered  him  a 
post  at  her  court.  By  the  duchess's  command 
he  completed,  in  1471,  a  translation  into 
English  of  a  popular  French  collection  of 
romances  concerning  the  Trojan  War.  He 
became  acquainted  with  Colard  Alanson,  who 
had  some  knowledge  of  the  new  art  of  printing 
which  Gutenberg  had  perfected  some  sixteen 
years  before.  Together  they  printed  Caxton*s 
translation — The  Jieetiyello/  the  Historyee  of 
Troye—BJi^  1474  has  been  the  year  assigned 
as  the  date  of  the  production  of  this,  tho 
first  English-printed  book.  The  experiment 
proved  eminently  successful  to  another  cf 
Caxton's  translations — The  Game  and  Flaye  oj 
the  Cheu — issued  from  the  same  press  in  1475. 
In  1476  Caxton  arrived  in  England  with  new 
type,  and  set  up  a  press  near  the  western 
entrance  to  Westminster  Abbey.  During  the 
following  fifteen  years,  he  printed  many 
works — chivalric  romances,  religious  works, 
and  translations.  His  patrons  included 
Edward  IV.,  Richard  III.,  and  Henry  VII., 
and  the  chief  noblemen  and  many  merchants  of 
the  day.  Caxton  was  buried  in  St.  Margaret's 
Churchyard,  outside  Westminster  Abbey. 

The  best  biography  of  Caxton  iff  that  hy  Mr. 
Williaoi  Blades,  which  has  praetieally  super- 
seded  all  its  predeoessors.  fs.  L.  L.J 

Ceadwalla.  King  of  Wessex  (685—688), 
was  descended  from  Cerdic  through  Ceawlin. 
His  name  is  generally  considered  to  be- 
speak a  British  origin,  the  same  as  the 
Welsh  Cadwallon,  and  in  support  of  this 
"view  it  may  be  mentioned  that  his  brother 
was  called  Mul,  t.^.,  "mule,'*  a*  man  of  mixed 
descent  On  being  banished  from  Wessex,  he 
retired  to  Sussex,  which  kingdom  he  subdued. 
He  was,  however,  subsequently  expelled, 
returned  to  Wessex,  and,  on  the  death  or 
abdication  of  Centwine,  became  king.  He 
then  conquered  Sussex  and  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
and  twice  ravaged  Kent.  In  688  he  ab- 
dicated, and  went  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Kome, 
where  he  was  baptised  by  the  Pope,  and 
received  the  name  of  Peter.  He  died  on 
Easter  Day,  689. 

AnqlO'Saxon  Chroti. ;  Henry  of  Huntmgdon. 

Ceawlin,  King  of  Wessex,  succeeded  to  the 
throne  in  the  latter  half  of  the  sixth  centur>'  on 


C«c 


(240) 


CM 


the  death  of  his  father  Cymric.  Under  his 
leadership  the  West  Saxons  enlarged  their 
boundaries  and  the  Britons  were  driven  back. 
In  568  he  defeated  Ethelbert  of  Kent  at 
Wimbledon,  and  three  years  later  gained  a 
great  victory  over  the  Britons  at  Bedford, 
which  brought  the  important  towns  of  Ayles- 
bury, Bensington,  and  Eynsham  under  his 
dominion.  In  677  he  won  a  victory  at  Dere- 
ham, in  which  three  British  kings  fell,  and 
as  a  result  of  this  success  he  obtained  posses- 
sion of  the  three  cities  of  Bath,  Gloucester, 
and  Cirencester.  In  584,  again  attempting 
to  extend  his  conquests  to  the  upper  Severn 
▼alley,  he  fought  a  doubtful  battle  at  Fad- 
diley  in  Cheshire,  defeated  the  Britons 
at  Frithem  in  Shropshire,  but  after  this 
is  said  to  have  made  an  alliance  with 
them  against  Ethelbert,  by  whom  he  was 
defeated  at  Wodnesbeorh  (F  Wanborough, 
about  three  miles  from  Swindon)  and  driven 
out  of  his  kii^om  (?  590).  Two  years  after 
this  he  died.  Ceawlin  is  reckoned  as  the 
second  Bretwalda  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chroni- 
cle ;  and  William  of  Malmesbury  says  of  him 
that  <*he  was  the  astonishment  of  the  English, 
the  detestation  of  the  Britons,  and  eventually 
the  destruction  of  both." 

Anglo-Saxon  Chron. ;  Will,  of  Malmesbiuy. 

Cecily  Sir  Kobekt.    [Salisbury.] 

Cecily  Sir  Wiluam.    [BurleighJ 

Celts  in  the  British  Isles.    The 

Celts  form  one  among  that  large  group  of 
peoples  which  is  commonly  called  the  Aryan 
group,  and  which  includes  nearly  all  the 
present  inhabitants  of  Europe  with  several 
considerable  peoples  of  the  East.  The 
name  Celt  was  that  by  which  the  people 
were  first  known  to  the  Greeks,  whereas  the 
Itomans  always  knew  them  under  the  name 
of  Gralli,  or  Gauls ;  both  these  words  probably 
mean  the  same  thing,  namely  the  warriorSy  or 
according  to  Professor  Rh^s,  the  kilt-wearing ^ 
or  clothed  people.  Another  name  by  which 
the  Celts  of  South  Britain  were  known  is 
Cymrify  which  is  still  the  name  by  which  the 
Welsh  designate  themselves,  and  which 
possibly  reappears  in  the  Cimbri  spoken  of 
by  the  Roman  historians.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  Celts  at  one  time  formed  the 
most  powerful  confederacy  of  nations  in 
Europe.  Gradually  the  Celtic  peoples  were 
driven  back  from  their  more  easterly 
possessions  by  the  Romans  and  the  kindred 
races  in  the  south,  and  in  the  north  by 
the  Teutonic  peoples  ;  so  that  at  the  time 
when  the  light  of  history  first  shines  on 
them  with  any  clearness  we  find  them  in 
possession  only  of  the  three  most  western 
lands  of  Europe — namely,  the  Iberian  Penin- 
sula, Gaul,  and  the  British  Isles. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the  inhabi- 
tants of  these  lands,  though  they  consisted 
fundamentally  of  the  same  race,  formed  in 


any  sense  a  single  nationality,  or  Bpc 
identical  language.  In  the  British  1 
some  dialects  of  Celtic  are  still  i 
and  others  are  but  recently  extinct. 
we  can  classify.  They  are  the 
or  Cymric  (Kymraeg),  the  ComisI 
Manx  (dialect  spoken  in  the  Isle  of 
the  Irish  (Erse  or  Gaidhelic),  and  the 
land  Scottish,  or  Scottish  Gaelic.  T( 
we  must  add  the  only  other  linng 
tongue,  the  Breton  of  Britanny,  otl 
called  Armoric.  These  six  dialects  divid 
selves  into  two  classes,  the  Gaidhelic  (G 
and  the  British  or  Cj^mric.  The  fi 
eluded  Irish,  Manx,  and  Scottish  Gael 
second  comprises  the  Welsh,  Comii 
Armoric.  It  is  quite  possible  that  tb 
sion  was  in  force  as  long  ago  as  the 
the  first  Roman  invasion,  so  that  the 
tants  of  the  British  Islands  then  com 
two  great  nationab'ties,  the  Britons 
lower  part  of  Britain,  and  the  Gael^ 
Highlands  of  Scotland  and  in  Ireland 
can  be  little  doubt  that  of  the  two  the 
ality  of  the  Britons  was  most  nearl 
to  that  of  the  Gauls. 

Many  of  our  geographical  names 
remind  us  of  these  two  main  divisioi 
Celtic  race.  The  word  Gaidhel  (whi 
course,  etymologically  allied  to  Gaul 
served  in  the  words  Gael  and  Gae 
used  only  for  the  Scottish  Gaels,  tl 
the  native  Irish  the  same  word  (Ga 
applied  to  that  nationality  and  lang 
is  preserved  again  in  Galway  in  Ire) 
in  Galloway  in  Scotland,  and  in  ma 
local  names.  The  word  Cymrj',  whi 
the  name  by  which  the  Welsh  call  th 
has  been  for  us  Latinised  into  Cam 
remains  again  in  Cumberland  ( 
which  once  included  a  much  larger 
it  now  includes.  Britain,  Briton,  a 
which  have  been  bestowed  from  i 
namely,  by  the  Greeks  and  Roman 
Wales,  Comwally  have  likewise  been 
from  without  by  the  Teutonic  in 
Britain.  All  the  Celtic  nationalitie 
we  know,  an  immigrant  people  into  K 
it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  when  t 
their  way  into  these  islands  they  f  c 
empty  of  inhabitants,  or  that  no 
these  earlier  races  continued  to  i 
the  Celts  had  been  long  settled  the 
among  the  tribes  which  Csesai 
among  the  Celtic  inhabitants  of  B; 
have  belonged  to  this  earlier  stocli 
cular  the  Silnres,  who  inhabited  tl: 
Wales  and  Monmouthshire,  near 
(Isca  Silurum),  and  a  part  at  loast  o: 
of  Devonshire  and  Cornwall  have  I 
nated  as  representing  these  more 
"^  inhabitants  of  the  British  Isles, 
it  is  generally  believed,  allied  to  t! 
inhabitants  of  Spain,  the  Iberians, 
Basques,  their  modem  repreeents 
would  seem  that  the  G^eUc  branc 


C«l 


(241) 


Cel 


the  Cymric  in  the  course  of  invasion,  and  that 
the  latter  as  they  advanced  drove  the  Gaels 
towards  the  north  and  west.    At  the  time  of 
Caesar's  invasion  the  Cymric  Celts  may  be  said 
to  have  composed  the  body  of  the  population 
booth  of  the  ITirths  of  Forth  and  of  Ulyde;  and 
as  the  names  Britannia,  Briton,  were  by  the 
Romans  bestowed  only  on  the  country  and 
the  people  in  the  southern  part  of  the  island, 
the  woni  Briton  may  be  used  synonymously 
with    Cymric-Celt.       In    fact,    the    Cymric 
people    came    in    after-times    to    designate 
themselves  as  Brythons.    When  first  known 
to  the  Romans,  therefore,  the  Britons  are  to 
be  looked  upon  as  one  nation,  with  a  certain 
admixture     of    more     primitive     elements, 
and    ^th    the    addition   of    one     intrusive 
nationality,   the   Belgse,   who  had   made    a 
settlement  in  the  south  of  the  island.    The 
BelgSB     were    likewise    Celtic    by     blood, 
but  were  not   closely  alUed   to  the  native 
inhabitants  of  Britain.    These  Belgss   seem 
to  have  been  more  civilised  than   the   rest 
of  the   inhabitants,  and  to  have  offered  the 
most    formidable    resistance    to  the  Roman 
arms.     The  exact  districts  over  which  they 
extended  cannot  be  ascertained.    The  centre 
of  their  possessions  probably  lay  somewhere 
near  the  borders  of  Sussex  and  Hampshire. 
With  "the  exception  then  of  some  primitive 
tribes  and  the  intrusive  Belgse,  the  Britons 
from  the  Channel  to  the  Firths  of  Forth  and 
Clyde  were,  at  the  time  of  Caesar's  invasion, 
esaentiaDy  one  people  belonging  to  the  Cymric 
branch  of  the  Celtic  family  [B&rroNs].  North 
of  the  firths  the  land  was  inhabited  by  a 
people  who  were  to  the  classic  writers  first 
known  aa  Caledonians,  but  afterwards  by  the 
Romans  known  as  Picts.  This  name,  it  is  well 
known,  means  simply  the  painted  or  stained 
( Picti),  and  was  b^towed  upon  all  those  who 
had  not  adopted  the  Roman  civilisation,  but 
adhered  to  their  national  system  of  staining 
themselves  with  woad.     Concerning  the  na- 
tionality of  the   Picts  there  is  considerable 
dispute.    Tacitus  says  that  they  were  of  Ger- 
man origin.    This  assertion  was  formerly  very 
generally    accepted,    and  still  is    by    some 
scholars.    It  is  more  probable  that  they  were 
of   a    Celtic    stock.      Mr.    Skene,   who  has 
undertaken  an  exhaustive  examination  of  the 
question,  arrives  at  the  conclusion  that  they 
belonged,  not  to  the  Cymric  but  to  the  Graelic 
branch  of    the  Celtic  family  [Picts].      In 
Ireland  again  the  inhabitants  were  probably 
to  be  divided  into  several  nationalities.  There 
was,  in  the  first  place,  undoubtedly  a  sub- 
stratum of  the  same  primitive  stock  of  which 
we  have  noticed  traces  in  England.     Irish 
tradition  tells  lis  of  four  nationalities  who,  at 
different    times,  held    rule    in    the    island, 
namely,  the    Nemidians,   the  Firbolgs,  the 
Tuatha   da   Danann,  and  the  Milesians,   or 
k^ts.    Should  we  set  aside  what  seems  purely 
mythioil  in  the  tradition,  and  with  that  the 
Nemidians,  of  whom  nothing  can  be  made,  it 


is  not  unlikely  that  the  three  names  which 
remain  do  really  represent  three  peoples,  out 
of  which  the  Irish  nation  is  composed.  The 
Firbolgs,  who  are  described  as  a  dark  and 
slavish  race,  very  likely  represent  the  oldest 
inhabitants  of  Iberian  stock,  while  the 
Tuatha  da  Danann  and  the  Milesians  were 
two  different  branches  of  the  Gaelic  race, 
having  somewhat  different  appearances  and 
national  characteristics.  The  Milesians,  who 
eventually  obtained  the  supremacy,  seem  to 
be  identical  with  the  Scots,  who  gave  its 
name  first  to  Ireland,  and  later  on  to  Scotland 
[Scots], 

Such  is  the  general  ethnology  of  the  Celtic 
people  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  What 
we  know  of  their  social  life  and  religion  at 
the  time  of  the  Roman  conquest  is  gained 
almost  solely  from  the  testimony  of  Roman 
historians,  and  therefore  applies  chiefly  to  the 
inhabitants  of  South  Britain,  who  were  the 
only  people  to  come  in  contact  with  the 
invader.  We  have  some  other  sources  of 
information  in  the  Welsh  and  Irish  traditions, 
and  in  all  that  is  most  ancient  of  what  has 
been  preserved  of  their  ancient  laws,  especially 
of  tiie  Brehon  Laws  of  the  Irish  [Brehok]. 
This  last  source  of  information  shows  us  that 
the  Celts,  where  untouched  by  Roman  civilisa- 
tion, adhered  to  a  form  of  social  organisation 
which  was,  at  one  time,  pretty  general  among 
the  Aryan  peoples.  The  distinctive  features 
in  their  state  of  society  were  that  each  tribe, 
or,  more  strictly  speaking,  each  village,  con- 
stituted a  state  in  itself,  a  political  unit 
whose  tie  of  union  with  any  other  village  was 
only  of  a  very  loose  character.  At  the  same 
time,  the  tie  which  united  together  the  in- 
habitants of  any  single  village  was  remark- 
ably dose,  most  of  the  land,  for  example, 
being  held,  not  individually,  but  in  common, 
by  the  whole  body.  This  form  of  society  is 
commonly  distinguished  by  students  as  the 
Village  Community  {see  Sir  H.  S.  Maine, 
Village  Communitiee  of  the  East  and  West). 
The  religion  of  the  inhabitants  of  Britain 
must  have  been  the  same  as  that  of  the  Gauls, 
if,  as  Csesar  tells  us,  the  special  home  or 
coUe^  of  the  Gkulish  priests,  the  Druids, 
was  in  this  island  [Duuids].  Of  this  creed 
we  do  not  know  much.  There  are,  however, 
good  reasons  for  believing  that  it  very  closely 
resembled  the  religion  of  the  Teutonic  neigh- 
bours of  the  Celts,  of  which  some  traces  have 
come  down  to  us.  As  with  the  German  races, 
and  as  with  the  Romans  themselves,  the 
highest  divinity  was  probably  a  god  of  the 
sky  and  of  the  thunder.  Beside  him  stood 
a  sun-god  whom  the  Gauls,  when  they  be- 
came Latinised,  identified  completely  with 
Apollo,  and  who  perhaps  corresponded  to 
the  Freyr  or  Fr6  of  the  Teutomo  peoples. 
His  original  Gaulish  name  may  have  been 
Granus.  To  form  with  these  a  trilogy  we  have 
a  god  of  war,  probably  similar  to  the  Teutonic 
Zio  or  Tiw,  and  called  by  the  Roman  writers 


Cen 


(  242  ) 


C90 


Hars.  The  chief  goddess  of  the  Gauls  is  called 
b)'  Caesar  Minerva,  but  we  have  proof  that 
they  worshipped  a  mother  goddeas  who,  like 
the  Roman  Lucina,  presided  over  births, 
and  whose  image,  holding  on  her  lap  a  child, 
is  frequently  dug  up  in  France,  and  always 
taken  by  the  peasantry  for  an  image  of  the 
Virgin  and  Child.  To  this  pantheon  of 
nature-gods  was  joined  a  lower  form  of  nature- 
worship,  especially  an  adoration  of  trees  and 
streams.  As  to  the  Teutons,  the  oak  was 
to  the  Gkiuls  an  especially  sacred  tree.  The 
Celtic  worship  of  streams  was  more  peculiar, 
and  the  traces  of  it  still  survive  in  the  special 
reverence  paid  to  weUs  in  Britanny,  in  the 
more  Celtic  parts  of  Qreat  Britain,  and  in 
Ireland. 

For  Celtic  ethnolofin^  and  religion :  ZeuBS, 
Qrwmmatica  Oelttca;  Gliick,  C*Miaeh»  EigBH' 
nam«n;  H.  W.  Ebel,  CtfUic  SivdUs  (translated 
by  Sullivan)  ;  T.  O'Donovan,  Irtth  Grammar ; 
Am6dee  Thieny,  Riatoire  dm  Gfaulou;  Roget 
de  BaUoquet.  mhmoainis  OauloiM;  Ghddox, 
Eaqikif  d»  {a  iieligion  of*  QavAoia  and  La  RAi^im 
6auiow«  «t  le  Qui  d«  Chin*;  also,  R«vum  Cdbique, 
especially  vol.  iv.,  article  by  Fustel  de  Con- 
langes  ;  Cneax,  De  Bell,  QaU.  ;  Taoltas,  Ann.  and 
Agricola. 

For  Celts  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland :  J. 
Bhfs.CtfUtc  Britain  ;  W.  F.  Skene,  CaUio  Scotland  ; 
C.  Blton.  Or£/Hw  of  Bnglieh  Hi$tory;  J.  H. 
Burton,  History  of  SrotlainL  vol.  i. ;  E.  O'Curry, 
lfann«rs  and  Vtutoms  of  the  Ancient  Iriah; 
C.  O^Conor,  Rerum  Hibemicarfim,  Scripioree 
Veterea:  J.  O'Donovan,  i4nnal<  of  the  Four 
Mattere;  Chronicon  Sootorum. 

[C.  F.  K.] 

CensUSv  The,  a  numbering  of  the  popu- 
lation of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  was 
appointed  to  be  taken  every  tenth  year  by 
Act  41,  George  III.,  c.  15  (Dec,  1800).  The 
first  census  was  accordingly  taken  in  1801, 
and  has  been  repeated  every  tenth  year  since. 
At  each  recurrence  of  the  census  it  has 
been  rendered  more  complete,  and  at  the 
present  time  elicits  a  vast  amount  of  valu- 
able and  accurate  information.  It  is  taken 
simultaneously  throughout  the  kingdom  by 
special  officers.  The  oi&cial  fig^ures  of  the 
various  enumerations  since  1801  are  as  fol- 
lows : — 


1801 
18Li 
1821 
1831 
1841 


.  16,237,3  0 
.  18,509,116 
.  21.272.187 
.  24,892,485 
.  27,238,404 


1851 
1861 
1871 
1881 
1891 


.  27,958,143 
.  29,571,644 
.  31,857,338 
.  35,246,633 
.  37,880,764 


The  first  Imperial  Census  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  the  colonies  and  dependencies, 
was  taken  in  1871,  when  the  population  was 
234,762,593.  In  1881  it  was  316,885,000.  The 
estimated  population  in  1894  was  351,558,000. 

Central  India.  The  official  name  for 
the  group  of  feudatory  native  states  in  the 
centre  of  India,  comprising  the  dominions  of 
Holkar  and  Scindiah,  and  the  states  of  Bhopal 
and  Dhar.     [Holkar,  &c.] 

Central  Provinces,  The,  a  chief  com- 
missionership  of  British  India,  formed  out  of 
the  Nagpore  province  and  Nerbudda  terri- 


tories, in  1861,  lies  to  the  south  of  Rew 
and  Bundelcund.  It  is  divided  into  nil 
teen  districts  and  four  divisions,  and  1 
an  area  of  84,000  square  miles,  and  a  popu 
tion  of  about  8,200,000  (in  1872),  of  wh 
nearly  six  millions  are  Hindoos.  [Naopoi 

CenweaUlf  King  of  the  West  Saxons  ( 
— 672),  was  the  son  and  successor  of  C\ 
gils.  He  tried  to  effect  in  Wesaex  a  reL 
into  Paganism,  but  his  expulsion  by  Fe 
whose  sister  he  had  repudiated,  led  to 
seeking  refuge  in  East  Anglia,  where  he 
converted  to  Christianity.  After  having 
covered  his  kingdom,  he  defeated  Wd 
the  son  of  Penda,  at  Ashdown,  and  took 
prisoner  (661).  He  also  won  two  i 
victories  over  the  Britons  at  Bradford 
Pen,  and  extended  his  dominions  on  ( 
side. 

Cenwnlf,  Kine  of  the  Mercians  ( 
819),  was  descenaed  from  Cenwealh 
brother  of  Penda.  His  reign  was  a  very 
perous  one,  and  he  retained  for  Mercii 
supremacy  which  had  been  won  by  OfTa 
completed  the  conquest  of  Kent,  whi 
granted  out  to  his  brother  Cuthred ;  w 
conciliate  the  Church,  he  suppressed  th< 
bishopric  of  Lichfield,  which  Ofia  had  f  o 
He  was  victorious  over  the  Welsh,  a 
army  is  said  to  have  penetrated  as 
Snowdon. 

Ceolnothy  Archbishop  of  Can 
(833— '870),  made  his  episcopate  im 
in  many  ways.  In  838  he  asaii 
the  Council  of  Kingston,  when  a 
of  peace  and  alliance  was  agrees 
between  the  Kentish  clergy  and  1 
kings,  Egbert  and  his  son  Ethelwul 
treaty  laid  the  foundation  of  those  i 
relations  which  we  find  existing  e\ 
between  the  descendants  of  Cerdic 
successors  of  Aiigustine.  Twice 
Ceolnoth*8  life,  Canterbury  was  fiack( 
Danes,  but  the  church  and  the  in 
of  St.  Augustine  were  spared,  pro! 
the  payment  of  a  heavy  ransom  on 
of  the  archbishop,  who  also  co; 
towards  raising  a  fleet  against  the  XI 

William  of  Malinesbury  ;   Hook,  ^i 

Ceolwnlf,  King  of  the  Xortb 
(d,  737),  succeeded  his  brother  Genre 
he  was  seized  by  his  enemies,  and  c^ 
a  cloister,  but  was  afterwards  releai 
friends  and  reseated  on  the  thr 
was  a  patron  of  learning*,  and  to 
dedicated  his  EecUiiaetical  Sistor 
reigning  eight  years  he  abdicated, 
the  remaining  years  of  his  life  as 
Lindisfame. 

Bede ;  AnglthSaxon  Chronicle. 

Ceorl  is  a  word  which  occurs  i 
of  the  kings  before  the  XormaxiL  C 


Ceo 


(243) 


Cf7 


the  following  senses :~  (1)  man — vir,  maritus  ; 
(2)  peasant,  rusticus ;  (3)  the  ordinary  non- 
noble  freeman.     In  this,  its  ordinary  consti- 
tutional sense,  we  find  (a)  ceorl  opposed  to 
eorl,  as  simple  to  gentle ;  (b)  the  ceorlise  man 
opposed  to  gesitheundman  and  thegen,  and  in 
the    Northumbrian     ecclesiastical     law    to 
landdgtfid  cpninget-thegen  ;   {e)  oeorl   used  as 
equivalent    to    txcyhyndeman  in  the    West- 
Saxon  and  Mercian  laws,  and  in  opposition  to 
the  tixkyndetnan  and  twelfkyndeinan.    Origin- 
ally, the  simple  freeman  was  the  corner-stone 
of  the  old  German  state.     Even  the  good 
blood  of  the  eorl  only  brought  with  it  social 
estimation  and  easy  access  to  political  power, 
rather  than  a  different  position  in  the  eye  of 
the  law.   But  in  historical  times  the  ceorl  had 
fallen  from  his  old  status.     He  stood  midway 
between  the  "  ing^nuus  "  of  Tacitus  and  the 
mediaaval  villein.    With  the  development  of 
the  constitution  he  gradually  sinks  towards 
the  latter  condition.     Legally  the  ceorl  still 
was  a  fall  citizen ;  but  if  he  possessed  no  land, 
his  position  in  a  territorial  constitution  be- 
came extremely  precarious.     The  establish- 
ment of  private  property  in  land  had  deprived 
him  of  his  old  right  of  sharing  in  the  common 
land  of  the  state.    Though  still  a  member  of 
the  local  courts  and  of  the  host,  though  still 
fully  **  law-worthy,"  and  though  his  wetgild 
was  still  paid  to  the  kindred,  the  landless 
ceorl  was  compelled,  by  a  law  of  Athelstan, 
to  choose  a  lord  to  answer  for  his  good  be- 
haviour.    The  right  of  selecting  his  own 
master    alone    distinguished  him    from    the 
predial  serf.    In  a  later  stage,  even  the  small 
Lmd-owTiing  ceorl  was  practically  obliged  to 
commend  himself  for  safety's  sake  to  some 
great  proprietor ;   and  the  "  liber  homo  qui 
ire  potest  cum  terra  quo  voluerit "  of  Domes- 
day represents  this  large  class  of  voluntary' 
dependents.     l^Iany  grades  of   ceorls   thus 
spring  up  according  to  their  relations  to  their 
**hla£)rd."    But  while  tha  leas  prosperous 
ceorls  thus  lost  their  freedom,  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  blood  nobility  of  the  eorl  helped 
the  more  thriving  of  their  class  to  attain  &at 
higher  status  which  no  longer  depended  on 
birth  alone.   The  ceorl  with  five  hides  of  land 
(600  acres),  with  house  and  chun^h,  a  special 
relation  to  the  crown,  and  a  special  jurisdic- 
tion over  his  property,  became  "  of  thegn 
right  worthy."  Yet,  on  the  whole,  the  growth 
of  th^nhood  depressed  the  **  ceorlise  man." 
Its  first  principle  was  dependence ;  and,  as  on 
the  Continent,  the  old  freedom  withered  away 
before  feudalism.    The   ver}'  name  ceorl  is 
not  found  in  Domesday,  and  its  equivalents, 
bordarius,     cotarius,     cotsetus,    socmannus, 
▼illanus,    indicate    that  the  process  which 
degraded  him  to  the  *'  unfree  villein "  had 
almost  become  complete.    The  lawyers  of  the 
twelfth  century  completed  the  process.    The 
bad  meaning  attached  to  the  word  '*  churl  " 
is  an  indication  of  the  disrepute  into  which 
this  once  honourable  title  haa  fallen. 


Schmidt,  Qetdtxe  d«r  Anful'SaelkMnj  Antiimar, 
Olonar.,  sub  verb. ;  Stubba,  Coiwt.  Hid.,  i.  64, 
80,  1&5,  162,  175.  ii.  453;  Kemble,  Th«  Saxof* 
Ml  England ;  Oneist,  EngUadu  Verfofung* 
GetehicMe.  [T.  I? .  T.l 

Cerdic,  King  of  the  West  Saxons  (d. 
534  ?),  is  said  to  have  been  ninth  in  descent 
from  Woden,  and,  in  company  with  his  son 
Cymric,  to  have  come  to  Britain  in  496,  **  at 
the  place  which  is  called  Cerdices-ora  '*  (pro- 
bably in  Hampshire).  His  early  wars  were 
not  attended  with  g^reat  success ;  but  in 
508,  having  made  an  alliance  with  Acsc  and 
Aelle  (Ella),  he  totally  defeated  the  Britons. 
In  514,  reinforcements  having  arrived,  he 
continued  his  conquests,  and  in  519  "  Cerdic 
and  Cymric  obtained  the  kingdom  of  the 
West  Saxons."  In  530  they  conquered  the 
Isle  of  Wight,  and  made  a  terrible  slaughter 
of  the  Britons  at  Whitgaresburh  (probably 
Carisbrooke).  Four  years  later  Cerdic  died 
From  Cerdic  all  our  kings,  with  the  exception 
of  Canute,  Hardicanute,  the  two  Harolds,  and 
William  the  Conqueror,  are  descended. 
Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle. 

CeroneSf  The,  were  an  ancient  Celtic 
tribe  occupying  the  west  coast  of  Inverness 
and  part  of  A  jgyle. 

CJessation,  The,  was  the  name  given, 
during  the  Ulster  RebeUion  of  1641,  and  the 
following  years,  to  a  truce  for  one  year,  agreed 
on  Sept.  15th,  1643,  between  the  Marquis  of 
Ormonde  and  the  confederate  Irish  at 
Drogheda.  The  English  Parliament  im- 
peached Ormonde  on  account  of  it,  and  the 
Scots  refused  to  recognise  it.  The  native 
Irish  party,  headed  by  the  Legate,  were  also 
opposed  to  it ;  it  had  a  very  bad  effect  on  the 
Royalists  in  England ;  and,  after  all,  the  king*s 
object  of  getting  help  from  Ireland  in  troops 
and  money  was  only  very  partially  gained. 

Ceyloiif  an  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean, 
lying  south-east  of  India,  and  separated  from 
it  by  the  Gulf  of  Manaar,  has  been  known 
since  very  early  times.  It  was  visited  by  the 
Macedonians,  and  was  much  frequented  by 
merchants  in  the  sixth  century.  It  was  first 
visited  by  the  Portuguese  in  1505,  and  a  few 
years  later  a  fort  was  built  by  them  at 
Colombo.  In  1656  the  Portuguese  were 
expelled  from  the  island  by  the  Dutch,  who 
were  in  their  turn  driven  out  by  the  British 
in  1795,  Ceylon,  or  at  least  as  much  of  it  as 
had  belonged  to  the  Dutch,  being  annexed  to 
the  Presidency  of  Madras;  but,  in  1801,  it 
was  made  a  separate  colony.  In  1803,  on  the 
refusal  of  the  King  of  Kandy  to  accept  the 
British  terms,  Kandy  was  attacked  by  a  large 
foice,  under  General  l^Iacdowal;  but  the 
expedition  ended  most  disastrously  in  a 
massacre  of  the  British  troops.  In  1815 
Kandy  was  occupied  by  the  British,  and  the 
king  deposed;  a  few  years  later  the  natives 
rebelled,  and  tried  inejffectually  to  drive  the 
English  out  of  the  interior  of  the  country. 


Cha 


(244) 


Cha 


In  1831  a  commission  was  sent  ou^  from 
England  to  inqulro  into  the  condition  of  the 
island,  with  the  result  that  a  charter  pro- 
viding for  the  administration  of  justice 
by  supreme  district  and  circuit  courts  was 
issued;  trial  by  jury  was  adopted;  every 
situation  was  thrown  open  to  the  competi- 
tion of  the  Singhalese;  and  three  natives 
of  Ceylon  were  appointed  members  of  the 
legislative  council,  on  a  footing  of  perfect 
equality  with  the  other  unofficisd  European 
members.  Notwithstanding  the  attempts 
at  reform,  insurrections  took  place  in  1835 
and  1848,  both  of  which  were  organised 
by  the  Buddhist  priests,  who  dreaded  the 
diminution  of  their  influence  under  British 
rule ;  but  the  rebellions  were  crushed  before 
they  had  spread  to  any  very  alarming  ex- 
tent. The  government  of  CJoylon  was  vested 
in  a  governor,  assisted  by  an  executive  coun- 
cil of  five  members,  viz.,  the  Colonial  Secre- 
tary, the  Commander-in-chief,  the  Queen^s 
Advocate,  the  Troastirer,  and  the  Auditor- 
Gkneral.  There  is  also  a  legislative  council 
of  fifteen,  including  the  members  of  the 
executive  council,  four  other  official  and  six 
non-official  members  nominated  by  the  gover- 
nor. This  form  of  government  has  existed 
since  1833.  The  Roman-Dutch  law,  as  it 
prevailed  in  the  colony  in  1795,  is  that  which 
18  still  suffered  to  apply,  except  where  it  has 
been  modified  by  direct  local  enactments, 
which  have  introduced  trial  by  jury,  the 
English  rules  of  evidence  in  criminal  cases, 
and  the  English  mercantile  law  in  some 
important  matters. 

Martin,  Britiah  Colanie*;  Creasy,  Britannic 
Empire;  Tennant,  Ceylon;  Taruonr,  Hiat,  of 
Ceylon.  [F.  S.  P.] 


Clialgrave  Field,  The  Battle  op  (June 
18,  1643^,  was  fought  between  the  Royalist 
cavalry,  under  Prince  Rupert,  who  had 
pushed  forward  from  Oxford  on  a  raid,  and 
a  body  of  Parliamentary  troops,  under 
Hampden.  The  encounter,  which  was  more 
of  the  nature  of  a  skirmish  than  a  battle, 
is  memorable  as  the  one  in  which  John 
Hampden  received  his  death-wound.  Chal- 
grove  is  a  small  village  about  twenty- two 
miles  east  of  Oxford,  between  the  Thames 
and  the  Ohiltem  Hills. 

Glialoiier,  ^m  Thomas  (d.  1515,  d.  1565), 
a  statesman,  a  soldier,  and  a  man  of  letters, 
whilst  quite  a  boy  entered  the  service  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  V.,  whom  he  accompanied 
on  the  expedition  to  Algiers,  1541,  barely 
escaping  with  his  life.  Soon  afterwards  he 
returned  to  England,  and  was  present  at  the 
battle  of  Pinkie  Cleugh,  1547,  where  he 
greatly  distinguished  himself.  He  was  Clerk 
of  the  Council  to  Henry  VIII.,  and  a  faithful 
servant  to  Edward  VI.,  though  his  religion 
debarred  him  from  the  favour  of  Mar>'. 
Under  Elizabeth  he  acquired  considerable 
renown  as  an  able  diplomatist,  and  was  sent 
as  ambassador  to  Germany  and  Spain,  re- 


maining at  Madrid  for  two  or  thi% 
before  his  death.  Sir  Thomas  was  the 
of  a  treatise,  J)e  Republiea  Auglorum 
randa  (Lend.,  1579),  and  some  other  t 

Chalons,  The  Battle  of  (1274) 
with  a  tournament,  to  which  Edi 
was  invited  by  the  Count  of  Chal 
Mamc.  Foul  play  endangered  th( 
life,  and  resulted  in  a  fight  betw* 
English  and  French,  in  which  a  eon^ 
number  of  the  latter  were  slain. 

Clialiii-Cliatrol,  a  castle  in 
belonging  to  the  Viscount  of  Limo 
besieged  by  Richard  I.  in  1 199.    It 
fore  the  walls  of  this  fortress  that  1 
received  his  death-wound.    [Rich ah 

GluuBiberlain,  The  Lohd  G 
one  of  the  g^reat  officers  of  state,  the 
order  of  precedence.  This  office  earl 
one  of  comparatively  small  imports 
has  for  many  centuries  been  a  pure 
dignity.  It  was  granted  to  the  I 
Eu>ls  of  Oxford,  uy  Henry  I.  in  1 
was  for  many  centuries  hereditarj 
family.  On  the  death  of  John 
sixteenth  Earl  of  Oxford,  his  daugh 
married  Lord  *Willoughby  de  Eresb; 
1625  the  House  of  Lords  declared 
office  passed  to  this  nobleman.  On 
of  the  last  male  descendant  of  thii 
was  decided,  after  much  litigation, 
1779,  that  the  honour  passea  to  Y 
descendants,  the  Lady  Willoughby 
and  the  Lady  Charlotte  Bertie. 

ChBaockherVaxKLj  The  Lord, 
HorsBHOLD,  or  King^s  Chamberla: 
an  officer  of  some  importance.  1 
him  are  found  early  in  the 
century.  In  1341  he  was  ordere 
an  oath  to  maintain  the  laws 
Great  Charter,  and  in  1  Richard 
enacted  that  he  should  be  chosen 
ment.  He  derived  considerabL 
importance  from  the  fact  that  it  wj 
to  endorse  petitions  handed  to  the 
frequent  complaints  in  Parliament 
this  prerogative  was  generally  ex€ 
occasionally  abused.  In  1406  it  w 
in  Parliament  that  tho  King's  C 
should  always  bo  a  member  of  tl 
Under  the  later  Plantagenets  and 
Lord  Chamberlain  became  the  chief  i 
of  the  royal  household ;  and  his  dul 
not  altogether  nominal.  By  31  U 
he  takes  precedence  after  tho  Lioi 
By  modem  usage,  he  is  al^Tiya  a  } 
rank,  and  he  goes  out  with  the  mi 
has  also  a  peculiar  authority  ovi 
entertainments,  which  ariaes  fro 
that  the  players  attached  to  the  Il< 
hold  were  under  his  jurisdiction 
Lord  Chamberlain*  s  function  as 
all  plajT?  dates  only  fronn  10  < 
cap.  28,  1736,  when  Walpolc  hr< 
Act  of  Parliament  requiring  tha 


Cha 


(245) 


Cha 


and  plays  should  receive  the  licence  of  the 
Lord  Chamberlain  before  being  acted,  power 
being  given  to  this  officer  to  prohibit  the 
representation  of  any  piece  which  seemed  to 
offend  against  morality,  decency,  or  public 
order. 

duunborlailiy  The  Right  Hon.  Joseph, 
was  returned  as  M.P.  for  Birmingham  in   i 
1876.     In  the  second  Gladstone  adminiatration 
he  was  President  of  the  Board  of  Trade  and 
in  the  Cabinet.    In  the  third  he  was  President   , 
of  the  Local  Government  Board,  but  resig^ied  i 
(March,  1886)  in  consequence  of  his  objections 
to  the  Home  Rule  policy.    In  1887  he  was  i 
appointed  one  of  the  commissioners  to  settle 
the  Fishery  dispute  between  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States. 

Chamjpion  of  Enf^land,  The,  ia  an 

officer  whose  business  it  is  to  appear  at 
the  coronation  of  a  sovereign,  challenge  all 
comers  to  deny  the  title  of  the  king  or 
queen,  and,  if  necessary,  to  fight  them. 
The  office  is  a  very  ancient  one,  and  is 
popularly  supposed  to  have  been  instituted 
by  William  the  *  Conqueror.  According  to 
Dugdale  {Baronage  of  Efigland)  the  Conqueror 
conferred  the  office  on  Robert  de  Mannion, 
with  the  castle  of  Tamworth  and  manor  of 
Sciivelsby,  in  Lincolnshire.  At  the  corona- 
tion of  Richard  II.  the  office  was  claimed  by 
Sir  John  Dymoke.  of  8crivelsby,  and  Baldwin 
de  TVeville,  of  Tamworth.  It  was  finally 
decided  that  the  office  went  with  the  manor, 
and  belonged  to  Sir  John  Dymoke,  in  whose 
family  it  remained  down  to  the  coronation  of 
Queen  Victoria. 

Cluu&cellory  Richard  {d.  1554),  was  the 
founder  of  the  English-Russian  Company. 
Whilst  on  a  voyage  of  discovery,  to  find  the 
north-west  passage  to  China,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Cabot,  in  1553,  he  doubled  the  North 
Cape  (a  feat  never  before  accomplished  by  the 
English),  and  reached  Archangel.  Thence 
he  made  an  inland  journey  to  Moscow,  and 
established  the  first  trading  relations  between 
England  and  Russia.  On  his  return  to 
England  he  established  a  company  to  trade 
with  Muscovy,  which  was  incorporated  by 
Queen  Mary.  He  spt  out  for  Russia  a  second 
time ;  but  on  his  return  voyage,  accompanied 
by  the  Russian  envoys,  he  was  wrecked  on 
the  coast  of  Norway,  and  perished. 

Chancellor.    [Chancery.] 

Crha&oery.  The  Court  of  Chancery  and 
its  equitable  jurisdiction  have  occupied  in 
England  a  unique  position,  and  exercised  a 
paramount  influence  on  the  development  of 
the  English  legal  system,  especially  on  ihe 
laws  relating  to  land.  But  the  Chancery  and 
the  office  of  Chancellor  existed  for  more 
than  three  centuries  before  it  became  a  court 
of  jurisdiction  at  all.  The  office  was  at 
first  purely  ministeriaL    The  caneellariut  of 


Rome,  the  officer  who  sat  behind  the  screen 
fcancelli)   was  merely  a  secretary;  and  the 
Chancellor  of  the  Norman  kin^,  under  whom 
this  official  first  comes  into  notice,  was  simply 
the  chief  of  the  royal  clerks  who  superin* 
tended  them  in  drawing  up  writs,  and  kept 
the  seaL    As  a  clerk  he  was  an  ecclesiastic ; 
Hnd  as  an  ecclesiastic  nearest   to  the  royal 
person,   he    was    the    king's  chaplain,    and 
*'  keeper  of  the  king's  conscience.*'      Becket, 
when  Chancellor,  is  described    as  seeundut 
a  Tdge\  he  had  fifty  clerks  under  him;   he 
held  pleas  with  the  constable  and  judges  of 
the  curia  regi».     This  came  to  him  only  by 
way  of  delegation  from  the  Council,  when 
to    the    king    in    Council,    as    the    foun- 
tain of  justice,  there  came  a))peals  from  the 
lower  royal  courts,   and  petitions  in   cases 
where  these  courts  would  not  or  could  not 
do  justice.   By  the  ordinance,  22  Edward  III., 
all  petitions  that  were  *'  of  grace  "  were  to 
be  referred  to  the  Chancellor.   Henceforth  pe- 
titions are  addressed  to  the  Chancellor  directly. 
Of  these  early  petitions  most  seek  redress 
under  circumstances  where  ordinary  justice 
might  miscarry ;  as  against  a  partial  sheriff, 
an  encroaching  lord,  or  the  keepers  of  a  gaoL 
So  far  the  Chancellor  was  exercising  only  the 
natural  authority  of  a  king*s  representative; 
since  these  were  cases  of  trespass  {yiet  armt«), 
in  which  cases  the  euria    regis  always  in- 
terfered; and  till  modem    times  a  bill  in 
Chancery  preserved  the  formal  statement  of  a 
conspiracy  to  commit  a  trespass,  as  the  ground 
on  which  the  court  was  asked  to  interfere. 
The  theory  of  trespass  was  soon  enlarged, 
and  the  desire  to  avoid  the  procedures  by 
compurgation  or  by  ordeal  of  battle  would 
cause   many   petitions  for  a  hearing  in  the 
Chancery.    The  court  was  charged,  too,  with 
the  preservation   of   royal   rights,   and  the 
decision  of  technical  points  touching  writs, 
patents,   and    grants  issued    by   its  clerks. 
Under  Richard  II.  it  was  to  supervise  the 
justices  of  the  peace ;  under  Henry  VI.   to 
try  Admiralty  cases,  and  so  on.     But  all  this 
would  not  have  created  in  the  Chancery  its 
distinctive  jurisdiction,  nor  have  thrown  itinto 
rivalry  and  even  hostility  with  the  common 
law  courts.  Many  gfreat  lawyers  have  treated 
this  as  a  necessity  inherent  in  the  nature  of 
law,  and  one  paralleled  in  the  actual  system, 
of  Roman  law.    But  the  anomaly  peculiar  to 
England  is  that  the  equity,  which  is  more  or 
less  truly  said  to  soften  and  correct  while  it 
follows  the  law,  is  administered  by  a  separate 
tribunal ;   so  that  the   law  itself  has    been 
thrown  into  an  attitude  of  jealousy  towards 
the  equity  which  was  to  supplement  and  ex- 
pand it,  and  <^  a  man  might  lose  his  suit  on 
one  side  of  Westminster  Hall  and  win  it  on 
the  other."  This  anomaly  may  be  historically 
traced  to  the  common  lawyers'  own  resistance 
to  progress.    They  took  up  too  early  the  view 
that  Uieir  system  was  complete ;   for  every 
wrong  there  existed  a  remedy,  and  the  remedy 


Clia 


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Cha 


must  be  by  a  form  of  writ.  Cases,  therefore, 
that  could  not  be  brought  under  tiie  existing 
forms  of  writ,  would  fail  to  obtain  a  hearing 
in  the  courts.  The  statute  13  Edward  I., 
cap.  24,  therefore  ordered  that  the  Chancery 
should  draw  up  new  forms  of  writ  "  for  like 
cases  fallingunder  like  law  and  requiring  like 
remedy."  But  the  judges  were  now  dis- 
inclined to  allow  their  system  to  expand.  In 
their  jealousy  of  the  Chancery  clerks,  they 
construed  the  statute  as  narrowly  as  possible, 
were  loth  to  allow  that  any  new  case  was  a 
**  like  case,"  and  declined  to  admit  new  forms 
of  defence  at  all.  It  followed  that  new 
grounds  of  action  and  defence  wore  left  to 
the  Chancery  Court,  which,  in  the  next  cen- 
tury, began  rapidly  to  extend  its  action.  The 
earliest  recorded  equity  suit  before  the 
Chancellor  is  a  married  woman^s  petition  on 
an  ante>nuptial  agreement  for  a  settlement, 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  III. 

The  hostility  shown  by  the  Commons  in 
Parliament  to  this  jurisdiction  was  due 
to  the  vagueness  in  the  sunmions  of  the 
subpopna  **  to  answer  on  certain  matters,*' 
to  the  searching  mode  of  inquiry  pursued, 
perhaps  a] so  to  the  generous  hearing  os- 
tentatiously offered  to  the  poor.  But  their 
hostility  embodied  also  the  jealous}'^  against 
investigation  into  land  titles,  and  inter- 
ference with  the  sacred  franc-tenements, 
and  the  jealousy  of  a  jurisdiction  so  closely 
connected,  by  its  principles  and  its  ad- 
ministrators, with  the  Church.  It  is  to  be 
noticed  that  except  from  1371  to  1386,  all 
the  Chancellors  down  to  Sir  Thomas  More 
were  ecclesiastics.  The  device  itself  of  *^a 
use,"  or  grant,  of  lands  to  A  to  hold  to 
the  use  of  others,  had  originated  with  the 
Church,  which  had  then  protected  the  use 
by  Hpiritual  sanction.  On  the  other  hand, 
this  and  other  modes  of  acquiring  rights  in 
land  for  the  Church  had  been  checked  by 
successive  Mortmain  Acts:  those  of  Henry 
III.,  Edward  I.,  15  Richard  II.  The  similar 
attempts  made  by  the  Commons  to  check 
this  growing  Chancery  jurisdiction  failed; 
the  first  recorded  enforcement  of  a  use  by 
the  Chancellor  is  in  Henry  V.*s  reign;  in 
that  of  Henry  YI.  uses  were  firmly  estab- 
lished ;  till  by  the  Wars  of  the  Roses  most  of 
the  land  of  England  was  held  subject  to  uses. 
By  this  condition  of  things  the  legal  was 
divorced  from  the  actual  ownership  of  land ; 
the  feoffee  to  uses  merely  served  as  a 
screen  to  cestui  qui  use;  this  latter,  being 
"  ho  that  had  the  use,"  enjo^^ed  the  profits 
unburdened  with  the  liabilities.  The 
machinery  of  a  use  made  it  easy  to  evade 
in  every  direction  the  rigour  of  the  feudal 
land-law;  so  that  land  could  thus  be  con- 
veyed by  mere  word  of  mouth,  could  be 
conveyed  freely  or  devised  by  will,  or  charged 
in  any  way  for  the  benefit  of  others ;  the 
Chancellor  recognised  and  enforced  all 
such    dispositions.     So  far,   it  was   a  boon 


to  society  that  the  land  system  shoul 
have  escaped  from  the  feudal  tnin 
but  it  had  now  become  an  intolerab] 
that  the  ownership  of  land  should  I 
what  the  feudal  law  had  guarded  a 
viz.,  secret,  uncertain,  and  easy  of  tr 
Attempts  had  been  made  to  remedy  1 
statute  of  Henrj'  VII.,  following  a 
Act  of  50  Edward  IV.,  had  set  a  pit 
for  regarding  the  beneficiary  as  th 
owner  in  the  case  of  debts  secured 
land.  So,  1  Richard  III.,  cap.  1,  allo^ 
beneficiary's  conveyance  to  be  valid 
out  assent  of  the  feoffees,  and 
Henry  VII.,  cap.  15,  the  lord  could 
ward^ip  over  the  heir  to  lands  held  t 
a  use.  But  the  final  blow  at  the  syi 
uses  was  dealt  by  Henry  VIII.  In 
carried  the  Act  which  made  uses  foi 
for  treason,  and  two  years  later,  int: 
the  great  Statute  of  Uses^  27  Henry  VI 
10,  to  put  an  end  to  the  system  once 
But  the  narrow  conservatism  of  the  ( 
lawyers,  dif^ising  itself  as  philo 
strictness  of  interpretation,  was  able  t 
the  great  legislative  design.  In  the 
whole  effect  of  the  statute  has  been 
consist "  in  adding  four  words  to  ev( 
veyance."  For,  following  servilely  the 
of  the  statute,  the  judges  managed  to 
from  its  Bco])e  uses  where  the  use  was 
on  a  leasehold  interest,  where  the  use 
some  active  duties,  or  where  a  f  urthei 
raised  upon  the  first  use.  It  was  1 
not  to  apply  to  copyhold  lands  at 
where  a  use  was  held  by  a  corpora 
Here,  then,  were  a  number  of  case's  c 
tion  imrecognised  by  the  common 
left  to  be  enforced  by  the  Chancon 
which  had  thus  by  Coke's  time  recover 
the  name  of  **  trusts  "  all  that  hold  o\ 
actions  in  land  which  the  statute  wa 
transferred  to  the  law  courts.  In  t 
of  Elizabeth  the  first  collection  of  i 
precedents  was  made  and  published 
the  time  of  the  Stuarts  the  jurisc 
the  court  was  well  settled  to  give  re! 
same  main  subjects  as  it  does  now,  v 
fraud,  accident,  extremity.  Its  chief 
ments  since  that  time  have  been  in  1 
tion  of  "  implied  trusts,"  and  especis 
protection  of  mortgagors*  "  equity  o 
tion,"  the  settled  property  of  marrie 
and  the  estates  of  minors.  The  d( 
"  specific  performance "  has  been 
creation.  The  court's  main  ii 
besides  imprisonment  has  been  the 
tion  of  costs,  and  its  strongest  an 
junction.  The  benefits  conferred  o 
society  by  the  Court  of  Chancery  Y 
immense.  Much  of  its  semi-  crimina 
tion  has  been  renounced  since  the  se 
century  ;  but  the  year-books  and  pet 
able  us  to  judge  of  the  value  of  a  sti 
armed  with  the  directest  authority  of 
and  deciding  on  enlightened  princi 


Cha 


(247) 


Cha 


a  prompt  and  elastic  procedure  in  the  ages 
whose   supreme  and  chronic  grievance  -was 
lack  of  governance.    It  must  be  admitted 
that  this  equity  was  not  always  ideal  justice ; 
the  very  completeness  of  the  inquiries  necessi- 
tated .the  long  delays  of  a  Chancery  suit,  just 
as  the  very  elasticity  of  the  procedure  intro- 
duced a  certain  confusion  and  prolixity  into 
the  pleadings.    Too  much  was  left  to  the 
Masters  in   Chancery  and  done  in  "secret 
chamber-work : "  and  above  all,  misled  by 
the  half  truth  that  equity  follows  the  law, 
there    were    hardships    against    which    the 
Qumcellors  had  not,  in  the  face  of  the  judges, 
the  courage  to  grant  relief.     But  there  were 
others  which  they  boldly  followed  up,  as  in 
resisting,  on  grounds  of  "public  policy,'*  the 
creation  of  perpetuities,  or  in  acting  on  the 
maxims,   "He    that  seeks  equity  must    do 
equity  ; "  "  Equity  looks  to  the  intent  rather 
than    the   form ;  *'     "  Equity    considers    as 
done  that  which  ought  to  be  done.*'    But  the 
greatest  triumph  has  been  the  influence  exerted 
^y  equity  on  the  common  law,  which  adopted 
the  rules  of  equity  as  to  the  construction  of 
deeds,   the    admissibility    of    "  set-off,"  the 
power  to  change  the  venue  and  grant  a  new 
trial,  the  repudiation  of  penalties  in  a  contract. 
So,  too,  the  right  to  make  a  will  of  land, 
denied  at  law,   was   granted  by  Chancery, 
and  had  to  be  adopted  by  statute  (32  Henry 
VIII.}.     Finally,  the  Married  Women's  Pro- 
perty Act  of  1883  is  a  practical  monument 
of  the  victory  of  the  Chancery  and  Soman 
law  view  as  to  the  status  of  a  married  woman 
over  the  barbarous  code  in  which  her  per- 
sonalty was  merged  in  that  of  her  husband. 
The    lay    Chancellors    who    succeeded    Sir 
Thomas  More  down  to  Lord  Nottingham,  >'.«., 
from  1532  to  1673,  contrasted  unfavourably 
with  the  clerical  founders  of  the  great  edifice. 
The  Reformation  interrupted  the  traditions 
of  the  office,  and  broke  up  the  study  of  civil 
law ;  in  the  want  of  precedents  the  Chancel- 
lors relied  too  much  on  intuition  and  common 
sense  (as  Lord  Shaftesbury,  in  a  more  settled 
time,  1672,  essayed  to  do,  to  his  own  discom- 
fiture).     This  explains  Selden's  famous  re- 
proach, half-jesting,  no  doubt,  "  Equity  is  a 
roguish  thing  ....     'Tis  all  one  as  if  we 
should  make  the  standard  for  the  measure  of 
a  foot  the  ChanceUor's  foot.    One  Chancellor 
has  a  long  foot ;  another,  a  short  foot ;  a 
third,  an  indifferent  foot."  The  Tudor  Chan- 
cellors certainly  seem  to  have  deferred  to  the 
personal  leanings  of  the  sovereign.    But  no 
such  reproach  could  be  made  of  this  or  the 
last  century,  when  equity  became  as  much  "  a 
laboured  connected  system,  governed  by  estab- 
lished rules,  and  bound  down  by  precedents, 
as  the  common  law  "  (Lord  Eldon).    Still  the 
abuses  of  the  court  were  numerous,  and  some 
of   them    had   reached  a  monstrous    pitch. 
Venality  was  the  old  canker  of  the  court,  and 
the  memory  of  Bacon's  offence  was  revived 
by  similar  charges  against  Lord  Clarendon, 


by  the  impeachment  of  Lord  Somers  (1700) 
for  corruption,  by  the  flagitious  sale  of  Church 

gktionage  by  Sir  N.  Wright,  till  the  accumu- 
ted  popular  indignation  burst  upon  Lord 
Macclesfield,  who  was  dismissed  and  heavily 
fined  in  1725  for  misuse  of  the  '*  suitors' 
fund  "  and  open  sale  of  offices.  But  even  had 
every  official  had  clean  hands,  the  abuses  of 
delay  and  prolixity  would  have  remained 
an  intolerable  burden.  The  Restoration 
gave  these  abuses  a  fresh  lease  of  life ;  the 
use  of  English  was  not  enacted  till  1730,  nor 
registries  till  Anne's  reign,  and  then  only  for 
Yorkshire  and  Middlesex.  Meantime,  the 
abolition  of  the  ancient  Courts  of  Wards  and 
of  Requests,  increased  the  business,  which 
accumulated  with  the  wonderful  growth  of 
wealth  and  population  in  George  III.'s  reign, 
and  with  the  proverbial  dilatoriness  of  Lord 
Eldon,  who  held  the  seal  almost  continuously 
from  1801  to  1827.  Even  the  new  office  of 
Vice-Chancellor  of  England,  established  in 
1813,  failed  to  relieve  the  congestion  of 
causes,  because  an  appeal  lay  against  him  to 
the  Chancellor.  A  successful  commission  was 
at  last  appointed  in  1825,  whose  labours  were 
not  wholly  thwarted  either  by  the  apathy 
of  Eldon  or  the  presence  of  a  number  of 
Chancery  lawyers;  ibrthe  energy  of  Brougham, 
Campbell,  ana  Westbury  in  time  carri^  out 
these  reforms,  and  that  which  was  a  necessary 
preliminary  to  them,  the  simplification  and 
amendment  of  the  law  of  real  property.  The 
present  and  preceding  reigns  have  done  more 
for  these  objects  than  all  the  previous  centuries 
put  together;  additional  Vice-Chancellors  and 
clerks  have  been  appointed,  a  court  of  appeal 
established,  the  common  law  side  of  the 
court  and  its  bankruptcy  business  transferred 
elsewhere,  the  suitors'  fund  re-arranged, 
and  the  procedure  gradually  simplified,  while 
the  court  has  been  empowered  (1858^  to 
impose  damages,  try  matters  of  fact  by  a  jury, 
and  take  a  judge  as  assessor  without  applica- 
tion to  a  common  law  court.  When,  about 
the  same  period  (1854),  common  law  courts 
were  given  the  powers  of  an  equity  court  as 
to  examination  of  parties,  discovery  of  docu- 
ments, injunctions,  &c.,  it  became  clear  that 
the  two  ancient  rivals  were  approximating  to 
each  other,  and  would  soon  be  prepared  to  be 
reconciled  or  even  amalgamated.  The  bill 
(1860)  for  this  purpose  was  cut  down  by  the 
influence  of  the  Chancery  lords;  but  in  1873 
the  Judicature  Act  was  passed,  which  followed 
Wie  advice  of  Lords  Brougham,  Westbury, 
and  St.  Leonards,  and  harmonised,  without 
attempting  completely  to  fuse,  the  two 
systems. 

In  Ikelaxp,  there  was  a  Lord  Chancellor 
presiding  over  a  separate  court  of  equity,  the 
growth  of  which  has  followed  very  closely 
the  development  of  the  English  equity 
system.  The  earliest  Chancellor  was  Stephen 
Ridel,  appointed  in  1189.  In  Scotland,  the 
functions  of  the  Chancellor's  Court  in  the 


Clia 


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Cha 


thirteenth  century  were  probablj'  not  verj"" 
different  from  those  of  the  same  office  in 
England.     But  as  the  Civil  Law  formed  the 

basis  of  the  Scottish  legal  system,  the 
Chancellor  became  the  chief  a(£aiinistrator 
of  law,  not  of  an  equitable  system.  In  1553, 
when  the  Court  of  Session  was  established, 
he  became  the  chief  judge  of  this  court.  In 
Scotland  till  the  Reformation  he  was  generally 
a  churchman ;  and  afterwards  became  a  mere 
officer  of  state.  On  the  union  with  England 
his  separate  functions  were  merged  in  those 
of  the  English  Lord  Chancellor. 

[A.  L.  S.] 

Lord  Hxau  Chancellors  and  Lord  Kbbpzbs  of 

England. 

Aifastos  (Herefast) 1008 

Osbert,  Bishop  of  Exeter 1070 

Osmund,  Bishop  of  Salisboiy    ....  1073 

IMJuirice 1078 

William  Welson,  Bishop  of  Thetford       .       .  1063 

William  Oiffard 1066 

BobertBloet 1090 

Waldrio 1083 

William  Oiffard 109i 

Boger,  Bishop  of  Salisbury        ....  1101 

William  Oiffard 1103 

Waldric 1104 

Amulfh 1107 

Oeoffrey  Buf  OB 1124 

Soger  of  Salisbury 1135 

Phflip 1139 

TheoDald,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury              .  1142 

Thomas  Becket    . 1154 

Balph  de  Wameville  .       •  l    •                      •  ^73 

Oeoffrey  Plantagenet,  Archbishop  of  York     .  1182 

William  de  Longchamp 1189 

Enstace,  Bishop  of  Ely 1198 

Hubert  Walter,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury    .  1199 

Walter  de  Orey,  Archbishop  of  York              .  1205 

Peter  dee  Boches,  Bishop  of  Wincheuter        .  1213 

Walter  de  Orey Jan.  1214 

Biohard  de  ICarisco    ....         Oct.  1214 

Balph  Neville 1218 

Simon  de  Cantilupe 1238 

Blchard,  Abbot  of  Evesham      ....  1240 

SUvester  of  Eversden 12tf 

JohnMansel 1246> 

William  de  Kilkenny 1250 

Henry  Wingham,  Bishop  of  London               .  1255 

Walter  de  Merton,  Bishop  of  Boohester .       .  1258 

NioholasofEly 1200 

Walter  de  Merton 1261 

Nicholas  of  Ely 1363 

Thomas  de  Cantilupe .               .                 Feb.  1265 

Walter  OifliBird Aug.  1265 

Oodfrey  Oiffard 1266 

JohnChishull 1268 

Bichaid  Hiddl^ton 1269 

JohnEirkeby 1272 

Walter  de  Merton 1272 

BobertBumell 1274 

JohnLangton 1292 

William  Oreenfield 1302 

William  Hamilton 1304 

Balph  Baldook 1307 

JohnLangton 1307 

Walter  Beynolds,  Bishop  of  Worcester  .       .  1310 

JohnSandale 1314 

John  Hotham,  Bishop  of  Ely    ....  1318 

John  Salmon,  Bishop  of  Norwich     .        .        .  1320 

Bobert  Baldock 1323 

John  Hotham Jan.  1327 

Henry  deClyff Mar.  1327 

Henry  de  Bnrghersh,  Bishop  of  Lincoln   May  1327 

John  Stratford,  Bishop  of  Winchester    .       .  1330 

Bichaxd  Bury,  Bishop  of  Durham    .               .  1334 

John  Stratford,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury     .  1335 

Bobert  Stratford 1337 


Bichard  Bynterworth,  Bishop  of  London      . 
Archbishop  Stratford         .       .  .  Ap. 

Bobert  Stratford,  Bishop  of  Chichester    Juh 
William  Kildesby       ....        Dec 
Sir  Bobert  Bourchier ....   Dec.  1^ 
Sir  Bobert  Pamyng    . 
Bobert  Sadvngton 
John  Ufford 
John  Thoresby,  Bishop  of  St.  Davids 
William  Edington,  Bishop  of  Whichester 
Simon  Langham,  Bishop  of  Ely 
William  of  Wykeham,  Bishop  of  Winchester 

Sir  Bobert  Thorpe 

Sir  Bichard  Sorope 

Sir  John  Knyvett       ....       Jul 
Adam  Houghton,  Bishop  of  St  Davids  . 

Sir  B.  Scrope 

Simon  of  Sudbniy,  Archbishop  o(  Canterbm 
Bichard,  Earl  of  Arundel  .... 
Bobert  Braybrooke,  Bishop  of  London    . 
Sir  Michael  de  la  Pole       .... 
Thomas  Arundel,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
William  of  Wykeham         .... 

Archbishop  Arundel 

Edmund  Stafford,  Bi^op  of  Exeter 

Archbishop  Arundel 

JohnScarle 

Edmund  Stafford 

Henry  Beaufort,  Bishop  of  Lincoln 
Thomas  Langley,  Bishop  of  Durham 

Thomas  Arundel 

Thomas  Beaufort  Earl  of  Dorset 

Archbishop  Arundel 

Henry  Beaufort,  Bishop  of  Winchester  . 

Bishop  Longley 

Simon  Oansteae 

Henry  Beaufort 

John  Kemp,  Bishop  of  Loudon 
John  Stafford.  Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells 
John  Kemp,  Archbisnop  of  York 
Bichard  Neville,  Earl  of  Salisbury    . 
Thos.  Bourchier,  Archbishop  of  Cauterbur 
William  of  Waynflete,  Bishop  of  Winchest 
Thos.  Bourchier,  Archbishop  of  Canterbm 
George  Neville,  Bishop  of  Exeter    . 

Bobert  Kirkeham 

Bobert  Stillington,  Bishop  of  Bath  and  W 
Laurence  Booth,  Bishop  of  Durham 
Thomas  Botheram,  Bianop  of  Lincoln    . 
John  Bussell,  Bishop  of  Lmooln 

Thomas  Barowe 

BidiO]9  Alcock 

Archmshop  Morton 

Henry  Deane 

William  Warham,  Archbishop  of  Canterbi 

Cardinal  Wolsey 

Sbr  Thomas  More 

Sir  Thomas  Audlev 

Thomas,  Lord  Wriothesley 
William  Panlet,  Lord  St.  John 

Bichard,  Lord  Bich 

Thomas  Ooodrich,  Biihop  of  Ely 

Stephen  Oardiner.  Bishop  of  Winchester 

Nicholas  Heath,  Archbishop  of  York 

Sir  Nicholas  Bacon     . 

Sir  Thomas  Bromley 

Sir  Christopher  Hatton 

William  Cecil,  Lord  Burleigh  . 

Sir  John  Puckering    . 

Sir  Thomas  Egerton  . 

Sir  Francis  Bacon 

John  Williams,  Bishop  of  Lincoln 

Sir  Thomas  Coventry 

Sir  John  Finch   .... 

Sir  Edward  Lyttelton 

Sir  Bichard  Lane 

Oreat  Seal  in  Commission  . 
Edward  Hyde,  Earl  of  Clarendon 
Sir  Orlando  Bridgeman 
Anthony  Ashley,  Earl  of  Shaftesbury 
Heueage  Finch,  Lord  Nottingham 
Francis  North.  Lord  Ouildford 
OeoTge,  Lord  Jeffreys 

Oreat  Seal  in  Commission  • 
John,  Lord  Somers     .       .        • 


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(849) 


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Sir  Nathan  Wriffht 1700 

Waiiam,  Iiord  Cowper 1705 

ttmon.  Lord  Haxoonrt 1710 

Lord  Cowper 1714 

Thomas,  Lord  Parker 1718 

Peter,  Lord  King 1725 

Charles,  Lord  Talbot 1733 

PhiUp  Torke.  Lord  Hardwick«  .  1737 

Bobert,  Lord  Ueaiej 1757 

Charles,  Lord  Camden 1706 

Cbarlei  Torke,  Lord  Morden    ....  1770 

Henx7  Bath  ant.  Lord  Apsley  ....  1771 

Edward,  Lord  Thurlow 1778 

Alezauder,  Lord  Looerhborough  .  1703 

John  Scott,  Lord  Eldou 180L 

Thomas,  Lord  Erskine 1806 

LoidEldon 1807 

John  Singleton  Coplej,  Lord  Ljrndhurtt        .  1887 

Henry,  Lord  Brougham 1830 

Lord  Lyndharst 1834 

Charles  Pepys,  Lord  Cotteuham  .  1836 

Lord  Ljndhurat 1841 

Lord  Cottenham 1816 

Thomas  Wilde,  Lord  Tnuo       ....  1890 

Edward  Sogden,  Lord  St.  Leonards    Feb.  27  1862 

Robert  Bolfe,  Lord  Cianworth         .  Dec  18  1852 

Frederic  Thesiger,  Lord  Chelmsford  .  1866 

John,  Lord  Campbell 1850 

Richard  Bethell.  Lord  Westburj     .  .  1861 

Lord  Cranworth 1865 

Lord  Chelmsford 1866 

Hagh  Cairns,  Lord  Cains 1868 

William  Page  Wood,  Lord  Hatherley      .       .  1868 

Bouudell  Palmer,  Lord  Stdbome  .  1872 

Earl  Cairns 1874 

EaclSelbome 1880 

LordHalsboxy 1885 

Lord  Herschell 1886 

Lord  Halsbnnr 1887 

LordHerschell 1882 

Cluuidos,  Soi  John  (d.  1369),  was  one 
of  the  moet  famous  of  the  English  generals 
duing  the  French  wars  ofEdwaiS  II1.*8 
reign.  In  1362  he  was  appointed  Con- 
stable of  Guienne,  and  in  1364  was  sent 
over  to  Brittany  to  assist  De  Montfort, 
where  he  took  Du  Guesclin  prisoner.  In 
1369  he  was  made  Seneschal  of  Poitou,  and 
in  the  same  year  fell  in  a  sldrmish. 

Cniandos  of  Sudolay  (Sir  John 
Bhtdobs),  Lord,  accompanied  Henry  VIII. 
to  France,  1513,  when  quite  a  boy.  He  greatly 
distingni^ed  himself  at  the  fiattle  of  the 
Spars  (q.y.),  and  in  ?549  successfully  de- 
f^ded  Boulogne,  of  which  ho  was  deputy 
governor,  against  the  French.  He  sub- 
sequently became  Lieutenant  of  the  Tower, 
and  had  the  custody  of  Lady  Jane  Grey 
and  the  Princess  Elizabeth.  He  was  a 
bigoted  Papist,  and  assisted  Mary,  with 
whom  he  was  a  great  favourite,  in  her  per- 
secution of  the  Heformers. 

Cnuumel  Ifllandfl.  Thb,  comprise  the 
Bailiwiclcs  of  Jersey  and  Guernsey,  the  latter 
of  which  includes  Sark,  Herm,  and  Aldemey, 
together  with  the  small  and  unimportant 
iabinds  of  Jethou,  Le  Alarchant,  and  the 
Gaskets.  They  are  interesting  as  being  the 
Jast  portion  of  the  dukedom  of  Normandy 
remaming  to  England,  which  has  possessecl 
them  ever  since  the  Norman  Conquest.  In 
550  they  were  granted  by  Childebert  to  a 
Saxon   bishop,  who    soon   afterwards   con- 


verted most  of  the  inhabitants  to  Christianity. 
The  Channel  Islands  came  into  the  possession 
of  the  Dukes  of  Normandy  in  the  tenth 
century  by  the  grant  of  Charles  IV., 
and  remained  attached  to  the  English 
crown  when  Philip  II.  conquered  the 
rest  of  Normandy  from  King  John.  After 
the  loss  of  Normandy  by  John,  the  Channel 
Islands  were  attacked  by  the  French  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  and  again  in  that 
of  Edward  III.,  when  Bu  Guesclin,  the 
Constable  of  Freince,  almost  succeeded  in 
reducing  them.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  IV., 
they  did  fall  into  the  hands  of  the  French 
for  a  short  time,  but  were  retaken  shortly 
afterwards  by  Sir  Henry  Harleston.  Under 
Edward  VI.,  Sark  was  also  lost  for  a  time. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
the  Channel  Islands  were  governed  by  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh.  During  the  Parliamentary 
wars,  Jersey  espoused  warmly  the  side  of 
the  king,  for  which  the  government  was 
put  in  commission  by  CromwelL  In  1779 
the,  French  made  an  ineffectual  attempt  to 
land,  and  in  December,  1780,  sent,  another 
expedition,  under  the  Baron  do  liuUeoourt, 
who  succeeded  in  taking  St.  Holier  in 
Jersey,  although  he  was  subsequently  de- 
featea  and  shiin  by  the  British  troops. 
About  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  tne 
islands  became  Protestant,  and  were  at- 
tached to  the  diocese  of  Winchester.  The 
Channel  Islands,  though  under  a  governor 
appointed  by  the  crown,  have  a  constitution 
of  their  own.  Jersey  and  Guernsey  (with 
its    dependencies)  have    each  a  lieutenant- 

fovemor  and  a  l^iliff,  who  presides  over  the 
tates  of  Deliberation,  and  is  nominated  by 
tho  crown.  The  States  of  Deliberation  of 
Jersey  and  Guernsey  are  composed  of  certain 
officials — the  rectors  of  parishes,  the  judges 
of  the  courts,  and  constables  of  parishes 
(elected  in  Guernsey  by  the  **  States  of 
Election,**  which  consist  of  222  ratepayers). 
The  coujrts  of  justice  are  presided  over  by 
the  bailiff,  and  by  judges  elected  by  the  rate* 
payers.  This  constitution  has  esosted  witii 
but  little  alteration  since  the  time  of  John. 
Guernsey  is  divided  into  ten  parishes,  and 
Jersey  into  twelve,  some  of  which  are  in- 
cluded in  municipal  corporations.  The 
official  language,  alike  of  the  law  courts 
(whose  procedure  is  based  on  the  Norman) 
and  of  the  legislature,  is  still  French.  The 
Queen*8  writ  now  runs  in  the  Channel 
Islands. 

Berrj,  Hitt.  of  QuemMu;  Inglis,  Channel  It^ 
landi;  Ansted,  Channtl  Itlanda.      [S.  J.  L.] 

diaptOTf  The,  is  the  body  of  clergy  at- 
tached to  the  cathedral.  Originally,  this  body 
was  the  assembly  of  the  priests  of  the  diocese 
round  their  bishop.  It  was  the  bishop's 
general  council,  and  contained  within  it 
the  bishop^s  officials  for  the  administration 
of  the  diocese,  and  the  clergy  who  had  the 
care  of  the  services  of  the  cathedral  itself. 


Cha 


(  250  ) 


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The  chapter  in  the  bishop^s  council  soon  fell 
into  disuse,  and  the  name  was  applied  almost 
entirely  to  the  clergy  of  the  cathedral  church 
itself,  who  soon  gained  a  position  almost 
independent  of  their  bishop.  Chapters  in 
England  were  of  two  kinds — ^monastic  and 
secidar  [Cathedral].  The  monastic  chapters 
were  like  monasteries,  over  which  the  bishop 
ranked  as  abbot,  though  the  resident  prior 
was  the  real  head.  "Diese  monks  were  in 
England  Benedictines,  except  in  the  case  of 
Carlisle,  where  they  were  Augustinians.  In 
the  secular  chapters,  the  dean  rises  into 
prominence  in  the  eleventh  century.  The 
work  of  his  diocese,  the  necessity  of  con- 
stant journeys,  and  the  increase  of  secular 
business  undertaken  by  the  bishop  left  the 
cathedrals  without  a  head,  and  the  chapters 
everywhere  began  to  manage  their  business 
without  their  bishop.  The  theory  that  the 
chapter  elected  the  bishops  gave  them  at 
times  a  position  of  some  importance,  both 
towards  the  king  and  the  Pope.  Chapters 
frequently  appealed  to  Rome  against  their 
bishops,  and  often  were  successful  in  obtaining 
privileges  from  the  Pope.  The  separation  of 
the  chapter  from  the  bishop  became  more 
and  more  definite,  till  the  bishop  was  left 
with  no  powers  save  those  of  visitor  over 
his  chapter.  The  chief  officers  of  the  secular 
chapter  were :  the  d^atif  who  was  head  of  the 
body;  the  praxentor^  who  superintended  the 
services ;  the  chancellor^  who  was  head  of  the 
educational  and  literary  works  of  the  chapter; 
and  the  trcMurer^  who  had  the  care  of  aU  the 
treasures  of  the  Church.  Besides  those 
there  were  the  archdeacons,  who  were  the  sole 
survivors  of  the  diocesan  organisation  of  the 
chapter.  Its  other  members  were  canons^ 
as  bound  by  the  rule,  or  prebendaries,  if 
they  held  an  endovrment  besides  their  share 
of  the  corporate  fund.  This  last  body  was 
generally  non-resident,  and  their  duties  were 
performed  by  vicars,  who  are  now  called 
viears-ehoral  or  minor  canons.  Under  Henry 
Vlir.  the  monasteries  attached  to  the 
cathedrals  were  suppressed,  and  their 
chapters  were  refounded  as  secular  chapters 
under  a  dean.  After  the  same  model  the 
cathedrals  of  the  new  Lishoprics  founded 
by  Henry  VIII.  were  arranged.  Hence 
came  the  two  claasea— Cathedrals  of  the  014 
Foundation  and  Cathedrals  of  the  New  Founda- 
tion. [Cathedral.]  An  Actof  1838refonned 
cathedral  chapters  by  diminishing  the  num- 
ber of  canons,  reducing  their  incomes,  and 
bringing  all  chapters  to  greater  uniformity. 
Chapters  at  present  generally  consist  of  a  dean 
and  four  canons,  though  some  of  the  richer 
cathedrals  have  six  canons. 

Waloott,  CatheAralui ;  Essays  on  Cathedrals, 
edited  by  Dean  Howboh;  Report  of  the  Ca- 
thedrals Commission,  r«|-   p  -i 

Charflordt  near  Fordingbridge,  in  Hamp- 
■hire,  has  been  identified  with  Cerdicesfoxd, 


the  site  of  a  battle,  in  which,  in  519,  Co 

and  C}inric  defeated  the  Britons.   Ano 

fight  in  527  may  have  taken  place  at 

same  spot. 

Anglo-Saxon  CKron.;  Henry  of  Hnutuii 
Hist.  Anglor. 

Charlemonty  James  Caulfield,  1st' 
OF  {b.  1728,  d.  1799),  was  elected  b; 
Irish  Volunteers  "General  of  the  Pi 
Army,"  in  Jul^',  1780.  Soon  after,  1 
viewed  them  in  the  north.  In  17! 
opposed  Catholic  Emancipation,  and  w; 
of  the  leaders  in  the  first  and  Beconc 
ventions  at  Dungannon,  and  president 
Dublin  convention.  He  went  over  t^ 
land  with  the  Regency  Bill,  and  sign 
"  Hound  Robin  "  of  1789.  He  was  a 
founder  of  the  Northern  Whig  Clu 
his  estates  the  rebellion  of  1798  a 
a  peculiarly  dangerous  form.  Mr. 
speaks  of  him  as  *'  the  most  euthasiaj 
the  most  feeble  of  revolutionary  heroi 

Charles  I.,  Kino  [b.  Nov.  V 
8.  March  25,  1625,  d.  Jan.  31,  1649) 
son  of  James  I.  and  of  Anne,  dau 
Frederick  II.,  King  of  Denmark,  v 
at  Dunfermline.  He  was  a  hands 
athletic  youth,  with  reserved  and 
manners.  James^sbriUiant  favourite, 
ham,  gained  complete  ascendency  ovei 
in  1623  the  two  young  men  went  t< 
with  the  object  of  bringing  back  w 
as  Charles's  bride,  the  Infanta.  Buc 
who  had  expected  that  he  woul 
prevail  on  the  Spaniards  to  effect  tl 
tion  of  the  Palatinate,  soon  di3C< 
mistake ;  but  the  prince,  unwillin( 
homo  foiled  in  his  object,  refused  t 
country,  making  promises  that  i 
possible  for  him  to  perform,  and  a 
Spaniards  to  suppose  that  he  wo 
a  Catholic.  At  laist,  finding  that  if 
the  Infanta  he  would  not  be  allo^ 
her  to  England  until  his  promise 
formed,  he  returned,  along  wit 
ham,  to  England.  In  opx>08ition 
made  to  Parliament,  Charles 
hand  of  Henrietta  Maria,  sist 
XIII.  of  Franco,  by  consenting  ^ 
against  English  Catholics  shoul 
forced.  Shortly  before  the  r 
consummated,  James  died,  and 
cended  the  throne.  Thus,  1 
reign  under  ill  auspices.  H 
to  Parliament  and  to  the  ICi 
promisee  incompatible  "with 
and  he  was  under  the  ^ 
man  whose  temerity  and  self -c 
about  to  involve  his  ooiintr^ 
of  military  disasters.  Charlc* 
two  first  Parliaments  l>ecuu.ae 
support  the  policy  of  the  cl\ilv<! 
Spain  was  added  war  'witb.  1? 
was  raised  by  means  of  a  f  < 
persons  refusing  to  lend,  -w^i 
In   1628  a  third  Parliament 


Cha 


(261  ) 


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made  concessions  to  public  opinion  by  passing 
the  Petition  of  Right  (q.v.).  Soon  after  the 
prorogation  of  Parliament,  Buckingham  was 
murdered  by  Felton:  and  the  king  for  the 
future  himself  directed  the  policy  of  his  govern- 
ment. Though  Buckingham  was  removed, 
there  was  small  hope  of  good  understanding 
between  Charles  and  the  nation.  Charles  had 
no  desire  to  make  alterations  in  government. 
He,  indeed,  prided  himself,  when  involved  in 
any  dispute  with  a  subject,  on  having  the 
law  on  his  side ;  but  he  was  content  to  rest 
Ms  case  on  legal  subterfuges,  or  to  obtain  his 
end  by  the  appointment  of  subservient  judges. 
Moreover,  while  he  claimed  the  right  to 
nominate  ministers  at  will,  and  to  pursue 
whatever  policy  seemed  good  to  himself,  he 
failed  to  perceive  that  the  authority  of  his 
predecessors  had  remained  unquestioned  only 
when  they  had  ruled  in  accordance  with 
national  desires  and  aspirations.  Charles 
had  no  sympathy  for  the  holders  of  Calvin's 
creed,  who  formed  the  majority  of  thoughtful 
and  earnest  men  at  that  time.  Within  the 
Church  had  grown  up  a  small  party,  the  so- 
called  Arminians,  holding  doctrines  akin  to 
those  of  the  Church  of  Some.  Each  party 
desired  to  suppress  the  other,  and  Clutrles, 
who  favoured  the  Arminians,  was  incapable 
of  holding  the  balance  evenly  between  the 
two.  Parliament  met  again  in  1629,  only  to 
be  angrily  dissolved,  because  the  Commons 
refused  to  give  the  king  a  grant  of  tonnage 
and  poundage  until  he  should  consent  to 
pursue  the  Church  policy  approved  by  them. 
For  eleven  years  Charles  ruled  without 
Parliaments.  His  government  became  in- 
tensely unpopular.  Peace  was  made  with 
both  France  and  Spain ;  but  it  was  difficult 
to  provide  for  the  ordinary  expenses  out  of 
the  fixed  revenue,  and  hence  old  rights  of  the 
crown  were  once  more  enforced,  and  money 
raised  by  means  which  brought  little  into  the 
exchequer,  while  they  irritated  large  numbers 
of  persons.  The  system  culminated  in  the 
imposition  of  ship-money,  when  Charles, 
being  desirous  of  having  a  fleet  in  the 
Channel,  imposed  what  was  reaUy  a  heavy 
tax  on  the  country.  North  of  the  Humber, 
the  Court  of  the  North,  under  the  presidency 
of  Lord  Wentworth,  in  the  south,  the  Court 
of  Star  Chamber,  punished  by  fines  and  im- 
prisonment persons  who  refused  to  submit  to 
demands  of  which  the  legality  was  question- 
able. At  the  same  time,  under  the  direction 
of  Laud,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  an 
ecclesiastical  policy  was  pursued  which  ran 
directly  contrary  to  the  current  of  popular 
feeling,  and  rendered  both  the  bishops  and 
the  Court  of  High  Commission  objects  of 
Rieneral  odium.  The  attempt  to  impose  a 
Church  service,  similar  to  the  English,  in 
Presbyterian  Scotland,  led  to  the  rising 
in  arms  of  the  Scots.  Charles  summoned 
Wentworth,  now  created  Earl  of  Strafford, 
to  his  side  from  Lreland,  and  called  a  Parlia- 


ment, which  he  dissolved  in  three  weeks, 
because  it  refused  to  support  him  in  carrying 
on  war  against  the  Scots.  The  advance  of  a 
Scottish  army  into  the  kingdom  compelled 
him  in  the  autumn  of  this  year  (1641)  to 
summon  another — the  celebrated  Long  Parlia- 
ment. 

Charles  was  for  the  time  unable  to  resist 
the  demands  of  the  popular  representatives. 
He  gave  his  consent  to  whatever  biUs  were 
offered  to  him,  and  passed  a  bill  of  attainder 
against  his  faithful  servant  Strafford,  to  whom 
he  had  promised  that  not  a  hair  of  his 
head  should  bo  injured.  [Stkapfoud  ;  Long 
Parliament.]  In  1641  he  went  to  Scotland, 
with  the  object  of  forming  a  royalist  party 
there,  and  on  his  return  to  Ijondon  went 
in  person  to  the  House  of  Commons,  to 
arrest  five  members,  whom  he  accused  of 
high  treason  (Jan.  3,  1642).  [Five  Meh- 
BERS.]  The  attempt  having  failed,  he  left 
London,  to  prepare  for  war ;  and  on  Aug.  22 
the  royal  standard  was  unfurled  at  Notting- 
ham. A  considerable  army  soon  gathered 
round  him.  Men  who  thought  that  the 
concessions  already  made  were  sufficient  to 
prevent  abuse  of  the  royal  authority,  as  well 
as  aU  lovers  of  the  existing  form  of  Church 
service,  took  his  side.  At  Edgehill,  his 
cavalry,  composed  of  country  gentlemen, 
readily  proved  its  superiority  to  the  Parlia- 
mentarian horse.  But  want  of  subordination 
Srevented  his  officers  acting  in  union,  and 
eprived  him  of  victory.  Charles  could  not 
maintain  discipline  himself,  nor  did  he  depute 
authority  to  those  who  possessed  the  art. 
High  commands  were  given  to  the  wrong  men, 
and  officers  were  allowed  to  act  independently 
of  one  another.  Hence,  the  royal  strategy 
broke  down,  while  the  gaUiuitry  of  individuaJs 
was  spent  in  vain  against  the  disciplined 
troops  that  Cromwell  brought  into  the  field. 
The  passing  of  the  Self-Deny ing  Ordinance 
(q.v.)  placed  all  the  forces  of  the  Parliament 
under  the  control  of  the  Independents.  Led 
by  Fairfax  and  Cromwell,  the  remodelled  army 
destroyed  at  Naseby  (June  14,  1645)  the  last 
army  which  Charles  was  able  to  bring  into 
the  field.  The  king  now  authorised  Gla- 
morgan to  conclude  a  secret  treaty  with  the 
Irish  Catholics,  promising  to  allow  them  the 
free  exercise  of  their  reUgion  if  they  would 
place  20,000  men  at  his  service  (Aug.  12). 
In  April,  1646,  to  avoid  being  made  a  prisoner 
by  the  Parliament's  officers,  Charles  took 
refuge  with  the  Scotch  army  near  Newark. 
The  Scots,  however,  were  not  ready  to  take 
the  part  of  the  king  while  he  refused  to 
allow  the  establishment  of  a  Presbyterian 
Church  in  England ;  and  on  the  withdrawal 
of  their  armv  into  Scotland  in  January,  1647, 
they  surrendered  him  into  the  power  of  the 
English  Parliament. 

The  Parliament  demanded  of  Charles  that 
he  should  abandon  his  right  to  appoint  either 
ministers  of  state  or  officers  of  the  militia» 


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and  that  he  should  consent  to  the  establiah- 
ment  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  England. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Independents  were 
willing  that  Episcopacy  should  be  maintained, 
if  toleration  were  g^ranted  to  Dissenters. 
Charles  expected  to  be  able  to  plav  one  party 
off  against  the  other,  and  by  such  means  to 
recover  the  whole  of  his  former  prerogatives. 
During  the  war,  he  had  negotiated  at  once 
with  Presbyterians,  Independents,  and  Irish 
Catholics;  and,  in  spite  of  the  distrust  that 
his  conduct  excited,  he  stiU  pursued  the  same 
course.  From  Hampton  Court,  where  he  was 
under  the  charge  of  the  army,  he  fled  to  the 
Isle  of  Wight,  and  put  himself  under  the 
protection  of  Colonel  Hammond,  the  governor 
of  Carisbrooke  Castle.  Here  he  concluded  a 
secret  treaty  with  the  Scots,  promising  to 
establish  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  England 
for  three  years  if  they  would  send  an  army 
into  En^^land  to  restore  him  to  his  throne. 
The  Civil  War  again  revived ;  zealots  rose  in 
arms,  while  the  Scots,  led  by  the  Duke  of 
Hamilton,  crossed  the  border.  Fairfax 
suppressed  the  Royalists,  while  Cromwell 
crushed  the  invaders  at  Warrington,  in 
Lancashire  (Aug.  19,  1648).  The  army 
returned  to  London,  demanding  that  Charles 
should  pay  with  his  life  for  the  blood  that  he 
had  caused  to  be  shed.  The  Commons, 
forcibly  purged  of  the  more  moderate  Presby- 
terians, voteid  that  it  was  treason  for  the 
King  of  England  to  levy  war  against  the 
Parliament  and  the  kingdom,  and  passed  an 
ordinance  for  instituting  a  High  Court  of 
Justice,  composed  of  men  of  their  own  party. 
As  the  House  of  Lords  refused  to  take  part 
in  the  proceedings,  they  further  resolved  that 
whatever  is  enacted  by  the  Commons  has  the 
force  of  law  without  the  consent  of  the  Icing 
or  the  House  of  Peers.  The  trial  was  held 
publicly  in  Westminster  Hall.  One  hundred 
and  thirty-five  judges  had  been  named  on 
the  ordinance;  but  only  about  eighty, 
amongst  whom  were  Cromwell  and  Ireton, 
attended  the  sittings  of  the  court.  Bradshaw, 
Gromweirs  cousin,  presided.  Charles  was 
accused  of  having  endeavoured  to  overturn 
the  liberties  of  the  people,  and  of  being  a 
tyrant,  traitor,  and  murderer.  He  refused 
persistently  to  answer  to  the  charge,  on  the 
ground  that  the  court  had  no  lawful  authority 
derived  from  the  people  of  England  by  which 
to  try  him.  Sentence  of  death  was  pronounced 
against  him;  and  on  Jan.  30,  1649,  he  was 
executed  on  a  scraffold  raised  in  front  of  the 
Banqueting  House  at  Whitehall,  in  presence 
of  a  vast  crowd,  which,  had  the  decision 
rested  with  it,  would  eagerly  have  delivered 
him  from  death.  [Great  Rebellion;  Com- 
monwealth ;  Long  Pakliahent.] 

Internal  alEdrB  during  the  rei|rn  of  Charles  I. 
are  best  studied  in  the  CdLmndan  of  State  Patters 
(Domeatic  Seriee).  The  fldrdtricM  Papers  con- 
tain materials  relating  to  the  French  and 
Spanish  matches,  the  expedition  to  the  Isle  of 
ski,  and  the  Sootoh    troublea   of   1637--41. 


The  Memorials  and  LttUn  published  by 
Daniel  Dalrymple ;  The  Cowt  and  Timea 
Charles  I.,  by  lliomaa  Biroh ;  HfJUweU's  let 
of  the  Kings  of  England ;  Th«  Lehen  of  Chaii 
to  Henrietta  Maria,  editedfor  the  Camden  Soc 
by  John  Bruce ;  The  Arred  of  ike  Fivt  Htirl 
by  John  Forster— are  works  which  throw  1 
on  the  chaiaoter  ot  the  kii^  and  the  mot 
of  his  actions.  A  Boyalist  acoount  of  the  y 
1644  and  IMS,  and  of  the  negotiations  cai 
on  in  the  Isle  of  Wight  in  1648,  is  to  be  foui 
Sir  Edward  Walker^s  Hutoncol  (KMOumi; 
of  the  king's  personal  history  dnringthe 
two  years  of  bis  life,  in  kiir  Thomas  Herl 
Memoirs.  For  modem  aoooants  see  fianke, 
of  Bng. ;  and  esp.  S.  B.  Qardlner,  Hist,  o/ 
2eOS^1648,  10  vols.,  1883- -84. 

[B.  M.  ( 

Charles  ZZ.|  Kino  {b.  May  29,  16: 
May  8,  1660,  d.  Feb.  6,  1685),  was 
eldest  son  of  Charles  I.  and  Hen 
Maria.  In  his  ninth  year  he  was  ci 
IMnce  of  Wales,  and  when  the  Civil 
broke  out  he  accompanied  his  father  t 
battle  of  Edgehill.  In  1644  he  wu 
nominal  head  of  the  royal  forces  ifi  thi 
of  England ;  but  on  the  decline  of  the 
cause  he  was  obliged  to  retire  to  Sci 
Jersey,  and  eventually  to  France, 
matters  appeared  to  be  drawing  to  ext 
with  the  king,  several  of  the  ships 
Parliament  went  over  to  the  prince 
made  some  attempts  to  blockade  the  T 
and  even  landed  near  Deal,  but  wo 
obliged  to  withdraw  to  Holland,  whe 
the  hope  of  saving  his  father^s  1 
despatched  to  the  intending  regi( 
paper  signed  and  sealed,  but  otherwiiM 
lor  them  to  insert  their  own  con 
On  the  death  of  his  father  in  Januar 
Charles  assumed  the  title  of  king, 
February'  he  was  proclaimed  King  of  ^ 
at  Edinburgh.  In  1650  he  camo 
Scotland,  and,  having  taken  the  C< 
was  crowned  at  Scone  on  January 
Charles  exhibited  courage  and  coc 
opposing  Cromwell's  troops  bof  ore  Ed 
but  his  cause  was  hopeless  from.  1 
owing  to  the  discord  among  his  su 
He  suddenly  determined  to  leave 
and  march  into  England,  and  succ 
getting  as  far  as  Worcester,  whc 
tomber  3, 1651)  he  received  bo  aever* 
that  his  cause  seemed  utterly  ruined 
escaped  from  the  battle,  and  after  £ 
turous  flight  of  forty-four  days, 
the  western  counties  and  aIon|2^  1 
ooast — during  the  early  part  of 
owed  his  mfety  entirely  to  tl 
of  a  labouring  family — ho  sue 
finding  a  ship  near  Brighton,  ^'^li 
him  safely  in  France.  For  the 
yettrs  he  led  a  wandering^  life  i 
Germany,  and  the  Low  Countries, 
relieved  and  sometimes  repulHed,  a* 
the  various  sovereigns  or  tlieir 
threw  off  or  jdelded  to  their  drca 
well.  He  was  accompanied  hy  a.  i 
adherents;  but  his  little  court  ^wa 


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Cha 


by   intriguing  turbulent    men    and    spies, 
who  betrayed  his  counsels  and  caused  the 
numerous  attempted  risings  of   his  friends 
both  in  England  and  Scotland.     At  len^h, 
on  the  death  of  Cromwell,  it  became  obvious 
to  most  persons  in  England  that  the  only 
hope  of  ertablishing  a  settled  form  of  govern- 
ment and  of    saving   the    country  from  a 
military    despotism,   lay    in    restoring    the 
monarcW:  and,  chiefly  through  the  instru- 
mentality   of    General  Monk,   Charles    was 
invited  to  return  to  England.  He  at  once  com- 
plied, and  entered  London  in  triumph  on  May 
29, 1660,  having  previously  signed  the  Declara- 
tion of  Breda  (q.v.).     During  the  first  years 
of  his  reign,  when  the  king  was  largely  under 
the  guidance  of    Clarendon,    matters  went 
smoothly.      The  Parliament    was    ardently 
Royalist,  and  supported  the  English  Church 
by  rassinjr  stringent  laws  against  Catholics 
and  Dissenters;  but  the  failure  of  the  Dutch 
War  in  1665,  the  maladministration  of  the 
government,  and  the  misappropriation  of  the 
public  money,  led  to  the  downfall  of  Clarendon 
(1667).       In   1668    (January)    Sir  William 
Temple  concluded  the  Triple  Alliance  be- 
tween England,  France,  and  Sweden.    But 
the  *'  Cabal "  ministry    speedily    came  into 
office,  and  reversed  tiiis  policy  for  one  of 
.'dliance  with  the  French  king  and  hostility  to 
Holland.     Finally,  the  infamous  Treaty  of 
Dover  was  signed  (1670) ;    Charles  became 
a   pensionary  of  Louis,  and    war  was  de- 
clared  against    Holland.     The    attempt    of 
the  king  to  get  toleration  for  the  Catholics 
by   isBoing^    a    Declaration   of    Indulgence 
caused  the  passing  of  the  Test  Act  (1673)  by 
Parliament,  and  the  consequent  fall  of  the 
Cabal  adniinistntion.     With  this  began  the 
great  straggle  between  the    king  and  the 
opposition,  headed    by  Shaftesbur}%  during 
wUch  Charles  showed  the  greatest  prudence. 
He  yielded  to  the  storm  caused  by  the  pre- 
tended Popish  Plot  (q.v.),  but   steadily  re- 
fused to  alter  the  succession  by  excluding  his 
brother  James.  The  violence  and  cruelty  of  the 
"Whig  leaders,  together  with  the  discovery  of 
the  Bye  House  Plot  (q.v.),  turned  the  tide  in 
the  king's  favour.     He  gained  a  complete 
victory  over  his  opponents,  and  was  able  for 
the  last  three  years  of  his  life  to  reign  with- 
out Parliament  and  free  from  all  opposition. 
In  1662  Charles  married  Catherine  of  Bra- 
ganza,  daughter  of  John  of  Portugal,  but  had 
no  cldldren  by  her.    His  private  life  was 
diaracterised  by  great  profligacy,  and  he  had 
a  large  number  of  mistresses,  and  no  less 
than    twelve   illegitimate    children,    among 
whom  were   James,   Duke    of    Monmouth ; 
Henry  Pitzroy  (son  of  the  Duchess  of  Cleve- 
land), ancestor  of    the  Dukes  of  Grafton; 
Charles  Beauderc  (son  of  Nell  Gwynn),  an- 
cestor of   the  Dnkes  of    St.    Albans;    and 
Charles  Lennox  (son  of  the  Duchess  of  Ports- 
mouth), ancestor  of  the  Dukes  of  Richmond. 
Charles,  in  spite  of  his  licentiousness  and  his 


extreme  selfishness,  was  possessed  of  much 
talent.  The  natural  champion  of  the  prin- 
ciple of  hereditary  right  at  a  time  when 
hereditary  right  was  exposed  to  attack, 
Charles's  position  was  one  of  considerable 
difficulty.  He  played  his  part  dexterously, 
and  with  considerable  ability,  and  it  cannot 
be  denied  that  he  showed  much  capacity  for 
governing. 

Clarendon,  Life,  and  Bamet,  Htti.  of  Hit  Own 
Tim«,  both  of  which  mast  be  reed  with  caution ; 
Barillon's  L«et«rs,  and  Temple's  Wor1c$  (and  espe- 
cially the  Memoir  from  the  Peace),  contain  much 
information  on  the  diplomatic  history.  Bee  also 
Carte,  Life  of  Ormonde,  and  iBbcpberson,  Stneart 
Papern;  Baxter,  Life  and  Timee;  Beresby, 
Memoire ; Fepya,  Diary;  Evelyn,  Diary  ;  Shaftes- 
bury, Lettere  and  Speechee  (ed.  W.  D.  Christie) ; 
D'Avanx,  HegooioLuma  en  Hollande  ;  Masson,  iJje 
of  Uaton.  There  is  a  brilliant  sketch  of  the 
reign  in  Macanlay's  History.  The  best  general 
modem  account  is  in  Banke's  HiMt  qfEng. 

[8.  J.  L.] 
CHiarlMy   Edw^akd.    [Prbtendbk,    Thb 

YOUNO.] 

CHiarlotta     Avgnstay    Princess    (b. 

Jan.  7,  1796,  d.  Nov.  6,  1816),  was  the 
daughter  of  George  IV.  and  Caroline  of 
Brunswick.  Owing  to  the  disunion  of  her 
parents,  her  earlier  yean  were  passed  in  re- 
tirement, away  from  the  court,  under  the 
care  of  the  Dowager  Duchess  of  Leeds,  Lady 
CUfFord,  and  the  Bishop  of  Exeter.  She 
early  gave  proofs  of  a  noble  character  and 
intellectual  qualities  above  the  average.  She 
was  destined  by  her  father  to  marry  William, 
Prince  of  Orange  ;  but  her  own  affections  had 
been  fixed  on  Leopold  of  Saxe-Coburg,  who 
became,  in  1830,  King  of  the  Belgians. 
Yielding  to  her  A&ther's  desire,  the  princess 
agreed  to  marry  the  Prince  of  Orange,  and  the 
betrothal  was  arranged  between  them,  when' 
the  princess  broke  off  the  match,  partly  in 
anger  at  her  father*s  conduct  to  her  motiier, 
partly  because  of  her  repugnance  to  the 
prince.  In  1815  she  was  married  to  Leopold 
of  Saxe-Coburg,  and  in  the  following  year 
(Nov.)  died  in  giving  birth  to  a  son,  who  did 
not  sury'ive  her.  Uer  death  caused  great 
grief  throughout  the  entire  nation 

CnianilOIltlL  is  A  village  on  the  Dorset- 
shire coast,  about  two  miles  from  L^nne 
Regis.  In  836  Egbert  was  defeated  here  by 
the  Danes,  and  in  840  his  son  Ethelwulf  met 
with  a  like  disaster  at  the  same  place. 

Chamock,  Robert  {d.  1696),  a  Fellow 
of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  became  a 
Roman  Catholic,  and  supported  James  in 
Ids  illegal  ejection  of  the  iVotestant  Fellows 
of  his  college  by  means  of  the  Court  of  High 
Commission.  After  the  Revolution,  he  be- 
came one  of  the  most  active  of  the  Jacobite 
conspirators,  and  was  among  the  chief 
organisers  of  the  Assassination  Plot  (1696). 
He  was  arrested,  and  his  trial  began  on 
March    11.     The   new  Act  for   regulating 


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Cha 


procedure  in  cases  of  high, treason  was  not  to 
come  into  force  until  the  25th.  It  allowed 
the  prisoner  to  examine  his  witnesses  on  oath, 
compel  their  attendance  at  court,  and  have 
the  service  of  counsel.  The  prisoners,  Char- 
nock,  King,  and  Koyes,  claimed,  not  without 
reason,  to  have  their  trial  postponed  till  that 
date.  Their  request  was,  however,  refused, 
and  they  were  all  condemned.  Ghamock  left 
behind  him  a  paper  in  which  ho  justified  the 
plot,  on  the  ground  that  William  was  a 
usurper,  and  by  an  appeal  to  the  laws  of 
human  society.    [Assassination  Plot.] 

Gliarter,  The  Ukeat,  &c.  [Gkeat  Chab- 
TBR,  &c.] 

Charter  Schools  (Ireiand).    In  1730, 

an  association,  with  the  primate.  Archbishop 
Boulter,  and  iJie  Lord  Chancellor,  at  its  head, 
was  formed  to  provide  Protestant  education 
gratis  for  the  Catholic  poor.  Before  that 
time,  in  spite  of  a  statute  of  Henry  VIII., 
Protestants  had  to  rely  on  private  enterprise 
entirely  as  far  as  education  was  concerned. 
In  1733  a  charter  was  granted  to  the  associa- 
tion, but  only  on  condition  that  the  endow- 
ment was  not  to  exceed  £2,000  a  year.  On 
Oct.  24.  1733,  the  corporation  began  its 
work ;  day-schools  and  boarding-schools  were 
established.  They  were  really  industrial 
schools.  After  five  years'  schooling,  children 
were  bound  out  as  apprentices  at  the  expense 
of  the  Bociety  (girls  got  a  small  portion  on 
marrying),  and  the  whole  cost  of  education  for 
one  child  came,  in  the  day-schools,  to  only  £9 
per  annum.  The  boarding-schools  incrcAsed 
from  four  to  fifty,  and  George  II.  granted 
£1,000  from  his  privy  purse  in  their  support. 
The  day-schools  soon  came  to  an  end,  but  the 
boarding-schools  were  supported  by  parliamen- 
tary g^rants  after  1745,  when  a  special  tax  was 
devoted  to  this  object.  Altogether,  by  1767) 
£112,000  had  been  devoted  to  the  Charter 
schools.  In  1750,  parents  were  forbidden  to 
take  back  their  children,  when  once  they  had 
entered,  and  thus  to  prevent  their  becoming 
Plx)testant6.  Soon  afterwards  the  society  was 
allowed  to  take  up  all  children  between  five 
and  twelve  found  loitering  about,  and  put 
them  into  their  schools.  However,  by  1767, 
whether  it  was  on  account  of  the  determina- 
tion of  the  Catholics  not  to  be  enticed  into 
changing  their  children's  religion,  or  for 
other  reasons,  it  became  dear  that  the  Charter 
schools  were  a  failure.  Howard,  in  1758, 
investigated  this  school  system,  and  brought 
to  light  great  abuses ;  a  parliamentary  com- 
mittee appointed  in  consequence  found  chil- 
dren who  had  been  at  school  for  twelve  years 
unable  to  spell.  Still,  for  twenty-five  years 
after  the  Union  they  continued  to  exist,  and 
vast  sums  were  spent  on  the  education  of 
some  2,000  children.  Mr.  Froude  calls  the 
Charter  schools  ''the  best-conceived  educa- 
tional institutions  which  existed  in  the 
world/'  while  Mr.  Lecky  says  of  them  that 


they  "  excited  in   Ireland  an  intensity 

bitterness  hardly  equalled  by  any  portioi 

the  penal  code."     Of  one  thing  there  cai 

no  doubt :   they  completely  failed  in  1 

object — the  conversion  of  the  Irish  peusii 

to  Protestantism. 

Stevens,  The  Charttr  SchooU;  Fronde,  £ 
in  Ireland ;  Lecky,  Hitt.  of  Eng.  in  the  Eigh\ 
Century,  vol.  ii. 

Chartifllts  (1B38 — 18)  was  the  name  j 
to  the  members  of  a  party  in  England 
supported  certain  reforms  which  wore 
rally  known  as  the  "  People's  Charter." 
Charter  consisted  of  six  points,  viz. :  (I) 
hood  suffrage;  (2)  equal  electoral  disl 
(3)  vote  by  ballot;  (4)  annual Parlian 
(6)  abolition  of  property  qualificatio 
members;  (6)  payment  of  members, 
points  seem  first  to  have  been  urgi 
gether  at  a  meeting  held  at  Birmingh 
August  6,  1838,  where  the  chief  s^ 
were  Attwood,  Scholetield,  and  1? 
O'Connor.  A  similar  meeting  was  1 
London  in  the  following  September.  '. 
the  following  year  the  cause  was  ad- 
by  tumultuous  meetings  and  proe 
which  had  to  be  put  down  by  the  h 
a  petition,  the  size  of  a  coach-wheel, 
be  signed  by  a  million  and  a  quart 
tioners,  was  rolled  into  the  House  < 
mens.  lUots  took  place  at  Birm 
Newcastle,  and  Newport.  Feargus  0 
was  arrested.  On  May  2,  1842, 
monster  petition,  purporting  to  contu 
than  three  million  signatures,  was 
to  the  House  of  Commons.  ISIr.  \ 
combe  proposed  that  the  petitionois  s 
heard  at  the  bar  by  counsel,  while  M 
Peel,  and  Roebuck  spoke  on  the  ot 
After  this  the  agitation  slumbered  1 
when  a  huge  meeting  was  held  on  Ke 
Common  on  April  10.  The  inten 
to  carry  te  the  House  of  Commons  i 
petition  with  five  million  signatures: 
was  great  fear  lest  London  should  be 
of  a  rising,  and  the  Duke  of  Wellin, 
measures  for  protecting  the  Bank 
House,  Exchange,  Post  Office,  and  ot 
buildings.  A  quarter  of  a  million  ii 
of  London  were  enrolled  as  special  c 
The  duke  disposed  his  troops  with 
skill,  so  as  to  keep  them  out  of  si 
meeting  proved  a  &ilure,  owin^  to  c 
between  the  leaders  of  the  Chiartii 
disturbance  took  place.  Similar  p 
were  again  taken  in  June,  but  the 
demonstration  ended  in  smoke.  On 
an  arrest  of  armed  Chartists  was  ix 
"  Orange  Tree  **  public-house,  i 
Street,  London,  and  some  more 
Street.  It  was  understood  that  t 
plot  to  attack  the  different  el 
midnight,  and  also  the  principal  b 
the  metropolis.  The  chief  rinp^lc 
tried  and  punished.  This  latter 
Chartism    was  connected    'w^ith    1 


Cha 


(  255  ) 


Cha 


tionary  disturbances  which  took  place  through- 
out Euro^  in  1849.  After  this,  Chartism  ex- 
pired, and  agitation  took  a  different  form.  It 
is  strange  that  reforms  so  unequal  in  impor- 
tance, and  some  of  them  so  little  calculated  to 
effect  the  cud  aimed  at  by  their  promoters, 
should  have  been  advocated  with  such  an 
amount  of  passion. 

Annual    Kt^iater ;  B.  Wolpole,  Uiat.  of  Eng. ; 
McCarthy,  utat.  of  Ou,r  Own  Ttnie*. 

[0.  B.] 

Cluurtlay  Kaaori  in  Staffordshire,  was 
at  one  time  the  place  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots' 
imprisonment.  In  1585 — 86  she  was  at  her 
own  request  removed  here  from  the  uire  of  Sir 
Amyas  Paulet  at  Tutbury.  Chdrtley  was 
well  known  to  Walsingham's  Hpy  Gifford, 
and  this  afforded  the  latter  exceptional 
facilities  for  cop^dng  the  treasonable  cor- 
respondence of  the  captive  queen. 

CSliatluuii  was  a  village  of  small  impor- 
tance till  the  establishment  of  a  dockpird 
and  naval  arsenal  in  the  time  of  Queen 
£Iizabeth,  when  preparations  were  being 
made  to  resist  the  Spanish  Armada.  The 
dockyards  were  improved  under  Charles  I. 
and  the  Commonwealth,  and  the  fortifications 
strengthened  after  the  attack  of  the  Dutch  in 
1667.  These  were  enlarged  and  strengthened 
between  1757  and  1808,  and  during  the 
present  century  Chatham  has  been  rendered 
cine  of  the  most  important  dockyards  and 
strongest  naval  fortresses  in  the  world. 

dubthaaiy  William  Pitt,  Ist  Eakl  of 
{h,  Nov.  15,  1708,  d,  May  11,  1778),  was  the 
g^ndson  of  a  former  governor  of  Madras,  who 
had  returned  to  England  to  buy  estates  and 
rotten  boroughs,  one  of  which.  Old  Sarum,  he 
represented  in  Parliament.  His  son  Robert 
succeeded  him,  and  sat  in  turn  for  the  two 
boroughs  of  Old  Sarum  and  Okehampton. 
Of  Kobert  Pitt's  two  sons,  William  was  the 
younger.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  at 
Trinity  College,  Oxford,  but  he  left  Oxford, 
without  taking  a  degree,  to  travel  on  the 
Continent  on  account  of  the  gout,  to  which 
he  was  throughout  his  life  a  victim.  He 
came  back  from  his  tour  to  find  his  father 
dead  and  himself  but  slenderly  provided  for. 
As  a  profession  he  chose  the  army,  and 
obtained  a  cometcy  in  the  Blues;  but  his 
family  interest  in  1735  procured  for  him  the 
seat  of  Old  Sarum.  In  April,  1736,  the 
Prince  of  Wales  married  Augusta,  Princess 
of  Saze  Gotha ;  and  it  was  on  the  address 
which  was  presented  to  the  king  on  this 
occasion  that  Pitt  took  the  opportunity  of 
delivering  his  fir:9t  speech,  which  made  a  deep 
impression  on  the  House.  This  impression 
was  soon  justified,  as  he  became  so  trouble- 
some to  the  government,  that  Sir  Robert 
Walpole  dismissed  him  from  the  army.  The 
Prince  of  Wales,  however,  recompensed  him 
by  making  him  his  Groom  of  the  Bedchamb<'r, 
from  which  position  he  could  in  security  de- 


claim against  the  peace  policy  of  the  ministry. 
In  1741  Walpole  resigned;  and  it  was  for 
some  time  doubtful  who  would  succeed  him. 
Pitt  seems  to  have  made  overtures  to  Walpole, 
which  the  retiring  minister  rejected.     In  the 
new    government    that  was    formed    under 
Carteret,   Pitt  was   entirely  left  out.      He 
vented  his    disappointment    in    the  fiercest 
invectives  against  Walpole,  and  in  advocating 
the  most  violent  measures  for  his  prosecution. 
All  his  violence  failed  to  injure  Sir  Robert, 
now  the    Elarl  of  Orford,  who  retired  into 
private  life,  and  left  Pitt  free  to  transfer  his 
attacks  to  Carteret,  who  now  held  the  reins. 
The  chief  object  of  his  indignation  was  the 
prevailing  method  of  subsidising  with  English 
money  petty  German  States,  for  the  benefit 
of    the    family    estates    of    the    House    of 
Brunswick.      The    old    Duchess    of    Marl- 
borough   died    in    October,   1744,  and    left 
Pitt  a  legacy  of  £10,000  '*in  consideration 
of  the  noble  defence  he  had  made  for  the  laws 
of  England,  and  to  prevent  the  ruin  of  his 
countr}-."     But  Pitt's  ambition  did  not  lie 
in    the    direction    of    money ;    and  on    the 
elevation  of  Carteret  to  the  House  of  Lords 
he  saw  a  chance  of  advancement.    To  take 
advantage,  however,  of  the  chance,  it  was 
necessary  for  him  to  conciliate  the  king ;  and 
he  accordingly   I'csigned    his    office    in  the 
household  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  and  by  the 
exertions  of  the  Pelhams,  against  the  king's 
wishes,  he  was  appointed  early  in  1746  to  the 
post  of  Paymaster  of  the  Forces.    The  govem- 
I   ment  continued  in  security  until  the  death  of 
I    Henry  Pelham,  in  1754,  threw  it  into  con* 
fusion.  It  devolved  on  the  Duke  of  Newcastle 
I  to  form  a  ministr)'.     His  great  difficulty  was 
I  as  to  the  leadership  of  the  House  of  Commons: 
and  the  rival  claims  of  Pitt  and  Fox  to  that 
office  wore  settled  by  a  compromise  in  the 
person  of  Sir  llioinas  Robinson,  an  inoffensive 
mediocrity.     Pitt  was  appointed  secretary  of 
state,  and  Fox  retired  to  the  lucrative  Pay 
Office ;  but  before  a  year  was  over  they  had 
combined   to   render   their  leader   so   ridi- 
culous   that    Newcastle    was    compelled    to 
make    a    change.     Pitt  was    intractable    on 
the    subject    of    subsidies;    and    the    duke 
turned   to    Fox,    who    became  secretar}'  of 
state,   with  the  entire    lead  of    the   House  ' 
of   Commons  and   the  management  of   the 
funds  for  corruption.     On  the  resignation  of 
Newcastle,  in  November,  1756,  the  Duke  of 
Devonshire  succeeded  him  as  first  lord  of 
the  Treasury,   with   Htt    as  first    secretary 
of    state  and  virtual  prime  minister.    The 
ministr}^  wtis  odious  to  the  king,  who  said 
that  he  was  not  a  king  while  he  was  *^  in  the 
hands  of  these  scoundrels ;  *'  and  in  April, 
1757,  Pitt  and  Lord  Temple  were  dismissed 
from  their  offices.     But  the  contumely  which 
Pitt  had  experienced  from  the  court  only  served 
to  raise  him  in  the  estimation  of  the  country- 
at  large.  The  freedom  of  the  Cit^'  was  granted 
to    him;    all  the  great  towns  of    England 


Cha 


(  256  ) 


Cha 


followed  the  example  set  by  the  Corporation 

of    London ;    and   **  for  some   weeks,"   says 

Walpole,  "  it  rained  gold  boxes."  During  his 

ehort  term  of    office    Pitt  found  time  and 

courage  to  pass  several  important  measures, 

including  his  bold  scheme  of  pacifying  the 

discontented  Highlanders  by  embodying  them 

in    the    regular   army.      Newcastle    having 

ifuled  to  form  a  mini8tr}%  an  agreement  was 

at  length  arrived  at  between  the  duke  and 

Pitt,  through  the  mediation  of  Lord  Chester- 

lield.    The  king,  however,  refused  to  receive 

Pitt    as    a    minister,    and    persuaded    Lord 

Waldegrave  to  accept  with  great  reluctance 

the  premiership.      But  without  Pitt  it  was 

impossible  for  any  ministry  to  work ;  and 

Lord  Waldegrave's  broke  up  almottt  before  it 

was  formed.    The  king  was  obliged  to  peld 

to  necessity.     Newcastle  took  the  Treasury ; 

Pitt  became  secretary  of  state,  with  the  I^euI 

of  the  Lower  House ;  and  Fox  was  silenced 

by  the  gains  of  the  Pay  Office.    Pitt  had  told 

the  Duke  of  Devonshire  that  he  was  sure  he 

could  save  the  country,  and  that  no  one  else 

could.     And  he  lost  no  time  in  setting  about 

the  task.     His  early  plans,  however,  were  not 

attended  with  success.  An  expedition  against 

Rochefort  failed  through  the  bad  management 

of  the  land  forces.    In  Germany,  Cumberland 

was    compelled    to    sign    the    humiliating 

Convention  of  Kloster -Seven.    In  India,  the 

conspicuous  success  of  Clive  in  some  measure 

compensated  for  these  misfortunes.    The  war 

was  vigorously  carried  on  throughout  1758  in 

every  part  of  the  globe  where  Frenchmen 

could  be  found ;  still  the  ^ear  was  marked  by 

no  great  victories  on  either  side.    Bat  in 

1759  Pitt's  energy,  and  his  tact  in  choosing 

men,    were    everywhere    rewarded    by    the 

extraordinary    successes    by    land    and    sea 

which  marked  that  year  of  victory.    These 

victories  gave  Pitt  a  position  of  extraordinary 

influence.      He  was  known    as  the  "great 

commoner ; "  and  the  Houses  of  Parliament 

no  less  than  the  people  at  large  were  hushed 

into  awe  and  reverence  by  the  success  of  his 

measures.    But  the  death  of  George  II.  on 

October    25,    1760,    changed    the    face    of 

affairs ;  and  it  was  clear  that  the  new  king's 

partiality  for    Lord    Bute  would   be   moro 

Swerful  than  the  nation's  love  of  Pitt.  In 
arch,  1761,  Parliament  was  dissolved;  and 
with  it  the  ministry  began  to  break  up. 
Bute  was  made  secretary  of  scat^^^in  the 
place  of  Lord  Holdemess.  But  Pitt  was 
determined,  if  possible,  to  save  the  country 
from  a  degrading  peace;  and  he  held  on 
until  finding  his  brother-in-law.  Lord  Temple, 
alone  supported  him  in  the  council  in  his 
desire  for  war  with  France  and  Spain,  he  re- 
signed on  October  5,  1761.  He  had  scorned 
all  promotion  and  all  gains  for  himself,  but 
accepted  a  peerage  for  his  wife,  who  was 
created  Baroness  Chatham.  In  Nov.,  1762, 
peace  was  made  with  France ;  and  Bute  could 
no  longer  stand  before  the  open  opposition 


of  Pitt  and  the  fury  of  the  nation,  and  in 
April,   1763,  he  resigned.   A  new  miniatry 
was    formed    out    of  the  followers  of  the 
Duke  of  Bedford  and  those  of  GrenviWe, 
whose  tenure  of  office  was  signalised  by  the 
persecution   of   Wilkes,  and  the  still  more 
fatal  attempt  to  tax  the  American  colonies. 
Pitt  meanwhile    opposed  all  his  eloquence 
to  the  doctrine  of  the  legality  of  general 
warrants,  and  pointed  out  the  mischief  ot 
Grenville*s  scheme  for  colonial  taxation.  His  , 
health  became  very  bad,  and  he  retired  into 
the  country  and  took  no  part  in  the  debates 
on  tiie  Regency  Bill.     This  bill,  however, 
was  the  ruin  of  the  Bedford  nunistr^';  and  the 
king  resolved  to  be  rid  of  Grenville's  bully- 
ing  arrogance.     Overtures  were  twice  made 
to  Pitt  through  the  Buke  of  Cumberland; 
but  they  failed.    He  retired  to  his  estate  in 
Somersetshire,  as  if  bent  on  finally  withdraw- 
ing from  public  life;  and  the  Rockingham 
ministry  was    formed.     In  January,   17  G6, 
Pitt  came  up  to  London,  and  by  hi»  abU 
assistance  enabled  the  ministry  to  carry  tb 
repeal  of  the  Stamp  Act.     The  govemmen 
was,  however,  too  weak  to  stand ;  and  in  Jul 
Pitt    at    length    consented    to   break    wit 
Temple,  and  to  form  a  ministry  without  hii 
But  he  was    suffering   both    mentally  ui 
physically :  he  could  not  stand  the  strain 
the  House  of    Commons;    he  accepted  1 
I^vy  Seal,  and  was  created  Earl  of  Chatht 
It  was  felt  throughout  the  country  that 
had  been  gained  over  to  the  court ;  and 
popularity,  which  had  been  so  lavishly 
stowed  on  him   as  the  '*  g^eat  common 
failed   to  follow  him  to  the  Upper   H< 
His  policy  was  as  energetic  and  comprehei 
as  ever ;  but  his  mind  was  unhinged,  ai 
last  gave  way  so  far  as  to  incapacitate  hii 
all  public  business.     He  was  taken  to  l1 
and  remained  there  in  gloonay  seclnsic 
two  years.    In  October,  1768,  he  resigiii 
Privy  Seal,  and  the  ministry  came  to  a 
Soon  after  his  resignation,  Chatham's  i 
malady  passed  away  before  an  attack 
gout  sharper   than    usuaL     In    July, 
he  once  more  appeared    at    court,    i 
reconciliation    had  been,    effected   'w 
Grenvilles,  and    in    the    following    « 
he  again  took  his  place   ponong  the 
He  had  lost  none    of    his    old    pov 
his    first    speech,     inveighing     a^ai 
policy  pursued  by  the  government 
America  and  in  relation  to    the    "^ 
election,  was  the  signal  for  the  resii^ 
Lord  Camden  and  the   ^arqniB    of 
The  Duke  of  Grafton  himself,  'wear 
continual  onslaughts    made    npon. 
finding  it  impossible  any  long^er   t 
his  falling  ministry,  sent  in  bis  resi  | 
January  22.      Lord  K'ortli.  proeecic 
a  ministry  after  the  king**  8  o'win    li  ! 
would  be  content  to    carry    out 
wishes.     Wilkes  and    America    c    ; 
be  the  chief  topics  ;    North,    in        i 


CSha 


(267) 


Clia 


adhered  to  the  policy  of  his  predecesaon, 
imd  Chatham  continued  to  wage  war  against 
it.  He  warmly  advocated  the  repeal  of  the 
Test  Acts,  for  which  a  bill  was  mtroduced. 
Daring  the  greater  part  of  1773  he  employed 
himself  in  the  study  of  India,  and  became 
strongly  convinced  of  the  **  necessity  of  a 
reformation  of  Indian  iniquities."  But  as 
the  clouds  every  month  thickened  in  America, 
they  dispelled  all  other  thoughts,  and  caused 
mm  more  and  more  to  dread  the  applica- 
tion of  coercion  to  the  colonists.  The  Boston 
Port  Bill  heightened  his  alarm ;  and  in  May, 
1774,  he  appeared  in  Parliament  '*  to  stand 
for  England  and  America.'*  In  Jan.,  1775, 
he  moved  an  address  to  the  king,  pray- 
ing him  to  adopt  a  conciliatory  policy  to- 
wards America  by  removing  the  forces  from 
Boston,  and  he  followed  up  this  motion  by 
presenting  to  Parliament  a  plan  for  the  pre- 
vention of  civil  war.  The  object  of  his  con- 
duct was,  as  he  himself  briefly  expressed  it, 
"to  secure  to  the  colonies  property  and  liberty, 
and  to  ensure  to  the  mother  country  a  due 
acknowledgment  on  the  part  of  the  colonies  of 
their  subordination  to  the  supreme  legislative 
authority  and  superintending  power  of  tho 
Parliament  of  Great  Britain.'*  As  long  as 
there  was  any  hope  of  the  attainment  of  these 
two  ends,  Chatham  was  as  warm  an  advocate 
as  anj'one  for  granting  liberty  to  the  colonies ; 
but  when  the  news  of  the  capitulation  of 
Burgoyne  came  in  Dec.,  1777,  followed  almost 
immediately  by  the  announcement  of  the 
alliance  of  America  and  France,  it  became 
clear  that  the  Americans  would  be  content 
with  nothing  short  of  entire  independence ;  and 
Chatham  was  as  firm  in  his  opposition  to  this 
concession  as  he  had  been  zealous  in  favour  of 
grantjng  them  liberty  and  justice.  At  this  point 
Chatham  broke  away  from  his  long  agree- 
ment with  Rockingham*s  party,  and  carried 
Shelbume  with  him.  On  April  7th,  1778, 
he  made  his  last  speech  in  Parliament; 
and  the  effort  was  too  much  for  him. 
He  was  carried  to  Hayes,  and  there  died  on 
^lay  1 1  th.  A  monument  was  raised  to  him  in 
Westminster  Abbey  at  the  expense  of  the 
nation.  Lord  Chatham  was  essentially  a  war 
minister.  It  has  been  said  of  him  that 
whenever  a  cannon  in  Europe  was  fired  he 
required  to  know  the  reason.  The  epitaph  on 
his  monument  in  Westminster  Abbey  says, 
truly  enough,  that  during  his  administration 
Oreat  Britain  was  exalted  "  to  a  height  of 
prosperity  and  glory  unknown  to  any  former 
age." 

P.  Thackefay,  Hut.  of  TTm.  Pitt,  S.  of  Chak- 


Aam  (2    vols.,  1827) ;    Ci^ihoia^   CoiT«n>oiui«fiC0 

14  vols.,  1833 — 10) ;  Albemarle,  'Bjiida,xiQ\a,m  and 
w    OnAtfivpiwo.rin ;    Almon,     iliMcdotes    o,"^ 


apeedm  a/  Chatham  (1792);  Maawj,  HUt.  of 
B»g,,  vols.  1.,  iL ;  Aaoli»has,  Hut  of  Eng., 
vols,  i.,  ii. ;  Walpole.  Hiat,  vol.  i. :  Stanhope, 
EuLofEng.  [W.  R.  S.] 

CnifttawortlLf  in  North  Derbyshire,  the 
property  of  the  Cavendish  family,  was  in 


1570,   1578,  and    1581  tlie   prison  of  Marr 
Queen  of  Scots.    It  was  subsequently  garri- 
soned by  the  Roundheads  in  1643,  and  by  the 
Cavaliers  two  years  later. 

Glieke*  Sm  Juhx  {b,  1514,  d.  1557),  is  well 
known  as  tne  tutor  of  King  Edward  YI.,  whose 
education  he  undertook  in  conjunction  with 
Sir  Anthony  Cook.  In  reward  for  his  ser- 
vices he  was  made  Provost  of  King^s  CuUe^e, 
Cambridge,  and  a  Privv  Councillor.  On  the 
accession  of  Mary,  Cheke  was  imprisoned  for 
tho  sympathy  which  he  had  shown  for  the 
cause  of  Lady  Jane  G^y,  from  whom  he  had 
accepted  the  office  of  Secretary  of  State. 
On  his  release  he  went  abroad  and 
settled  at  Strasburg,  but,  having  gone  to 
visit  Sir  John  Mason  at  Brussels,  was  cap- 
tured on  the  way,  and  sent  to  England,  where 
he  was  confined  in  the  Tower.  Chtkc,  who 
was  a  zealous  Protestant,  and  "  one  of  the 
most  godly  men  of  those  days,'*  was  kept  in 
confinement  until  hard  usage  wrung  from, 
him  a  renunciation  of  his  real  convictions. 
He  was  then  released,  but  is  said  to  have 
died  of  shame  at  his  recantation.  He  was 
a  voluminous  and  able  writer,  and  did 
much  for  the  literature  of  England.  Besides 
being  the  tutor  of  King  Edward  YI.,  ho 
was  the  tutor  of  William  Cecil,  Lord  Bur> 
leigh.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest  and 
g^reatest  of  English  Greek  scholais  of  the 
Renaissance  ;  and  in  particular  set  himself  to 
reform  the  corrupt  pronunciation  of  his  time. 
His  fame  was  still  living  at  Cambridge  in 
Milton's  days,  and  the  poet  refers  to  hun  ia 
Sonnet  XI.  : — 

"  Tby  Age,  like  ours,  O  tonl  of  Sir  John  Cheke, 
Hated  not  learning  worse  than  toad  or  asn, 
y^hen  tbon  taught  at  Cambridge  and  Kii^  Edward 
Gi«ek." 

Strype,  L«/«  of  ChOu  ;  Fuller,  WoHhim. 

Gliestar  was  probably  a  Roman  military 
station,  as  its  Celtic  name,  *'  Caerleon  YawT,"^ 
would  seem  to  attest.  It  is  called  Deva  in  the 
Roman  geographical  writings,  and  would 
Eeem,  at  any  rate,  to  have  been  a  trading- 
place  of  importance.  In  894  it  was  captured 
by  the  Danes,  who  were,  however,  forced  to 
surrender  it  to  the  English.  It  was  a  place  of 
considerable  importance  as  being  the  frontier 
town  of  the  Welsh  ^larches.  The  Conqueror 
established  an  earldom  of  Chester,  and  Hugh 
Lupus,  his  nephew,  became  its  pidatine.  Ho 
built  the  castle  and  founded  the  abbey  of 
St.  Werburgh.  In  1237  the  earldom  was 
seized  by  Henry  III.,  and  has  since  been  a 
royal  appanage.  In  1300,  Edward,  Prince  of 
Wales,  received  the  homage  of  tho  Welsh 

?rinces  at  Chester ;  and  hero  for  a  time  Henr}' 
Y.  held  Richard  II.  captive.  The  city 
suffered  severely  in  the  plagues  of  the  six- 
teenth and  seventeenth  centuries,  and  espe- 
cially in  1602 — 5.  In  1642  Charles  I.  arrived  in 
Chuster.  The  citizens  were  warmly  Royalist. 
From  July,  1643,  until  1646,  the  city  was 
continuously  besieged  or  blockaded  by  the 


Che 


(  258  ) 


Chi 


Parliamentarian  f ai-cea,  anJ  at  last  lionoumbly 
surrendered  in  February  of  the  latter  year. 
Great  riota  oc<:urred  on  the  occasion  of  the  visit 
of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth  in  the  year  1683. 
Chester  was  a-oated  a  bishopric  by  Henry 
VIII.  in  1641,  and  its  fine  abbey  church  of 
St.  Werburgh  became  the  cathedraL 

CliestarfloldyPHiLiP  Dormer  Stanhope, 
4th  Earl  op  {b.  1694,  d.  1773),  was  educated 
at  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge.  On  the  accession 
of  George  I.,  he  was  made  Gentleman  of  the 
Bedchamber  to  the  Prince  of  Wales.  He  sat 
as  member  for  St.  Germans  in  1715.  The 
division  between  the  Prince  of  Wales  and 
the  court  soon  drove  him  into  opposi- 
tion in  spite  of  the  entreaties  of  his  rela- 
tive, General  Stanhope,  and  he  joined  the 
discontented  Whigs.  [Walpole.]  He 
Iiad  great  expectations  from  George  II.  on 
his  accession;  but  had  the  misfortune  to 
•offend  Queen  Caroline.  The  death  of  his  father 
in  the  previous  year  removed  him  to  the 
Upper  House.  In  1728  he  was  sent  as  ambas- 
■sador  to  the  Hague,  and  on  his  return  was  made 
High  Steward  of  the  Household,  but  was  dis- 
missed in  1 733  by  Walpole  for  his  opposition  to 
the  Excise  scheme.  Fortli  with  he  became  a  pro- 
minent member  of  the  Opposition,  and  in  1737 
made  a  magnificent  speech  against  the  Play- 
house Bill.  In  1741  he  went  abroad ;  and  at 
Avignon  met  Ormonde,  with  whom  it  is  said  he 
attempted  to  concert  measures  for  a  Jacobite 
combination  against  Walpole.  He  was  excluded 
from  office  under  Pelham*s  administration ;  and 
continued  in  opposition,  directing  his  attacks 
especially  against  the  employment  of  Hano- 
verian troops,  and  the  foreign  policy  of 
Carteret.  At  length,  in  1744,  the  king's 
repugnance  was  so  far  overcome  that  he  was 
made  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland.  His  ad- 
ministration of  this  office  deserves  the  highest 
praise,  and  his  firm  government  checked 
any  tendency  there  might  be  to  imitate 
the  example  of  the  Scotch  revoltcrs  in  1745. 
In  1745  he  was  again  sent  to  Holland, 
where  his  negotiations  induced  the  Dutch 
to  send  troops  to  the  camjmign  which  ter- 
minated in  the  battle  of  Fontenoy.  In 
1746  he  became  Secretary  of  State.  He 
aimed  at  governing  the  King  through  the 
latter *s  mistress,  Lady  Yarmouth,  but  finding 
he  could  make  no  progress  in  bringing  about 
a  peace,  he  resigned  in  1748.  He  still  con- 
tinued to  speuk,  and  in  1751  proposed  and 
carried  out  the  reformation  of  the  calendar. 
In  1752  ho  lost  his  hearing.  In  1757  he  was 
■asked  to  negotiate  Ixjtween  Pitt  and  New- 
castle during  the  intrigues  which  led  to  the 
formation  of  that  great  ministrj'  known  by 
their  names.  In  17G8  his  natural  son,  Philip, 
the  object  of  the  greatest  aire  and  affection 
on  his  part,  nnd  to  whom  he  had  addreased 
his  famous  Letters  to  hU  Son  on  which  his 
literary  fame  largely  rests,  died,  and  from  that 
^time  CSiesterfield's  life  was  desolate  and  cheer- 


less.    *  *  Chesterfield  wus,"  aays  his  biographer, 
Dr.  Maty, "  a  nobleman  unequalled  in  his  time 
for  variety  of  talents,  brilliancy  of  ^^it,  and 
elegance  of  conversation."   Lord  Stanhope, 
referring  to   his  i)olitical  career,  says  that 
"  diplomacy    was    especially  suited  to  his 
tastes  and  talents.     At  home,  hiB  career, 
though  never  inspired  by  a  high  and  per- 
vading    patriotism,  deserves  the  praise  of 
humane,  liberal  and  far-sighted  policy.    Hia 
defects  were  a  want  of  generosity,  dissimu- 
lation carried  beyond  justifiable  bounds  .  .  . 
and  a  looseness  of  religioiu  principle." 

Maty'8  Life,  prefixed  to  Cheeterfield'B  Iforln, 
2  vols.,  1777. 

Chevalier.    [Pketendek.] 
Chevy  Chase.    [Otterbournb.] 

Cheyne,  Sir  Thomas,  Treasurer  of  the 
Household  to  Henrj'  VII  I.,  was  appointed  one 
of  the  (Council  of  Executors  by  the  king'a 
will,  1547.  Having  served  in  the  Scottish 
expedition  of  1547,  he  .was  made  Warden  oi 
the  Cinque  Ports,  and  in  1549  he  was  sent  ui 
behalf  of  the  Council  to  the  Empero 
Charles  V.  In  1553  he  is  found  in  dlron 
ox)position  to  Northumberland's  scheme  < 
altering  the  succession  in  favour  ot'  l^av 
Jane  Grey,  and  in  Wyatt's  Rebellion  fq.v 
1554,  he  did  good  service  for  the  queen 
Kent. 

Chichele,  Hekky  (b.  chra  13G2,  d,  141 
is  said  to  have  owed  his  education  to  NY  ill 
of  Wykeham,  and  certainly  was  a  studen 
Wykeham's  foundations  at  Winchcftter 
Orford.  He  was  frequently  employ  ci] 
diplomatic  business  by    Henry  IV.,  an 

1408  was  made  Bishop  of  St.  Davids. 

1409  he  was  one  of  the  English  delogat 
the  Council  of  Pisa,  and  in.  1414  was  i 
to  the  see  of  Canterbury.     He  accom][ 
Henr}'  Y.  on  his  second  and  third  expec 
to  France,  and  crowned   Queen   Call 
Chichele  has  been  greatly  blamed  for  ii 
Henrj-  Y.  to  go  to  war  af^inst  Fran 
it  was  generally  believed   that  the 
war  was  encournged  by  the  clerj^',  t* 
popular  attention  fropn  the    wcitlth, 
and  corruption  of  the  Church,      lint  t 
rests  on  no  historical  baBis,  though  i 
improbable    that    Chichele     and     tb 
bishops  did  lend  their  sanction  to  tY 
ambition.    Chichele  is  also  accused 
a  persecutor,  but  it    "would     seem 
aversion  to  the  Lollards   was  XK>litv 
than  religious;  for  that  sect  was  r< 
hostile  to  the  d\'na8t3^,  and  a  foe  t* 
order  as  well  as  to    tKo    CViurcH. 
Henry  YI.'s  reign,   Chichele    seen 
confined  himself  almost  entirely  to 
duties.     In  1437  he  founded  All  Sc 
at  Oxford,  and  was  meditatin;^  the 
of  his  see  when  he  "was    removec 
Chichele  boldly  resisted    tlie    pr« 
the  Poi>e,  who  was  desirous   of 


Chi 


(  269  ) 


Chi 


Statute  of  Praemunire  repealed,  and  when  the 
papal  party  retaliated  by  accusing  him  of 
ai'aricc,  the  barons,  the  bishops,  and  the 
University  of  Oxford  came  forward  to  bear 
testimony  to  the  merits  of  the  archbishop. 

Chichester,  Abthi-r,  Lord  {d,  1625), 
W8B  Lord-Deputy  of  Ireland  from  1604  to 
1616,  when  he  became  Lord  High  Treasurer. 
It  was  under  his  government  that  the  Planta- 
tion of  Ulster  was  carried  out.  In  1613,  he 
held  a  Parliament  for  the  first  time  in  twenty- 
seven  years;  but  in  order  to  diminish  the 
Catholic  majority  he  was  lavish  in  the  creation 
of  new  boroughs.  The  opposition  was  in  the 
end  overcome  after  some  disgraceful  scenes, 
but  only  on  the  understanding  that  the  Penal 
Laws  would  not  be  enforced.  They  then  con- 
eented  to  the  attainder  of  O^Xeil  and  his 
associates.  The  lands  of  8ir  Cahir  O^Doherty 
of  Innisowen  were  granted  to  Chichester,  and 
formed  the  bulk  of  the*  large  estates  left  by 
him  to  the  present  representatives  of  the 
family,  the  Marquises  of  Donegal. 

ChicheeteTy  a  cathedral  town,  is  built  on 
Hie  site  of  a  Roman  settlement,  and  is  generally 
identified  with  Re^um  mentioned  in  the 
Itinerary  ot  Antomnus.  It  a^oars  to  have 
heen  a  place  of  some  trade.  The  town  was 
destroyed  by  Ella,  and  restored  by  his  son, 
Cissa,  from  whom  it  received  its  modem 
name.  In  1083  the  Sussex  bishopric  of 
Helsey  was  removed  to  Chichester.  The 
cathedral,  consecrated  in  1108,  was  burnt 
down,  and  rebuilt  at  the  close  of  the  twelfth 
century.  The  city  was  incorporated  in  1213. 
'The  town  was  Royalist  in  the  Civil  War,  and 
was  captured  and  held  for  ttub  Ftoliamentarians 
l>y  Sir  W.  Waller, 

Chief  Justice.    [Justices.] 

ChilderSy  Hugh  Culling  Ea&dlby  {b, 
1827),  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, and  proceeded  to  Australia  in  1850. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Victoria  govern- 
ment from  his  arrival  till  his  return  to 
England  as  agent-general  for  that  colony  in 
1867.  He  was  elected  member  for  Pontefract 
(I860),  and  became  a  Lord  of  the  Admiralty 
in  April,  1864,  and  Financial  Secretary  to 
the  Treasury,  1866,  retiring  with  his  party, 
1866.  In  1868  he  took  office  under  Mr. 
Gladstone  as  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty. 
In  Jan.,  1872,  he  again  acc^ted  the  office  of 
agent-general  for  Victoria  in  this  country, 
and  the  same  year  became  Chancellor  of  the 
Duchy.  In  1883  he  was  appointed  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer,  and  in  1886  was 
Home  Secretar)'.  llie  state  of  his  health 
precluded  him  from  becoming  a  candidate  at 
the  General  Election  of  1892. 

Chilliaawalla,  The  Battle  of  (Jan.  13, 

1849),   was  fought  during  the  second  Sikh 

War.    After  an  interchange  of  shots  from 

the  Sikh  and  English  pickets.  Lord  Gough 

ga.re  the  word  to  attack  the  position  of  Shere 


Sing  at  three  in  the  afternoon.  General  Camp- 
bell [Clyde]  moved  forward  his  division  m 
two  brigades.  His  own  victoriously  advanced 
to  the  front,  seized  and  spiked  the  guns ;  but 
the  second  was  torn  to  pieces  by  a  fire  of 
grape  and  musketry,  and  the  attack  would 
have  failed  had  not  General  Campbell  advanced 
rapidly  to  the  rescue,  and  captured  the  guns 
which  were  pouring  in  this  deadly  fire.  Sir 
Walter  Gilbert's  two  divisions  were  success- 
ful on  the  right,  but  not  without  serious  loss. 
The  cavalry  brigade  under  Brigadier  Pope 
got  entangled  in  trees  and  brushwood,  and 
owing  to  some  mistake,  retreated,  but  the 
left  brigade,  under  Sir  Joseph  lliackwell, 
behaved  with  great  gallantry.  The  result 
was  that  when  darkness  put  an  end  to  the 
struggle  Lord  Gough  found  himself  mast4*r 
of  unknown  ground  in  the  dark,  and  un- 
cei-tain  as  to  the  whereabouts  of  the  enemv, 
after  a  victory  which  was  the  nearest  possible 
approach  to  a  defeat.  He  was  compelled, 
therefore,  to  withdraw  to  Chillianwalla. 
[Sikh  Wahs.] 

Chillinffworth,  William  (b.  1602,  d. 
1644]f,  was  ^ucated  at  Oxfoi-d,  and  obtained  a 
fellowship  at  Trinity  College.  By  the  efforts 
of  a  Jesuit,  John  Fisher,  he  was  converted 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  communion,  and 
went  to  Douay;  but  he  was  induced  by 
Laud  to  return  to  England  and  re-enter 
the  English  Church,  in  1631.  He  became 
Chancellor  of  Salisbury  and  Prebendary  of 
Brixworth.  In  the  Ciinl  War  he  was  zealously 
Royalist,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  opera- 
tions at  the  siege  of  Gloucester^  and  was  taken 
prisoner  at  the  capture  of  Arundel  Castle. 
Being  very  ill,  he  was  allowed  to  remove  to 
the  palace  of  Chichester,  where  he  died.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  famous  tract,  called,  T/ie 
Beligion  of  Froteatants  :  a  Safe  Way  to  Sal' 
vatum,  first  published  in  1638,  and  very 
frequently  reprinted. 

Chiltem  Hnndredli.  The,  as  the 
hundreds  of  Bodenham,  Desborough  and 
Stoke,  in  Buckinghamshire,  are  called,  have 
attached  to  them  a  Stewardship,  the  holder  of 
which  office  was  charged  with  the  duty  of 
keeping  down  the  robbers  who  infested  the 
wocxis  of  the  Chiltem  Hills.  At  the  present 
time  the  office  is  used  for  an  interesting 
purpose.  As  a  member  of  the  House  of 
Commons  cannot  by  parliamentarj''  law  re- 
sign  his  seat  unless  he  becomes  disqualified, 
a  member  wishing  to  retire  applies  for  the 
stewardship  of  the  Chiltem  Hundreds,  the 
acceptance  of  which,  as  a  place  of  honour 
and  profit  under  the  crown,  necessarily  entails 
the  vacation  of  the  seat.  This  method  of 
evading  the  restriction  as  to  the  resignation 
of  a  member  of  Parliament  appears  to  have 
come  into  practice  in  the  reign  of  George  II., 
about  1750.  In  the  event  of  two  applications 
being  made  for  the  post  at  the  same  time,  the 
stewardship  of  the  manors  of  East  Hundred, 


Chi 


(  260  ) 


dii 


Hempholme  and  Northstead,  is  bestowed  on 
one  of  the  applicants. 

Cliina,  Relation's  ivitu,  cannot  be  said 
to  have  existed  much  earlier  than  the  begin- 
ning of  the  seventeenth  centur}%  though 
there  was,  no  doubt,  indirect  intercourse  at  a 
much  earlier  date  between  English  merchants 
and  **  Cathay."  For  instance,  the  Florentine 
house  of  Bardi,  which  had  extensive  monetary 
dealings  with  Edward  III.,  had  also  a  con- 
siderable trade  with  China.  The  first  attempts 
:>i  the  East  India  Company  to  establish  a  com- 
mercial station  at  Canton,  in  1637,  were  un- 
successful, as  were  others  made  in  1668,  but 
in  1670  a  trade  was  opened  with  Formosa,  and 
a  ti'eaty  concluded.  Ten  years  later,  a  factory 
was  established  at  Canton.  After  the  acces- 
sion of  the  Manchoo  or  Tartar  dynasty, 
however  (1679),  a  hostile  policy,  caused, 
perhaps,  by  the  misconduct  of  the  Portuguese, 
w^as  adopted  towards  foreign  traders.  Trade, 
which  had  spread  to  several  ports,  was  con- 
fined  to  Canton,  and  was  there  conducted 
with  difficulty,  owing  to  the  dishonesty  of  the 
Hong  merchants  and  the  extortions  of  the 
mandarins.  This  unsatisfactory  state  of 
affairs,  varied  by  quarrels  between  the 
East  India  Company,  the  French,  and 
Portuguese,  continued  down  to  1792,  when 
Lord  Macartney  was  sent  as  the  first  English 
ambassador  to  the  court  of  Pekin,  but  he  was 
unable  to  effect  the  removal  of  the  restric- 
tions on  trade,  and  Lord  Amherst,  who  was 
despatched  thither  in  1816,  was  dismissed  for 
refusing  to  perform  the  **  kowtow,"  or  prostra- 
tion, before  the  emperor.  In  1834,  when  the 
monopoly  of  the  East  India  Company  expired, 
it  was  determined  to  send  out  a  trade  commis- 
sioner to  the  port  of  Canton.  Lord  Napier 
was  the  first,  but  he  soon  gave  way  beneath 
the  anxieties  of  his  position.  Soon  after- 
wards the  Chinese  authorities  began  to  pro- 
test against  the  introduction  of  opium  by 
English  traders,  an  import  forbidden  by  law. 
The  irritation  grew,  until,  in  1839,  the  Chinese 
authorities  insisted  on  the  confiscation  of  a 
large  quantity  of  the  drug,  whicJi  they  burnt. 
This  proceeding  Captain  Elliott,  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Trade,  seems  to  have  considered  as  a 
declaration  of  war.  With  the  arrival  of  the 
fleet  from  India  in  the  following  year,  the  i^ir«^ 
Chinae  JFar  (April,  1839— March,  1841 )  began. 
The  island  of  Chusan  was  promptly  taken,  and 
the  capital  threatened.  The  Chinese  there- 
upon sued  for  peace,  but  negotiations  were 
broken  off,  and  Hong  Kong  and  Amoy  fell, 
and  Nanking  was  menaced.  Thereupon 
hostilities  were  again  suspended,  and  in  1842 
Sir  Henry  Pottinger  concluded  a  treaty  by 
which  the  Chinese  agreed  to  throw  open  five 
additional  ports  to  European  trade  and  pay  an 
indemnity  of  some  four  and  a  half  millions 
sterling,  together  with  a  million  and  a  quarter 
as  compensation  for  the  destroyed  opium, 
which  sum  the  English  merchants  declared  to 


be  below  their  loss.    Tho  relations  between 
Ihi^land  and  China  continaed  to  be  fairly 
pacific  until   1855,  when  the  seizure  of  the 
lorcha  (or  cutter),  -^invic,  by  the  Chinese 
authorities,  on  the  charge  of  piracy,  was  the 
cause    of    the    Second  Chime   War   [Oct., 
1855— May,    1858).     The  vMsel  was  un- 
doubtedly  of    a    suspicious  character,  but 
she  had  obtained  a  British  registration,  and 
in  consequence  Sir  John  Bowring  demanded 
the  surreuder  of  the  captured  men,  which  was 
done,  but  all  apology  ^iras  refused  by  Yeh,  the 
governor  of  C&nton.    Thereupon  the  town 
was  bombarded  and  taken  by  the  English,  the 
Taku  forts  fell  in  1858,  and  the  EngUsh  com- 
missioner. Lord  Elgin,  concluded  a  treaty  at 
Tientsin  by  which  transit-dues  were  consider- 
ably reduced,   and  an  indemnity  of  four 
millions  agreed  upon.    In  1859,  however,  the 
English  minister.  Sir  F.  Bruce,  was   fired 
upon  from  the  Taku  forts  while  sailing  up 
the  river  to  carry  out*  the  ratiiication  of  tho 
treaty  at  Peking.     Lord  Elgin  was  promptly 
sent  out,  together  with  a  force  under  Sir 
Hope  Grant,  who  was  assisted  by  the  French. 
The  Taku  forts  fell,  and  tho  emperor,  in 
order  to  save  Peking,,  agreed  to  the  ratification 
of  the  Treaty  of  IMentsin..  Shortly  afterwards. 
Major  Charles  Gordon  entered  the  Chinese 
service,  and  aided  the  government  in  crushing 
the  Tai-ping  rebels.    Once  more  (1875)  th« 
relations    with    England    became    strained 
partly  owing  to  the  murder  of  Mr.  Margar 
on  the  Chinese-  frontier^  and  partly  to  tb 
refusal  of  the  goTemment*to   publish  \X 
treaties  by  which  the  British  were  empowen 
to  estabhsh  a  trade    route  from  China 
Burmah.   At  one  timio  war  seemed  imminci 
but  it  was  averted  by  the  firmness  and  t 
of  Sir  Thomas  Wade,,  who,  in  the  follow 
year,  by   the   Chefoo^  CoMveation,  cstablis 
the  rights  of  foreigners  to  travel  and  pro 
tion.     The  question  of  the  opium  tralKc 
the  importation  of  which  the  authoritioi^ 
opposed,  though  the  plant  is  cultivated 
large  extent  in  the  interior  of  the  count 
still  remained  unsettled. 

Sir  John  Davis^  China  ;  Prof.  Douglas,  < 
L.  Oliphant,  Narmitive  of  "Lord  Elgin's  M\9 
China;  MacCarthy^  HitAory  of  our  o\Dn 
Anawd  B»jiaLn,  1875 — 76.  r j^    q 

ChiTftlry;    This  'word,   'wh.icli  va 

meant   '* horsemanship,"     *^  kni^Ktlioo 
fully-armed  array  of  horsemen  or  ki 
'*  the  knightly  ideal  of  conduct,**    stri 
things  akin  to  these,  in  itei  -widest   ap*] 
embraced  'the  whole  brotherliood  of 
approved,  and  dedicated    men    of    ll\ 
who    had    undertaken     '^nritK     elfLV>oi 
solemn  ceremony  to    do    tlieir   fi prlit 
peculiar  spirit,  on  principles    and    > 
of  a  special  character,    as    ^rell   as    1 
body  of  laws  and  usages    tliat    t)i 
wari'iors  were  bound  to   o"b8ei*ve.      J 
a   friendly  historian,,     it    ^vas 


«< 


Chi 


(261  ) 


Chi 


association,  or  rather  an  enthusiastic  compact 
between  u^en  of  feeling  and  courage,  of 
delicacy  and  devotion,*'  who  had  chosen  the 
profession  of  arms  and  fitted  themselves  for 
it  by  a  long  and  severe  apprenticeship.  It 
was  an  institution  in  which  each  faithful 
member  was  animated  by  a  sentiment  of  con- 
scious dignity,  and  regulated  his  life  in  con- 
formity with  a  code  of  military  ethics  that 
raised  a  naturally  dcmoraliiiing  occu^mtion 
into  a  chastening  discipline  and  ennobling 
pursuit.  It  owed  to  feudalism  the  conditions 
which  enabled  it  to  play  its  part ;  but  it  was 
no  essential  feature  or  diroct  offspring  of 
feudalism ;  it  was  rather  a  corrective  of  the 
ferocity  and  injustice  that  make  the  chief 
reproach  of  feudal  institutions. 

The  times  of  its  beginning  and  ending,  and 
its  origin,  are  still  controverted  points  among 
historians.  But  we  cannot  be  far  astray  in 
limiting  its  flourishing  period  as  an  efficient 
and  earnest  motive  and  rule  of  action  to  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  though  its 
«pirit  and  forms  can  be  traced  much  earlier, 
and,  in  show  at  least,  are  perceptible  much 
later.  Mr.  Freeman  sees  the  dawn  of  English 
chivalry  in  William  Kufus^s  making  a  certain 
line  of  conduct  "a  point  of  honour;"  and 
the  French  wars  of  Edward  III.  display  the 
glitter  and  affectations,  the  serious  mockeries, 
that  outlived  the  decay  of  real  chivalr}*.  As 
to  its  origin,  some  find  it  in  the  Crusades, 
some  in  the  necessity  of  confronting  the 
evils  that  harassed  Franco  in  the  eleventh 
century  by  "  a-  consecration  of  the  arms  of 
the  strong ;  **  and  some  in  the  slow  rise  to 
ascendency  of  certain  ideas  and  customs — 
one  or  two  as  old  as  the  days  of  the  Oermania 
— amid  the  anarchy  that  followed  the  death  of 
Charlomagne.  This  last  seems  the  safest 
conclusion :  the  ceremonial  with  which  a 
young  German  warrior  assumed  arms;  the 
duty  of  serving  on  liorseback  laid  on  certain 
landholders  in  later  times ;  and  the  personal 
attachment  to  a  superior  obligatory  on  an 
aspirant  to  a  military  career,  needed  but  the 
glow  of  religious  feeling  and  the  sense  of 
individual  honour  as  the  master-motive  of 
action,  to  complete  the  chivalrous  character. 
For  the  g^rand  creation  and  central  figure 
of  chivalry  was  the  knight ;  and  it  is  the 
union  in  him  of  religious  fervour  and  sense 
of  duty,  with  a  recognition  of  honourable 
obligation,  devotion  to  all  women  and  con- 
stancy to  one,  and  a  horror  of  doing  any- 
thing unworthy  of  a  true  knight,  that  is  the 
very  essence  of  the  chivalric  idea.  Yet 
chivalry  owed  to  the  Crusades  its  sunmions 
into  energetic  life;  in  Milman*s  words,  "all 
the  noble  sentiments  which,  blended  together, 
are  chivalry — ^the  high  sense  of  honour,  the 
disdain  of  danger,  the  love  of  adventure, 
compassion  for  the  weak  or  the  oppressed, 
generosity,  self-sacrifice,  self-devotion  for 
others — found  in  the  Crusades  their  animat- 
ing principle,  perpetual   occasion   for  their 


amplest  exorcise,  their  perfection  and  consum- 
mation." The  unit  of  chivalry  was  the  knight, 
or  chevalier,  and  care  was  therefore  taken 
to  make  and  keep  knighthood  select.  In  most 
places,  though  not  in  all,  gentle  birth  wa8  a 
necessary  qualification ;  hx)m  his  seventh  to 
his  fourteenth  year  the  aspirant  must  serve  in 
some  noble  or  knightly  household  as  page  or 
varlet;  he  had  then  to  choose,  from  among 
the  well-bom  ladies  of  the  society  he  lived 
in,  some  one  as  a  special  object  of  loyal 
devotion,  and  was  allowed  to  receive  at  the 
altar  from  the  hands  of  the  priest  the  con- 
secrated sword  that  proved  him  an  esquire. 
His  manifold  duties  as  an  esquire  had  as 
their  general  drift  to  make  him  perfect  in 
the  virtues  and  accomplishments  of  a  knightly 
character.  Having  "borne  him  well'*  in 
his  long  and  trying  noviciate,  he  was 
"  ordained  "  a  knight  with  a  most  impressive 
ritual.  After  being  bathed,  and  clothed  in 
symbolic  garments,  he  fasted  for  twenty-four 
hours,  watched  the  arms  he  was  to  wear  for 
a  whole  night  in  a  church,  confessed,  com- 
municated, had  the  sword  that  hung  from  his 
neck  blessed  by  the  priest,  was  armed  by 
ladies  or  knights,  and  from  one  of  the  latter 
received  the  accolade.  His  most  imperative 
obligations,  taken  on  oath,  were:  to  servo 
God  and  his  prince ;  to  uphold  the  weak ;  to 
be  true  to  his  word ;  to  despise  gain ;  to  love 
honour ;  to  persist  to  the  end  in  any  adven- 
ture he  undertook;  to  reverence  purity  in 
women;  to  bo  faithful,  courteous,  and  humble ; 
and  to  protect  maidens  from  danger  and 
insult. 

Chivalry  had  its  absurd  side :  in  its  name 
men  now  and  then  played  very  fantastic 
tricks.  Single  combats,  tournaments,  jousts, 
the  splendid  frivolities  dear  to  an  age  of 
empty  show,  were  its  outcome.  But  its 
nobler  gifts  to  mankind  far  outweigh  these ; 
from  it  sprang  the  Knights  Hospitaller 
and  the  Teutonic  Order,  which,  along  with 
not  a  little  that  is  questionable,  certainly 
bore  excellent  fruit.  Above  all,  it  set  a  curb 
on  the  passions  of  men,  and  thus  softened 
the  horrors  of  war;  held  up  before  them  an 
elevating  ideal;  made  active  the  virtues  of 
loyalty,  courtesy,  respect  for  women,  valour, 
justice,  and  voi-acity.  Its  chief  bequest  to 
mankind  was  the  *'  chastity  of  honour  which 
felt  a  stain  like  a  wound,'*  which  still  lives. 
It  is  significant,  too,  that  the  clearest  English 
eye  of  the  fourteenth  century  saw  in  the 
Imight  **  who  lovede  chivalrie  " 

*'  Tronthe  and  honour,  fredom  and  cnrtesie." 

Hallam,  MtddU  Agw,  cip.  iz.,  p.  ii. ;  STilinon, 
Itatin  Chrijctianity,  book  vii.,  cap.  vi..  Freeman, 
Uorman  Cojiqxiest^  vol.  ▼.,  481 — 9  :  Lacroiz,  Vie 
MUitaire  et  ReliqUvAeaxi.  Moyen  Age ;  Guizot,  Hit' 
toire  de  la  CtoilUatton,  6th  lecture  of  lost  course. 

[J.  R.] 

Chivalryy  The  Cottrt  of,  was  held  before 
the  Constable  and  the  ^larshal  of  England 
for  the  trial  of  military  offences,  and  for  the 


Chu 


(  262  ) 


cnin 


decision  of  questions  relating  to  coat  armour, 

Personal  honour,  and  the  like.  By  13  Kich. 
I. ,  cap.  2,  it  is  declared  that  this  court  has 
cognizance  over  all  matters  of  this  kind, 
except  such  as  may  be  determined  by  the 
common  law.  The  court  has  long  ceased  to 
be  held  ;  the  last  instance  of  its  sitting  being 
in  1737. 

Chiinda  Sahib  (d.  1752^  married  the 
daughter  of  Dost  Ali,  aeputy  oi  the  Camatic, 
and  Decame  chief  minister.  He  was  made  use 
of  by  Dupleix  as  a  pretender  to  the  throne  of 
Arcot  against  the  English  candidate,  Mahomed 
Ali.  In  alliance  with  ^tozuffer  Jung,  the 
French  candidate  to  the  throne  of  Hyderabad 
on  the  death  of  the  Nizam-ool-Moolk  (1748), 
he  overran  the  Camatic,  and  obtained  inves- 
titure from  Dupleix  and  Mozuffer  Jung, 
dive's  defence  of  Arcot  and  the  death  of 
Mozuffer  broke  the  confederacy ;  and  Chunda 
Stihib  surrendered  to  Monackjee,  the  Tan- 
jorino  general,  who  was  in  alliance  with 
Mahomed  Ali  and  the  English.  The  general 
took  a  solemn  oath  to  convey  him  to  a 
French  settlement,  but  immediately  after- 
wards caused  him  to  be  assassinated,  at  the 
instigation  of  Mahomed  Ali. 

Clmrcli  of  England.  Christianity 
came  to  Britain  in  the  wake  of  the  Roman 
occupation,  and  the  British  Church  was  fio 
fitr  organised  that  it  sent  three  bishops  to  th6 
Council  of  Aries  in  314.  [Chuiich,  The 
Cei/tic]  The  English  invaders  were  heathens, 
and  British  Christianity  was  swept  westward 
before  them.  The  conversion  of  the  English 
was  effected  by  missionaries  from  Rome  in  the 
south,  and  missionaries  from  lona  in  the  north.  - 
As  the  ritual  of  these  two  sets  of  missionaries 
differed  in  some  points,  different  usages  were 
found  to  be  productive  of  confusion,  till  at 
the  Si/nod  of  Whitbtf  (664)  the  Northumbrian 
kingdom  adopted  the  Roman  use ;  and  from 
that  time  England  obtained  ecclesiastical 
unity  as  a  daughter  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 
The  work  of  ecclesiastical  organisation  was 
bei^un  by  Archbishop  Theodore  in  668,  and 
the  example  of  unity  given  by  the  Church 
was  one  of  the  chief  influences  to  produce 
unity  in  the  State.  Church  and  State  worked 
harmoniously  together,  and  there  were  no 
({uestions  to  bring  them  into  collision.  The 
bishop  sat  by  the  side  of  the  ealdorman  in  the 
shire  court,  and  ecclesiastical  causes  were 
decided  in  the  same  way  as  others.  The 
period  of  the  Norman  Conquest  coincided 
with  that  of  the  ecclesiastical  reforms 
wrought  by  Hildebrand  on  the  Continent; 
and  the  intiuence  of  his  ideas  is  apparent  in 
the  ecclesiastical  policy  of  William  I. 
Ecclesiastical  courts  were  established  for 
ecclesiastical  causes,  which  were  to  be  tried 
by  canonical,  not  by  customar}-,  law.  This 
change  was  considered  necessar^^  for  the  sake 
of  a  uniform  system  of  law,  to  introduce 
more  regular  discipline  into  the  Church ;  but 


it  brought  with  it  a  vexatious  extension  of 
ecclesiastical    iurisdiction,   and   led   to  the 
recognition  ot  the  right  of  appeal  to  the 
papal  court,  which  ultimately  proved  ruinous 
to  the  authoritv  and  independence  of  biBhops. 
But  while  making  this  change,  WilUam  L 
was  careful  to  protect  himself  from  papal 
interference  by  laying  down  three  rules:— 
(1)  That  the  Tope  of  Rome  shoiUd  not  be 
recognised  as  apostolic,  except  at  the  king's 
command,  and  that  letters  for  the  Pope  be 
first    shown    to    the    king.       (2)  That   the 
resolutions    of    ecclesiastical    synods  should 
have  no  legal  force  till  sanctioned  by  the 
king.      (3)  That  no  baron  or  royal  servant 
bo  excommunicated,  except   by  the   king's 
consent.      These  regulations  of  William  I. 
show  a  feeling  of  distrust  about  the  relations 
between  Church  and  State  which  was  speedily 
realised.    Under  Henry  I.,  Archbishop  An- 
selm  raised  the  question  of  the  lawfulness  of 
lay  investiture  to  a   spiritual  office.     Tho 
tenure  of  clerical  lands  was,  by  the  growth  of 
the  royal  power,  assimilated  to  that  of  lay. 
The  nomination  of  bishops,  and  their  investi- 
ture with   the   emblems    of   their   spiritual 
dignity,  had  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
crown.    Hildebrand  strove  to  check  the  grow- 
ing secularisation  of  the  Church ;  but  the  State 
answered,  with  some  show  of  reason,  that  it 
could  not  allow  of  the  existence  of  powerful 
land-holders  who  did  not  recognise  the  king  as 
their  lord.     In  England  a  compromise  was  at 
length  made  between  Henry  I.  and  the  Pope. 
The  king  agreed  that  chapters  should  elect 
their  bishops,  but  the  election  was  to  be  made 
in  the  King's  Court;  he  gave  up  the  in- 
vestiture   with    ring    and    crosier,  but  the 
bishops  were  to  do  homage  for  their  tem- 
poralities.     The    crown    retained    the    real 
appointment  of  bishops,  and  the  rights  of 
suzerainty    over    them,  but    abandoned    its 
encroachments  upon  their  spiritual  dignity. 
Anselm  showed  that  the  Church  was  the  only 
power  which  could  withstand  the  tyranny  of 
the  crown.     In  like  manner,  Becket  resisted 
Henry  II.;    and  Bishop  Hugh,  of  Lincoln^ 
offered    a    constitutional    resistance    to    tho 
demands  for  monev  made  in  the  name   of 
Richard  I.    During  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth 
centuries  the  Church  fought  the  battle  of  th& 
people,  while    it    defended    its    own   rights 
against  the  threatening  power  of  the  king. 

But  though  the  Church   succeeded   in    a. 
measure  in  holding  its  own  against  tho  king'^ 
it  was  less  successful  against  the  Pope.     The 
Pope,  as  judge  in  all  disputed  cases,  gained 
considerable  power  over  episcopal  elections, 
where  disputes  were  frequent.    In  1204  Pox>o 
Innocent  III.  rejected  the  contending  candi- 
dates for  the  see  of  Canterbury',  pro|>ose<.l 
Stephen  Langton,  and  confirmed  his  informal 
election  without  the  king's  consent.     Oradu.— 
ally,  the  king  and  the  Pope  came  to  a  aox-t;. 
of  tacit  understanding  that  they  would  8ha.rx> 
between  them  the  appointment  to  bishoprios^ 


Chn 


(  263  ) 


Chn 


and  the  result  was  that  the  powers  of  the 
chapters  became  more  and  more  shadowy,  till 
they  practically  died  away.  Papal  provisions 
and  resf^rvations  over-itMle  the  rights  of 
patrons,  and  though  the  Statute  of  FrovUort 
(1350,  1364,  1390)  was  enacted  and  re- 
enacted  to  check  this  abuse,  the  Pope  and 
the  king  found  their  interests  to  coincide  in 
keeping  a  tolerably  close  partnership  in  the 
disposition  of  patronage.  Yet  the  Statute 
of  rnemunire  (16  Rich.  II.,  c.  6,  1393),  which 
forbade  the  prosecution  of  suits  in  foreign 
courts,  gave  the  king  a  powerful  weapon 
against  the  Pope,  and  was  resented  as  an 
infringement  of  the  papal  supremacy.  Papal 
taxation  weighed  heavily  on  the  clergy,  and 
the  attempt  made  by  Pope  Boniface  VIII.  to 
exempt  them  from  national  taxation  was 
pow^erless  before  the  resolute  character  of 
Edward  I.     [Papacy.] 

In  the  fourteenth  century,  the  results  of 
the  organisation  of  the  Constitution  by 
Edward  I.,  and  the  steady  growth  of  royal 
and  papal  interference  with  Uie  appointment 
and  powers  of  the  bishops,  gradually  di- 
mini&ed  the  political  influence  of  the  Church, 
and  its  spiritual  activity  declined.  The 
teaching  of  Wiclif  marked  dissatisfaction 
against  the  Papacy,  social  discontent,  and, 
in  a  minor  degree,  desire  for  doctrinal 
change.  The  social  side  of  the  Lollard 
movement  was  the  most  largely  developed, 
and  it  was  this  especially  that  led  to  legis- 
lation against  heresy.  In  1401  was  paraed 
the  statute  De  Maretico  Comburendo  (2  Hon.. 
IV.,  c.  15,  1401).  The  Church  lost  its  hold 
Qpon  the  people,  and  became  more  and  more 
dependent  on  the  Pope  and  the  king.  There 
was  an  acknowledgment  of  abuses  on  all 
sides,  but  there  was  no  power  to  work  a 
reformation.  The  machinery  of  the  Church 
had  been  ruined  by  papal  interference. 
Reform  was  possible  cnly  at  Rome ;  but  the 
Popes  showed  no  inclination  to  undertake  it. 
The  clergy  gradually  put  themselves  more 
and  more  under  the  royal  protection  as 
against  the  Pope,  till  Henry  VIII.,  freed 
from  any  power  of  the  baronage,  and  willing 
to  serve  the  interests  of  the  commons,  found 
the  Church  reduced  to  obsequious  dependence 
on  the  crown.  Henry  VIII.  quarrelled  with 
the  Papacy  about  one  of  the  few  points  in 
Kvhich  the  papal  interference  with  legislation 
ivas  possible  without  the  king*s  consent. 
At  length  he  put  forth  the  fulness  of  the 
ro}'al  power.  By  suppressing  the  monasteries, 
he  deprived  the  Church  of  a  third  of  its 
revenues.  He  severed  the  union  between 
the  English  and  the  Roman  Churches,  and 
compelled  the  reluctant  clerg)'  to  recognise 
the  king  as  supreme  head  of  the  Church  in 
£nglan£  He  practically  deprived  the  Church 
of  legislative  power  by  requiring  the  royal 
licence  for  all  decrees  of  Osn vocation. 
Henry  VIII.  broke  with  the  Papacy  be- 
canse  the  Papacy  was  an   obstacle  in  the 


way  of  his  personal  gratification;  bat  he 
aimed  at  a  reiorniation  of  ecclesiastical  prac- 
tice and  a  re-adjustment  of  the  ecclesiastical 
system  to  the  needs  of  England  as  it  was. 
Still,  the  breach  with  Rome  would  have  be^i 
impossible  to  Henry  VIII.  if  there  had 
not  been  a  serious  breach  in  the  European 
obedience  to  the  Papacy.  New  theological 
opinions  were  rapidly  spreading  in  Germany^ 
and  had  already  attracted  the  attention  of 
scholars  in  England;  and  Henry  VIII.'s> 
wish  to  confine  his  changes  to  mere  points  of 
ecclesiastical  organisation  was  impossible. 
Yet,  so  long  as  he  lived  he  held  the  balance 
between  the  old  and  the  new  learning,  and 
checked  the  progress  of  doctrinal  change. 
Under  Edward  VI.  the  reforming  party  came 
into  power,  and  Archbishop  Cranmer  moved 
forward  towards  the  German  Protestants.  The 
steps  in  his  advance  may  be  traced  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  formularies  of  the  English  Church. 
[AaTicLBs.]  But  the  reforming  party  was  & 
minority  of  tbe  nation,  and  its  lapid  changes 
shocked  the  popular  mind ;  it  owed  its 
political  support  to  the  selfish  greed  of  a 
body  of  courtiers,  who  were  willing  to  use 
the  Reformation  as  a  means  of  enriching 
themselves.  Hence,  the  reaction  under  Mary 
was  greeted  with  delight;  but  it  was  too 
complete  to  be  permanent.  The  Catholicism 
of  Mary  was  anti-national,  and  the  successive 
failures  of  Protestants  and  Catholics  under 
Edward  VI.  and  Marj'  prepared  the  way  for 
the  religious  settlement  of  Elizabeth. 

Elizabeth  reverted  to  the  policy  of  her 
father,  and  strove  to  effect  a  compromise  be- 
tween the  now  hostile  parties  of  the  Catholics 
and  Protestants.  The  Catholics  held  to  the 
old  formularies;  the  more  advanced  Protes- 
tants, who  had  been  in  exile  during  Mary's 
reign,  had  adopted  the  logical  system  of 
theology  laid  down  by  Calvin,  and  demanded 
Uiat  nothing  should  be  adopted  but  what 
could  be  proved  by  Scripture  to  be  true. 
Elizabeth  favoured  the  opinion  of  the 
moderate  Reformers,  who  held  that  nothing 
should  be  discarded  but  what  could  be  shown 
from  Scripture  to  be  false.  The  Prayer  Book 
of  Edward  VI.  was  revised,  and  two  statutes 
were  passed  in  1559  which  established  the 
legal  relations  between  Church  and  State. 
The  Act  of  Supreitwcy  required  all  beneficed 
ecclesiastics,  and  all  laymen  holding  office,  to 
take  the  oath  of  supremacy,  and  renounce  all 
foreign  jurisdiction.  The  Act  of  Uniformity 
prohibited  the  use  by  any  minister  of  any 
liturgy  save  that  contained  in  the  Prayer 
Book,  and  imposed  a  fine  on  all  who  absented 
themselves  from  Church.  The  Liturgy  and 
the  Articles,  under  the  direction  of  Archbishop 
Parker,  were  devised  so  as  to  retain  much  of 
the  old  uses,  while  purging  them  of  much 
that  might  offend  the  Calvinistic  party. 
The  ideal  of  Elizabeth  was  comprehension 
uniformly  enforced.  It  was  impossible  that 
such  a  sdieme  should  be  entirely  successful ; 


cniu 


(264) 


CbxL 


yet  it  80  far  succeeded  that  the  national 
feeling  of  England  gathered  round  the 
Ohurdi,  which  embraced  the  large  majority^ 
of  the  people.  But  a  considerable  Catholic 
party  stood  aloof ;  and  the  excommunication 
of  Elizabeth  by  the  Pope  in  1570,  the  secret 
visits  of  Jesuit  missionaries,  and  the  plots  in 
favour  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  occasioned  a 
rigorous  persecution  of  the  Catholics.  Simi- 
larly, the  Calvinistic  party,  or  Puritans,  dis- 
liked many  practices  of  the  prescribed  ritual 
as  superstitious,  and  disregarded  them.  In 
1565,  Archbishop  Parker  issued  a  book  of  regu- 
lations, known  as  the  '^Advertisements"  (q.v.), 
which  afterwards  received  the  royal  sanction. 
He  attempted  to  enforce  regularity  in  the  con- 
duct of  services,  and  thereby  onlj'  drove  the 
Calvinists  into  more  pronounced  opposition.  It 
is  true  that  their  spirit  was  narrow,  and  their 
opinions  tended  towards  the  establishment  of 
the  tyranny  of  an  ecclesiastical  democracy. 
Yet  the  persecution  of  Archbishop  Whitgift 
yvRB  injudicious  and  ineffective.  The  High 
Commission  Court,  to  which  was  entrusted 
the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  of  the  crown, 
grew  to  be  a  means  of  royal  tyranny. 

One  result  of  the  legislation  of  Elizabeth 
was  that  the  Church  became  definitely  sub- 
ordinate to  the  State ;  jurisdiction  and  legis- 
lation for  the  Church  could  only  be  exercised 
with  the  consent  of  the  crown,  and  the  rites 
and  discipline  of  the  Church  could  not  be 
altered  without  the  consent  of  Parliament. 
The  appointment  of  bishops  was  exercised 
by  the  crown,  and  Elizabeth  demanded  that 
they  should  be  crown  officials,  for  the  purpose 
of  enforcing  the  ecclesiastical  uniformity  which 
she  required.  They  became,  and  have  to  some 
extent  still  continued  to  be,  disciplinar}*  officers 
executing  the  law,  rather  than  Fathers  in  God 
to  their  clergy.  The  Elizabethan  bishops 
were  not  men  of  lofty  or  commanding 
character,  and  were  indecorously  dictated  to 
T)y  Elizabeth  and  her  Council.  On  the  death 
ot'  Elizabeth  there  were  loud  demands  for  con- 
cessions, iiut  James  I.  lectured  the  Puritan 
ministers  in  the  Hampton  Court  Conference 
(16U4),  and  agreed  to  a  few  insignificant 
alterations  in  the  Prayer  Book  which  recon- 
ciled no  one.  Archbishop  Bancroft  continued 
the  persecution  of  the  Puritans,  and  deprived 
many  Puritan  clergy  of  their  benefices,  life" 
Puritan  party  became  more  and  more  identified 
with  the  party  of  constitutional  opposition 
to  the  crown ;  and  in  the  Church  itself  a 
party  began  to  arise  which  insisted  on  the 
necessity  of  Episcopacy  as  a  divine  institution, 
and,  by  excluding  Presbyterians  from  the 
Catholic  Church,  seemed  to  draw  nearer  to 
the  Church  of  Rome.  This  party  advocated 
the  divine  right  of  kings,  and  preached  the 
doctrine  of  passive  obedience.  Under  Arch- 
bishop Laud  it  attained  to  great  influence, 
and  aided  Charles  I.  in  his  arbitrary  and 
unconstitutional  conduct.  The  result  wa^ 
that  Puritanism  in  England  combined  with 


Pre8b3^eriani8m  in  England,  Charles  1.  lost 
his  throne  and  his  life,  and  the  Church  of 
England  ,4was  abolislied.   But  rigid  Presby- 
terianism  would  have  laid  a  heavier  yoke  on 
England    than    the   rigid  Anglicanism  of 
Laud.      Cromwell  gathered  round  him  the 
sects,  especially  the  Independents,  and  saved 
England  from  Presbyterianism  by  advocating 
the  liberty  of  each  congregation.    But  the 
Puritan  supremacy  was  intolerable  to  England, 
and  the  restoration  of  Charles  11.  brought 
back  the  Church  of  England,  endeared  to  the 
people  as    a    bulwark  against  Puritanism. 
There  was  some  show  of  desire  to  meet  the 
scruples  of  the  Puritans,  and  a  Conferenco 
was  held  in  the  Savoy  Palace,  1661.    But 
Dr.   Sancroft,  who  presided,  was  of  an  \in< 
yielding  temper,  and   the  demands  of  the 
Puritans  were   unreasonable.     Both  parties 
separated  in  anger.      A  few  changes  were 
made  in    the    Prayer  Book— but  they  in- 
creased rather  than  diminished  the  objections 
the  Puritans    had    to  it.     Then,  in   1662, 
was  passed  an  Act  of   Uniformity,  which 
required  all  beneficed  clergy  not  only  to  use 
the  Prayer  Book,  and  that  only,  but  also  to 
declare  *'  unfeigned  assent  and  consent  to  aU 
and  everything  contained  and  prescribed  in 
it.**    About  two  thousand  of  the  clergy  were 
ejected  from  their  benefices  for  refusing  to 
make    this    declaration.      Charles    11.    was 
willing  to  grant  indulgences  to  the  Puritans 
that  he  might  also  grant  them  to  the  Catholics 
Parliament  and    the    bishops   regarded  th 
maintenance  of  the  Established  Church,  s 
the  only  means  of  saving  England  from  tl 
dangers  of  complications  in  foreign  politi 
which  might  come  through  Catholicism  ai 
the  dangers  of  the  tj^ranny  of  an  orgamti 
minority  in    domestic    affairs.       The    to 
indulgence  was  opposed,   and   Acts   agai 
Nonconformity  rapidly  succeeded  one  anot\ 
the  Corporation  Act,  the  Conventicle  Act^ 
Five  Mile  Act,  the  Test  Act,  and  the  Act 
disabling  Papists  from  sitting  in  either  H 
of  Parliament,  were  all  passed  between 
and  1679. 

In  1664  an  important  chang^e  was  ma« 
the  relations  between  Church  and  S 
Hitherto  the  clergy  had  taxed  th.emsel'^ 
Coavpcation,  but  it  wa«  found  ^tliat  the^ 
"^sequently  werf  taxed  more  hedvily  th 
laity,  ^n  1664  it  was  quietly  agreed  t\ 
clergy  should  be  taxed  in  tlie  same  t 
as  the  laity — by  Parliament.  Tlioup:' 
vocation  had  lost  its  pow^er  of  makin|2: 
without  the  king's  consent,  it  etiV 
petition  for  redress  of  grievanoos 
granting  supplies.  N'o'w  tlia.t  it  a 
grunt  supplies,  its  proceedings  l>ecaiTn 
formal,  and  after  giving  oecasion.  t<i 
logical  controversy  in  1717,  it  -wajB  n 
summoned  for  business  till  1861,  'wti  i 
revived.     fCoNvocATiox.] 

The  pohcy  of  Charles  IX-  8f*omed 
the  Catholics,  and  popular  suspicio 


Chn 


(  266  ) 


Ckn 


penecation  of  the  Catholics  in  consequence 
of  the  false  evidence  of  a  pretended  Popish 
plot.     Notwithstanding^  a  vigorous  attempt 
to  exclude  Jaines  II.  from  the  throne,  on  tbe 
ground  that  he  was  a  Catholic,  the  general 
desire  of  Eogland  for  a  settled  government 
led  men  to  accept  him  as  king.     But  James 
II.  strove  to  impose   by  his  prerogative  a 
toleration  which  would  enable  him  to  put 
Catholics  in  all  the  important  offices  of  state. 
He  ordered  a  general  declaration  of  liberty 
of    conscience    suspending   all    penal    laws 
about  religion,  to  l>e  read  in  all  the  churches. 
8even  bishops,  headed  by  Archbishop  San- 
croft,  petitioned  the  king  to  recall  this  step. 
They  were  committed  to  the  Tower,  and  were 
brought  to  trial  for  uttering  a  libel  against 
the  king,  and  their  acquittal  was  a  hign  of 
the   pubUc    opinion    against   James,   which 
led  to    the   Revolution.     The    accession  of 
IVilliam  III.  and  Mary  was  largely  due  to 
the  fact  tliat  the  Dissenters  preferred  to  wait 
for  toleration  from  the  Church  rather  than 
to  accept  it  unconstitutionally  from  the  king. 
In  1689  a  Toleration  Act  was  passed,  which 
granted  some  relief   to  the  Dissenters,  but 
none  to  the  Catholics.     Moreover,  the  Kevo- 
Intion  overturned  the  doctrine  of  the  divine 
light  of  kings,  which  had  been  a  tenet  of 
Anglicanism ;  and  Archbishop  Sancroft,  with 
three  hundred  others,  resigned  their  offices 
rather  than  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to 
William.    The  sect  of  the  Non^jurors  soon 
died   away,   and    Anglicanism    was    strong 
enough  to  resist  the  changes  which  William 
III.,    in    the    interests    of    comprehecsion, 
wished  to  introduce  into  its  system.    Anne 
showed  herself  &vourable  to  the  Church,  and 
in  1704  formed  the  fund  which  is  known  as 
Qneen  Anne*s  Bounty,  by  giving  up  for  the 
angmentation  of  small  benefices  certain  eccle- 
siastical dues  which  the  English  crown  had 
inherited  as  the  heir  of  the  papal  claims. 
The  old  High  Church  doctrine  of  passive 
obedience  was  revived  in  a  modified  form, 
and  the  impeachment  of  nn  obscure  divine, 
Dr.   Sacheverell,  for  a   sermon    embodying 
this  view,  wss  one  of  the  causes  of  the  fall 
of  the  Whig  ministry.    The  toleration  ^ven 
to  Dissenters  under  William  III.  was  dimin- 
ished by  the  Act  of  1711  against  occasional 
oonformity,  and  the  Schism  Act   of    1714, 
-which  required  all  teachers  to  have  a  licence 
from  a  bishop.     But  these  were  the  last  Acts 
which  savoured  of  exclusiveness.     With  the 
accession  of  George  II.  a  more  tolerant  spirit 
prevailed.    A  yearly  Act  of  Indemnity  began 
to  be  passed  in  1727  for  Dissenters  who  held 
office  .contrary  to   prohibitive  Acts.    From 
this  time  forward  there  was  a  gradual  pro- 
gress in  practical  tolerance,  and  in  the  last 
thirty  years  of  the  century  efforts  were  made, 
with  some  success,  to  repeal  the  disabling 
Acts.    The  Corporation  and  Test  Acts  were 
not,  however,  repealed  till  1828,  and  in  1829 
the  Catholic  Relief  Bill  became  law. 


Meanwhile,  religious  lethargy  had  invaded 
the  Church  and  Nonconformists  alike.    This 
was  broken  by  the  efforts  of  the  Wesleys  and 
Whitfield,  and  their  movement  to  Christianise 
the  masses  met  with  great  success.     It  wa» 
looked   upon   by  the  Church  with  coldness 
that   deepened   into    dislike,    and  Wesley's, 
followers  formed  themselves  into  a  sect  known 
by^thenamoof  Methodists.     This  movement 
largely  swelled  the  ranks  of  Nonconformity,, 
but  also  awakened  the  zeal  of  the  Churcii. 
Still,  at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century, 
the  Church  was  violently  assailed  by  Noncon- 
formists ;  ecclesiastical  abuses  were  remorse- 
lessly exposed,  and  claims  resting  solely  on  the- 
fact  that  they  were  "  by  law  established'*  were- 
seen  by  their  champions  to  be  untenable.    Tho 
wave  of  Liberalism  that  carried  the  Reform 
Bill  was  seen  to  be  dangerously  threatening^ 
the  Church  itself.  In  the  earlier  portion  of  the- 
present  century,  the  most  active  party  in  the 
.Church   were    the  revived  Puritans,  under 
Simeon  and  Melvill.     A  movement  which- 
had  its  seat  at  Oxford,  and  was  begun  "by 
Newman,  Keble,  Pusey,  and  Hurrell  Froudo, 
revived  the  old  High  Church  party.     In  a 
flow  of  tracts  and  pamphlets,  the  leaders  of 
this  movement  laboured  to  restoi^  the  dog- 
matic basis  of  the  Church.    Their  proposi- 
tions awakened  considerable   alarm,   which, 
increased  when  some  of  the  leading  minds, 
notably    Newman    and    Ward,    joined    the 
Church  of  Rome.    Theological  activity  again 
awakened,  and  questions  as  to  the  limits  of 
comprehension  allowed  by  the  formularies  of 
the  Church  of  England  to  its  clergy  were 
raised  with  much  frequency.     When  the8& 
questions  had  slightly  subsided,  another  of 
equal  importance  emerged — the  question  of 
the  limits  allowed  to  the  cler^*  in  criticising 
the  Scriptures,    and  of  individual   opinion 
as  to  their  interpretation.    The  result  of  this, 
revival  of  theological  interests  was  to  bring 
forward  many  points    for    settlement.      In 
early  times  appeals  in  cases  of  dispute  wcre^ 
decided  by  the  Pope ;  after  the  Reformation 
they  were  decided  by  the  king  in  council,  and 
a  Court  of  Delegates   was  appointed  when, 
occasion  required.      In   1832  this  Court  of 
Delegates  was  abolished,  and   ecclesiastical 
appeals  were  transferred   to    the   appellato 
jurisdiction  of  the  king  in  council.    In  the 
first  heat  of  party  feeling,  the  composition  of 
this  court  was  not  much  regarded ;  but  mor& 
recently  this  question  has  1)eoome  one  of  the 
chief  difficulties  in    the    relations    between 
Church  and  State.     Another  consequence  of 
theological  differences  was  to  show  that  the 
Church  was  ]x>werless  to  influence  the  election 
of  bishops  by  the  crown.     In  1847  objections 
were  made  on  theological   grounds  to  the 
appointment  of  Dr.  Hampden  to  the  see  of 
Hereford;  but  it  was  found  that  there  was 
no  legal  means  of  having  these  objections 
brought  to  trial.     In  1861  the  meetings  of 
Convocation  were  revived,  and  though  tha 


Chu 


(  266  ) 


Chn 


constitution  of  that  body  i£  not  entirely 
representative  of  the  clergj',  it  gives  expres- 
sion to  many  of  their  grievances.  By  its 
agency  a  revision  of  the  translation  of  the 
Bible  was  undertaken.  In  1886  a  representa- 
tive House  of  Laymen  for  the  province  of 
Oantorbui*y — a  Iwdy  from  the  purview  of 
which  matters  of  doctrine  are  excluded — held 
its  first  sitting.  Tiie  Church  has  become  in 
the  present  century  more  vigorous  and  more 
highly  organised,  and  has  recognised  within 
its  bodv  considerable  variations  of  theological 
opinion.  On  the  other  hand,  Nonconformists 
have  been  freed  from  all  disabilities  and  from 
all  legal  obligations  towards  the  Church.  An 
Act  passed  in  1868  abolished  compulsory 
Church  rates  for  the  maintenance  of  parish 
churches,  and  the  Buiials  Act  of  1880  per-' 
mitted  Nonconformists  to  bury  their  dead  in 
the  parish  churchyards  with  their  own  rites 
and  ceremonies.  In  Irehmd,  the  Established 
Church  had  never  commended  itself  to  the 
people,  who  remained  Catholics,  and  in  1869  it 
was  disestablished  and  partially  disendowed. 

The  relations  between  Church  and  State 
are  closer  in  England  than  in  any  other 
countr}'.  The  Church,  after  the  Reformation, 
drew  up  its  own  services  and  formularies,  and 
is  recognised  by  the  State  on  that  basis.  It 
cannot  alter  its  services  without  the  permis- 
sion of  the  State,  and  the  interpretation  of 
its  formularies  is  in  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
State,  while  the  appointment  of  its  bishops  is 
likewise  in  the  hands  of  the  State. 

Be<1e,  Hidoria  Eeelenatti4!a :  Bright,  Sarly 
Bnglifih  Church  History  ;  Fuller,  Church  Hittory 
of  Britain:  CoUier,  EeAtricuticnl  Hittory  of 
Great  Britain;  Blunt,  JB^rfomuttton  of  the  Church 
of  England  ;  Short,  History  of  tht  Church  of  Eng- 
land to  the  RevoliAion  ;  Perry,  Historu  of  the 
Church  of  England  from  the  Death  of  Elitaheth, : 
Holesworth,  History  of  the  Church  oj  England 
from  1880.  [M.  C.] 

CllTirollt  Thb  Early  Celtic.  Two  sharply- 
contrasted  periods  are  to  be  distinguished  in 
the  early  Church  history  of  Celtic  Britain. 
So  long  as  the  Romans  ruled  in  South 
Britain,  the  Christianity  which  Rradually 
permeated  from  Graul  into  the  island  was 
weak,  mainly  confined  to  the  Roman  settle- 
ments, and  affected  veiy  little  the  native 
population.  The  efforts  made  by  Ninian, 
Palladius,  and  Patrick  at  the  conversion  of 
the  Celts  outside  the  province  had  very  little 
result ;  but  a  ver>'^  remarkable  ecclesiastical 
revolution  seems  to  have  closely  followed  the 
withdrawal  of  the  Roman  legions.  A  wave 
of  religious  enthusiasm,  excited  perhaps  by 
reaction  from  the  Saxon  conquerors,  ran 
through  the  whole  Celtic  portion  of  the 
island.  The  first  impulse  came,  hs  before, 
from  Gaul.  Gallic  churchmen,  like  Germanus 
of  Airxen-e,  re-kincUed  the  dyin«:  embM-s  of 
Christianity  in  Britain,  and  led  the  orthodox 
alike  against  Pelatrian  hca-etic  and  Saxon  or 
IHctish  heathen.  Monastici^m,  brought  by 
St.  Athacasius  from  the  East,  found  in  St. 


Martin  of  Tours  its  greatest  Western  ex- 
ponent.    From  St.  Martin's  great  Abbey  of 
Maimoutier    the    monastic    cuiTent   flowed 
through  Britanny  into  Wales  and  CorawiiU, 
and  thence  into  Ireland,  where  it  develo|K)d 
itself  to  its  extreme  limits,  and  to  Scotland, 
to  which  the  monastic  movement  first  gave 
Christianity.     But  the  Saxon  Conquest  cut 
off  all  communication  between  the  Celts  of 
Western  Britain  and  the  Continent.  Separated 
from  civilisation  by  a  wedge  of  heathenism, 
the    Celtic    Church     gradually    acquired   a 
character  of  its  own  that  marks  it  off  sfaai-ply 
froui  the  Churches  of  the  Continent.    When, 
in  the  seventh  century,  the  conversion  of  the 
English  again  renewed  intercourse  between 
the  Celtic  Christians  and  the  Western  world, 
the  differences  between  the  Celtic  Churches 
and  the  Catholic  Christians  had  become  so 
great  that  intercommunion  was  regarded  as 
impossible,    and   a    struggle     for    mastery 
between  the  two  Churches  set  in  that  ter- 
minated only  with  the  defeat  of  the  Celts.    It 
was  not  that  the  Celtic  Christians  were  in  any 
formal  sense  heretics.     The  only  points  that 
could  be  alleged  against   them  were  their 
habit  of  celebrating  Easter  according  to  an 
erroneous  cycle,  which  the  better-instructed 
Romish  Church  had  abandoned,  their  i^ecu- 
liar  form   of   tonsure,   a    few   unimportant 
liturgical  differences,  and,  with  a  wilhngness 
to  respect  the  Roman  Church  as  the  captU 
eceleaiarum,  a  steadfast  refusal  to  yield  it  that 
canonical  obedience  which  the  Popes  had  now 
begun    to    claim.     But  though  the  formal 
differences  of  tho  Celtic  and  Catholic  Churches 
were  thus  few — though  not  on  that  account 
the  less  hotly  contested— the  difference   of 
organisation,  sj'stem,  and  spirit  between  the 
two  Qiurches  was  of  the  last  importance. 
The    child  of  the  monastic   revival,   Celtic 
Christianity'  had  become  through  and  throug^h 
monastic.    Monasticism  had  in  many  places 
absorbed  diocesan  episcopacy.     Great  monas- 
teries had  grown  up  everywhere,  which  faith- 
fully reproduced  the  tribal  characteristics  of 
the  Celtic  State,  whose  abbote,  themselves 
often  of  royal  houses,  exercised  a  jurisdiction 
that  left  nothing  to  the  bishops  save  the  mere 
maintenance  of  the  apostolical  succession.     In 
the  great  abbeys  of  Ireland,  and  still  more  at 
lona — ^the  great  foundation  of  Columha  (q.v.), 
which  was  the  source  of  the  Christianity  of 
Scotland    and    the    seat    of    a    jurisdiction 

Practically    episcopal    over     ite     dependent 
Ihurches  —  the    swarms    of    bishops    were, 
despite  their  higher  rank  in  the  Church  ordc^rs, 
subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  abbot,  wHo 
was  generally  a  mere  presbyter.     As  centres 
of  education,  of  Church  worship,  of  spirit u.h1 
life,  of  an  extreme  asceticism,  and  of  all  ecclesi- 
astical jurisdiction,  the  monasteries  enjoyed  a 
far-reaching  influence.     Their  intimate  relt\- 
tion  to  the  trihe  enabled  tliem  to  permeate 
the  whole  life  of  the  nation  with  a  real,  if 
irregular,    spiritual  enthusiasm.     The    wi^tb 


Chu 


(  5267  ) 


Chn 


and  seventh  centuries  were  the  great  period 
of  the  Welsh  and  Irish  saints,  of  the  earliest 
Welsh  literature,  of  successful  resistance  to 
the  English,  to  whose  conquests  a  limit  was 
at  last  set.  Heathenism  was  driven  out  of 
Celtic  Britain.  When  Augustine  and  Pauli- 
nns  failed,  Aidan  from  lona  succeeded.  At 
least  half  of  the  conversion  of  England  is  due 
to  the  Columban  monks.  On  the  Continent 
Celtic  niiaaionaries  carried  their  own  usages 
and  planted  their  own  monasteries.  Columba 
founded  Luxeuil,  in  the  Vosges,  St.  Grail  the 
great  abbey  called  after  him  in  Tipper  Swabia. 
In  Gkiul,  Italy,  and  Germany  a  new  wave  of 
religious  enthusiasm  was  excited  by  the 
strange  missionaries  from  Britain.  [Abbot  ; 
MoNAsncisM.] 

But  the  monastic  Church  of  Celtic  Britain, 
though  fertile  in  saints  and  missionaries,  had 
a  fatal  weakness  in  its  wont  of  definite 
organisation.  Even  in  Wales,  where  the 
functions  of  abbot  and  bishop  were  generally 
conjoined — the  founders  of  the  great  Welsh 
monasteries  were  also  founders  of  the  Welsh 
sees  (St.  David,  for  example) — the  work  of 
diacipUne  and  supervision  which  belonged  to 
the  bishop  could  be  very  imperfectly  performed 
by  a  recluse  who  chose  the  remotest  solitudes 
for  his  abode.  Efficient  in  exciting  religious 
emotion,  the  Celtic  Church  failed  in  its  more 
regular  and  routine  duties.  The  monks  were 
hetter  missionaries  than  parish  priests.  A 
society  that  aimed  at  abjurmg  the  world  could 
not  thoroughly  make  its  influence  felt  in  the 
world.  Shut  up  in  an  extreme  comer  of  the  uni- 
verse, rigidly  opposed  to  all  external  influences, 
its  doom  was  sealed  when  the  triumph  of  Wil- 
"hed  at  Whitby  and  the  alliance  of  Oswy  of 
Northumbria  and  Theodore   of  Canterbury 

Elled  the  Celtic  customs  from  Britain. 
[iTBT,  Syxod  of.]  Henceforth  confined  to 
lorth  and  west  of  the  island,  the  monastic 
Church  lost,  with  its  capacity  for  expansion, 
its  powers  of  vitality.  It  was  affected  by 
two  opposite  influences  from  without  and  from 
within.  The  triumph  of  the  Roman  pai-ty  in 
England  gave  the  secular  clergy  a  position 
side  by  side  with  the  Celtic  regulars.  The 
ascetic  impulse  which  had  established  the 
monasteries  continued  so  &r  that  monasticism 
itself  was  no  sufficient  expression  of  the  severe 
spirit  of  renunciation  that  saw  in  the  hfe  of 
the  solitary  anchorite  the  highest  expression 
of  spiritual  emotion.  Even  the  tribal  con- 
nection which  in  the  first  flow  of  the  move- 
ment had  done  so  much  serrice  to  the  monas- 
teries ultimately  proved  a  snare.  The  secular 
aspect  of  the  tribe  began  to  assert  itself,  and 
an  abbey  whose  head  was  an  hereditary  official 
soon  became  a  monaster^'  simply  in  name. 
As  the  abbey  had  earlier  absorbed  the  tribe, 
so  the  tribe  now  absorbed  the  abbey. 

Thus  assailed  from  within  and  without,  the 
monastic  Church  could  offer  no  efficient  oppo- 
sition to  the  strong  reaction  in  favour  of 
communion  with  Western  Christendom,  even 


at  the  expense  of  a  loss  of  the  national  usages. 
In  634  the  Southern  Irish,  in  692  the  Noi-them 
Irish,  accepted  the  Roman  Easter.  On  the 
death  of  Adamnan  (704),  an  effort  to  introduce 
the  Roman  customs  into  lona  itself  led  to  a 
schism  in  that  monastery.  In  717  the 
Columban  monks  were  expelled  from  the 
kingdom  of  the  Picts.  In  tiie  middle  of  the 
eighth  centur)'  the  Welsh  gave  up  the  Celtic 
Easter.  Formal  schism  was  thus  ended,  but  it 
was  centuries  before  the  monastic  peculiarities 
of  the  Celtic  Churches  entirely  disappeared. 
The  Danish  invasions,  the  English  overlord- 
ships,  both  had  their  effect,  yet  it  was  not 
until  the  days  of  Matilda,  wife  of  3Ialcolm 
Canmore,  that  complete  diocesan  episcopacy 
and  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict  were  imposed  on 
the  Scots,  and  the  Culdces  (q.v.)  reduced  to  the 
position  of  canons  regular.  In  the  same  way 
the  Norman  kings  reorganised  the  Church  of 
Ireland  on  a  territorial,  instead  of  a  tribal, 
basis.  Wales,  where  the  Celtic  Church 
had  never  developed  so  far,  where  diocesan 
episcopacy  always  continued  in  a  way,  gradu- 
ally became  subject  to  Canterbury,  as  well  as 
to  the  English  king^.  The  Norman  Conquest 
imposed  on  the  Welsh  Church  a  foreign 
hierarchy,  that  completed  the  process  of  union. 
Centuries  earlier  the  Scottish  monks  on  the 
Continent  had  been  compelled  to  accept  the 
Rule  of  St.  Benedict. 

The  true  history  of  the  old  Celtic  Church 
has  been  obscured  by  a  cloud  of  fable  and 
legend  which  has  seen  in  it  a  Protestant 
witness  against  the  errors  of  Rome,  and  a 
Presbyterian  polity  worthy  of  Calvin,  which 
has  regarded  its  characteristics  as  surTivals  of 
the  mystic  rites  of  Druidism,  and  which  has 
found  the  explanation  of  its  Easter  observance 
in  the  Quartodociman  practice  of  the  Churches 
of  Asia. 

The  chief  materials  for  the  histor  r  of  the  Celtic 
Church  are  in  Haddan  and  Stubbe's  Counmlt 
and  in  Adamnan'a  L*/«  of  Columha.  Dr.  Eeeve's 
introduction  and  notes  to  Adamnan,  and  Mr. 
Skene's  Celtic  Sootland,  vol.  ii.,  may  be  mentioned 
as  leading  modem  aathorities  for  Ireland  aad 
Scotland.  In  the  Lives  of  the  Camhro-Briti^ 
SaintM,  amidst  much  that  is  wild  lemnd,  some- 
thing authentic  may  be  gleaned.  Bees'  WtllMh 
8ainl»  is  an  ingenious  attemi>t  at  reooustmoting 
one  aspect  of  early  Welsb  Church  hiatoiy. 
Fryce's  Ancient  Britieh  Church  is  a  useful  com- 
pendium of  that  portion  of  the  subject.  The 
essays  on  the  Churchu  of  the  Britieh  Confeaeion 
and  Th«  Scots  on  the  Continent,  in  A  W.  Uoddan's 
Remaine,  are  a  masterlj  summary  of  the  whole 
question.  Montalembert's  Ifonles  of  the  Weet 
gives  an  eloquent,  if  often  misleading,  picture  of 
the  monastic  aspect  of  the  Church. 

[T.  F.  T.] 

drarch.  of  Zraland.  [Irish  Chvuch.] 

Church  of  Scotland.  [Scotland, 
Chu&ch  of.] 

Church  Rates*  or  rates  levied  (for  the 
maintaining  of  the  qhurch  and  churchyard  in 
good  condition)  from  the  parishioners  and 
occupiers. of  land  within  a  parish,  are  voted 
and  assessed  by  a  majority  of  the  parishioners 


Cliii 


(  268  ) 


Gin 


assembled  in  a  vestry  meeting.  Church  rates  are 
of  very  ancient  origin ;  and  as  early  as  970, 
Archbishop  Elfric  ordained  that  Tithes  (q.v.) 
should  be  divided  into  three  parts,  one  of  which 
was  to  be  set  aside  for  the  repairing  of  the 
church.  This  Church  rate,  at  first  voluntary, 
became  gradually  obligatory,  and  though  up  to 
1817  the  only  method  of  enforcing  payment  was 
through  the  action  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts, 
it  was  in  that  year  enacted  that  the  payment 
might  be  enforced  by  the  county  justices. 
The  objection  of  the  Dissenters  to  pay  these 
rates  led  to  much  litigation  on  the  subject. 
Frequent  bills  were  brought  in  for  Uieir 
abolition,  and  in  1858  a  bill  of  Sir  John 
Trolawney  actually  paissed  the  House  of 
Commons,  but  was  rejected  by  the  Iy)rd8. 
The  opposition  of  the  Dissenters  at  the  vestry 
meetings  was  frequently  so  btrong  as  to  pre- 
vent the  levying  of  any  rate  at  all,  and  "  in 
1869,"  says  Sir  T.  Erskine  ^lay,  *' Church 
rates  had  been  refused  in  no  less  than  1,525 
parishes  or  districts.'*  The  question  was 
settled  in  1868  by  the  abolition  of  compulsory 
Church  rates  and  the  substitution  of  voluntary 
payments. 

May,  Coiitt  Hitt. ;  Lord  Campbell's  Letttr  <m 
ihs  Law  of  Chwch  RaiM. 

Churchill,  Araublla  {b.  1648,  d,  1730), 
was  the  daughter  of  Sir  Winston  Churchill, 
and  sister  of  the  Duke  of  ^larlborough.  She 
became  the  mistress  of  the  Duke  of  York 
(afterwards  James  II.)  and  by  him  the  mother 
of  James  Fitz-James,  Duke  of  Berwick,  and 
three  other  children.  She  subsequently 
married  Colonel  Charles  Godfrey. 

Churchill,  Admiual  Gboroe,  was  a 
younger  brother  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough. 
In  1693,  when  in  command  of  a  brigade,  he 
took  his  nephew,  the  Duke  of  Berwick, 
prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Landen.  On  the 
accession  of  Queen  Anne  he  was  placed  on 
the  Admiralty  Board.  He  had  complete 
ascendency  over  the  head  of  the  Admiralty, 
Prince  George  of  Denmark,  the  husband  of 
the  queen,  and  thwarted  the  councils  of 
Admiral  Rooke.  In  1707  he  was  vehemently 
attacked  by  the  Whigs  for  his  mismanage- 
ment; it  was  alleged  that  he  had  altogether 
neglected  to  countenict  a  junction  of  the 
French  fleets,  by  means  of  which  several 
men-of-war  acting  as  convoys  to  merchant 
ships  had  been  destroyed.  He  was  again 
attacked  by  Wharton,  with  a  view  to  injuring 
the  Duke  of  Marlborough.  His  reply  to  the 
Commission  of  Inquiry,  written  in  a  spirit  of 
cool  defiance,  served  to  exasperate  his  enemies 
still  more.  On  the  death  of  Prince  George 
ho  was  dismissed  from  ofiice  (1709).  "The 
mental  constitution  of  this  man,"  says  ^Ir. 
Wyon,  **  was  the  opposite  of  that  of  his 
illustrious  relative.  He  was  a  Tory  of  the 
extreme  school — virulent,  domineering,  and 
foolish." 

Coxe,  Life  of  Marlborowy^ ;    Wyon,  Rtign  of 
Queen  ilniie. 


I  

Chnrohillf  Tub  Right  Hok.  Ijoei> 
Randolph  (b.  Feb.  13,  1849,  d.  Jan.  24, 
ld9d),  second  son  of  the  sixth  Duke  of 
^larlborough,  entered  Parliament  in  1874  aa 
member  for  Woodstock.  After  the  Conser- 
vative defeat  of  1880  he  began,  as  leader  of 
the  Fourth  Party,  to  distinguish  himself  in 
debate,  acquiring  fame  also  as  an  effective 

Slatform  orator.     In  Lord  Salisbory's  first 
[inistry  (1885)  he  was  Secretary  for  India; 
in  the  second  (July,  1886)  he  became  Chan- 
cellor  of  the  Exchequer  and  Leader  of  the 
House  of  Commons.    On  the  23rd  of  Decem- 
ber, in  the  same  year,  he  resigned,  never  to 
take  office  again.     His  health  broke  down  in 
1894,  and  he  started  on  a  prolonged  tour, 
from  which  he  returned  only  to  die. 

ChurchwardonB  are  parish  officers  wha 
are  charged  with  the  duty  of  looking  after 
the  condition  of  the  parish  church,  of  pro- 
viding what  is  necessary  for  the  celebration 
of  the  sacrament  and  the  services,  of  sum- 
moning vestries,  and  of  superintending  church 
matters  generally.     They  are  usually  two  in 
number,  and  are  chosen  by  the  parson  and 
the  parishioners  jointly,  or  one  by  the  minr 
ister  and  the  other  by  the  parishioners.     In 
the  great  majority  of  cases,  one  is  chosen  by 
the  minister  and  the  other  by  the  people. 
Barns,  EccUt.  Imw. 

Cinque  Forts,  The,  are  a  group  oi 
seven  towns,  situated  in  Sussex  and  Kent 
which  still  possess,   in   some   degree,   thel 
old  and  peculiar  jurisdiction.    The  origins 
members  of  the  group  were  Hastings,  lion 
ney,  H3'the,  Dover,  and  Sandwich,  to  whic 
the  "  iincient  towns  "  of  Winchelsea  and  11; 
were  afterwards  added.      They   still   reUi 
the  privilege  of  holding  two  courts,  viz.,  t 
Court    of    Brotherhood    and  the    Court 
Guestling;   but  these  exercise   now  onlv 
very  smsdl  part  of  their   former  functic 
The  Cinque  Ports  owe  their  existence  a 
corporate  body  to  the  fact  that  in  our  ex 
history  there  was  no  standing  navy.     Ww 
whenever  invasion   was    threatened  or 
templated,  it  was  necessary-  to  rely  nvainl 
the  services  of  tho  seaboai*d  towns.     It 
the  Cinque  Ports  that    contributed   la 
to  the  aefeat  of  Eustace  the  Monk  in 
and  four  years  later  we  find  the  samo 
summoned  before  Hubert  de  Hurg^h  for 
against  the  men  of  Calais.      In    1242 
issued  orders  to  the  officers  of   this  c< 
tion   to  prey  upon  French    morchan 
travellers — an   order  wliose    terms   tl 
larged   upon,  to  the  hurt    of    their 
countrymen.     By  this    tinne,    then.,    i 
consider  the  Cinque  Ports   to   he  a  ro< 
institution,  with  its  own  officers  and. 
and  in  this  capacity  its  members  esjK: 
cause  of  De  Montfort,  aj:ici   -^vere    sv  i 
to  send  "  barons"  to  the  Parliament 
L(>cal  historians  have  claimed,  for  tlie   • 
a  position  higher  than  that  of   the 


Cia 


(  269  ) 


Cis 


members,  or  even  the  knigiits  of  the  shire. 
It  is  not,  however,  till  the  reign  of  Edward  1. 
that  we  have  absolute  proof  that  the  Cinque 
Ports  possessed  a  charter.  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  terms  of  Edward's  charter  speak 
definitely  of  certain  rights  possessed  by  this 
body  in  the  time  of  Hcnrv  II.,  and  more 
vaguely  of  others  dating  back  through  almost 
every  previous  reign  to  that  of  the  Confessor. 
And  we  may  consider  Edward  I.'s  charter, 
though  somewhat  enlarged  by  later  sove- 
reigns, as  a  fair  summar}'  of  the  privileges  of 
the  Cinque  Ports.  By  the  terms  of  this 
charter  the  Cinque  Ports  were  to  have 
criminal  and  civil  jurisdiction  within  their 
Hmits;  exemption  from  all  taxes,  aids,  and 
tollages ;  the  right  of  assembling  in  their  own 
parliament  at  Shepway,  near  Hythe,  for  the 
purpose  of  making  by-laws ;  and  several  other 
privileges,  including  the  right  of  regulating 
the  Yarmouth  fisher}*  and  fair.  In  return  for 
these  concessions,  they  were  to  furnish  the 
king  at  call  with  fifty-seven  ships  for  fifteen 
days  each  year,  and  there  is  at  least  one  in- 
stance where  they  had  to  victual  the  ships  sup- 
plied by  another  town  (London).  The  officer 
in  command  of  the  ships  furnished  b}'  the 
<.'inque  Ports  was  called  the  Warden ;  and 
under  Edward  I.  the  Warden  of  the  Cinque 
Ports  acted  as  admiral  of  the  fleet  from  Dover 
to  Cornwall. 

The  Cinque  Ports  continued  to  be  the  main 
strength  of  our  navy  till  the  time  of  Henr}- 
VII.  In  the  reign  of  this  king  we  find 
signs  that  they  had  already  fallen,  or  were 
fa&ing,  under  the  ordinary  taxation  of  the 
kingdom,  though  they  are  still  allowed  to 
deduct  £500  from  their  own  share  of  any 
tenth  or  fifteenth  levied  on  the  counties  of 
iSussex  and  Kent — a  privilege  which  Elizabeth 
confirmed  as  a  reward  for  their  services 
against  the  Armada.  The  Charters  of  the 
(^nque  Ports  were  surrendered  to  the  crown 
in  1685,  and  most  of  their  peculiar  privileges 
and  obligations  were  abolished  by  the  Reform 
Act  (1832),  and  Municipal  Corporations  Act 
<18a5). 

Jeakes,  CKarten  of  the  Cinque  Ports;  QrwU 
and  Ancient  Ckaiisr  of  the  Cinque  Porte ;  Lyons, 
Htttory  of  Dover,  [T.  A.  A.] 


The  Convention  op  (Aug.  30, 

1808),  was  an  agreement  made  at  the  beginning 

of  the  Pcnins^ar  War  between  the  French 

and  English  after  the  battle  of  Vimiero.    The 

conditions    would    have    been    much    more 

laTonrable  to  the  British  had  not  the  timid 

caution  of  Sir  Harry  Burrard  and  Sir  Hew 

Dalrymple  prevented  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley 

from  f oUowing  up  the  advantage  gained  in  the 

battle.      An  advance  was  cautiously  begun 

towards  lisbon;  and  almost  immediately  an 

envoy  was  sent  by  Junot  to  treat.    Terms 

were  drawn  up,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 

I^lish  admual,  and  this  he  would  not  give. 

Ne|;otiation8  were  accordingly  beg^un  ah^h, 

vhile  the  English  advanced  still  nearer  to 


Lisbon.  Junot  on  his  side  threatened  to  fire 
the  public  buildings  of  Lisbon ;  and  the  threat 
had  the  effect  of  hastening  on  the  negotiations. 
Finally,  the  Convention  of  Cintra  was  signed 
at  Lisbon,  the  terms  being  that  the  French 
troops  should  evacuate  Portugal,  and  should 
be  transported  to  France  in  English  ships. 
After  some  trouble  it  was  also  decided  that 
the  Russian  fleet  in  the  Port  of  Tagus  should 
pass  into  the  hands  of  the  English. 
Much  indignation  was  felt  in  England  on  the 
news  of  the  convention,  although  four  months 
previously  it  would  have  been  hailed  with 
delight.  Burrard,  Dalrymple,  and  Wellesley 
were  ordered  home  to  take  their  trial,  and  Sir 
John  Moore  was  appointed  to  the  command  in 
the  Peninsula. 

Napier,  Penintular  War, 

**  Circiuiuipecte  Agatis "  was  the 

title  of  a  writ  or  statute  issued  by  Edward  I. 
in  1285,  defining  the  duties  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical courts,  and  fixing  the  boundaries  between 
the  temporal  and  spiritual  jurisdictions,  thus 
putting  a  stop  to  the  gradual  encroachment 
of  the  ecclesiastical  courts  in  matters  of 
which  the  cognisance  belonged  to  the  crown. 
By  this  statute  breaches  of  morality,  such  as 
adultery  and  false  swearing;  are  assigned  to 
the  Courts  Christian,  together  with  questions 
of  tithes,  mortuaries,  or  battery  of  a  clerk. 

Cirenoovtar  is  situated  on  the  site  of  an 
important  Roman  militar}'  station,  named 
Corinium.  It  was  captured  by  the  Danes  in 
878.  An  abbey  of  some  importance  was 
founded  by  Henry  I.,  and  a  fine  church  built 
in  the  fifteenth  century.  During  the  Civil 
War  the  town  was  held  by  the  Parliamen- 
tarians, and  captured  by  Prince  Rupert  in 
1642,  and  surrendered  again  to  the  Round- 
heads, in  1643. 

CiMMl  (d.  520  P)  was  the  son  of  Ella 
(q.v.),  whom  he  is  said  to  have  succeeded  in 
517.  His  name  is  traced  in  Chichester  (Cissa- 
ceaster)  and  possibly  in  Cissbur}*  Camp. 

CifltdTCiailSf  The,  were  a  religious  order, 

an  off-shoot  of  Benedictines,  founded  in  1098 

at  Citeaux.   The  order  owed  much  to  its  second 

abbot,  Stephen  Harding,  an  Englishman,  who 

enjoined  especially  the  strictest  adherence  to 

the  austere  Benedictine  rule,  from  which  the 

Benedictines  themselves  had  long   departed. 

It  was  Stephen   Harding  also   who,   at   the 

chapter  of  the  order  in  1119,  established  the 

system  of  government  which  allowed  a  large 

amoimt  of  independence  to  each  abbey,  under 

the  supervision  of  the  general  chapter  of  the 

order.     The  order  became  very  popular  all 

over  Western  Europe,  and  in  no  country  more 

than  in    England.      They    first    settled    at 

Waverley,  in  Surrey,    in    1129,  and    from 

thence    spread    all    over    England.      Their 

houses   were    very  numerous,   especially    in 

Yorkshire.     [Monasticwm.] 

J.  H.  Newman,  Cietercinn  Sainte  ofBng.^  1844; 
AnnaUe  Ciatercienoee,  4  vols  ,  Lyons,  1642. 


\ 


Gin 


(  270  ) 


Gift 


Cindad  KodxigO,  Thb  Siege  of,  during 
the  Peninsular  War,  January,  1812,  was 
the  opening  operation  of  Wellington's 
campaign  of  1812.  The  fall  of  the  works 
was  hastened,  in  spite  of  many  natural 
and  artificial  obstacles,  on  account  of  the 
approach  of  Marmont  with  a  relieving  force. 
On  the  13th  the  Santa  Cruz  convent  was 
taken  ;  a  well-organised  sally,  however,  de- 
layed the  bombardment;  but  on  the  evening 
of  the  14  th  it  was  begun,  and  in  the  confusion 
that  arose,  the  40th  Regiment  seized  the 
convent  in  the  suburbs  to  the  east  of  the 
town.  The  bombardment  was  kept  up  almost 
continuously,  till  on  the  18th  the  great 
breach  became  a  wide  gap.  On  the  19th, 
soon  after  seven  o'clock,  the  assault  was 
begun :  the  fattsse^braye  was  cleared  by  tho 
stormers ;  but  the  French,  driven  back,  held 
their  ground  behind  the  retrenchment,  and 
wrought  great  havoc  among  the  British, 
^leanwhile,  the  attack  at  the  smaller  breach 
had  been  made  with  reckless  impetousity, 
which  carried  the  fausse^braye ;  and  sweep- 
ing onward,  led  by  Major  Napier,  the  light 
division  dashed  into  the  narrow  opening,  and 
at  the  point  of  the  bayonet  broke  down  all 
resistance,  until  they  had  gained  a  foothold 
in  thetown.  Then  part  of  the  light  division, 
drivii^  all  before  them,  fell  upon  the  flank  of 
the  defenders  at  the  great  breach,  and  by 
their  overthrow  made  a  way  for  the  entrance 
of  the  storming  party ;  while  the  rest  of  the 
light  troops  cleared  the  streets  and  houses  in 
the  town.  The  town  very  soon  became  the 
scene  of  the  wildest  excesses  and  frenzied 
disorder.  The  loss  of  the  allies  was  90  officers 
and  1,200  soldiers. 

Napier,  Pmintular  War;  Clinton,  Pentiuulav 
War. 


WAVM  Ust.  The,  is  a  sum  of  money 
granted  annually  by  Parliament  for  the 
support  of  the  royal  household,  and  the 
personal  expenses  and  bounty  of  the  sove- 
reign.'  It  originated  in  the  reign  of 
William  and  Mary,  and  at  first  comprised 
the  payment  of  civil  offices,  and  pensions. 
Its  amount  was  fixed  at  £700,000  (£400,000 
being  derived  from  the  hereditary  revenues 
of  the  crown  and  £300,000  from  the  Excise 
duties).  This  continued  to  be  the  nominal 
sum — although  frequent  debts  were  incurred 
— until  the  reigrn  of  George  II.,  when  it  was 
increased  to  £800,000,  being  further  raised  in 
1777  to  £900,000 ;  this  sum,  however,  proved 
quite  inadequate  for  the  necessary  expenditure, 
and  debts  on  the  Civil  List  had  continually 
to  be  paid  throughout  the  whole  of  the  reign 
of  George  III. ;  and  it  was  found  advisable 
to  remove  from  the  list  many  charjBfes,  such 
as  salaries  of  state  officers  and  the  like.  On 
the  accession  of  William  IV.  these  extraneous 
charges  were  further  reduced,  and  the  Civil 
List  fixed  at  £510,000,  a  sum  which  included 
a  pension-list  of  £75,000.  The  Civil  List 
paid  to  the  Queen  by  1  Vict.,  c.  2,  amounts 


to  £385,000,  and  is  exdusively  devoted  (witii 
the  exception  of  £1,200  annually,  which 
may  be  granted  in  pensionB]  to  tiie  pay- 
ment of  her  Majesty's  household  and  penoiud 
expenses. 

May,  Con$t.  Hitt, 

Ciiril   Wars.     [Barons'  War;  Hosbs, 
Wars  of  ;  Gkeat  Rekellioh.] 

Claim  of  Sight,  The,  passed  by  the 
Scottish  Estates   in    April,    1689,  declared 
that  James  YII.  had  forfeited  the  crown  for 
various  offences  conunitted  against  the  con- 
stitution of  the  kingdom  and  the  privileges 
of  the  subjects,  and  that  no  Papist  could  ever 
in  the  future  rule  over  Scotland ;   it  further 
declared  the   necessity  of  frequent  Parlia- 
ments, and  the  burdensome  nature  of  prelacy. 
It  was,  in  fact,  a  statement  of  the  terms 
on  which  the  Scottish  crown  vras  offered 
to    William  of    Orange.     [Convention  op 
Estates.] 


ClaimanliS  o£  tlio  Scottiili  Crown 

in  1291.  On  the  death  of  the  Maid  of 
Norway  (1290),  the  last  of  the  descendants  of 
Alexander  III.,  a  number  of  competitors  for 
the  Scottish  crown  appeared.  Chief  amongst 
them  were  JohnBaliol,  Robert  Bruce,  and  Johi 
de  Hastings  the  descendants  of  three  sisters 
daughters  of  David,  Earl  of  Huntingdon 
Baliol  claimed  as  the  yrandson  of  the  eldet 
sister,  Bruce  as  the  ton  of  the  secondy  sx 
Hastings,  as  the  wn  of  the  youngest  daughtc 
claimed  one- third  of  the  kmgdom,  co 
tending  that  it  was  divisible  like  other  inho 
tances.  This  disputed  succession  Edward 
determined  to  settle,  and  accordingly  sv 
moned  a  conference  of  Scottish  and  Eng 
nobles  to  meet  at  Norham,  May,  \2^\. 
was  there  determined  to  accept  Edwti 
appointment  as  lord  paramount,  and 
appoint  commissioners  to  decide  upon 
merits  of  the  claimants.  Forty  were  ni 
by  Baiiol,  forty  by  Bruce,  and  t'wenty 
by  the  English  king.  In  June,  1292, 
commissioners,  after  much  deliberation 
ported  in  favour  of  Baliol,  saying  that 
the  laws  and  usages  of  "hoth  kingdoi 
every  heritable  succession  tKe  more  i 
in  one  degree  lineally  descended  ire 
eldest  sister,  was  preferable  to  tbe  nc^ 
degree  issuing  from  tbe  second 
Edward  accordingly  declared  Jobn 
king. 

Besides  these  three  cliief ,  tbeTe  ^ 
minor,  competitors :  N'icliolas  d.e  So 
grandson  of  Marjory,  natural  daxi 
Alexander  II.,  whom  lie  declared. 
been  legitimatised ;  Florence,  IB^rl  of 
great  grandson  of  Ada,  daixj^liter  r: 
Henry,  and  sister  of  "William  17 1 
Robert  de  Pinkeny,  great  gxandsor 
jor}',  daughter  of  trince  Henry  ;  A  ' 
Kos  ;  Patrick,  Earl  of  Mlarcli,  and.  '^  ' 
Vesa  and  Roger  de  Mandeville,  t  i 
daiits  of  illegitimate    daugrlitera   c 


COa 


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Cla 


the  Lion;  Patrick  Salythly,  son  of  an 
illegitimate  son  of  William  ;  John  Comyn  of 
Bodenoch,  who  claimed  as  the  descendant  of 
King  Donald  Bane ;  and  Eric,  King  of 
Norway,  who  claimed  as  the  heir  of  his 
daughter,  the  Maid  of  Norway.  None  of 
these  claims  were  of  any  validity,  and  they 
were  not  pushed  to  un  open  trial. 

Gloiiiui,  The  Court  of,  was  established 
in  1662,  in  accordance  with  the  first  Act 
of  Settlement  to  examine  the  case  of  all 
dispossessed  Irish  proprietors.  It  decided  very 
largely  in  favour  of  the  natives,  and  very 
soon  such  large  grants  were  made  to  the 
Duke  of  York  and  others,  that  it  became  im- 
possible to  provide  for  any  other  claimants. 
Thus,  after  it  had  heard  about  600  claims 
its  labours  came  to  an  end,  and  the  second 
Act  of  Settlement,  1665,  became  necessar}'. 

Cnanrioardo,   TJlick   Bukkb,   or    Db 

Bl-boh,  IsT  MAKauis  OF  (6.  1604  P  d,  1665), 
was  so  created  in  1645.  Though  a  Roman 
Catholic,  he  continued  faithful  to  the  king 
all  through  the  Rebellion  of  1641  (q.v.). 
His  sympathies  were  largely  with  the 
insurgents,  but  he  refused  the  supreme  com- 
mand they  offered  him.  At  court,  in  1647, 
he  was  able  to  combine  his  loyalty  with  his 
attachment  to  the  ancient  faith,  and  began 
to  take  a  prominent  part  in  affairs.  When, 
in  1649,  Ormonde  left  the  country,  he  made 
Clanricarde  Lord  Deputy,  who  in  1650 
induced  the  Irish  to  reject  the  terms  offered 
them  by  Parliament.  '  He  continued  to  hold 
out  for  some  time  longer,  but  was  finally 
compelled  to  surrender  to  Coote  on  the  usual 
terms  of  personal  freedom,  and  the  restoration 
of  part  of  his  estates.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  cousin  as  Earl  of  Clanricarde,  the  mar- 
qaisate  dying  with  him  as  he  had  no  issue. 
At  the  Restoration  all  his  estates  were  at 
oTLisB  restored  to  his  heirs.  His  Memoirs 
Coneeming  the  Affairx  of  Ireland  ft^m  I64O  to 
165$  were  published  in  1722. 

Clare,  Gilbert  db,  Earl  of  Glovcester 
{d.  1295).     [Gloucester.] 

€rlar#,  JoHK ,  Earl  of.    [Fitzoibrox.] 

Claare  Election  (July,  1828)  was  the 

famous  contest  in  which  Daniel  O'Connell 
'wvA,  after  five  days*  polling,  returned 
against  Mr.  Vesey  Fitzgerald,  a  supporter  of 
Catholic  Emancipation,  but  a  Protestant, 
who  was  seeking  re-election  on  becoming 
President  of  the  Board  of  Trade.  0*ConneU 
was  the  first  Catholic  returned  to  Parliament 
since  1690.  He  owed  his  election  to  the 
'*  forties ; "  the  £50  freeholders  and  the 
gentry  without  distinction  of  political  opinion 
voting  to  a  man  for  his  opponent.  When  he 
was  elected  he  refused  to  take  the  oaths ;  but 
after  the  Catholic  Emancipation  Bill  he  was 
re-elected  without  opposition,  and  took  his 
■BRt  .Ajrilr^Sap. 


Claarenoei  George,  Duke  oj^  Ut,  1449,  d. 
1478),  was  the  third  son  of  Richard,  Duke  of 
York,  and  brother  to  King  Edward  IV.  After 
the  battle  of  Wakefield  and  the  death  of  hia 
father,  he  was  taken  to  Flanders  for  security, 
but  returned  to  England  in  1461,  on  the 
accession  of  Edward  IV.  He  was  made 
Lieutenant  of  Ireland  for  seven  years  in  1462. 
Being  greatlv  vexed  at  the  king's  marriage, 
he  intrigued  with  the  Earl  of  Warwick 
against  him,  and,  in  1469,  married  Warwick's 
eldest  daughter,  Isabel,  contrary  to  Edward's 
wishes,  at  Calais,  whither  he  had  retired  with 
Warwick.  In  1470  Edward  feU  a  prisoner  into 
their  hands,  and  for  a  time  Clarence  and  War- 
wick had  ever>^hing  their  own  way.  But  the 
escape  of  the  king  and  the  defeat  of  the  Lin- 
colnshire insurgents,  whose  avowed  intention 
it  was  to  place  Clarence  on  the  throne,  changed 
the  aspect  of  affairs,  and  Clarence  and  Warwick 
had  once  more  to  flee  to  Calais.  Thence  they 
invaded  England  towards  the  end  of  the  year, 
landed  in  Devonshire,  and  soon  found  them- 
selves  at  the  head  of  a  large  army.  Edward 
was  again  obliged  to  flee  from  the  kingdom. 
Warwick  with  Clarence  entered  London,  and 
re-crowned  Henry  VI.  But  Clarence  was 
playing  a  double  game.  When  Edward  IV. 
landed  at  Ravenspur  and  marched  south- 
wards, Clarence  was  in  correspondence  with 
him,  and  when  Edward  advanced  towards 
London,  Clarence  marched  out  and  joined 
him,  and  fought  against  his  old  confederate  at 
Bamet.  But  Cburence  soon  quarrelled  again 
with  his  brother.  He  claimed  the  inheri- 
tance of  Warwick  as  the  husband  of  Isabel, 
and  was  unwilling  to  divide  the  earl's 
possessions  with  Richard  of  York,  who 
married  the  second  daughter,  Anne.  On 
the  death  of  Isabel,  Clfut;nce  was  anxious 
to  mairy  Mary  of  Bm-gundy,  but  the  mai*- 
riage  was  prevented  by  Edward  IV.  A 
violent  quarrel  ensued.  A  gentleman  of 
Clarence's  household  was  condemned  for 
using  necromancy  against  the  king.  Clarence 
interfered  with  the  execution  of  the  sentence, 
and  was  impeached  by  the  king  in  person 
before  the  House  of  Lords.  He  was  con- 
demned to  death  in  1478,  and  was  made 
away  with  secretly  in  the  Tower.  Accord- 
ing to  a  well-known  storj',  which  is  not  sup- 
ported by  authentic  evidence,  he  was  di'owned 
m  a  butt  of  malmsey  wine. 

Clarence,  Thoua»,  Duke  of  {h.  1389,  d. 
1421),  was  the  second  son  of  Henry  IV.  In 
1401  he  was  made  Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and 
in  1412  created  Duke  of  Clarence.  He  played 
an  important  part  in  the  French  wars  of 
Henry  V.'s  reign,  and  in  1421  he  was 
defeated  and  slain  at  Beaugc  by  a  combined 
force  of  French  and  Scots.  He  married 
!&Iargaret,  daughter  of  Thomas  Holland,  Earl 
of  Kent,  and  widow  of  John  Beaufort,  Duke 
of  Somerset,  but  left  no  issue. 

Clarendon^  Assize  of.    [Assize.] 


da 


(  272  ) 


da 


Cnarendon,  The  Constitutions  of  ( 1 1 64) , 
received  their  name  from  the  royal  hunting- 
lodge  of  Clarendon,  near  Salisbury,  where  they 
were  enacted.  Thcv  were  the  outcome  of  the 
determination  of  Henry  II.  to  settle  tlie  rela- 
tion between  Church  and  State  in  matters  of 
jurisdiction.  The  ecclesiastical  courts  which 
had  been  separated  from  the  national  coui*ts 
by  William  the  Conqueror  had  gradually  ex- 
tended their  jurisdiction,  and  their  pretensions 
had  been  favoured  by  the  anarchy  of  Stephen's 
reign.  Xow,  however,  that  justice  was  once 
more  fairly  administered  in  the  civil  courts, 
it  became  an  absolute  necessity  to  assert  the 
supremacy  of  the  State  over  clergy  and  laity 
alike,  the  more  so  since  the  ecclesiastical  courts 
had  shown  themselves  unable  to  perform  the 
work  they  had  undertiiken.  Many  other 
points  connected  with  the  relations  between 
Church  and  State  had  to  be  settled,  such  as 
questions  of  advowson  and  excommunication, 
of  election  to  bishopries,  and  of  ecclesiastical 
appeals,  and  on  all  these  points  the  Constitu- 
tions are  very  firm  in  insisting  on  the  rights 
of  the  crown.  "  They  are,"  says  Bishop 
Stubbs,  "no  mere  engine  of  tyranny  or 
secular  spite  against  a  churchman  :  they  are 
really  a  part  of  a  great  scheme  of  adminis- 
trative reform,  by  which  the  debateable 
groimd  between  the  spiritual  and  temporal 
powers  can  be  brought  within  the  reach  of  com- 
mon justice,  and  the  lawlessness  arisins:  from 
professional  jealousies  abolished.* *  The  Consti- 
tutions were  drawn  up  by  a  committee  of  bishops 
and  barons,  the  Justiciar,  Richard  de  Luc}', 
having  the  chief  hand  in  them.  Their  purport 
is  as  follows : — 

1.  Any  controversy  concerning  advowson 
or  presentation  to  livings  to  be  tried  in  the 
king's  court. 

2.  Churches  in  the  royal  demesne  not  to 
be  given  away  in  perpetuity  without  the 
king's  leave. 

3.  Clerks  Recused  of  any  civil  offence  to  be 
brought  before  the  king's  court,  and  there  to 
claim  their  benefit  of  clergy. 

4.  No  archbishop,  bishop,  &c.,  to  leave  the 
realm  without  the  king^s  consent. 

5.  Excommunicated  persons  not  to  give 
excessive  bail. 

6.  Lavmcn  not  to  be  accused,  save  by 
certain  legal  accusers  and  witnesses,  in  pre- 
sence of  the  bishop.  If  those  who  are 
arraigned  are  such  that  no  one  is  willing  or 
dares  to  accuse  them,  the  sheriff  shall,  on 
demand  of  the  bishop,  cause  twelve  lawful 
men  of  the  neighbourhood  to  swear  before  the 
bishop  that  they  will  declare  the  truth  in 
that  matter  according  to  their  conscience. 

7.  No  tenant-in-chief  to  be  excommuni- 
cated or  to  have  his  lands  put  under  interdict 
without  the  king*s  leave. 

8.  Appeals  shall  be  from  the  archdeacon's 
court  to  the  bishop,  from  the  bishop  to  the 
archbishop,  and  no  further  (that  is,  to 
Kome)  without  the  king's  leave. 


9.  If  a  dispute  arise  between  a  cleric  and  a 
layman,  whether  a  fief  is  heldbyecdesiaiitical 
or  lay  tenure,  it  shall  be  kHM  by  the  declara> 
tion  of  twelve  lawful  men,  in  the  presence  ol 
the  king's  justice. 

10.  A  man  refusing  to  appear  before  an 
ecclesiastical  court  shall  not  be  excommuni< 
cated  till  an  officer  o!  the  king  has  inquired 
into  the  matter. 

11.  Archbishops,  bishops,  &c.,  shall  hold 
their  possessions  of  tho  king  as  baronies,  nnd 
answer  for  the  same  to  tho  king's  justices, 
and  do  suit  and  service  and  observe  all  the 
king's  customs,  except  in  cases  of  life  and 
limb. 

12.  WTien  an  archbishopric,  bishopric,  &c., 
in  the  royal  demesne  shall  be  vacant,  it  sbill 
remain  in  the  king's  hand,  and  he  shall 
receive  from  it  all  the  revenues  and  procetMis. 

13.  If  any  of  the  barons  refuse  justice  to 
an  ecclesiastic,  the  king  shall  give  him 
justice. 

14.  The  chattels  of  those  who  are  in  for- 
feiture to  the  king  shall  not  be  deUiiued  in  a 
church  or  churthyard. 

15.  All  pleas  concerning  debts  are  to  be 
tried  in  the  king's  court. 

16.  The  sons  of   villeins   are   not  to  be 
ordained  without  the  consent  of  their  lords. 

It  is  important  to  notice  that  the  mention 

of  a  jury  in  clause  6,  and  of  the  principle  o! 

recognition  by  twelve  lawful  men  m  clause  9 

are  the  earliest  instances  of  such  mention  v 

anything  like  statute  laws,  though,  no  douY) 

the  practice  of  such  recognitions  prcvaiL 

long  before  this  date.     [Becket.] 

Stubbs,   Const.  Ui»L,  i.  525.     The  Acts 
giyen  in  Stubbd's  Sdeet  CHart«rs,  p.  137. 

Clarendon,  Edward  Hyde,   1»t  Y^i 
OP  (6.  Feb.  18,  1609,  </.  Dec.  9,  1674),  soi 
Henry  Hyde  of  Dinton,  Wilts.,  entered  ^1 
dalen  Hall,  1622,  the  iMiddlo  Temp\o,  1 
When  the  Short  Parliament  'was  bunvnio 
Hyde,  who  had  obtained  considerable  ro^ 
tion  as  a  lawyer,   was   elected    memWi 
Wootton  Bassett.     In  the   Long  Parlia 
he  represented  Saltash,  and  took  a  prom 
part  in  the  attack  on  the  maladminisl-i 
of  the  lafet  twelve  years.     X«egal  abusoa 
as  the  extraordinary'^  courts^  the  sKip-i 
judgment,  the  misconduct  of  the  jxidf^c 
other  causes  which  had  brought  into  coi 
"  that  great  and  admirable  mystery  th( 
met  with  his  chief  attention.      Ho   shj 
the  earlier  portion  of  tho  proceedin^n 
Strafford,  and  his  name  is  not  auion^ 
of    those  who  voted   a^^i^inat    Kis    at 
But  the  question  of  Ohurcli   ^oveTOv 
to  his  separation  from  tho    popular  \» 
brought  him  into  connection  with    t 
In  l£e  autumn  of   1641    lie    l>ecamr 
without  any  official  position,  tHe  co 
adviser  of  Charles,  and  tho  real    leac 
party  in  the  Commons.      He   thoix>i 
approved  of  the  king^'s    attempt  to 
"rive  Members,  but  nevertheless  co 


COa 


(  273  ) 


CSla 


his  Bex'vice,  drew  up  in  secret  the  royal 
xepliee  to  the  manifestoes  of  the  Parliament^ 
and  finally  joined  the  king  at  York.  His 
great  work  was  the  formation  of  the  party  of 
Constitutional  Koyalists,  whose  leader  and 
spokesman  he  was,  and  he  ^  now  succeeded  in 
persuading  the  king  to  abstain  from  unconsti- 
tutional action,  and  take  his  stand  on  his  legal 
rights.  Thus  he  gave  the  king  a  policy,  and 
gathered  round  him  a  party.  In  the  spring 
of  1643  he  was  knighted,  made  a  Privy- 
Councillor,  and  appointed  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer.  It  was  by  his  counsel  that  the 
king  summoned  the  Parliament  which  met 
that  autumn  at  Oxford.  In  all  negotiations 
he  was  the  king^s  chief  agent  and  adviser, 
and  the  Parliament  recognised  his  importance 
by  excepting  him  from  pardon.  When,  in 
1645,  the  Prince  of  Wales  was  sent  into  the 
West  of  England,  Hyde  accompanied  him  as 
one  of  his  council,  and  also  accompanied  him  in 
his  flight  from  the  advance  of  Fairfax,  first  to 
the  SScilly  Isles,  then  to  Jersey  (April,  1646). 
In  September,  1648,  the  outbreak  of  tho 
«econd  Civil  War,  and  the  rumour  of  an  ex- 
pedition to  England  called  him  to  Holland  to 
join  Prince  Charles,  but  in  the  spring  of  the 
next  3'ear  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Aladrid,  and  remained  in  Spain  till  1651. 1  At 
the  end  of  1652  be  rejoined  the  young  king, 
and  from  that  time  till  the  Hestoration  acted 
as  his  chief  minister,  being  promoted  in 
1658  to  the  dignity  of  Lord  Chancellor. 
During  these  years  he  managed  the  king's 
flnances,  conducted  his  negotiations  with 
foreign  courts,  and  carried  on  a  constant  cor- 
respondence with  the  disaffected  in  England, 
which  survives  in  the  collection  entitl^  the 
Clarendon  State  Taper*.  At  the  Restora- 
tion he  drew  up  the  Declaration  of  Breda, 
and  it  was  by  his  suggestion  that  the  king, 
instead  of  attempting  to  arrange  the  terms  on 
which  he  should  be  restored,  referred  them 
unreservedly  to  the  future  judgment  of  Par- 
liament. The  king's  return  placed  him  at 
the  head  of  the  administration ;  he  was 
elected  Chancellor  of  the  University  of 
Oxford,  and  created  Earl  of  Clarendon  (April, 
1661).  His  daughter's  (Anne  Hyde)  mar- 
riage with,  the  Duke  of  York,  which  had  at 
first  seemed  to  endanger,  in  the  end  confirmed, 
his  power.  In  his  domestic  policy  he  tried 
to  maintain  the  balance  of  the  Constitution 
against  both  king  and  Parliament.  He 
opposed  the  attempt  to  convert  the  king's 
Declaration  of  Indulgence  into  law  (1663). 
It  was  afterwards  charged  against  him  that, 
when  he  might  have  secured  for  the  king  a 
revenue  which  would  have  made  the  king  inde- 
pendent of  Parliament,  he  preferred  not  to  do 
ao.  "He  had  no  mind,"  says  Burnet,  "to 
put  the  king  out  of  the  necessity  of  having 
recourse  to  his  Parliament."  On  the  other 
hand,  when  the  Cavalier  majority  of  the 
House  of  Commons  wished  to  repeal  the  Act 
of  Indemnity   (1662),  he  set  his   influence 


against  it,  and  kept  the  king  to  his  promifes. 
"  He  often  said  it  was  the  making  those  pro- 
mises had  brought  the  king  home,  and  the 
keeping  them  must  keep  him  at  home."  When 
Parliament  introduced  the  principle  of  appio- 
priation  of  supplies  (1665),  and  the  system  of 
auditing  expenditures  (1666),  it  was  against 
his  advice  that  the  king  yielded  to  them.  In 
ecclesiastical  matters  he  aimed  at  restoring  the 
state  of  things  which  had  existed  before  1640. 
The  Declaration  of  Breda  had  held  out  to  the 
Nonconformists  promises  of  comprehension 
and  indulgence  which  were  not  observed. 
Clarendon,  after  some  hesitating  attempts  at 
a  compromise  in  favour  of  the  Presbyterians, 
urged  the  re-establishment  of  the  old  ecclesias- 
tical system  in  all  its  rigidity,  and  supported 
the  enactment  of  the  Corporation  Act  (1661), 
the  Act  of  Uniformity  (1662),  tho  Conventicle 
Act,  and  the  Five  jMile  Act  (1665).  Abroad, 
the  alliance  with  France,  which  began  under 
Cromwell's  rule,  was  continued  under  Claren- 
don. He  favoured  the  Portuguese  match 
(1662)  and  negotiated  the  sale  of  Dunkirk 
(1662).  He  opposed  the  war  with  Holland 
(1665),  but  continued  in  ofiice,  and  was  made 
responsible  by  public  opinion  for  its  misman- 
agement. He  had  already  been  unsuccessfully 
impeached  by  the  Earl  of  Bristol  (1663).  In 
August,  1667,  he  was  dismissed  from  the 
Chancellorship,  and  two  months  Liter  the 
House  of  Commons  decided  on  his  impeach- 
ment. The  charges  brought  against  him 
were  corruption,  the  intention  of  introducing 
arbitrary  government,  and  treachery  in  the 
late  war.  In  obedience  to  the  king's  com- 
mand, Clarc-ndon  fled  to  France.  Parliament 
summoned  him  to  return  and  stand  his  trial, 
and  as  he  did  not  do  so,  sentenced  him  to 
exile  for  life.  He  therefore  remained  in 
France  until  his  death,  which  took  place  on 
December  9th,  1674.  As  a  statesman  Claren- 
don was  honest,  and  constant  to  his  principles. 
His  attachment  to  the  Church  never  failed, 
and  his  influence  with  both  his  masters  was 
always  used  to  prevent  changes  in  its  govern- 
ment Or  discipline.  "Ho  did  really  believe 
the  Church  of  England  the  most  exRctly 
formed  and  framed  for  the  encouragement  and 
advancement  of  learning  and  piety,  and  for 
the  preservation  of  peace,  of  any  church  in 
the  world."  For  tho  Constitution  he  had  "  a 
most  zealous  esteem  and  reverence;  and 
believed  it  to  be  so  equally  poised  that  if  the 
least  branch  of  the  prerogative  was  torn  off 
or  parted  with,  the  subject  suffered  by  it  and 
that  his  right  was  impaired ;  and  he  ^f•i  as 
much  troubled  when  the  crown  exceeded  its 
just  limits,  and  thought  tho  prerogative  hurt 
by  it."  During  his  first  exile  he  wrote  tho 
first  seven  books  of  the  History  of  the  Rebel- 
lion  and  portions  of  the  three  subsequent 
books  (1646 — 1648).  His  object  was  to  ex- 
plain to  posterity  the  success  of  the  Rebellion, 
and  "  to  vindicate  the  memory  of  those  few 
who  out  of  duty  and  conscience  had  opposed 


Cla 


(274) 


Cla 


and  resiuted  that  torrent,**  i,e.,  to  justify  the 
Constitutional  Koyalists.  The  rest  of  the 
History  of  the  Mebellion  wac  written  during 
the  second  exile.  Clarendon  at  first  (1668 — 
70)  set  to  work  on  an  Autobiography  in  M'hich 
he  recounted  his  life  down  to  the  Hestoraiuon, 
and  related  over  ag^ain  much  that  he  had 
written  in  the  History.  He  then  changed  his 
mind,  and  decided  to  unite  the  two  works,  in- 
corporating portions  of  the  Life  in  the  earlier 
work,  and  also  using  it  to  form  the  latter 
bookfe-  of  the  History.  Thus  the  Hintoty  of  the 
Rebellion  consists  of  two  parts,  written  at  two 
periods;  the  first  composed  with  the  intention 
of  writing  a  history,  the  second  with  the 
intention  of  writing  a  biography.  Of  those 
parts  the  first  is  the  most  valuable  and  the 
most  accurate.  The  Continuation  of  the  Life 
i.4  an  apology  for  Clarendon's  administration, 
written  in  1672  for  the  information  of  his 
children.  The  Hietory  of  the  Rebellion  in  Ire- 
land  was  written  to  vindicate  Lord  Ormonde. 

Ui9t0T^  0/  th»  JUhelUoK,  ITOe ;  Life,  1750 :  Am- 
torn  ofth^  UAellion  in  IrtHatkdf  1712 ;  State  Payen, 
1767 ;  Lister,  hife  of  Clarendon,  1838 ;  Calendar 
of  the  Clarendon  State  Pai>er»,  1809. 

In  the  first  edition  of  the  Hietory  of  the  B0- 
b«Ilton,  edited  by  Sprat,  Bishop  of  Wonsester, 
some  small  alterations  were  made  in  the  text : 
these  were  in  port  restored  in  the  edition  of 
1826,  and  the  original  text  was  exactly  printed 
iu  184».  [C.  H.  F.] 

Clarendon,  Henry  Hyde,  2nd  Eakl 
OP  {b.  1638,  d.  1 709),  was  the  son  of  Charles  II.'s 
great  minister.  In  1685  he  was  appointed 
liord  Privy  Seal.  At  the  end  of  the  year  he 
was  appointed  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland. 
He  found  himself  completely  eclipsed  in 
that  country  by  the  influence  of  Tyrconnel 
and  (as  he  was  a  sincere  Protestant) 
his  alarm  was  great  when  several  Roman 
Catholics  were  sworn  of  the  Pri>'y  Council. 
He,  nevertheless,  submitted  to  Tyrconnel's 
dictation,  and  when  James  threatened  to 
dismiss  him  for  his  reluctant  compliance  in 
the  reform  of  the  army  and  administration, 
he  wrote  humble  letters  of  apology.  He  was, 
however,  dismissed  in  1687,  shortly  after  his 
brother,  iiochester.  He  was  invited  to  the 
consultation  in  aid  of  the  Seven  Bishops. 
When  the  Declaration  of  the  Prince  of  Orange 
was  published,  he  told  the  king  that  he  had 
had  no  part  in  summoning  him  to  England. 
He  was  much  g^eved  at  hearing  that  his  son. 
Lord  Corn  bury,  had  deserted  James,  but 
ut  length  joined  the  Prince  of  Orange  at 
Salisbury.  Finding  that  he  wns  coldly 
received  by  William,  he  soon  resumed 
his  Tory  principles,  and  endeavoured  to 
persuade  the  Princess  Anne  to  insist  on 
her  rights  to  the  throne.  He  took  part  in 
the  Jacobite  plots  of  1690.  Before  setting  out 
for  Ireland  William  sent  warning  to  him 
through  his  brother,  Rochester.  He  was 
subsequently  an-ostcMl  by  onler  of  the  Privy 
Council.  He  ag;iin  engaged  in  Jacobito 
plots,  and  letters  from  him  to  James  were 


seized  among  Preston*s  papers.  He  was 
confined  in  the  Tower  for  six  months,  but 
afterwards  suffered  to  go  free.  On  the  death 
of  Queen  Mary  he  lost  his  influence  with  the 
Princess  Anne.  The  remainder  of  his  life 
was  spent  in  obscurity. 

Clarandon,  Siu  Roger  {d.  1402),  was  a 
natural  son  of  the  Black  Prince.  He  was  a 
personal  attendant  of  Richard  II. ;  and  in 
1402,  on  a  rumour  that  Richainl  was  still 
alive,  attempted  to  raise  a  rebellion,  but  was 
seized  and  executed. 

Clarendon  Coda,  The,  is  the  oamo 
given  to  the  four  Acts  passed  during  Lor<l 
Clarendon*s  administration,  directed  against 
Nonconformists — viz.,  the  Act  of  Uniformit\ , 
the  Corporation  Act,  the  Conventicle  Act,  and 
the  Five-Mile  Act. 

Clarkson,  Thomas  {b,  1760,  d.  lB46),wa!t 
boi*n  at  Wisbeach,  and  educated  at  St.  raul's 
School,  and  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge. 
In  1785  he  carried  off  the  I^tin  Essay,  the 
subject  being,  "  Is  it  lawful  to  maka  men 
slaves   against    their   will!^**     He  was   so 
thoroughly  convinced  by  what  he  read  on  the 
subject  of' the  horrors  of  the  slave  traffic,  that 
he  resolved  to  devote  all  his  energies  towards 
its    abolition.     Clarkson  began  with   inde- 
fatigable zeal  to  prosecute  inquiries  at  every 
port.     The  result  of  his  researches  ho  em- 
bodied in  a  pamphlet,  entitled,  A  Suminanj 
View  of  the  Slave  Trade.    Most  of  the  lead- 
ing men  among  the  AVhigs  encouraged  the 
movement,  and  Pitt,  in   1788,  supported   a 
bill  for  mitigating  the  horrors  of  the  Middlo 
Passage.     Clarkson's  next  publication  was  an 
Eesatj  on   the  Impolicy  of  tlie   Slave    Trade. 
When  the  French  Kevolution  broke  out,  ho 
went  over  to   Paris    to  try  to   induce   the 
National  Assembly  to  set  an  example  to  the 
world  by  introducing  real  equality  for  both 
white  and  black  men.    So  unceasingly  did  he 
labour  that  in  1794  his  health   completely 
broke  down,  and  he  had  to  cense  from  all 
active    work.       He    occupied    his    enforced 
leisure  in  writing  a  History  of  the  utbolition 
of  the  Slave  Trade^  which  appeared  in  1808, 
the  year  after  the  Act  for  its  abolition  had 
passed    through  Parliament.      In     1823    he 
was  appointed  one  of  the  vice- presidents  of 
the  Anti-Slavery  Society,   which    had     just 
been  formed.     To  Clarkson's  exertions  is  the 
abolition  of  the  slave  trade  in  lar^a  measure 
due,  since  it  was  his  researches  which.  enable<l 
Wilberforce  to  bring  such  convincing  prooft 
of  its  horrors  before  Parliament. 

Clarkson's  Jiemoire ;  Wilberforoe's  Jjife. 

Classos,  The  Act  of  (1649),  passed  b 
the  Scotch  Estates,  disqualified  four  **  cIhssos 
of  men  from  sitting  in  Parliament  or  lioldin 
office  for  various  periods.  The  claaseH  crti 
sisted  of  the  enemies  of  the  Covenan't,  ^lali 
nants,  those  who  had  entered  into  tlie  *  *  Sng^a  g 


ClA 


(276) 


Cle 


ment"  with  Charles  I.,  and  persons  of  immoral 
life. 

daTarhonse.    [Dundee.] 

Cleanse  the  Causeway  (id20)  was 

the  name  given  to  a  street  fight  in  Edinburgh, 
between  the  partisans  of  the  Douglas  family 
and  the  followers  of  the  crown  and  the 
Hamiltons.  The  Douglases  overpowered  their 
antagoni^tSy  and  drove  them  from  the  streets ; 
hence  the  name  of  the  combat,  in  which  the 
Earl  of  Angus,  the  head  of  the  Douglases, 
slew  Sir  Patrick  Hauiilton,  brother  of  the 
Earl  of  Arran. 


Cleargrite.  The,  was  the  name  given 
le   extreme    democratic   party  in  Canad 


to 
the  extreme  democratic  party  in  Canada, 
about  1850,  who  were  in  favour  of  seceding 
from  England  and  annexing  Canada  to  the 
United  States.  They  were  at  different  times 
joined  for  a  short  period  by  discontented 
members  both  of  the  conservative  and  liberal 
parties. 

Clergy  is  the  general  name  g^ven  to  the 
body  of  men  set  apart  in  England  for  the 
performance  of  public  worship.  Christianity 
in  England  was  at  first  monastic,  and  churches 
were  chiefly  served  by  monks.  [Church, 
The  Celtic]  The  clergj'  were  maintained 
by  the  offerings  of  the  people  or  by 
the  lords.  The  ecclesiastical  organisation 
of  Archbishop  Theodore  began  from  the 
top  and  was  diocesan;  but  it  spread  down- 
wards, and  parishes  were  formed  on  the 
basis  of  townships.  The  Levitical  ordinance 
of  giving  a  tithe  to  God  was  first  recom- 
mended, and  in  787  was  enacted  by  eccle- 
siastical councils  which  had  the  authority  of 
witenagemots.  At  first  this  tithe  went  to  the 
bishop,  who  distributed  it  into  four  parts: 
one  for  himself,  one  for  the  fabric  of  the 
church,  one  for  the  poor,  aud  one  for  the  in- 
cumbent. It  was,  however,  frequently  given 
by  the  lords  of  lands  to  monasteries,  and  so 
the  system  of  appropriation  began.  The 
appropriators  were  bishops,  monasteries,  or 
spiritual  corporations  who  received  the  tithe, 
and  paid  only  a  portion  which  they  deemed 
suflicient  to  the  vicar  or  curate  who  discharged 
the  spiritual  duties  of  the  parish.  Where  the 
parson  received  the  endowments  of  his  office 
he  was  styled  rector.  This  system  of  appro- 
priation led  to  the  growth  Hnd  wealth  of 
monastic  orders,  and  to  an  inadequate  pro- 
vision for  the  parochial  clergy.  Its  prevalence 
iTi  England  rendered  easy  the  transferrence  to 
Henrj'  VIII.  of  ecclesiastical  revenues  which 
were  held  by  appropriators  in  this  anomalous 
way. 

In  early  times  the  clergy  were  the  civilisers 
and  educators  of  England.  Their  system, 
their  councils,  and  their  learning  made  them 
powerful  in  influencing  the  growth  of  the 
organisation  of  the  state.  After  the  Norman 
Conquest  their  status  became  more  definite, 
ae  everything  else  became  more  definite  like- 


wise. The  growth  of  the  canon  law  into  a 
regular  system,  and  the  establishment  of 
ecclesiastical  courts  gradually  led  to  clerical 
exemptions  from  ordinary  jurisdiction,  which 
produced  disordei's.  Henry  II.  strove  to 
remedy  this  by  the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon; 
but  ciiniinous  clerks  were  still  handed  over 
to  ecclesiastical  tribunals  if  they  claimed 
Benefit  of  Clergy  (q.v.),  a  privilege  which 
was  not  entirely  abolished  till  1830. 

The  tenure  of  Church  property  was  regu- 
lated by  the  concordat  between  Henry  I. 
and  Anselm,  which  established  the  obligation 
of  honutge  on  all  temporalities.  ThilS  led  to 
the  taxation  of  Church  lands  on  the  same 
footing  as  lands  held  by  other  barons.  The 
tiixation  of  the  spiritual  revenue  of  the  clergy 
was  attempted  by  John,  but  was  withstood. 
ITie  claim  of  the  Pope  to  tax  the  clergy  for  a 
crusade  gradually  helped  the  king  to  break 
down  clerical  immunities  on  this  head.  The 
crown  demanded  grants  from  the  spirituality, 
who  considered  these  demands  in  Convoca- 
tion. In  this  way  the  clerical  assembly 
tcok  part  in  secular  business,  and  the  clergy 
became  more  definitely  organised  into  an 
estate  of  the  realm.  They  were  recognised  as 
such  by  Edward  I.  in  his  Parliament  of  1295, 
to  which  he  summoned  the  proctors  of  chapters 
and  of  the  parochial  clergj'.  But  the  clergy 
preferred  to  tux  themselves  in  Convoca- 
tion, and  therefore  did  not  form  a  clerical 
estate.  Probably  they  considered  that  they 
were  suflicientlv  represented  by  the  lords 
spiritual.     [Convocation.] 

The  clerg>'  in  the  IVIiddle  AgeR  were  a 
wealthy  body.  Their  share  of  indirect  taxa- 
tion was  nearly  a  ttird  of  the  whole  amount. 
Their  landed  estates  were  spread  over  England, 
and  their  revenues  from  tithes  and  ofieringa 
were  still  greater.  The  monastic  oixlers 
especially  were  good  farmers,  and  did  much 
to  bring  the  soil  of  England  under  cultivation. 
Tlie  clergy  were  mild  landlords,  and  stimulated 
the  national  industrv.  The  numbci-s  of  the 
clergy  were  very  large,  and  they  were  taken 
fix)m  eveiT  class  of  society.  Even  villeins 
sought  ordmation  as  a  means  of  obtaining  free- 
dom. But  the  wealth  of  the  Church  was  un- 
equally dinded.  Pluralities  were  common, 
and  many  of  the  higher  clergy  were  devoted  to 
the  business  of  the  State.  I'arishes  were  not 
well  served,  in  spite  of  the  number  of  clergy. 
Very  many  of  them  were  chaplains,  or  were 
endowed  by  private  persons  to  say  masses  for 
their  dead.  Abuses  grew  up  in  proportion  as 
the  mechanism  of  the  English  Church  was 
broken  down  by  Pupal  interference,  and 
appeals  to  Rome  rendered  futile  the  authority 
of  the  bishops.  Till  the  beginning  of  the 
thirteenth  century  the  clerical  order  was 
amon^^t  the  most  resolute  supporters  of 
natural  libeitics  against  the  crown.  The 
growth  of  clerical  corruption  gave  weight 
to  the  attacks  of  the  Ix>l)ards  upon  the 
clergy,   and  the  clergy  finding    themselves 


Cle 


(276  ) 


Cle 


threatened  made  closer  alliance  with  the 
crown.  Yet  the  clergy,  though  ready  to  unite 
in  defence  of  their  own  privileges,  never 
made  a  compact  political  power.  They  were 
diWded  amongst  themselves.  The  regular 
clergy  opposed  the  seculars,  the  monks 
disliked  the  friars,  Dominicans  were  set 
against  Franciscans.  In  current  politics  the 
clergy  were  as  much  divided  as  the  nation. 
They  represented  the  education  of  the 
country,  and  their  influence  was  spread  into 
everv  class.  Their  moral  influence  was  not 
so  good.  The  excessive  number  of  clergj', 
their  wealth  and  idleness,  rendered  them  on 
the  whole  frivolous.  The  obligation  of 
celibacy  was  frequently  evaded  by  con- 
cubinage, for  which  in  some  cases  licences 
were  purchased  from  bishops. 

After  the  Reformation  the  wealth  of  the 
Church  and  the  number  of  the  clergy  were 
gre&Uy  diminished.  The  connection  with  the 
Papacy  ceased,  and  the  clergy  became  closely 
united  with  the  crown.  Ecclesiastical  courts 
were  not,  however,  abolished ;  and  under 
Elizabeth  a  new  court,  the  Court  of  High 
Commission,  was  created  for  the  purpose  of 
exercising  the  powers  of  the  royal  supremacy. 
Elizabeth  used  the  bishops  as  State  officials 
for  the  purpose  of  reducing  to  uniformity  the 
body  of  the  clergj'.  The  clergy  were  allowed 
to  marry,  but  were  ill-proWded  for,  and  no 
longer  had  an  intellectual  superiority  over  the 
laity.  In  the  struggle  against  Popery  on  one 
side  and  Puritanism  on  the  other,  the  clergy 
became  more  and  more  Arm  adherents  of  the 
royal  prerogative.  The  State,  in  its  desire  for 
internal  unity,  recognised  no  other  religious 
system  save  that  of  the  Church  of  England,  and 
refused  to  extend  ito  limits.  At  the  same  time 
the  Court  of  High  Commission  was  used  to 
sanction  oppressive  proceedings  on  the  part 
of  the  crown.  The  Great  Rebellion  destroyed 
monarchy  and  Church  alike,  and  at  the 
Restoration  the  clergy  returned  as  staunch 
Tories.  Even  the  avowed  intention  of  James 
II.  to  re-estabb'sh  Romanism  did  not,  in  the 
eyes  of  some  of  the  clergy-,  justifj'  the  Revo- 
lution. Nearly  four  hundred  followed  Arch- 
bishop Sancroft  in  resigning  their  benefices 
rather  than  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to 
WiUiam  III. 

The  clergy  of  the  seventeenth  and  the 
early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  as  a 
body  were  poor,  and  very  many  of  the  in- 
cumbente  laboured  with  their  own  hands. 
Ecclesiastical  incomes  were  still  very  un- 
equally divided^  and  there  was  a  great 
difference  between  the  wealthy  and  learned 
clergy  and  the  ordinar}'  incumbente,  who 
were  on  the  same  level  as  their  people. 
The  first  attempt  to  raise  the  position  of  the 
poorer  clergj'  was  made  by  Queen  Anne,  who 
resigned  the  claims  of  the  cro^^n  on  annates 
and  first-fruits,  dues  levied  by  the  Pope  on 
benefices  which  had  passed  into  the  hands  of 
the  crown.    Out  of  these  dues  was  formed  a 


fund,  known  as  "  Queen  Anne'B  Bounty,"  for 
the   augmentation  of  small  limgs.   From 
this  time  the  average  position  of  the  clergy 
has  slowly  increased.    In  1836  a  body  called 
Ecclesiastical  Commissioners  was  established 
for  the   improved  management  and  distri- 
bution of  the  revenues  of  the  Church.   The 
number  of  clergy  attached  to  cathedrals  was 
reduced,  and  the  surplus  revenues  are  applied 
to  the  increase  of  small  benefices.    In  the 
same  year  the  Tithes  Commutation  Act  con- 
verted tithes  into  a  rent-charge  upon  the 
land;   and  so  ended  the  numerous  disputes 
between  the  clergy  and  their  parishioncis 
which  the  system  of  tithes  encouraged. 

From  the  reign  of  Anne  the  cli^g}'  ceased 
to  have  any  direct  political  importance.    In 
1717  the  sittings  of  Convocation  were  practi- 
cally suspended.   Since  Anne's  reign  no  bishop 
has  held  an}'   office  of  State.    I)uring  the 
eighteenth    century    the   clergy   were    not 
zealous  in  the  discharge  of  their  duties,  till  a 
new  stimulus  was  given  to  religious  zeal  by 
the  Wesleyan  movement.    The  clergy  were 
content  to  rest  on  their  position  as  officers  of 
a  Church  ""by  law  established,"  and  there 
were  many  scandals  in  reference  to  simoniacal 
appointments.     The  Tractarian  movement  of 
1833  did  much  to  deliver  the  Church  from 
Erastianism,  and  to  develop  the  zeal  of  th« 
clerg}'-.     In  1838  the  Pluralities  Act  did  awa^ 
with  many  of  the  abuses  caused  by  the  non 
residence  of  wealthy  clergymen  at  the  "bent 
fices  whose  revenues  they  received. 

Politically  the  clergy  have  been  gradual 
deprived  of  exclusive  privileges,  and  t 
State  has  removed  all  the  disabilities  whi 
it  had  formerly  placed  on  those  who  were  i 
members  of  the  Established  Church..  '1 
clerg^"-  are  now  subject  to  the  same  ju 
diction  as  laymen  in  all  civil  matters, 
regards  their  orthodoxy,  their  morals, 
the  conduct  of  their  ministrations,  they 
subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  their  bis 
and  to  the  law  of  the  Church.  The  proctj 
of  the  Bishops*  Court  is  regulated  \)>; 
Chwrh  Diseipfitie  Act,  1840.  Appeals 
this  court  were  formerly  made  to  a  Co 
Delegates  appointed  by  tho  king ;  1^ 
1832  this  was  transferred  to  tho  kii 
Council.     [Church.] 

Admission  into  the  clerical  bodv  ia 
by  episcopal  ordination.        Candidates 
have  reached  the  age  of  t'wenty-thre* 
prove  themselves  fit  in  character,  c<\\ 
and   orthodoxv,  and    must    eho-w    Ih-s 
have  a  definite  sphere  witKin  -wrliicYi  1 
exercise  their  clerical   functions.      X^ 
law,  ordination   conferred,   an    izideli 
racter  on  the   recipient,    and     a     cl 
could  not  relinquish   the     priestlioo 
Cierieal    DisabUitien     JLet       (1870) 
that  a  clergyman  may  execute   a   dc 
linquishment,  which  is  to  lie   recorc 
bishop  in  the  diocesan   reg^8tr>'.       j 
registration,  the  priest  or  d.eacon  \e 


Cle 


(  277  ) 


CH 


of  officiating  as  such,  and  loaes  all  hia  zighta 
as  a  clerg^'man. 

To  enable  the  clergy  to  discharge  their 
duties  more  efficiently,  Uie  State  exempts 
them  from  certain  civil  responsibilities.  They 
cannot  be  compelled  to  serve  on  a  jury  or 
to  hold  any  temporal  office.  Ecclesiastical 
revenues  cannot  be  seized  in  payment  of 
debts,  but  are  subject  to  tequestration^  i.e,^ 
the  churchwardens  pay  the  sum  due  out  of 
the  profits  of  the  benefice,  after  making  pro- 
vision for  the  performance  of  the  services  of 
the  Church.  On  the  other  hand,  the  clergy 
labour  under  certain  disabilities  owing  to 
their  spiritual  avocations.  They  are  pro- 
hibited from  trading,  and  may  not  sue  for 
debts  due  from  commercial  transactions.  In 
1800  they  were  declared  incapable  of  being 
elected  members  of  the  House  of  Commons. 

Stabbs  andHaddaa,  CowmSU;  WilUiis,  Con- 
eaia;  Stubb^,  ConttUuHonaX  Hi&tory,  ch.  xix. ; 
Perxy.  History  o/tks  Church  of  E^land;  Short, 
Uictory  of  iha  Church  of  Euqiand;  Blsckstone, 
OomiMiieariM,  book  iv.  [M.  C] 

''Gl«rici8  XaIoos*'  are  the  opening 
words  of  the  famous  Bull  issued  by  Pope 
Boniface  YIII.,  forbidding  the  king  to  take, 
OT  the  clergy  to  pay,  taxes  on  their  eccle- 
siastical revenues.  The  result  of  this  was 
that,  in  1297,  Archbii^op  Winchelsey  refused 
to  agree  to  a  money  grant,  whereupon  Ed- 
wan)  I.  outlawed  the  clergy,  and  confiscated 
the  estates  of  the  see  of  Canterbury.  Upon 
this,  many  of  the  clergy  gave<^in;  but  the 
archbishop  still  held  out,  till  eventually  a 
compromise  was  made,  whereby  Winchelsey 
promised  that  if  the  king  would  confirm  the 
charters,  he  would  do  his  best  to  obtain 
monev  from  the  clergv,  the  Pope  having  de- 
clared that  his  prohibition  did  not  affect 
voluntary  grants  for  purposes  of  national 
defence.    [Coxfirmatio  Caxtajium.] 

derelaildt  Bakhasa  Yillibrs,  Buchbss 
OF  {h,  1640,  d.  1709),  was  the  daughter  of  Lord 
Grandison,  and  wife  of  Roger  Palmer.  About 
1659  she  became  one  of  Charles  IL's  mis- 
tresses. In  1662  her  husband  was  made  Earl 
of  Castlemaine,  and  it  is  as  Lady  Castlemaine 
that  his  wife  is  generally  known.  Her  beauty 
snd  strong  will  gave  her  immense  influence 
at  court,  while  in  the  number  of  her  in- 
trigues she  almost  eclipsed  the  king.  In  1670 
she  was  created  Duchess  of  Cleveland,  and 
shortly  afterwards  Ictft  England  for  France, 
where  she  spent  the  rest  of  her  life.  In  1705 
she  married  Robert  (Beau)  Fielding ;  but  the 
marriage  was  subsequently  annulled,  on  the 
sround  of  the  husband*s  having  committed 
bigamy.  Of  her  sons  by  Charles  II.,  the 
eldest  became  Duke  of  Cleveland,  the  second 
Duke  of  Grafton,  and  the  youngest  Duke 
of  Northumberland. 

Hamilton,    Mimoitt    of  (?i'<nniiu>nt ;   Pepys, 
Ji^ry ;  Evelyn,  Diary. 

ClifforcU  John,  Lokd  (d.  14G1),  was  the 
Km  of  Thomas,  Loxd  Clifford,  who  fell  in  the 


fii-st  battle  of  St.  Albans.  He  was  a  strong 
Lancastrian,  and  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Wakefield,  after  which,  in  revenge  for  hia 
father's  death,  he  killed  in  cold  blood  the 
voung  Earl  of  Rutland,  son  of  the  Duke  of 
York.  In  1461  he  was  defeated  and  slain  at 
Ferrybridge. 

CliiTord,  Thomas,  Lo&d(^.  1630,  <f.  1673), 
descended  from  an  old  Catholic  family,  highly 
distinguished  himself  bv  his  bravery  in  the 
Dutch  War  of  1665,  and  in  1666  was' made  a 
Privy  Councillor.  He  joined  the  Cabal 
ministry  in  1667,  and  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  Treaty  of  Dover,  and  in  advocating  the 
war  with  Holland.  In  1672  he  was  made 
Lord  High  Treasurer  and  a  baron.  In  1673 
the  passing  of  the  Test  Act  compelled  him, 
as  a  Catholic,  to  resign  his  ofiice,  and  shortly 
afterwards  he  died.  Clifford  was  one  of  the 
most  zealous  Cathohcs  at  court,  and  a  strong 
advocate  of  tolerance  of  all  religious  opinions. 
[Cabal.] 

Banks,  Hut.  o/Eng. 

Clinton,  Edward,  Lord  {b.  1612,  ^.  1584), 
an  able  commander  and  astute  diplomatist, 
was,  in  1550,  appointed  Lord  High  Admiral 
of  England,  having  in  the  previous  year  held 
the  post  of  Governor  of  Boulogne.  On  the 
accession  of  Elizabeth,  he  was  confirmed  in 
his  office  of  Lord  High  Admiral,  though  he 
had  just  before  shown  some  want  of  energy 
whilst  commanding  the  fleet  in  the  expedition 
against  Brest,  1558.  He  subsequentlv  became 
a  trusted  adviser  of  Elizabeth,  ana  in  1569 
did  much  to  suppress  the  rising  in  the 
North.  In  1572  he  was  created  Earl  of  Un- 
coln,  and  in  the  same  year  sent  to  Paris  to 
ratify  the  treaty  with  France.  His  policy 
was  strongly  anti-Spanish 

Clinton.  Gborgb  (b.  1739,^.  1812),  Vice- 
President  01  tiie  United  States,  entered  Con- 
gress May  15,  1775,  and  voted  for  indcpeU' 
aence.  In  1776  he  was  a  deputy  to  the  New 
York  Provincial  Congress.  He  was  appointed 
brigadier-general,  and  defended  Forts  Mont- 
gomery and  Clinton  against  Sir  H.  Clinton,. 
Oct.,  1777.  He  was  choson  Governor  of  New 
York  in  1777  and  1795,  and  Vice-President  of 
the  Union  1804—12. 

Clinton^  Sir  Henry  (b.  1738,  d.  1795),  a 
grandson  of  the  sixth  Earl  of  Lincoln.  On 
the  prospect  of  a  rupture  with  the  American 
colonies,  he  was  sent  out  with  Howe  and 
Burgoyno  in  command  of  reinforcements.  He* 
distinguished  himself  at  Bunker  Hill,  and  wa» 
soon  afterwards  despatched  to  Charleston. 
He  was  appointed  commandant  of  Long 
Island.  He  did  not,  however,  hold  it  long, 
as  he  was  compelled  to  capitulate  to  Gates. 
In  January,  1778,  he  was  appointed  com<^ 
mandcr-in-chief  in  America,  and  was  fairly 
successful  in  this  position.  In  1780  he  madoi 
an  expedition  to  South  Ctirolina  and  captured 
Charleston,  and  at  one  time  had  almost  won 
back  the  Carolinas  and  Georgia.    This  cam- 


cu 


(  278  ) 


paign  was  stained  by  his  tunipering  with 
General  Arnold  to  induce  him  to  duliver  up 
West  Point — a  transaction  which  cost  3tIajor 
Andre's  life — he  failed  also  to  succour  Corn- 
wallis.  Circumstances  which  would  have  tried 
a  much  greater  general  than  he,  were  opposed 
to  him,  and  he  was  superseded.  On  his  return 
to  England  a  pamphlet  war  of  mutual  re- 
criminations ensued  between  the  two  generals. 
Ho  was  afterwards  Governor  of  Limerick,  and 
in  1793  was  transferred  to  Gibraltar,  in  com- 
mand of  which  post  he  died  in  December,  1795. 

Bancroft,  Hit^.  of  Amfrica;  Gordon,  AmeTtcan 
Revolution  :  Cliutou's  Narrative,  1782,  and  Obser- 
vaiiom  on  Corntrallw's  Ansvctr,  1783. 

Clinton,  Sir  Henry,  G.C.B.  {d.  1830), 
entering  the  army  in  1787,  first  saw 
active  service,  as  aide-de-camp  to  the  Duke 
of  York,  in  the  campaigns  of  1793 — 4  in  the 
Netherlands.  On  his  return  to  England  in 
1795,  he  was  appointed  licut. -colonel  of  the 
66th,  and  proceeded  to  the  West  Indies  to 
join  his  regiment.  There  he  served  under 
Sir  Ralph  Abercromby,  and  was  present  at 
most  of  the  expeditions  against  the  different 
islands.  On  his  return  fi-om  the  West  Indies, 
Jxe  served  under  Lord  Cornwallis  in  Ireland, 
as  his  aide-de-camp,  and  was  present  at  the 
surrender  of  the  French  invading  force  at 
Ballinamuck.  In  April,  1799,  he  was  at- 
tached to  Lord  William  Bentinck  on  a 
mission  to  the  A ustro- Russian  army  in 
Northern  Italy,  and  was  present  at  the 
bfittles  of  TrebJA  and  Novi,  and  the  siege  of 
Alessandria.  Being  fiftorwards  appointed  to 
join  tSuwarof,  he  was  with  him  throughout 
the  enterprising  campaign  in  Switzerland. 
On  his  return  to  England  he  was  appointed 
adjutant-general  in  India,  where  he  served 
under  Lake  at  the  battle  of  Lasswaree,  and 
where  he  remained  until  the  spring  of  1805. 
In  1806  he  commanded  the  Guards  in  Sicily, 
and  held  Syracuse  from  December,  1806,  to 
the  following  November.  He  was  then 
appointed  to  the  command  of  a  brigade  in 
Sir  John  ALoore's  expedition  to  Sweden,  and 
•on  his  return  became  adjuttint-genonil  to  the 
army  in  Portugal,  in  which  capacity  he  was 
present  at  the  battle  of  VimieiX).  Almost 
immediately  afterwards,  he  accompanied  Sir 
John  Moor©  through  the  Spanish  campaign 
and  the  retreat  to  Corunna.  His  next  em- 
ploj'ment  was  in  Ireland,  where  he  remained 
two  years,  until  he  found  a  more  congenial 
sphere  in  the  command  of  a  division  under 
Wellington.  He  rendered  conspicuous  ser- 
vice at  Salamanca,  was  left  in  command  on 
the  Douro  when  Wellington  advanced  to 
^Madrid,  and  was  present  at  the  siege  of 
Burgos.  For  his  services  he  received  the 
thanks  of  Parliament,  and  obtained  pro- 
motion, but  continued  to  serve  in  Spain,  and 
was  present  at  nearly  all  the  battles  and 
sieges  in  the  north  of  Spain  and  the  south 
•of  France.  His  last  public  8er\'ices  were 
Tendered  to  the  countr}'  at  Waterloo,  where 


he  commanded  a  division  of  infantr\'.  During 
the  peace  that  followed,  he  had  no  opportunity 
of  displa}dng  his  great  tactical  abilities. 

Napier,  PeninstdarWar  ;'Ro3e,  Biograithical  Did. 

CliTe,  RoiiERT,  Lord  (b.  1725,  d.  1774),  was 
the  son  of  an  obscure  country  gentleman  of 
good  lineage,  but  small   fortune.      He  had 
been  sent  to  India  in  the  capacity  of  a  writer 
in  1744,  and  was  present  at  the  surrender  of 
Madras  to    Labourdonnais    in    1746.      The 
counting-house   was    little    adapted   to    his 
genius,  and  he  soon  exchanged  the  pen  tor 
the  sword.      Having  obUtined    an   ensign^s 
commission,  he  distinguished  himself  in  the 
operation  before  Devicotta,  where  he  attracted 
the  admiration  of  Major  Lawrence   (1749). 
He  was  also  pi*escnt  at  the  disastrous  siege  of 
Pondicherry,  under  Admiral  Boscawen.     By 
this  time,  the  success  of  the  confederation 
which    Dupleix    had   aroused    against    the 
English  had  rendered  the  French  masters  of 
all  iSouth  India.    Clivc  successfully  persuaded 
]yir.  Saunders,  Governor  of  Madras,  to  allow 
him  to  undertake  the  celebrated  expedition 
to  Arcot,  which,  by  dividing  the  forces  of 
the    enemy,   saved    the    English    garrison 
cooped  up  in  Trichinopoly.    Clive's  defence 
of  Arcot  hiid  the  foundation  of  the  British 
Empire  in  India.    After  fifty  days,  the  troops 
of  Chunda  Sahib  raised  the  siege.    A  series  of 
successes,  culminating  at  Trichinopoly,  led  to 
the  surrender  of  the  French  general  D' Auteuil 
to  Chunda  Sahib,  and  this  in  its  turn  broug^ht 
about  the  recall  and  disgrace  of  Dupleix.  After 
the  capture  of  Coulong  and  Chingleput — two 
strong  places  in  the  Camatic— Clive  returned 
to  England,  in  1 752,  with  his  health  greatly 
impaired.    He  was  received  with  great  dis- 
tinction   by    the    Comi)any    and    by    the 
ministers,  and  on  his  return  to  India    was 
apiK)inted  Governor  of  Fort  St.  David.     In 
1756  Clive  was  entrusted  with  the  task   of 
revenging  the  tragedy  of  the  Black  Hole  of 
Calcutta  (q.v.)  on  Surajah  Dowlah.     WitK 
Admiral  Watson  in  command  of  the  fleet,  lie 
soon  recovered  Calcutta,  and  forced  the  nabob 
to  treat  for  peace.     But  no  sooner  had  Clive 
been  called  away  than  Surajah  Dowlah  beg^n 
to  intrigue  with  the  Fi*ench.    It  was  evident 
that  the  English  power  was  in  serious  dangler 
unless  a  prompt  blow  were  stnick ;  and  Clive, 
after  entering    into    negotiations  with    the 
nabob's   discontented    subjects,    utterly    <ie- 
featcd  the  native  army  at  Plassey   (1757). 
3Ieer  Jafficr  was  appointed  to  the  govern- 
ment   of    Bengal ;     but    his    fellow-traitOT-, 
Omichund,  whose  services  had  been  secured 
bj'  a  forged  promise  of  £300,000,   received 
nothing.      From  the  new   naltob  Cli\'e  o\>- 
tained  for  the  Company  a  concession  of  "tlic* 
land  600  yards  around  the  ^lahratta  Ditch, 
and  the  zemindary   rights   of   the  counlr-v 
lying  to  the  south  of  CalenttH.     The  victor-V 
of  l*Iji8sey  was  followed  by  the  assassination, 
of  8urajah  Dowlah ;  the  reconstitution  of 


Clo 


I  279  ) 


Cly 


government  of  Calcatta,  with  Clivo  at  its 
head ;  the  rout  of  the  invadincf  army  of  All 
Gehur,  the.heir  of  the  Mogul  Empire  (1759) ; 
and  the  return  of  Clive  to  England,  in  1760. 
On  his  return,  he  was  received  with  great 
distinction  by  all  ranks,  and  honoured  with 
an  Irish  peerage.  In  1765  he  returned  once 
mjrc  to  India,  as  Governor  of  Bengal,  pledged 
to  reform  the  luxury  and  corruption  of  the 
civil  sorvants  of  the  Company — who  had  made 
large  fortunes  by  the  cruellest  extortion — and 
to  settle  the  disturbed  affairs  of  Bengal.  He 
put  an  end  to  these  practices  by  enforcing 
the  laws  prohibiting  the  acceptance  of  presents 
from  the  natives ;  while,  at  the  same  time,  he 
raised  the  pay  of  the  civil  service  by  appro- 
priating to  this  purpose  the  proceeds  of  the 
salt  monopoly,  llie  Nabob  of  Moorshedabad 
[Meek  Cossim]  was  pensioned  off,  the 
dowanny  of  Bengal,  Bahar,  and  Orissa  was  ob- 
tained for  the  Company  by  imperial  firman,  and 
a  mutiny  in  the  army  was  successfully  quelled. 
In  1767  Clivo  finally  returned  to  Englimd. 
with  his  health  shattered  by  severe  attacks  of 
disease,  when  his  enemies  in  the  India  House 
tried  to  impeach  him  for  corrupt  practices; 
but  the  House  of  Commons  passed  a  resolu- 
tion that  "Robert  Lord  Clive  had  rendered 
great  and  meritorious  services  to  his  country.** 
Broken,  however,  by  the  pressure  of  bodily 
and  mental  suffering,  he  put  an  end  to  his 
existence  in  NovemlHer,  1774.  [India;  East 
India  CoitPANr.] 

Mill,  India  ;  Maoaolav,  Essays ;  G^ei?,  lA^n  oj 
CUve;  Sir  J.  Kaloohu,  Lt/«  of  QUvt.    [B.  8.] 

Clontarfl  The  Battle  of,  was  fought  on 
Friday,  April  23,  1014.  Brian  Boru  (q.v.) 
and  hJjB  son,  at  the  head  of  the  Irish  of 
Hanster,  Connaught,  Meath,  and  Ulster, 
were  opposed  to  the  Ortmen  (q.v.)  of  Ireland, 
reinfoTOod  by  their  countrymen  from  the 
Baltic  and  the  Orkneys,  and  supported  by 
the  Lfeinster  Irish.  The  result  was  a  victory 
for  Brian ;  but  both  he  aiid  his  son  fell  in  the 
fight.  The  Danes  are  said  to  have  lost 
6,000  men,  and  they  never  became  formidable 
to  the  native  Irish  after  this  defeat. 
Hiala  Sdga;  Annans  of  InniafaU, 

Clontarff  Meeting  at.  A  monster 
meeting  in  support  of  the  Repeal  of  the 
Union  was  to  be  hold  on  this  historical  spot 
on  Oct.  8,  1843.  The  government  issued  a 
proclamation  for  its  prevention,  and  military 
precautions  were  taken.  0*Connell  (q.v.)  and 
the  priests  exerted  themselves  to  keep  the 
people  from  assembling,  and  succeeded,  in 
npiii*  of  the  short  notice  giren.  But  it  thus 
became  evident  that  O'Connell  would  not 
tifirht,  and  thus  the  Ilcpeal  movement  col- 
Lipsed. 

Annual  Reg'Mer  (1843) ;  Haj,  Const.  Hist. 

Close  RollS;  The,  are  certain  Records  of 
the  crown  containing  letters,  mandates,  &c., 
of  a  private  nature.  They  tx»gin  in  1204,  and 
treat  of  an  infinite  variety  of  subjects.    They 


are  of  very  great  importance  in  the  thirteenth, 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries  as  contain- 
ing materials  for  local  and  family  histories, 
and  also  as  shedding  light  on  many  obscuie 
parts  of  our  mitional  annals.  The  Close  Rolls 
of  John  and  the  firat  eleven  years  of  Henry  HI. 
have  been  printed  by  the  Record  Commission 
under  the  editorship  of  Sir  T.  Hardy. 

Clostar-So'VeXL,  The  Conventiox  of 
(1757),  was  one  of  the  incidents  of  the  Seven 
Years'  War.  In  July,  the  English  com- 
mander, the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  was  de- 
feated at  Hastenbeck  by  the  French.  Hameln, 
Grottingen,  Hanover,  Bremen,  and  Yerben 
were  occupied  by  the  French.  Cumberland 
retired  under  Stadc,  but  hit  communications 
with  the  Elbe  were  soon  cut  off.  He  there- 
fore accepted  the  mediation  of  the  King  of 
Denmark,  and  on  Sept.  8  signed  a  convention 
with  the  Duke  of  Richelieu.  The  terms  were, 
that  the  assailing  troops,  such  as  those  of 
Hesse  and  Brunswick,  should  be  sent  home, 
and  that  the  Hanoverians  under  Cumberland 
should  pass  the  Elbe,  and  be  dispersed  into 
different  quarters  of  cantonments,  leaving  only 
a  garrison  at  Stade.  The  convention  was  very 
violently  denounced  in  Prussia,  and  in  Eng- 
land it  was  generally  looked  upon  as  extremely 
disgraceful.  But  perhaps  Cumberland  took 
the  wisest  course  under  the  circumstances. 
The  French  were  in  vastly  superior  force,  and 
his  own  army  was  ill-disciplined  and  not  to  be 
depended  on  in  any  way.  The  convention  was 
not  rigidly  kept  on  either  side,  and  was  sub- 
sequently, at  the  suggestion  of  Pitt,  repu- 
diated by  the  English,  and  the  Hanoverian 
army  equipped  afresh. 

Stanhope,  Hi^  qf  Eng.  ;  Lecky,  Uul  of  Eng, 

CloyaalLO  was  the  place  where  s>'nods 

were   held    in  Anglo-Saxon    times,     'rhere 

have  been  numerous    conjectures  as  to  its 

situation,  but  it  may  perhaps  be  identified 

with  Cliffe-at-Hoo,  in  Kent,  though  it  i»  also 

said  to  be  a  place  nearer  London. 

See,  for  tbe  diaciissiou  of  the   subject,  Mr. 
Eerslake's  pamphlet  On  the  Supremoci/  (fMereia. 

Club,  The,  was  a  name  given  to  the 
Parliamentary  majority  of  the  Scotch  Parlia« 
ment,  1689,  who  used  to  meet  in  a  ttivem  in 
Edinburgh  to  concert  their  iflousures  against 
the  government.  The  Club,  which  was  com- 
posed of  various  elements,  including  Tories, 
discontented  Whigs,  and  men  of  othdr  poli- 
tical creeds,  soon  attained  considerable  power, 
and  proved  an  immense  hindrance  to  the 
government.  In  1090  its  chief  members, 
Annandale,  Ross,  and  Montgomery,  bc.san  to 
intrigue  with  the  Jacobites,  the  result  being 
the  revelation  of  the  Montgomery  plot. 

ClMLe,  CoLiy  Campbell,  Lord  {b,  1792, 
d.  1863),  entered  the  army  at  an  early  age,  and 
first  saw  service  in  the  Peninsular  ^Var.  He 
received  his  lieutenant-colonelcy  in  1832,  and 
in  the  Chinese  War  in   1842  went  out  in 


Cob 


(  280  } 


Cob 


command  of  hie  regiment,  the  98th.  In  the 
Sikh  War  of  1848 — 9  he  obtained  considerable 
distinction,  was  wounded  at  Chillianwallah, 
and  largely  contributed  to  the  victory  of 
Goojerat.  In  the  Crimean  War  he  was  in 
command  of  the  Highland  Brigade,  and 
greatly  distinguished  himself  at  the  Alma, 
after  which  battle  he  received  the  personal 
thanks  of  Lord  Haglan.  On  the  morning 
of  the  battle  of  ifitlaclava,  the  Highland 
Brigade,  under  Campbell,  was  entrusted  with 
the  defence  of  the  British  landing-place, 
and  the  repulse  of  a  squadron  of  xtussian 
cavalry  was  one  of  the  results  of  the 
day's  fighting.  In  July,  1857,  Sir  Colin 
Campbell  was  ordered  to  India  to  assume 
command  against  the  mutineers.  Leaving 
England  at  twenty-four  hours'  notice,  he 
arrived  at  Calcutta  on  Aug.  13,  and  hastily 
collecting  what  troops  he  could,  he  marched 
on  Luclmow,  the  relief  of  which  city  was 
effected  with  consummate  skill  and  general- 
ship. One  after  another  the  rebel  strongholds 
were  reduced,  and  Sir  Colin's  talents  as  a 
commander-in-chief  were  hardly  more  con- 
n>ieuou8  than  his  tact  and  tempei*  in  the 
(ufficult  position  in  which  he  was  placed.  On 
the  complete  suppression  of  the  Mutiny  by 
this  able  general  and  his  brilliant  lieutenants, 
Campbell  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  and 
received  the  thanks  of  both  Houses  of  Parlia- 
ment, with  a  pension  of  £2,000  a  year.  He 
was  created  a  field-marshal  shortly  before  his 
death. 

Kaye,  &poy  War;  Kingloke,  Invasion  of  ths 
Crimea. 

Cobbett,  William  (b.  1762,  d,  1835),  the 
son  of  a  Surrey  farmer,  was  bom  at  Farnham. 
After  spending  some  years  as  a  solicitor's  clerk 
and  a  private  in  the  army,  he  went  to  America 
in  1792,  and  opened  a  bookseller's  shop  in 
Philadephia.  Here  he  issued  a  series  of 
pamphlets  under  the  title  of  "  Peter  Porcu- 
pine." In  1801  he  returned  to  England  and 
set  up  a  morning  paper,  in  which  he  warmly 
supported  Mr.  Pitt.  This  failed,  and  he  after- 
wards started  the  Weekly  Register.  At  firat 
ho  was  patronised  by  the  ministry,  but  in  1805 
he  became  an  eager  Radical,  and  a  formidable 
opponent  to  the  ministry.  In  1810  he  was 
prosecuted  for  some  remarks  on  a  military 
flogging,  and  imprisoned  for  two  yeara,  but 
still  continued  to  write.  It  was  at  this  time 
that  ho  issued  Twopenny  Trashy  a  series  of 
papers  wherewith  he  harassed  the  administra- 
tion. In  1817  he  again  settled  in  America; 
but  returned  in  1819  and  took  an  active  part 
in  the  trial  of  Queen  Caroline.  He  also  un- 
successfully contested  Coventry  and  West- 
minster. Renewing  his  attention  to  agri- 
culture, he  took  a  farm,  and  attempted  to 
introduce  Indian  com  as  a  staple  article  of 
English  produce,  but  the  project  proved  a 
failure.  In  1831  he  was  prosecuted  for  pub- 
lishing a  libel  with  intent  to  rouse  discontent 
in  the  minds  of  the  labourera.    In  defending 


himself  he  made  a  defiant  speech,  declaring 

that  **the    Tories   had    ruled  the    country 

with  rods,  but  the  Whigs  scourged  it  with 

scorpions."      The    jury    disagreed   and   he 

was  discharged.     In  1832  he  was  returned  to 

the  Keformed  Parliament  for  Oldham.    The 

exertion    of    speaking    on    the   Marquis   of 

Chandos's  motion  on  agricultural  distress  on 

May  25,  1835,  and  remaining  late  to  vote 

were  too  much  for  him.      He  went  down 

to  his  farm  early  next  moi'ning,  and  died 

three    weeks  afterwards.     He  was  a  most 

prolific  and  popular  writer,  and  the  vigour  of 

his  style  and  his  extraordinary  mastery  of 

the  resources  of   the    language  have  been 

deservedly  praised.     Among  his  works  are 

the  Parliamentary  History  to  1803 ^  in  12  voli«., 

a  well-known  and  useful  compilation ;  the 

Political  Register ;   Cottage  £cononty ;  and  a 

translation  of  Marten's  Law  of  Nations, 

There  is  a  good  sketch  of  Cobbett  in  Lord 
BaUiog,  Htftortcal  CharacteTS. 

Cobden.  Richakd  {b.  1804,  d.  1865),  was 
bom  at  Mi(Qiur8t,  in  Sussex,  and  became  early 
in  life  a  traveller  for  a  cotton  firm,  settling  in 
Lancashire.     In  1830  he  started  a  business  iu 
partnership  with  some  of  his  relatives.  He  was 
highly  successful  in  his  new  sphere  of  work,, 
and  travelled  abroad  in  Greece,  Turkey,  and 
the  United  States,  in  the  interest  of  the  house 
to  which  he  belonged  ( 1 834 — 35) .  On  his  return 
from  the  latter  country  he  addressed  several 
lettera  on  economical  and  political  subjects 
to  the  Manchester  luiieSy  strongly  advocating^ 
the  theories  of  his  later  years,  peace,  retrench- 
ment, non-interference,  and  free  trade.  Mean- 
while the  Anti-Corn-Law  League  had  been 
established  at  Manchester  (1838),  and  when. 
Mr.  Cobden  and  Mr.  Bright  joined  its  ranks^ 
they  roused  its  energies  to  the  full.    At  the 
election  of  1841,  when  Lord  Melbourne  made 
his  appeal  to  the  countr)*^  in  favour  of  a  fixed 
duty  on  com,  ]Mr.  Cobden  was  elected  member 
for  Stockport.    He  now  had  every  oppor- 
timity  of  advocating  his  views;  and  at  last  Sir 
Robert  Peel  declared  himself  in  favour  of  th& 
repeal  of  the  Com  Laws  (1845)  and  repealed 
them  the  following  year.    Sir  Robert  Peel  on. 
this  occasion  paid  a  just  tribute  to ^Ir.  Cobden*s> 
efforts.     While  absent  on  the  Continent,  Mr. 
Cobden  was  returned  for  the  West  Ridini^  oF 
Yorkshire  (1847).  He  had  before  this  refused 
to  join  Lord  Russell's  ministry*,  but  offered  a 
strong  opposition  to  the  Derby  government  of 
1852,  and  the  Coalition  cabinet  of  Lord  Aber- 
deen. He  condemned  the  war  with  Russia  en- 
tirely; and  in  this  matter,  though  he  succeeded 
in  causing  a  dissolution  of  Parliament   by 
carrying  a  vote  condemning  the  proceedings  of 
Sir  John  Bowring  in  China,  his  course  was  so 
distasteful  to  his  constituents  that  he  did  not 
offer  himself  again  for  the  West  Ridings  and. 
remained  out  of  Parliament  till  1859,  'wKen. 
he  was  elected,  in  his  absence,  for  RoohciAle. 
In  1860  he  negotiated  the  commercial  tr^e&ty 
with  the  French ;  but  always  steadily 


Cob 


(281) 


Coi 


to  take  oflice.  To  his  latest  yean  he  con- 
tinued an  ardent  advocate  of  free  trade, 
and  was  one  of  the  few  English  politicians 
'who,  in  the  early  years  of  the  American  Civil 
War,  were  steaay  supporters  of  the  Northern 
States.     He  died  on  the  2nd  April,  1865. 

J.  Horley,  Life  of  Richard  Cobdcit ;  W.  Bobert- 
•on.  Life  and  Times  of  John  Bright. 

Cobhazn,  Eleanoh,  was  first  the 
mistress  and  then  the  wife  of  Humphrey, 
Duke  of  Gloucester,  to  whom  she  was 
married  in  1426.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
Keginald,  Lord  Cobham.  In  1441  tike  was 
arraigned  on  a  charge  of  treason  and  witch- 
craft, and  it  appeared  that  two  of  her 
accomplices  had  by  her  ordcts  constructed  a 
waxen  image  of  King  Henr)*  VI.,  which  they 
gradually  melted  before  a  fire,  it  being  ex- 
j)ectcd  that  the  king's  life  would  waste 
away  as  the  image  was  acted  upon  by  the 
heat.  In  the  event  of  Henry's  death,  the 
Duke  of  Gloucester,  as  the  nearest  heir  of 
the  house  of  Lancaster,  would  have  succeeded 
to  the  throne.  For  these  crimes  Eleanor 
Cobham  was  coni])eIled  to  do  public  penance 
in  the  streets  of  London,  and  was  imprisoned 
for  life. 

Cobliani,  William  Bkooke,  Lokd  {d. 
1598),  was  Warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports 
when  Bailly's  treasonable  letters  were  captured 
in  1571 ;  by  his  connivance,  Leslie,  Bishop  of 
Boss,  was  emibled  to  change  the  piicket  before 
it  was  laid  before  the  Council.  In  1578  he 
was  sent  on  a  mission  to  the  Low  Countries, 
in  conjunction  with  Sir  Francis  Walsingham, 
and  again  in  1588  with  Lord  Lerby,  Sir 
James  Croft,  and  Sir  Amyas  Paulet,  as  his 
eompanions.  He  was  subsequently  created 
Lord  Chamberlain. 

Cobhaniy  Lord.    [Oldcastle.] 

CochnULO,  KoHERT,  a  stonemason,  was  the 
favourite  and  principal  adviser  of  James  III. 
of  Scotland,  whom  he  is  said  to  have  instigated 
to  murder  his  brother,  the  Earl  of  Mar.  ()n 
]klar*8  dtath,  Cochrane  obtained  a  grant  of  his 
estates,  a  circumstance  which  roused  the 
Scotch  nobles  to  fury.  No  audience  could  be 
obtained  with  the  king  except  through  his 
favourite.  He  was  hanged,  together  with 
some  other  favourites  of  the  king,  at  the 
bridge  of  Lauder,  by  Archibald  "  Bell-the- 
Cat,"  in  1482. 

Coehjraiiey  Thomas.    [DundoxaldJ 

Codrillf^Xl,      CilRlSTOBHER      {b,        1668, 

<f.  1711),  was  bom  in  Barbado<>s,  and  having 
servefl  with  distinction  in  Europe,  being 
priwnt  at  the  siege  of  Namur,  was  rewarded 
with  the  post  '»f  Governor  of  the  Leeward 
Islands.  In  1703  he  planned  and  carried  out 
the  attack  on  the  French  at  Guadaloupe. 

Codxintfton,  Admiral  Sir  Edward  {b, 
1770,  d.  I80I),  entered  the  navy  in  1783,  and 
was  present  at  the  battles  oif  the  Be  Croix  and 
Trafalgar;   he   accompanied  the  expedition 


to  Walcheren;  and  was  employed  off  the 
coast  of  Spain  co-operating  with  the  Cata- 
lonian  patriots,  during  the  Peninsular  War. 
During  the  war  with  the  United  States 
which  followed,  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  rear-admiral.  In  1815  he  was  nominated  a 
K.C.B.,  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  vice- 
admiral,  1821,  and  was  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Mediterranean  squadron,  1826. 
It  was  in  this  capacity  that  he  took  the  lead- 
ing part  in  the  battle  of  Navarino,  Oct.  20, 
1827.  In  reward  for  this,  Codrington  was 
advanced  to  the  dignity  of  the  Grand  Cross 
of  the  Bath ;  while  from  the  Emperor  of 
Russia  he  received  the  Grand  Cross  of  St. 
George;  and  from  the  King  of  France  the 
Grand  Cross  of  St.  Louis.  But  at  home 
opinions  were  divided  as  to  the  necessity  of 
what  the  Duke  of  Wellington  called  **  an  un- 
toward event,*'  and  Sir  Edward  was  thought  to 
have  been  unduly  influenced  by  his  Philhellenic 
ideas;  he  was  recalled  in  April,  1828.  He 
obtained  the  rank  of  full  admiral,  and  was 
appointed  in  1839  commander-in-chief  at 
Portsmouth.  In  1832  he  had  been  elected 
for  Devon  port,  in  the  Liberal  interest,  and 
was  re-elected  in  1835  and  1837  ;  but  resigned 
his  seat  upon  taking  the  command  at  Ports- 
mouth. 

CoffgOShally  Kalph  of,  wrote  a  chronii  Ic 

extending  from  1 066  to  1 224.    The  earlier  part 

is  a  compilation  from  various  sources,  but  f ixiin 

1187  this  chronicle  is  important  and  valuable. 

Beyond  the  fact  that   Ralph  was  Abbot  of 

Coggeshall  from  1207  to  1210,  and  resigned 

in  the  latter  year  on  account  of  ill-health, 

nothing  is  known  of  him. 

Balph  of  Cog^eshairs  Chronicle  is  publisho  I 
in  the  Bolls  Series. 

Coiuaifd.  The  Britons  first  learnt  the 
art  of  coining  from  the  Gauls  about  a  hun- 
dred years  before  the  invasion  of  Julius 
C»3sar.  The  Gaulish  native  coinage  at  this 
era  consisted  chiefly  of  rtide  imitations  of 
the  gold  staters  of  Philip  II.  of  Maccdon, 
which  almost  from  the  time  that  thev  were 
struck,  or  say  from  about  B.C.  300,  began  to  have 
a  currency  in  that  country.  ITw^se  copies 
passed  over  into  Britain,  and  were  again  in 
their  turn  copied  still  more  rudely  by  the 
Britons.  The  coins  of  Philip  which  thus 
afforded  a  prototype  to  both  the  Gaulish  and 
British  coins,  represented  upon  one  side  the 
laureate  head  of  Apollo  (or  possibly  Ares  or 
Heracles),  and  on  the  reverse  a  two-horse 
chariot  or  higa.  The  British  imitations  of 
these  pieces  are  so  rude  that  nt  first  sight  no 
resemblance  between  the  original  and  tho 
copy  can  be  detected.  The  barlwirous 
artists,  unable  to  copy  the  head,  have  repre- 
sented it  by  only  a  few  lines  and  dots,  and 
have  at  last  confined  their  attempts  at  copy- 
ing to  the  hair  and  the  laurel  wreath.  (Jn 
the  reverse,  tho  chariot  and  charioteer  have 
almost,  or  totally  disappeared,  and  the  hoi'se 


Coi 


(  282  ) 


Coi 


is  barely  recognisable.  At  first  the  British 
currency  was  entirely  of  gold,  but  a  shoit  time 
before  the  Roman  invasion,  silver,  copper,  and 
tin  coins  were  also  issued.  These  begun  by 
being  imitations  of  the  gold  coinage,  but  after- 
wards copied  the  silver  and  other  metal  coins 
of  GauL  The  British  coins  were  at  first  entirely 
without  legend;  but  about  the  time  of  the 
Roman  invasion  names  began  to  appear  upon 
them.  Some  of  these  names  are  otherwise 
known  to  history,  as  is,  for  example,  Cuno- 
belinos,  the  Cymbeline  of  Shakespeare.  Al- 
though Ciesar's  invasion  did  not  immediately 
affect  the  political  condition  of  the  country,  a 
tendency  to  imitate  the  Roman  civilisation 
(which  was  beginning  to  take  a  firm  hold  in 
Gaul)  set  in  in  Britain,  and  of  this  there  is 
abundant  evidence  on  the  coins.  The  JSlace- 
donian  type  gradually  disappears,  and  we 
have  designs  copied  from  the  contemporary 
Roman  coinage. 

After  the  subjugation  of  South  Britain  by 
the  Romans,  the  reguLir  imperial  series  was 
substituted  for  the  native  currency,  the  British 
towns  of  mintage  being  Londinium  and 
Camulodunum  (Colchester).  The  last  Roman 
coins  struck  in  Britain  were  probably  some 
which  bear  the  name  of  Magnus  l^laximus  the 
usurper,  and  which  were  apparently  issued 
in  A.U.  3S3. 

From  this  time  forward  a  considerable 
interval  occurs.  Doubtless,  Roman  coins 
were  still  current  in  Britain,  though  as  time 
went  on  they  must  have  diminished  in 
numbers.  Then  came  the  rise  of  the  Saxon 
currency.  The  first  coins  issued  by  the 
Saxons  seem  to  have  been  some  small  silver 
pieces  usually  called  aceatfas^  weighing  twenty 
grains,  and  bearing  generally  no  name,  whose 
precise  date,  on  this  account,  it  would  be 
very  hard  to  determine.  Those  of  the  sceattas 
which  are  probably  the  latest  are  some 
which  have  Runic  letters,  and  which  ran  be 
dated  in  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century. 
While  we  are  speaking  of  these  coins  it  is  the 
proper  place  to  notice  a  series  of  copper 
pieces,  very  like  the  sceattas  in  size  and  shape, 
which  were  confined  altogether  to  the  king- 
dom of  Northumbria,  and  which  belong  to  a 
nither  later  period  than  the  sceattas,  namely, 
to  the  eighth  and  part  of  the  ninth  centuries. 
They  are  called  sti/cas. 

We  then  come  to  the  coin  which  long 
remained  almost  the  sole  money  of  the  Eng- 
lish, with  the  insignificant  exception  of  a  few 
tJTold  coins,  which  were  struck  from  time  to  time. 
This  was  the  penny.  It  was  copied  from  the 
silver  denarius,  which  in  the  course  of  the 
eighth  century,  and  under  the  Carlovingian 
dynasty  had  come  to  supplant  the  gold  currency 
of  the  Merovingian  time.  The  penny,  like  the 
Carlovingian  denarius,  was  a  thin  and  flat  silver 
coin,  weighing  some  twenty  to  twenty-four 
grains;  the  full  weight  being  twenty-four, 
whence  the  twenty-four  grains  which  make  up 
our  penny w^cight.  The  usual  type  of  the  penny 


ahowed  on  one  side  a  rude  head  or  bust,  in- 
tended conventionally  to  represent  that  of 
the  king,  whose  name  was  written  round 
the  head,  while  on  the  reverse,  the  piece 
sho\ve«i  some  device,  most  frequently  a  form 
of  cross  :  ai'ound  this  device  was  written  the 
name  of  the  moneyer,  i.^.,  the  fabricator  of  the 
coin,  and  of  the  town  in  which  the  piece  was 
made.  The  pennies  begin  with  Offa,  King  of 
Mercia  (a.d.  765 — 794),  and  they  continue 
(with  trifling  exceptions^  the  sole  English 
coins  untU  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  (1272). 

The   student   must    be    placed    upon    his 
guard     against     confounding     the     actual 
denominations  of  coins  with  the  denomina- 
tions of  money  of  account.      In  early   times 
calculations  were  constantly  made  in  money 
of    account    which    was    unrepresented     by 
any    coined    pieces.     This    was    a    reminis- 
cence of  the  days  when  money    was   com- 
puted   altogether  by   weight.      In    fact,    it 
may  be  said  that  the  name  of  almost  every 
coin  which  has  ever  existed  has  denominated 
a  weight    before   it   denominated  a   coined 
piece    {e.g.f  the    Greek    stater,   the    Jewish 
ehekel,  &c. ) .     The  Saxon  mone^'  of  account  was 
of  two  kinds.     One  was  derived  from  their 
weight  system,  which  was  a  combination  of 
the    Roman    and    a    non-Roman    Teutonic 
system,  and  whose  chief  denominations  were 
the  pound  and  the  marh.     The  second  money 
of  account  was  simply  taken  from  the  Roman 
(or  Byzantine)  gold  coin,  the  solidus,  which 
in  English  was  called  the  shilling.    Wo  fre- 
quently read  of  sums  computed   in  pounds, 
marks,  and  shillings.     Occasionally  a  solidus 
in  gold  was  actually  struck.     The  value  of 
these  moneys  of  account  relative  to  the  current 
coin  has  remained    unaltered.     The   pound 
contained  twenty  shillings,  or  240  pence  ;  the 
mark  two-thirds  of  the  pound,  or  160  pence. 
The  mark  eventually  fell  out  of  use,  Iwiving^ 
the  three  forms  of  money  by  which  we  still 
compute — the    pound     (liber),    the    shilling 
(solidus),  and  the  penny  (denarius).     From 
these  Latin  names  come  our  symbols,  £,  s.,  d. 

The  Norman  Conquest  produced  at  first  no 
material  alteration  in  the  English  coinugpe. 
The  penny  continued  to  be  the  sole  currency 
down  to  the  reign  of  Edward  I.    The  penni<^ 
of  the  first  two  WUliams  were  as  varied  in 
their  types  as  those  of  any  previous  monarcli ; 
but  after  these  reigns  the  t}'pes  diminisliccl 
rapidly  in  number,   and  from  the   time    of 
Edward  I.  downwards,  through  many  subse- 
quent reigns,  this  coin  was  made  upon  one 
uniform  pattern,  which  showed  on  the  obverse 
a  full  face  crowned,  and  on  the  reverse  a  lonj^- 
cross ;    the    whole    displaying    a    distinctly 
architectural  design.     The  yroat  (first  coined. 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.)  was  in  type  almost 
identical  with  the  penny.    The  next  importaxv^ 
change  was  made  by  Edward  III.,  who  intro- 
duced a  gold  currency  into  England.  For  a  lonf^ 
period  in  the  Middle  Ages — that  is  to  say,  from 
the  beginning  of  the  ninth  century  to    Uxq 


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Coi 


^<id]fi  of  the  thirteenth— the  gold  coins  in 
^  in  Western  Europe  had  been  supplied  by 
^e  Emperors  of  Byzantium,  whence  these 
pieces  acquired  the  name  of  bczanU.  Florence 
and  Venicef  in  the  course  of  the  thirteenth 
ceotury,  instituted  a  gold  currency  of  their 
own,  and  this  example  was  speedily  followed 
by  other  countries  of  Europe.  Ucnry  III. 
had  made  the  experiment  of  a  gold  coinage 
by  striking  gold  pennies  worth  thirty  times 
as  much  as  the  silver  coins ;  but  this  was  only 
an  experiment.  Edward  III.  introduced  a 
regular  gold  currency,  first  of  Jhritu  (named 
after  the  gold  coin  of  I^lorence),  and  after- 
wards of  nobles^  so  called  on  account  of  the 
fineness  of  their  metal.  In  value  they  were 
equal  to  eighty  pence — i,e.f  to  half  a  mark. 
The  noble  represented  on  one  side  the  king  in 
a  ship  (an  allusion  to  the  victory  of  Sluys), 
and  on  the  other  a  highly  ornamental  cross. 
Half  and  quarter  noblcM  were  issued  at  the 
same  time.  The  type  was  slightly  altered  by 
£dward  lY.,  who  replaced  the  reverse  cross 
by  a  sun,  and  on  the  side  of  the  ship  placed  a 
rose,  from  whence  his  pieces  got  the  name  of 
nte  nobUt,  lliey  were  also  called  ryaU 
(royals).  Silver  having  declined  in  value 
in  comparison  to  gold,  the  rose  nobletf  were 
now  worth  ten  shillings,  and  to  represent  the 
older  YBlue  of  half  a  mark  a  new  piece  was 
struck,  having  on  one  side  tho  figure  of  St. 
Michael  trampling  upon  i^tan,  and  on  the 
other  a  ship  bearmg  a  cross.  This  coin  was 
called  the  angel  nobU^  or,  more  shortly,  the 
argel ;  its  half  was  the  angelet. 

Further  changes  of  importance  are  to  be 
noted  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  In  the 
gold  currency,  the  pound  novereign  was  added 
to  the  pieces  already  in  circulation.  This 
coin,  which  was  larger  than  an}'  previously 
struck  and  current  for  twenty  shillings,  re- 
presented upon  the  obverse  the  king  en- 
throned, and  on  the  other  side  the  royal  arms 
over  a  rose.  Shillings  were  now  first  struck, 
and  the  type  of  the  groat  was  changed  from 
a  front  to  a  side  face.  Henry  VIII.  struck 
some  double  -  sovereigns,  as  well  as  half- 
sovereigns,  and  wowns^  or  quarter  -  sove- 
reiirns,  in  gold,  and  he  issued  a  new  type  of 
noble  (not  continued  in  subsequent  reigns) 
called  the  george  noble.  It  nearly  resembled 
the  angel,  but  displayed  St.  George  in  place 
of  St.  Michael  on  the  obverse.  This  king  is 
unfavourably  distinguished  as  the  first  who 
peraistently  debased  the  coinage  of  this 
lountry.  The  debasement  continued  during 
tho  two  following  reigns ;  but  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth  the  coinage  was  restored  to  its 
former  purity.  Edward  VI.  first  struck  the 
rroint  and  the  half-crown  in  silver,  as  well  as 
the  sirpenee.  In  the  reign  of  "Mary  we  have 
sovereigns,  rose  nobles,  angels,  half-angels, 
half-crowns,  shillings,  g^^tMits,  pence,  and  the 
dix-isions  of  the  penny;  but  in  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth  we  find  the  highest  complement  in 
the  number  of  its  denominations  which  the 


English  coinage  ever  att2(ined.  It  now  con- 
sisted of  no  less  than  twenty  distinct  kinds  of 
coin,  viz.,  in  goldy  of  the  sovereign,  half-, 
quarter-,  and  half-quarter-sovereign,  rone 
noble  or  ryal,  angel  (now  equal  to  a  half- 
sovereign),  angelet  and  quarter-angel,  crown 
and  haif-ci'own ;  in  silver^  of  the  cronvn,  half- 
crown,  shilling,  sixpence,  groat,  half-groat, 
three-penny,  and  three-half|)enny  pieces, 
the  ^nny,  the  three  farthings,  the  hnlf. 
penny,  and  farthing.  Quocn  Elizabeth  also 
struck  coins  for  the  use  of  the  E'lst  India 
Company,  which  may  be  reckoned  the  begin- 
ning of  the  English  colonial  coinage.  In  the 
reign  of  James  I.  there  was  no  substantial 
alteration,  though  some  of  the  above  denomi- 
nations were  changed,  and  some  abandoned. 
The  sovereign  was  now  generally  known  as  the 
broadf  and  this  name  was  continued  through 
the  reign  of  Charles  I.  and  through  the  Com- 
monw^th.  Charles  I.  struck  some  pieces  of 
the  value  of  three  pounds,  and  subsequently, 
during  the  scarcity  of  gold  which  he  expe- 
rienced during  the  Civil  War,  he  melted 
plate  and  coined  it  into  silver  pieces  of  the 
values  of  twenty  and  of  ten  shillings. 

From  the  accession  of  James  I.  until  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.,  considerable  fi  actuations 
took  place  in  the  value  of  gold,  and  therefore 
in  the  value  of  the  chief  gold  coin.  At  one 
time  the  broad  wiis  worth  as  much  as  thirty 
shillings.  In  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  it 
became  fixed  to  the  somewhat  arbitrary  value 
of  twenty -one  shillings,  and  as  the  gold  from 
which  the  money  of  this  reign  was  made 
came  chiefly  from  the  Guinea  coast,  the 
highest  gold  coins  of  this  period  acquired  the 
name  of  guinea-pounds,  or  of  guineas.  Hence- 
forth, until  nearly  the  end  of  the  reign  of 
George  III.,  the  guinea  entirely  replaced  the 
sovereign,  and  the  gold  currency,  from  tho 
reign  of  Charles  II.  to  George  III.,  uniformly 
consisted  of  pieces  of  five,  two,  one,  and  half 

guineas.  In  1817  George  III.  reintroduced 
le  sovereign,  and  the  guinea  was  abandoned. 
Copper  coins  were  first  made  in  1672,  and  re- 
placed by  bronze  in  1861.  £o  and  £2  pieces,  in 
gold,  and  a  silver  four-shilling  piece  w(?rp  added 
in  1887,  when  new  designs  were  placed  on  all 
the  coins  in  honour  of  the  queen^s  jubilee. 

The  coinage  of  Scotland  began  at  a  much 
later  date  than  did  that  of  England.  With 
the  exception  of  a  few  rude  pennies,  we 
have  no  Scottish  money  until  the  reign  of 
David  I.,  about  the  year  1124.  The  first 
coinage  of  Scotland  followed  as  closely  as 
possible  the  types  of  the  English  money, 
consisting,  like  the  English  coinage,  at  first 
exclusively  of  pennU&j  and  about  the  end  of 
the  thirteenth  century  (David  II.)  of  the  penny 
and  the  groat.  The  noble  was  likewise  intro- 
duced by  Da\'id  II.,  but  not  continued  in 
subsequent  reigns.  But  after  her  long  struggle 
for  independence  had  come  to  an  end,  Scot- 
land began  to  issue  a  series  of  new  denomina- 
tions, which  we  will  briefly  mention  in  the 


Col 


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Cok 


order  in  which  they  were  introduced.  Robert 
II.  coined  gold  pieces  called  from  their  types, 
St.  Andrew  and  Lion  (having  the  shield  of 
Scotland  upon  one  side),  and  equal  respec- 
tively to  a  half  and  a  quarter  of  the  noble. 
These  two  names  and  types  were  afterwards 
united  for  one  piece.  James  I.  struck  a  coin 
called  deinyj  and  equal  in  value  to  half  an 
English  noble.  In  the  reign  of  James  III.  were 
issued  the  first  coins  in  base  silver,  or  btllon, 
and  of  a  very  low  value,  which  went  by  the 
names  of  plaeka  and  half-piacks.  The  Scot- 
tish coinage  was  now  9omplotely  separated 
from  the  English,  though  some  of  the  nominal 
values  were  still  i-etained.  The  actual  values 
of  the  Scottish  currency  deteriorated  so 
rapidly  that  when,  in  the  reign  of  James  VI. 
(I.),  the  coinages  of  the  two  countries  had  to 
be  brought  into  agreement,  the  Scottish 
shilling  was  found  to  be  worth  only  one- 
twelfth  of  the  English  shilling.  Therefore, 
when  we  read  of  a  certain  number  of  shil- 
lings Scots,  we  may  pretty  generally  reduce 
that  to  the  same  number  of  pence  in  English 
reckoninj?.  In  the  reign  of  James  III.  we 
notice  the  introduction  of  two  new  gold 
coins,  the  rider,  which  shows  the  king  on 
horseback,  and  the  unicorn^  on  which  that 
animal  is  holding  a  shield.  Divisions  of  these 
pieces  and  of  the  St.  Andrew  were  struck. 
Two  other '  gold  coins,  not  differing  much 
from  these  in  value,  but  different  in  type, 
belong  to  the  reign  of  James  V. — ^viz.,  the 
ecu,  or  crown,  giving  (as  the  name  implies) 
the  shield  of  Scotland  on  the  obverse,  and  the 
bonnet  piece,  where  the  king's  bust  is  repre- 
sented in  a  square  cap.  Ihe  same  prince 
coined  a  billon  piece,  known  as  the  bawbee, 
a  corruption  from  bas  piece  in  Scottish  French. 
In  the  reign  of  Mary  we  have  a  number  of 
new  coins,  which  by  their  names  show  an 
approach  to  the  contemporary  English  coinage 
— viz.,  the  twenty  shilling  piece,  the  ryal 
in  gold,  the  testoon,  equal  m  value  to  an 
English  sixpence,  and  a  billon  piece  called 
hardhead.  A  separate  Scottish  coinage  was 
continued  in  the  reigns  of  James  I.  and 
Charles  I.,  but  the  coins  were  more  and  more 
assimilated  to  the  English  type. 

The  Irish  coinage  calls  for  little  remark. 
The  Danish  kings  of  Ireland  in  the  tenth  and 
eleventh  century  struck  pennies,  some  of  which 
bear  the  names  of  known  kings.  The  first 
coins  struck  after  the  Anglo-Norman  Conquest 
were  issued  by  John  while  still  a  prince,  and 
governor  of  Ireland.  Henceforward  the  Irish 
coinage  follows  that  of  England,  with  these 
differences — that  it  contains  no  gold  coinage, 
nor  the  higher  denominations  of  silver,  and  is 
generally  of  a  more  alloyed  metal.  The  harp 
for  Ireland  and  the  three  crowns  are  the  most 
distinctive  types.  The  principal  Anglo- 
Irish  mint  places  were  Dublin  and  Water- 
ford.  Edward  IV.  struck  a  considerable  Irish 
cuiTenc)',  and  at  various  mints,  Dublin,  Cork, 
Ihx>ghoda,  Limerick,  Trim,  Waterford,  and 


Wexford.    During  the  period  that  James  II. 

remained  in  Ireland,  aiter  his  flight  from 

London,    he    issued   a   coinage   of   bronze, 

generally  called  gun-money,  which  assumed 

the  denomination  of  coins  of  corresponding 

size  and  t}'pe  in  silver.    On  the  accession  of 

William  and   Mary  this  coinage  fell  to  its 

metal  >'alue,  that  is  to  say,  a  nominal  value 

of  £22,500  was  bought  back  for  £640.   . 

The  Bev.  B.  Buding,  AnnaU  of  the  Coinage  o/ 
EniglanA;  £d.  Hawkins,  The  Silvor  Coiiu  of 
EnaUmd ;  J.  Evans,  The  Coinage  of  th«  Ancie%it 
Brdont ;  Dirks,  Lee  AniU>-Saxon*  et  les  Seeatia*  ; 
B.  W.  Cochran  Patrick,  fi«cords  ef  ihe  Coinage  of 
Scotland  ;  J.  Lindsay,  The  Coinage  oj  the  H «)i. 
tarchy;  id..  The  Cotnaqe  of  Scotland;  id..  The 
Coinage  qf  Ireland ;  Aquila  Smith,  Irieh  Coin*  of 
Edioord  IV. ;  C.  F.  Keary,  The  Coinage  of  Wetiern 
EitTopefromHonoriue  (o  Charlemagne. 

[C.  F.  K.] 

Coke»   Sir   Edward    {b.  1552,  d.   1633), 
Chief    Justice    of    England,    was    bom     at 
Mileham,  in  Norfolk.    After  lea\'ing  Cam- 
bridge, he  became  a  member  of  the  Inner 
Temple,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  early  in 
1578,  when  his  extraordinary  ability  speedily 
became   manifest.      Appointed  Ke^oitier    of 
Norwich,  1586,  he  fulfilled  the  duties  of  his 
office  with  such  acuteness  that,  in  1592,  ho 
was  made  Becorder  of  London,  and  in  the 
same  year  Solicitor-Greneral.    As  Speaker  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  in  1593,  he  distin- 
guished himself  by  the  flowery  nature  of  his 
addresses  to  Elizabeth,  and  a  few  months 
later    became    Attorney-General,   in    which 
capacity  he  conducted  the  prosecution,  for  the 
crown,   of  the  Earls    of    Southampton   and 
Essex  (1601).    In  1603,  Coke,  who  had  re- 
ceived Uie  honour  of  knighthood  from  James  I., 
was  the  crown  prosecutor  at  the  trial  of  Sir 
Walter  Haleigh,  on  which  occasion  he  displayed 
unfeeling  harshness  and  arrogance.     Three 
years  later  Sir  Edward  Coke  was  engaged  to 
prosecute  the  conspirators  in  the  Gunpowder 
Plot,    and    displayed    great    ability    in    hia 
management  of  the  case.     Shortly  afterwards 
he  became  Chief  Justice  of  the  Common  Pleas, 
and,  in  1613,  was  transferred  to  the  Kin<;^s 
Bench  and  made  a  Privy  Councillor.      His 
enemies  were,  however,  many  and  powerful ; 
Lord    Chancellor    Ellesmere,    Buckinghain, 
and  Sir  Francis  Bacon  were  his  implacable 
foes,  and    in    1616    Coke  refused  to    assist 
the    court    by    giving   judgment    for      tlie 
king  in  the  case  of  Commendams,  and   thus 
gave  them  an  opportunity  to  procure     his 
downfall.      The  Chief  Justice  was  rennov<Hl 
from  his  office  on  the  charge  that  in  his  re- 
ports   of    decided  cases  he  had    intro<lui*r*<l 
several  things   in  derogation  of    the    royal 
prerogative.      The    enmity    of    Bacon     con- 
tinued, but    Coke,  by  the    alliance  of     his 
daughter  with    a  brother  of    Buckinf^^KaTn, 
regained  some  small  share  of  the  royal  favour, 
and  was  subsequently  one  of  the  managers  of 
Bacon's  impeachment.    In  1621  he  entered 
Parliament,  where  he    speedily  drew     njK>rx 
himself   the  hostility  of   the  couzt  by    hi^ 


Cok 


(  285  ) 


Col 


opposition  to  monopolies,  and  by  his  deter« 
mined  assertion  of  the  power  of  Parliament. 
At  the  end  of  the  year  he  was  imprisoned  in 
the  Tower,  but  was  released  after  a  few 
months,  and  continued  to  take  an  active  part 
in  Parliamentary  affairs,  whilst,  in  1628,  he 
originated  and  carried  the  Petition  of  Right 
(q.v.).  Sir  Edward  Coke's  reputation  as  a 
lawyer  and  as  a  judge  was  unequalled  in 
his  age.  As  the  autJhor  of  the  celebrated 
Jieports,  1600 — 1615,  and  tho  CommefUary 
upon  Litikton,  1628,  ho  is  still  a  writer  of  the 
gn»test  importance  to  those  who  would  know 
anything  of  the  history  of  English  law  and 
practice.  [F.  8.  P.] 

CokOf  KooER,  was  the  author  of  a  work 
caUed  iJeteetion  of  th^  State  of  England  dtiring 
the  Four  Last  lUigna,  Lond.,  1697,  which  is  of 
some  historical  value. 

Coko.  William,  in  It5d2,  was  made  a 
iadge  of  the  Common  Pleas.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  one  of  the  witnesses  to  the  will  of 
Edward  YI.,  altering  the  succession  in  &vour 
of  Lady  Jane  Grey  ;  but  there  is  some  doubt 
as  to  whether  he  actually  signed  the  document. 
He  died  1553. 

OftliPhtwrtftTf  generally  identified  with 
the  Roman  Camulodunum,  was  one  of  the  most 
important  Roman  stations  in  England.  Im- 
mense quantities  of  Roman  relics  have  been 
found  hero.  It  was  an  important  centre  under 
the  kings  of  the  West  Saxon  line,  and  was 
strongly  fortified  by  Edward  the  Elder.  It 
appears  in  Domesday  as  a  place  of  consider- 
able importance.  In  1218  it  was  taken  by 
Louis  of  France.  The  town  enjoyed  con- 
riderablo  trade  all  through  the  Middle 
Ages.  During  the  Great  Rebellion  it  was 
captured  bv  the  Royalists  under  Lord  Gonng 
in  1648.  'Fairfax  besieged  it  for  eleven 
weeks,  and  finally  took  it.  The  abbey  was  a 
Benedictine  foundation,  instituted  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  I.,  and  suppressed  in  1539. 
The  town  i-eturned  two  members  to  Parlia- 
ment from  23rd  Edward  I.  to  1886,  when  the 
number  was  reduced  to  one.  It  received  a 
charter  from  Richard  I.  in  1089. 

ColchesteTf  Charles  Abbot.  Lord  (5. 
1757,  (/.  1829),  was  educated  at  Westminster, 
and  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  attained 
much  practice  at  the  bar.  He  entered 
Parliament  in  1795,  and  strongly  supported 
the  Seditious  Meetings  Bill.  In  1801  he 
was  appointed  Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland. 
In  1802  he  became  Speaker  of  the  Hou^'e 
of  Commonti,  in  which  capacity  he  gave 
a  castins:  vote  against  Lord  Melville  in  1805. 
He  strongly  opposed  the  Catholic  Relief  Bill, 
effected  several  important  improvements  in 
the  mode  of  managing  business  in  the 
House,  resigned  his  seat  in  1817,  and  was 
raised  to  the  Peerage. 

Colet,  John  (5.  1466,  d.  1519),  Denn  of 
8t.  PauPs,  was  the  son  of  Sir  Henry  Colet, 


and  was  educated  at  Magdalen  College 
Oxford.  About  1493  he  went  to  the  Conti- 
nent, and  studied  Greek  in  Italy  and  Paris, 
making  the  acquaintance  of  Erasmus  and  other 
scholars.  Returning  in  1497,  he  lectured 
at  Oxford  on  Divinity  and  Greek.  In  1505 
he  was  made  Prebendar}'  and  Dean  of  St. 
Paul's.  Between  1508  and  1512  he  founded 
and  endowed  St.  Paul's  School.  Colet  was 
one  of  the  most  effective  of  the  teachers  of 
the  *'  New  Learning "  in  England  in  the 
early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  one 
of  the  most  earnest  of  tho  knot  of  churchmen 
who  aimed  at.  the  reformation  and  purification 
of  the  Church  of  England  without  actually 
separating  from  Rome. 

F.  Be«bohm,  Th«  Olr/ord  Rrformtrt. 

ColomaaL,  Edward  (d,  1 678),  was  secretary 
to  the  Duchess  of  York.  Ho  was  a  Roman 
Catholic,  a  convert  from  Protestantism,  and  a 
busy  intriguer,  who  corresponded  secretly 
with  the  French  court.  He  was  one  of  the 
first  accused  by  Titus  Gates  of  complicity  in 
the  Popish  Plot.  His  pa))ers  were  seized, 
and  he  was  arrested.  In  his  possession  were 
found  letters  addressed  to  P6re  La  Chaise, 
Louis  XIY.'s  confessor,  in  which  he  asked  for 
money  to  be  employed  in  giving  '*  the  greatest 
blow  to  the  Protestant  religion  it  has  received 
since  its  birth,"  together  with  other  expres- 
sions of  a  similar  character.  These  were  con- 
sidered to  be  conclusive  proofs  of  his  guilt. 
On  his  trial  Gates  and  Bedloe  bore  witness 
against  him,  and  he  was  executed. 

€rOlepepp«r,  John,  Lord  {d.  1660),  after 
having  spent  many  years  abroad  in  foreign 
service,  returned  to  England,  and  was  elected 
to  the  Long  Parliament,  where  he  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  vigorous  opposition  to 
monopolies.  In  1642  the  kinff  made  him 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  and  ho  acquired 
great  influence  in  the  royal  councils.  On  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he  joined  the  king, 
was  made  Master  of  the  RoUs  in  1643,  and  a 
peer  in  1644.  He  accompanied  Prince  Charles 
to  Holland,  where  he  remained  till  the  Resto- 
ration, when  he  was  reinstated  as  Mnster  of 
the  Rolls,  but  died  very  soon  afterwards. 
Clfurendou,  Hut.  o/  (h<  fi^btllion. 

College,  Stephen  (d.  1681),  known  as 
"  tho  Protestant  joiner,"  was  a  citizen  of 
London,  celebrated  in  Charles  II.'s  reign 
for  his  intemperate  zeal  against  the  Roman 
Catholics.  In  1681  he  whs  sent  to  Oxford 
by  Shaftesbur}'  to  watch  the  proceedings  of 
the  court  party  during  the  session  of  Parlia- 
ment While  at  college  there,  he  distinguished 
himself  by  inventing  a  "  Protestant  flail "  for 
beating  out  the  brains  of  Papists,  and  >»y 
writing  coarse  rhymes  agtiinst  the  king.  He 
was  indicted  in  London  on  a  charge  of  high 
treason,  but  the  bill  was  thrown  out  by  tho 
grand  jurj*.  .Subsequently  he  was  tried  in 
Oxford,  found  guilty  of  a  conspiracy  to  seize 


Col 


(  2S6  ) 


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the  king)  on  the  evidence  of  Dugdale  and 
other  informers,  and  executed. 

Collier,  Jeremy  {b.  1650,  d.  1726),  was 
rector  of  Ainpton,  in  Suffolk,  and  in  1685  was 
appointed  lecturer  at  Gray's  Inn.  He  was  a 
zealous  partisan  of  the  Stuarts,  and  was 
committed  to  Newgate  for  writing  against 
William  III. ;  he  was,  however,  released  with- 
out trial.  But  having  granted  absolution  to 
the  prisoners  executed  for  the  Assassination 
Plot  (q.v.),  he  was  obliged  to  leave  the  countr>% 
Returning  to  London,  he  wrote  several  works. 
In  1698  he  produced  his  Short  View  of  the  Im- 
morality  and  Profanenees  of  the  EnglMh  Stage^ 
in  which  he  attacked  Dryden  and  other 
dramatists  of  the  day.  The  book  was  widely 
read,  and  had  considerable  effect  in  bringing 
about  the  gpmdual  reformation  of  the  stage. 
Collier  also  produced,  among  other  works,  an 
Eeeletiaetical  Hiatory  of  Great  Britain,  which 
involved  him  in  a  controversy  with  Burnet. 

CoUingWOOdy  Cuthbeat,  Lord  {b,  1750, 
d.  1810),  was  bom  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  and 
was  very  early  sent  to  sea.  In  1774  he 
served  under  Admiral  Graves  in  America, 
and  led  a  party  of  seamen  at  Bunker  Hill. 
In  1776  he  proceeded  to  the  West  Indies, 
where  his  promotion  was  rapid,  as  he  stepped 
into  each  place  vacated  by  Nelson,  and  in 
1780  he  accompanied  Nelson  in  the  expedition 
against  San  Juan,  where  his  strong  constitu- 
tion stood  him  in  good  stead  among  the 
pestilential  marsheB.  During  the  three  next 
years  he  did  good  service  in  the  capture  of 
French  merchantmen,  and  on  peace  being 
concluded  in  1783,  rejoined  Nelson  in  the 
West  Indies.  In  1786  he  returned  to  England, 
but  did  not  long  remain  idle :  and  on  the  1st 
of  June,  1793,  he  greatly  distinguished  him- 
self, though  his  services  were  passed  over  by 
Lord  Howe.  In  command  of  the  Excellent,  he 
was  present  at  the  battle  of  St.  Vincent,  and 
took  more  than  his  share  of  the  hard  fighting. 
After  this  he  was  employed  in  blockadmg  the 
enemy's  ports,  but  managed  to  obtain  a  short 
holiday  in  1798.  The  next  year  he  was 
made  a  rear-admiral,  and  was  appointed  to 
serve  in  the  Channel  fleet  under  Lord  Brid- 
port,  by  whom  he  was  shortly  afterwards 
despatched  with  reinforcements  to  Lord  Keith 
in  the  Mediterranean.  In  May,  1802,  he 
obtained  a  year's  quiet  enjo^nnent  with  his 
family,  and  was  then  sent  off  to  join  Admiral 
Comwallis  off  Brest.  In  1804  he  was  engaged 
in  the  blockade  of  Cadiz,  until  the  union  of 
the  French  and  Spanish  fleets  compelled  him 
to  retire.  But  he  soon  resumed  his  position, 
and  only  left  it  to  join  Nelson's  fleet  in  its 
pursuit  of  Villeneuve.  In  command  of  the 
Royal  Sovereign  he  was  second  in  command 
to  Nelson  at  Trafalgar,  and,  leading  one  divi- 
sion of  the  fleet,  was  the  flrst  to  engage  the 
enemy.  On  Nelson*  s  death  the  command 
devolved  on  Collingwood,  who  has  now  been 
acquitted  of  any  blame  for  not  having  saved 


more  of  the  enemy's  ships  after  the  battle. 
He  was  at  once  raised  to  the  peerage  with  a 
life  pension  of  £2,000  per  annum.  He 
continued  actively  employed  in  annoying  the 
French  coast,  and  guarding  the  relations  of 
England  with  the  coimtries  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean.  So  unremitting  were  his 
exertions,  that  they  produced  a  disease  which 
Anally,  on  March  1^,  1810,  killed  him  almost 
at  his  post,  and  before  he  could  reach  Eng- 
land. He  was  of  all  the  able  captains  of  his 
day  second  only  to  Nelson,  nor  was  he  leas 
beloved  by  his  men  for  his  gentle  considera- 
tion and  his  daring  courage. 

Ck>llixigwood'8  Lift ;  James,  ITavol  Ui»t, 

[W.  R.  S.] 

Colonies,  The,  may  be  said  to  date 
from  the  time  of  the  enterprising  navigators 
of  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign — such  as  Gilbert 
and  Raleigh  (q.v.),  by  whom  the  infant 
colony  of  Yirg^ia  was  first  planted,  in 
1587 — but  it  was  not  until  the  persecutions 
of  James  I.  and  Charles  I.  drove  many 
Puritans  to  seek  an  asylum  in  New  England 
that  colonisation  became  at  all  general 
amongst  Englishmen.  Henceforward  the 
colonies  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard  of  North 
America  increased  rapidly,  absorbing  the 
settlements  of  other  nations,  such  as  the 
Dutch  on  the  Hudson,  the  Swedes  on  the 
Delaware,  and,  finally,  the  French  on  th4 
Mississippi.  [Colonies,  The  Americax.1 
When  these  colonies  seceded  from  England 
in  1783,  a  new  area  for  colonisation  in  tem- 
perate climates  had  already  been  opened  up 
Dv  the  discovery  of  Australia.  [Avstraua.] 
'Ae  town  of  Sydney  was  founded  in  1787, 
and  the  progress  of  tne  various  settlements  of 
the  Australasian  group  has  been  continuous 
since  that  time.  Another  group  of  colonies 
are  those  which  have  been  acquired  by  con- 
quest from  other  powers,  chiefly  France, 
Spain,  and  Holland.  Of  these  the  most  im- 
portant is  Canada  (q.v.),  conquered  in  the 
Seven  Years'  War  (1757 — 63),  and  the  islands 
of  the  West  Indies,  many  of  which  were 
acquired  in  the  same  war,  and  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  taken  in  the  war  of  the  Frt^nch 
Revolution  (1793—1815).  The  term  CoImdv  i8 
used  somewhat  loosely  to  include  the  various 
dependencies  (whether  true  colonial  seitle- 
ments  or  not)  administered  by  the  department 
of  the  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies. 
They  may  be  classed  roughly  as : — 

(1)  Agricultural  colonies,  where  cultivation 
of  the  soil  and  sheep-farming  is  the  chief 
source  of  wealth  —  such  as  the  Australian 
colonies  and  those  of  British  North  America. 

(2)  Plantation  colonies,  "  where  the  main 
ooject  of  those  who  go  to  them  is  to  plant 
and  rear  certain  vegetable  productions  which 
abound  in  hot  climates  only,  and  which  are 
of  great  value  in  European  markets " — such 
as  Ceylon,  the  West  Indian  colonies,  and 
l^Iauritius. 


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(3)  Trading  colonies — such  as  Singapore. 

(4)  Naval  or  military  stations,  such  as  Alalta 
or  Gibraltar,  which  are  considered  colonies. 

The  class  of  penal  colonies  which  existed 
at  an  early  period  no  longer  remains. 

Colonies  may  be  subjected  to  a  further 
division,  according  to  the  means  by  which 
they  wero  acquired : — 

( 1 )  Colonies  obtained  by  conquest  or  cession, 
legislation  for  which  is  absolutely  vested  in 
the  crown,  until  a  representative  assembly 
has  once  been  granted,  in  which  case  the 
crown  cannot  legislate  further,  though  the 
colony  is  still  subject  to  the  Imperial  Parlia- 
ijjent.  The  law  in  conquered  or  ceded 
colonies  remains  as  it  was,  unless  altered  by 
the  sovereign  in  council. 

(2)  Settled  colonies,  acquired  by  occupation 
when  uninhabited.  Although  such  colonies 
become  the  property  of  the  crown,  the  crown 
luis  no  power  of  legislation  by  virtue  of  its 
prerogative,  but  can  only  act  by  orders  in 
council.  It  must  be  remembered  that  a 
ceded  colouy  is  not  bound  by  Acts  of  Parlia- 
ment passed  before  its  cession ;  nor  is  the  colony 
bound  by  Acts  made  after  its  acquisition, 
unless  the  Act  is  intended  to  embrace  all 
British  colonies,  or  the  colony  is  specially 
named. 

British  colonies  are  officially  divided  into 
three  classes : — 

(1)  Crown  colonies  are  ceded  or  conquered 
colonies, ,  where  the  crown  has  the  entire 
control  of  legislation  and  of  the  officials. 

(2)  CoUmiea  with  repretentative  iftstitutions, 
hnt  without  responsible  govermnent^  where 
the  crown  retains  only  a  veto  on  legislation. 

(3)  Colonies  having  both  representative  in- 
stitutions and  resptmsible  government.  Such 
institutions  and  government  were  iutroduced 
first  into  Canada  in  the  year  1847,  owing 
to  Lord  Durham's  report.  "In  colonies 
with  responsible  government,  the  control 
of  all  public  departments  is  practically 
plnoed  in  the  hands  of  persons  oommana- 
in?  the  confidence  of  the  legislature ;  and  the 
ministers  are  responsible  to  the  legis- 
lature, as  in  England.  The  Home  Govern- 
ment has  in  such  cases  no  control  whatever 
over  any  official  except  the  governor,  though 
the  crown  retains  a  veto  on  legislation.  By 
the  adoption  of  the  principle  of  re- 
sponsible government,"  says  Sir  T.  Erskine 
May,  '*  a  colonial  constitution  has  become  the 
very  image  and  reflection  of  Parliamentary 
irovemment  in  England.  The  governor — 
like  the  sovereign,  whom  he  represf'nts — 
holds  himself  aloof  from  and  superior  to 
parties,  and  govei-ns  through  constitutional 
ad%'isers  who  have  acquired  an  ascendency 
in  the  lep^slature."  The  Eni^lish  constitution, 
in  fact,  18  generally  the  type  of  the  colonial 
governments,  which  have  a  provemor  acting 
as  viceroy  of  the  crown,  an  Upper  Chamber 
either  appointed  by  the  governor  or  elected 
by  a  limited  suffrage,  and  a  Lower  Chamber, 


corresponding  to  the  House  of  Commons,  and 
hke  it  retaining  the  exclusive  privilege  of 
orig^inatin^  money  biUs.  The  transactions  of 
such  colonics  with  the  Home  Government  are 
chiefly  confined  to  foreign  and  commercial 
affiairs.  The  former  are  managed  by  the 
Colonial  Office;  while  for  the  latter  purpose 
the  various  colonies  have  commissioners  in 
London  called  Crown  Agents  or  Agents- 
GeneraL  The  colonies  administer  justice  by 
their  own  courts  of  law,  but  an  appeal  lies 
from  all  colonial  supreme  courts,  except  those 
of  Canada,  to  the  Judicial  Committee  of  the 
Privy  Council. 

B.  M.  Martin.  BriiMt  C<>l<mie$j  Creasy, 
Constit,  of  BrUannie  Empire ;  Sir  E.  Mar,  Cond, 
Hi»t, ;  Merivole,  Colonisation ;  Sir  O.  C,  Lewis, 
iiovt.  of  Dependencies;  A.  Todd,  Pari.  Govt,  in 
British  Cotonies,  See  also  the  article^  on  the 
▼arions ooloniee.  [p.  {;$.  pi 

Colonies,  The  African.  [South  Africa.] 

Colonies,  The  American,  were  for  the 
most  part  founded  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. The  North  American  continent  was 
first  discovered  in  1497  by  John  Cabot,  to 
whom  a  patent  was  granted  by  King 
Henry  VII. ;  but  the  first  attempts  at  coloni- 
sation were  made  by  the  Spaniards  in  1521 
and  onwards,  on  the  coast  of  Florida,  whither 
the  French  followed  them  in  1562.  The 
French  also  soon  after  1535  began  to  make 
settlements  in  the  North,  over  Canada,  Capo 
Breton,  and  Nova  Scotia,  then  called  Acadia. 
Nova  Scotia  was  seized  by  Engluid  in  the 
War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  (1701—1713), 
and  Canada  in  the  Seven  Years'  War  (1757 — 
1763).  ^Canada.J  The  first  abortive  attempt 
at  English  colomsation  was  made  in  1578  by 
Frobiuier;  then  followed  two  by  Sir  Humphrey 
Gilbert  (lo79and  1583), and  two  by  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh,  the  first  of  which,  in  what  is  now 
North  Carolina,  was  for  a  little  while  success- 
fuL  At  length,  in  1607,  the  London  Com- 
pany despatched  an  expedition  which  effected 
the  first  permanent  settlement  of  the  English 
in  North  America  on  the  banks  of  the  James 
River  in  Virginia. 

The  thirteen  American  colonies  which 
afterwards  formed  the  United  States  of 
America  are  usually  divided  into  three  groups 
— those  of  Virginia,  New  York,  and  New 
England. 

( 1)  The  Virginia  group.  Virginia,  a  name 
given  by  Raleigh  to  one  of  his  unsuc- 
cessful attempts  at  colonisation  in  honour 
of  Queen  Elizabeth,  at  first  had  a  very  strug- 
gling existence.  It  was  kept  alive  chiefly  by 
the  exertions  of  a  hardy  adventurer,  John 
Smith,*  who  explored  the  countrj^  and  made 
friends  with  the  Indian  chief  Powhatan,  the 
theme,  with  his  daughter  Pocahontas,  of  some 
romantic  stories.  Fresh  immigrants  soon  began 
to  strengthen  the  colony ;  it  grew  rich  by  the 
saleof  tobacco,  and  in  1619,  the  Virginian  House 

*  The  Adventurer  and  Discoursss  of  Captain  John 
Smith,  by  Juhn  Ashton. 


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(  288  ) 


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of  Burgesses  assembled  for  the  first  time.  The 
next  few  years  witnessed  some  dangerous 
struggles  with  the  Indians,  in  which  the 
colony  suffered  greatly  until  the  submission 
of  the  savages  in  1646,  which  was  confirmed 
by  a  great  treaty  at  Albany  in  1684.  In 
162-1  James  I.  dissolved  the  London  Company, 
and  Virginia  became  a  crown  colony ;  but 
soon  afterwards  the  valuable  monopoly  of  the 
import  of  tobacco  to  England  was  secured  to 
Virginia  and  the  Somers  Islands  by  proclama- 
tion. Its  position  under  the  Commonwealth 
was  one  of  practical  independence.  Fortune 
changed,  however,  with  the  Restoration,  when 
Charles  II.  restricted  the  commerce  of  the 
colony  by  Navigation  Acts,  while  the  Assembly, 
which  was  extremely  Royalist,  persecuted 
Nonconformists  and  limited  the  suffrage. 
Finally  the  whole  of  Virginia  was  banded  over 
for  thirty-one  years  to  Lord  Colepepper  and 
Lord  Arlington.  From  these  causes  sprang 
a  rebellion,  known  from  its  leader  as  "  Bacon's 
Robellio;!,"  in  1675,  which  was  crushed  two 
years  later  by  Sir  George  Berkeley.  Lord 
Colepepper  was  made  governor  for  life,  and 
the  position  of  the  colonists  during  the 
remainder  of  the  Stuart  period  was  dis- 
astrous. After  the  Revolution,  however, 
Virginia  recovered  her  prosperity,  and  the 
separate  history'  of  the  colony  consists 
chiefly  in  a  series  of  disputes  between  the 
governors  and  the  assemblies.  Mary' 
land,  named  after  Queen  Henrietta  Maria, 
was  originally  part  of  Virginia,  but  was 
made  into  a  separate  colony  by  charter 
in  1632,  when  it  became  the  property  of 
a  Catholic,  Lord  Baltimore,  under  a  most 
liberal  constitution,  equality  being  conceded 
to  all  Christian  creeds.  Its  condition  was 
one  of  great  prosperity  until  Claybome, 
a  man  of  repubhcan  sympathies,  opposed  the 
authority  of  Lord  Baltimore,  and  &rew  the 
colony  into  confusion,  which  lasted  for  ten 
years  until  1660.  Under  William  and  Mar}% 
the  colony  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
crown,  and  Roman  Catholicism  became 
illegal;  but  in  1716  it  was  restored  to  the 
descendants  of  its  founder,  now  become  Pro- 
testants. The  Carolinas  were  so  called  in  the 
first  instance  by  the  French  settlers  in  honour 
of  Charles  IX.  of  France,  and  North  Carolina 
was  the  scene  of  most  of  Raleigh's  attempts 
at  colonisation,  being  then  part  of  Virginia. 
The  name  was  given  -to  them  afresh  by 
Charles  II.,  in  whoso  reign  it  was  granted  by 
charter  to  proprietaries,  and  a  constitution 
known  as  the  **  Grand  Model,''  prepared  for 
it  by  Locke  and  Shaftesbury.  It  was,  how- 
ever, found  unworkable;  the  colonists  took 
matters  into  their  own  hands,  divided  them- 
selves into  two  governments,  began  to  import 
negro  slaves,  and  to  treat  the  Indian  tnhes 
with  g^eat  brutality.  Finally,  in  1729  the 
proprietors  sold  their  rights  to  the  crown. 
Geoi-gia,  originally  part  of  Carolina,  was 
founded  by  Colonel  Oglethorpe,  with  some 


government  assistance,  as  a  refuge  for  insol- 
vent debtors  and  persecuted  Dissenters  whom 
he  rescued  from  English  prisons.  Its 
religious  ideas  were  strongly  influenced  by 
the  advent  of  some  Moravian  settlers,  and  bv 
the  visits  of  the  two  Wesleys  and  Whitfield. 
In  1739  Oglethorpe  invaided  the  Spanish 
colony  of  Florida  without  success,  and  the 
counterattack  also  failed.'  Slavery  was  in- 
troduced into  the  colony  about  1750,  and  two 
years  later  it  was  annexed  to  the  crown. 

(2)  The  New  York  group.    Of  these  New 
York  and  New  Jvr$ey  have  a  common  history. 
They    were    in    the    first    instance    Dutch 
colonies.    Delaware  Bay  was  discovered  by 
Henry  Hudson  in  1609,  and   a  settlement 
made  at  Albany  in   1615.    Soon  New  Am- 
sterdam, at  first  a  trading  station,  became  a 
permanent  town,  and  the  island  of  Manhattan 
was    bought  from    the   Indians.      After   a 
struggle    for   existence    with    the    English 
colonies,    with    the    Indians,    who    nearly 
destroyed  them,  and  with  the  Swedes,  whose 
settlement,  **  New  Sweden,**  was  annexed  in 
1655,  the  state  and  city  of  New  AmsterdanL 
became  very  prosperous.    In  1664,  however,, 
the  country  was  granted  by  Charles  II.   ta 
James,  Duke  of  York ;  it  surrendered  to  Sir 
Robert  Holmes  without  a  struggle ;    New 
Amsterdam  became  New  York,  and  the  dis- 
trict   between   the  Hudson   and    Delaware 
New  Jersey.    For  a  few  years  the  Dutch 
recovered  it  again,  but  it  was  finally  ceded 
to  England  in  1674.    James  II.  united  New 
York  and  New  England  under  the  governor- 
ship of  Sir  E.  Andrews,  but  at  the  Kevolutioa 
he  was  driven  out,  and  the  connection  dis- 
solved.     The  rights  of   the  proprietors   in. 
New  Jersey  were  bought  by  the  Uuakf.rs  iu 
1682,  but  surrendered  to  the  crown  in  1702. 
Pennsylvania^   a  district  originally  occupied 
by  the  settlement  of  New  Sweden,  was  also 
purchased  from  Charles  II.  by  William  Pena 
in  1682,  when  its  capital,  Philadelphia,  was 
founded,  and  a  treaty  concluded  with   the 
Indian  tribes.    Soon  afterwards  a  boundary 
dispute    arose    with   Maryland,   which   ter- 
minated in  the  cession,  in  1701,  to  Penn  of  the 
tract  on  the  south  of  the  Delaware,  which  was 
known  as  the  Delaware  Territory,  and  which. 
was  attached  to  Pennsylvania,  though  with  a. 
separate  logislatiu'e,  tiU  1776,  when  Delaware 
declared  itself  an  independent  State.    After 
the  English   Revolution  Penn*s  proprietary 
rights  were  confiscated. 

(3)  The  New  England  group.  This  was  ao 
named  by  John  Smith,  who  made  on^  of  the  t^ivo 
early  and  unsuccessful  attempts  to  found  a 
settlement  there.  In  1620,  however,  some 
PuritanNonconformists,  known  as  the  "  Pilgrim 
Fathers,' '  sailed  from  England  in  the  Mayflovcet\ 
and,  landing  in  Plymouth  Bay,  effected  a  per- 
manent  occupation.  Their  relations  with  tho 
Indians  were  on  the  whole  friendly,  and  freak 
settlements  were  made,  viz.,  New  Mampskirv 
(1622),   MaesachuaetU   in   1628,  £hode  lakt^^O, 


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(  289  ) 


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by  Roger  Williams  (1631),  and  Cmneetieut 
ooloiuaed  from  Massachusetts  from  1633  and 
onwards.  This  last  settlement  involved  the 
New  Englanders  in  two  Indian  wars,  which 
resulted  in  the  defeat  of  the  Pequod  and 
Narragansett  tribes.  The  northern  colonics 
were  sabjected  by  Charles  I.  to  severe 
restrictions,  but  in  1643  formed  themselves 
into  a  federation  known  as  The  United 
(Moniet  of  New  Englmid^  which  proved 
the  germ  of  the  present  United  States, 
^iassachusetts  soon  proved  itself  the  most 
powerful  of  the  four  colonies,  and  in  1676 
cmshed  the  Indians  in  a  great  war  called, 
after  the  chief  of  the  Wampanoags,  "  King 
Pbilip^s  War."  New  England  was  severely 
oppr^sed  after  the  Restoration  by  Andros 
and  other  governors ;  Massachusetts  forfeited 
her  charter  in  1684,  but  with  the  Revolution 
better  times  came.  In  1690  the  Massa- 
chusetts government  instigated  a  war  for 
the  conquest  of  Canada,  which  lasted  with  a 
long  interval  after  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  (q.v.) 
down  to  the  close  of  **  King  George's  War," 
t.f.,  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession. 
Such  was  the  origin  of  the  thirteen  American 
colonies,  of  which  it  may  be  said  that  the 
southern,  where  slave-labour  was  universal 
with  the  exception  of  Georgia,  were  in  the 
main  aristocratic,  and  the  northern  sectarian 
and  democratic.  Their  constitutions  varied 
considerably,  but  as  a  rule  they  consisted  of 
a  house  of  assembly  elected  by  the  burgesses, 
or  freemen,  reinforced  frequently  by  nominees 
of  the  proprietaries,  a  council  nominated,  as 
a  rule,  by  the  governor,  but  in  Massachusetts 
by  the  freemen,  and  a  governor  appointed  in 
crown  colonies  by  the  king  and  proprietors, 
in  the  others  by  the  council. 

Before  the  commencement  of  the  Seven 
Years'  War  in  Europe,  a  border  warfare 
known  as  the  *' French  and  Indian  War" 
broke  out  in  America,  during  which  occurred 
the  occupation  of  the  Ohio  valley  by  the 
French,  who  built  there  Fort  Duquesne,  and 
the  defeat  of  General  Braddock  and  George 
Washington  when  they  advanced  against  it, 
1755.  War  was  not  formally  declared  until 
1766,  when  the  newly-built  Fort  William 
Henry  was  taken  by  the  enemy.  Towards 
the  end  of  the  war,  however,  fortune 
changed,  and  the  great  success  of  Wolfe  in 
Canada  was  anticipated  by  the  capture  of 
Fort  Duquesne  (subsequently  re-named  Pitts- 
bure)  in  1758  by  General  Forbes  supported 
by  Washington.  After  the  Peace  of  Paris 
(1763],  the  Virginians  defeated  the  Ottawas 
and  tneir  allies  in  the  last  great  war  waged 
by  the  colonists  against  the  Indians. 

It  is  impossible  here  to  do  more  than  just 
hint  at  ti^e  events  wluch  from  that  date  tended 
to  embitter  the  relations  between  the  colonies 
and  England.  There  were,  in  the  first  place, 
the  Naviffotum  Laws  (1657—1660),  by  which 
the  colonies  were  prohibited  from  procur- 
ing a  large  number  of  articles  except  from 

HiBT.-lO 


England  and,  after  the  Treaty  of   Utrecht, 
from  Spain,  and  laid  duties  on  the  export  of 
articles  from  colony  to  colony.    Those  laws 
were  largely  evaded  by  smuggling,  and  in 
consequence  Grenville  in  1764  enforced  them 
with  great  severity,  and  by  a  Revenue  Act 
laid  heavy  duties  on  various  imports,  includ- 
ing wines.    The  Stamp  Act  (1765)  followed, 
which  imposed  duties  ranging  from  ^.  to 
£10    on    printed  publications,  but    it    was- 
received  with  such  outcry  and  riots  all  over 
America,  that  it  had  to  be  repealed  in  the 
following  year,  while  a  Declaratory  Act  at 
the  same  time  insisted  on  the  dependence  of 
the  colonies  on  the  king  and  Parliament  of 
Great  Britain.     This  conciliatory  policy  did 
not  continue  long.      In  the  same  year  the 
New  York    Assembly    was    suspended    for 
refusing  to  supply  stores  to  the  royal  troops 
in  obedience  to    the    Quartering    Acty   and 
Charles  Townshend's  fatal  Revenue  Act,  im- 
posing import  duties  on  paper,  glass,  tea,  and 
other  articles  followed    in   the  next   year. 
War  was  from  that  moment  inevitable  ;  the 
^lassachusetts  Assembly  was  dissolved  in  1768 
for  refusing  to  rescind  a  letter  of  protest,  and 
there  was  a  collision  between  the  citizens  of 
Boston  and  the  British  troops,  known  as  the 
"  Boston  Massacre,"  in  1770.     Lord  North's 
Tea    Act    (1770),    which    removed   the    re- 
strictions except  that  on  tea,  postponed  tho 
war  for  awhile,  but  the  rejection  of  I)unning*s- 
l^tition  for  the  removal  of  Hutchinson  from 
the  governorship  of    Massachusetts   by  the 
English  government  was  followed,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  burning  of  the  tea  ships  in 
Boston  harbour,  by  the  Boston  Fort  Act,  the 
spark  which  set  the  incendiary  forces  of  a 
century  ablaze.    [Boston  Pokt  Act  ;  Ameri- 
can Indepexdencb,  Wau  op  ;  United  States, 
Relations  with.] 

Bancroft,  Eigt.  of  AiMvica ;  J.  Do^le,  Ths  Eng- 
Uth  in  America;  Hemiiig,  Enauiry  \nt  i  Colonisa- 
tion; Belknap,  Hiat.  of  Sew  Hamfhirt;  Massa- 
chvutU  Historical  CMections ;  Clarkwn,  ilemoim 
of  Wiaiam,  Penn ;  Stanhope,  Hut.  ot  Mnaiand ; 
Macaulay'B  Essay  on  Chatham  f  Ludlow,  War  oj 
American  Independence.  [L.  C.  S.] 

ColonioSy  The  Australian.  [  A  vktrali  a.] 

Columbft,  St.  {b,  o21,  d,  607),  was  a 
native  of  Grartan,  in  Donegal;  he  was  the 
son  of  Feidlhim  and  Ethne,  both  of  Irish  blood 
royal.  Educated  for  the  Church,  he  founded, 
in  645,  the  monastery  of  Derry,  and  subse- 
quently established  many  churches  in  Ireland. 
The  victory  of  the  heathen  king,  Brude 
MacMaclen,  over  the  Scots  of  Balriada,  in 
660,  led,  three  years  later,  to  the  mission  of 
Columba,  undertaken  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
verting the  Picts:  though  another  account 
ascribes  the  departure  of  Columba  from  Ire- 
land to  his  action  in  bringing  about  a  battle 
between  two  Irish  tribes.  Columba  landed  in 
lona  563,  recei^dng  the  grant  of  the  island 
from  Conal,  King  of  Dajriada,  or,  as  some 
think,  from  Brude,  the  Pictish  monarch ;  here- 


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he  founded  his  church,  which  became  for  150 
years  the  national  Church  of  Scotland.  The 
Columhan  church,  always  intimately  connected 
with  the  Church  of  Ireland,  was  in  some  points 
of  doctrine  and  ceremonial  opposed  to  that  of 
Borne,  to  which  it  o  wed  no  allegiance.  [Ch  vkch  , 
Thb  Celtic]  After  two  years  spent  in  the 
establishment  of  his  monastery,  Columba,  in 
665,  went  on  a  mission  of  conversion  to  the 
court  of  Brude,  Kirnj  of  the  Picts,  at  Inver- 
ness ;  having  won  over  the  monarch  to  the  new 
faith,  he  proceeded  to  establish  monasteries 
throughout  the  Pictish  territory.  In  675  he 
caused  Aidan,  King  of  Dakiada,  to  assert  his 
position  as  a  king,  independent  of  the  Irish 
Dalriads ;  the  remnining  years  of  his  life  were 
chiefly  spent  in  founding  churches  amongst 
the  southern  Picts.  Shortly  before  his  death, 
which  took  place  in  June,  697,  he  revisited 
Ireland.  The  clouds  of  tradition  and  romance 
in  which  the  facts  of  his  life  are  enshrouded 
render  it  somewhat  difficult  to  estimate  his 
true  character ;  he  is  called  by  his  biogprapher 
Adamnan  a  man  of  contrasts,  "at  once 
tender  and  irritable,  rude  and  courteous, 
grateful  and  revengeful/*  The  verdict  of 
Sir.  Skene  may  be  quoted: — "He  was  evi- 
dently a  man  of  great  force  of  character  and 
determined  zeal  in  effecting  his  purpose,  but 
he  could  not  have  been  the  object  of  such 
tender  love  and  implicit  devotion  from  all  who 
came  under  the  sphere  of  hit  influence  if  the 
softer  and  more  amiable  features  pictured  in 
the  earlier  descriptions  of  him  had  not  pre- 
dominated.'* In  later  years,  part  of  his  relics 
were  removed  to  Kells,  in  Meath,  and  part  by 
Kenneth  MacAlpine  to  Dunkeld. 

Adamiian.  'LiS4  of  St.  (UAv^mha  (Beeves*8  od., 
18S7);  Forbej,  Xatmdar  of  fieoto'sk  8ainl4i 
Skene. 

Columbia^  British,  was  formerly  part  of 
the  Hudflon'sBay  Territories.  It  rose  into  im- 
portance owing  to  the  discovery  of  gold  there 
(1858—1861)  and  the  consequent  influx  of 
settlers.  It  was  created  a  crown  colony  in 
18-38.  In  1 866  Vancouver's  Island  and  Queen 
Cbarlotte*s  Islands  were  incorporated  with  it, 
and  in  1871  the  whole  district  was  formea 
into  a  proviuce  of  Canada  (q.v.).  The 
government,  which,  like  those  of  the  other 
provinces  of  the  Dominion,  is  subject  to  the 
(ontral  authority  at  Ottawa,  consists  of  a 
lieutenant-governor  and  a  legislative  assembly 
of  twenty-four  members. 

Combomioro,  Stapletox  Cottox,  Ist 
Viscount  {b.  1772,  d.  1865),  took  part  in  the 
last  l^Iysore  War.  He  served  with  distinction 
through  the  Peninsular  War,  was  commander 
of  all  the  allied  cavalry  after  1810,  and 
decided  the  fortune  of  the  dav  at  Salamanca 
by  a  grand  cavalry  charge.  In  1814  he  was 
for  his  services  created  Baron  Comb«rmere. 
In  1817  he  was  made  Governor  of  Jamaica. 
In  1825  he  was  appointed  commander-in-chief 
in  India,  and  accomplished  the  reduction  of 


Bhurtpore  at  the  close  of  the  Burmese  War. 
He  was  created  Viscount  Combennere  of 
Bhurtpore,  Feb.,  1827. 

Commendanifl.    On  the  vacancy  of  a 
benetice,    it    was    sometimes    customary   to 
assign  it  to  the  care  of  a  bishop,  to  be  held  in 
eommendam  until  a  proper  person  could  be 
found  on  whom  to  bestow  it.    This  system 
was  employed  for  the  purpose  of  evading  the 
law  against  pluralities,  and  was  frequently 
abused.     In  1616  occurred  the  famous  Case  of 
Commendatns,  when  an  action  was  brought 
against  Neile,  Bishop  of  Lichfield,  for  holdmg 
a  living,   in    eomfMndatn,  to  which    it  was 
alleged  he  had  been  illegally  {^resented  by 
the  king,  whose  general  prerogative  of  grant- 
ing a  commendam  was  disputed.    The  case  is 
famous  for  the  subserviency  of  the  judges, 
who,  having  made  some  slight  effort  to  resent 
the  king's  attempt  to  obtain  a  verdict  favour- 
able to  himself,  subsequently  sued  for  pardon 
on  their  knees.  Sir  Edward  Coke's  opposition 
to  James's  unconstitutional  act  entailed  his 
dismissal  shortly  afterwards. 

Commendation.    [Feudalism.] 

Commeroa,  The  history  of  English 
commerce  is  naturally  divided  into  two  parts 
— ^the  progress  of  navigation  and  the  routes 
taken  by  traders.  But  for  the  sake  of  con- 
venience and  brevity  they  must  be  taken 
together  in  the  present  article. 

The  chief  objects  of  mediaeval  maritime 
enterprise  were  the  fisheries  and  the  trade  with 
the  East.  The  former  were  principally  in  the 
hands  of  the  Dutch  and  English ;  the  latter, 
as  far  as  Europe  was  conoemed,  in   those 
of  the  Venetians,  Genoese,  and  Horentines. 
Fish  was  a  far  more  important  article  of  diet 
in  the  ^Uddle  Ages  than  it  is  now.     It  was 
prescribed  during  certain  times  of  the  year  or 
week  by  religion,  and  it  supplemented  as  ^well 
as  varied  the  coarse  salted  food  of  our  ances- 
tors in  winter.    The  principal  ports  engaged 
in  this  trade  were  Yarmouth  and  the  neigh- 
bouring towns  for  herrings,  and  Scarborough 
for  cod.    There  were  also  extensive  aalmon 
fisheries  in  the  l^mes,  the  Tweed,  and  the 
Severn,  barrelled  salmon  being  an  important, 
though  comparatively  expensive,  article  of  diet. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  fifteenth  century,  i^e.y 
before  1436,  Bristol  mariners,  by  the  use  of  the 
mariner's  compass,  reached  Iceland  by   Ike 
Irish  Channel  and  Atlantic,  and  successfully 
competed   with    their    Scarborough    rivals. 
Bristol  gained  considerable  opulence  by  thia 
trade,  and  during  this  century  became    the 
second  city  of    the  kingdom  for    opulence 
and  numbers.    The  magnificent  chuxtjb    oi 
St.   Mary  Redcliffe  was  the  gift  of    a.    rich 
Bristol  merchant  in  this  century. 

The  trade  of  England  during  this  period 
was  very  considerable,  and  was  doubtlessly 
much  assisted  by  our  possessions  in  France. 
The  English  claimed,  by  virtue  of  the  situation 


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of  the  port  of  Calais,  to  have  the  control  of  the 
narrow  seas,  and,  as  long  as  they  held  Nor- 
mandy and  Guienne,  with  the  suzerainty  over 
Britanny,  could  reju^ulate  traffic  along  the  coast 
from  Flanders  to  Bayonne.  Hence  the  efforts 
which  the  Lancastrian  kings  made  for  the 
maintenance  of  Henry  Y.'s  conquests  had  a 
commercial  as  well  as  a  military  purpose. 
The  Emperor  Sigismund  told  Henry  V.  that 
Dover  and  Calais  were  the  keys  of  the 
Channel,  and  should  he  kept  as  the  special 
strength  of  England.  The  trade  with  the 
Baltic  and  the  coasts  of  Scandinavia  and 
Denmark  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Hanse 
towns,  which  were  closely  connected  with 
London,  where  a  powerful  corporation 
called  the  Alderman  and  Merchants  of  the 
Steel-yardy  had  importfint  privileges  from 
the  thirteenth  century  till  towards  the  close 
of  the  sixteenth.  When  the  English  occupa- 
tion of  Normandy  was  gone,  English  com- 
merce waa  seriously  affected  hy  the  numerous 
«n«air8  which  hid  in  the  Breton  ports,  and, 
^ter  the  loss  of  Guienne,  this  part  of 
France  was  similarly  affected  by  the  decline 
of  trade  with  England,  and  vainly  strove,  by 
the  revolt  of  ^453,  to  renew  its  old  relations 
with  the  English  crown  and  people.  The 
commercial  relations  between  England  and 
Portagal  were  intimate.  But  after  the  war 
with  France  was  practically  over,  and  Louis  XI. 
left  no  means  untried  to  conciliate  Edward  lY ., 
the  coasting  trade  of  England  became  again 
extensive  and  profitable,  for  we  learn  from  a 
remarkable  treatise  of  the  time  that  the 
English  mercantile  marine  had  nearly  all  the 
carrying  trade  of  the  coast,  while  that  of 
]*Yance  was  unimportant.  The  writer,  a 
Frencfaman,  therefore  recommends  a  stringent 
uavigatioa  law. 

In  the  fourteenth  centor}'  the  produce  of 
the  East  was  conveyed  to  Europe  by  three 
routes  at  least :  two  by  land,  a  third 
mainly  by  sea.  The  two  land  routes  started 
from  Bagdad,  one  passing  through  Mesopo- 
tamia to  Antioch,  the  other  through  the  high- 
lands of  Armenia  to  Trebizond.  The  third 
was  to  Aden,  up  the  Red  Sea,  then  by  a  short 
land  journey  to  the  Nile,  and  down  the  Nile 
to  Cairo  and  Alexandria.  This  road  ultimately 
superseded- the  others.  Central  Asia,  owing 
to  the  gradual  advance  of  the  Turks,  and 
finally  the  conquest  of  Constantinople  and 
the  fall  of  the  Greek  empire,  became  impass- 
able for  commerce,  and  the  only  road  which 
remained  open  was  through  Egypt,  where  hm.Ty 
tolls  were  exacted,  though  not  so  as  to  entirely 
spoil  the  trade.  The  goods  brought  from  the 
East,  chiefly  spices,  which  were  eagerly  pur- 
chased by  all  who  could  afford  them,  were 
carried  throusrh  Italy,  across  the  Alps,  and 
down  the  waterwa3rs  of  the  Rhine,  the  Upper 
Danube,  and  their  affluents,  enriching  the 
towns  of  Lower  Germany  and  Flanders.  It 
is  possible  that  some  Eastern  produce  still 
found  its  way  into  Europe  by  the  Caspian, 


Astraehan,  and  Russia,  and  that  the  early 
opulence  of  Novgorod  was  due  to  this  com- 
merce. 

Meanwhile,  the  avenues  of  trade  with  the 
East  were  being  closed  up,  and  the  Western 
nations  began  to  be  alarmed  at  the  risk  of 
being  excluded  from  the  use  of  products 
which  had  become  necessaries  to  many. 
Maritime  enterprise  had  been  stimulated  by 
the  example  of  the  Portuguese  and  their 
successful  explorations  of  the  African  coast. 
Simultaneously,  Vasco  de  Gama,  under  the 
patronage  of  the  King  of  Portugal,  and 
Columbus,  under  that  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,  strove  to  find  a  waterway  to  the 
East,  and  so  escape  from  the  flow  of  bar- 
barism which  had  nearly  destroyed  commerce. 
At  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  centur}*,  Vasco 
de  Ghima  achieved  the  Cape  passage ;  Colum- 
bus, the  discovery  of  the  New  World.  The 
Pope  granted  to  Portugal  and  Spain,  in  an  age 
when  no  one  disputed  lus  authority  in  the 
matter,  the  dominion  over  their  discoveries, 
and  exclusive  privileges  of  trading  thither. 
The  result  in  the  New  World  was  the  Spanish 
conquest  and  the  establishment  of  Spanish 
monopoly.  In  the  East,  factories  were  es- 
tablished, especially  on  the  western  side  of 
Hindostan,  which,  after  the  unipn  of  the 
crowns  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  became  also 
part  of  the  vast  Spanish  empire.  These 
discoveries  were  made  only  just  in  time. 
In  less  than  twenty  years  after  the  voyages 
of  Columbus  and  De  Gkuna,  Selim  I.  conqu^ed 
^Syp^  annihilated  what  little  trade  was  left 
by  Ihis  route,  and  ruined  the  prosperity  of 
the  Italian  and  free  Grerman  cities. 

The  sea  route  was  for  a  long  time  costly 
and  unprofitable.  It  was  protected  by  a 
monopoly — due  to  the  papal  grants.  It  was 
in  the  hands  of  a  small  power,  which,  after  a 
brief  period  of  extraordinary  activity,  showed 
signs  of  early  decay.  From  these  discoveries 
the  English  were  excluded,  owing,  amongst 
other  causes,  to  the  timid  avarice  of  Henr\' 
YII.,  to  the  respect  still  exitertained  for 
the  Pope^B  authority,  and  when  that  was 
discarded,  to  the  fear  of  the  Spanish  power. 
Hence,  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century* 
an  attempt  was  made  to  develop  trade  in 
another  quarter.  In  the  year  1553  Sir  Hugh 
Willoughby  attempted  a  North-East  passage, 
with  three  ships.  Two  were  driven  into  a 
desert  harbour  of  Lapland,  and  the  com- 
manders and  crews  frozen  to  death.  Tlie 
third  reaching  Archangel,  its  commander  had 
an  interview  with  Ivan  the  Terrible,  and  ob- 
tained for  his  employers  the  charter  of  the 
Russian  Company.  The  first  map  of  Russia 
was  published  in  1560  by  an  Hgent  of  this 
company ;  but  for  a  long  time  the  operations 
of  the  company  were  trivial.  Similar  at- 
tempts were  made  to  open  up  a  trade  with 
the  Levant  and  Morocco.  These  were  dis- 
tinct advances,  though  as  yet  without  de- 
cisive  results.    In  the  reign  of  Henry  YII  J. 


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— as  we  learn  from  one  of  his  statutes,  regu- 
lating the  price  of  freights,  and  directing 
what  should  be  the  goods  transported  to 
various  countries — it  appears  that  Malaga 
was  the  furthest  port  to  which  at  this  time 
the  English  ship-master  ventured.  It  is 
plain  that  England  had  fallen  far  behind 
other  nations  in  the  extent  and  activity  of 
her  mercantile  marine. 

The  resuscitation  of  English  enterprise  was 
I  due  to  Frobisher,  Davis,  and  Drake,  especially 
,  to  the  last.  In  1579  Elizabeth  entered  into  an 
allianoe  offensive  and  defensive  with  Holland, 
and  thus  informally  declared  war  against 
Spain.  Two  years  before  this,  Drake  had 
set  out  on  his  famous  voyage.  His  distinct 
purpose  was  the  plunder  of  Spanish  commerce, 
and  he  probably  started  with  the  queen's 
concurrence,  certainly  with  her  connivance. 
In  those  days  it  was  very  difficult  to  prevent 
private  warfare,  especially  when  the  object  of 
such  warfare  was  opulent,  and  possessed  of 
lucrative  privileges,  held  under  what  had  now 
become  a  discredited  authority,  and  was 
wholly  unable  to  defend  those  privileges  by  a 
blockade  or  a  police  of  the  seas.  The  prac- 
tical exclusion  of  all  ships  blit  those  of  one 
nation  from  both  ancient  and  new  mar- 
kets explains,  though  it  may  not  justify,  the 
buccaneering  exploits  of  Drake  and  his 
followers.  It  was  the  only  way  intelligible 
to  the  wild  spirit  of  the  time  of  breaking  in 
upon  a  monopoly,  when  England  declared  war 
against  Spain  and  Spain  had  added  the 
possessions  of  Portugal  to  her  own.  The 
commerce  and  factories  of  the  East  became 
lawful  prize  to  the  English  and  the  Dutch. 
The  latter  were  early  successful,  and  estab- 
lished an  Indian  empire  in  the  Archipelago. 
But  the  English  built  up  their  commerce 
with  the  East  very  slowly ;  and  after  many 
reverses,  Elizabeth  granted  charters,  towards 
the  conclusion  of  her  reign,  to  the  Levant  and 
East  India  Companies,  and  made  considerable 
sacrifices  of  revenue  in  order  to  foster  their 
early  efforts. 

When  the  rupture  with  Spain  was  im- 
minent, England  began  to  plant  colonies  in 
North  America,  Raleigh  being  the  pioneer  of 
those  settlements.  But  they  were  practically 
private  adventures.  The  settlers  found 
neither  fertile  localities  abounding  in  mineral 
wealth  nor  opulent  kingdoms,  the  plunder  of 
which  would  enrich  monarchs  as  well  as 
soldiers  of  fortune,  such  as  were  Mexico  and 
Peru.  The  settlers  in  the  English  plantations 
had  to  contest  their  occupation  with  vigorous, 
poor,  and  resolute  savages,  who  had  probably 
dispossessed  and  annihilated  a  wealthier  anil 
more  civilised  race.  The  later  settlers  of 
New  England  planted  themselves  on  sterile 
land,  and  in  a  climate  of  extremes.  The 
struggle  for  existence,  as  we  know,  was 
severe,  and  a  long  time  elapsed  before  these 
settlers  could  acquire  a  few  comforts.  They 
became-  indeed,  the  nucleus  of  a  vast  empire, 


the  opulence  and  resources  of  which  already 
are  beyond  parallel,  and  will  be  beyond 
rivalry  at  no  remote  date.  But  for  a  long 
time  they  were  weak  and  profitless  to  Eng- 
land. 

After  many  disappointments,  the  East  India 
Company  began    to    prosper.      During  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.   its  profits  from  trade 
were  very  large,  and  the  fortunes  of  many  a 
noble  and  wealthy  family  were  founded  on 
East  India  stock  and  the  sales  of  its  imports. 
Like  ever}''  similar  institution,  in  the  extra- 
ordinar}'  period  of  stock-exchange  and  stock- 
jobbing activity,  which  became  a  frenzy  from 
the  Hevolution  to  the  collapse  of  the  South 
Sea  Scheme,  the  East  India  Company  had  its 
rivals   for    privilege    and    monopoly.     The 
Parliament  had  taken  from   the  crown  the 
right  of  giving  patents  for  exclusive  trade, 
and  had  assumed  the    power   itself.     The 
crown   was   not    unwilling  to  transfer  the 
odium  of    such  grants    from  itself    to  tLo 
Parliament,  especially  as  the  companies  wei^ 
perfectly  willing  to  assist  the  financial  em- 
iMUTassments  of  the  government  by  loans  on 
favourable  terms,  or  even  by  the  handsel  of 
large  sums  down  in  return  for  concessions. 
Nor  is  there  any  doubt  that  much  of  the 
corruption  of  Parliament  was  duo  to  votes 
bought  by  those  w^o  were  eager  to  obtain 
the  lucrative  monopoly  of  a  Parliamentary 
title.     The  habit  of  gambling  in  companies' 
shares  was  greatly  furthered  by  the  almost 
unlicensed  practice  of  offering  lotteries  on 
ever}'  conceivable  subject. 

The  theory  of  the  seventeenth  and  eigh- 
teenth centuries  was  that  the  development  of 
commerce  was  of  supreme  importance  to  the 
community,   and    that    commerce  wus    best 
secured  by  monopoly.     But  monopoly  in  the 
existing  condition  of  commercial  iLurope  was 
to  be  secured  only  by  war — ^an  improvement, 
indeed,  on  the  old  system  of  buccaneering, 
but  for  a  long  time  accompanied  by  it.  James 
was  too  timid  to  make  war  on  any  pretext. 
Charles  could  not  rely  on  his  subjects,  even 
if  he  had  possessed  the  means  whereby  to 
carry  on  a   warlike  policy.     But   Cromwell 
consulted  the  impulses  of  his  age  and  race 
when  he  declared  war  against  Spain.       He 
demanded  trade   with  the  Spanish  colonies, 
and  religious  freedom  for  English  settlers  in 
such  colonies.     His  demands  weie   refused, 
and  he   seized  Jamaica   (intending   to    seize 
Cuba),  in  the  Antilles,  and  Dunkirk,  on   the 
Flemish  coast.     He  intended  to  control   the 
narrow  seas,  and  to  found  an  empiro   in   the 
West.      He   defeated   the    Dutch,   humbled 
them  and  broke  their  prestige,  and  desip^ned. 
to  ruin  their  trade  by  his  Navigation    Act. 
And   had    Cromwell    lived   to    the     natural 
span  of  human  life,  instead  of  d>nng:   in   Ki% 
fitty-ninth  year,   he    could    assuredly'    Have 
founded  an  English  empire  in  the  Gulf  states, 
and  have  expelled  the  Spaniards,  nearly  t^co 
centuries  before  Canning's  famous  boast  ^^u^ 


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uttered,  ihat  he  had  called  the  New  World 
into  being  in  order  to  redress  the  balance  of 
the  Old. 

The  commerce  of  England  grew  rapidly 
during  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Wild  speculation  was  checked  by  the  losses 
of  the  South  Sea  scheme,  capital  was  accumu- 
lated, agriculture  prospered,  and  the  pacific 
policy  of  Walpole  and  Fleury  aided  pro- 
gress. The  Seven  Years'  War,  avowedly 
carried  on  by  England  in  order  to  secure 
commerce  by  conquest,  had,  and  continues  to 
have,  lasting  effects  on  mankind.  It  gave 
India  and  North  America  to  the  English 
race  and  to  English  civilisation.  But  it  also 
brought  with  it  the  refutation  of  the  old 
commercial  doctrine  that  war  makes  trade 
and  conquest  secures  trade.  England  sought 
to  impose  part  of  the  charges  of  the  war  on 
the  American  colonies,  and  the  War  of  Inde- 
pendence followed.  The  East  India  Company 
lound  that  thev  could  not  live  and  paj 
dividends  on  trade,  though  they  clung  to  their 
monopoly,  and  therefore  they  began  to  pay 
dividendB  out  of  the  tribute  of  conquerea 
races. 

It  was  supposed  that  after  the  loss  of  the 
American  colonies  English  commerce  had 
sustained  a  fatal  blow.  The  leading  Ameri- 
cans of  the  Revolution  thought  so.  llie  great 
majority  of  public  men  in  England  held  the 
same  opinion.  But  in  a  short  time  it  was 
found  that  the  United  States  were  better 
customers  than  the  Plantations  were.  The 
fact  is,  commerce,  unless  it  be  violently  pre- 
vented from  seeking  its  own  career,  has  no 
preference  beyond  what  is  suggested  by 
cheapness  and  convenience.  Besides,  the 
latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  was 
an  age  of  practical  invention.  Watt  made 
the  steam-cmgine  a  power.  The  invention 
of  Arkwright  increased  the  handiness  of  man 
ten  or  twentyfold.  There  is  a  story  that  this 
man  offered,  if  his  patents  were  continued  to 
him,  to  defray  a  moiety  of  the  extraordinary 
charges  of  government  in  England.  The 
story  is  perhaps  an  exaggeration,  but  it  has  a 
basis  of  truth.  It  implies  that  the  consuming 
power  of  mankind  was  enormously  increased 
by  invention,  and  that  this  consumption  was 
supplied  by  the  machiner}'^  of  trade  and 
commerce ;  for  it  is  manifest  that  Arkwright 
looked  for  his  customers  beyond  the  wants  of 
his  own  countrymen.  But  even  more  impor- 
tant than  invention  was  the  great  boon  of 
commercial  freedom  granted  in  1846.  The 
advocates  of  Free  Tra<^  may  regret  that  their 
views  are  not  accepted  by  all  civilised  nations. 
But  they  know  that  the  members  of  ever}^ 
community  wish  to  sell,  and  that,  though  the 
laws  may  limit  their  choice  in  buying,  they 
must  bay  in  order  to  sell.  The  effects  of  the 
commeroal  freedom  which  we  have  adopted 
are  that  we  always  bu^  in  the  cheapest 
market,  not  only  by  choice,  but  perforce,  as 
thoae  who  restrain  themselves  have  to  give 


more  and  take  less,  and  that  the  mercantile 
marine  of  this  country  is  of  unexampled 
magnitude. 

Sannto,  Qe»ta  Dei  per  Frances;  The  Libel  0/ 
Englith  Policy;  DrhatB  des  HeraulU  dMrmrs; 
tScbanx,  Englitcht  Handeltpolitik ;  Macpherson. 
Hiatory  of  ComiMrce;  Porter,  Proqren  of  the 
*«**<>«■  [J.  E.  T.  R.] 

CommissarieSf  The  Coukt  of,  for  Scot- 
land, was  an  ecclesiastical  court  created  in 
1563,  "to  fill  up  the  gap  caused  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  civil  justice  "  by  the  abolition 
of  the  Consistorial  Court.  It  was  a  court  for 
tho  settlement  of  divorce  cases,  sentences  of 
excommunication,  and  other  ecclesiastical 
matters. 

CommissioiIS  ^re  instruments  issuing 
from  the  crown,  and  delegating  authority  to 
particular  persons  to  perform  cei'tain  acts. 
Thus,  in  military  matters  a  commission  is, 
properly  speaking,  the  document  issued  to 
evMy  military  officer,  authorising  him  to 
perform  duties  on  behalf  of  the  state. 
Commissions  of  array  were  ro\'ai  warrants 
authorising  barons  and  others  to  raise  men 
for  the  purpose  of  exercising  and  training 
them  in  war.  [Military  System.]  Among 
the  permanent  Dodies  of  commissioners,  who 
perform  regularly  duties  delegated  by  the 
crown,  are  the  Commissioners  in  Lunacy, 
who  are  required  to  supervise  the  care  of 
lunatics,  and  the  Justices  on  the  Commission 
of  the  Peace.  [Justices.]  Jioyal  Cotnmissions 
are  frequently  issued  to  small  bodies  of 
persons — members  of  either  House  of  Parlia- 
ment, and  others— empowering  them  to 
inquire  into  the  operation  of  laws,  into 
alleged  grievances,  or  social,  economic,  or 
educational  matters ;  generally  with  a  view 
to  future  legislation.  They  are  empowered  to 
collect  evidence,  and  to  examine  witnesses, 
though  not  on  oath;  and  their  proceedings 
are  recorded  and  usually  published  in  the 
form  of  a  report. 

Commissioiiemy  Royal,  are  appointed 
by  the  crown,  on  the  address  of  the  Houses 
of  Parliament,  to  the  effect  that  the  judge 
who  has  tried  any  election  petition  has 
reported  the  prevalence  of  corrupt  practices. 
They  inquire  into  the  matter;  and  on  their 
report  the  action  of  Parliament  in  the  way 
of  disfranchisement  or  prosecution  is  based. 
Such  Commissions  were  established  in  1853. 

CommittoOa     [Parliament.] 

Common  TifVllflff  are  unenclosed  and 
uncultivated  spaces,  not  held  in  individual 
ownership,  where  the  neighbouring  land- 
owners and  tenants  enjoy  certain  rights  of 
pasturage^  of  turbary,  or  cutting  turf  for 
fuel,  and  sometimes  of  estovers,  or  the  liberty 
of  taking  wood  for  the  furniture  or  use  of  a 
house.  These  rights  are,  in  all  probability, 
of  yety  ancient  origin,  and  are  probably  a 
survival    of  the    old    Germanic    system   of 


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common  pasturage  on  the  folklandy  or  public 
land.  As,  howeveri  from  the  time  of  Alfred 
the  folkland  became,  for  the  most  part,  royal 
demesne,  and  large  estates  were  formed,  the 
idea  of  individual  ownership  tended  to  sup- 
plant that  of  common  ownership.  This 
change  was  completed  by  the  feudal  lawyers, 
who  held  commons  to  be  the  wastes  of 
manors,  and  minutely  defined  the  rights  of 
common  pasturage.  It  was  either  appendant^ 
as  belongmg  to  tiie  occupiers  of  arable  land, 
or  appurtenant — i.^.,  founded  on  a  special 
grant — or  beeatue  of  vieinage^  or  in  grots.  The 
common  lands  being  regarded  as  the  property 
of  the  lord  of  the  manor,  he  claimed  the  right 
of  enclosure.  This  was  resisted  by  the  free- 
hold  tenants,  and  the  Statute  of  Merton 
(1235)  allowed  the  owner  to  enclose  or  ap- 
prove against  common  of  pasture,  but  only 
provided  that  he  could  show  that  there  was 
left  common  sufficient  for  such  as  were  en« 
titled  thereto.  When  the  customary  right  of 
copyholders  became  recognised — i.e.,  about 
the  time  of  Henry  IV. — ^they  also  claimed 
rights  of  parturage,  and  resisted  enclosures. 
l£e  inhabitants  of  villages,  however,  had  not 
this  privilege,  and  as  late  as  1603  the  claim 
of  the  people  of  Stixwold,  in  Lincolnshire,  to 
exercise  rights  of  pasturage  in  the  waste  of 
th&  manor  was  overthrown  by  the  courts  of 
law.  Under  the  Tudors  the  practice  of  en- 
closures, together  with  the  still  more  oppres- 
sive plan  of  converting  arable  land  into 
pasture-land,  became  a  crying  evil.  Bacon 
commented  upon  it  in  the  History  of  Henry 
VIL  ;  it  was  one  of  the  causes  of  the  formidable 
insurrection  in  the  eastern  counties  in  1549 ; 
and  Bishop  Latimer,  in  his  famous  Sermon 
of  the  Fiough,  preached  before  the  court  of 
Edward  YI.,  denounced  the  nobles  as  <*  en- 
closers,  graziers,  and  rent-raisers."  One  or 
two  att^pts  were  made  to  check  these 
practices.  Henry  VIII.  ordered  the  houses 
which  had  been  pulled  down  to  be  rebuilt, 
and  limited  the  number  of  sheep  on  each 
farm  to  2,000;  and  the  Protector  Somerset 
appointed  a  Royal  Commission  *'  for  the  re- 
dress of  enclosure."  Such  efforts,  however, 
were  of  no  avail,  and  complaints  were  fre- 
quent throughout  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth  and 
of  the  Stuarts. . 

Gradiudlv  the  Statute  of  Merton  came  to 
be  regarded  as  obsolete,  and  it  was  thought 
necessary  to  obtain  the  sanction  of  Parlia- 
ment for  enclosure.  The  first  Local  Enclosure 
Act  was  passed  under  Anne,  and  since  then 
the  permission  of  the  legislature  has  generally 
been  regarded  as  a  necessary  preliminary  to 
enclosure.  Between  1700  and  1845  some 
4,000  of  these  Acts  were  passed,  and  7,175,000 
acres  of  land  enclosed,  whereby  the  class  of 
small  yeomen  became  almost  extinct.  The 
legislation  on  the  subject,  which  was  con- 
solidated in  1801,  provided  that  the  consent 
of  three-fourths  of  the  freeholders  and  copy- 
holders of  the  manor  was  necessary,  that  the 


common  should  be  divided  amonff  them  in 
proportion  to  their  holdings,  the  lord  being 
awarded  one-sixteenth.      Ue   had  also  the 
power  of  vetoing  enclosures.    The   Oeneral 
Eneloeure  Act  of  1845  established  a  new  prin- 
ciple, that  of  local  inquiry  through  Enclosure 
Commissioners,  so  that  tiie  poor  could  make 
known  their  grievances;    it  also  set  apart 
certain  portions  of  land  for  recreation  and 
garden  allotments.     Passed,  however,  before 
the  nation  had  adopted  the  doctrine  of  Free 
Trade,  it  tended  to  promote  rather  than  check 
enclosure ;  the  land  set  apart  for  recreation 
was  miserably  inadequate,    and    the    great 
commons  and  forests  were  threatened  every- 
where.    Accordingly  a  Society  for  the  Pro- 
tection of  Rural  Commons  was  formed  by 
the  late  Mr.  Fawcett,  and  one  for  the  Pre- 
servation of  Commons  near  London  by  Mr. 
Shaw  Lefevre,  M.P.    The-  exertions  of  the 
former  were  successful  in    preventing   the 
Parliamentary  sanction  of  enclosures  between 
1869  and  1876,  and  the  necessity  of  such  a 
step  was  proved  by  the  fact  that  the  area  of 
common  land  in  England  and  Wales  was  not, 
as  was  imanned,  8,000,000  acres,  but  only 
2,632,000.    The  question  of  urban  oommons 
was  not  decided  until  after  a  violent  struggle 
in  the  law  courts,  owing  to  the  fact   that 
while  the  right  of  a  village  to  its  green  was 
recognised  by  law,  that  of  a  town  Uy  its  com- 
mon was  not.    The  crucial  case  was  that  of 
Epping  Forest,  over  which  the  crown  has 
several  important  forestal  rights,  which  had, 
until  about  1840,  prevented  enclosure.  When 
the  neighbouring  landlords  began  to  appro- 
priate the  land,  an  old  man  named  Willin- 
galo  resisted  them  on  behalf  of  the  villagers 
of  Loughton,  and  his  cause,  taken  up  by  the 
Corporation  of  London,  resulted,  in  1874,  in  a 
complete  overthrow  of  the  landlord's  preten- 
sions. Soon  afterwards  a  Royal  Commission  de- 
cided that  the  enclosures  were  illegal,  and  that 
the  forest  should  be  restored  to  its  original  con- 
dition.  In  1878,  therefore,  an  Act  was  passed, 
directing  that  Epping  Forest  should  be  pre- 
served for  ever,  open  and  unenclosed,  for  the 
benefit  of  the  people  of  London.    The  Cor- 
poration of  London  were  made  its  conserva- 
tors— and  subsequently  of  all  common  lands 
within  twenty-five  miics  of  London.    Finally, 
the  Commons  Act  of  1876  substituted  regula- 
tion and  improvement  in  place  of  the  enclosure 
of  common  lands,  and  laid  down  the  princi]>le 
that  no  enclosure  should  be  sanctioned  by  the 
commissioners  without  distinct  evidence  that 
it   would    be   beneficial   to  the  inhabitants 
generally.      In    Ireland    and    Scotland    the 
question  of  common  lands  is  not  so  important^ 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  comparative  barren- 
ness of  the  soil  offers  less  temptation  to  €>n- 
cloBures.      The    first    Whiteboy    rising    in 
Ireland,  however,  in  1692,  was  in  great  part 
due  to  this  cause. 

Elton.  Tht  tare  of  Commons  und  Wa»t0  7>a>ifi»  ; 
Wingrove  Cook,  InclMuret ;  Brodriok,  SnylUK 


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Com 


Land  and  £nolu^  Landlords ;  Shaw  Lefevre, 
Englith  and  Irith  Laud  Qnettions ;  Naatie,  Tiie 
Agricvltttral  Community  of  the  Middle  Agen; 
StmtuteB  8  and  9  Vict., o.  11»,  and  SO  and  40  Vict.. 

""•  «•  [L.  C.  S.] 

Common  JaLw  may  "be  defined  as  that 
part  of  the  law  of  the  land  which,  before  the 
Judicature  Act  of  1873,  was  administered  by 
those  courts  which  were  called  courts  of 
common  law,  in  distinction  to  the  courts  of 
equity.  It  was  founded  on  the  old  popular 
law  of  the  nation,  and  has  grown  by  the 
process  of  legislation  and  by  the  assimila- 
tion in  whole  or  in  part  of  other  systems; 
just  in  the  same  way  as  the  judicial  system 
of  the  royal  courts  introduced  after  the  Con- 
quest, became  part  of  our  common  law.  It 
consists  of  tcritien  laws  or  statutes,  and  of 
unwritten  laws,  or  customs  ;  though  the  term 
*'  common  law  '*  was  generally  used  in  a  more 
restricted  sense  to  describe  the  system  of 
custoroar}'  law  grounded  on  the  recorded 
decisions  of  successive  judges,  as  opposed  to 
the  **  written  '*  or  statute  law.  Such  decisions 
of  judges  which  are  preserved  in  year-books, 
reports  and  digests  of  cases,  as  well  as  certain 
fumous  law  books  such  as  the  Institutes  of  Sir 
£.  Coke,  are  of  high  authority  in  our  courts. 
The  application  and  interpretation  of  the  sta- 
tute law  is  entrusted  to  the  j  udges.  By  the  way 
in  which  they  carry  out  this  work  the  law  is 
modified.  They  are,  however,  not  free  to  inter- 
pret statutes  as  they  choose,  but  must  observe 
certain  rules  in  their  dealings  with  them ; 
as,  lor  instance,  that  all  Acts  of  Parliament, 
except  in  cases  where  the  effects  would  be 
manifestly  absurd  or  unjust,  and  so  contrary 
to  the  clear  intention  of  Parliament,  are  to  be 
interpreted  according  to  the  plain  meaning  of 
the  words.  For  judges  are  not  set  to  specu- 
late on,  but  to  carr>'  out,  the  intentions  of 
Parliament.  In  order  to  ascertain  the  mean- 
ing of  a  statute,  the  preamble,  though  not  in 
itself  law,  may  be  consulted  as  an  authority. 
As  regards  the  administration  of  statutes,  it 
is  to  be  observed  that  no  statute  is  of  retro- 
spective force  unless  the  same  is  expressly 
declared ;  that  repealed  statutes  are  not  to  bo 
taken  into  account  except  as .  having  had 
force  before  their  repeal ;  that  general  terms 
used  after  particnhu:  cases  apply  only  to 
cases  which  are  strictly  ejttsdem  generis ;  and 
that  ail  penal  statutes  and  such  statutes  as 
relate  to  taxation  are  to  be  construed  strictly. 
The  statute  law  begins  with  9  Hen.  III.,  the 
Great  Charter.  Customary'  law  has  the  same 
force  as  statute  lawas  to  the  assent  of  the  people. 
For  lex  non  scripta  **  consists  of  those  rules  and 
maxims  concerning  persons  and  property  which 
have  obtained  by  the  tacit  consent  and  usage 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  country.*'  Customs 
are  either  general  or  particular.  General 
customs  bind  all  men  equally  who  are  imder 
the  same  conditions,  though  thoy  may  not 
have  been  the  subjects  of  enactment.  For 
a  general  usage,  if  ascertained  and  established, 


becomes   part  of   the  common   law  and  is 

recognised  by  the  courts.    Particular  customs 

are  exceptional  in  their  application.     For  a 

custom  to  be  good  it  must  have  arisen  before 

legal  memory,  which  has  been  fixed  at  the 

first  year  of  Hichard  I.     This  doctrine  has, 

however,  been  regulated  by  statute  (2  and  3 

Will.  IV.,  c.  71,  1  and  2).     A  custom  must, 

moreover,  be  continuous  as  regards  right ;  it 

must  bo  peaceably  enjoyed;  not  unreasonable; 

it  must  be  certain,  or  at  least  such  as  can  be 

ascertained ;    and  it  must  be   consistent  or 

compulsory  in  its  application.    A  particular 

custom  which  is  contrary  to  general  rights 

must  be  construed  strictly.    The  customar}'' 

law  is  declared   by  the   judges,  and    their 

decisions  collectively  exhibit  l£e  common  law 

both  as  regards  the  application  of  statutes  and 

the  dedaration  of  customs. 

Broom,  Comimentariee  on  fhs  Common  Lav; 
Reeve,  History  oj  English  Late.         V^,  H  1 

Common  Order,  Ths  Book  of,  was 
the  service  book  of  the  Scottish  Reformers,  and 
was  compiled,  1567»  by  Knox  from  a  manual 
issued  by  Calvin.  It  long  continued  to  be 
used  by  the  Presbyterians,  both  in  Scotland 
and  England. 

CommonJIs  The  House  of,  is  the  Lower 
Chamber  or  representativo  branch  of  the  English 
Parliament,  appointed  by  popular  election.  The 
peculiar  feature  in  the  constitutional  position 
of  the  Commons,  when  they  secured  their  place 
as  one  of  the  estates  of  Parliament,  is  that  they 
had  little  more  than  a  formal  share  in  legis- 
lation ;  in  control  of  the  administration,  only 
the  power  of  petition ;  and  no  share  at  all  in 
the  function  of  justice;  while  almost  from 
the  first  they  take  the  chief  part  in  the  grants 
of  taxation.  This  theoretic  position  is  trace- 
able even  at  the  present  time,  when  the 
Commons  alone  settle  taxation,  whereas  their 
share  of  legislative  and  administrative  power 
won  by  the  conversion  of  the  petition  into  a 
"  bill,"  is  only  concurrent  witii  that  of  the 
House  of  Lords,  and  the  Lords  retain  exclu- 
sivelvthe  powers  of  justice.  These  peculiarities 
are  due  to  the  historical  conditions  of  the  de- 
velopment of  the  House  of  Commons.  Another 
peculiarity,  which  only  these  historical  condi- 
tions can  explain,  is  the  meaning  which  came 
to  be  attached  to  the  word  **  Commons," 
including  freeholders  and  burgesses  at  once, 
and  which  thus  differentiated  essentially  the 
English  Parliamentary  system,  both  in  its 
construction  and  in  the  course  it  has  run, 
from  the  representative  systems  of  other 
countries.  Lastly,  the  history  of  the  third 
estate  brings  out  the  original  character  of 
the  members  of  the  House  of  Commons  as 
being  mere  delegates,  and  the  gradual  re- 
placement of  this  by  the  higher  character 
of  senators,  so  that  each  member  is  not  the 
deputy  of  a  locality  but  a  representative  of 
the  whole. 

The  word  "  Commons  "  {coimnunitatea,  com- 


Com 


(  296  ) 


Com 


munaute)  is  found  in  the  thirteenth  centur}' 
often  in  the  simple  sense  of  the  whole  body 
of  the  nation.  But  under  the  influence  of 
the  French  use  of  the  word  for  an  organised 
body  such  as  the  town  corporations,  it  comes 
to  be  also  used  for  smaller  organiHcd  repre- 
senUitive  bodies,  such  as  the  county  courts 
or  the  corporate  body  controlling  the  boroughs, 
or  again,  the  body  of  tenants -in -chief. 
The  barons  at  Oxford  in  1258  speak  of  the 
twelve  appointed  per  U  commune  i.e.y  by  the 
baronial  tenants-in-chief,  to  consult  pour  U 
^ommuH  de  la  terre,  t.«.,  for  the  whole  nation. 
Indeed  the  whole  constitutional  struggle 
between  classes  in  this  century  may  be  put 
in  the  formula  of  a  struggle  as  to  the 
practical  interpretation  of  the  word  eommti' 
nittu.  And  for  some  time  it  seemed  that  the 
English  Constitution  would  be  cast  in  a  mould 
like  the  French,  constituted  of  clergy,  chief 
tenants,  boroughs ;  or  at  least  that  it  would 
resemble  that  of  Aragon  (clergy,  magnates, 
knights,  towns) ;  for  each  of  these  bodies  had 
in  England  at  one  time  an  identity  of  its  own. 
What,  then,  defeated  this  tendency?  What 
common  ground  brought  the  burgesses  and 
freeholders'  class  together  in  England  alone  of 
all  countries  ?  The  answer  is,  the  shire-moot, 
or  county  court.  Here  the  two  classes  had 
been  long  used  to  meet  and  work  together 
under  rojal  orders,  the  comtnunitfu  teira  had 
contained  not  only  freeholders  from  hundred 
and  township,  but  also  the  representative  bur- 
gesses from  each  borough,  entrusting  the  duties 
laid  on  the  shire  to  three  or  four  of  the  more 
discreet  knights;    and  after  the  dangerous 

Precedent  had  been  set  aside  of  Simon  de 
[ontfort*a  dealing  with  the  boroughs  apart 
from  their  shires,  from  1283  the  writ  for 
knights  and  burgesses  alike  was  executed  in 
the  shire-moot.  The  shire  had  brought  over 
the  knights  from  the  baronial  body  to  the 
freeholders,  and  had  now  associated  the 
knights  with  the  burgesses.  The  only  thing 
which  threatened  to  keep  them  still  separated 
in  Parliament  was  the  system  of  taxation, 
and  when  the  old  feudal  taxation  by  aids, 
flcutages,  and  carucages  [Aid]  had  yielded  to 
the  national  taxation  by  subsidies  and  customs, 
it  became  natural  for  the  knights  and  bur- 
gesses, as  the  representative  and  taxing  body, 
to  part  off  from  the  barons,  and  to  sit  together 
in  one  House  of  Commons,  i.f.,  about  the 
beginning  of  Edward  III.'s  reign. 

The  English  Parliament,  then,  in  the  four- 
teenth centur\%  consisted  of  two  *'  estates," 
the  clergy  and  the  lords,  and  a  third  body, 
which  haa  more  the  character  of  a  representa- 
tion of  localities.  It  had  seemed  not  impos- 
sible under  Edward  I.  that  two  other  estates 
might  be  added  —  the  lawyers  and  the 
merchants.  The  former  would  have  been 
fatal  to  the  Commons*  acquisition  of  adminis- 
trative supervision  ;  the  latter,  fatal  to  their 
monopoly  of  taxation,  and  so  to  their  one 
'Weapon  against  the  crown.    However,  not  only 


was  this  not  realised,  but  the  actually  existing 
estate  of  clerg}'  entered  on  the  -suicidal  policy 
of    escaping    their    position   between   *'  the 
hammer  and  the  anvil " — Pope  and  king—by 
taking  up  a  position  of  jealous  constitutional 
isolation,  and  persisted  in  dropping  out  of  the 
Parliamentary  system.  The  Commons  were  left 
alone,  the  solebody  representative  of  the  nation, 
and  the  sole  body  too  which  could  be  fairly 
deemed  able  to  impose  a  national  tax.    For  while 
the  making  of  laws  and  the  administering  of 
supremo  justice  nad  been  the  business  of  the 
king  and  his  great  council,  it  had  been  always 
necessary  to  obtain  the  active  concurrence  of 
the  shire-moot  to    raise  a  tax.     Thus    the 
terms  in  which  the  representatives  are  called 
to  Edward  I.*s  Parliaments  are  merely  "to 
hear;"    under   Edward  II.,   "to  hear  and 
consent  to,"  as  against  the  Lords  '*  to  treat 
of "  the  matters.     But  the  separation  of  the 
Houses  increased  the  powers  of  the  represen- 
tative House,  as  did  idso  the  appeals  to  them 
made  by  the  contending  parties  of  the  court 
and  the  opposition  baronage  in  1322,  1327, 
1386,  1387,  1399.     Also  through  the  reign  of 
Edward  III.  the  Commons  felt,  as  their  song 
said,  that  they  were  the  "  shippers  mast.  That 
with  their  chattel  and  their  goot^  Maintained 
the  war  from  first  to  last."    And  moreover,  the 
knights  of  the  shire  were  now  taking  up  that 
attitude  of  bold,  yet  wary  and  unsleeping 
opposition  which  justifies  Hallam  in  sa^dng 
that  they  "  bore  the  brunt  of  the  battle  tor 
constitutional  liberty."    Thus  it  was  almost 
wholly  their  energy  which,  in  the  battle  over 
taxation,  secured  to  Parliament  in  1340  the 
sole  right  to  direct  taxation,  and  in  1362  to 
the  increase  of  the  customs-;    while,  under 
Richard  II.,  the  indirect  control  by  appro- 
priation and  audit,  and  the  rule  settleci   in 
1401,  that  g^rants  be  made  the  last  day  of  the 
session,   permanently  secured   the  principle 
that  redress  precedes  supply,  as  the  downfall 
of  Richard  II.  decided  against  the  claim  of 
the  crown  to  an^ ordaining  power  tantamount 
to   the    law-making    power   of    Parliament. 
"  The  year  1341  distinctly  marks  the  acquisi- 
tion by  the  third  estate  of  its  full  share  of 
Parliamentary  power,  the  Commons  asserting, 
and  the  Lords  allowing  them,  an  equal  share 
in  the  common  demand  of  right  and  control  ^' 
(Stubbs). 

In  legislation  it  had  already  in  1327  be- 
come the  rule  to  say  "  at  the  petition  of  the 
Commons,"  instead  of  "by  their  assent.'' 
And  this  was  made  a  reality — ^the  real  initia- 
tive was  given  to  them — when  in  1439  the 
petition  was  transformed  into  a  "bill,  con- 
taining in  itself  the  form  of  an  act,"  a  usa^^e 
which  became  regular  under  the  Tudors.  Xo 
the  control  of  administration  the  Commons 
had  made  their  first  step  by  their  great  peti- 
tion against  grievances  in  1309,  and  this 
attitude  they  maintained  by  indefatigable 
petitioning  through  the  century,  e^.,  in  1376 
especially;    while  their  being  called  on    to 


Com 


(  297  ) 


Com 


ratify  the  depositions  of  Edward  II.  and 
Kichard  II.  strengthened  their  claim  im- 
mensely, as  did  the  period  of  regency  after 
Edward  III.,  and  above  all  the  fact  that,  up 
to  1437,  the  Liancastrian  dynasty's  Parlia- 
mentary title  obliged  the  kings  to  sabject 
their  Council  to  mstructions  from  Parlia- 
ment, and  to  constitute  it  of  such  members  as 
would  be  agreeable  to  the  Commons.  Even 
Edward  IV.  evaded  rather  than  defied  their 
interference.  The  Tudors  had  the  confidence 
of  their  subjects,  but  they  packed  the  House 
with  creatures  of  the  court,  and  intro- 
duced more  than  eighty  new  boroughs ;  yet, 
in  the  last  resort,  even  the  Tudors  knew 
how  to  yield  when  the  temper  of  the  House 
had  been  dangerously  stirred  by  anxiety  as 
to  the  succession,  by  an  ecclesiastical  measui-o 
for  which  they  were  not  prepared,  or  by 
some  great  defect  in  the  ordinary  administra- 
tion, such  as  the  abuse  of  monopolies  in 
Elizabeth's  reign.  In  the  seventeenth  century 
a  common  spirit  animated  the  whole  House. 
It  was  far  better  attended,  the  grant  of  freedom 
of  speech  became  more  of  a  reality  than  the 
warning  with  which  it  was  conjoined  against 
abuse  of  the  grant.  The  old  weapon  of  im- 
peachnnent,  which  had  proved  so  formidable 
to  unpopular  royal  ministers  in  1377,  and  in 
1386,  and  in  1449,  had  lain  unused  since  then, 
but  was  brought  forth  once  more  against 
Mompesson  and  Bacon  in  1621,  and  against 
the  Earl  of  Middlesex  in  1624,  and,  as  used 
against  StralEord  in  1640,  gave  the  death- 
blow to  ministerial  reliance  on  crown  support. 
No  part  of  the  Commons'  work  is  now  more 
thoroughly  carried  out  than  this  supervision 
of  all  public  departments  by  the  machinery 
of  motions  for  a  resolution,  motions  before 
Supply,  and  questions  to  ministers.  Similarly 
the  House,  by  its  representative  character 
and  its  hold  of  the  purse,  has  long  had  practi- 
cally the  final  voice  in  deliberation  on  such 
matters  as  foreign  policy,  and  the  determina- 
tion of  war  and  peace.  In  the  fourteenth 
century  the  Commons  had  mostly  avoided 
direct  interference  in  such  questions,  but  the 
failure  of  the  French  wars  had  roused  them  to 
more  straightforward  interposition,  and  this 
jealousy  was  afterwards  revived  by  distrust 
of  the  action  of  the  court.  In  taxation 
the  fourteenth  century  had  seen  the  sole 
right  to  impose  taxes  won  for  Parliament 
by  the  Commons,  the  fifteenth  sees  the 
Commons  secure  the  fruits  of  this  victor}' 
solely  for  themselves,  for  in  1407  it  was 
allowed  that  a  tax  could  originate  only  with 
the  Commons;  the  Lords  and  the  clergy  in 
Convocation  having  nothing  to  do  but  prac- 
tically to  follow  with  corresponding  grants. 
This  claim  they  did  not  relax  imder  the 
Tudors,  though  it  was  evaded  by  benevolences, 
and  it  was  this  which  brought  them  first  inw 
collision  with  the  Stuart  theory  of  prerogative, 
which  took  nowhere  a  more  offensive  form 
than  in  the  ship-money  and  customs  duties  by 

HUJT.-IO* 


which  it  aimed  at  superseding  the  representa- 
tive control  of  taxation.  The  Petition  of  High  i; 
(1628)  and  the  Bill  of  Rights  (1689)  embodied 
this  as  a  cardinal  principle  of  the  constitu- 
tion, and  it  was  completed  by  the  doctrine 
first  heard  in  1671  and  1680,  and  finally 
rindicated  in  1861  by  their  resolute  action  in 
rejecting  the  Lords'  amendments  to  the  Bill 
for  Repealing  the  Paper  Duties,  that  no- 
amendment  can  be  made  in  a  money  bill  of 
the  Commons,  nor  can  the  Lords  even  in- 
directly impose  any  charge.  And  this  the 
language  of  the  Acts  of  Parliament  and  of 
the  Queen's  Speech  formally  recognises.  It 
is  this  principle  as  much  as  the  necessity 
to  renew  the  Mutiny  Act,  that  gives  the 
Commons  control  over  the  numbers  of  the 
standing  army.  But  with  all  their  sole  con- 
trol, and  the  annual  Appropriation  Act,  and 
Budget,  and  elaborate  machinery  for  audit 
and  for  criticism  of  each  item,  it  may  be 
doubted  whether  the  growth  of  public  expen- 
diture is  not  beyond  the  power  of  the  House, 
as  at  present  constituted,  to  restrain.  The 
Grand  Committees  established  in  the  year 
1882  may  lead  to  some  more  feasible  means- 
towards  this  end. 

In  the  course  of  their  long  advance  to 
supreme  power  in  the  state,  the  Commons 
have  sometimes  made  errors ;  thus  they  were 
defeated  in  their  attempts  to  tax  the  clergy 
(1449)  and  to  claim  a  share  of  the  Lords' 
judicial  powers  (1400,  and  Floyd's  Caw^ 
1621),  and  they  have  abandoned  the  practice 
of  forcing  bills  through  the  Lords  by  tacking 
them  to  a  moil^y  bill ;  but  most  of  all 
have  they  misjudged  their  dignity  in  the 
interpretation  Uiey  have  sometimes  given  to 
Privilege  of  the  House.  As  to  the  elections- 
in  the  shires.  Acts  had  been  passed  in  1406 
and  1430  to  check  the  interference  respec- 
tively of  the  sheriff  and  of  others  than 
freeholders;  but  the  cognisance  of  disputed 
elections  lay  with  king  and  Council  until 
the  Commons  took  notice  of  such  cases  in 
1563  and  1586,  and  in  1604  entered  on  an. 
indecisive  conflict  with  the  Chancer}^  since 
which  date,  however,  or  indisputably  since  the 
Aylesbury  Ca^  (<l-v.)  in  1704,  the  House  has 
been  judge  of  its  own  elections,  a  function 
it  deputed  to  a  committee  from  1790,  and 
from  1868  more  honourably  delegated  to 
the  judges,  with  marked  results  on  the 
purification  of  the  public  tone  in  relation  to 
bribery,  as  can  be  seen  in  the  stringent  clauses 
of  the  Bill  of  1883.  [Bribery.]  As  to  privi- 
lege of  members  of  the  House  of  Commons  from 
arrest,  the  first  important  case  to  be  noticed 
is  that  when  the  Speaker,  Thorpe,  was  im- 
prisoned on  an  action  of  trespass  brought  by 
the  Duke  of  York  in  1453.  But  Henry  VIII., 
in  Ferrers^  Case  (1543)  supported  their  claim » 
and  James  I.  had  to  allow  it  in  his  first 
Parliament  {Shirley*s  Case),  and  it  has  been 
allowed  consistently  ever  since,  with  the 
exception  that  it  has  ceased  to  be  extended  to 


Com 


(  298  ) 


Com 


members'  servants.  The  House  has  always 
exercised  jurisdiction  over  its  own  members 
by  committal  or  expulsion,  though  the  former 
expires  at  a  prorogation,  and  is  so  far  inferior 
to  the  internal  jurisdiction  of  the  Lords. 
The  important  privilege  of  freedom  of  speech 
was  not  acquired  till  the  Lancastrian  reigns, 
and  was  little  respected  by  the  Tudor  kings, 
but  under  the  Stuarts  the  release  of  Sir  John 
Eliot  and  others  (1G29),  and  the  failure  of 
the  attempt  upon  the  Five  Members  ^1642), 
led  to  the  recognition  of  the  principle  oy  the 
King's  Bench  and  its  final  enunciation  in 
the  BiU  of  Rights  (1689).  It  still  was  found 
necessary,  after  the  undignified  dispute  with 
Stockdale  (1837-40),  to  pass  an  Act  protecting 
printers  of  Parliamentary  papers  from  liability 
to  actions  for  libeL  On  the  other  hand,  in 
appealing  to  privilege  to  prevent  the  pubUca- 
tion  of  debates,  the  Commons  had  put  Wilkes 
into  the  position  of  a  representative  of  a  just 
and  irresistible  popular  demand  (1771)  and 
they  have  more  prudently  given  up  this  pre- 
tension, as  well  as  the  inconvenient  custom 
of  excluding  *' strangers"  at  a  single  mem- 
ber's request. 

The  constitution  and  structure  of  the  House 
of  Commons  has  also  a  history  of  its  own. 
In  129a,  37  counties  and  116  boroughs  were 
represented;  the  Tudor  period  saw  the  addition 
of  two  English  counties  with  two  members, 
and  12  Welsh  counties  with  one  member  each, 
and  more  than  80  boroughs.  It  was  not  until 
Charles  II. 's  reign  that  the  P&latinate  of 
Durham  first  sent  members  to  the  House 
of  Commons.  The  number  of  boroughs 
increased  up  to  1832,  and  in  the  inter- 
val 45  members  had  been  added  for  Scot^ 
land,  100  for  Ireland,  and  five  for  the  Uni- 
versitiefi.  After  many  proposals  for  reform, 
the  Reform  Bills  of  1832  and  1868  transferred 
members  from  many  boroughs  to  the  coun- 
ties, and  increased  the  representation  of 
Scotland  and  Ireland.  Further  alterations 
were  made  in  1885;  and  now  the  total 
is  670.  [Rbfokm.]  In  1430  the  franchise 
was  declared  to  belong  only  to  40s.  free- 
holders; in  1707  a  property  qualification  for 
members  was  required;  but  the  former  was 
enlarged  by  the  Bill  of  1832,  the  latter 
aboli&ed  in  1858.  [Franchisb.]  The  origi- 
nal theory  of  the  representative  system  under 
which  a  member  was  a  delegate  from  a  parti- 
cular place  had  always  tended  to  be  tacitly 
dropped  in  favour  of  the  wider  senatorial 
theory  that  each  member  represents  the  whole 
Commons ;  and  occasional  endeavours  in  the 
fifteenth  century  to  require  from  candidates 
residence  as  a  qualification  were  fortunately 
never  acted  on.  A  greater  necessity  was  to 
strengthen  the  independence  of  the  House 
and  make  its  representative  character  a  reality 
by  excluding  lawyers  (1372, 1404),  maintainers 
(1350,  &c.),  and  8heriffsa372  and  afterwards) ; 
but  the  "  undertakers  '*  of  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries,  and  the  placemen  of 


the  eighteenth  century,  were  not  satisfactorily 
excluded  till  th(7  rule  established  in  1707 
disqualifying  pension  holders,  and  even 
obliging  members  appointed  to  office  to  seek 
re-election. 

But  the  essential  defect  in  the  Commons  as 
a  representative  House  up  to  1832  lay  else- 
where. The  representative  system  which 
when  first  constituted  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury was  an  honest  reflex  of  the  social  state, 
failed  to  expand  to  meet  the  expansion  of 
society;  the  villeins  who  were  unfit  for 
representation  in  1295  had  acquired  practical 
independence  before  1381  ;  the  boroughs 
which  were  worthy  of  representation  at  1295 
fell  into  decay  as  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the 
population  shifted  from  the  south  of  England 
to  the  north.  Thus  the  Commons  of  the  six- 
teenth century  had  ceased  to  be  a  just  repre- 
sentation of  contemporary  wealth  and  intelli- 
gence; yet  reform  was  delayed  till  it  was 
almost  enforced  by  revolution,  a  pregnant 
lesson  which  statesmanship  will  do  well  to 
learn  of  histoiy.    [Pahliaubnt.] 

Hatsell,  PrteedmU ;  Hallam,  MiddU  AgeB 
and  Conatitutioiud  Hiatory ;  Qneiflt,  FtfncaltimM- 
r«cht  and  I>m  Self-awern,m«nt ;  May,  ConaNtu- 
tional  HUtory  ;  CooDett,  Parltammtary  Hiatory, 
and  Jbumola  of  House  of  Commonu ;  and  especially 
Stubbs,  ConiAUtiHonal  aiatory ;  and  May,  iV«at«M 
on  Proeedwrs  and  iVa«tto«  of  Paiiiament, 

[A.  L.  S.] 

Conuuonwealth,  The,  a  term  for- 
merly employed  to  signify  the  general  weal, 
and  the  nation  with  its  inhabitants,  was 
specially  adopted  to  designate  the  government 
which  intervened  between  the  death  of  Charles 
I.  in  Jan.,  1649,  and  the  establishment  of 
Cromwell's  Protectorate  in  Dec,  1653.  After 
the  forcible  ejection  of  certain  of  its  mem- 
bers by  Colonel  Pride,  Dec.  6,  1648,  the  House 
of  Commons  consisted  of  eighty  members.  On 
Feb.  6,  1649,  seven  days  after  the  execution 
of  Charles,  this  mutilatnd  House  resolved  that 
the  House  of  Peers  ought  to  be  abolished,  and 
on  the  next  day  adopted  a  similar  resolution 
with  regard  to  the  office  of  a  king.  These 
resolutions  were  afterwards  enlodged  in  Acts 
of  Parliament,  and  a  further  Act  passed 
enacting  that  the  people  of  England  and  of 
all  the  dominions  thereto  belonging  should 
be  governed  as  a  Commonwealth  and  free 
State  (May  19,  1649);  the  executive  was 
vested  in  a  Council  of  State  of  forty-one 
members,  re-elected  by  the  Parliament  yearly. 
With  the  exception  of  three  or  four  members, 
this  Council  always  consisted  of  members  of 
Parliament.  The  average  attendance  of  the 
House  was  about  fifty,  and  as  the  most  active 
members  of  the  Council  were  also  the  most 
active  members  of  Parliament,  it  was  the 
Council  which  was  mainly  responsible  for  the 
policy  of  the  government.  There  was  no  indi- 
vidual responsibility  ;  all  work  being  done  by 
committees  formed  of  members  of  the  Council, 
and  of  the  Parliament,  and  of  both  bodies 
united. 


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The  Bepublic  rested  entirely  for  its  main- 
tenance on  the  army.  Yet  amongst  the  mass 
of  officers  and  soldiers  no  desire  was  felt  for 
the  continued  existence  of  the  present  Parlia- 
ment. Before  the  execution  of  Charles  a 
project  drawn  up  by  Ireton  had  been  pre- 
sented to  Parliament,  demanding  its  speedy 
dissolution,  and  proposing  the  election  of 
triennial  Parliaments,  a  reform  of  the  elec- 
toral system,  and  a  redistribution  of  seats. 
The  Parliament  was,  however,  unwilling  to 
decree  its  own  dissolution,  and  the  dangers 
with  which  the  new  government  was  sur- 
rounded justified  its  refusal  to  take  the  ques- 
tion into  consideration.  It  had  to  face  the 
hostility  of  the  Presbyterian  section  of  the 
Puritan  party,  as  well  as  of  old  Royalists  and 
Irish  CaUiolics.  Both  in  Ireland  and  Scotland 
the  Prince  of  Wales  was  proclaimed  king  of 
the  three  countries.  Prince  Rupert  ruled  the 
Channel  at  the  head  of  some  revolted  ships. 
Foreign  princes  refused  to  reoog^se  the 
Republic.  Dangerous  mutinies  broke  out 
amongst  the  Fiftili-Monarchiste  and  Levellers 
in  the  army.  These,  however,  were  quickly 
suppressed,  by  the  energy  and  decision  of 
Cromwell  ana  Fairfax  in  dealing  with  the 
mutineers.  An  Act  was  passed  to  restrain  the 
press  (Sept.  20,  1649).  An  engagement  to  be 
true  and  faithful  to  the  Commonwealth, 
as  established  without  king  or  House  of 
Lords,  was  required  as  a  necessary  pre- 
liminary to  holding  any  office  in  Church  or 
Btato  (Oct.  12),  ana  by  a  subsequent  Act  was 
rendered  aniversed  (Jan.  2,  1650).  In  Ireland 
Cromwell  in  nine  months  brought  the  greater 
part  of  the  country  again  into  subjection  to 
England.  The  following  year  nis  great 
victories  gained  over  the  Soots  at  Dunbar 
(Sept.  3,  1650)  and  Worcester  (Sept.  3,  1651) 
destroyed  for  the  time  all  hope  of  a  Presby- 
terian or  Royalist  reaction,  and  reduced  Scot- 
land to  the  condition  of  a  subject  province. 
A  bill  was  inti^oduced  into  Parliament  for 
the  union  of  the  two  countries.  An  Act 
was  passed  for  the  settlement  of  Ireland, 
which  excepted  from  pardon  all  persons  who 
had  taken  part  in  the  massacre  of  1643,  and 
confiscated  a  large  amount  of  land  belong^g 
to  Irish  Catholics  (Aug.  12,  1652).  A  further 
bill  was  brought  in  for  the  planting  of 
Protestant  families  on  the  land  thus  confis- 
cated. 

In  March,  1649,  the  Cotmcil  of  State 
appointed  Milton  its  secretary  for  foreign 
tongues.  After  the  victory  of  Worcester, 
foreign  princes,  who  before  refused  to  recog- 
nise the  Republic,  sought  its  friendship. 
During  the  two  years  in  which  Cromwell  was 
reducing  Ireland  and  Scotland,  the  Repub- 
licans in  London  had  raised  a  formicmble 
naw — Prince  Rupert,  driven  by  Admiral 
Elate  from  the  mouth  of  the  Tagus  when  he 
sought  refuge,  saw  his  fleet  dispersed  and  de- 
stroyed on  the  Mediterranean  (1649).  Com- 
mercial jealousy  led  to  the  passing  of  the 


Navigation  Act  (Oct.  9,  1651),  intended  to 
transfer  the  carrying  trade  of  the  Duteh  to 
Englishmen,  and  in  the  ensuing  summer  to 
the  opening  of  hostilities  with  the  United 
Provinces.  In  an  engagement  off  Dover  the 
English  under  Blake  were  worsted  by  the 
Duteh  under  Van  Tromp.  In  Feb.,  1653, 
the  hostile  fleeto  again  engaged  off  Portland 
Isle,  when  the  Duteh  were  defeated  and  driven 
for  refuge  into  the  TexeL 

After  the  restoration  of  internal  peace  the 
question  of  the  dissolution  of  the  Parliament 
again  rose  into  prominence.  Various  Acte 
had  been  passed  by  which  the  House  sought 
to  express  its  regard  for  religion  and  morality, 
but  the  chief  reform  demanded  remained  un- 
executed, nor  did  it  seem  probable  that  the 
government,  as  at  present  constituted,  would 
ever  have  the  energy  requisite  for  the  attain- 
ment of  practical  results  in  the  directions 
required.  The  reform  of  the  law,  a  definite 
settlement  with  re^;^:^  to  the  Church  and  the 
appointment  of  ministers,  the  termination  of 
the  system  of  sequestering  the  estates  of 
former  delinquents,  and  of  governing  by  means 
of  committees,  appeared  no  nearer  attainment 
than  at  the  time  of  the  institution  of  the  Re- 
public. The  impracticability  of  compromise 
between  the  so-called  Republicans,  Vane, 
Ludlow,  and  others,  who  sought  to  maintain 
the  existing  form  of  government,  and  those 
who  were  indifferent  to  the  form  t^e  govern- 
ment should  assume,  so  long  as  the  pre- 
dominance of  the  Puritan  party  was  assured, 
led  to  the  sudden  and  forcible  ejection  of  the 
members  frdm  their  seate  by  Cromwell  (April 
19,  1653). 

•  From  this  time,  Cromwell  was  practically 
at  the  head  of  the  government,  which  was 
for  the  time  carried  on  by  a  council  of  thirteen, 
including  himself  and  eight  other  officers. 
In  July,  in  answer  to  his  summons,  there 
met  an  assembly  of  139  persons,  known  as 
the  Little  Parliament,  or  as  Barebones'  Par- 
liament, from  the  name  of  one  of  ito  members, 
a  leather-seller — Barbon,  a  London  Baptist 
It  was  representative  of  the  reforming  i»rty, 
and  was  divided  nearly  equally  between  a 
more  radical  but  smaU  majority,  and  a  large, 
less  radical,  minority.  It  passed  Acte  for  tiie 
relief  of  debtors,  for  the  registration  of  births, 
marriages,  and  deaths,  and  the  institution  of 
civil  marriages.  It  also  brought  in  bills 
affecting  the  Poor  Laws  and  the  administra- 
tion of  justice.  It  voted  the  abolition  of  the 
Court  of  Chancery.  It  further  voted  that  the 
choice  of  ministers  should  be  vested  in  their 
parishioners,  and  rejected  by  a  majority  of 
two  the  report  of  a  committee  in  favour  of 
the  continuance  of  tithes.  These  votes  on 
the  Church  question  represented  the  triumphs 
of  those  who  desired  to  effect  the  severance  of 
Church  and  State.  The  minority,  opposed  to 
a  volimtary  system,  took  opportimity  in  the 
name  of  the  Parliament  of  resigpiing  their 
authority  to  Cromwell.      The  officers  of  the 


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army  determined  to  restore  the  executive  into 
the  hands  of  a  single  person,  and,  on  Dec.  16, 
Cromwell  was  installed  head  of  the  govern- 
ment with  the  title  of  Lord  Protector  of  the 
Commonwealth  of  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland. 

■ 

Calendars  of  State  Papert  (Domettic  8erie») 
during  the  Commonwealth^  edited  by  Mrs. 
Green;  Soobell,  Collection  of  Acts  and  Ordi' 
nances  made  in  Parliament  from  1640 — 1656; 
Thurloe,  Collection  of  State  Papers ;  White- 
locke,  Hemoriala  of  English  Affair* ;  Ludlow. 
Memoirs;  Th9  Memoirs  and  Life  of  €k>l<m«{ 
Kvktchinson,  by  his  Wife :  Brodie,  ConstitviiionaX 
Hittory  from  the  Accession  of  Charles  I.  to  the 
Restoratxon  ;  Godwin,  History  of  the  Cofwmon- 
vieulth  of  JSngland ;  (inizot,  Oliver  Cromwell  and 
the  EngUsh  Commonwealth;  8.  B.  Gardiner, 
The  Commomwealth  and  Protectorate.  For 
Scotland,  see  especially  Letters  and  Journals 
of  Robert  Baillie,  which  extend  from  1637  to  106it ; 
and  Barton,  History  of  Scotland;  for  Ireland, 
Carte,  Collection  of  Original  Letters  and  Papers^ 
and  A  History  of  the  Life  of  James^  Dwce  of 
Ormond,  by  the  same  author.       rg    j^    q. -i 

Compoundemi,  The,  were  a  section  of 
the  Jacobite  party  who  wished  for  a  restora- 
tion of  the  Stuarts,  **but  for  a  restoration 
accompanied  by  a  general  amnesty,  and  by 
gaarantees  for  the  security  of  the  civil  and 
ecclesitistical  constitution  of  the  realm." 
They  obttiined  their  name  about  1692.  The 
Compounders  formed  the  main  strength  of 
the  Jacobite  party  in  England ;  but  the  more 
violent  party  or  Non-Comx>ounders  were  all- 
powerful  at  St.  Germains.  Their  leader  at 
St.  Gerroains  was  the  Earl  of  Middleton,  who 
resigned  in  1693.  They  were  much  offended 
by  James's  Declaration  in  1692',  and  shortly 
aitcrwards  recommended  that  James  should 
resign  in  favour  of  his  son,  on  his  refusal  to 
accept  these  conditions,  part  of  which  was  the 
observance  of  the  Test  Oath.  The  remainder 
of  their  history  is  merged  in  that  of  the  party. 
[Jacobitbs.] 

Comprehension  Bill,  The  (1689),  was 

a  scheme  for  the  relief  of  Protestant  Dis- 
senters proposed  by  the  Earl  of  Nottingham. 
A  measure  of  similar  tendency  had  been  advo- 
cated on  the  occasion  of  the  enactment  of  the 
Test  Act,  but  had  been  allowed  to  drop. 
Another  proposal  of  similar  tendency,  a  bill 
to  relieve  Protestant  Dissenters  from  the 
penalties  of  the  doth  of  Elizabeth,  suffered  a 
similar  fate  in  1680.  Nottingham's  Bill  pro- 
vided that  all  ministers  of  the  Established 
Church,  and  members  of  both  Universities, 
should  be  freed  from  the  necessity  of  sub- 
scribing the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  on  signing 
a  decl£u«tion  that  they  approved,  and  would 
support,  "  the  doctrine,  worship,  and  govern- 
ment of  the  Church  of  England : "  scrupled 
ceremonies,  such  as  the  wearing  of  a  surplice, 
the  sign  of  the  cross  in  baptism,  the  admission 
of  godfathers  and  godmothers  to  christening, 
and  the  reception  of  the  Eucharist  in  a  kneel- 
ing position,  were  left  at  discretion  ;  a  Pres- 
byterian minister  might  acquire  all  the  privi- 


leges of  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  England 
on  submitting  to  the  imposition  of  the  hands 
of  a  bishop.  This  bdl  was  mutilated  in 
the  Upper  House,  and  a  petition  substituted 
that  the  king  would  call  the  houses  of  Con- 
vocation "  to  be  advised  with  in  ecclesiastical 
matters."  The  Nonconformist  clergy,  them- 
selves accustomed  to  independence,  and  dis- 
liking f6rmal  subscriptions  of  faith  and  com- 
pulsory uniformity,  were  not  anxious  for  the 
passing  of  the  measure ;  and  so  the  scheme  of 
comprehension  was  allowed  to  fall  absolutely 
and  finally  to  the  ground. 

Compton,  Henky  {b.  1632,  d.  1713),  was  a 
younger  son  of  the  Earl  of  Northampton. 
After  studying  at  Oxford  he  entered  the  army, 
but  soon  after  relinquished  the  military  for 
the  clerical  profession.  In  1669  he  was  made 
a  canon  of  Christ  Church ;  in  1674,  Bishop  of 
Oxford;  and  in  1675  was  translated  to 
London.  He  incurred  the  displeasure  of 
James  II.  by  disregarding  the  royal  order  pro- 
hibiting controversial  sermons,  and  was  sus- 
pended from  his  episcopal  functions.  He 
joined  Danby  and  others  in  inviting  William 
of  Orange  to  England,  and  took  a  leading 
part  in  the  Bevolution.  He  assisted  in  the 
coronation  of  William  and  Mary,  but,  being 
disappointed  in  his  hopes  of  obtaining  tb^ 
archbishopric  of  Canterbury,  from  that  time 
took  little  further  part  in  public  affairs. 

Compurgation  was  a  mode  of  defence 
allowed  oy  £[iglo-Saxon  law.  When  a  man 
was  accused  of  any  crime,  he  might,  if  he 
chose,  purge  himself  by  the  oaths  of  twelve 
men,  if  he  could  find  that  number  to  swear  to 
his  innocence.  After  the  Conquest,  compur- 
gation gradually  feU  into  disuse,  though  it 
was  specially  retained  as  an  alternative  to 
ordeal  of  battle  in  certain  chartered  towns. 
The  compurgators  were  not  a  jur}',  but 
a  body  of  sworn  witnesses  to  character. 
Compurgation  was  a  custom  common  to  all, 
or  nearly  all,  the  Teutonic  tribes,  and  the 
number  of  compurgators  reqmred  in  early 
times  varied  according  to  the  heinousness  of 
the  offence,  the  rank  of  the  accused  and  the 
accuser,  and  in  some  cases  reached  one 
hundred ;  in  England  it  was  usually  twelve. 
Thoxpe,  Ancient  Laws,  76 ;  Brnnner,  Schwurg^ 
rickt;  Stnbbs,  Conet.  Hist.;  Guizot,  Civilisatw» 
in  France, 

Comyn,  John,  Lord  op  Badenoch,  mar- 
ried Mar j or)',  daughter  of  Alan  of  Galloway. 
He  was  a  man  of  vast  wealth  and  influence, 
and,  on  the  competition  for  the  Scotch  throziA 
in  1291,  put  in  a  claim  as  a  descendant  of 
Donald  Bane.  He  had' been  named  a  reg:ent 
of  the  Maid  of  Norway,  and,  in  1289,  was  one 
of  the  Scotch  commissioners  sent  to  Salisbury 
to  confer  about  the  marriase  of  the  young* 
queen  to  Prince  Edward  of  England. 

Comyn.  Johx,  called  "  the  Red  "  (d,  1306), 
was  the  son  of  John  Comyn,  of  Badenocli, 
and    Marjory,   sister   of   John   Baliol. 


Con 


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Con 


1298,  after  the  battle  of  Falkirk  (q.v.),  he 
was  chosen  one  of  the  three  guardians  of 
Scotland,  and  in  1302  defeated  the  English 
troops  at  Roslin,  while  in  the  following 
year  he  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
relieve  Stirling.  In  Feb.,  1304,  he  laid  down 
his  arms  and  submitted  to  Edward  I. ,  whom 
he  is  said  to  have  counselled  to  put  Bruce  to 
death.  Bruce  met  Comyn  in  the  convent  of 
the  Minorites,  at  Dumfries,  charged  him  with 
his  treachery,  and  stabbed  hmi,  Feb.  10, 
1306.  Bruce  and  Ck)m3m  were  at  this  time 
the  two  rival  claimants  for  Scotland— Oomyn 
as  the  grandson  of  DevorguiUa,  having  Uie 
same  claim  which  John  Baliol  had  success- 
fully established  in  1292. 

Conadh  Cerr  {d.  629)  was  the  son  of 

Eocha,  who  resigned  the  kin^om  of  Dahriada 
in  his  favour,  627.  In  this  year  Conadh 
fought  at  the  battle  of  Ardcorran  in  Ireland 
on  the  side  of  the  Irish  Dalriads;  and  two 
years  later  was  defeated  at  another  battle 
m  Ireland,  fighting  against  the  Cruithough 
and  his  own  father,  who  was  now  apparently 
king  of  the  Galloway  Picts. 

Confirmatio  Cartanim  (1297)  was 

the  name  g^ven  to  an  important  document  in 
which  Edward  I.,  under  pressure  from  the 
barons  and  clergy,  confirmed  and  extended 
the  constitutional  rights  established  in  the 
two  preceding  reigns.  It  was  obvious 
that  the  Grreat  Charter,  in  the  mutilated 
condition  in  which  it  had  been  left  in  1226, 
was  not  sufficient  g^uarantee  against  arbitrary 
taxation  on  the  part  of  the  king.  The 
barons  accordingly  drew  up  a  series  of  new 
articles  to  be  added  to  the  Great  Charter,  and 
these  the  king  was  obliged  to  concede.  The 
articles  were  seven  in  number: — (1)  The 
Charters  are  confirmed,  and  are  to  be  kept 
in  every  point  without  breach.  (2)  Any 
judgment  given  henceforth  contrary  to  the 
points  of  the  Charters  aforesaid  by  the 
justices,  or  by  any  other  royal  ministers,  to 
be  undone,  and  hoiden  for  nought.  (3)  Copies 
of  the  Charters  are  to  be  sent  to  the  cathedral 
churches  of  the  realm,  and  read  twice  a  year 
to  the  people.  (4)  The  bishops  are  to  ex- 
communicate all  who  break  the  Charters. 
(5)  The  exactions  by  which  the  people  have 
in  former  times  been  aggrieved  not  to  be 
a  precedent  for  the  future.  (6)  For  no  busi- 
ness henceforth  will  the  crown  take  such 
manner  of  aids,  tasks,  or  prizes  but  by  the 
common  assent  of  the  realm,  and  for  the 
common  profit  thereof,  saving  the  ancient 
aids  and  prizes  due  and  accustomed.  (7)  For- 
asmuch as  the  commonalty  of  the  realm  have 
been  sore  grieved  with  the  maltote  of  wools, 
we,  at  their  requests,  have  clearly  released  it, 
and  have  granted  for  us  and  our  heirs  that 
we  will  not  take  such  thing  nor  any  other 
without  their  common  assent  and  good-will, 
saving  to  us  and  to  our  heirs  the  custom  of 
wools,  skins,  and  leather  granted  before  by 


the  commonalty  aforesaid. — The  confirmation 
of  the  Charters  may  be  held  to  complete  the 
work  beg^n  at  Runnymede.  **lt  estab- 
lished," says  Bishop  Stubbs,  "the  principle 
that  for  all  taxation,  direct  and  indirect,  the 
consent  of  the  nation  must  be  asked,  and 
made  it  clear  that  all  transgressions  of  that 
principle,  whether  within  tibe  letter  of  the 
law  or  beyond  it,  were  evasions  of  the  spirit 
of  the  constitution.*' 

Stnbbs,  Const  Hist ;  Select  Charters,  487,  uq- 

Conge  d'EIire — "leave  to  elect" — is  a 
Norman-French  phrase,  signifying  the  sove- 
reign's permission  for  the  dean  and  chapter 
of  a  vacant  see  to  proceed  to  the  election  of  a 
bishop.  In  pre-Norman  times,  the  bishops 
were,  as  a  rule,  appointed  by  the  king  in  the 
witenagemot,  though  there  occasionally  occur 
instances  of  an  election  more  or  less  free— as 
in  the  case  of  Hebnstan,  Bishop  of  Winchester 
(839).  After  the  Norman  Conquest,  the  elec- 
tion became  by  degrees  canonical,  though 
even  then  the  election  was  held  in  the  king's 
chapel,  and  so  much  under  his  influence  as  to 
be  Uttle  more  than  nominally  free ;  and  the 
dispute  about  investiture  between  Uemy  I.  and 
Anselm  ended  in  a  compromise,  by  which  the 
sovereign  was  to  confer  the  temporal  power, 
and  the  election  was  to  be  made  b^the  chapters. 
In  1 164  a  clause  in  the  Constitutions  of  Claren- 
don mentions  the  custom  that  elections  to 
bishoprics  should  be  "  by  the  chief  clergy  of 
the  Church,  assembled  in  the  king's  chapel, 
icith  the  auent  of  the  king  ;  "  whilst,  in  1214, 
John,  by  a  special  charter,  made  a  grant  to 
the  chapters  of  free  canonical  election,  re- 
serving, however,  to  the  king  the  right  of 
licence  and  approval.  This  charter  was  con- 
firmed by  Magna  Charta,  and  again  in  1361 
by  Edward  IIL ;  and  in  spite  of  various 
attempts  at  inteiferenoe  on  the  part  of  the 
Pope,  the  crown  as  a  rule  managed  to  secure 
the  appointment  ofvits  nominees.  In  1534, 
an  Act  of  Henry  \\1\.  provided  that  with 
the  eongi  d^ elite  the  king  was  also  to  send  the 
name  of  the  person  he  wished  to  be  elected ; 
and  that  if  the  election  is  delayed  beyond 
twenty  days  after  the  issuing  of  the  royal 
licence,  or  if  any  other  than  the  royal  nomi- 
nee was  chosen,  the  dean  and  chapter  were  to 
incur  the  penalties  of  Prsemunire  (q.v.).  It 
was  also  provided  that  after  a  delay  of  twelve 
days  on  the  part  of  the  chapter  »the  king 
might  fill  up  the  vacant  see  by  letters  patent. 
The  method  of  this  Act  still  prevails  in  Eng- 
land. In  Ireland,  before  the' Irish  Church 
Act  of  1869,  the  nominations  were  made  by 
letters  patent.    [Bishop.] 

Confflaton,  Henrt  Brooxb  Parkbll, 
Loud  (0.  1776,  d,  1842),  was  the  second 
son  of  the  Right  Hon.  Sir  John  Pamell, 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  in  Ireland.  His 
elder  brother  being  bom  a  cripple  without  the 
use  of  speech,  the  estates  were  settled  upon 
Henry  by  a  special  Act  of  Parliament,  1789. 


dm 


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Oon 


He  entered  Parliament  in  1802  as  member 
for  Portarlington.  He  devoted  himself,  espe- 
cially during  his  Parliamentary  career,  to 
the  questions  of  the  Com  Law  Reform  and 
Catholic  Belief,  and  soon  became  promi- 
nent as  a  champion  in  the  Opposition.  He 
also  published  several  pamphlets  of  some 
weight  on  these  questions.  He  was  chairman 
of  the  Finance  Committee  in  the  session  of 
1828.  His  motion,  in  1830,  with  regard  to 
the  Civil  List,  on  which  the  ministry  was  out- 
voted, produced  the  downfall  of  the  Welling- 
ton administration.  He  afterwards  sat  for 
Queen's  County  for  twenty-seven  years,  and 
subsequently  represented  Dundee,  being  cre- 
ated a  peer  August  1 1,  1841.  He  died  by  his 
own  hand,  May,  1842. 

Coain^by,  Thomas,  Eabl  (d.  1729),  was 
member  for  Leominster  during  the  reign  of 
William  III.  He  was  *'  a  busy  and  unscru- 
pulous Whig."  He  accompanied  the  king  to 
Ireland  in  the  capacity  of  Paymaster-General. 
On  the  departure  of  William  to  England  he 
was  created  one  of  the  Lords  Justices.  To- 
gether with  his  colleagues,  he  was  guilty  of 
hanging  a  man  named  Grcifney,  who  turned 
informer  in  a  murder  case.  He  superintended 
and  signed  the  Treaty  of  Limerick.  During 
the  next  six  months,  by  his  unprincipled 
rapacity,  and  by  the  favour  he  showed  to 
Roman.  Catholics,  he  succeeded  in  alienating 
nil  classes,  and  was  recalled.  In  1701  we  find 
him  voting  for  the  Resumption  Bill,  although 
he  had  received  considerable  grants  of  Irish 
land.  "He  was,'*  says  Macaulay,  "an  un- 
principled man :  he  was  insatiable  of  riches ; 
and  he  was  in  a  position  in  which  riches  were 
easily  to  be  obtained  by  an  unprincipled 
man."  After  the  death  of  Queen  Anne, 
Coningsby  was  created  a  peer  of  Great 
Britain. 

Connaugllt.  The  ancient  kingdom  of 
Connaught,  originally  called  Olnegmacht, 
comprised,  roughly  speakixig,  the  present 
counties  of  Galway,  Ma3'o,  Sligo,  Roscommon, 
Leitrim,  and  Cavan,  afterwards  added  to 
Ulster.  According  to  tradition,  when  the 
Scoti  established  themselves  in  Ireland,  their 
great  chief,  Tuathal  {d,  circa  160  A.D.), 
reigned  over  Munster,  Leinster,  and  Olneg- 
macht, and  in  the  great  division  of  the 
countiy  between  his  grandson  Con,  or  Cond, 
"  of  the  hundred  battles,"  and  the  rival  king, 
Mug  of  Munster  (whence  came  the  terms 
Leitii-Cuinon,  **  Con's  half,*'  for  north  Ireland, 
and  Leith-Mogha,  *' Mug's  half,**  for  south 
Ireland),  the  district  now  known  as  County 
Clare,  which  had  originally  belonged  to 
Olnegmacht,  was  tranaCerred  to  Munster. 
About  this  time  the  name  of  the  kingdom  was 
changed  from  Olnegmacht  to  Connaught.  In 
the  reign  of  King  Laeghair4,  Connaught  was 
converted  to  Christianity  by  St.  Patrick 
(about  433).  In  the  time  of  the  so-called 
Irish  Pentaichy,  Connaught  was  a  fairly  com- 


pact kingdom,  owing  allegiance  to  the  Ard- 
Riagh,  or  chief  monarch  of  Ireland,  usually 
chosen  from  the  kings  of  Meath.  Its  power 
was  at  its  height  in  561,  when  Fergus 
defeated  the  Ard-Riagh  Diarmid  at  the  battle 
of  Sligo ;  but  soon  afterwards  the  kingdom 
split  up  into  principalities,  and  continued 
through  the  Danish  invasion,  in  which  the 
nobles  unpatriotically  sided  with  the  invader, 
though  they  afterwards  changed  sides  and 
aided  Brian  Bom  in  winning  the  great  battle 
of  Clontarf  (1014).  Soon  after  this,  the  great 
sept  of  the  O'Connors  of  Roscommon  be- 
came prominent  in  Connaught,  and  began  to 
wage  civil  war  with  the  O' Neils  of  Ulster 
and  the  0*Brien8  of  Munster.  Turlogh 
O'Brien  drove  the  reigning  O'Connor  from 
his  kingdom  in  1079,  but  Turlogh  O'Connor 
overran  the  whole  of  Munster  in  1118,  and 
followed  this  up  by  taking  Dublin.  His  son, 
Roderic  0*Connor,  claimed  the  title  of  Ard- 
Riagh  of  Ireland,  and  was  crowned  with  great 

Somp  in  Dublin  in  1166.    Soon  afterwards  he 
rove  Dermot  Macmurrough,  King  of  Leinster, 
from   his    kingdom,   whereupon    the    latter 
sought  help  from  Henr}-  II.  of  England,  and 
the  English  invasion  followed.-    Roderic,  a 
man  of  indolent  disposition,  made  little  at- 
tempt at  resistance,  but  did  homage  to  Henry 
in  1175,  when  the  sovereignty  of  Ireland 
was  reserved  to  him  with  the  exception  of 
Dublin,  Meath,  Leinster,  Waterford,  and  Dun- 
garvan.    His  son,  Cathal,  pursued  the  same 
policy  on  John*s  visit  to  Ireland  in  1210. 
Henry  III.,  however,  by  a  great  breach  of 
good  faith,  granted  the  country,  in  1225,  to 
Richard   de    Burgh,    and    after    a   terrible 
struggle  he  succeeded  in  holding  his  own. 
against  the  O'Connors,  who  were,  as  usual, 
split  up  into  several  factions;  and  the  aept 
was  almost  annihilated  in  the  reig^  of  Edward 
IL,  when  Felim  O'Connor  joined  Edward 
Bruce,  and  was  defeated  by  his  kinsman  Rory  • 
supported  by  the  Burghs  and  Berminghama 
at  Athenry  (1316).     About  the  middle  of  the 
century  the  Burghs  of  Connaught,  the  youngiRr 
branch,  threw  off   their   allegiance  to  tho 
English  crown,  and  Connaught  was  divided 
between  their  leaders,  while  they  changed 
their  name  at  the  same  time  to  that  of  Buncf  *. 
The  race  rapidly  degenerated ;  they  adopted 
Irish  manners  and  intermarried  freely  witK 
the  O'Connors,  in  spite  of   the  Statute    of 
Kilkenny  (1367|.    The  power  of  tho  latter 
revived,  so  that  oy  the  commencement  of  th.e 
reig^i  of  Henry  YIII.  they  still  claimed  to  be 
kings,  and  had  extended  their  dominionn  to 
within    twenty   miles    of    Dublin.      Their 
strength  was,  however,  checked  in  the  reig^ 
of  Edward  VI.  by  Sir  Edward  Bellingham^ 
who  built  a  castle  at  Athlone  to  curb  Con* 
naught.  In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  the  Burkes 
suffered  a  sterner  punishment ;  they  had  re. 
mained  quiet  during  the  Ulster  and  Munster 
insurrections,  but  at  last,  in  1576,  when   tho 
hated   Sir   Nicholas  Malby  was   appointed 


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Con 


President  of  Coanaught,  they  arose  in  rebel- 
lion. The  whole  of  the  countrv  was  in 
return  laid  waste  by  lire  and  sword,  and  the 
unfortunate  race  nearly  exterminated  in  that 
and  the  following  years.  In  1560  Connaught 
oeasfHl  to  be  a  kingdom,  and  was  divided  into 
counties  by  Act  of  Parliament.  Clare,  or 
Thomond,  originally  part  of  Connaught, 
was  soon  afterwards  added  to  it  again,  but 
after  a  little  while  again  became  part  of 
Munster.  [Burkb  ;  0*Cunnor.]  In  the  reign 
of  Charles  I.  an  Inquiry  into  TitUtin  ConnaugKt 
was  made  at  the  instance  of  Wentworth, 
afterwards  Lord  Strafford,  when  Lord-lieu- 
tenant of  Ireland.  The  idea  was  first  mooted 
in  1634,  but  was  laid  aside  in  order  to  con- 
ciliate the  Irish  Parliament.  As  soon,  however, 
as  they  had  voted  the  necessary  supplies, 
Charles  broke  his  promise  of  making  sixty 
years'  possession  a  bar  to  the  claims  of  the 
crown,  and,  in  1635,  issued  a  commission  to 
inqoire  into  defective  titles  in  Connaught, 
wishing  to  dispossess  the  landlords  and  colonise 
the  country  on  the  plan  which  James  I.  had 
pursued  in  Ulster.  After  the  juries  had  been 
warned  what  the  consequences  of  contumacy 
would  be,  the  commission  went  to  work,  and 
soon  declared  that  the  lands  of  the  Burkes 
about  Athlone — in  fact,  nearly  three-fourths 
of  the  province — ^belonged  to  the  crown.  For 
this  the  foreman  of  the  jury.  Sir  Lucas  Dillon, 
was  permitted  to  retain  some  of  his  own 
lands.  In  most  cases  the  landlords  had  no 
title-deeds  to  show,  and  those  who  had  were 
forced  to  pay  large  fines  for  their  confirmation. 
In  Gralway  alone  the  jury  refused  to  find  for 
the  king ;  they  were  fined  £4,000  each  and 
imprisoned,  when  the  sheriff,  on  whom  a 
penalty  of  £1,000  was  imposed,  died.  The 
Tramsplantation  to  Connmtght  was  effected 
during  the  Protectorate.  Cromwell  deter- 
mined, in  1653,  to  confine  the  Irish  nation 
to  the  desolated  province  of  Connaaght» 
and  declared  that  they  must  transplant  them- 
selves thither  within  seven  months  on  the 
penalty  of  death.  There  they  were  to  be 
enclosed  by  a  cordon  of  soldiers,  to  whom  a 
strip  of  land,  a  mile  wide,  running  round  the 
eoast  and  the  Shannon,  was  assigned.  The 
population  was  now  reduced  by  war  and  banish* 
ment  to  about  850,000,  and  for  them  800,000 
acres  was  set  apart.  B  v  a  summary  process  the 
estates  of  the  CathoUc  gentry  were  confis- 
cated, according  to  their  degree  of  complicity 
in  the  Irish  rebellion  and  their  resistance  to  the 
Protectorate,  in  various  proportions,  from  one 
to  two-thirds,  which  were  banded  over  to 
adventurers  and  Parliamentary  soldiers,  while 
they  were  forced  to  accept  an  equivalent 
across  the  Shannon.  After  the  appointed  time 
had  passed,  an  Irish  gentleman  was  hanged  for 
refusing  to  transplant,  and  many  hundreds, 
with  their  famiUes,  were  sent  as  slaves  to 
Barbiidoes.  Many  others  were  removed  bodily, 
with  what  they  could  save  of  their  posses- 
sions, to  Connaught,    The  utmost  severity  was 


used  in  the  process,  noble  ladies,  for  instance, 
being  compelled  to  go  on  foot,  and  all  being 
reduced  to  the  greatest  misery.  Some  of  the 
sons  of  the  banished  owners  wandered  about 
their  old  estates,  living  by  outlawry  and  the 
hospitality  of  their  fathers*  tenants.  A  sum 
of  £20  was  laid  on  the  heads  of  these  "  Tories," 
in  1657,  and  their  extermination  decreed,  to- 
gether with  that  of  two  other  '*  beasts,"  the 
wolf  and  the  priest.  After  the  Restoration  an 
attempt  was  made  (1661)  to  soften  these  con- 
ditions, the  result  of  which  was  that  it  was 
declared  that  all  Catholics  who  were  innocent 
of  rebellion  should  be  restored  to  their  estates. 
Those,  however,  who  had  accepted  lands  in 
Connaught  were  forced  to  abide  by  their 
bargains,  and  of  those  who  returned  from 
exile  but  few  obtained  any  redress. 

O'Cnxry,  JfafiiiMriiie  JfattHoU  <tf  Aitaind  IrU\ 
History;  Fzonde,  Sngliah  in  Ireland,  toL  L; 
Cosack,  Higt,  of  tU  Iruh  Natitm ;  McO«e,  Hist. 
<t^  IrAand  ;  Harerty,  Hut.  of  ir«lan<l. 

[L.  C.  S.] 

Connoeticnt.    [Colonxss,  Amb&zcam.] 

Consorvative.    [Tort.] 

Conservatomi  of  tho  Peaoe.  These^ 
predecessors  of  our  modem  justices  of  the 
peace  were  persons  entrusted  with  the  duty 
of  maintaining  order  and  police  in  their 
counties.  Dr.  Stubbs  traces  their  origin  to 
an  edict  of  Hubert  Walter  in  1196.  Accord- 
ing to  this  proclamation  an  oath  against  har- 
bouring or  aiding  thieves  and  robbers  was  to 
be  taken  by  every  one  above  fifteen  years  of 
age.  This  usage  dates  from  Anglo-Saxon 
times;  but  its  execution  was  now  assigned 
to  special  knights  appointed  for  the  purpose. 
In  1230  and  1252  two  or  three  knights  are 
appointed  in  each  shire  for  the  conservation 
of  the  peace,  and  in  1263  we  find  the  sheriffs 
summoning  four  men,  and  the  reeve  from 
each  township,  and  twelve  burghers  from 
each  borough,  to  execute  the  same  functions ; 
and  in  the  fifth  year  of  £dward  I.  an  officer 
bearing  the  title  of  '*  Custos  Pads,"  or 
guardian  of  the  peace,  is  elected  in  the  county 
courts.  Conservators  of  the  same  kind  were 
appointed  to  carry  out  the  provisions  of  the 
Statute  of  Winchester,  which  deals  so  largely 
with  questions  of  local  police.  Dr.  Stubbs 
considers  that  these  ofiices  were  originally 
filled  by  the  crown,  but  when  vacant,  by 
election  of  the  shire-moot.  In  the  first 
year  of  Edward  III.  "good  men"  were  ap- 
pointed to  guard  the  peace  in  each  county, 
but  apparently  were  not  elected  like 
Edward  I.'s  "  Custodes  Pacis."  In  the 
eighteenth  year  of  Edward  III.  these  Con- 
servators of  the  Peace  were  commissioned  to 
hear  and  determine  felonies,  and  sixteen  years 
later  received  authority  to  do  so  regularly, 
and  they  became  regular  officials  of  the  crown, 
from  whom  they  henceforth  derive  all  theii- 
authority. 

Stubbs,  Coiui.  Biai. 


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Con 


Consilty  The  Pass  of,  near  Flint,  is 
memorable  for  a  narrow  escape  of  Henry  II., 
-who  was  surprised  here  in  1157  by  the  Welsh 
under  Owen  Gwynnedd. 

Consistory  Courts.  [Ecclesiastical 
Jurisdiction.] 

Consols  IB  the  usual  abbreviation  for  the 
government  stock,  properly  entitled  Three 
per  Cent.  Consolidated  Bank  Annuities.  It 
originated  in  the  year  1761,  when  an  Act  was 
passed  consolidating  several  separate  stocks 
bearing  interest  at  3  -percent.  In  1787  the 
public  debt  was  further  consolidated  by  the 
union  of  the  Aggregate,  General,  and  South 
Sea  Funds.  By  the  Act  56  Geo.  III.,  c.  98 
(1816),  it  was  united  with  the  Irish  Govern- 
ment Fund.     [National  Debt.] 

Constable  (derived  from  the  Latin  eomei 
niabuU,  count  of  the  stable)  was  originally 
an  office  in  the  Byzantine  court,  the  name 
appearing  in  the  West  about  580  a.d.  In 
England  it  is  used  in  several  different  senses. 
(1)  It  appears  to  have  been  first  attached 
after  the  Conquest  to  the  keepers  of  the  royal 
castles,  e.g,j  tiie  Constable  of  the  Tower,  of 
Baynard's  Castle,  of  Chester  Castle,  &c.,  who 
rapidly  acquired  hereditary  privileges,  and 
exercised  under  weak  kings  usurped  jurisdic- 
tions in  common  pleas,  together  with  oppres- 
sive powers  of  imprisonment,  which  were  not 
finally  aboUshed  until  1403. 

(2)  The  Lord  High  Constable  appears 
about  the  time  of  Stephen  as  one  of  the 
domestic  dignitaries  of  the  court.  The 
office  existed  indeed  under  the  Korman 
kings,  but  was  comparatively  unimportant, 
and  the  first  High  Constable  who  is  at  all 
prominent  in  history  is  Miles  of  Hereford, 
one  of  the  chief  supporters  of  the  Empress 
Matilda.  The  High  Constable  may  be  con- 
sidered to  have  succeeded  to  the  duties  of  the 
officer  who,  before  the  Conquest,  was  known 
us  the  Staller ;  he  was  quartermaster-general 
of  the  court  and  army.  From  the  Dialogus 
de  Seaeeario  we  learn  that  he  was  also,  in  the 
time  of  Henry  II.,  one  of  the  officers  of  the 
Exchequer,  where  he  helped  the  Treasurer  to 
check  the  accounts  of  ^e  king's  household 
servants.  As  was  the  case  with  the  other 
great  offices  of  the  royal  household,  the  Loi-d 
High  Constable  had,  before  the  end  of  tJie 
reign  of  Henry  II.,  become  an  hereditary 
dignity,  and  went,  together  with  the  tenure 
of  certein  manors  in  Gloucestershire,  and  the 
castle  of  Caldecot  in  Monmouthshire,  into  the 
family  of  Bohun,  through  Humphrey  de 
Bohun,  who  married  t^e  daughter  and  heiress 
of  Miles  of  Hereford,  and  on  the  extinction 
of  that  line  in  1372  it  was  held  by  Thomas 
of  Woodstock  (rf.  1397),  who  married  the 
heiress  of  the  seventh  Earl  of  Hereford.  With 
the  accession  of  the  house  of  Lancaster  (1399), 
the  office  ceased  to  be  hereditary.  The  Earl 
of  Northumberland  was  made  Constable  by 
Henry  IV.  in  1399,  but  the  office  was  taken 


from  him  in  1403  and  given  to  the  Duke  of 
Bedford.    Subsequently  the  Duke  of  Somer- 
set was  made  Constable  in  145U,  but  there 
seem  to  have  been  considerable  gaps  between 
many  of  the  appointments.    The  Lord  High 
Constable,  together  with  the  Marshal,  had 
by  the  time  of   Edward  I.  acquired  great 
powers   in  the  management  of  the  army; 
he  superintended  the  mustering,    billeting, 
and   formation   of   troops,    took    care    that 
those  who    owed   service    by    their   tenure 
sent  the  proper  amount  of  men,  and  during 
the  campaign  held  court  for  the  trial  of  mili- 
tary offences.     In  1296^  Humphrey  de  Bohun, 
Eeurl  of  Hereford,  together  with  Bigod  the 
Marshal,  refused  to  take  charge  of  an  army 
destined  for  Guienne,  availing  themselves  of 
the  legal  quibble  that  they  were  only  bound 
to  serve  the  king  in  person,  and  they  gained 
their  point.    From  this  date  also  the  judicial 
f  imctions  of  the  Lord  High  Constable  became 
important ;  besides  administering  martial  law, 
he  was,  with  the  Marshal,  whose  functions 
are  by  no  means  distinct,  the  presiding  officer 
of  the  Court  of  Chivalry  (q.v.),  and,  as  such, 
decided  questions  of  honour  and   heraldr}'. 
These  powers  became  considerably  enlarged, 
and  tended  to  encroach  on  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  courts  of  common  law,  and  were  strictly 
limited  in  1389.  Edward  IV.,  however,  revised 
and  increased  the  illegal  powers  for  the  pur- 
pose of  punishing  the  Lancastrians.      The 
Lord  High  Constable  was  empowered  to  take 
cognisance  of  all  cases  of  high  treason,  '*  to 
hear,   examine,    and   conclude    them,    even 
summarily  and  plainly,  without  noise  or  show 
of  judgment,  on  simple  inspection  of  fact." 
Richard  III.  bestow^  the  office  on  Henry 
Stafford,  Duke  of  Buckingham,  partly,  per- 
haps, with. the  idea  of  making  it  hereditaiy 
again,  for  Buckingham    was  a    descendant 
of  the  Bohuns.    The  honour  was  conferred  on 
his    son   Edward   by  Henry  VII.      Henry 
VIII.,  however,  in  1514,  finding  that  the  feeis 
of  the  office  were  exceedingly  burdensome 
to  the  crown,  discharged  Buckingham  from 
his  office.     Since    Buddngham's   discharge 
the    Lord  High  Constable    has   only  been 
appointed    for    special    occasions,    such    as 
the  king's  coronation,    and,  in   one   single 
instance  (in  1631),  for  trial  by  combat.    The 
Duke  of  Wellington  officiated  as  Lord  High. 
itable  at  the  last  three  coronations. 

The  Constables  of  the  Hundred^  or  High. 

^les,  were  officers  who,  under  the 
kings,  performed  in  a  subordinate 
icity  some  of  the  duties  which  before  the 
Conquest  were  entrusted  to  the  head  man,  or 
reeve  of  the  hundred.  In  a  writ  of  Henry 
III.  (1252),  it  is  provided  that  **one  or  two 
chief  constables  should  be  constituted  in 
every  hundred,  at  whose  mandate  all  those 
of  his  hundred  sworn  to  arms  should  as- 
semble," and  by  the  Statute  of  Winchester 
Q28d)  it  was  ordered  that  in  every  hun- 
ored  or  frandiise  there  should  be  choeen  two 


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or  more  constables  to  make  the  view  of 
armour.  They  were  elected  by  the  court  leet, 
and  sworn  in  by  the  lord  or  his  steward. 
In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  we  find  that 
they  had  the  power  of  holding  petty  sessions 
ior  the  hiring  of  servants.  In  1844  it  was 
provided  that  in  default  of  appointments  in 
the  court  leet,  high  constables  might  be 
chosen  by  justices  at  their  special  sessions. 
After  the  establishment  and  regulation  of 
the  county  constabulary  (between  the  years 
1839  and  1859),  high  constables  having  be- 
come practically  useless,  the  justices  of  each 
county  were  directed  to  consider  and  de- 
termine whether  it  was  necessary  to  continue 
the  office  in  each  hundred.    [Hundred.] 

(4)  The  Fetty  Constable^  or  Constable  of 
the  Vill,  may,  on  the  analogy  of  the  constable 
of  the  hundred,  be  considered  as  the  de- 
generate descendant  of  the  tithing  man.  He 
also  was  elected  in  the  court  leet  until  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.,  when,  in  virtue  of  a 
statute  passed  in  1673,  the  duty  of  nominating 
and  swearing-in  constables  was  by  degrees 
'toinsf&rred  to  justices  of  the  peace.  In  the 
reign  of  George  II.  it  was  provided  (in  1751) 
that  no  constable  could  be  sued  without  making 
the  justice  who  signed  the  warrant  a  joint  de- 
fendant. In  1 842  it  was  declared  that,  with  the 
exception  of  certain  pri\'ileged  classes,  every 
able-bodied  man  between  the  ages  of  twenty- 
five  and  fifty-five  who  contributed  to  the  poor 
rates,  or  held  a  tenement  of  the  annual  value 
of  £4,  was  liable  to  serve  as  constable.  The 
election  of  the  constabulary  of  boroughs 
under  the  Municipal  Corporations  Act  was 
placed  in  the  hands  of  a  watch  committee  in 
1832,  and  the  duties  of  special  constables, 
who  might  be  sworn  in  to  keep  the  peace  on 
i'mergencies,  were  regulated  by  legislation  in 
1827  and  1832. 

(5)  The  Xord  High  Constable  of  Scotland 
can  be  traced  back  to  the  time  of  David  I. 
In  Scotland,  the  duties  of  the  High  Constable 
<'onsisted  in  commanding  the  army  while  in 
the  field,  in  the  absence  of  the  king,  and,  in 
ct)nj unction  with  the  Marshal,  judging  all 
transgressions  committed  within  a  certain 
distance  of  the  king's  palace,  known  as  the 
ehaliner  of  peace.  In  1321,  when  Sir  Gilbert 
Hay  was  made  Earl  of  Errol,  the  office 
was  made  hereditary  in  his  family.  It  was 
expressly  reserved  by  the  treaty  of  Union, 
and  by  Act  of  Parliament  in  1747.  It  is  now, 
however,  purely  honorar}'. 

StubbB,  Coiuf.  Htrt.,  i,  ch.  it  and  iii.  18. 
Select  Ckartwf ;  Oike,  In«tita'M,  iv. ;  Lambard, 
I>«(i«8  of  Cotistahln ;  Stephen,  Comnuntaries, 
SUtutes  5  and  6  Vict.,  c.  i09 ;  32  and  S3  Vict., 
c  47,  and  85  and  36  Yiot.,  c.  92. 

Gourtaacey  fourth  daughter  of  William 
the  Conqueror,'  married  Alan,  brother  of  the 
Duke  of  Britanny,  to  whom  her  father  gave 
the  earldom  of  Richmond.  In  1090  she  died, 
it  is  said  poisoned  by  some  of  her  husband's 
YMSftls,  who  found  her  harsh  and  oppressive. 


Constance  of  Buitanny  (d.  1201)  was 

the  daughter  and  heiress  of  Conan,  Duke  of 
Britanny.  She  was  married  to  Geoffrej'-,  son 
of  Henry  II.,  by  whom  she  had  two  children, 
Arthur  and  Eletinor.  After  Geoffrey's  death, 
in  1186,  she  obtained  the  guardianship  of  her 
son  and  the  government  of  the  duchy,  but 
was  soon  afterwards  compelled  to  marry 
Hanulf,  Earl  of  Chester,  who  made  himself  so 
hated  in  Britanny  that  on  Henry  II. 's  death, 
in  1189,  he  was  driven  out,  and  Constance 
restored  to  power.  In.  1196  she  was  seized 
by  a  body  of  troops  under  her  husband,  and 
imprisoned  for  eighteen  months ;  her  conduct 
during  this  perioid  in  asserting  the  rights  of 
the  Bretons  was  most  adverse  to  the  interests 
of  her  son,  in  addition  to  which,  she  had 
quarrelled  with  her  powerful  mother-in-law, 
Eleanor,  as  well  as  with  her  husband,  from 
whom  she  obtained  a  divorce  in  1198.  She 
now  married  Guy,  brother  of  the  Viscount  of 
Thouars,  by  whom  she  had  three  daughters, 
from  the  eldest  of  whom,  Alix,  sprang  the 
Dukes  of  Britanny  who  played  such  an  impor- 
tant part  in  the  l^Vench  wars  of  Edward  III.'s 
reign. 

Constance  of  Castile  {d.  1302)  was 
the  eldest  daughter  of  Pedro  the  Cruel,  and 
became  the  second  wife  of  John  of  Gaunt, 
who  inherited,  through  her,  claims  to  the 
crown  of  Castile. 

Constantine  (d.  820),  son  of  Fergus,  ex- 
pelled Conall,  King  of  the  Picts,  and  obtained 
the  Pictish  throne  (789),  having  in  all  proba- 
bility authority  over  Dalriada  also.  In  796  some 
monks  from  Lindisfame  visited  his  court,  and 
for  them  he  founded  the  church  of  Dimkeld. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Angus.  The 
reign  of  Constantine  is  chiefly  memorable  as 
marking  the  date  of  the  first  historical  attacks 
of  the  Norsemen  on  the  British  shores.  It 
was  in  793  that  they  harried  the  holy  island 
of  Lindisfame,  and  a  few  years  later  seized 
upon  the  western  islands,  and  slaughtered  the 
monks  of  lona.  By  these  pirates,  who  hence- 
forward for  several  centuries  continued  their 
ravages,  nearly  all  communications  between 
Ireland  and  Scotland  were  in  time  broken  off. 

Constantine  (d.  877),  son  of  Kenneth, 
succeeded  his  unde  Donald  as  King  of  the 
Picts,  863.  His  reign  is  chiefly  remarkable  for 
a  series  of  conflicts  with  the  Northmen,  under 
Olaf  the  White,  the  son  of  Norsten  the  Ked. 
This  chieftain  is  said  to  have  conquered  Caith- 
ness and  Sunderland.  When  the  Norwegians 
drove  the  Danes  out  of  Ireland,  the  latter 
invaded  Scotland,  and  defeated  the  Scotch 
king  at  Dollar  and  Inverdoret,  at  which  last 
batUe  Constantine  was  killed. 

Constantine  [d,  952),  son  of  Aedh, 
reigned  over  the  kingdom  of  Alban,  900 — 
943.  He  was  a  man  of  vigour  and  an 
experienced  warrior.  In  904  he  cut  to  pieces 
in  Stratheme  an  invading  body  of  Danes, 


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under  Ivan.  Boon  afterwards  ho  united 
the  Pictish  and  Scottish  Churches  at  an 
ecclesiastical  council  held  at  8cone.  In  908 
he  procured  the  election  of  his  brother 
Donald  to  the  throne  of  Strathclvde,  and 
in  918  joined  the  Northumbrians  against 
the  Norsemen,  whose  advance  was  checked 
bv  the  allied  armies  at  the  battle  of  Cor- 
bridge-on-Tyne.  Under  the  year  924  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Chrwiicle  tells  us  that  amongst 
other  nations  the  Scots  chose  Edward  the  £lder 
for  father  and  lord.  But  these  peaceful  re- 
lations cannot  have  Listed  very  long,  for  in 
934  we^  find  Edward's  successor,  Athelstan,  in- 
vading'Scotland,  and  penetrating  as  far  as  Dun- 
otter,  and  ravaging  the  coasts  of  Caithness  with 
his  fleet.  Constantino,  in  retaliation,  joined 
with  the  Norsemen  and  the  Britons  of  Strath- 
clyde  in  an  attempt  to  wrest  Northumbria 
from  the  English  king,  but  the  united  forces 
were  defeated  at  Brunanburh  (q.v.),  937.  In 
943  Constantino  resigned  his  crown,  and  be- 
came abbot  of  the  monastery  of  8t.  Andrews, 
where  he  died,  962,  having,  however,  emerged 
for  a  short  time,  in  949,  to  do  battle  with  King 
Edred. 

Skene,  Catttc  Scotland;  ilnylo-Soron  Chroa.; 
Burtou,  nut.  of  SootXand, 

Constantiiis  Chlonis.  Emperor  of 
Rome  (292 — 306),  ruled  over  the  provinces  of 
Spain,  Gaul,  and  Britain,  and  seems  to  have 
spent  most  of  his  time  in  this  country.  But 
the  story  of  his  having  married  a  British 
princess  named  Helena  rests  on  no  good 
authority.  He  defeated  AUectus,  and  re- 
united Britain  to  the  Empire.  He  died  at 
York  in  the  year  306. 

ConstitutionB,  Colonial.  [Australia  ; 
Canada;  Colonies.] 

Constitlltion»  The  Irish,  of  1782.  In 
1779  the  Irish  Volunteers,  whom  the  care- 
lessness of  the  government  and  the  undefended 
state  of  Ireland  had  allowed  to  become  formid- 
able, had  succeeded  in  frightening  the  govern- 
ment into  repealing  the  trade  restrictions.  The 
movement  was  continued,  and,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Grattan,  aimed  at  legislative  indepen- 
dence. In  1 781  Lord  Carlisle,  the  new  viceroy, 
was  instructed  to  resist  all  efforts  at  legislative 
independence,  but  nevertheless,  notice  was 
g^ven  of  bills  for  the  repeal  of  Poynings* 
Act  (q.y.)  and  of  the  Mutiny  Act.  The 
repeal  of  the  first,  placing  the  Irish  Parlia- 
ment more  or  less  in  the  position  of  the 
English  Parliament,  could  not  be  resisted,  and 
was  carried  in  Dec.,  1781.  The  repeal  of  the 
Mutiny  Bill,  however,  was  not  carried,  though 
moved  by  Grattan.  When  Parliament  again 
met,  in  Feb.,  1782,  the  Volunteers  assumed  a 
very  threatening  attitude,  and  the  patriot 
party,  backed  by  the  resolutions  of  Dungannon, 
and  aroused  bv  the  mention  o!  Ireland  in 
some  unimportant  Acts  passed  in  England, 
proceeded,  through  Grattan,  on  Fob.  22, 
1782,  to  move  a  sort  of  declaration  o£  inde- 


pendence, but  they  were  beaten  by  137  to  68. 
But,  though  the  resolutions  were  lost,  the 
principle  on  which  they  were  based  had 
been  admitted  by  every  one.  The  Parliament 
was  now  adjourned,  and  when  it  met  again,  in 
Alarch,  the  North  ministry  was  overthrown, 
and  the  Whigs  were  in  oflice.  On  April  17th 
Grattan  was  content  to  move  an  amendment 
in  the  address  demanding  complete  indepen- 
dence, and  the  House  then  adjourned  to  wait 
for  an  answer  from  England.  On  May  1 7th  re- 
solutions were  passed  in  the  English  Parlia- 
ment conceding  the  repeal  of  Poynings'  Act, 
and  of  the  statute  6  George  I.  and  a  biennial 
Mutiny  Bill.  On  3Iay  27th  the  Irish  Parlia- 
ment received  the  news,  and  immediately  voted 
£100,000  and  20,000  men  for  the  war.  Flood 
indeed  attempted  to  declaim  against  Eng- 
land's concessions  as  insufficient,  but  failed, 
and  the  House  resolved  "that  the  right  of 
legislation  of  the  Irish  Parliament  in  all  cases, 
internal  and  external,  had  been  already 
asserted  by  Ireland,  and  fully  admitted  by 
England.*'  The  constitution  of  1782  was  thus 
conceded  ;  though  hailed  with  enthusiasm  at 
the  time,  it  made  corruption  on  a  large  scale 
necessar}',  and  hastened  on  the  Union  as 
achieved  in  1800. 

Orattan,  Lift  of  Grattan ;  Stanhope,  Hi^  of 
Bng, ;  Adolpnus,  Hiti.  of  Qtorgt  III. 

Consuls  are  persons  empowered  to  take 
charge  of  the  trading  and  commercial  interests 
of  British  subjects  in  foreign  towns.  They 
were  introduced  in  the  sixteenth  century,  but  it 
was  not  till  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  that 
it  became  customary'  to  appoint  them  regu- 
larly. Their  duties  are  to  give  advice  and 
assistance  to  English  traders ;  to  settle  their 
disputes  where  possible ;  to  guard  the  legal 
rights  of  British  subjects  under  foreign  juris* 
diction ;  and  to  report  on  the  trade  of  the- 
country  in  which  they  are  resident.  By  the 
ContUar  Marn^age  Act  (12  and  13  Vict.,  c.  68), 
consuls  are  empowered  to  celebrate  marriages 
between  British  subjects  resident  in  their 
district.  They  can  take  evidence  on  oath  as 
to  crimes  committed  on  British  ships,  and  are 
empowered  to  send  home  the  offenders  for 
trial ;  and  they  are  also  to  exercise  a  general 
superintendence  over  British  shipping,  so  as 
to  see  that  the  Merchant  Shipping  and  other 
Acts  are  not  violated.  In  some  cases  British 
consuls  are  also  diplomatic  agents  or  thargh 
d^affairet^  empowered  to  communicate  with 
the  Foreign  Offices  of  the  states  in  which, 
they  are  stationed,  and  in  this  case  they  are 
called  ContuU-General.  In  Turkey  and  the 
Levant  the  consuls-general  exercise  the  powers 
conceded  under  the  capitulations  betweea 
England  and  the  Porte,  and  are  supreme 
judp:i?s  of  the  consular  courts.  British  consuls 
aio  allowed  to  trade  in  some  towns,  while  at 
other  stations  this  privilege  is  refused. 

Control*  Board  of.    [East  India  Cok- 

PAKY.] 


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Convontiole  Act,  Thb  (1664),  enacted 
that  any  one  over  sixteen  years  of  age  pre- 
sent at  an  unlawful  assembly  or  conventicle 
ivas  to  incur  fine  or  imprisonment.  A  con- 
venticle was  defined  as  an  assembly  of  more 
than  five  persons,  besides  the  members  of  a 
tBosalyy  met  together  for  holding  worship  not 
according  to  the  Church  of  England. '  In 
1670  the  Act  was  amended,  and  the  penalties 
greatly  lessened,  but  a  severe  fine  was  im- 
posed on  any  one  who  lent  his  hou8&  for  such 
meetings.  The  Conventicle  Act  was  repealed 
by  the  Toleration  Act  of  1689. 

Convention,  Thb  (1688 — 9),  is  the  name 
given  to  the  Parliament  which  met  after  the 
abdication  of  James  II.  to  settle  the  succes- 
sion. It  met  on  Jan.  22nd.  It  first  placed 
the  administration  and  the  disposal  of  the 
revenue  in  the  hands  of  William  of  Orange. 
The  Commons  declared  the  throne  vacant,  and 
voted  that  it  was  inconsistent  with  the  safety 
of  the  kingdom  that  it  should  be  governed  by  a 
Popish  king.  The  Lords,  after  much  discussion, 
negatived  the  resolution  that  the  throne  was 
vacant,  Danb^r's  party  asserting  that  the 
crown  had  devolved  on  Mar}'.  Disputes  there- 
upon broke  out  between  the  two  Houses.  After 
a  conference,  the  Lords  yielded,  and  a  resolu- 
tion was  passed  that  the  Prince  and  Princess 
of  Orange  should  be  declared  King  and  Queen 
of  England.  Soon  afterwards  William  and 
^lary  arrived  in  England,  and  the  crown  was 
tendered  to  them,  and  accepted  (Feb.  13^. 
As  soon  as  the  new  ministry  was  establishea, 
the  question  was  broached  whether  the  Con- 
vention should  be  turned  into  a  Parliament. 
A  bill  declaring  the  Convention  a  Parliament 
passed  the  Lords,  and  after  a  sharp  debate  was 
accepted  by  the  Commons.  It  contained  a 
clause  requiring  members  of  both  Houses  to 
take  the  oaths  to  the  new  king  and  queen. 
**  iSuch,"  says  Halkm,  **  was  the  termination 
of  that  contest  which  the  house  of  Stuart 
had  maintained  against  the  liberties,  and  of 
late  against  the  religion,  of  England ;  or 
rather,  of  that  far  more  ancient  controversy 
between  the  crown  and  the  people  which  had 
never  been  wholly  at  rest  since  the  reign  of 
John."     [Rbvolution.] 

Parliamentary  Hitt.;  Banke,  Hi»t.  of  Bno.; 
Baniet,  Hiat.  o/Hi*  Own  Time;  Macaukij,  Hut. 
o/Eng.;  Hallam,  ConH,  Hid. 

Convention  Bill,  Thb,  passed  by  the 
Irish  Parliament  in  1793,  declared  the  assem- 
blage of  persons  calling  themselves  represen- 
tatives of  the  nation,  under  any  pretence 
whatsoever,  illegal.  Fitzgibbon  carried  it,  in 
spite  of  the  violent  opposition  of  Grattan  and 
the  Duke  of  Leinster. 

Convention  of  Estatae,  The  (1689), 

was  the  name  given  to  the  Scottish  Parlia- 
ment which  assembled  on  March  14,  1689, 
after  the  Revolution.  On  the  4th  of  April 
the  Estates  passed  a  resolution  declaring  that 
King  James  VII.,  **  being  a  professed  Papist, 


did  assume  the  regal  power  and  acted  as  king 
without  taking  the  oath  required  by  law, 
and  hath  "by  the  advice  of  evil  and  wicked 
councillors  invaded  the  fundamental  constitu- 
tion of  this  kingdom,  and  altered  it  from  a 
legal  limited  monarchy  to  an  arbitrary 
despotic  power,  and  hath  exercised  the  same 
to  the  subversion  of  the  Protestant  religion, 
and  the  violation  of  tho  laws  and  liberties  of 
the  nation,  inverting  all  the  ends  of  govern- 
ment, whereby  he  hath  foxfaulted  all  right  to 
the  crown,  and  the  throne  is  become  vacant.'* 
On  the  1 1th  of  April  the  Estates  adopted  the 
Claitn  of  Might,  which  declared  the  funda- 
mental liberties  of  the  kingdom  of  Scotland, 
and  stated  that  no  Papist  could  be  King  of 
Scotland,  and  that  the  Scottish  Church  was 
Presbyterian,  and  finally  declaring  that 
William  and  3Iary  were  King  and  Queen  of 
Scotland.  Two  days  later  (April  13)  a 
number  of  resolutions,  called  the  Article*  of 
Grievancetf  were  voted.  These  set  forth  a 
number  of  acts  done  under  the  authority  of 
bad  laws  which  the  Estates  desired  to  have 
repealed.  The  Convention  exercised  the 
executive  authority  in  Scotland  till  the  crown 
had  been  duly  offered  to  and  accepted  by 
William  III.,  when  it  became  a  Parliament. 

Acts  of  Parliament  of  SooUand,  ix. ;   Barton, 
Hut.  of  Seodand,  vii.  W&. 

Convention  Parliament.  The  (1660), 

is  the  name  given  to  the  assembly  which  es- 
tablished the  Hetftoration  of  Charles  II.  It 
assembled  April  20,  1660,  on  the  dissolution  of 
the  "Rump."  It  immediately  accepted  the 
Declaration  of  Breda  (q.v.),  and  issued  an 
address  inviting  Charles  to  accept  the  crown. 
On  the  return  of  Charles,  the  discussions  of  the 
Convention  turned  chiefly  upon  the  questions 
of  the  amnesty,  the  settlement  of  the  claims  of 
property  which  had  changed  hands,  the  settle- 
ment of  the  Church,  and  the  royal  revenue.  In 
regard  to  the  first,  the  amnesty  was  voted  for  all 
but  the  judges  of  Charles  I.  In  regard  to  the 
second,  an  Aet  of  Indannity  and  Oblivion  was 
brought  in  to  prevent  holders  of  land  seques- 
trated during  the  inten*egnum  regaining 
possession  of  their  property.  The  old  feudal 
claims  of  the  crown  for  fines  upon  alienation, 
reliefs,  wardships,  &c.,  were  abolished,  and 
the  crown  revenue  was  fixed  at  £1,200,000 
a  year,  raised  partly  from  the  excise,  and 
partly  from  tunnage  and  poundage  now 
granted  to  the  king  for  life.  After  much  dis- 
cussion, the  settlement  of  the  Church  was  left 
open  when  the  Parliament  was  dissolved  on 
December  29th,  1660. 

Convooation  Ib  the  name  given  to 
the  general  assembly  of  the  clergy  of  the 
kingdom.  The  organisation  of  the  Church 
gave  its  councils  great  importance  in 
early  times,  and  under  the  Koiman  kings 
this  conciliar  activity  was  still  further  de- 
veloped. The  Church  had  its  synods  of  the 
nation,  the  province,  and  the  diocese;    they 


Con 


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Con 


wero  attended  by  prelates,  chaptera,  arch- 
deacons,  and  the  parochial  clergy.  In  general 
history,  these  synods  became  important  as 
cleiical  taxation  was  introduced.  As  this 
became  customary,  diocesan  representatives 
were  sent  to  the  provincial  Convocations 
for  the  purpose  of  giving  their  assent  to 
taxation.  The  first  definite  instance  of  re- 
presentation in  Convocation  is  found  under 
Archbishop  Stephen  Langton,  in  1225.  In 
1283  a  rule  was  laid  down  that  each  bishop 
should  summon  to  Convocation  two  proctors 
of  the  clergy'  of  his  diocese  and  one  proctor 
from  each  cathedral  or  collegiate  church,  who 
were  to  have  full  power  of  consenting  to  such 
measm'es  as  the  community  of  the  clergy 
think  fit.  This  was  the  constitution  of  the 
Convocation  of  the  province  of  Canterbury. 
That  of  the  province  of  York,  dating  from 
1279,  contained  two  proctors  from  each  arch- 
deaconry'. Besides  these  elected  members 
were  bishops,  abbots,  priors,  deans,  and 
archdeacons,  as  ex-o^ieio  members. 

The  jealousy  between  the  two  archbishops, 
and  the  difficulty  in  reconciling  their  claims, 
led,  in  the  twelfth  centur\%  to  quarrels. 
National  Church  councils  became  almost 
impossible,  and  ecclesiastical  questions  were 
discussed  separately  by  the  two  Convocations. 
Such  matters  as  concerned  ordinary  discipline 
were  decided  for  themselves.  On  other 
matters  they  presented  petitions  to  the  king, 
which  were  called  gravamina. 

When  Edward  I.,  in  1295,  organised 
more  completely  the  parliamentary  repre- 
sentation of  the  several  estates,  he  wished 
also  to  incorporate  the  clergy  with  the 
parliamentary  system.  For  this  purpose  he 
summoned  to  Parliament,  by  separate  writs 
addressed  to  each  bishop,  the  proctors  of  the 
chapters  and  the  parochial  clergy,  together 
with  bishops,  deaos,  and  archdeacons  per- 
sonally. Thus  the  Convocations  w^ere  sum- 
moned as  spiritual  councils  of  the  archbishops, 
and  the  proctors  were  further  summoned  to 
Parliament  by  the  clause  of  the  king's  writ 
to  the  bishops,  known,  fi'om  its  first  word,  as 
the  *^  pra^munientes  "  clause.  In  this  way  the 
two  ConvocflCtions  were  to  be  worked  into  the 
parliamentary  system,  while  retaining  their 
position  as  spiritual  councils  besides. 

The  clergy,  however,  showed  great  reluc- 
tance to  enter  into  this  arrangement.  Pro- 
•bably  they  thought  that  they  were  sufficiently 
represented  by  the  lords  spiritual,  and  did 
not  wish  to  be  drawn  into  parliamentary  dis- 
putes, in  which  their  own  privileges  might 
suffer.  The  crown  in  vain  addressed  letters 
to  the  archbishops,  urging  them  to  compel 
the  attendance  of  the  clerical  estate.  After 
1340  the  crown  acquiesced  in  the  rule  that 
clerical  taxes  should  be  granted  in  Convoca- 
tion, and  in  the  fifteenth  century  the  attend- 
ance in  Parliament  of  clerical  proctors  died 
away.  The  duty  of  voting  taxes  led  to  the 
Bummons  of  Convocation  at  the  same  time  as 


Parliament,  but  this  was  from  motives  of 
convenience,  and  did  not  affect  the  indepen- 
dence of  Convocation. 

In  the  weakness  of  the  clergy  before  the 
royal  power,  Convocation  was  used  by  Henry 
YIII.  to  bring  about  the  separation  of  the 
English  Church  from  the  Church  of  Rome. 
The  clergy  were  informed  that  they  had  in- 
curred the  penalties  of  the  Act  of  Praemunire 
by  recognising  Wolsey's  legatine  authority, 
which  had  been  recognised  by  the  king  him- 
self.     Iniquitous  as  was  this  penalty,   the 
clergy  were  helpless  against  the  king,  and 
Convocation,  in  1530,  assented  to  a  large  sub- 
sidy to  appease  the  royal  WTath.     In  the  bill 
which  granted  it,  the  royal  supremacy  was 
admitted,  with  the  proviso  ''  as  far  as  Christ's 
law  allows."    The  Act  of  Submission,  1533, 
practically  abolished  the  legislative  powers  of 
Convocation.   It  established  that  Convocation 
*'is,  always   has  been,   and    ought    to    be, 
summoned  by  royal  writ ; "  there  was  to  be 
thenceforth  no  legislation  without  the  king's 
^  licence,  and  a  revision  of  the  existing  canon 
*  law  was  committed  to  a  mixed  commission  of 
clergy  and  laity. 

Henceforth,  during  the  sixteenth  centur^^, 
the  Convocation  of  the  province  of  Canter- 
bury was  recognised  as  expressing  the 
opinions  of  the  clergy,  and  worked  with  Par- 
liament in  framing  the  formularies  and  laws 
of  the  Church.  The  Prayer-book  and  the 
Articles  received  the  sanction  o£  Convocation 
before  being  submitted  to  Parliament.  In 
1604  Convocation  drew  up  a  new  body  of 
Canons,  which  were  sanctioned  by  the  king, 
but  were  not  ratified  by  Pai'liament.  These 
Canons  remain  as  the  basis  of  ecclesiastical 
law  for  the  clergy,  but  are  not  legally  binding 
on  clergy  or  la^'men  except  where  they  in- 
corporate previous  laws. 

After  the  Restoration  Convocation  was  sum- 
moned, in  1661,  to  revise  the  Prayer-book  and 
re-model  the  Canons.  In  this  matter  it  did 
little ;  but  this  assembly  is  remarkable  as  bein^ 
the  last  Convocation  which  granted  a  clerical 
subsidy.  During  the  Commonwealth  the 
clergy  had  been  taxed  with  the  laity,  and 
there  seems  to  have  been  a  general  agreement 
that  this  method  was  more  convenient.  Ac- 
cordingly, this  clerical  privilege  was  abolished 
by  a  private  compact  between  Lord  Chan- 
cellor Clarendon  and  Archbishop  Sheldon. 
The  important  constitutional  change  was  made 
without  any  parliamentary' authority  (1662). 
Convocation  thenceforth  ceased  to  grant 
taxes  and  to  have  any  political  importance. 
The  clergy,  being  merged  in  the  estate  of  tlie 
Commons,  became  electors  for  members  of 
the  Lower  House. 

In  1689  William  III.  was  desirous  of  ex- 
tending the  limits  of  the  Church,  and  of  in- 
troducing alterations  which  would  allay  the 
scruples  of  Dissenters.  A  commission  wfu» 
appointed  to  draw  up  a  scheme  which  was  to 
be  submitted  to  Convocation.     ConvocatiozL 


Con 


(  309  ) 


Coo 


sat  in  two  Houses:  the  bishops  in  the  Upper 
House,  the  other  officials  and  proctors  in  the 
Lower.  The  struggle  of  parties  took  place 
over  the  election  of  a  prolocutor,  or  president, 
of  the  Lower  House,  and  those  opposed  to  any 
change  were  in  a  considerable  majority. 
After  this  the  Lower  House  showed  such  de- 
cided difference  of  opinion  from  the  Upper 
that  nothing  could  be  done,  and  Convocation 
was  soon  prorogued.  It  was  not  summoned 
again  for  ten  years  (1700),  when  the  differ- 
ences between  the  Upper  and  Lower  House 
were  still  more  openly  shown.  Finally,  the 
Lower  House  refused  to  submit  to  tbe  arch- 
bishop's prorogation,  and  adjourned  by  its 
own  authority.  The  next  Convocation,  in 
1 702,  resumed  the  question  of  the  archbishop's 
right  of  prorogation,  and  tbe  conflict  between 
the  two  Houses  continued.  At  lengfth,  in 
1717,  the  writings  of  Hoadlcy,  Biidiop  of 
Bangor,  excited  great  wrath  amongst  the 
clerg}',  and  gtive  rise  to  what  is  known  as  the 
*'  Bangorian  controversy.**  As  it  was  clear 
that  the  Lower  House  of  Convocation  would 
censure  Hoadlev,  who  was  a  favourite  with 
the  government,  Convocation  was  prorogued 
by  royal  writ,  and  was  not  again  summoned 
for  business  till  1861.  It  is  true  that  it  met 
formally  till  1741,  when  the  Lower  House 
agreed  to  admit  the  president's  right  of  pro- 
rogation, but  it  refused  to  receive  a  commu- 
nication from  the  Upper  House.  Being 
judged  incorrigible,  it  was  not  ag^  called 
together,  till  its  revival  in  1861,  a  revival  due 
to  the  increased  interest  in  ecclesiastical  affairs. 
The  Convocations  of  the  two  provinces 
now  meet  with  the  sessions  of  Parliament. 
They  arc  summoned  by  a  writ  from  the 
crown  to  the  archbishops.  In  the  Convo- 
cation of  Canterbury  the  Upper  House 
consists  of  twenty-three  members,  the  Lower 
House  of  one  hundred  and  fifty-four.  The 
Convocation  of  York  contains  nine  mem- 
bers in  the  Upper  House,  and  sixty-nine  in 
the  Lower. 

Bp.  Gibson,  Sjmodvj  Anglieani;  Wilkins, 
ConeUia;  Cardwell,  Synodaha;  Hody,  Hw(.  of 
Councila  and  Convocation;  Lathburv,  Hist,  of 
Convocation.  [M.  C.] 

Conwayt  Henry  Seymour,  Marshal 
{b.  1720,  d.  1795),  was  the  second  son  of  the  first 
Lord  Conway.  He  entered  the  army  at  the 
age  of  twenty,  and  distinguished  himself 
at  Fontenoy  and  CuUoden.  In  1741  he 
was-  returned  to  Parliament  for  Higham 
Ferrers.  In  1757  he  was  appointed  second 
in  command  of  the  Rochefort  expedition, 
under  Sir  John  Mordaunt.  In  1761  he 
commanded  the  British  troops  in  Germany, 
in  the  absence  of  the  Marquis  of  Granby.  At 
the  end  of  George  II.'s  reign,  Conway  had 
been  appointed  Groom  of  the  Bedchamber, 
and  he  was  continued  in  that  office  by  the 
new  king,  until  his  independent  conduct  and 
his  opposition  to  the  ministry  on  the  question 
of  general  wurrantt^,  cost  him  alike  this  post 


and  all  his  militar>'  commands.  On  Kocking- 
ham's  accession  to  power,  Conway  was  appointed 
joint  Secretary  of  State  with  the  Duke  of 
Grafton,  and  leader  in  the  House  of  Commons; 
and,  unfortunately  for  himself,  was  persuaded 
by  "  his  evil  genius,"  Horace  Walpole,  to  hold 
his  ground,  until  he  could  no  longer  retreat 
with  credit  in  1768.  During  the  later  years 
of  that  period,  the  policy  of  the  cabinet  towards 
the  American  colonics  had  been  directly  opposed 
to  Conway's  views.  On  the  king's  demand  for 
Wilkes's  exclusion  from  Parliament,  he  "  con- 
fessed that  he  had  not  the  courage  to  face  the 
consequences  of  a  step  which  would  make 
evQTy  second  Englishman  a  rebel  at  heart,  and 
convert  London  into  a  hostile  capital.'*  He 
accordingly  resigned  the  seals,  but  acted  as 
an  unpaid  member  of  the  cabinet  until  the 
return  of  Lord  Chatham  and  the  resignation 
of  Lord  Camden,  when  he  refused  any  longer 
**  to  pro\'ide  respectability  for  the  whole  ad- 
ministration." MTien  the  Marquis  of  Granby 
was  dismissed  from  the  command  of  the  army, 
his  place  was  offered  to  Conway,  and  declined. 
In  1772  he  was  appointed  Governor  of  Jersey. 
Ten  years  later  he  became  Conmiander-in-chief 
of  all  the  Forces.  In  the  same  year  he  brought 
forward  a  motion,  prapng  that  his  Majest}' 
would  terminate  the  war  with  the  Colonists. 
This  was  lost  by  only  one  vote  ;  and  when  he 
brought  forward  the  same  motion  a  few 
months  later,  he  carried  it  against  Lord  North 
by  a  majority  of  nineteen.  In  the  following 
year  he  retired  into  private  life.  Conway 
was  a  brave  soldier,  and  a  man  of  unsullied 
integrity.  Of  his  character  as  a  statesman 
Lord  Stanhope  says : — "  Brave  though  he  was 
in  the  field,  spirited  and  ready  though  he  was 
in  debate,  he  ever  seemed  in  counsel  irresolute 
and  wavering ;  so  eager  to  please  all  parties 
that  he  could  satisfy  none,  and  quickly  swayed 
to  and  fro  by  any  whisperer  or  go-between 
who  called  himself  his  fnend." 

Stanhope,  Uigt.  of  Eng.;  Trevelyan,  Early 
Ttaf  of  C.  J.  Fo*;  Walpole,  Mem.  of  Georg» 
III.;  Chaiham  Correapondenee. 

ConyerSy  Sir  John.    [Robin  of  Kedes- 

DALE.] 

Cook,  Captain  Jamer  {b.  1728,  d.  1779), 
the  famous  navigator,  first  gained  notoriety 
in  Canada,  where  he  did  good  service  at 
the  siege  of  Quebec,  1759,  and  subsequently 
surveyed  the  coast  of  Newfoundland.  In 
1768,  being  sent  to  the  Pacific  for  the 
purpose  ol  observing  the  transit  of  Venus, 
he  discovered  New  Zealand  and  New  South 
Wales  (April,  1770) ;  and  four  years  later 
made  a  second  voyage  of  discovery,  in  which 
he  again  visited  I^ew  Zealand.  His  conduct 
to  the  natives  at  first  was  such  as  to  excite 
their  hatred,  but  in  his  subsequent  voyages 
he  invariably  followed  a  conciliatory  policy. 
On  Cook's  third  voyage,  imdcrtaken  with  the 
view  of  discovering  a  noith-west  passage  to 
India,  he  visited  Uie  Sandwich  Islands,  and 


Coo 


(310) 


Ctoo 


pTuhed  his  explorations  to  the  western  coast 
of  America.  He  was  murdered  as  he  was 
returning  from  this  voyage  by  the  natives  of 
Owhyhee,  in  the  iSandwich  Islands.  Captain 
Cook's  ability  as  a  surveyor  and  explorer  is 
the  more  noteworthy  from  the  fact  that  he 
began  life  as  a  common  sailor,  and  was  entirely 
without  education. 

Cooke.  Sir  Axthoxy  {b.  1504,  d.  1576), 
a  man  of  g^reat  learning,  was  selected  as 
preceptor  to  Edward  VI.  when  Prince  of 
Wales.     In  1553  he  was  committed  on  sus- 

e'cion  of  being  concerned  in  the  plot  to  put 
idy  Jane  Grey  on  the  throne. 

Cooniajisief  the  capital  of  King  Coffee 
Calcalli,  King  of  Ashantee,  was  entered  by 
the  British  troops,  under  Sir  Garnet  Wolseley, 
Feb.  6,  1874,  in  the  course  of  the  war  with 
that  chief.    [Ashanteb  War.] 

Co-oporatioil.  The  aim  of  co-operation 
may  bo  said  to  be  to  enable  workers  to  work 
"  not  in  the  interest  of,  nor  in  order  to  enrich, 
one  indi\adual,  or  a  few,  but  in  the  interest 
of  the  ffeneral  body  of  those  who  are  con- 
cerned, both  as  workers  and  as  consumers  of 
the  ordinary  necessaries  of  life"  (Acland 
and  Jones).  The  societies  that  have  as  yet 
been  formed  with  this  view  are  of  three 
kinds.  (1)  The  J)Utributive  Soeietiet^  or  Re* 
4aU  ttores.  Of  t^ese  there  were,  in  1893,  up- 
wards of  1,600  in  Great  Britain,  with  nearly 
1,300,000  members,  and  £12,000,000  share 
•capital.  They  sell  goods  for  ready  money 
only,  and  at  the  ordinary  market  prices.  The 
profits  at  the  end  of  every  quarter  are  divided 
amongst  the  members  according  to  the  amount 
of  iheir  purehtues,  (2)  The  Wholesale  Soeietiet 
— one  in  England  (founded  in  1864),  and  one 
in  Scotland  (founded  in  1868).  They  supply 
the  retail  stores  with  goods;  in  1893  thipir 
•combined  receipts  amounted  to  over  fifteen 
and  a  half  mimons.  Their  managing  com- 
mittees are  elected  by  the  stores.  (3)  Manu- 
faduring  or  Productive  Soeietiet  and  Federal 
Com  Mills.  The  returns  as  to  co-operative 
agricnlture  in  1893  were  not  very  satisfac- 
tory, an  acreage  of  3,650  showing  a  net 
ioss  of  £422.  These  societies,  with  some 
exceptions,  are  combined  in  a  Co-operative 
Union,  founded  in  1869.  It  is  the  object  of 
this  Union  to  abolish  &l8e  dealing  in  any 
ahape  or  form,  and  '*to  conciliate  the  con- 
flicting interests  of  the  capitalist,  the  worker, 
and  the  purchaser."  The  Union  holds  an 
Annual  National  Congress,  at  which  matters 
that  concern  co-operation  are  discussed — such 
as  the  best  method  of  voting  in  societies,  the 
<:hock  system,  education,  store  management, 
surplus  capital,  co-operative  journalism,  &c. 

"Co-operation,"  it  has  been  said,  "con- 
siders profit  to  belong  to  the  public,  and  not 
to  any  one  section  of  it,  whether  they  are  em- 
ployed in  selling  goods  over  the  counter, 
keeping  the  accounts,  buying  the  goods,  or 


making  them."  The  co-operative  movement  is 
thus  an  ejfort  on  the  part  of  labour  to  emanci- 
pate itaeU  from  the  bondage  of  capital.  This 
effort  is  seen  assuming  organic  shape  in  the 
early  part  of  the  century,  when  several  co- 
operative stores  were  started  in  England  and 
Scotland.  These,  however,  on  a  close  in- 
spection, can  in  no  way  be  distinguished  from 
Joint  Stock  Companies,  for  the  profits  were 
diWded  according  to  the  capital  invested.  Of 
such  societies  there  were  by  1830  upwards 
of  200  in  existence,  besides  co-operative 
mills.  In  1844  the  Kochdale  Pioneers  intit>- 
duced  its  distinctive  feature  into  the  co- 
operative movement,  and  divided  profits  on 
the  amount  of  purehaeee.  The  example  set 
by  this  society,  together  with  the  beneficial 
legislation — such  as  the  Repeal  of  the  Com 
Laws,  the  Public  Libraries  Act,  and  the 
abolition  of  the  Newspaper  Duty— of  the 
next  dozen  years,  gave  a  new  impetus  to 
co-operation,  and  by  1862  we  find  450  societies 
in  existence,  with  a  membership  of  90,000, 
a  capital  of  £450,000,  annual  sales,  £2,350,000, 
and  profits  £166,000.  Twovears  afterwards 
(1864),  the  Co-operative  Wholesale  Society 
had  sprung  into  existence,  and  became  the 
mainstay  of  the  whole  system.  In  1869  the 
National  Co-operative  Congresses  b^[an.  It 
was  at  the  first  of  these  congresses  that  the 
Co-operative  Union  was  formed,  and  its  aim. 
of  reconciling  the  interests  of  the  capitalist, 
the  workers,  and  the  purchaser,  "  through  an 
equitable  division  among  them  of  the  fund, 
commonly  known  as  profit/  was  soon  after 
formulated."  The  Supply  Associations  in 
London,  such  as  the  **  Civil  Service "  and 
*'  Army  and  Navy,"  have  attained  great  im- 
portance. These  associations  cannot  be  re- 
garded as  co-operative  at  all.  The  destination 
of  the  profits  that  accrue  to  them  is  the  same 
as  in  a  private  firm,  and  goes  to  capital, 
whereas  the  essential  feature  of  co-operation 
is  in  diverting  the  profits  to  labour. 

Hugbes,  Hittory  of  Co-ofteraUon ;  Stuart^ 
Address  to  the  Congrsss,  1879;  Haghes  oad 
Nonle,  Manual  for  Co-operators ;  Roljoake^  His- 
tor\f  of  C<M>)ferAtton ;  Marsball,  fconomtcs  of 
J^ultutry,  bk.  iii.,  cb.  9;  AclanA  and  Jones, 
Workbig  Men  Co-operators.  [W.  B.  R.] 

Cooarg.  A  province  of  India  on  the  Mala- 
bar coast,  between  Mysore  and  the  sea,  com- 
prising an  area  of  about  1,500  square  miles, 
no  portion  of  which  is  less  than  3,000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  At  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century  the  Rajah  of  Coorg  was 
practically  an  independent  prince.  He  had 
been  imprisoned  by  Tippoo  on  the  annexation 
of  his  country,  but  had  contrived  to  escape,  and 
to  wage  a  successful  guerilla  warfare  in  tho 
hills  of  his  own  country,  till  he  drove  out  the 
troops  of  his  enemy.  During  this  warfare 
many  of  his  exploits,  which  are  related  at 
length  by  Colonel  Wilks,  exhibit  not  only 
great  galbmtry,  but  also  good  fiiith  anil 
chix-alrouB  generosity  to  an  extraordinary 
degree.    The  assistance  which  he  rendered 


Coo 


(311) 


€k»p 


to  Lord  Comwallis  in  the  second  Mysore  War 
procured  the  recognition  of  the  freedom  of  his 
country  at  the  Peace  of  Seringapatam.  He 
died  in  1809,  and  was  succeeded  by  bis 
brother,  who  bequeathed  the  crown  to  his 
son,  in  1820.  This  prince  ruled  so  badly, 
and  with  such  ferocity  and  cruelty,  while  ex- 
hibiting great  hostility  to  the  English,  that 
when,  in  1832,  his  sister  and  her  husbtind  tied 
for  their  lives,  and  revealed  his  barbarities  to 
the  British  Resident  at  Mysore,  the  latter,  after 
in  vain  remonstrating  with  the  Rajah,  pro- 
claimed him  a  public  enemy.  In  1834,  after 
a  gallant  resistance,  Coorg  was  subdued  and 
aimexed  to  the  Madras  presidency.  Twenty 
years  later  it  'was  discovered  that  Coorg 
was  eminently  suited  for  the  cultivation  of 
coffee,  and  it  is  now  one  of  the  most  prosperous 
of  the  Indian  provinces. 

Willu,  Myore. 

CootOy  Sir  Eyre  (i.  1726,  d,  1783),  first 
saw  service  against  tne  Jacobite  insurgents 
in  1746.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the  l^ven 
Years*  War,  the  hostilities  were  renewed 
in  the  Camatic  which  had  died  out  after  the 
recall  of  Dupleix.  General  Count  Lally  was 
sent  to  India  wivn  a  powerful  fleet  and  army. 
At  first  he  was  successful :  captured  Fort 
St.  David,  besieged  Madras,  and  re-took 
Arcot  in  1758.  The  arrival  of  Admiral 
Pocoek  and  the  English  fleet  prevented  an 
assault  on  Madras,  and  the  next  year  Colonel 
Coote  took  the  command.  He  re-captured 
Wandewash,  and  compelled  Lally  to  fight  a 
battle  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  town,  in 
which  the  latter  was  completely  routed. 
Coote,  in  1760,  gradually  deprived  I^dly  of 
all  his  conquests,  and  finally  blockaded  and 
captured  Pondicherry,  which  was  rased  to  the 
ground.  In  1769  he  was  made  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Company^s  army,  and  the 
following  year  returned  to  England.  The 
disasters  of  the  Enfflish  in  1780,  during 
Warren  Hastings*  Mahratta  War,  rendered 
it  necessary  to  send  out  Greneral  (now  Sir) 
Eyre  Coote,  to  take  the  command  in  Bengal. 
I^e  news  of  Hyder  Ali*s  invasion  of  the 
Camatic  induced  Hastings  to  send  Coote  to 
Madras.  In  January,  1781,  he  began  his 
advance.  Hyder  had  captured  Arcot,  and  was 
besieging  five  other  forts.  Coote  pushed  on 
to  Cud(£dore  and  Porto  Novo.  Hyder  re- 
solved to  risk  an  engagement,  and  took  up  a 
strong  position,  which  he  began  to  fortdy. 
A  long  and  arduous  engagement  ensued  near 
Porto  Novo  (July  1,  1781),  which  lasted 
six  hours,  and  at  the  end  the  British  were 
completely  victorious,  with  the  loss  of  only 
300  men,  while  Hyder,  who  had  lost  10,000 
men,  was  compelled  to  raise  the  siege  of 
Trichinopoly.  Seven  weeks  later  Hyder 
was  again  completely  routed  at  PoUilore, 
Aug.  27,  1781.  Another  victory  on  Sept. 
27,  allowed  Coote  to  retire  unmolested 
into  winter  quarters.    In  1782  the  arrival  of 


the  French  fieet  under  Suffrein  brought 
Hyder  again  into  the  field,  and  Coote  in  vain 
endeavoured  to  bring  on  a  general  action. 
The  French  were  victorious  everywhere,  and 
Hyder  ravaged  the  Camatic  to  the  vers*  gates 
of  Madras.  In  October  Sir  E^tc  Coote' s 
shattered  constitution  obliged  him  to  return 
to  Bengal,  and  surrender  his  command  to 
General  Stuart.  In  1783,  April  25,  two  days 
after  his  return  to  Madras,  once  more  to 
undertake  the  conduct  of  the  Mysore  War, 
the  veteran  died. 

WiUcB,  Mysore;  MiU,  HUt.  of  India, 

Copenliaffan,  The  Battlb  of  (2nd  April, 
1801),  result^  in  the  breaking  up  of  the 
Northern  coalition  against  England,  which 
had  been  one  of  Napoleon's  most  cherished 
schemes.  After  safely  passing  Cronenberg 
Castle,  Nelson  persuaded  Parker  to  commence 
the  attack  without  delay.  Two  days  were 
spent  by  Nelson  in  sounding  the  King^s 
Channel,  which  lies  between  Copenhagen  and 
a  large  shoal,  and  is  only  three-quarters  of  a 
mile  broad.  Along  the  land  side  of  this 
channel  the  Danes  had  ranged  nineteen  ships 
and  floating  batteries.  Ever^'thing  being  in 
readiness,  Nelson  made  the  signal  for  action 
early  in  l^e  morning  of  the  2nd.  The  pilots 
entirely  lost  their  presence  of  mind,  and  the 
Agameinnotiy  the  second  ship,  went  aground, 
as  did  the  Bellona  and  the  Outsell,  Nelson, 
in  the  Elepkant,  came  next,  and  profiting  by 
their  example,  took  a  new  course,  and  so 
guided  the  rest  of  the  fleet.  The  action 
began  at  ten  o'clock.  Riou,  with  the  frigates, 
at  once  attacked  the  Crown  Batteries,  and 
maintained  the  unequal  contest  for  three 
hours,  until  he  was  killed.  The  battle  raged 
for  three  hours  without  any  apparent  advan- 
tage being  gained,  and  Sir  Hyde  Parker 
made  the  signal  for  recall.  Nelson,  afiecting 
not  to  see  it,  continued  the  action,  and  about 
two  o'clock  the  greater  part  of  the  Danish  flre 
ceased.  It  was  impossible,  however,  to  take 
possession  of  the  ships  that  struck,  because 
they  were  protected  by  the  batteries  on  shore. 
Nelson,  wishing  to  save  further  bloodshed, 
sent  ashore  a  flag  of  truce,  saving  that  he 
must  be  allowed  to  take  possession  of  the  prizes, 
if  only  for  the  sake  of  the  wounded  men  on 
board  of  them;  and  during  the  next  day, 
Grood  Friday,  tiie  work  still  went  on.  The 
following  days  were  spent  by  Nelson  in 
maturing  the  negotiations,  and  on  the  9th  he 
succeeded  in  concluding  an  armistice  for  four- 
teen weeks,  his  object  being  to  gain  time  to 
attack  the  Russians.  The  opportune  death  of 
the  Czar  Paul  rendered  any  active  hostility 
with  that  country  unnecessary',  and  the 
armistice  resulted  in  a  treaty  between  England 
and  the  Northern  powers. 

Soatliey,  Life  of  IHeXton:  "SeUfvn  DUnatehet; 
Alison,  Hiet.  of  Europe ;  James,  Jfaval  HieL 

Copenliagoily  Bomrardmskt  of  (Sept. 
2,  1807).    The  English  ministry  had  leamt 


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in  the  summer  of  1807  of  the  existence  of 
certain  secret  articles  in  the  Treaty  of  Tilsit 
between  the  Czar  and  the.  Emperor  Napoleon, 
by  which  the  Danes  and  the  other  Baltic 
powers  were  to  be  induced  or  compelled  to 
lend  their  fleet  to  the  French  for  service 
against  England.  The  danger  appeared  so 
imminent  that  the  ministry  determined  to 
seize  the  Danish  fleet,  though  England  and 
Denmark  were  nominally  at  peace.  Accord- 
ingly, in  July,  1807,  twenty-seven  ships  of 
the  line,  with  20,000  men  oi;^  board,  under 
the  command  of  Lord  Cathcart  and  Admiral 
Gambler,  sailed  for  the  Baltic,  passed  the 
Sound,  and  anchored  oS  the  island  of  Zea- 
land. The  English  commanders  demanded 
that  the  Danish  fleet  should  be  gfiven  up  to 
them  to  be  held  as  a  deposit  till  the  end  of 
the  war.  This  the  Danes  refused.  On  the 
16th  of  August  the  British  troops  disembarked 
and  invested  the  town,  and  under  the  com- 
mand of  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  fought  a  sharp 
engagement  with  the  Danish  militia  at  Kioje, 
whom  they  completely  defeated.  On  Sept. 
2nd  the  bombaxdment  began,  and  was  con- 
tinued for  three  da}*^,  till  eighteen  hundred 
houses  were  destroyed,  and  the  city  was  on 
fire  in  several  places.  On  the  5th  the  Danes 
surrendered,  and  agreed  to  give  up  their  fleet, 
which,  accoixiingly,  to  the  number  of 
eighteen  ships  of  the  line,  besides  smaller 
vessels,  was  conveyed  to  England.  The 
triumph,  great  as  it  was,  was  received  with 
doubtful  feelings  in  England,  as  the  imminence 
of  the  danger  to  England  was  hardly  under- 
stood, and  the  affair  looked  like  an  arbitrary 
and  dangerous  violation  of  the  rights  of 
neutrals.  After  an  animated  debate  in 
Parliament  both  Houses  supported  the  minis- 
ters by  a  majority  of  more  than  two  to  one. 

Parliamentary  Dehate»,  x.  224;  Annual  Register , 
1807 ;  Alison,  Hi»t.  of  Europe,  viii  248. 

Copanhaffen  Fields,  Meeting  in  (April 
21,  1834).  On  the  conviction  of  the  Dorset- 
shire hibourers  for  administering  illegal  oaths, 
the  labour  unionists  summoned  a  meeting 
in  Copenbagcn  Fields,  London,  on  the  21st 
April,  with  the  object  of  overawing  the 
ministry'.  A  pLin  was  also  formed  for  the 
violent  seizure  of  Lord  Melbourne,  the  Prime 
I^Iinister,  and  for  other  illegal  acts.  Due 
warning  being,  however,  given  to  the  govern- 
ment, prepiinitions  were  made.  Melbourne 
did  not  meet  the  deputation  of  the  union  ; 
troops  were  held  in  readiness,  the  public 
offices  defended  with  artillery,  and  6,000 
householders  sworn  in  as  special  constables. 
Melboume*s  under  -  secretary  received  the 
deputation,  and  informed  them  that.it  was 
illegal  for  a  petition  to  be  presented  by  60,000 
men.  The  crowd,  seeing  the  preparations 
made  to  receive  them,  withdrew  quietly,  and 
no  disturbance  followed. 

Copyhold  is  a  species  of  tenure  which 
had   its  origin  in  viUenago.     In  the  latter 


half  of  the  twelfth  century,  when  the  degra- 
dation of  the  agricultural  class  seems  to  have 
been  completed,  and  former  distinctions  were  ' 
merged  into  a  uniform  condition  of  villenage, 
they  who  held  land  by  villein  tenure,  whether 
they  were  villeins  or  freemen,  had  no  means  of 
asserting  their  rights  to  the  land  as  against 
the  lord.    Tliey  held  part  of  the  demesnes  of 
a  manor  for  the  lord's  advantage,  and  at  his 
will.    They  had  no  rights  in  the  court  of  the 
manor,  and  no  remedy  by  assize,  for  these 
institutions  were  concerned  solely  with  free- 
holders.   In  effect,  however,  the  uncertainty 
of  their  tenure  was  remedied  in   Bracton's 
time  by  covenants  with  the  lord,  and  his  will 
was    restrained  by  custom.    Attending  the 
court  baron    to    make    surrender,  or  crave 
admission,    or    pay    their    dues,   tenants  in 
villenage  had  their  transactions  entered  in  the 
rolls  of  the  court,  which  became  the  evidence 
of  their  title,  and  of  the  custom  of  the  manor. 
The  court,  while  engaged  in  business  of  this 
kind,  became  separate  from  its  origfinal  cha» 
racter,   and  as  a  new  court,  vfas  called  the 
customary  court,  to  distinguish  it  from  tho 
court  baron,  of  which  the  freeholders  were  tho 
suitors.    A  copy  from  the  rolls  of  this  court 
constituted  the  title  of  the  tenant  in  villenag:e,. 
who  was  hence  called  a  copyholder.      In  the 
reign  of  Edward  lY.  the  judges  allowed  the 
copyholder  to  maintain  an  action  for  trespass 
against  his  lord  when  wrongfully  disturbed. 
From  this  time  *'  copyholders  stand  on  sure 
ground."    This  kind  of  tenure  still  exists. 
In  it  the  freehold  remains  in  the  lord,  and 
the  tenant  holds  by  copy  of  the  court  roll, 
at  the   will  of  the  lor(l,  according  to  the 
custom  of  the  manor.    Copyhold  land  must 
therefore  always  be  part  of  a  manor.     It  may 
be  assumed  that   no    hind    can   have  been 
brought  for  the  first  time  under  this  tenure 
since  18  Edward  I.    Though  the  copyholder  Ib 
independent  of  the  wUl  of  the  lord,  yet  the  free- 
hold being  in  the  lord  subjects  the  former  to 
some  disadvantages.     For  tho  lord  has  a  right 
to  the  minerals  beneath  and  the  timber  upon 
the  soil,  though  he  cannot,  unless  the  custom 
of  the  manor  allow,  come  on  the  land  to 
exercise  these  rights  without  the  copyholder^s 
leave.    There  are  species  of  tenure,  such  ais 
customary  freeholds,  which  resemble  copy- 
hold.   All  questions  as  to  the  freehold  in  any 
such  tenures  should  be  decided  by  ascertaining^ 
"  whether  the    well-known  rights  of    free- 
holders,  such    as    to    cut    timber   and    dig;* 
mines,  are  vested    in   the    lord   or  in   tho 
tenant.'*    It  is  in  the  power  of  copyholders 
freely  to  alienate  their  lands.     In  the  process 
of  alienation  the  old  character  of  the  tenure 
becomes  apparent,  for  it  is  effected  by  first 
of  all  surrendering  the  property  to  the  lord, 
or,  instead    of   him,  to    his    steward,    and. 
is  completed  by  the  admission  of  the  new- 
tenant.    An  estate  in  copyhold  may  be  in 
fee  simple,  tail,  or  for  life.    An  estate  in. 
fee  in  copyhold  is  subject  to  tho  incidents  o± 


\ 


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Cor 


fealiy,  suit,  escheat,  in  many  cases  to  rent, 
and  more  rarely  to  relief.  Other  incidents 
may  pertain  to  it,  according  to  the  custom  of 
the  manor.  Copyholds  could  formerly  be 
enfranchised  or  converted  into*  freeholds  by 
agreement.  Now,  by  the  Copyhold  Acts 
(15  and  16  Vict.,  c.  51,  s.  7,  and  21  and  22 
Vict.,  c.  94,  8.  21),  the  tenant  or  the  lord,  by 
making  application  to  the  Copyhold  Com- 
missioners, can  secure  a  compulsory  en- 
frandiisement  of  copyhold  upon  equitable 
terms.  The  origin  of  copyhold  is  an  ex- 
ceedingly obscure  subject,  and  many  con- 
flicting theories  upon  it  have  been  broached. 
The  view  here  taken  is  that  of  many  modem 
historians.  For  a  different  explanation  see  F. 
Seebobm,  English  Village  Community,  [Land 
TBurKB.] 

Elton,  on  Copyfcold«;  K.  Digby,  Htitf.  t^ihe  Late 
of  B«al  Property ;  J.  WiUiamB,  Law  of  Real  Pro- 

Srty ;  Seebohm,   £np.  ViUags  Community ;  an 
mty  in  Eoonomic  Hist.  [^,  H  1 

Copyriglit  Acts.  The  first  of  these 
was  8  Anne,  c.  19,  which  gave  an  author  the 
copyright  of  his  works  for  fourteen  years, 
with  extension  if  the  author  or  his  representa- 
tive was  living  for  a  further  term  of  fourteen 
years.  By  the  decision  of  the  House  of  Lords 
in  1774  (m  case  of  DofialiUon  v.  Beckett),  this 
statute  was  held  to  have  done  away  with  any 
common  law  right  which  the  author  might  have 
in  his  work  beyond  the  prescribed  term  of  years. 
By  the  Act  64  Geo.  III.,  c.  146,  the  author  was 
granted  copyright  for  the  term  of  twenty- 
eight  years,  and  for  the  residue  of  liis  life 
should  he  live  bevond  that  period.  By  the 
Act  of  1842  (6  and  6  Vict.,  c.  45),  the  copy- 
right of  a  book  endures  for  the  life  of  the 
author,  and  for  seven  years  afterwards.  If 
this  term  expires  within  forty-two  years  of 
the  first  publication,  the  copyright  of  the 
author  or  his  assignees  is  to  be  extended  to 
that  term  of  years.  Copies  of  all  books  are  to 
be  deposited  in  the  library  of  the  British 
Museum,  and,  if  required,  in  the  Bodleian 
Librar}*,  in  the  libraries  of  Cambridge  Uni- 
versity, Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  of  the 
Faculty  of  Advocates,  Edinburgh.  Dramatic, 
artistic,  and  musical  copyright  has  been  pro- 
tected by  3  and  4  Will.  IV.,  c.  16,  8  Geo. 
II.,  c.  13,  38  Geo.  III.,  c.  71,  and  5  and  6  Vict, 
c46. 

Corbonilt  William  op,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury*  (1123 — 1136),  was  a  canon  regu- 
lar, ukl  l4ior  of  St.  Os^-th's,  in  Essex.  On 
the  death  of  Archbishop  Ralph,  a  contest 
arose  between  the  regulars  and  seculars  about 
the  appointment  of  his  successor,  which  was 
settled  by  a  compromise :  William,  who  be- 
longed, strictly  speaking,  to  neither  of  these 
parties,  being  elected.  The  quarrel  between 
the  sees  of  Canterbury  and  York  continued, 
and  to  establish  his  supremacy,  William  got 
himself  appointed  Papal  legate,  this  being  the 
first  instance  of  an  Archbishop  of  Canterbur}' 


holding  this  office.  He  was  zealous  in  en- 
forcing the  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  and  after 
Henr\''s  death  supported  the  claims  of 
Stephen  to  the  throne.  All  his  contempora- 
ries paint  him  in  dark  colours.  The  author 
of  the  Gesta  Stephani  describes  him  as  ''a 
man  of  smooth  face  and  strictly  religious 
manners,  but  much  more  ready  to  amass 
money  than  to  spend  it."  "  Of  his  merits," 
says  Henry  of  Huntingdon,  "  nothing  can  be 
said,  for  he  had  none." 

Henry  of  Huntingdon ;  William  of  Molmea- 
bnry ;  Hook,  Lives  of  the  AnchhUhoipe. 

Cork  was  built  in  the  sixth  ccntur}*,  and 
was  in  ancient  times  the  principality  of  the 
McCarthys.  In  1172  it  received  a  garrison 
from  Heniy  II.,  who  also,  in  1186,  gnmted  a 
charter  to  the  town.  In  1492,  the  citizens 
were  conspicuous  as  supporters  of  Perkin 
Warbeck  (q.v.).  Later  it  was  taken  by  Crom- 
well (1649), and  Marlborough  (1690). '  At  the 
beginning  of  this  centur}*  (1810),  one  of  the 
Queen's  Colleges  was  established  in  the  city. 

Cork,  HicHA&n  Boyle,  Irt  Eakl  of  {p, 
1666,  d,  1646),  the  son  df  a  Herefordshire 
gentleman,  went  to  Dublin  about  1688,  and 
acquired  large  landed  properties  in  Ireland. 
Having  gained  the  favour  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 
he  was  specially  recommended  to  the  notice 
of  Sir  George  Carew,  Lord- President  of 
Munster,  and  was  much  employed  b^*  him. 
In  1612  he  was  made  a  Privy  Councillor  of 
Ireland;  in  1616  raised  to  the  peerage  as 
Lord  Boyle ;  and  in  1620  made  Earl  of  Cork. 
In  1629  he  was  made  one  of  the  Lords-Justices, 
and  two  years  later  Lord  Treasurer  of  Ireland, 
in  which  position  he  quarrelled  violently  with 
Strafford.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Rebc-llion 
he  raised  a  large  body  of  horse  for  the  royal 
service. 

Comaviiy  or  Coknubii,  The,  were  an 
ancient  British  tribe,  inhabiting  the  moaem 
counties  of  Warwick,  "Worcester,  Stafford, 
Salop,  and  Chester.  They  are  reckoned  by 
Mr.  Rh^s  to  have  been  of  the  Brythonic,  and 
not  of  the  Goidelic,  stock.    [Celts.] 

Com1lliry,EDWAHD, Viscount  (afterwards 
Earl  of  Clarendon),  was  the  son  of  Henrj^  Lord 
Clarendon,  brother  of  the  Earl  of  Rochester. 
On  the  landing  of  the  Prince  of  Orange, 
he  led  three  rcgfiments  from  Salisbury'  over 
to  William*B  side ;  but,  finding  he  could  not 
completely  accomplish  this  act  of  treachery-, 
stole  to  the  princess  quarters  with  a  few 
followers.  His  signature,  together  with  that 
of  several  other  leading  men,  was  appended 
to  a  forged  association  in  favour  of  James 
by  William  Young,  the  Jacobite  informer, 
but  nothing  could  be  proved  against  him 
(1692).  He  was  subsequently  Governor  of 
New  York  for  six  years,  a  post  in  which  he 
displayed  great  incapacity.  He  is  said  upon 
one  occasion  to  have  dressed  as  a  woman  m 
order  to  represent  the  queen. 


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ComaliSf  The  Capture  of  (Aug.,  1811), 
was  effected  during  the  war  of  the  French 
Revolution.  Comelis,  in  Java,  was  an  en- 
trenched camp  between  two  rivers,  one  of 
which  was  not  fordable,  and  the  other  was 
defended  by  extremely  formidable  redoubts 
and  batteries.  It  was  resolved  to  carr^'  it  by 
a  coup  de  inavn,  and  Colonel  Gillespie  was 
selected  for  that  purpose.  On  Aug.  26,  his 
column  reached  the  redoubt  at  dawn,  and, 
feeling  that  delay  would  be  dangerous,  he  did 
not  wait  for  his  rear  division,  but  attacked  at 
once,  and  carried  the  redoubt  with  the 
bayonet.  Seizing  the  bridge,  he  attacked 
and  captured  a  second  redoubti  and  with  his 
full  force  ^ig^rously  assaulted  the  enemy's 
reserve,  which  was  posted  with  powerful 
artiller\'  in  front  of  the  barracks  and  lesser 
fort.  They  broke  and  fled,  and  the  place  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  English. 

Com  I^WS  is  the  name  generally  gfivcn 
to  the  various  Acts  of  Parliament  regulating 
the  exportation  and  importation  of  grain,  and 
especially  wheat.  They  have  been  passed 
with  two  objects,  which  have  prevailed  to  a 
different  extent  at  different  times :  to  secure 
a  plentiful  supply  of  cheap  com  at  home,  and 
to  keep  up  the  price  of  com  produced  in 
England.  There  have  also  been  laws  to  regu- 
late the  trafiSc  in  com  by  the  com  dealers, 
and  to  prevent  the  practices  called  engroMing^ 
foreatalting^  and  regrating ;  and  occasionally, 
as  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  exportation 
of  com  has  been  absolutely  prohibited.  Im- 
portation was  practically  m;e  till  the  reign 
of  Queen  Elizabeth,  but  ver>'  little  com  was 
imported.  An  entirely  new  system  was 
adopted  on  the  accession  of  William  III. 
In  the  supposed  interests  of  agriculture  and 
of  the  lando^'ners,  the  exportation  of  com 
was  not  only  permitted,  but  encouraged  by 
bounties.  This  legislation  did  not  have  the 
effect  which  was  expected,  and  the  price  of 
com  continued  to  be  verj'  low.  When,  after 
the  Peace  of  Paris,  in  1763,  the  commerce  and 
manufactures  of  the  kingdom  largely  increased, 
and  when  the  increase  was  coincident  vrith 
a  growth  of  population,  the  export  of  com 
diminished,  and  the  restrictions  on  imports 
were  felt  as  a  hardship.  This  led  to  Burke^s 
Act  of  1773,  by  which  foreign  wheat  was 
allowed  to  be  imported  at  a  nominal  duty  of 
6d.  whenever  the  home  price  was  at  or  above 
48s.  a  quarter,  and  the  boimty  and  the  ex- 
]>ortation  wore  together  to  cease  when  the 
price  was  at  or  above  44s.  Com  might  be 
imported,  at  any  price,  duty  free,  in  order  to 
be  again  exported.  This  Act  led  to  a  large 
impoitation  of  com,  which  did  no  injury  to 
the  agricultural  interests,  but  only  served  to 
maintain  the  incit»sing  manufacturing  popu- 
lation. At  this  time,  also,  large  quantities  of 
waste  land  were  taken  into  cultivation,  with- 
out any  fall  of  agricultural  prices.  In  1791, 
under  the  pressure  of  the  landed  interest,  the 


law  of   1773  was  repealed,  and  there  was 
substituted  for  it  an  arrangement  by  which 
a  limit  of  o4s.  for  importation,  at  6d.  a  quarter, 
was  substituted  for  46s. ;  between  '54s.  and  oOs. 
there  was  a  middle  duty  of  2s.  6d.  a  quarter, 
and  below   50s.  a    prohibitive    duty.      The 
bounty  was  continued  as  before,  and  exporta- 
tion without  bounty  was  allowed  to  46s.    In 
1804  a  new  law,  passed  at  the  bidding  of  the 
farmers,  imposed  a  prohibitory  duty  on  all 
wheat  imported,  when  the  price  was  63s.,  a 
middle  duty  of  'is.  6d.  between  ^3s.  and  66s., 
and  a  nominal  duty  of  6d.  above  668.     In 
1815  the  limit  of  the  price  for  importation  was 
fixed  at  808.    It  was  hoped  that  this  regula- 
tion would  maintain  the  price  of  wheat  at 
about  the  same  standard;   but  still  greater 
fluctuations  followed.      The    effect    of   this 
legislation  was  to  raise  the  price  of  com  ver}' 
largely,  and  to  force  a  wide  extent  of  land 
into  arable  cultivation  which  was  not  suited 
for  it.     Another  Act  was  passed  in  1822,  in- 
tended to  lessen  the  disastrous  efi'ects  of  the 
Act  of  1815;   but  it  never  came  into  opera- 
tion.   The  attempt  to  regulate  the  price  of 
com  by  Act  of  Parliament  was  so  disasti'ous 
that  the  Council  was  authorised  to  issue  orders 
to  suspend  the  operation  of  the  Acts,  and  to 
permit  the  importation  of  foreign  com  under 
circumstances  of  necessity.    This  fact,  with 
others,    gradually    convinced    agriculturists 
that  the  Com  Laws  wore  based  on  a  mistaken 
principle;    and    in     1827    Canning    carried 
resolutions  in  the  House  of  Commons  pointing 
to  a  more  liberal  policy.    A  bill,  founded  on 
these  resolutions,  passed  the  Lower  House; 
but,  owing  to  the  change  of  ministry  and  the 
opposition  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  the 
bill  was  given  up.      Mr.  Charles  Grant,  In 
1828,  carried  resolutions  similar  to  those  of 
Mr.  Canning,  and  they  eventually  became 
law.     The  grievance  of  the  Com  Laws  was 
always  found  to  var>'  with  the  prosperity  of 
the  seasons,  and  the  bad  seasons  which  followed 
each  other  from  1837  to  1842  gave  rise  to  tho 
agitation   by  which    the    Com    Laws  were 
abolished  altogether.      In    1842  a  measure 
was  introduced  by  Sir   Robert   Peel  whii-h 
still  maintained  the  \'icious  principle  of   a 
sliding-Bcale  of  duties,  although  the  scale  was 
less  onerous  than  those  which  preceded  it. 
This  did  not  diminish  the  agitation  for  tho 
repeal  of  the  Com  Laws,  ana  the  argument 
of  tho  repealers  was  strengthened  by  the  fact 
that  the  alteration  of  the  tariff  in  1842,  which 
allowed  the  importation  of  live  cattle  and 
fresh  pro\'isions,  did  not  affect  the  price  of 
these  articles  to  the  disastrous  extent  which 
had  been  anticipated  by  the  agriculturists. 
In  1843  the  principle  of  the  Com  Laws  was 
virtually  abandoned,  by  allowing  com  to  h«> 
imported  from  Canada  at  a  very  small  duty. 
It   was  now  possible  to  import  com  from 
America  through  Canada,  and  therefore  therc^ 
seemed  to  be  no  reason  why  direct  importation 
f i-om  America  should  not  be  allowed.    In  his 


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Cor 


budget  of  1845,  Sir  K.  Peel  abolisbed  the  duties 
on  430  articles  out  of  813  then  taxed,  lliis 
was  a  virtual  abandonment  of  the  principle  of 
protection.  In  the  stime  year  the  harvest 
was  very  bad,  and  the  potato  crop  in  Ireland 
failed  entirely.  It  was  then  impossible  to 
avoid  the  temporary  suspension  of  the  Com 
Laws,  and  it  was  a  question  whether  it  was 
not  better  to  abolish  them  altogether.  The 
eountr}'  was  deluged  with  the  free  trade  tracts 
of  the  Anti-Com-Law  League.  Sir  R.  Peel 
was  convinced  that  protection  was  no  longer 
tenable ;  but  his  cabinet  would  not  follow 
him.  Lord  Stanley  resigned,  and  the  minis- 
try broke  up.  Lord  J.  Russell  was  unable  to 
form  a  cabinet,  and  Sir  R.  Peel  was  induced 
to  take  office  aguin.  it  was  known  that  he 
would  meet  Parliament  in  1846  pledged  to 
support  the  cause  of  free  trade.  The  agitation 
for  the  repeal  of  the  Com  Laws  had  beg^n  in 
Manchester  towards  the  end  of  1836.  In  a 
season  of  financial  pressure,  it  appeared  to 
some  of  the  most  influential  manufaicturers  of 
that  thriving  town  that  the  only  remedy  for 
the  evil  lay  in  free  trade,  and  that  by  artifi- 
cially keeping  up  the  price  of  com  the 
manufacturing  interests  of  the  country  were 
sacrificed  to  the  supposed  benefit  of  the 
agricultural  interests.  The  year  afterwards 
the  Anti-Com-Law  League  was  formed. 
Among  its  most  prominent  members  from 
the  first  were  Mr.  Cobden  and  Mr.  Bright, 
who  in  a  great  measure  sacrificed  their 
worldly  prosperity  to  the  work  of  con- 
verting their  coimtrjTnen  to  their  principles. 
Large  sums  of  money  were  collected  for  the 
purposes  of  the  League.  A  Free  Trade  Hall 
was  built  in  ilanchester.  In  1843  the  Lords 
acknowledged  that  the  League  was  a  great 
fEu.%  and  compared  it  to  the  wooden  horse  by 
which  the  Greeks  were  secretly  brought 
within  the  walls  of  Troy.  At  the  end  of 
1845  it  was  stronger  than  ever  in  men,  money, 
and  enthusiasm.  When  Parliament  assembled 
in  1846,  the  Queen*s  Speech  and  the  Address 
in  reply  to  it  gave  indication  of  the  coming 
change.  Sir  R.  Peel  rose  immediately  after- 
wards, and  avow^ed  honestly  the  alteration  in 
his  opinion.  He  said  that  he  had  obser\'ed 
during  the  last  three  years  (I)  that  wages  do 
not  vary  with  the  price  of  food,  and  that  with 
high  prices  you  do  not  necressarily  have  high 
wages;  (2)  that  employment,  high  wages, 
and  abundance  contribute  directly  to  the 
diminution  of  crime ;  (3)  that  by  the  gradual 
removal  of  protection,  industry  had  been 
promoted  and  morality  improved.  ]klr.  Dis- 
raeli took  the  opportunity  of  violently  assail- 
ing the  minister  for  his  change  of  opinion. 
In  Pebmary,  Sir  R.  Peel  announced  a  fixed 
duty  on  com  for  three  years,  and  after  that 
its  entire  abolition.  The  free  traders  at- 
tempted to  get  rid  of  this  delay ;  but  they 
^ere  beaten  by  a  large  majority,  and  the  bill 
passed.  There  was  a  fear  lest  it  might  Ix) 
dejected  in  the  House  of  Lords,  but  the  Duko 


of  Wellington  secured  its  passing  in  that  as* 
sembly .  The  free  trade  in  com  wluch  followed 
the  repeal  of  the  Com  Laws  has  been  so  com- 
plete a  success,  and  has  become  so  indispensable 
to  the  countr)''  in  the  growth  of  population, 
that  there  is  no  chance  of  their  revival. 

Sir  B.  Peel's  If 0iiiotrs  and  SpMefcira ;  J.  Morlej, 
lA/eofCcbd4n:  Bnadee.  Lift  ofL^n-d  BeaconsjW; 
W.  Bobertson,  Lift  and  TvrnM  o/  J&kn,  Bright, 

[O.  B.] 

Comwalluiy  Charles,  Ist  Mauqvxs  U, 
1738,  d.  1805),  entered  the  army  at  an  early 
age,  and  served  under  the  Marquis  of  Granby 
in  1761.    He  entered  Parliament  for  £ye,  and 
was    appointed  Governor  of  the  Tower  in 
1770.    He  8er\*ed  in  the  American  War  of 
Independence,  and  won  much  distinction  at 
the  battle  of  Brandywine,  and  the  siege  of 
Charleston.    He  was  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand of  the  British  forces  in  South  Carolina, 
and    in   1780   won  the    victor}'  of  Camden 
over  Gates,    the    following   year    defeating 
Greene  at  Guildford.    In  1782,  blockaded  at 
Yorktown   by  the  American  army  and  the 
French  fleet,  he  was  forced  to  surrender.    A 
idolent  controversy  took  place  on  his  return, 
between  Comwallis  and  Sir  Henry  Clinton, 
as  to  the  party  desenang  of  blame  for  the 
disaster.      In   1786    he    went    to    India  as 
Governor-General,   and  Commander-in-chief 
of  the  Bengal  army.      His    administration 
lasted  from  1786  to  1793,  and  is  remarkable 
for  the  Mysore  War ;  the  arrangements  with 
Oude,  Arcot,  and  the  Nizam ;   the  negotia- 
tions with  Scindiah  and  the  Mahrattas;  the 
Permanent  Settlement;  and  a  series  of  im- 
portant judicial    and  revenue  reforms.     In 
1790  Tippoo*s  attack  on  Travancore  caused 
Lord  Comwallis  to  conclude  the  Triple  Alliance 
with  the  Alahrattas  and  the  Nizam,  and  the 
campaign  began  on  the   Malabar  and  Coro- 
mandel  coasts.     In  1791  Lord  Comwallis  de- 
termined to  take  the  command  himself,  and 
marched  straight   to    Bangalore,   which    he 
captured  March  21.    Tippoo  had  hastened 
back  to  defend  his  capital.      The  Nizam*s 
force  and  the  Mahrattas  were  wasting  their 
time  in  sieges  in  the  north.  On  May  13,  1791, 
was  fought  the  battle  of  Arikera,  in  which 
Tippoo  was  beaten.     In  March,    1792,    the 
Treaty  of  Seringa^tam  was  signed,  ending 
the  war,  and  lea\nng  Tippoo  with   reduced 
territory  and  prestige.    As  an  administrator. 
Lord  Comwallis  devoted  himself  to  the  correc- 
tion of  abuses.     He  increased  the  salaries  of 
the  public  serv'ants  in  order  to  give  them  the 
possibility    of    acquiring    a    competence   by 
economy,  and  made  war  on  all  frauds  and 
peculation.     On  his  return  to  England  he  'vrns 
employed  in  1794  as  a  diplomatist  in  Flanders, 
and  carried  on  fruitless    negotiations    with 
the    emperor    at     Brussels.      In     1795    he 
was  appointed   Mii8t<!r-(Teneral  of  the  Ord- 
nance.     In    1798    he    became    Lord-Lieu- 
tenaiit   of    Ireland  during  the    violence    of 
the  Irish  rebellion.     In  IbOl  he  i*eturucd  to 


Cor 


(  316  ) 


Cor 


England,  and  was  selected  as  the  British 
plcnipotentiar}'  to  negotiate  the  Peace  of 
Amiens.  On  July  30,  1805,  he  arrived  in 
India  as  Governor-General,  pledged  to  reverse 
the  policy  of  Lord  Wellesley.  His  avowed 
policy  was  to  end  the  war ;  to  break  up  the 
system  of  subsidiary*  alliances ;  and  to  bribe  the 
minor  princes  of  Hindostan  to  give  up  their 
alliance  with  us  by  resigning  to  them  iughires 
out  of  the  lands  south  and  west  of  Delhi. 
In  spite  of  the  remonstrances  of  Lord  Lake 
he  proceeded  up  the  Granges  with  the  intention 
of  carrying  this  plan  out,  but  his  health 
failed  rapidly.  He  resigned  the  government 
to  the  senior  member  of  the  council,  Sir  George 
Barlow,  and  died  at  Ghazeepore,  Oct.  5,  1*805. 

Comwallis.  Despatchst ;  0#en,  Selection*  from. 
CornioalU*  Detnaickn ;  Kaye,  Live*  of  h\Aian 
Officers;  Grant  Duff,  Uahrattas;  Wilka,  Hiet,  of 
Myaore;  Mill,  Ht«t.  of  India;  Dictionary  of 
National  biography,  vol.  xii.  [B.  S.] 

Coronuuidal  Coa4rfc.  The  popular  name 
applied  to  the  east  coast  of  the  Dcccan.  It 
is  supposed  to  be  a  corruption  of  Oholaman- 
dalay,  in  the  region  of  the  ancient  Chola 
dynasty.  The  Coromandel  coast  extends 
from  Cape  Calimere  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Kistnah,  and  is  within  the  territory  of  the 
Madras  presidency. 

Coronation.  This  rite  is  of  great  an- 
tiquity. In  England  it  seems  to  have  been  in 
general  use,  even  before  the  union  of  the 
several  kingdoms ;  and  a  coronation  scrrice  of 
uncertain  date,  but  as  old  at  least  as  the 
eighth  century,  is  still  extant.  The  Anglo- 
Saxon  Chronicle  represents  Offa*s  son,  Egfirth, 
us  having  been  "  hallowed  to  king  "  in  785.  In 
the  same  authority  we  find  distinct  records 
of  the  consecration  of  Edgar,  Ethelrcd  II., 
Edward  the  Confessor,  and  Harold  II.,  to  the 
kingly  office  with  the  same  rite.  And  the 
two  essential  parts  of  the  ceremony,  the 
placing  of  the  crown  on  the  king's  head,  and 
the  anointing,  had  then  been  fully  established ; 
but  to  neither  had  any  exceptional  sacredness 
been  yet  assigned;  at  most  they  were  but 
s^inbols  of  the  divine  approval  o)  the  choice 
the  people  had  made.  The  ritual  used  at 
Ethelred  II.'s  coronation  has  survived,  and 
contains  both  these  and  the  form  of  oath 
taken  by  the  king.  By  this  he  promised 
three  things — to  hold  God's  Church  and  the 
realm  in  peace,  to  forbid  rapine  and  injustice, 
and  to  judge  justly  and  mercifully.  The 
place  varied ;  though  generally  Kingston-on- 
Thames,  in  Edgar's  case  it  was  Bath,  and  in 
Edward's  Winchester.  Since  the  coronation 
of  Harold,  however,  it  has  been  the  abbey 
church  at  Westminster. 

With  differences  of  detail  the  ceremonial 
has  not  materially  changed  since  the  Conquest. 
The  form  of  asking  the  clergy  and  people 
present  for  tbcir  voices,  lasted  till  Henr>' 
VIII.'s  time,  but  is  now  a  mere  presentation 
of  the  sovereign  to  the  spectators.  The  chief 
variations  have  been  in  the  oath.    Till  1308 


this  pledged  three  things  only — peace  and 
reverence  to  God  and  Holy  Church,  justice 
to  the  people,  and  the  removal  of  bad  and 
upholding  of  good  laws.  But  at  Edward  IL's 
coronation  it  became  more  comprehensive  and 
precise,  and  took  the  form  of  question  and 
answer.  Besides  the  three  things  above 
mentioned,  the  king  promised  to  keep  and 
defend  "the  laws  and  righteous  customs 
which  the  community  of  the  realm  should 
have  chosen."  For  centuries  no  vital  al- 
teration was  made  in  the  body  of  the  oath, 
though  liberties  w^ere  taken  in  Tudor  and 
Stuart  days  with  its  wording. 

The  existing  form  was  settled  at  the  Revo- 
lution of  1688.  By  it  the  sovereign  imdertakes 
(I)  to  govern  *' according  to  the  statutes  in 
Parliament  agreed  on,"  (2)  to  cause  "  justice 
in  mercy  to  be  executed,"  and  (3)  to  maintain 
"  the  Protestant  reformed  religion  established 
by  law."  It  follows  the  declaration  against 
transubstantiation  deemed  necessary  to  prove 
that  the  sovereign  is  not  a  Roman  Catholic. 

This  ceremony  has  long  lost  its  imi)ortance. 

Once  it  marked  the  beginning  of  the  new 

reign.    It  afterwards  came  to  be  regarded  as 

giving  the  king  a  sacred  character,  making 

him    the    Lord's    anointed,    against    whose 

authority  it  was  an  impiety  to  raise  one's 

hand.    But  it  is  now  a  mere  pageant. 

Taylor's  Glory  of  ReqcXity ;  Stabbs's  CoiMtitu- 
tionaX  Hiatory;  Freeman's  Norman  Coiujueatt 
Appendix,  uofe  H,  to  vol.  ill. ;  Benedict  of  Peter* 
borough,  vol.  li.,  pp.  80—83  (Soils  Series). 

[J.  R.] 

Coroner,  an  official  first  appointed  by 
Richard  I.  in  1194,  had  originally  very  con- 
siderable powers.  He  was  elected  by  the  shire, 
and  was  to  keep  the  pleas  of  the  crown  in  the 
place  of  the  sheriff.  By  3  Ed.  I.,  c.  10,  the 
coroner  is  required  to  be  of  the  status  of  a 
knight,  and  to  hold  inquests  in  cases  of  sudden 
death,  and  by  14  Ed.  III.,  c.  8,  he  is  required 
to  hold  land  in  fee.  By  the  28  Ed.  III.,  c.  6, 
his  election  was  to  be  made  by  the  free- 
holders assembled  in  the  county  court,  in  the 
same  manner  as  that  of  the  sheriffs.  The 
power  of  the  coroner  to  hear  cases  of  felony 
was  abolished  by  ^lagna  Charta,  §  17,  and  the 
functions  of  holding  inquests  in  cases  of 
violent  or  sudden  death  expressly  confirmed 
by  the  statute  4  Ed.  I.,  c.  2,  called.  Be  Qfieio 
Coronatoris.  Gradually  the  coroner  lost  all 
his  other  duties  except  that  of  taking  in- 
quisitions of  death,  'the  position  and  election 
of  coroners  have  been  regulated  by  several 
statutes  in  recent  times.  By  the  ^Iimicipal 
Reform  Act  of  1835,  coroners  were  api)ointed 
to  boroughs  as  well  as  counties. 

Corporatioii  Aot»  The  (1661),  was 
passed  oy  the  first  Parliament  of  Charles  II., 
with  the  intention  of  destroying  the  power  of 
the  Dissenters  in  the  towns.  By  this  statute 
it  was  enacted  that  all  officers  of  corporations 
should  take  the  sacrament  according  to  the 
rites  of  the  Church  of  England,  within  twelve 


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(  317  ) 


Cot 


months  of  their  election  to  office ;  and  on 
their  election  should  take  the  oaths  of  supre- 
macy, allegiance,  and  non-resistance,  and 
abjure  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant.  The 
Corporation  Act  was  repealed  in  1828,  though 
long  before  that  date  it  b^xlbecomea  dead  letter. 

Corporations,  or  bodies  corporate  ^  formed 
for  the  continual  maintenance  and  enjoy- 
ment of  certain  privileges,  or  the  holding  of 
certain  property  in  perpetuity,  are  of  two 
kinds: — {a)  Corporal iotu soie^  which  consist  of 
one  person,  such  as  the  king  or  a  bishop,  who 
in  the  eye  of  the  law  never  die ;  and  (b)  Cor- 
jforaliofut  aggregate^  which  consist  of  a  num- 
ber of  persons  so  bound  together  as  to  be  by 
law  considered  as  one  individual,  and  which 
by  the  constant  introduction  of  fresh  members 
have  a  continuous  existence.  Both  sole  and 
aggregate  corporations  are  divided  into 
ecclesiastical  and  lay.  The  former  division 
comprised  such  corporations  as  a  bishop,  or 
the  chaplain  of  a  cathedral,  and  the  latter 
being  again  sub-di\'ided  into  (a)  civil  corpora^ 
tiotis,  such  as  the  universities  of  Oxford,  Cam- 
bridge, and  Durham ;  the  municipal  corpora- 
tions, and  private  corporations  of  the  nature 
of  joint-stock  companies ;  and  (b)  eleemo»ynary 
corporations,  which  are  charged  with  the  duty 
of  administering  the  bounty  of  the  founder, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  various  colleges  at  the 
universities,  and  the  hospitals.     [Municipal 

COUPORATIOXS.] 

Corrichie,  The  Battle  of  (1562),  was 
fought  near  Aberdeen  between  the  forces  of 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  led  by  Murray,  and  some 
Highlanders,  headed  by  the  rebellious  Earl 
of  Huntly.  Huntly  was  killed,  and  his  son, 
Sir  John  Grordon,  captured  and  executed. 

Conmed  was  a  species  of  ordeal  in  which 
the  accused  had  to  swallow  a  large  piece  of 
bread  or  cheese.  If  this  were  performed  freely 
and  without  hurt,  the  accused  was  pronounced 
innocent;  but  if  it  stuck  in  his  throat,  guilty. 
With  the  introduction  of  Cliristianitv,  the 
host  was  used  for  this  purjKwe.     [Okdeal.] 

Conumay  The  Battle  of  (Jan.  16, 1809), 
between  the  English  and  French,  was 
fought  during  the  Peninsular  War  at  the 
close  of  Sir  John  Moore*s  retreat  from 
Madrid,  pursued  hy  Soult.  After  a  march 
in  which  the  severity  of  the  elements  and 
neglect  of  discipline  were  more  disastrous  to 
the  troops  than  the  pursuit  of  the  French, 
Moore,  on  Jan.  11,  took  up  a  position  round 
the  town  of  Corunna,  ana,  having  occupied 
the  road  to  Santiago  de  Compostella  with  his 
best  troops,  awaited  the  arrival  of  the  English 
transports  from  Vigo.  On  the  14th  the  ships 
anchored  in  the  bay,  and  before  daybreak  on 
the  16th  the  cavalry  (the  ground  bei'^g  im- 
practicable for  cavalry  operations),  the  sick 
and  wounded,  and  all  but  nine  pieces  of 
artiller}',  had  been  embarked.  Soult  had 
20,000  infantry  and  cavalr}',-  and  a  strong 


force  of  artillery,  while  Moore  had  only 
14,500  infantry.  The  battle  was  bcg^un  with  a 
fierce  attack  by  the  French  on  the  village  of 
Elvimi,  which  they  carried,  only,  however,  to 
bo  in  turn  driven  out  by  General  B»iird'b 
division.  While  the  battle  was  still  doubtful, 
Moore  ordered  up  the  reserve,  under  General 
Paget,  to  oppose  a  flank  movement  directed 
against  the  English  right.  This  was  most 
successfully  effected;  and  almost  sinmlta- 
neously  the  whole  of  the  British  line  began 
to  gain  ground,  until  at  nightfall  they  had 
everj'where  driven  the  French  from  their 
positions.  During  the  following  night  a 
retreat  was  effected  to  the  shoi'e,  and  the  em- 
barkation of  the  troops  was  carried  out  with 
but  little  loss.  In  the  battle  the  English 
were  said  to  have  lost  800  men,  including 
their  brave  general,  Sir  John  Moore;  the 
French,  between  3,000  and  4,000. 
Napier,  FvniusuXar  War. 

QxMhaxy  was  an  ancient  Irish  custom,  by 
^*  which  the  chief  had  the  right  of  using  the 
houses  and  taking  the  provisions  of  his 
tenantr>'  for  himself  and  following  at  his 
own  discretion.  The  Norman  barons,  not 
unnaturally,  adopted  so  ad\'antagcous  a  cus- 
tom. After  the  final  confiscation  of  Irish 
land  by  Cromwell,  the  descendants  of  the 
ancient  chiefs  long  led  a  precarious  existence 
by  such  means,  and  numerous  statutes  failed 
to  put  a  stop  to  it. 

0'Curry,>4iiriff»HWiHCiM(om<;  Lecky,  EUior\f 
of  the  Eighteenth  Century, 

Cottenhaaiy     Chakleh     Chuistopher 

Pepyh,  IsT  Earl  of  (b,  1781,  d.  1861),  the 
second  son  of  Sir  William  Pepys,  was  called 
to  the  bar  1804.  He  was  appointed  solicitor- 
general  to  Queen  Adelaide  in  1830,  and 
solicitor-general  to  the  king  in  1834.  In 
1831  he  was  returned  to  Parliament  for 
Higham  Ferrers.  In  1834  he  became  blaster 
of  the  Holls,  and  in  1835  one  of  the  C'ommis- 
sioners  of  the  Great  Seal,  the  Whigs  not 
being  prepared  with  a  Chancellor  in  whom 
they  could  confide.  In  1836  he  became  Lord 
Chancellor,  and  continued  in  this  office  till 
1841.  In  1846,  on  the  return  of  the  Whigs 
to  power.  Lord  Cottenham  again  bocnme 
Chancellor;  but  his  health  was  bad,  and  in 
1850  he  received  an  earldom,  and  the  Great 
Seal  was  put  in  commission. 

Cotter^  James  {b.  1690,  d.  1719),  the  son 
of  Sir  James  Cotter,  a  distinguished  supporter 
of  James  II.,  was,  in  spite  of  the  Irish  Court 
of  Chancery,  brought  up  as  a  Catholic  in 
England.  In  1713  he  headed  an  attack  on 
the  Protestant  voters  in  Dublin.  He  whs 
the  idol  of  the  Irish  Jacobites;  and  his 
execution  for  rape  in  1719  bi'ought  about  a 
savage  persecution  of  the  Quakers,  who  had 
been  instrumental  in  securing  his  punishment. 

Cottiiurton,  Francis,  Lord  {b.  lo76, 
d.  1653),  o7  a  Somersetshire  family,  was  ior 


Cot 


(318  ) 


Cou 


many  years  one  of  the  English  diplomatic 
agents  at  Madrid.  He  accompanied  Prince 
Cnarles  to  Spain,  took  part  in  negotiating  the 
marriage  treaty,  and  lost  the  favour  of  his 
patron,  Buckingham,  by  supporting  it.  In 
1628  he  was  created  a  baronet  and  priv^' 
councillor.  In  the  following  year  he  was 
appointed  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  and 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Spain,  and  concluded  a 
treaty  which  developed  (Jan.  2,  1631)  into  an 
agreement  for  the  partition  of  Holland. .  On 
his  return  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  and 
became,  in  1635,  l^Iaster  of  the  Court  of 
Wards.  Clarendon  describes  him  as  Laud's 
chief  opponent  in  the  Council.  To  avoid 
impeachment  by  the  Long  Parliament  for  his 
share  in  the  fiscal  oppressions  of  the  previous 
ten  years,  he  resigned  both  his  offices.  During 
the  Civil  War  he  sided  with  the  king,  and, 
in  consequence,  took  refuge  in  France.  In 
16o2  he  was  appointed,  together  with  Claren- 
don, ambassador  to  Madrid,  and  died,  in  1653, 
at  Valladolid.  During  his  first  stay  in  Spain 
he  turned  Boman  Catholic,  reverted  to  Pro- 
testantism on  his  return  to  England,  and 
became  a  Catholic  again  in  1652.    Clarendon 

E raises  his  self-control  and  power  of  dissimu- 
ition.    Mr.  Gkirdiner  calls  him,  **a  man  of 
the  world  without  enthusiasm.*' 

Clarendon,  Hutory  of  tht  EeheUion;   S.   B. 
Gardiner,  Htrt.  o/Eng.,  1603—1642. 

Cotton,  Bartholomew  db,  was  a  monk 
of  Norwich,  who  wrote  a  Chronicle  of  England 
from  the  arrival  of  the  Saxons  to  the  year 
1298,  about  which  time  he  died.  The  latter 
portion  of  this  history  is  of  great  value, 
as  the  writer  was  contemporary  with  the 
events  which  he  records.  This  Chronicle, 
edited  by  Mr.  Luard,  has  been  published 
in  the  Rolls  Series. 

Cotton.  Sir  Johx  Hindb,  was  one  of 
the  small  oand  of  Jacobite  politicians  who 
formed  part  of  the  Opposition  to  Sir  Robert 
Walpolo*8  ministry  in  the  reign  of  Greorge  II. 
In  1740,  when  the  Jacobites  were  concocting 
one  of  their  usual  plots,  we  find  him  described 
as  "  doubtful  of  others,  but  answering  clearly 
for  himself :  **  and  he  arranged  to  remain  in 
London  as  the  channel  of  communication  with 
James's  friends.  In  1742,  after  the  fall  of 
Walpole,  his  appointment  to  the  Admiralty 
Boaid  was  pressed  by  the  Duke  of  Arg^'lc,  but 
the  king  absolutely  refused  to  raise  him  to  th  it 
office.  In  1744,  however,  in  spite  of  the  re- 
luctance of  George,  he  was  taken  into  the 
administration.  In  1745,  the  French  minister. 
Cardinal  Tencin,  a  friend  of  the  Stuarts,  de- 
manded that  as  a  pledge  of  his  sincerity  he 
should  resign  office,  but  this  he  declined  to  do. 
He  was,  however,  soon  afterwards  dismissed, 
and  continued  to  lead  a  small  body  of  Jacobites 
in  the  Lower  House. 

Cotton,  Sir  Rohert  (A.  1570,  d.  1631), 
was  a  distinguished  antiquary  and  collector 


of  manuscripts.  He  assisted  Camden  (q.v.) 
in  his  labours  on  the  Britannia.  On  the 
accession  of  James  I.  he  was  knighted,  and 
frequently  consulted  by  the  Privy  Council  on 
constitutional  points.  He  was  one  of  those 
who  suggested  to  James  I.  the  idea  of  creating 
baronets,  and  was  himself  raised  to  this  rank 
in  1611.  Sir  Robert  wrote  numerous  anti- 
quarian tracts  and  pamphlets.  But  his  chief 
title  to  remembrance  is  due  to  the  magnificent 
manuscript  library  he  collected,  which  passed 
to  his  heir  intact,  and  was  acquired  by  the 
nation  in  1706.  After  being  partly  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1731,  it  was  placed  in  the  British 
Museum  in  1757. 

Cotton,  Sir  Willouohry,  was  com- 
mander-in-chief in  Jamaica  during  the  slave 
rebellion  of  1831 — 32.  The  insurrection  was 
crubhed  owing  to  his  promptness  of  action, 
whilst  his  leniency  to  the  offenders  was  in 
marked  contrast  to  the  unwarrantable  crueltv 
with  which  the  negroes  were  usually  treated. 
His  clemency  drew  upon  him  the  hatred  of 
the  planters. 

Cotton  Famine,  The,  1862.  The  out- 
break of  the  American  Civil  War,  which  was 
followed  by  a  total  blockade  of  the  Con- 
federate coast,  was  productive  of  very  disas- 
trous results  in  England.  The  cotton  supply,  on 
the  manufticture  of  which  the  greater  part  of 
the  Lancashire  operatives  dej>ended  for  a  liveli- 
hood, £ailed,and  m  consequence  the  Lancashire 
mill-owners  began  to  work  short  time,  and 
finally  to  close  the  mills  entirely.  A  certain 
amount  of  work  was  kept  up  and  many 
large  fortunes  were  made  by  running  the 
blockade  of  the  Confederate  ports  and  brings 
ing  out  cotton;  but  the  general  result  was 
that  two  millions  of  people  were  to  a  great 
extent  reduced  to  destitution.  The  Cotton 
District  Relief  Fund  was  started  in  July, 
1862,  and  nearly  two  millions  were  subscribed 
within  a  twelvemonth.  By  the  Relierf  Act 
passed  in  Aug.,  1862,  loans  were  granted  to 
the  g^rdians  of  the  poor  for  the  purpose  of 
instituting  relief  works.  The  famine  came  to 
an  end  in  the  summer  of  1865. 

Connoils,  Civil. 

(1)  The  National  Council.  («)  In 
AnglO' Saxon  Titnea.  The  Witenaganot.  The 
more  primitive  German  tribes  had  no  kings, 
and  the  supreme  authority  resided  either 
in  temporary  magistrates  or  the  national 
council  of  all  fi^eemen  that  met  periodically 
to  discuss  all  matters  of  great  importance. 
When  monarchy  became  univei'sal,  this 
council  became  the  adviser  and  controller 
of  the  king.  In  the  Campus  ^lartius,  or 
Madius,  of  the  Frank  monarchy,  we  see  its 
continued  survival  until  it  gradually  dis- 
appeared through  feudal  influence.  In 
England  its  history  was  diiferent.  In  the 
original  kingdoms  of  the  migration,  a  demo- 
cratic assembly  of  the  freemen,  such  as  stiU 


Con 


{  319  ) 


Con 


exists  in  the  forest  cantons  of  Switzerland 
{»ee  Freeman,  £nff.  Con»t,,  chap,  i.),  certainly 
existed.  But  when  the  "  heptarchic  *'  states 
were  consolidated  to  form  larger  kingdoms, 
no  consolidation  of  the  popular  assembly 
followed.  The  "  greater  council**  of  Tacitus, 
the  Campus  Martins  of  the  Franks,  was  only 
continued  in  the  Shiremoot,  the  highest 
folkmoot  of  the  £nglish  previous  to  the 
establishment  of  a  representative  House 
of  Ck)mmons.  But  the  idea  of  a  national 
assembly  lived  on  in  the  gathering  of 
magnates,  which  was  consolidated  in  pro- 
portion as  the  kingdom  was  consolidated. 
Similarly  with  Wessex,  and  when  the  West 
Saxon  monarchs  became  kings  of  all  the 
English,  they  gathered  together  the  wise  men 
of  all  the  land  into  their  Great  Council  or 
Witcnagemot.  For  the  details  of  the  consti- 
tution, power,  origin,  and  activity  of  the 
Witetiagemat^  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
article  under  that  head.  It  is  enough  to 
observe  here  that  it  was  composed  of  the  chief 
ecclesiastical  and  temporal  magnates  of  the 
kingdom,  that  the  functions  of  the  Witan 
were  almost  co-ordinate  with  those  of  the 
king,  and  supreme  on  the  vacancy  of  the 
throne  by  death.  They  were  the  Parliament, 
Senate,  Privy  Council,  Supreme  Court  of 
Justice,  Civil  Service,  and  Cabinet  in  one. 
Their  powers  were  legislative,  judicial,  de- 
liberative, taxative,  and  executive.  Though 
in  practioe  a  council  of  officials,  it  remained 
in  idea  the  council  of  the  nation,  virtually 
represented  by  their  natural  leaders.  But  of 
direct  popular  representation  there  is  no 
trace. 

(b)  In  Norman  Timet.  The  Great  Council, 
The  accession  of  William  I.  produced  no 
sudden  revolution  in  the  constitution  of  the 
national  council.  The  Great  Council  of  the 
Norman  reigns  was  in  most  respects  a 
continuation  of  the  Witenagemot.  But 
feudal  influence,  the  analogy  of  the  council 
of  Normandy,  and  the  changed  condition 
of  the  country,  soon  produced  a  g^dual 
feudalisation  of  the  whole  institution — which, 
although  not  completed  before  the  reig^  of 
Henr>'  II.,  graduaUy  more  and  more  obscured 
the  old  official  character  of  the  assemblage.  Yet 
the  national  idea  lived  on.  The  convocation 
in  1086  and  1116  of  Great  Councils  of  all  the 
landowners,  of  whomsoever  they  held  land, 
is  a  striking  instance  of  this.  The  gradual 
change  of  theory*  was  obscured  by  the  fact 
that  the  members  of  the  assembly  were  the 
same  as  before  the  Conquest,  though  bishop 
and  earl  sat  now  as  holders  of  great  fiera 
immediately  under  the  crown  just  as  much  as 
in  their  official  capacity  of  magnates.  But 
the  practical  change  was  greater  than  the 
theoretical.  Nominally  possessed  of  all  the 
prerogatives  of  the  Wise  Men  before  the  Con- 
quest, their  power  became  very  formal  in  the 
presence  of  such  monarchs  hs  William  and 
his  sons,  to  whose  practical  despotism  revolt 


in  arms  i-ather  than  opposition  in  council  was 
the  appropriate  check.  Moreover  the  in- 
creasing sanctity  which  environed  the  monarch 
deprived  the  national  council  of  the  last 
vestiges  of  that  unique  position  which  made 
the  earlier  Anglo-Saxon  monarchs  little  moi*c 
in  theory  than  chairmen  of  a  Board. 

(e)  In  Angevin  Times.  The  Feudal  CouneU 
of  Henry  II  Under  Henr}'  II.  the  change 
in  the  theory  of  the  constitution  of  the 
national  council  became  complete.  The 
accepted  usage  of  his  reign  was  to  summon 
the  whole  body  of  the  tenants  in  chief  to  the 
council.  But  the  ordinary'  form  of  the 
council  was,  doubtless,  much  the  same  as  in  the 
earlier  period.  Except  on  special  occasions 
none  but  the  magnates,  the  bishops,  earls,  and 
royal  officers,  the  "greater  barons,"  wertj 
likely  to  attend.  We  learn  from  Magna 
Charta  that  the  "  greater  barons "  alone 
received  special  summonses  addressed  to  them 
individually  on  each  occasion  that  the  council 
met.  A  general  writ  addressed  to  the  sheriff 
of  each  county  summoned  the  "  lesser 
barons  "  to  these  assemblies,  and  their  attend- 
ance was  generally  nominal.  The  Angevin 
council  thus  became  a  reg^ularly  organised 
feudal  assembly.  But  the  powers  of  the 
Great  Council  could  not  but  have  been  un- 
favourably influenced  by  the  change.  In 
becoming  feudal  it  ceased  to  be  national. 
Even  the  small  place  left  by  the  administrative 
S}'stem  of  Henry  II.  for  external  checks  could 
not  be  satisfactorily  filled  up  by  a  body  out  of 
relation  with  a  people  who  rather  reposed 
confidence  in  the  crown,  and  which  was 
representative  mainly  of  the  crushed  baronial 
partv  which  Henry  had  subdued.  Still, 
its  formal  consent  was  invariably  given  to 
Henr}''s  great  legislative  and  executive 
measures.  We  even  hear  of  resistance  to 
the  royal  will,  of  which  in  Anglo-Saxon 
times  there  is  no  record.  But  the  most  pre- 
judicial influence  on  the  immediate  future  of 
the  council  was  the  development  of  new  and 
more  efficient  consultative  bodies  out  of  the 
administrative  s^'stem  which  centred  round 
the  Curia  Regis  (q.v.).  Thus  under  Henry  II., 
the  national  council  tended  to  become  baronial 
merely,  and  was  superseded  in  many  of  its 
functions  by  a  royal  oouncil. 

Yet  the  absence  of  a  more  adequate  repre- 
sentation of  the  nation  lent  a  good  deal  of 
national  character  even  to  this  feudal  council. 
Such  an  assembly  gave  us  Magna  Charta,  and 
so  well  did  the  baronage  fulfil  their  new  part 
of  national  representation  that  throughout 
Henry  III.*s  reign  an  opposition  at  once 
popular  and  baronial  found  in  it  its  appro- 
priate mouthpiece.  But  the  g^dual  growUi  of 
a  directly  representative  Parliament  brought 
the  old  council  into  comparative  disuse. 
Edward  I.'s  completion  of  the  parliamentary 
system  at  once  annihilated  the  political  im* 
portanoe  of  feudalism  and  of  the  feudal  Great 
CounciL     Superseded  as  a  national  assembly 


Cou 


(  320  ) 


Ckm 


by  Parliament,  and  as  a  consultative  and 
executive  body  by  the  roj'al  council,  the  Great 
Council  remained  as  a  survival  throughout  the 
Middle  Ages.  Often  it  was  hardly  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  a  Parliament,  as  for  example, 
the  council  which  sanctioned  so  many  of 
Edward  I/s  laws.  Often  it  was  no  more  than 
an  "  afforced "  assembly  of  the  "  Concilium 
ordinarium,"  strengthened  for  important 
business  by  the  addition  of  spiritual  and 
temporal  magnates,  and  other  **  wise  men,'* 
selected  at  discretion.  Such  an  assembly  was 
not  uncommon  in  the  fourteenth  and  earlv 
part  of  the  fifteenth  centuries  {e.ff.f  in  1379), 
and  Richard  II.'s  evil  councillors  were  accused 
of  inducing  the  king  to  summon  councils  com- 
posed of  certain  lords  without  the  assent  or 
presence  of  the  **  Lords  of  the  Oreat  Council." 
But  these  assemblies  may  largely  be  regarded 
as  attempts  to  bridge  over  the  distinction 
between  the  Royal  Council  and  the  Council  of 
the  nation,  and  g^ve  to  the  former  body  that 
prestige  which  historical  continuity  and  full 
baronial  support  could  in  a  large  measure 
afford.  No  such  assembly  was  convoked 
in  Tudor  times,  and  Charles  I.'s  sununons  of 
a  Great  Council  at  York  in  1640  was  the  last 
instance  of  its  being  called  together. 

(2)  The  Royal  Council.  Besides  the  Great 
Council,  or  the  Common  Council  of  the  nation, 
there  must  have  existed,  as  soon  as  orgfinised 
government  began,  a  smaller  council  of  the 
royal  ministers  and  .confidants,  by  whoso 
advice  and  co-openition  the  government  was 
carried  on.  The  small  numbers  generally 
attending  the  Witenagemot  before  the  Con- 
quest, and  the  lack  of  definite  centralised 
authority,  make  this  assembly  very  hard  to 
discern  in  Anglo-Saxon  times :  but  with  the 
reigns  of  the  sons  of  William  I.,  the  Curia 
Regis  (q.v.)  comes  into  importance ;  and  from 
this  general  coui't  there  gradually  developed 
by  a  process  of  differentiation  not  only  the 
courts  of  judicature,  but  also  the  organised 
Royal  Council  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
exact  relation  of  the  Curia  Regis  to  the 
national  great  council  is  not  clettr,  but  it  is 
improbable  that  they  wei*e  entirely  separate 
organisations.  Thus  in  a  sense  the  Royal 
Council  was  a  specialised  form  of  the  Great 
Council. 

The  active  despotism  of  the  Norman  and 
Angevin  kings,  while  reducing  the  national 
council  to  a  form,  greatly  stimulated  the 
growth  of  the  Royal  Council :  for  when  the 
king  had  so  much  on  his  hands  he  must  have 
the  help  of  clerks  and  ministers,  who  always 
tended  to  become  his  advisers.  The  existence 
of  such  a  Roval  Council  is  dimlv  foreshadowed 
by  the  act  of  Henrj-  JI.  in  1178,  when  that 
monarch  reserved  the  decision^of  knotty  judi- 
cial or  financial  cases  to  a  snifill  cirele  of 
"  sapientes,"  or  councillors.  But  under  Henr>' 
II.  wo  have  the  merest  reference  to  its  action 
— none  to  its  constitution  or  ix)wers.  The 
personiil  retmiic  of  Richard  II.,  the  foreiam 


councillors  of  John,  may  well  have  been  organ- 
ised in  a  similar  bodv :  but  it  is  not  until  the 
minority  of  Henry  III.  that  the  real  histoiy 
of  the  Royal  Council  begins.  The  Regent, 
the  legate,  the  great;  officers  of  state  consti- 
tuted that  *'8upremum  concilium,'*  traces  of 
whose  activity  are  to  be  discerned  in  every 
department  of  government.  In  this  body  tho 
hated  foreigpa  courtiera  exercised  their  in- 
fluence. Against  it  the  Great  Council  c!  the 
realm  fought  with  increasing  success.  Thrice 
oaths  were  imposed  on  this  Council  and 
btironiai  nominees  added  to  it;  but  it  con- 
tinued to  maintain  its  existence  through  the 
crisis,  and  after  acting  as  a  practical  Council 
of  Regency  during  Edward  I.*s  absence  in 
Palestine,  received  from  that  king  definition 
and  organisation. 

The    special    characteristic   of   the  Royal 
Council  was  its  permanence.     It  was  always 
sitting,  alwa^'S   occupied  in  the  continuous 
business  of  the  court.     Its  usual  name  was 
the  "  Concilium  perpctuum,*'  or  "  Concilium 
ordinarium,"    in    opposition   to  the    "  Con- 
cilium conmiune,"  or  "Concilium  magnuin" 
of  the  nation,  already  discussed.     Besides  its 
constant  sessions  for  executive  business,  it 
held  terminal  sittings   to  help  the  king  in 
recei\dng  j)etitions  and   hearing   suits.    Its 
functions    were   so   wide   as   to  be    practi- 
cally incapable  of  definition.    Nothing  was 
too  great,  nothing  was  too  small  to  escape 
its  interference.     It  advised  the  king,  exe- 
cuted his  resolutions,  shared  in  his  judicial 
and  appellate  powers.   The  ordinary  members 
of  the  Council  were — the  chief  ministers,  the 
judges,  some  of  the  bishops  and  barons,  and 
a  few  other  royal  confidants  summoned  by 
royal  writ,  and  bound  by  a  solemn  oath   of 
ofhce. 

The  power  of  the  Royal  Council  was  always 
growing ;  but  it  acquired  a  special  prominence 
during  the  weak  reign  of  Richard  II. ;  and  it 
is  from  the  history  of  the  fifteenth  century 
that  we  can  first  get  a  really  clear  and  definite 
idea  of  the  functions  of  a  body  whose  whole 
previous  history  it  is  impossible  to  trace  but 
obscurely.    Under  Richard  II.  and  the  Lan* 
castrians  the  Royal  Council,  the  eng^e  and 
mouthpiece    of    the    prerogative,    gradually 
begins  to  subserve  constitutional  ends.     The 
strong  and  organised  parties  of  the  time  are 
represented  upon  it.  Parliament  asserts  control 
over  it,  and  the  recognition  by  the  Lancastrian 
monarehs  of  the  right  of  Parliament  to  nomi- 
nate its  members  is  a  remarkable  anticipation 
of  the  cabinet  government  of  modem  times. 
In  1406  Parliament  protest  their  great  re^^ard 
for  the  "Lords  of  tho  continuous  Council,"  in 
language  almost  anticipating  a  vote  of  confi. 
dence  in  a  modem  ministry.   In  turns  caressed 
by  king  and  Parliament,  the  **  Privy  Council," 
as  it  now  began  to  be  called — though    it  is 
possible  that  the  Pri^y  Council  was    in    its 
origin  an  inner  and  secret  committee  of  the 
ordinary  Council — acquired  more  and    moxe 


Oon 


(321  ) 


Con 


authoriW.  Under  Henr>'  VI.  it  became  a 
virtual  Council  of  Regency,  and  its  members 
practically  held  the  royal  authority  in  com- 
misaion.  This  enhanced  their  authority,  but 
broke  their  connection  with  Parliament.  After 
1437  the  king  resumed  absolute  power  of 
nomination.  Effoila  to  remedy  this  state  of 
things  led  to  no  result :  and  under  Edward 
IV.  and  the  Tudors,  it  assumed  the  chuiTicter 
of  an  **  irresponsible  committee  of  govern- 
ment," the  agent  of  the  prerogative,  and  the 
repreaentative  of  the  roval  pleasure.  It  sent 
forth  outahoots,  such  as  its  judicial  committee, 
the  Star  Chaniiw  ;  and  manv  of  the  anomalous 
councils  that  in  the  sixteenth  centur}'  with- 
drew half  England  fi'om  tlie  cognisance  of  the 
common  law  were  in  close  reLition  to  it. 
The  temporising  policy'  of  a  Hcnr)'  VIII. 
and  an  Elizabeth,  which  allowed  some  di- 
vergence of  opinion  amongst  its  supporters, 
kept  up  at  least  the  semblance  of  government 
by  discussion.  Its  elaborate  organisation  into 
committees  under  Edward  VI.  illustrates  the 
width  of  its  ramifications. 

The  Privy  Council  having  attained  the  height 
of  its  power,  it  will  be  convenient  to  sumnmriso 
its  functions.  The  great  variety  and  extent 
of  its  activity  has  already  been  noticed.  Its 
claim  in  1427  "to  have  the  execution  of  aU 
the  powers  of  the  crown  during  the  king's 
minority  needs  only,*'  says  Dr.  Stubbs,  "  to 
be  slightly  altered  to  make  it  applicable  to 
their  perpetual  functions.'*  The  only  limit  to 
their  usurpations  was  the  common  law ;  and 
this,  while  but  partly  confining  their  judicial 
activity,  left  the  whole  field  of  general  politics 
open  to  their  aggressions.  They  had  a  very 
large  share  in  all  executive  business.  Their 
power  of  passing  ordinances  (q.v.)  gave  them 
a  practical  share  in  legislation ;  and  the  con- 
fidence, indiiference  or  impotence  of  Parlia- 
ment allowed  them  taxative  functions  of  tlie 
greatest  importance.  They  lent  money  to 
the  king  on  their  o^-n  security,  or  used  their 
influence  over  rich  lords  or  merchants  to 
negotiate  loans.  Sometimes  they  got  direct 
authority  from  Parliament  to  levy  taxes, 
sometimes,  especially  during  the  sixteenth 
centurj',  they  did  so  of  their  own  authoi-ity. 
^Vhereve^  no  positive  law  checked  them  they 

Sushed  their  way.  Even  in  judicial  mattera, 
espite  the  common  law  and  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  Chancery,  they  were  still,  as  in  1178, 
the  adri^rs  of  the  crown  on  knotty  points, 
and  the  arbiters  of  private  disputes. 

Kigorous  under  the  Tudors,  the  powers  of 
the  Council  became  oppressive  under  the 
8tuarts;  but  besides  the  ever-increasing 
parliamentary  check,  the  tendency  of  the 
Council  to  become  unwieldy,  by  the  inclusion 
of  a  ver>'  large  number  of  nobles  and  officials, 
led  to  a  hubit  of  transacting  great  secrets  of 
state  in  an  unauthorised  and  informal  cabal, 
or  ffroup  of  "  cabin  counselloi^s ;  **  a  system 
which  was  complained  of  early  in  the  seven- 
teenth   ceutury,    and    accepted   unwillingly 

HlMT-U 


towards  its  end.  The  Cabal  of  1667,  though 
in  profession  a  committee  of  the  Pri\'y 
Council  for  foreign  affairs,  was  practically 
an  anticipation  of  the  modem  Cabinet.  &ir 
William  Temple's  plan  of  reform  in  1679 
proved  abortive,  and  the  definite  recogni- 
tion of  Cabinet  [Cahinet]  government  by 
William  III.,  made  the  PriAy  Council  again  a 
constitutional  check,  that  conservatives  desired 
to  maintain  in  power  as  a  safeguard  against 
the  new-fangled  and  illegal  ministerial  as- 
sembly. The  Act  of  Settlement  of  1701  con- 
tains several  clauses  which  tried  to  effect  the 
restoration  of  the  Privy  Council  to  its  old 
constitutional  position  under  the  Pkntagenets 
and  Tudois ;  but  thev  had  little  result.  ITio 
Council  i*emaincd  as  it  does  to  this  day  a  body 
of  great  dignity  and  importance,  into  which 
all  statesmen  of  position  were  formally  ad- 
mitted, and  whose  members  were  (Ustin- 
guished  by  the  appellation  of  Kight  Honour- 
able. But  the  nature  of  its  composition,  and 
its  unwieldy  dimensions,  prevented  its  being 
generally  summoned  as  a  whole  for  the 
transjiction  of  general  business.  Councils  in 
the  presence  of  Royalty  are  still  frequently 
held,  but  thev  consist  of  a  verv  few  coun- 
cillors,  and  transact  formal  business.  The 
Privy  Council  Oflice  exercises  the  functions  of 
a  department  of  the  executive.  The  President 
and  Vice-President  of  the  Council  are  im- 
portant ministers.  Hecent  legislation  has 
given  special  powers  to  these  officers  or  the 
Judicial  Committee  of  the  Council.  New 
business,  such  as  the  ever-incTeasing  state  re- 
gulation of  education,  is  put  into  its  hands, 
and  the  Vice-President  is  practically  Educa- 
tion Minister.  But  as  a  whole  and  as  a 
deliberative  assembly,  the  Privy  Council  is 
practically  obsolete. 

(3)  Local  Councils.  Besides  the  above, 
councils  were  appointed  at  various  times  in 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries  to  govern 
parts  of  the  kingdom  remote  from  the  centi*e 
of  authority,  or  imperfectly  united  to  it. 
They  were  modelled  generally  on  the  Privy 
Council,  both  in  constitution  and  functions, 
and  often  exercised  a  jurisdiction  of  certain 
oppressiveness  and  doubtful  legality.  Such 
were  the  Counoil  of  Wales  and  the  Marches^ 
established  by  Edward  IV.  in  1478,  at  Lud- 
low, to  govern  the  southern  and  border 
districts  of  Wales,  which  until  then  had 
uncontrolled  enjoyment  of  Palatine  privi- 
leges. This  court,  though  losing  its  chief 
reason  for  existence  when  Heni*}'  Vlll. 
incorporated  Wales  with  England,  and, 
limited  in  its  jurisdiction  in  164  0,  was  not 
abolished  until  the  5th  of  William  and  Marv. 
Similar  was  the  Council  of  the  Norths  esti'.b- 
lished  at  York  after  the  revolt  of  1569, 
famous  through  Strafford's  tenure  of  the 
presidency,  and  abolished  with  similar 
councils  in  the  first  session  of  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment. The  Council  of  Calais  was  of  older 
foundation,  and  continued  until  the  loss  of 


Con 


(  322  ) 


Con 


that  to  svn  under  Queen  Mary.  The  Stan  nariea 
Court  J  which  extended  its  special  function  of 
governing  the  estate  of  the  Duchy  of  Com* 
wall,  and  superintending  the  mines  there,  to 
general  business,  and  had  become  one  of  the 
most  oppressive  engines  of  prerogative,  was  at 
the  same  time  deprived  of  its  capjicity  for 
aggression.  The  Council  of  the  Palatinates 
of  Cfiester,  Lancashire,  &c.,  were  mere  con- 
tinuations of  the  old  feudal  courts  of  these 
franchises,  continued  after  their  incorporation 
with  the  crown. 

(4)  County,  Distkict,  and  Parish  Coun- 
cils. Under  the  Local  Government  Act  of  1888 
most  of  the  administmtive  work  previously 
entrusted  to  justices  of  the  peace  in  England 
and  Wales  was  devolved  upon  elective  C/Ounty 
Councils.  The  magistrates,  however,  share 
with  these  authorities  the  control  of  the 
police.  A  supplementary  Act  was  passed  in 
18'J4  creating  Parish  and  District  Councils. 

Stubbs,  Comt.  HiBt.;  Qnelst,  Englische  Ver- 
fasaung8ge<chichte  and  Vervcaltungsreeht;  Pal> 
giave.  Essay  on  the  King't  Council ;  Dicejj  Essay 
on  fkn  Ffivy  Council;  Nicholas,  Proceedings  of 
thtf  Pmy  Coiimnl.  ^         r'p^  F  T 1 

Council  of  State  '^as  the  name  given 
to  the  assemby  elected  on  Feb.  14,  1649, 
immediately  after  Charles*  I/s  execution.  It 
received  a  combination  of  military,  diplomatic, 
police,  and  judicial  powers  that  in  the  aggre- 
gate gave  it  a  greater  control  over  the  State 
and  a  wider  exercise  of  executive  power  than 
the  kings  had  ever  had.  Appointed  by  the 
**  Rump,"  the  Council  of  State  was  dissolved 
by  Cromwell  after  his  coup  ductal  against  the 
Parliament.  A  new  Council  of  State  was 
established  in  1659,  as  the  successor  to  the 
temporary  "  Committee  of  Safety "  in  the 
exercise  of  the  executive  power;  but  on  the 
second  expulsion  of  the  Uump  by  Lambert  it 
gave  way  to  the  more  famous  "  Committee  of 
Safety,"  which  acted  as  the  mouthpiece  of 
the  army.  The  army  scheme  for  the  per- 
manent government  included  a  Council  of 
State  that  never  sat.  Revived  ag;un  when 
^lonk  restored  the  Rump,  it  naturally  found 
no  place  when  the  liestoration  brought  back 
the  old  Constitution. 

Kanke.  Histo'y  of  England;  Gui'ot,  Ol»r«r 
Cmimcell,  and  Ri-hard  CromtceU;  Whitelocke, 
Memot'iiU. 

Conncils,  Ecclesiastical,  are  of  the 
following  kinds :  — 

(1)  General,  or  Ecumenical  Councils, — 
i.e.,  assemblies  of  the  Catholic  Church  from 
every  nation.  To  these,  bishojjs  from  Britain 
were  sent  from  the  time  of  the  Council  of 
Aries  in  the  fourth  century  to  the  Councils 
of  Constance  and  Basel  in  the  fifteenth. 
Their  decrees  were  a<-cepted  in  Engljind  as 
a  part  of  the  law  of  the  Church,  though  in 
later  times,  as  the  caac  of  the  Council  of  I5as<.l 
shows,  hardly  without  some  mtification  from 
the  royal  authority.  The  greatest  inter(»8t 
ma  at  various  times  shown  by  the  English 


Church  in  these  councils,  and  their  acts  often 
profoundly  affected  the  course  of  English 
history.  But  their  influence  is  too  incUrect 
to  necessitate  any  detailed  treatment  of  it  in 
a  work  on  English  history. 

(2)  National  Councils.  Of  the  details  of 
the  history  of  the  pre-English  British  Church 
we  know  little ;  but  when  Archbishop  Theodore 
completed  the  systematic  organisation  of  the 
English  Church  that  the  &ilurc  of  Augustine's 
mission  necessitated,  one  of  his  chief  cares 
waa  to  arrange  for  the  assembling  every 
August  of  a  council  of  the  whole  Chui-ch  over 
which  he  was  metropolitan.  The  councils  of 
Hertford  and  Hatfield,  in  which  most  of 
his  reforms  were  arranged,  were  themselves 
precedents  for  the  future  action  of  the 
Church.  These  councils  can  onlv  bv  anti- 
cipation  be  called  national,  for  as  yet  the 
English  nation  was  not  in  existence,  but 
they  exerted  a  most  beneficial  influence  on 
the  development  of  national  unity  by  habi- 
tuating subjects  of  hostile  but  neighbouring 
states  to  meet  under  the  pe>icc  of  the  Church 
to  discuss  amicably  matters  of  common  interest. 
Their  common  place  of  meeting  was  some 
border  town  such  as  Clovesho,  an  unknown 
spot  near  London,  where  Mercia,  Wcssex, 
Kent,  and  Essex  met  together  at  a  point. 
They  were  constituted  mostly  of  bishops, 
though  abbots  often,  and  diocesan  clergy  once, 
figure  among  the  members ;  and,  as  the  line 
Iwtween  Church  and  State  was  as  yet  but 
slackly  drawn,  kings,  ealdormen,  and  other 
temporal  magnates  frequently  attended  them. 
But  the  asscHion  of  the  indejjendence  of  the 
archbishopric  of  York  by  Archbishop  Eg- 
berht,  created  a  jealousy  between  that  see  and 
Canterbury  that  made  these  national  councils, 
which  had  never  met  with  the  regularity 
proscribed  by  Theodore,  very  few  in  number. 
They  practically  ceased  with  the  decline  of 
all  conciliar  activity  in  the  tenth  century  ; 
and  though  revived  after  the  Conquest,  when 
a  papal  legate  could  summon  a  national 
council  with  an  authority  which  neither 
archbishop  could  gainsay,  the  vindication  of 
the  archiepiscopal  jjowers  of  the  see  of  York 
by  Thurstan  revived  the  old  jealousy  that 
made  the  union  of  both  provinces  in  a  common 
assembly  ridiculous  or  abortive.  The  legatine 
councils  of  Otto  in  1237,  and  Ott«-)l)on  in  1268, 
are  the  chief  later  exceptions  to  this  nile. 

(3)  PuoviNciAL  Councils, — The  nirity  and 
practical  cessation  of  national  councils  left  room 
for  the  full  development  of  the  s^Tiods  of  the 
two  provinces  of  Canterbury  and  York ;  even  if 
the  comparative  unimportance  of  the  northern 
province  did  not  often  invest  the  councils  of 
the  southern  with  a  practicrally  national 
character.  The  thirteenth  centur\'  saw  the 
completion  of  the  systepiatic  representation 
of  the  pixjvincial  synods,  to  which  the  name 
Convocation  (q.v.)  became  gradually  applied. 
They  play  an  important  jmrt  in  both  the 
ecclesiastical  and  ci\il  histor}''  of  England. 


Ckm 


(  323  ) 


Con 


(4)  BiocBSAX  Councils,  which  were  ex- 
haustive assemblies  of  the  clergy  of  the 
individual  sees,  were  occasionally  summoned, 
and  even —  ^ 

(5)  A&cHiDiACoxAL  COUNCILS  are  occa- 
sionally heard  of.  But  these  later  varieties 
were  of  inferior  importance,  and  never 
originated  business  ^of  any  weight. 

Stubbs  and  Haddan,  CouncHs  and  Seelesiasi- 
tkal  Docummti;  Stubbs,  Conttitutional  History; 
Wilkins,  Concilia;  Hody,  Hwtory  o/  Convoca- 
tion*. Hefele's  Concxliengetchichtet  is  the  best 
authority  for  councils  generally,    r^p^  -p.  T.l 

CoiintiaSv  The  English.  The  word  county 
is  due  to  the  Norman  invaders'  identification 
of  the  old  English  '*  shije "  with  their  own 
*'  comitatus,"  the  district  of  a  count.     But  the 
shire  had  had  a  ver}'  different  history  from  the 
Frankish  comitatus.     In  the  first  place,  the 
forty  counties  of  England  differ  considerably 
in  their  origins.    The  southern  counties  are,  no 
doubt,  much  the  older,  and  arc  still  identical 
with  the  original  shires  of  Wessex.     Wilt- 
shire   may,   for    instance,    be    imagined    to 
havo    originated    -with    some    few    hundred 
Saxon    families  who    towards    the    end    of 
the   fifth    century  drove    back   the  Britons 
from  this  district,  attained  to  an  indepen- 
dent   individuality    as    the   "folk"  of    the 
Wilstetas,  and  soon    coalesced  with  neigh- 
bouring "folks"  in  Dorset,  Hampshire,  Berk- 
shire, &c.,  to  form  the  "shares"  or  divisions 
of  the  kingdom  of  the  West  Saxons.     It  is 
possible  that  these  shires  had  often  such  a 
twofold  unity,  as  was  long  tniceiiblc  in  the 
two  dinsions  of  Kent,  or  the  two  "  folks  "  of 
the  East  Angles.      At  any  rate,  the  West- 
Saxon  shire  is  characterised  by  a  primitive 
independence,  having  its  own  "folk-moot," 
its  independent  king  or  semi-royal  ruler,  the 
caldorman  and  its  chief  town,  whose  name  is 
cognate  to  the  shire  name  (Wil-S£etas,  Wil- 
ton).     This  had  been    the  histoiy  also  of 
Sussex,  Surrey,  Essex,  Middlesex,  and  even 
Jutish  Kent,  when  these,  with  others,  were 
amalgamated  into  the  kingdom  of  Wessex. 
But  the  Midland  shires,  on  the  contrar>',  are 
obviously  artificial  areas,  and  do  not  corre- 
pond  to  the  orig^inal "  folks  "  of  the  Mercians, 
South  Angles,  Mid-Angles,  &c.    They  were 
probably    marked    out    when    re-conquered 
from  the  Danes  by  Alfred  and  his  successors 
in  the  tenth  century :  a  town  was  taken  as  a 
centre,  and  a  line,  as  it  were,  drawn  round 
it.    Such  was  the  formation  of  Leicestershire, 
Nottinghamshire,  Northamptonshire.      (But 
sometimes  those  older  diWsions  are  preserved 
in  the  bishoprics ;  the  diocese  of  Worcester, 
for  example,  corresponded  to  the  old  kingdom 
of  the  Hwiccas,  and  was  far  more  extensive 
than  the  modem  Worcestershire ;  so  with  the 
ancient  kingdoms  of  Essex,  East  and  West 
Kent,  and  Sussex.)    The  shire  system  then, 
which    was    indigenous    to  Wessex,   spread 
thence^  later  on.    Thus,  again,  in  the  north 
only  Yorkshire  and  Durham  appear  as  shires 


in  Domesday  Book;  Northumberland,  Cum- 
berland, and  Westmoreland  were  not  formed 
into  shires  till  the  reigns  of  William  BufuB 
and  Henrj"  I.  But  the  origin  of  one  shire, 
Kutland,  still  remains  "  an  unsolved  problem 
in  the  heart  of  our  history-"  (Freeman). 
Furthermore,  not  till  long  after  the  Norman 
Conquest  was  it  certain  that  there  wuald  not 
be  other  shires  formed,  for  the  district  of 
Kichmond  was  often  called  a  shire,  as  also 
were  Hallamshire  and  Norhamshire,  &c. 
The  number  of  shires  which  sent  representa- 
tives to  Parliament  was  during  the  Middle 
Ages  thirty-seven ;  for  Chesliire  and  Durham 
were  not  incorporated  till  1535  and  1673 
respectively,  and  Monmouth  added  to  the 
English  shires  also  in  1535.  The  boundaries 
of  shires — as,  for  example,  in  Essex  and  Nor- 
folk— are  usually  the  natural  lines  of  rivers  and 
hills ;  and  in  many  cases  would  be  explained 
if  we  could  only  trace  the  ancient  forests 
and  marshes,  as'  on  the  western  border  of 
Notts ;  in  other  cases  again — as  in  the  sinuous 
northern  boundar>'  of  Wilts,  which  seems  to 
cross  and  recross  the  Thames  with  a  sort  of 
methodical  irregularity — there  must  have 
been  accidents  of  local  formation,  tribal  re- 
lations, or  personal  circumstances,  which  we 
can  hardly  now  hope  to  trace.  The  anomalous 
fragments  belonging  to  one  8hii*e,  but  outlying 
in  another,  had  often  a  great  historical  in- 
terest ;  sudi  as  the  hundred  of  West  ^leon, 
in  Sussex,  but  belonging  to  Hants,  a  striking 
survival  from  the  settlement  of  Jutish  l^Ieon- 
waras  soon  absorbed  by  the  West  Saxons  of 
Hants.  These  have  in  many  cases  been 
consolidated  and  rectified.  When  we  come 
to  compare  the  social  characteristics  of  the 
several  counties,  we  find  that  in  wealth  and 
population  the  southern  and  eastern  jiart  of 
England  preponderated  during  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  times,  as  in  political  superiority. 
With  the  rise  of  the  woollen  manufacture 
after  the  thirteenth  centun\  the  balance  of 
population  spread  towards  the  eastern  counties, 
and  along  the  banks  of  Thames  and  Severn. 
At  last,  the  application  of  steam-power  to 
manufacture  opened  out  the  coal  and  iron 
fields  of  the  north  and  west,  and  reversed  the 
long  predominance  of  the  plains  over  the  hill 
districts.  As  to  the  relative  prevalence  of 
feudal  sentiments,  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  the 
home  counties  after  the  Noi-man  Conquest 
continued  to  be  divided  among  smaller  land* 
lords  than  the  g^eat  lordships  of  the  midlands 
and  the  north ;  it  is  therefore  the  barons  of 
the  north  and  centre  who  are  conspicuous  in 
the  series  of  revolts  under  the  Norman  kings, 
in  the  struggles  of  Henrj'  II.'s  and  Heniy 
III.*s  reigns,  in  Magna  Charta,  and  in  the  op- 
position led  by  the  house  of  Lancaster  against 
the  Plantagenets ;  and  during  the  Wars  of 
the  Roses  one  striking  element  in  the  array 
of  the  trading  and  popular  forces  ngiiinst  the 
feudal,  the  array  (that  is)  of  Kent,  London, 
the  eastern  and  "  home  counties,"  against  tho 


Con 


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Con 


less  advanced  northern  and  western  border 
lands.  The  same  division  is  to  be  found 
during  the  next  century  in  comparing  the 
Protestant  risings  (such  as  Wyatt's)  with  the 
reactionary  Pilgrimage  of  Grace  supported  by 
the  gentry  of  lincohishiro,  Yorkshire,  and 
the  north.  To  take  another  instance :  the 
Socmen,  whom  Domesday  shows  so  numerous 
in  the  eastern  counties,  and  whose  presence 
points  to  the  revived  spirit  of  freedom  that 
the  Danes  brought  in,  bequeathed  their  bold 
traditions  to  the  revolted  peasantry  of  1381, 
and  to  the  Puritan  yeomen  of  the  Eastern 
Association  two  centuries  later.  But  this 
tenacious  individuality  of  the  shire  comes  out 
in  still  minuter  distinctions.  Kent,  Cheshire, 
Durham,  in  particular,  had  each  its  own 
legal  customs  or  social  traditions:  each,  in 
fact,  its  own  inner  history.  Charles  II.  in 
his  flight  was  once  detected  by  his  horse's 
shoes  having  been  made  in  four  different 
counties.  It  is  only  the  developed  means  of 
communication  of  our  own  day,  and  the 
operation  of  broad  economic  laws,  that  have 
begun  to  obliterate  such  distinctiveness. 
[For  authorities,  »e9  County  Court.] 

[A.  L.  S.] 

ConntiaSy  The  Irish.  The  history  of 
the  shiring  of  Ireland  is  involved  in  more 
obscurity  than  the  history  of  the  shiring  of 
England,  though  not  for  the  same  reason  in 
the  two  cases.  In  England  the  division  into 
counties  was  the  result  of  a  slow  process  of 
growth,  the  history  of  which  is  hidden  in  the 
remote  past.  Wo  can  trace  only  some  of  its 
stages.  But  the  shiring  of  Ireland  was  purely 
the  result  of  the  English  conquest.  The 
persons  who  undertook  it  were  strangers,  were 
aliens  in  the  country,  ignorant  of  its  language 
and  most  of  its  local  traditions.  The  Irish 
shires  arc  thcrefoi>3  distinct,  formal,  and  legal 
divisions,  not  local  and  populai*  ones.  This 
being  the  case,  it  might  have  been  supposed 
that  it  would  have  been  an  easy  matter  to 
trace  the  stages  by  which  these  diidsions  came 
into  existence.  And  perhaps  this  would  not 
have  been  difficult  if  there  had  remained  to  us 
more  of  the  State  papers  relating  to  Irish 
affairs.  But  it  is  well  known  that  an  immense 
number  were  destroyed  during  the  different 
periods  of  Irish  rebellion.  Especially  was  this 
the  case  "with  the  papers  which  relate  to  the 
early  period  of  Anglo-Xoinnan  rule.  There 
were  in  reality  two  conquests  of  Ireland,  one 
in  the  reign  of  Hcniy  II.  and  his  immediate 
successors,  another  in  that  of  Henrj*  VIII.  and 
his  successors.  For  during  a  long  interme- 
diate period  (almost  from  the  death  of  Henry 
III.)  the  country'  lapsed  into  an  indci)ondence 
almost  as  complete  as  if  it  had  never  kno%\"n 
English  rule.  Now,  though  we  cannot  dis- 
tinctly trace  all  the  stops  of  the  shiring  of 
Ireland,  we  must  unquostionably  refer  it  to 
these  two  periods  of  English  suin-emacy,  and 
what  was  not  done  dui'ing  the  fii^t  we  may 


feel  sure  was  not  accomplished  in  the  interval 
between  it  and  the  second.    Up  to  the  end  of 
the  reign  of  Henry  III.  English  law  was  ad- 
ministered regularly  to  the  English  subjects 
throughout  the  greater  part  of  Ireland.    Jus- 
tices in  eyre  travelled  for  gaol  delivery'  in  the 
same  way  that  they  did  in  England.    The 
country',  therefore,  must  have  been  divided 
into  districts,  which  in  every  way  corresponded 
to  the  English  shires.     Of  course  this  division 
of  Ireland  was  a  gi-adual  process,  beginning 
with  the  districts  first  conquered,  and  gradually 
extending.   Nor,  so  far  as  concerns  the  present 
county  divisions,  does  the  process  seem  to  have 
extended  beyond  Leinster  and  Munster.    The 
other  two  provinces  were  treated  as  each  one 
county.     Thus  very  early  we  read  of  sheriffs 
of  some  of  the  counties  of  the  Pale — a  sheriff 
of  Dublin,  for  example,  is  mentioned  in  a  docu- 
ment of  the  year  1201,  or  not  more  than  thirty 
vears  after  the  first;  landing  of  the  Earl  of 
Pembroke.   This,  however,  does  not  prove  the 
existence  of  the  division  now  known  as  the 
county  of  Dublin,  for  the  city  of  Dublin  was 
constituted  a  county  before  the  county  ^tis 
formed.     But  it  proves  the  existence  of   so 
much  of  county  government  in  this  year,  as 
is  implied  by  the  existence  of  a  sheriff.     As  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  "county  of  Dublin" — 
evidently    here    distinct  from  the  city  —  is 
mentioned  only  six  years  after,  in  1207.    The 
county  of  Kildare  is  first  mentioned  in  1249  ; 
Wexford   (Wosford)   in   1251 ;   Kilkenny   in 
1252,   but  more  clearly  in  1279;  of  liouth. 
(also  called  Uriel),  the  sheriff  is  spoken  of  in. 
1290 ;  but  it  is  not  distinctly  called  a  county 
before  the  year  1301.     Wicklow,  though  it  is 
nowhere  called  a  county  in  the  early  docu- 
ments, cannot  have  been  behind  the    other 
places  of  the  Pale.    Meath  is  the  only  excep- 
tion to  the  general  rule  of  a  very  early  shiring" 
of  the  counties  round  Dublin.    It  seems  only 
to  have  been  settled  during  the  thirteenlK 
century,  and  it  is  generally  referred  to  in  tKo 
papers  of  that  age  as  De  Lacy's  country.     In. 
1297   we  road  of  the  lands  held  in  Meath, 
**  without  the  boundary  of  any  county,"  whieK 
implies  that  at  this  date  only  a  ixirt  of  it  had. 
been  shired.     Three  counties  of  Leinster,  by 
their  English  names,  imply  a  late  formation 
— Longford,    King's    County,    and    Queen's 
County.    The  last  two  did,  of  course*  receivt> 
their  names  in  the  reign  of  Mar>'  and  Philip, 
as  the  names  of  their  capitals  —  Philipsto'WTi. 
and  Maryborough  sufficiently  indicate.     But 
before  thi.s  time  they  were  known  as  Offialy 
false  called  "  O'Connor's  country")  and  Lcix 
(•*0*Moore's  countiy"),  and  there  is  no  evi- 
dence that  thoir  boundaries  were  in  anv  wa\- 
changed  with  their  names.     Longford  seenis 
to  have  been  a  later  division,  as  we  might  ex- 
pect from  the  smallness  of  its  size.    We  find 
incidental  mention  of  it  in  a  document  of  thie 
year  1207 ;   but  thei-e  is  no  evidence  to  sKo-w 
that  the  county  came  into  existence  before  tlio 
sixteenth  centmy.    Munster  was  divided  into 


Con 


(  325  ) 


Con 


counties  almost  as  early  as  was  Leinster,  for 
all  its  counties  except  one  are  distinctly  men* 
tioned  as  such  in  documents  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  viz.,   Cork  first  called  a  county  in 
1207,^  Limerick  in  124o,  Waterford  in  1251, 
Tipperary  in   1275,  and  DeiTy  in  1281.     Of 
Clare  we  do  not  hapix^n  to  have  any  early 
record ;  but  we  need  not  suppose  that  it  was 
much  behind  the  others.     It  is  the  one  county 
of    Munster  which  has  an    English-derived 
name,  as  it  was  called  after  the  De  Clares, 
Earls  of  Gloucester,  &c.,  who  settled  in  the 
countin*,  and  yraa  for  a  long  time  known  as 
"  De  Clare's  countiy."    After  the  return  of 
Ireland  to  practical  independence,  and  the  re- 
lapse of  the  Northern  families  to  the  condition 
of  native  chieftains,  the  country  may  be  said  to 
have  been  practically  unshired  over  its  greatest 
part.     Gaol  deliveries  were  restricted  to  the 
four   counties   constituting    what    was  now 
known  as  the   Pale,    viz.,  Dublin,  Kildare, 
Louth,  and  Meath.    It  seems  that  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  reign  of  Henry  YIII.  there 
were  only  parts  oi  five  counties   which  re- 
mained faithful  to  the  English  crown — Uriel 
(Louth'i,  half  of  Dublin,  half  of  Meath,  half 
of  Kiloarc,  and  half  of  Wexford.    Of  course 
the  counties  which  had  been  already  consti- 
tuted continued  to  bear  their  old  names,  but 
the  jurisdiction  which  made  them  really  shires 
had  ceased.      In  the  document  from  which 
these    particulars  have    been    taken,    Ulster 
(Wolster)  and  Connaught  are  called  coimties. 
It  is,  however,  the  ca.<«e  that  as  earl^"  as  1260 
"we  hear  of  the  county  of  Down,  and  m  1283  of 
the  sheriff  of  Antrim,   and  in  1290  of  the 
sheriff  of  Roscommon.   In '  1 296  Sligo  is  known 
in  the  State  papers  of  Elizabeth  as  "  O'Connor 
Sligo's  counhy."    This  is  in  1566.   Five  yean 
later  we  find  an  Order  in  Council  concerning 
the  shiring  of  Ireland,  but  no  details  are  given 
as  to  what  new  counties  were  constituted.  The 
completion  of  the  work  did  not  take  place  till 
1607,  after  the  famous  rebellion  and  flight  of 
Tyrone  and  Tyrconnel,  which  led  to  the  Plan- 
tation of  Ulster.    In  a  State  paper  of  this 
year,  we  find  a  proposal,  which  was  shortly 
carried  into  effect,  for  dividing  the  whole  ot 
Ulster  into  shires.    In  this  paper  there  are 
three  old  counties  mentioned — Louth,  Down, 
and  Antrim — ^and  it  is  proposed  to  create  six 
new,  viz.,  Armagh,  Tyrone,  Coleraine  (London- 
derry), Monaghan,  Fermanagh,  and  Donegal. 
The  addition  of  London  to  ttie  older  name  of 
Derry  is  the  most  evident  remaining  trace  of 
the  Plantation  of  Ulster,  recalling  as  it  does 
the  settlement  of  that  part  by  a  colony  from 
London.    That  settlement  was  begun  in  the 
year  1607.      In  the  list  of  James  I.*s  Parlia- 
ment of  1611  the  names  of  the  counties  of 
Ireland  stand  almost  as  at  present,  save  that 
Carlow  is  stall  called  by  its  earlier  name  of 


*  AcoordinflT  to  the  Hibernian  GmeUeer  it  was 
•liiivd  in  1910.  It  wiis  again  shired  in  the  reign  of 
JamM  I.  (Oibson,  Hitt.  of  Cork). 


Cathelagh,  and  that  Cavanr  is  absent  from 
the  number, 

DoeummU  relnting  to  Irchnd  from  1187—1300. 
Calendar,  in  four  vols. ;  StaU  Papers,  1509^ 
1613.  Gibson,  HiMt.  of  Cork  •Hibernian  Qtuetteer  ; 
Topograjihica  Hihernica.  There  are  nnmerooa 
county  bistories  for  Ireland,  but  little  informa- 
tion ia  to  be  got  from  them  apon  the  present 
subject.  [C.  F.  K.] 

Coimtias  Palatine.    [Palatine.] 

ConntiaSy  The  Scottish.  The  history  of 
the  erection  of  the  cotmties  of  Scotland  as  they 
now  exist  is  involved  in  much  obscurity.  The 
boundaries  in  some  cases  were  not  definitively 
fixed  till  the  beginning  of  the  present  centur>'. 
It  was  part  of  the  anglicising  policy  of  the 
sons  of  Malcolm  and  ^Wgaret  to  divide  their 
kingdom  into  sheriffdoms,  after  the  English 
model ;  therefore,  in  Scotland,  the  sheriff  was 
not  the  Gerefa  of  the  ah*eady  existing  shire, 
but  an  officer  appointed  by  the  crown,  for 
whom  a  district  had  to  be  appropriated. 
The  boundaries  of  these  districts  were  for 
long  yague  and  undetermined.  They  must  be 
divided  into  two  distinct  classes — tliose  of  the 
Highlands  and  those  of  the  Lowlands. 

(1)  Lowland  Counties.  At  the  time  when 
sheriffs  were  introduced,  Scotland  south  of 
the  Firths  consisted  of  three  distinct  pro- 
vinces— Lothian,  Galloway,  and  Strathclyde. 
Lothian  formed  part  of  the  English  kingdom 
of  Northumbria,  and  was  held  in  fief  by  the 
Scottish  kings.  It  is  represented  by  the 
counties  of  Berwick,  Roxburgh,  Peebles,  and 
the  Lothians — t.f.,  Edinburgh,  Hadding^ton, 
and  Linlithgow.  Each  of  these  counties  takes 
its  name  from  the  chief  town  within  its 
bounds.  From  incidental  mention  in  charters 
and  other  documents,  we  gather  that  each  of 
them  had  a  sheriff  in  the  time  of  David  I.  or 
his  successors,  but  there  is  no  certain  evidence 
of  their  first  institution.  The  extent  of  these 
counties  would  seem  to  have  been  determined 
by  existing  local  divisions.  Thus  Peebles  is 
Imown  as  Tweeddale  before  its  erection  into  a 
county.  Ettrick  Forest  becomes  Selkirk,  and 
Teviotdale  and  Liddesdale  form  Roxburgh. 

Strathclyde  has  been  divided  into  the  pre- 
sent counties  of  Ayr,  Lanark,  Renfrew,  and 
Dumbarton.  Ayr  was  formed  of  the  districts 
of  Kyle,  Cunningham,  and  Carrick,  which  was 
separated  from  Galloway  by  William  the 
Lion.  The  first  sheriff  oi  Ayr  was  appointed 
in  1221,  but  the  three  districts  were  ruled 
severally  by  baillies,  who  in  many  points 
acted  as  sheriffs.  Lanark,  which  was  made  a 
sheriffdom  in  the  time  of  David  I.,  was 
divided  into  two  parts,  the  over  ward  and  the 
nether  ward  of  Clydesdale  ;  Lanark  being  the 
seat  of  justice  of  the  one,  and  Rutherglen  of  the 
other.  Renfrew  was  erected  by  Robert  III.  into 
a  barony,  with  rights  of  regality,  for  his  son 
James.  It  first  appears  as  an  independent 
sheriffdom  in  1414.  Dumbarton,  formerly  the 
Lennox,  or  Vale  of  Leven,  first  appears  as  a 
sheriffdom  in  the  reign  of  William  the  Lion. 


Cou 


(  326  ) 


Con 


Galloway  was  divided  into  the  sheriffdoms  of 
Dumfries  and  Wigton.  The  sheriffdom  of 
Dumfries  nominally  included  the  districts 
of  Nithsdule  and  Annandalc,  and  that  half 
of  Galloway  which  forma  the  modem  county 
of  Kirkcudbright.  A  sheriff  is  mentioned  in 
the  time  of  William  the  Lion,  and  it  is  dis- 
tinctly recognised  as  a  shire  at  the  time  of 
the  death  of  Alexander  III.  But  as  Annandalo 
on  the  one  hand,  and  Kirkcudbright  on  the 
other,  were  both  stewardries,  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  sheriff  must  have  been  virtually  limited 
to  Nithsdiile.  Wigton,  the  remaining  part  of 
Galloway,  was  ceilainly  a  sherift'dom  by  the 
end  of  the  thirteenth  centur}',  but  powers  of 
regality  were  joined  to  the  earldom  by  Da'vid 
II.  In  every  county  there  were  regalities 
and  baronial  jurisdictions,  and  hereditary 
constables  of  royal  fortresses,  and  baillies  of 
the  lands  belonging  to  religious  houses, 
whoso  powers  clashed  with  those  of  the 
sheriff.  The  office  almost  invariably  became 
horeditar}'  in  the  family  of  the  most  powerful 
man  of  the  district,  and  tended  more  to  swell 
his  consequence  than  to  maintain  law  and 
order,  till  the  Act  of  1747  abolished  hereditary 
jurisdictions. 

(2)  Highland  Coimtiet.  In  the  Celtic  king- 
dom north  of  the  Firths,  where  the  clan 
system  prevailed,  the  country  was  divided 
into  vaguely  defined  districts,  whose  several 
Mormaors  or  earls,  while  professing  a 
nominal  allegiance  to  the  King  of  Scots,  each 
claimed  to  represent  the  royal  authority 
within  his  own  territory'.  The  introduction 
of  sheriffs  was  therefoi*e  very  gradual,  and 
was  not  completed  till  the  sixteenth  centurj'. 
In  many  cases  the  powers  of  the  sheriff  were 
conferred  upon  the  local  chief,  who  had  thus 
the  right  of  "  pit  and  gallows,"  or  power  of 
life  and  death,  within  his  own  territorj'. 
These  powers  were  only  done  away  with  by 
the  abolition  of  hereditable  jurisdictions  in 
1747.  The  boundaries  of  the  Highland  shires 
were  not  definitely  fixed  till  the  beginning  of 
the  present  centur}-.  Previously,  their  limits 
were  marked  more  by  custom  and  tradition 
than  by  law,  and  Arrowsmith's  map,  pub- 
lished in  1805,  is  the  first  in  which  the 
counties  are  defined  accurately. 

Robertson,  Scotland  under  her  Early  Kinga; 
Skene,  Celtic  Scotland ;  Chfdjners,  Caledonia, 
vols.  li.  and  iii. ;  Arrowsmith,  Jfein^ir  rAativc  to 
th«  Map  of  Scotland.  n^£  ^  i 

Counties,  Thb  Welsh,  are  mainly  ad- 
ministrative  dl^'isions  of  the  Mercian  rather 
than  the  West  Saxon  type.  They  are  conse- 
quently of  late  origin,  and  in  most  cases  re- 
ceive their  name  fi*om  the  shire  town.  In  a 
country  so  well  subdiiaded  off  by  natural 
\x)undaries  as  Wales,  their  limits  have,  how- 
ever, in  certain  cases,  coincided  so  far  with 
these,  that  they  represent  real  dialectic  and 
physical  distinctions.  Moreover,  some  coun- 
ties correspond,  if  roughly,  with  ancient  tribal 


or  local  di^dsions,  and  still  more  to  the 
ancient  ecclesiastical  divisions  of  the  land. 
But  despite  these  exceptions,  the  Welsh  shires 
are  in  the  main  ailiticial  "departments" 
rather  than  natural  "  pro>'inces ; "  they  aix) 
"  shii'es  "  rather  than  "  gauen." 

The  Welsh  counties  fall  into  thi*ee  classes 
according  to  the  period  of  their  creation — ^iz., 
(1)  ancient  palatine  counties,  (2)  the  counties 
formed  by  Edward  I.,  (3)  the  counties  formed 
by  Henrj^  VIII.,  who  also  finally  fixed  the 
limits  of  the  other  two  classes. 

(1)  Ancient   Palatine    Counties — ».«.,   Pem- 
brokeshire and  Glamorganshire.  These  repre- 
sent the  two  greatest  "  IMarches  "  which  the 
conquering  activity  of  the  Nonnan  btirons  of 
the  twelfth  century  established  all  over  Western 
and   Southern  Wales.      In    the    west,    the 
districts  thus  conquered  were  largely  included 
in  the  indefinite  lunits  of  the  English  border 
counties,  Cheshire,  Shropshire,  an<l  Hereford- 
shire, whose  carls  under  William  I.  acquired 
regalian  privileges.     Up  to  the    thirteenth 
century,  and  even  the  sixteenth,  large  dis- 
tricts now  in  "  Wales  "  were  included  locally 
within    these   counties,  although    their    in- 
clusion was  but  nominal,  so  long  as  the  lesser 
lords  retained  palatine  jwwers,  oven  after  the 
crown  had  annexed  the  earldoms  themselves. 
Another  class  of  lordships    marchers    were 
never  included  within  these  counties,  but  al- 
though independent,  were   not  of  sufficient 
impoi*tance  to  be  regarded  as  oqui\*alent  to 
counties.      The   lordships    of   Denbigh,  the 
"honour"  of  Montgomery,  the  lordships  of 
Brecon  and  Gower,  were  among  others  of  this 
description.     But  ]\Iorganwg,  the  conquest  of 
Fitz-Hamon,  and  the  inheritance  of  liobert 
of  Gloucester,  and  the  great  house  of  Clare, 
though  never  fonnaUy  constituted  an  earldom 
or  county  palatine,  was    so    virtually.     Its 
lords  were  always  earls,  either  of  Gloucester 
or,  as  later,  of  Pembroke.    They  had  fullest 
regalian  rights  and  priWleges,  as  much  as  the 
Palatine    Lords  of    Cheshire    and    Durham, 
had,    and   they   were    the    greatest    family 
of  the  realm.     So  early  as  1146  we  read  of 
the  "  comitatus  "  (shire-moot)  of  Cardiff,  and 
in  1148  Earl  William  speaks  of  his  "vice 
comes"      (sheriff).      Pembroke     was    more 
definitely  credited  an  earldom  in  1138,  and 
became  organised  on  the  model  of  an  English 
county.      The     boundaries    of    both    were 
narrower  than  those  of  the  modem  shires ; 
Gower,  for  example,  was  a  separate  lordship, 
although  much  of  G  went  was  within  the  lord- 
ship of  3iIorganwg.     Similarly  Dewisland  and 
Kemes  were  outside  the  Pembroke  Palatinate. 
The  modem    boundaries  were  assigned   by 
Henry  VIII.   adding  to  the  old  nuclei  the 
adjoining  marcherships. 

(2)  Edward  I.^s  Counties — viz.,  Anglesey, 
Caernarvonshire,  Merionethshire,  Cardigan- 
shire, Caermarthenshire.  After  the  conquest 
of  LlewehTi,  Edward  I.  divided  the  district 
which  aclmowledged  his  sway,  and  to  which. 


Cou 


(  327  ) 


Con 


the  title  of  the  "  Principality  "  is  rightly  con- 
fined, into  districts  called  shires,  but  which 
rather  bear  to  the  regular  shire  the  relation 
of  a  United  States  Territory  to  a  State,  than 
fuUy  rc])rc8ent  the  self-governing  district 
forming  an  integral  factor  of  the  body  politic 
of  England.  In  the  districts  more  imme- 
diately subject  to  Llewel^ni,  the  shires  of 
AngleiK^y,  Caernarvon,  and  Merioneth  were 
erected.  They  so  far  regarded  old  lines 
that  they  consisted  of  an  aggregation  of 
cantreds  and  commots.  A  sheriff  in  each 
shire,  with  coroners  and  bailiffs  in  each 
cominot,  were  appointed.  A  county  court  was 
to  be  held  once  a  month,  and  the  sheriff^s 
tonrn  twice  a  year,  at  which  all  the  inhabi- 
tants were  to  be  present.  Sheriffs,  &c.,  were 
also  appointed  for  more  southern  regions, 
where  tlie  power  of  the  Welsh  princes  at  least 
nominHllv  extended,  one  to  hold  his  court  at 
Cardigitn  and  Lampeter,  another  at  Caci*mar- 
then,  though  the  powers  of  the  marchers  nmst 
have  limited  the  area  of  their  jurisdiction  to 
narrower  bounds  than  modem  Cardiganshire 
and  Citermarthenshire.  A  sixth  new  county 
was  formed  in  Flint,  which  consisted  of  the 
western  and  more  exposed  portion  of  the 
Chester  Palatinate,  but  which  remained  in  a 
sort  of  half  dependence  on  Cheshire.  The 
rest  of  Wales  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
marchers. 

(3)  Nemy  VIII.^s  Counties — viz.,  Denbigh- 
shire, Montgomerj'shire,  Radnorshire,  Bnjcon- 
shire,  and  Monmouthshire.  Henry  VIII. 's 
incorporation  of  Wales  with  England  involved 
the  division  of  the  whole  country  into  shire- 
ground.  Hence,  by  the  27  Hen.  VIII.,  the 
local  sidf-govemment,  of  which  the  shire  was 
still  the  base,  was  introduced  into  the  whole 
land.  The  lordships  nvirchers  lost  their 
palatine  rights,  and  were  either  {e.ff.j  (rower, 
as  above)  incorporated  into  existing  counties, 
or  aggreg;;ated  into  new  ones.  Besides  the 
new  shires  of  Western  Wales,  the  boundaries 
of  Cheshire,  and  still  more  of  Shropsliire  and 
Herefordshire,  were  readjusted;  ^md  the  old 
Welsh  counties  of  Edward  I.,  and  the  still 
older  palatinates,  were  assimilated  to  English 
shires :  and  the  power  of  returning  to  Parlia- 
ment one  member  for  each  county,  and  one 
for  the  amalganuited  boroughs  (except  in 
mountiiinous  Merioneth)  was  conferred.  Mon- 
mouthshire had  two  members  given  it,  and 
was  treated  as  a  part  of  England,  so  far  as 
the  words  England  and  Wales  had  now  an 
antagonistic  me;ming.  Its  enclosure  imdcr 
Charles  II.  in  an  English  circuit  completed 
its  sevenince  from  Wales. 

The  chief  Statutes  cresting  Welsh  oountios 
are  12  Ed.  I.,  ^Statntum  WaUia  or  the  Statute 
&fKhuddlav,  and  27  Hen.  VIII.,  e.  2i,  26.  See  also 
»  Hen .  VIII. ,  c.  4.  and  27  Hen.  VIII.,  c.  5. 7, 24, 26. 
A  snn^marv  will  he  found  in  Retve'a  Hitiorv  of 
EngU»h  Laiv,  ii.  93—89.  and  iv.  195—205.  For 
Pern l*rok«- shire  and  GlaniorKannhire  the  Tk»- 
crip*ton  rt/  PemhrokeBhire  written  in  1603 
(MS.  HorJ.,  No.  «250),  c.  24,  fol.  ^4^  ^q.,  is 
▼aluahle.      For  the  Marches,  see  Pennant's 


Tour  tn  Wain,  Appendix  ii.  For  Qlamorgan- 
shire,  Mr.  Clark's  papers  on  Ths  Land  of  Morgan, 
in  the  Arehadogiecl  Joitmal,  ore  useful.  The 
Welsh  county  hiistories  ore  not,  as  a  rule,  good. 
Jones's  Br§con$hir9  ia  perhaps  the  best. 

[T.  F.  T.] 

County  Court.  The  "county  court,'* 
or  "  shire-moot,"  was  for  five  or  six  centuries 
the  most  vital  of  our  national  institutions. 
As  its  beinff  often  held  in  the  open  air  perhaps 
indicates,  it  was  anciently  a  "  folk-moot," 
that  is,  included  all  landowners  in  the  shire ; 
and  in  the  submission  of  laws  to  the  shire- 
moot  for  formal  accept«incc,  a  piece  of  cere- 
monial w^hich  is  only  recently  obsolete,  we 
may  discern  the  ancient  independence  of  the 
several  "  folks."  While  in  this  aspect  the 
shire-moot  has  the  ealdorman  and  bishop  at 
its  head,  "  to  declare  the  law,  secular  and 
spiritual,"  its  newer  aspect  of  dependence  on 
a  central  power  is  embodied  in  the  shire- 
reeve,  who  conv(jncs  it,  and  connects  it  with 
the  king.  This  gnidually  tends  to  supplant 
the  ealdorman  and  bishop  in  it,  and  after  the 
Norman  Conquest  it  })asses  wholly  into  his 
hands.  Its  business  was  to  hear  appeals 
from  the  hundred  courts,  to  execute  the 
instructions  of  roval  writs,  and  to  attest 
'wills  and  transfers  of  lands.  Meantime, 
however,  a  tendency  to  what  may  be  called 
delegation,  which  had  already  affected  the 
hundred  and  township  coui'ts,  had  now  also 
much  modified  the  old  assembly.  And  thus 
in  historic  times  an  ordinary  shire-moot  is 
not  the  full  folk- moot,  but  contains  also  the 
reeve  and  four  "best-men  "  from  each  town- 
ship, and  perhaps  the  twelve  thegns  from 
each  hundred  or  borough ;  and  it  appears 
that  this  quasi*rcpresentative  court  is  called 
monthly,  instead  of  twice  a  year,  like  the  old 
folk-moot.  It  is  possible  this  more  frequent 
summoning  was  due  to  Rufus's  minister, 
Flambard,  who  "  drove  all  the  moots ;  "  and 
Henr>'  I.  in  his  charter  promised  to  amend 
it.  At  the  same  time,  the  older  and  fuller 
form  of  the  court  was  still  called  twice 
a  year,  chiefly  for  the  purposes  of  the  crown, 
such  as  taking  the  oath  of  the  peace,  and 
meeting  the  justices  itinerant.  Indeed, 
the  shire-moot  after  the  Conquest  gained 
in  connection  with  the  central  power  what  it 
lost  in-  independent  action.  Thus,  its  civil 
justice — by  the  use  of  writs  calling  up  eases, 
and  by  the  attraction  of  the  Common  Pleas 
Court— was  drifting  up  to  Westminster ;  its 
criminal  pleas  belonged  to  the  king,  and  were 
executed  by  his  itinerant  justices.  But  both 
for  presentment  of  criminals  and  for  decision 
of  civil  cases  (at  least,  as  to  land)  the  crown 
always  used  "  recognitors,"  that  is,  called  in 
the  shire  to  co-operate ;  and  its  co-operation 
was  demanded  in  other  ways,  as  for  view  of 
armour  and  election  of  coroners,  for  the 
negotiation,  assessment,  and  collection  of 
canicage,  for  exacting  oaths  of  allegiance, 
and  above  all,  after  1254,  for  the  election  of 


•  Con 


(  328  ) 


Con 


knights  and  burgesses  to  Parliament.  At 
this  fuller  shire-moot  the  attendance  of  all, 
from  archbishops  to  \'illeins,  was  required. 
The  barons  in  vain  begged  for  exemption ;  in 
1258,  at  Oxford,  among  the  other  grievances 
set  forth,  the  barons  complained  that  the 
attendance  required  of  them  was  increasing ; 
till,  by  the  Statute  of  MertoUy  they  won  their 
point — that  their  attendance  might  be  by 
attorney;  while  the  Statute  of  Marlborough, 
1267)  exempted  all  above  the  degree  of  knights, 
unless  specially  summoned.  Already  indi- 
vidual exemptions  had  been  so  largely  granted 
that  by  1258  there  was  a  scarcity  of  knights 
for  the  "inquests"  of  the  court;  and  in  1293 
a  qualification  of  40s.  freehold  was  required 
for  service  as  a  juror.  So  that  on  all  sides 
the  old  folk-moot  had  been  attacked,  and  by 
the  thirteenth  centurv  was  attenuated  to  an 
occasional  formality;  but  not  before  it  had 
given  birth  to  the  fruitful  idea  of  local  repre- 
sentation, according  to  which  a  small  body  of 
knights  could  act  for  the  whole  shire,  and 
stand  between  the  crown  and  the  count v  in  the 
business  of  government.  Thus,  in  1 194  four 
knights  act  for  the  whole  shire  to  elect  the  grand 
lurj'"  of  each  hundred ;  under  Henrj'  III.  four 
knights  of  each  shire  come  to  Westminster  to 
discuss  the  interpretation  of  articles  in  Magna 
Charta ;  and,  chief  of  all,  knights  ^two,  three, 
or  four  in  number)  from  time  to  time  assess, 
or  assess  and  collect,  the  carucages.  As  soon 
as  these  knights  cease  to  be  nominated  by  the 
crown  or  sheriff — and  the  precedent  for  their 
election  by  the  whole  county  court  is  finally 
given  in  1254 — the  stages  are  complete  by 
which  the  shire-moots  could  be  dispensed 
with,  and  yet  transmit  all  their  authority  to 
a  Parliament.  As  "  Parliament  is  the  con- 
centration of  the  shire-moots,"  it  follows  that 
in  creating  a  Parliament,  in  making  the 
election  to  be  by  all  the  freeholders,  not 
merely  the  chief  tenants,  and,  above  all,  in 
closely  uniting  the  burgesses  with  the  knights, 
the  shire  has  done  its  work.  The  rapid 
growth  of  the  justices  of  the  peace  Btripi)ed 
it  of  the  rest  of  its  functions,  except  that  of 
electing  and  instructing  the  representatives 
sent  to  Parliament,  perhaps  after  discussion 
of  the  grounds  of  its  summons  as  stated  in 
the  king*s  writ,  and  (till  1334)  that  of  assess- 
ing and  collecting  from  the  townships' the  tax 
ffranted  in  Parliament.  It  was  particularly 
during  the  Tudor  period  that  this  non-elective 
body  of  landowners  completed  the  process  by 
which  they  had  stripped  the  old  shire-court 
of  its  powers — judicial,  police,  military,  and 
fiscal.  The  statutes  of  the  early  fifteenth 
century,  which  attempted  to  further  regulate 
the  relation  between  Parliament  and  the 
shires  in  the  interests  of  the  gentry,  were 
aimed  to  check  the  misdoing  of  the  sheriffs 
(1406),  and  to  insure  the  election  of  knights 
or  squires  and  the  exclusion  of  maintainors  : 
and  in  1430  it  was  declared  that  the  right  of 
voting  belonged  only  to  freeholders  of  40s. 


and  upwards.    Thus  it  liad  now  come  about 
that  the  villeins,  who  had  once,  as  the  free 
ceorls,  made  up    the    folk-moot  itself,  and 
embodied  in  their  decisions  of  "  folk-right " 
the  principle  that  the  judges  were  no  other 
than  the  suitors:   the  villeins,  who  even  in 
their  later  period  of  subjection  to  the  lord 
had  still  represented  their  township  before 
the  royal  justices,  were  now,  at  the  very 
epoch  when  they  had  attained  to  a  ]X)litical 
consciousness    and    practical    emancipation, 
irrevocably  excluded    from  a  share  in  the 
political  life  of  their  shire — an  exclusion  still 
the  lot  of  their  descendant,  the  agi'icultural 
labourer.     One  side  of  the  old  principle  of 
local  government — viz.,  co-operation  with  the 
crown  by  unpaid  local  work — is  still  pre- 
served ;  but  the  other  side  of  it  has  long  been 
lost  to  view — Wz.,  the  principle  that  this  work 
is  shared  by  all  the  full  freomen  of  the  shire ; 
and  now  the  quarter  and  petty  sessions,  aided 
by  a  few  permanent  officials,  and  relieved 
by  the  central  power's  larger  assumption  to 
itself  of  local  duties  (as  in  the  regulation  of 
prisons),    have    supplanted   the    freeholders' 
county  court,  as  this  supplanted  the  shire- 
moot  of  representatives  mm  the  townships, 
a:nd  this  in  its  turn  the  primitive  folk-moot. 
The  county  court  for  general  purposes  now 
only  exists  for  the  election  of  coroners,  and 
(in  theory)  for  the  proclamation  of  outlawry 
and  publication  of  Acts  of  Parliament.     But 
the  shire  retains  its  own  officers,  lord-lieutenant 
and  sheriffs,  justices,  coroners,  and  chief  con- 
stable;  through  the  justices  it  manages  its 
own  police,  highroads,  and  bridges,  and  im- 
poses rates.    And  a  tendency  now  appears  to 
be  growing  up  which — by  the  establishment  of 
more  representative  county  boards,  and  by 
the  extension  of  the  county  franchise — ^wiU 
no  doubt  go  further  than  can  yet  be  fully 
realised  to  revive  the  long-dormant  activity 
of  the  shire  and  its  local  life.    The  county 
courts,  under  paid  judges,  set  up  in  1846  for 
better  despatch  of  the  lesser  judicial  business, 
^'ary  in  number  according  to  the  needs    of 
each  county.     Their  institution  has  been   a 
great  success,  and   they  have   been  justly 
described  as  a  national  boon.     But  in  size 
and  functions  they  are  more  like  hundred 
courts  revived  and  centralised ;  and  from  the 
historical  point  of  view  their  name  of  county 
court  is  a  misnomer. 

Bede,  EeclenMUealHiUnry ;  Ellis,  Introduetian 
to  DomMday ;  Polgraye,  Ena^Ath  CommonvmcUth  ; 
Freeman,  Unglith  Toutw  and  DuMcIm;  Oneist, 
VerwaUungtmehtt  Da«  Self-GovernmevU ;  O-neet, 
Papers  in  ArchtBological  Journal ;  Oreeu.  Making 
of  England;  Connnisaouera*  Introduction  to 
CentUB  RgpoH  of  1861.  ^j^^  L^  g -j 

CoTirtenayt  Edwahd.    [Devon.] 

Conrtenaar,  William  {b.  cirea  1327,  cK. 
1396),  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  the  son 
of  Hugh  Courtenay,  Earl  of  Devon.  After 
holding  many  valuable  preferments  he  became 
Bishop  of  Londonin  1375.  He  strongly  opposed 


CoA 


(  329  0 


Cot 


John  of  Gaunt,  and  Wiclif,  and  it  was  before 
Courtenav  that  the  latter  was  tned  in  1376. 
In  ISm  he  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury-, and  Chancellor,  but  the  latter  office 
he  held  only  for  a  few  months.  Ho  again 
attacked  Wiclif,  obtained  a  eondomnation  of 
his  views  by  Convocation,  and  obliged  the 
University  of  Oxford  to  withdraw  their  sup- 
port from  him.  Courtenay,  though  opj)08ing 
Wiclif  8  views,  was  strongly  anti-Papal,  and 
readily  assented  to  the  passing  of  the  Statute 
of  Preemunire.  He  also  resisted  the  attempt 
of  Parliament  to  tax  the  clergy  without  their 
consent,  and  the  king  was  compelled  to  allow 
the  money  to  be  voted  by  Convocation.  The 
election  of  Courtenay  marks  an  epoch  in  the 
historj'  of  the  Church ;  he  was  the  first  of  the 
aristocratic  primates,  and  after  his « time  the 
see  of  Canterbury  and  many  other  bishoprics 
were  conferred  upon  members  of  noble  houses, 
instead  of  being  given  as  a  reward  to  minis- 
ters or  judges,  or  as  a  recog^tion  of  learning 
to  some  g^eat  scholar. 

Walsiugham,  Hint.  Anglic;  Wallon,  Sichard  IL; 
6tubb«,  Cofut.  Hid.i  chap.  xvi. 

Conrt-baron.    [Manor.] 
Conrt-leet.    [Manok.] 

Coiurts  of  Law.    [See  The  Index.] 

Cou'taaceSy  Walter  de,  was  one  of 
Henry  II.'s  ministers,  and  became  succes- 
sively Bi£hop  of  Lincoln  and  Archbishop 
of  Kouen.  He  accompanied  liichard  I.  on 
his  crusade,  and  in  1191  was  sent  to  Eng- 
land by  the  king,  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
placing Longchamp.  The  archbishop  held 
the  justiciarship  from  1191  to  1194,  and 
was  active  in  raising  the  king's  ransom.  In 
1196,  however,  he  quarrelled  with  Richard, 
and  the  king  refusing  to  give  way,  he  laid 
Normandy  under  an  interdict,  until  a  com- 
promise was  effected.  He  supported  the 
claims  of  John,  and  died  during  that  king's 
reign. 

CoTOnanty  The.  It  was  the  old  Scottish 
custom  for  those  who  were  united  in  any 
great  cause  to  bind  themselves  together  by  a 
bond  to  stand  by  one  another  to  the  death  in 
its  support.  Such  a  bond  was  the  Covenant 
which  plays  so  large  a  part  in  the  history  of 
the  Reformation  in  Scotland.  It  was  origin- 
aUv  a  private  bond,  by  which  the  barons  who 
upnda  the  first  preachers  of  reform  bound 
themselves  together  for  mutual  support  and 
the  destruction  of  Popery  in  1557.  In  1581, 
when  there  was  a  general  dread  of  the  revival 
of  Popery,  a  similar  bond,  entering  more  into 
detail  concerning  the  superstitions  and  reli- 
gious errors  that  were  to  be  combated,  was 
drawn  np^  by  the  Protestant  ministers.  The 
king,  James  I.,  was  the  first  to  sign  it,  and  his 
example  wail  followed  by  the  courtiers  and 
then  by  the  people.  This  is  generally 
known  a*  the  Firnt  Covenant.    In  1638,  when 

HMT.-ll* 


Charles  I.  tried  to  force  the  English  liturgy 
on  the  Church  of  Scotland,  the  popular  indig- 
nation found  a  vent  in  a  revival  of  this  cove- 
nant, with  a  clause  added  to  it  directed  against 
the  bishops.  The  entliusiasm  about  it  was 
universal.  It  was  signed  through  the  length 
and  breadth  of  the  land,  by  high  and  low  alike, 
aiid  from  this  time  the  "  Covenant "  becami 
the  watch- word  and  war-crj-  of  the  Presby- 
terian party.  In  1643,  when  the  English 
Parliament  sought  Scotch  aid,  the  Scotch  de- 
manded that  the  mutual  engagements  of  the 
two  nations  should  be  confirmed  by  a  pact  to 
which  both  nations  should  be  sworn.  Ac- 
cordingly the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant 
was  drawn  up  by  Henderson,  amended  by 
Vane,  adopted  by  the  Westminster  Assembly 
(q.v.),  passed  by  the  Parliament,  and  ordereii 
to  bo  sul>8cribed  and  sworn  to  by  the  nation. 
But  the  Assembly  of  Divines  at  West- 
minster, in  1643,  though  they  approved 
the  Covenant,  disappointed  the  Scots,  who 
hoped  to  see  it  imposed  on  the  whole 
English  nation.  When  Charles  II.,  on  the 
invitation  of  the  Estates,  came  to  Scotland  to 
claim  the  kingdom  in  1650,  he  was  compelled 
to  sign  the  Covenant  before  he  was  allowed  to 
land,  and  the  signature  was  repeated  at  his 
coronation.  Notwithstanding  this,  after  the 
Restoration,  by  the  king's  order,  the  Covenant 
was  burned  by  the  common  hdngmnn  in 
London,  and  an  Act  abjuring  and  condemning 
it  as  an  unlawful  oath  was  ptissed  by  the  Privy 
Council  of  Scotland  in  1662.  The  extreme 
Presbj'terian  party  were  greatly  disappointed 
that  the  Act  of  1690,  approving  the  Coirfession, 
did  not  enjoin  the  renewing  of  the  Covenant. 
The  Covenant  was  not  merely  a  declaration 
of  belief,  but  a  solemn  engagement  binding^ 
its  adherents  to  force  their  belief  upon  others; 
The  name  of  Covenanteis  was  fir&t  taken 
by  the  popular  party  after  the  renewal  of  the 
Covenant  in  1638,  and  borne  by  them  through- 
out the  Civil  W'ar.  But  it  is  more  generally 
associated  with  the  insurgents  of  the  rei^  of 
Charles  II.  who  took  arms  in  defence  oi  the 
Presbyterian  form  of  church  government.  As 
the  Covenant  had  by  that  time  been  de- 
nounced as  a  seditious  oath,  those. who  per- 
tisted  in  maintaining  it  were  naturally  looked 
upon  as  rebels  against  the  government.  They 
were,  however,  treated  with  unwarrantablq 
severity.  When,  in  1662,  the  Act  was  passed 
for  the  re-establishment*  of  episcopacy,  the 
Presbyterian  ministers  who  refused  to  ac- 
knowledge the  bishops-  were  ejected  from 
their  parishes.  Roand  these  "outed  minis^ 
ters,"  as  they  were  called,  the  CovenAnters 
rallied,  and  gathered  in  crowds  on  the  hill^ 
sides  or  any  lonely  place,  to  attend  their 
ministrations.  These  meetings,  called  *'  con- 
venticles," were  denounced  as  seditious,  and  to 
frequent  them  or  to  hold  any  "  intercommun- 
ing  **  with  any  persons  who  frequented  them, 
was  forbidden  on  pain  of  death.  These 
severe  measures  provoked  the  Covenanters  to 


Cov 


(  330  ) 


Cot 


take  up  arms  in  defence  of  their  religious 
opinions,  and  led  to  a  rebellion  so  widespread, 
that  it  almost  amounted  to  a  civil  war.  The 
first  serious  action  between  the  king's  troops 
and  the  Covenanters  was  in  the  hiU-country 
on  the  borders  of  the  counties  of  Ayr  and 
Lanark.  Here,  at  Drumclog,  a  farm  near  Lou- 
don Hill,  a  party  of  armed  Covenanters  who 
were  gathered  at  a  conventicle  were  attacked 
by  a  body  of  dragoons  under  John  Graham, 
of  Claverhouse,  and  gained  a  victory  over 
their  assailants  (1679).  After  this  success,  the 
numbers  of  the  insurgents  increased  so  rapidly 
that  the  government  became  alarmed,  and  an 
army,  15,000  strong,  was  sent  against  them 
under  the  command  of  the  Duke  of  Mon- 
mouth. He  defeated  them  on  the  banks  of 
the  Clyde,  at  Bothwell  Bridge,  where  1,200 
were  made  prisoners,  June  22,  1679.  In 
consequence  of  a  treasonable  protest  called 
the  Hanqukar  Declaration,  put  forth  by 
the  Covenanters,  all  persons  who  wished  to 
free  themselves  of  suspicion  of  complicity  with 
them  were  required  to  take  what  was  called  the 
Abjuration  Oath  ;  and  the  soldiers  who  were 
sent  to  scour  the  country  in  search  of  rebels, 
were  empowered  to  kill  any  one  who  ref ased 
to  take  the  oath.  The  sufferings  of  the 
Covenanters  were  extreme.  Numbers  of  them 
were  put  to  death  with  great  cruelty,  but 
Buffering  onl}'  strengthened  their  resolute 
spirit,  and  it  was  not  until  after  the  accession 
of  William,  when  the  "  outed  ministers  "  were 
restored  to  their  pulpite,  and  adherence  to  the 
Covenant  ceased  to  be  a  crime,  that  the 
Covenantors  abandoned  their  attitude  of 
defiance.  But  some  extreme  Covenanters  re- 
fused to  acknowledge  a  king  whose  acceptance 
of  episcopacy  in  England  was,  they  thought, 
treason  against  the  divine  right  of  presbyters. 
They  formed  the  earliest  dissenting  Pn)sby- 
terian  sects  in  Scotland.     [Cambkonians.] 

Woodrow,  Anal0cta  and  Hitto/ry  of  ihs  Stiffer. 
ing9 1  Grub,  EeeletiaMical  Hiatory  of  Scotland ; 
Barton,  HUt,  of  Scotland.  r-j^^  ]^  i 

CoTOntry  seems  to  have  owed  its  im« 
portance  to  the  magnificent  Benedictine  abbey 
founded  by  Leofric  and  his  wife,  Grodiva,  in 
1044.  The  town  became  a  prosperous  trading 
centre.  According  to  Leland,  ite  walls  were 
built  in  the  reig^  of  Edward  II.  In  1451 
it  was  created  a  separate  county.  The 
beautiful  abbey  church  was  almost  destroyed 
by  Henry  Vlf  [. ;  but  several  fine  specimens 
of  mediuBval  ecclesiastical  architecture  remain. 
The  **  Laymen^s  Parliament  of  Henzr  IV." 
met  at  Coventry  in  1404.  In  the  fifteenth, 
sixteenth,  and  seventeenth  centuries  Coventry 
was  an  important  centre  of,  the  cloth  and 
woollen  trade.  Ite  citizens  were  strongly 
Parliamentarian  in  the  Great  Rebellion ;  and 
to  punish  them  their  walls  were  levelled  after 
the  llestoration.  The  town  returned  two 
members  to  Parliament  from  the  reign  of 
Edward  I.  until  1885 ;  it  now  returns  one. 


Corentryf  Walter  of,  was  u  writer  of 
whom  little  is  known.  He  probably  wrote  be- 
tween the  year  1293  and  the  end  of  Edward  I.' 8 
reign,  and  may  have  been  a  monk,  probably 
of  some  house  in  the  diocese  of  York.  He  is 
the  author  or  compiler  of  a  Memoriale,  or 
analysis  of  history  extending  from  the  arrival 
of  Brutus  to  the  year  1225.  The  earlier 
portions  are  merely  transcripte  from  Geoffrey 
of  Monmouth,  Henry  of  Huntingdon,  Boger 
of  Hoveden,  &c.,  but  for  the  first  qiuurter  of 
the  thirteenth  century  Walter  is  a  valuable 
authority. 

The  McvMriaJit  of  Walter  of  Coventry  was  first 
discovered  by  Leland  in  the  sixteenth  centuzy. 
It  has  been  edited,  with  most  valuable  Intro* 
dactions,  by  Dr.  Stnbbe  (Rolls  Series,  1872). 

CoTeutzy,  Thomas,  Ist  Lord  {b,  1578, 
d,  1640),  son  of  Sir  T.  Coventry,  Judge  of  the 
Common  Fleas,  in  1616  was  chosen  Recorder 
of  London,  and  in  1617  was  made  Solicitor* 
Greneral,  being  advanced  four  years  later  to 
the  Attomoy-Greneralship.  In  1625,  chiefly 
through  Buckingham's  interest,  he  was  made 
Lord  Keeper,  and  in  1628  was  created  Lord 
Coventry.  He  has  been  accused  of  advising 
some  of  Charles's  most  arbitrary"  acte,  as  the 
refusal  of  the  summons  to  Lord  Bristol,  and 
the  imprisonment  of  the  Earl  of  Arundel ;  but 
Mr.  Foss  maintains  that  he  was  little  more 
than  "  the  messenger  of  the  king  and  the 
organ  of  the  House.'*  In  1635  and  1636  he 
enjoined  the  judges  in  their  charge  to  the 
grand  juries  to  urge  the  people  to  pay  the 
ship-money  with  cheerfulness,  but  he  took  no 
part  in  the  trial  of  Hampden  for  refusing  to 
pay  his  share.  One  of  his  la.st  acts  was  to 
advise  the  king  to  summon  Parliament,  but 
he  died  before  the  summoning  of  the  Short 
Parliament. 

Clarendon,  Hwt.  of  ths  RAAlion. 

COTentry,  Sir  William  (b.  1626,  d,  1686), 
was  the  youngest  son  of  Lord  Keeper  Coventry. 
In  1662  he  was  appointed  Commissioner  of  the 
Admiralty,  in  1665  was  knighted  and  made  a 
Privy  Councillor,  and  1667  a  Commissioner 
of  the  Treasury.  Having  quarrelled  with  the 
Duke  of  Buckingham  he  challenged  him  to 
fight  a  duel,  for  which  he  was  banished  from 
the  court,  and  retired  into  private  life.  "  He 
was/*  says  Burnet,  **  the  best  speaker  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  and  a  man  of  g^reat 
notions  and  eminent  virtues.*'  He  was  the 
author  of  several  political  tracts,  the  most 
interesting  of  which  is  The  Character  of  a 
Trimmer  J  published  in  1689. 

CoVBlltzy,  Sir  John,  was  the  gzandson  of 
Lord  Coventry  and  nephew  of  Sir  William 
Coventry.  He  was  a  member  of  Parliament 
in   1670,  when,  having  somewhat  freely  ex« 

Eressed  his  opinion  about  the  royal  mistresaes, 
e  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  court,  ^waa 
set  upon  by  a  band  of  ruffians  sent  by 
Monmouth,  half-murdered,  and  his  nose  alit 
with  a  penknife.     This  outrage  led  to    tbe 


Cot 


(331  ) 


Coy 


passing  of  an  Act  a^fainst  unlawful  maiming 
and  wounding,  which  was  known  as  the 
Coventry  Aet  (1670). 

Corerdalo.  Miles  (b.  1487,  d.  1568),  was 
one  of  the  earliest  English  Reformers.  In 
1532  he  is  said  to  have  assisted  T}'ndale  in  his 
translation  of  the  Bible,  and  three  years  later 
issued  a  version  of  his  own.  He  was  on 
close  terms  of  friendship  with  Cromwell,  and 
in  1535  was  sent  by  that  minister  to  Paris  to 
bring  out  the  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment known  as  the  Lord  Cromwell's  Bible. 
On  Cromwell's  fall  Coverdale  went  to  Tubin- 
gen, and  travelled  in  Denmark  and  other 
Continental  countries.  On  Edward  VI. 's  acces- 
sion he  was  appointed  chaplain  to  the  king. 
In  1551  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Exeter,  but 
was  removed  from  his  see  and  imprisoned  by 
order  of  Queen  Mary.  He  was  subsequently 
released,  and  retired  to  Holland  and  after- 
wards to  Geneva.  He  returned  to  England 
after  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  and  assisted 
at  the  consecration  of  Archbishop  Parker, 
though  he  did  not  obtain  his  see  again,  owing 
to  his  Calvinistic  views. 

Two  Tolfl.  of  selections  from  CoTerdole's 
nnmeroiis  works  were  pablished  by  the  Parker 
8oc.,  1844—46. 

Cowelly  John  {b,  1554,  d.  1611),  was  a 
Cambridge  civilian  who  became  Master  of 
Trinity  Hall  and  Reader  in  Civil  Law.  In 
1607  he  published  a  work  called  The  Inter- 
preter^ which  was  an  explanation  of  legal 
terms  and  theories.  The  book  gave  great 
offence  to  the  common-lawyers.  At  the  insti- 
gation probably  of  Coke,  a  great  enemy  of 
Cowell,  an  inquiry  into  the  character  of  the 
book  was  ordei^d  by  the  House  of  Commons  in 
1610,  and  the  long  was  advised  to  suppress  it, 
because  of  the  unconstitutional  doctrines  it 
contained'  on  the  subject  of  the  royal  pre- 
rogative and  the  rights  of  the  people. 

CowMTy  William,   Ist  Eahl   {b,  1664, 
d,    1743)9    was    bom    at    Hertford.      After 
studying   at  the  Temple,  he  was,  in   1688, 
called  to  the  bar,  and  from  this  time  rose 
rapidly  in   his  profession.     On  the  landing 
of  the  Prince  of  Orange,  he  raised  a  troop 
of  horse  in  his  support.    His  abilities  as  a 
Chancery  barrister  soon  attracted  Somers's 
notice,  and  in  1695  he  was  returned  to  Parlia- 
ment for  Hertford.    In  1696  he  supported  the 
bill  for  the  attainder  of  Sir  John  Fenwick. 
In  1702  William  Cowper  lost  his  seat  for 
Hertford,  owing  to  the  unpopularity  caused 
in  the  borough  by  the  trial  of  his  brother 
Spencer  for  murder.    In  1705,  on  the  dis- 
missal of  Sir  Nathan  Wright,  he  became  Lord 
Keeper    and    Commissioner    of   the    Scotch 
TTnion.    In  1707  he  was  raised  to  the  Upper 
House,  and  became  the  first  Lord  Chancellor 
of  Great  Britain ;  but  the  sentence  pronounced 
by  him  in  this  capacity  on  Sacheverell  was 
mfloenced  by  party  spirit,  and  unworthy  of 
bis  repatation.    In  opposition  to  the  rest  of 


the  ministry,  he  was  in  favour  of  making 
peace  with  France  during  the  last  years  of 
the  Succession  War ;  and  he  \'ig^rously  op- 
posed Marlborough*s  request  to  be  made 
Captain-General  for  life.  rMAULBORovoH.I 
On  the  fall  of  the  Whigs,  Cowper  resigned, 
in  spite  of  the  solicitations  of  Harley,  who 
wished  for  a  composite  ministry'.  On  the 
accession  of  George  I.,  he  received  the  Great 
Seal,  and  was  favoured  with  the  king*s 
entire  confidence.  His  sentences  on  the  rebels 
of  1715  have  been  censured  as  too  severe.  He 
was  one  of  the  chief  advocates  of  the  Septennial 
Act  (q.v.).  In  1718  he  resigned  office,  probably 
because  George  accused  him  of  espousing  the 
Prince  of  Waies^s  side  in  his  quarrel  with  the 
court.  He  promptly  became  leader  of  the 
Opposition,  and  withstood  almost  alone 
the  Peerage  Bill,  and  the  bill  of  pains  and 
penalties  against  Atterbury.  In  nis  later 
years  he  was  accused,  probably  without 
reason,  of  tampering  with  the  Jacobites. 

Campbell,  Livra  ofQu  Lord  Chancellors :  Mae- 
aiilay,  Hut.  of  Eng. ;  Stanhope,  Hut.  of  Sng, 

Coxa,  KiCHARD  {b.  1499,  d.  1581^,  Bishop 
of  Ely,  made  Dean  of  Christ  Church  and  of 
Westminster  by  Henry  VIII.,  was  one  of 
the  tutors  of  Edward  VI.,  the  others 
being  Sir  John  Cheke  and  Sir  Anthony  Cooke. 
During  the  reign  of  Mary  he  was  compelled 
with  the  Protestants  to  take  refuge  at  frank- 
fort  ;  but  returned  to  England  on  the  acces- 
sion of  Elizabeth,  by  whom  he  was  made 
Bishop  of  Ely.  It  was  a  remonstrance  from 
Bishop  Coxe  against  the  injustice  done  him 
by  the  bestowal  of  his  land  on  Sir  Christopher 
Hatton  that  drew  forth  the  celebrated  letter 
from  Queen  Elizabeth :  "  Proud  prelate,  you 
know  what  you  were  before  I  made  you  what 
you  are.  If  you  do  not  immediately  comply 
with  my  request,  by  Gk>d  I  will  unbt>ck  you." 
Coxe  is  described  as  "  an  honest  but  narrow, 
spirited  and  peevish  man.'' 

Stzype,  AnnaU;  Bnmet,  Suit,  of  the  Befomation. 

Coxa,  WiLLiAH  {b.  1747,  d,  1828],  Arch- 
deacon, was  educated  at  Eton  and  King's 
College,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  became  a 
Fellow.  He  entered  the  Church,  became  in- 
cumbent of  Kingston,  Canon  of  Salisbury, 
and  Archdeacon  of  Wiltshire,  1805.  Coxe 
travelled  a  good  deal  on  the  Continent,  and 
was  a  careful  student  of  English  and  foreign 
history,  especially  that  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  His  numerous  works,  though 
written  in  a  rather  uninteresting  style,  con- 
tain a  good  deal  of  information,  and  are  of 
considerable  value.  The  most  important  are 
Memoirs  of  Sir  Robert  Walpoie,  Memoirt  of 
Marlborough^  Metnoire  of  the  Administration  of 
Mr.  Felhatn,  and  the  History  of  the  Hottse  of 
Austria. 

Coyne  and  Xdvory  ^<»  ^i^  ancient 
right  or  custom  in  Irelimd  which  enabled 
the  lord  or  chief  to  quarter  his  soldiery  on 
his    tenants.     The   Irish  name  for  it  was 


Cra 


(  332  ) 


Cra 


«bonaght."  Its  adoption  by  the  Norman 
settlers  was  so  general  that  even  the  loyal 
Butlers  enforced  it.  Both  branches  of  the 
house  of  Fitzgerald  adopted  it  in  Edward 
III.'s  time.  This  custom  was  the  subject  of 
constant  complaints  by  the  Irish  Parliament. 
It  was  forbidden  by  the  Statute  of  Kilkenny, 
1367f  and  made  treason  in  1409,  and  finally 
abolished  in  1603.  S|>en;Mr  complains  of  its 
abolition  as  a  wrong  done  to  the  Irish  land- 
lord. 

Spenser,  View  of  the  State  of  Irdand, 

CvBStn,  Geohoe(^.  1721),  was  Postmaster- 
Genoraldiiring  the  earlier  years  of  George  I.'s 
reign.  Ho  was  accused  with  his  son  of  nuuds 
in  connection  with  the  South  Sea  Company, 
and  while  the  accusation  was  still  pending  he 
took  poison  and  killed  himself. 

CmggB,  James  {d.  1721),  son  of  George 
Craggs,  was  a  Whig  politician.  During  the 
reign  of  Anne  he  was  employed  in  minor 
diplomatic  business.  He  was  considted  by 
Marlborough  on  the  question  of  the  duke's 
obtaining  the  appointment  of  Captain-General 
for  life.  In  1714,  as  the  queen  lay  dying,  he 
was  despatched  to  Hanover,  with  instruc- 
tions to  bid  Lord  Stafford  to  request 
the  States  General  of  Holland  to  guarantee 
the  Protestant  succession.  In  1717  he  be- 
came Secretary  at  War,  and,  on  the  retire- 
ment of  Addison,  Secretary  of  State  (1718). 
He  was  accused  of  fraud  in  connection 
with  the  South  Sea  Company,  but  died 
of  small-pox  on  the  day  that  the  report  was 
presented  to  the  Commons.  "  Whatever," 
says  Lord  Mahon,  "  may  have  been  his  con- 
duct in  the  South  Sea  affairs  (for  his  death 
arrested  the  inquiry),  he  undoubtedly  com- 
bined great  talents  for  business  with  a  love  of 
luxury  and  literature ;  and  his  name,  were  it 
oven  to  drop  from  the  page  of  history,  would 
live  enshrined  for  ever  in  the  verse  of  Pope." 

Boyer,  Political  Uitt,;   Stanhope,   Reign  of 
Queen  Anne. 

Craig,  General  Sir  James  {b.  1748,  d. 
Jan.  1812),  after  greatly  distinguishing  him- 
self in  the  American  War  of  Independence, 
especially  at  the  battles  of  Lexington 
and  Bunker  Hill  (q.v.),  was,  in  1793,  ap- 
pointed Governor  of  Jersey.  In  1795  he 
went  out  to  the  Cape,  and  held  the  post  of 
governor  for  two  years,  when  he  was  sent  to 
India,  where  his  military  experience  was 
much  needed.  In  1808  Sir  James  Craiff  be- 
came Govemor-in-chief  of  British  North 
America,  and  in  that  capacity  rendered  him- 
self extremely  unpopular.  His  measures 
were  arbitrary  in  the  extreme,  and  it  is  to  his 
treatment  of  the  Assembly,  and  his  refusal  to 
grant  any  concessions  or  to  consider  the 
question  of  any  redress  of  grievances,  that  the 
discontent  which  was  so  prevalent  in  Canada 
at  this  time  was  due.  His  unpopularity  in- 
duced the  Americans  in  1812  to  attempt  an 
invasion  of  Canada,  under  the  impression  that 


they  would  be  joined  by  a  large  majority  of 
the  people. 

Crai^f,  John  {d.  1600),  was  the  friend  and 
coadjutor  of  John  Knox,  on  whose  death  he 
became  for  a  time  the  acknowledged  leader  of 
the  Kirk  party,  for  whom  he  drew  up  the 
National  Covenant  in  1580.  In  1584,  how- 
ever, on  the  Scotch  Estates  taking  action  to 
restrain  the  power  of  the  clergy,  Craig  went 
over  to  the  opposite  side. 

Craig,  Thomas  {b.  1538,  d,  1608),  a  cele- 
brated  Scottish  judge,  and  aii  author  of  no 
little  repute,  was  a  great  favourite  of  James 
VI.  He  was  the  writer  of  a  famous  treatise 
on  feudal  law,  Jm  Fcudale,  and  a  tract  on 
the  succession  to  the  throne  of  England. 

Craigmillar  Castle,  three  miles  from 
Edinburgh,  was  the  scene  of  the  murder  of 
the  Earl  of  Mar,  brother  of  James  III.  It 
was  burnt  by  Hertford,  1544,  but  afterwards 
rebuilt  for  Uueen  Mary,  who  si)ent  a  good 
deal  of  time  there.  It  was  at  Craigmillar  that 
Bothwell,  Murray,  Morton,  and  Slaitland  of 
Lethington,  foiined  their  agreement  to  kill 
Damley  (1666). 

Cramnton  Questioii,  Tub  (1856).  The 
Crimean  War  brought  England  into  some 
difficulties  with  foreign  powers  on  account  of 
the  attempt  to  enlist  a  foreign  legion.  Mr. 
Crampton,  the  English  minister  at  Washing- 
ton, carried  out  the  instructions  of  the  govern- 
ment in  the  matter  so  thoroughly  that  the 
United  States  government  dismissed  him  from 
Washington,  and  a  coolness  ai'ose  between  the 
two  countries,  which  was  with  difficulty  healed. 

Craabrook,  Gathornb  Hardy,  1st 
Earl  {p.  1814),  was  elected  member  for  Leo- 
minster in  1856,  and  defeated  Air.  Glad- 
stone for  Oxford  University  in  1866.  He  wa« 
Under-Secretary  of  State  for  Home  AJEairs  in 
1858,  Home  Secretary  in  1867,  Secretary  of 
State  for  War  in  1874,  Secretary'  of  State  for 
India  in  1878,  and  in  1886  and  1886  Lord 
President  of  the  Council. 

Cranmer,  Thomas  {b,  1484,  £f.l556^,  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterburj",  the  son  of  a  Notting- 
hamshire gentleman,  at  the  age  of  fourteen 
entered  Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  where  ho 
was,  in  1610,  elected  to  a  fellowship.  In 
1523  he  was  ordained,  and  continued  at  the 
university,  lecturing  and  teaching.  Forced 
to  leave  the  town  to  avoid  infection  in  the 
sweating  sickness  of  1528,  he  was  accident- 
ally thrown  into  the  company  of  Foxe  and 
Grardiner,  the  commissioners  engaged  on 
the  question  of  the  royal  divorce,  and  in 
course  of  conversation  mentioned  his  own 
conclusion,  that  the  marriage  was  not  merely 
voidable,  but  void,  being  contrary  to  the  law 
of  God,  and  that  its  dissolution  could  therefore 
be  pronounced  by  the  English  ecclesiastical 
courts  without  reference  to  Rome.  The  com- 
missioners were  g^reatly.  struck,  and  reported 


Cra 


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Cra 


the  matter  to  Henry,  who  lost  no  time  in 
stnding  for  Cranmcr  and  ordering  him  to 
write  a  treatise  in  support  of  his  thesis.  Soon 
after  we  find  him  employ^  as  legal  adviser 
to  two  important  embassies  to  the  Pope  and 
the  Emperor  respectively,  which,  though  un- 
successful, were  not  fruitless.  The  Papal 
mission  discovered  a  singular  consensus  among 
Italian  jurists  in  Henry *s  favour,  while  in 
Germany  Cranmer*s  visits  to  the  theologians 
proved  more  fan.'0urable  to  his  o^-n  than  to 
nis  master's  suit,  and  before  his  return  he  was 
secretly  married  to  Margaret  Anne,  daughter 
of  Osiander,  a  prominent  lief  ormer,  a  marriage 
which,  bein^  uncanonical,  though  not  iUegad, 
put  him  enbrely  at  the  king's  mercy  when  he 
became  Primate.  Henry's  plans  had  mean- 
while been  maturing;  further  delay  would 
have  ruined  the  legitimacy  of  Anne  Boleyn's 
offspring,  and  on  the  death  of  Warham  the 
archbishopric  of  Canterbury'  was  offered  to 
Cranmer.  No  sooner  was  the  ceremony  of 
installation  over  than  the  new  archbishop 
wrote  the  king  a  collusive  letter,  demanding, 
in  the  name  of  the  nation,  that  the  scandal 
should  be  terminated;  and,  the  case  being 
fairly  brought  before  his  court,  gave  judg- 
ment that  the  marriage  was  void  ab  initio^ 
Feb.  23,  1533.  .  He  had  now  performed  his 
task,  and  withdrew  into  a  literary  retire- 
ment, which,  broken  only  in  1536  and  1540 
to  pronoimce  two  more  iniquitous  sentences 
of  divorce,  lasted  till  the  fall  of  Cromwell,  a 
minister  as  little  inclined  to  endure  a  rival  as 
Cranmer  to  become  one.  From  that  date  his 
greater  prominence  is  attested  by  two  plots 
lormed  by  the  reactionary  party  for  his  de- 
struction, from  which  he  was  preserved  only 
by  the  unswening  confidence  of  the  king, 
Tet  at  no  time  can  he  be  caUed  a  politician  : 
his  influence  was  wholly  personal,  and  con- 
fined to  Henry,  on  whose  death  he  again  sank 
into  the  background.  But  in  this  retirement 
Cranmer  was  laying  the  foundations  of  the 
new  order  of  things.  On  his  elevation  to 
the  primacy  he  had  but  two  points  of  sym- 
pathy with  the  continental  Protestants — repu- 
diation of  the  Papal  supremacy  and  the 
translation  of  the  Scriptures.  But  the 
patristic  studies  with  which  he  maintained 
the  attack  on  the  Papacy  gradually  unveiled 
to  him'  the  features  of  a  more  apostolic  and 
spiritual  Christianity,  whose  truths  he  ac- 
cepted, one  by  one,  as  conviction  was  forced 
upon  his  mind,  till,  in  1550,  he  published  his 
book  against  Transubstantiation^  wherein  is 
maintained  the  Anglican  doctrine  of  the  Heal, 
as  against  the  Corporeal,  Presence.  Cran- 
mer*s  reconstitution  of  the  Church  services 
remains  his  real  title  to  greatness.  His  was 
a  formative,  not  a  creative,  intellect,  and, 
while  his  revision  of  the  old  Uses  may  be 
ranked  for  beauty  and  dignity  with  the  Au- 
thorised Version  of  the  Bible,  his  attempt  to 
replace  the  Boman  Canon  Law  is  a  monument 
of  mistaken  energy.     Throughout  all  these 


reforms,  his  appoid  is  not  from  superstition  to 
reason,  but  from  the  Chui'ch  comipt  to  the 
Church  pure ;  nothing  illustrates  his  catholic 
position  better  than  his  0"wn  words  before  the 
commission  at  Oxford : — "  If  it  can  be  proved 
by  any  doctor  above  1,000  years  after  Christ, 
that  Christ's  body  is  there  in  the  eucharist 
really  present,  I  will  give  all  over." 

Durmg  Edward's  reign  Cranmer  was  con- 
cerned in  two  political  acts  of  great  importance. 
At  the  coronation  the  archbishop,  on  his  own 
responsibility,  altered  tlie  position  of  the 
coronation  oath,  putting  it  after  the  expi^s- 
sion  of  the  popular  assent.  This  innovation, 
by  destroymg  the  conditional  character  of 
that  assent,  amounted  to  the  assertion  of 
absolute  hereditarj'  right.  The  second  act 
was  the  signing  of  Edwani's  illegal  device  for 
the  succession,  which  was,  however,  per- 
formed with  the  greatest  reluctance,  and  on 
the  assurance  of  the  judges.  It  sufficed  to 
secure  his  condemnation  for  high  treason  on 
Mary's  accession.  The  new  government  seems* 
at  first  to  have  had  no  desire  to  shod  blood ;  but 
Cranmer,  the  pilot  of  the  Reformation,  could 
not  seize  the  numerous  opportunities  of  escape 
which  were  offered ;  he  remained,  either  over- 
rating his  own  strength  or  underrating  the  im- 
pending danger.  With  his  two  bosom  friends, 
Latimer  and  Ridley,  he  was  taken  to  Oxford 
(Mar.,  1554)  to  hold  an  academical  disputation. 
After  a  parody  of  controversy,  all  three  were 
summoned  before  a  s^'nod  of  presbyters  and 
condemned  as  heretics.  His  friends  suffered 
before  him:  the  archbishop's  case  was  de- 
layed by  the  necessity  of  application  to  the 
Papal  court,  and  by  the  desire  of  Cardinal 
Pole  to  ruin  the  cause  of  heresy  by  the  re- 
cantation of  the  heresiarch.  In  the  latter 
aim  he  succeeded.  Cranmer  was  at  first  in- 
duced to  accept  the  Papal  supremacy,  not  as 
a  doctrine,  but  as  a  fact,  and  his  defence  once 
broken  down,  and  honour  lost,  he  was  led  on 
to  sign  a  detailed  abjuration  of  all  his  anti- 
Papal  convictions.  Fortunately  for  the  Re- 
formation, the  queen  had  resolved  on  hi0 
destruction,  and  to  the  public  eye  Cranmer 
died  a  martyr  (l^Iar.  21,  1556).  How  far 
repentance  preceded  the  knowledge  of  his 
fate  must  be  left  to  conjecture.  At  the 
worst,  he  should  be  judged  by  his  life,  not  by 
one  failure  under  an  overwhelming  tempta- 
tion. He  was  a  man  of  deep  piety  and  honesty 
of  purpose,  and  in  private  life  his  sweet  temper 
exercised  a  peculiar  fascination ;  but  a  certain 
moral  weakness  taints  his  whole  career,  and 
leaves  his  character  one  of  the  most  difficult 
to  estimate  in  histor}\ 

State  Papert  (Henry  Vm.,  Ed.  VI.,  Kary)  j 
Cranmer's  Mi»cMane<nu  WritingB  and  LtHert 
(Parker  Soc.,  1846) ;  Pole,  Epigtolas  Foze,  Book 
(rf  MartytB  ;  Strype,  lAjfe  qf  Cranmer ;  Burnet, 
Hvitory  of  the  Reformation  ;  Hook,  Lives  of  the 
Archhii^lMjpB  of  Canterbury ;  Blunt,  History  of  ths 
Buy.  Church.  [H.  R.  R.] 

Chrayford  is  a  village  in  Kent,  about 
thirteen  miles  from  London,  and  is  usually 


Cre 


(  334  ) 


Cri 


identified  with  Croccanford,  where,  in  457  (P), 
the  Britons  wore  entirely  routed  by  HengiBt 
and  JSsc. 

Anglo-Saxon  Chron. 

CSrecy,  The  Battle  of  (Aug.  26,  1346), 
was  fought  between  the  English,  under  King 
Edward  III.,  and  the  French,  commanded  by 
Philip  VI.  The  English  army  had  landed  on  the 
coast  of  Normandy,  near  La  Hogue,  on  July 
12,  and  Edward  had  then  intended  to  cross 
the  Seine,  march  through  Picardy  into  Artois, 
and  there  join  his  Flemish  auxiliaries,  who 
had   already  crossed    the    French   frontier. 
But  when  he  arrived  at  Rouen,  he  found  the 
bridges   over    the    Seine    broken,    and    the 
French  army  on  the  opposite  shore.     Edward 
marched  along  the  river  almost  to  the  suburbs 
of  Paris,  and  burnt  St.  Germain  and  Neuilly, 
and    at    length    (Aug.   17)   by  a  stratagem 
succeeded  in  crossing  the  nver  near  Pontoise, 
advanced  towards  the  Somme,  and  crossed  at 
Blanchetaque,  near  Abbeville.     Not  far  from 
this  town,  at  Crecy,  he  halted,  and  allowed 
the  French  to  come  up  (Aug.  26).    The  army 
was  drawn  up  the  following  morning  in  three 
divisions.    The  first,  under  the  command  of 
the  Black  Prince  (or  rather  of  the  Earls  of 
Warwick  and  Oxford),  consisted  of  800  men- 
at-arms,  1,000  Welshmen,  and  2,000  archers. 
The  second  division,  placed  behind  them,  and 
slightly  on  their    flank,  consisted  of   1,200 
archers  and  a  body  of  men-at-arms.    The 
third  division  was  held  in  reserve  under  the 
king,  on  some  slightly  rising  ground  in  the 
rear,  and  consisted  of  2,000  archers  and  700 
men-at-arms.     According  to  Froissart,   the 
whole  army   did  not  amount  to  moro  than 
8,000  men;    but  this  estimate  is  probably 
much  too  low.    The  French  forces  arc  com- 
puted at  from  60,000  to  120,000.    The  French 
army  marched  from  Abbeville  at  sunrise,  and 
arrived  at  Crocy  in  considerable  confusion. 
The  battle  was  begun  by  the  advance  of  a 
large  body   (stated  at    15,000)   of  Gronocso, 
armed  witn  crossbows.    But  the  Genoese  fell 
into   disorder    before    the    shooting   of    the 
English  archers.    The  French  cavalry,  under 
the  Duko  of  Alen(,on,   then   fell  upon  the 
English  first  and  second  divisions.     After  a 
desperate  conflict,  during  which  the  king  was 
moro  than  once  requested  to  bring  up  the 
reserves,  the  French  cavalry  rotirod  in  the 
greatest  disorder,  and  Philip  himself  fled  from 
the    field.      The    French    fought    on    in    a 
desultory  manner  till  night,  and  not  till  the 
following  morning  was  it  discovered  that  the 
French  army  was  completely  scattered  and 
routed.    Many  thousands  of  Fi-enchmen  wero 
found  dispersed   about  the   field,   and  wero 
slain.      Their  whole   loss  consisted  of  1,200 
knights  and  a  number  of  inferior  rank  asti- 
mated  at  30,000,  the  most  distinguished  being 
John,  King  of  Bohemia. 

The  n^ost  interestinff  and  detailed  acoonnt  of 
the  battle  is  iu  Froiaaart,  c.  126.     [S.  J.  L.] 


Creones,  The,  were  an  ancient  Celtic 
tribe,  who  dwelt  on  the  west  coast  of  Ross. 

Creflsmgham,  Hugh  {d.  1297),  was  ap- 
pointed Treasuror  of  Scotland  by  Edward  I. 
m  1296,  at  the  same  time  that  the  Earl  of 
Surroy  was  appointed  Guardian.  Ue  carried 
out  to  the  best  of  his  ability  the  command  of 
the  English  king  that  Scotland  was  to  be 
reduced  to  a  state  of  order,  and  as  a  conse- 
quence was  hated  by  the  Scotch.  He  was 
^in  at  the  battle  of  Stirling,  which  was  lost 
by  the  English  in  a  great  measure  owing  to 
his  procipitancy. 

CreTant,  The  Battle  of  (July  31,  1423), 
was  won  by  the  English  and  Burgundian 
troops,  under  the  £^1  of  Salisbury  and 
others,  against  a  combined  force  of  ]<Yench  and 
Scotch,  and  levies  from  Spain  and  Lombardy. 
The  English  wero  completely  victorious,  and 
Buchan,  the  Constable  of  France,  was  taken 
prisoner.  This  victory,  which  was  fought  on 
the  banks  of  the  Yonne,  near  Auxerro,  saved 
Burgundy  from  invasion,  and  greatly  crippled 
the  power  of  the  Fronch. 

Crichton,  Siu  William,  Chancellor  of 
Scotland,  was  Governor  of  Edinburgh  Castle 
at  the  death  of  James  I.  (1437).  In  his  en- 
deavours to  get  possession  of  the  young  king's 
person,  he  was  brought  into  rivalry  with  Sir 
Alexander  Livingston,  from  whom  he  carried 
off  James  II.,  only,  however,  to  surronder 
him  again  on  consideration  of  receiving  cer- 
tain lands  as  a  reward.  In  conjunction  with 
Livingston,  he  planned  and  carried  out  the 
murder  of  William,  Earl  of  Douglas,  and  his 
brother.  He  was  for  some  time  at  war  with, 
the  Douglas  family,  and  was  besieged  by  them, 
in  Edinburgh  Castle. 

Crimean  War,  fought  between  Kussia 
on  the  one  hand,  and  England,  France, 
Turkey,  and  Sardinia  on  the  other,  began 
in  1854,  and  lasted  till  1856.  It  is  called 
the  Crimean  War  because  the  main  opera- 
tion of  it  consisted  in  the  attack  made 
by  the  allied  forces  on  the  peninsula  of  the 
(>imea  in  the  south  of  Russia.  The  dispute 
between  Russia  and  Turkey  had  ostensibly 
arisen  about  the  guardianship  of  the  Holy- 
Places,  especially  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  in 
Jerusalem;  but  the  cause  oF  it  lay  much 
deeper.  Turkey,  the  old  enemy  of  Russia, 
had  gradually  retired  from  the  countries  she 
had  originally  conquered,  and,  as  her  power 
decayed,  had  become  more  and  more  unfit  to 
rule  over  Christian  populations.  Russia,  who 
had  emancipated  herself  from  Tartar  thral- 
dom, was  deeply  interested  in  protecting  the 
Slavonic  races  still  under  Turkish  rule,  who 
were  of  the  same  blood  and  origin  as  herself. 
She  also  had  a  natural  desire  to  extend  her 
power  to  the  Dardanelles,  and  to  open  a 
way  for  her  commeree  into  the  Mediterranean. 
The  Emperor  Nicholas  wrote  of  Turkey  as 
**  a  sick  man  dying,"  and  his  plan  for  dividing^ 


Cri 


(335) 


Cro 


his  poesesfdons  included  the  formation  of 
the  Danubian  prindpalities,  Servia  and  Bul- 
garia, into  principalities  under  the  suzerainty 
of  Russia,  and  the  occupation  of  Egypt  and 
Candia  by  England.  Constantinople  was  to 
be  held  neither  by  Russia,  France,  England, 
nor  Greece.  Sir  Stratford  Canning,  the 
English  ambassador  at  Constantinople,  was 
an  enemy  of  Russia.  The  Emperor  of  the 
French  was  desirous  of  a  European  war  for 
the  consolidation  of  his  throne.  On  July  2, 
18*53,  the  Russian  troops  crossed  the  river 
Fruth,  and  occupied  the  principalities.  On 
November  1,  war  was  declared,  and  on  the 
30th  of  the  same  month  the  Turkish  fleet  was 
destroyed  in  the  harbour  of  Sinope.  Lord 
Aberdeen,  the  Prime  Minister,  strained  every 
nerve  to  preserve  peace,  but  Lord  Palmerston, 
Foreign  Secretary,  declared  that  he  would 
resign,  unless  a  s^ng  course  against  Russia 
were  adopted.  The  country  gradually  * '  drifted 
into  war.'*  On  Feb.  27,  1854,  an  ultimatum 
was  sent  by  our  government,  which  declared 
that  unless  the  Russian  troops  retired  behind 
the  river  Pruth  before  the  end  of  April,  it 
would  be  considered  as  a  declaration  of  war. 
No  reply  was  made,  and  the  war  took  its 
course:  Austria  and  Prussia  contracted  an 
offensive  and  defensive  alliance,  by  which 
they  guaranteed  each  other  s  possessions  in 
case  of  attack.  They  also  prepared  their 
forces  in  readiness  for  war.  The  alliance 
between  England  and  France  was  signed  on 
April  10.  l*he  plan  of  operations  was  very 
simple.  As  Russia  could  be  attacked  only  in 
her  extremities,  and  England  could  act  only 
upon  a  sea  base,  there  were  not  many  places 
into  which  the  two  combatants  could  come 
into  conflict.  A  fleet  sailed  into  the  Baltic, 
under  Admiral  Napier,  with  great  expectations 
of  success,  which  were  not  i^alised.  On  Sept. 
14  the  allied  forces  landed  in  the  Crimea. 
They  consisted  of  24,000  English,  22,000 
French,  and  8,000  Turks.  Their  object  was 
to  capture  Sebastopol,  a  powerful  fortress, 
which  the  Russians  had  recently  constructed 
at  great  expense.  On  Sept.  20  the  Russians 
were  defeated  by  the  allied  armies  at  the 
passage  of  the  Alma.  It  might  have  been 
possible  to  take  Sebastopol  by  a  eotip  de 
fnaifty  but  it  was  thought  more  prudent  to 
besiege  it  from  the  south.  A  brilliant  flank 
march  was  executed,  and  the  harbour  of 
Balaclava  was  occupied  by  the  English  as  a 
base  of  operations.  On  October  25  was  fought 
thebattle  of  Balaclava,  signalised  by  the  famous 
charge  of  the  six  hundred  light  cavalry  upon 
the  Russian  g^ns  [Balaclava,  The  Battle 
op],  and  the  &r  more  effective  charge  of  the 
heavy  cavalr>%  under  General  Scarlett.  On  Nov. 
5  the  English  troops  were  attacked  in  the  early 
morning  by  large  masses  of  Russians,  and  held 
their  ground  with  great  steadiness  until  the 
afternoon.  This  was  the  battle  of  Inkerman,  in 
which  we  lost  2,612  killed  and  wounded,  and 
the  Russians,  it  is  said,  12,000.    The  winter 


tried  our  troops  severely,  encamped  as  they 
were  on  a  bleak  plateau.  Notwithstanding 
the  devotion  of  Miss  Florence  Nightingale  in 
nursing  the  sick,  the  supply  of  hospital  ac- 
commodation was  insufficient,  and  the  com- 
missariat broke  down.  This  caused  great 
indignation  in  England,  and  Lord  Aberdeen 
was  succeeded  as  Prime  Minister  by  Lord 
Palmerston.  In  December  the  allied  fleet 
in  the  Baltic  was  broken  up,  and  returned 
home;  and  on  March  2  the  Emperor  of 
Russia  died.  This  caused  but  a  slight  hope 
of  peace ;  the  fleet  returned  to  the  Baltic  on 
April  4,  and  the  bombardment  of  Sebastopol 
began  five  days  later.  On  June  7  the  French 
succeeded  in  carrying  the  Mamelon,  one  of  the 
Sebastopol  forts,  but  an  attack  made  by  the 
allied  forces  on  the  Redan  and  the  Malakhoff 
forts,  on  June  18,  was  unsuccessful;  and  on  June 
28  Lord  Raglan,  the  English  commander-in- 
chief,  died.  On  August  16  the  French  distin- 
guished themselves  greatly  in  the  battle  of 
tiie  Tchemaya.  After  a  month's  incessant 
bombardment,  a  final  attack  was  made  on  the 
works  on  Sept.  5,  the  result  of  which  was 
that  the  Russians  evacuated  Sebastopol,  and 
retreated  to  the  north  side  of  the  harbour. 
They  blew  up  their  forts  as  far  as  they  could, 
and  left  their  wounded  behind  them.  The 
news  reached  England  on  Sept.  10.  This 
practically  put  an  end  to  the  war  in  the 
Crimea.  Before  the  end  of  the  year  negotia- 
tions for  peace  were  begun  by  the  friendly 
intervention  of  Austria.  The  French  govern- 
ment were  even  more  anxious  for  a  settlement 
than  the  English.  The  points  on  which 
Russia  found  it  most  difficult  to  make  conces- 
sions were  the  limitation  of  her  power  in  the 
Black  Sea,  and  the  cession  of  a  part  of  Bess- 
arabia to  Roumania.  The  Peace  of  Paris  was 
signed  on  Sunday,  March  20,  1856.  The 
last  English  forces  left  the  Crimea  on  July  12. 
The  English  lost  24,000  soldiers  during  the 
war,  the  French  63,500,  and  the  Russians,  it 
is  said,  500,000.  The  war  added  £41,000,000 
to  the  National  Debt.  [q.  B.] 

The  history  of  the  war  has  been  narrated  In 
great  detail  by  Mr.  Kiiiglake,  in  his  Invasion  qf 
the  Crinua. 

Crinaa  (Cronan,  d.  1045),  lay  Abbot  of 
Dunkeld,  was  a  powerful  and  warlike  chieftain, 
who  married  a  daughter  of  Malcolm  I.,  by 
whom  he  had  a  son,  Duncan,  King  of  Scot- 
land 1034 — 1040.  Crinan,  who  was  also 
known  as  Hundi  Jarl  (the  hound  earl),  was 
slain  in  battle  (1045)  whilst  fighting  against 
J^lacbeth*  His  son  Maldred  was  the  &ther  of 
the  famous  Grospatrick,  Earl  of  Northumbria. 

Crofts  (or  Croft),  Sir  James  (rf.  1590J, 
was  in  1653  made  Deputy  of  Ireland,  his 
tenure  of  oflSce  being  marked  by  the  distress 
suffered  by  the  countrj'  owing  to  the  debase- 
ment of  coinage.  In  1554  he  took  arms 
against  Queen  Slary  in  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt'a 
rebellion,  and  for  this  was  sent  to  the  Tower. 
Under  Elizabeth,  Crofts  became  commander 


Cro 


(('336J 


Cro 


on  the  Scottish  border,  and  in  1560  crossed 
the  border  with  the  English  expedition  under 
Lord  Grey,  and  visited  the  regent,  Mary  of 
Guise,  at  Edinburgh,  with  the  object  of 
arranging  the  preliminaries  of  a  peace.  His 
mismanagement  at  the  assault  on  Lcith  in 
1560  oaused  the  repulse  of  the  English,  and 
in  consequence  Crofts  was  deprived  of  his 
command  and  sent  to  London.  He  sub- 
sequently played  a  prominent  part  in  parlia- 
mentary life,  was  made  Controller  of  the 
Queen's  Household,  and  became  a  paid  agent 
of  the  King  of  Spain,  to  whom  he  made 
important  revelations,  though  the  influence 
he  had  acquired  over  Elizabeth  prevented  his 

S tying    the  just  penalty   of  his  treache^5^ 
e  was  a  commissioner  at  the  trial  of  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots  in  1586. 

Cromwell,  Buidoet  (b.  1624,  d.  1681), 
was  the  eldest  daughter  of  Oliver  Cromwell. 
She  is  described  as  being  ^'  a  gloomy  enthu- 
siast, and  so  bigoted  a  republican  that  she 
even  grudged  her  father  the  title  of  Pro- 
tector." She  maiTied  in  1647  Henry  Ireton 
^q.v.^,  and  subsequently  Charles  Fleetwood 
(q.v.). 

Cromwell,  Elizabeth  {b.  1629,  d.  1658), 
teas  the  second  and  favourite  daughter  of  the 
Protector.  She  is  said,  notwithstanding  her 
parentage,  to  have  been  firmly  attached  to 
the  Koyal  cause,  and  it  is  certain  that  she 
frequently  interceded  on  behalf  of  lioyalist 
prisoners.  She  was  married  in  1646  to  John 
Claypole,  a  Northamptonshire  gentleman,  who 
survived  her. 

Cromwell,  Hbxry  {b.  1628,  d.  1673),  was 
the  youngest  son  of  Oliver  Cromwell.  He 
entered  the  Parliamentary  army  in  1642,  and 
before  he  was  twenty  obtained  a  troop  in 
Fairfaxes  life-guards.  In  1649  he  attained 
the  rank  of  a  colonel,  and  accompanied  his 
father  to  Ireland.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
**  Barebones  "  Parliament  of  1653,  and  in  1655, 
after  being  sent  over  to  Ireland  to  observe 
the  condition  of  aff^iirs  in  that  country,  was 
shortly  afterwards  made  Lord  Deputy.  His 
government  of  Ireland  was  exceedingly 
popular,  and  the  moderation  and  justice  of 
his  measures  pleased  all  except  the  extreme 
men  on  either  side.  On  the  death  of  his 
father  he  was  deprived  of  much  of  his  power 
in  Ireland,  and  was  made  Lord-Lieutenant 
instead  of  Lord  Deputy,  and  on  the  triumph 
of  the  Parliamentary  i>arty  over  the  Pro- 
tector he  was  superseded.  He  now  retired 
into  private  life,  and  at  the  Restoration  was 
allowed  to  remain  unmolested.  He  spent 
most  of  his  time  at  his  estate  in  Cambridge- 
shire. 

Cromwell,  Oliver  {b.  April  25,  1599, 
d.  Sept.  3,  1658),  was  a  native  of  Huntingdon, 
the  son  of  Robert  Cromwell  and  Elisabeth 
Steward,  and  connected  by  blood  with  the 
family  of  Thomas  Cromwell,  Earl  of  Essex. 


He  was  educated  at  Huntingdon  School, 
imd  at  Sidney  Sussex  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  entered  as  a  fellow-commoner 
on  April  23,  1616.  On  his  father's  death  in 
the  following  year  he  returned  home,  married 
Elizabeth  Bourchier  (Aug.,  1620),  and  settled 
down  to  farm  his  own  lands.  He  was  elected 
member  for  Huntingdon  in  1628,  and  com- 
plained against  the  Bishop  of  Winchester  for 
silencing  controversial  preaching.  In  the 
Short  Parliament  and  the  Long  Parliament  he 
represented  Cambridge,  and  soon  attained 
considerable  influence.  It  has  been  ascer- 
tained that  within  the  first  ten  months  of 
the  Long  Parliament  Cromwell  was  specially 
appointed  to  eighteen  committees,  exclusive 
of  various  appointments  which  he  shared  with 
the  knights  and  burgesses  generally  of  the 
eastern  counties.  He  moved  the  second 
reading  of  the  Annual  Parliament  Bill  (Dec. 
30,  1640),  and  was  one  of  those  who  drew  up 
the   Root    and  Branch   Bill.     On    religious 

Suestions  he  was  specially  active,  and  he  had 
ecided  to  emigrate  if  the  Grand  Remonstrance 
had  not  jjassod.  He  was  Also  one  of  the  fore- 
most in  la^nng  hands  on  the  executive  power, 
and  moved  (Nov.  6,  1641)  to  entrust  the 
Earl  of  Essex  with  power  over  the  trained 
bands  till  Parliament  should  take  further 
order.  In  the  summer  of  1642  he  commenced 
arming  and  drilling  the  Cambridge  Trained 
Bands,  and  seized  the  plate  of  that  university 
to  prevent  it  from  being  carried  to  the  king. 
He  served  at  Edgehill  at  the  head  of  the 
troop  of  horse  which  he  had  raised,  and  is 
mentioned  by  Fiennos  as  doing  good  service. 
In  January,  1643,  he  secured  the  town  of 
Cambridge,  and  arrested  the  Royalist  sherifi 
of  Hertfordshire.  In  March  he  suppressed  a 
rising  at  Lowestoft ;  in  April  he  raised  the 
siege  of  Crowland ;  on  IMay  13  defeated  the 
Rovalists  of  Newark  at  Grantham ;  in  July  he 
retook  Stamford,  captured  Burleigh  House, 
and  relieved  Gainsborough.  His  services 
were  recognised  by  his  appointment  as 
Governor  of  the  Isle  of  Ely,  and  second  in 
command  of  the  army  of  the  Eastern  Associa- 
tion, which  his  activity  had  made  it  possible 
to  form  (Aug.,  1643).  Next  month  he  joined 
the  cavalry  of  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax,  in  Lmcoln- 
shire,  and  helped  to  gain  the  victory  of 
Winceby,  where  he  commanded  the  van  (Oct. 
11,  1643).  In  the  following  year  he  led  the 
left  wing  at  MurstonMoor,  which,  after  drivings 
Prince  Rupert's  division  from  the  field  fell  on 
Newcastle's  foot  in  the  centre  and  decided 
the  victory.  He  was  also  present  at  the 
second  battle  of  Newbury  (Oct.  27,  1644), 
and  a  month  later  charged  his  commander, 
the  Earl  of  Manchester,  with  slackness  in 
making  use  of  the  advantages  then  gained. 
Lest  the  war  should  be  protracted  by  the  self- 
interest  or  incapacity  of  members  of  Parlia- 
ment, he  supported  the  Self -denying  Ordinance, 
and  the  formation  of  a  regular  army  officered 
by  professional  soldiers.    In  spite  of  that  law^ 


Cro 


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his  serWces  were  too  valuable  to  be  dispensed 
with.  In  February,  1645,  he  was  sent  on  an 
expedition  into  the  west  under  Waller.  When 
he  returned  to  resign  his  command  he  was 
ordered  into  Oxfordshire  to  intercept  a 
convoy  going  to  Oxford,  which  he  performed 
at  Islip  (April  24th).  On  May  10th  he  was 
continuea  in  his  command  for  forty  days 
longer,  and  Fairfax  was  authorised  to  appoint 
him  to  command  the  horse,  and  this  appoint- 
ment was  confirmed  and  extended  from  time 
to  time.  At  Naseby  he  commanded  the  right 
wing,  totally  routed  the  forces  opposed  to 
him,  and,  keeping  his  troopers  well  in  hand, 
led  them  against  the  king's  centre  with  equal 
success.  With  Fairfax  he  then  went  into  the 
west,  was  present  at  the  storming  of  Bristol, 
and  at  the  battle  of  Langport.  Winchester, 
Basing  House,  and  other  fortresses  were  taken 
by  him,  and  he  took  part  in  the  siege  of  Oxford. 
During  these  three  years  Cromwell  had  also 
become  the  head  of  a  political  party.  From 
the  moment  ho  took  up  arms  he  had 
sought  to  enlist  men  with  a  religious  spirit 
-in  them,  thinking  them  the  only  men  able  to 
oppose  gentlemen  of  honour  and  courage. 
■  What  their  particular  form  of  creed  was  he 
cared  little.  "  The  state,"  he  declared,  "  in 
choosing  men  to  serve  it,  takes  no  notice  of 
their  opinions ;  if  they  be  willing  to  serve  it 
faithfully,  that  suffices."  His  enemies  termed 
him  "  the  great  Independent,"  and  saw  in  him 
the  champion  of  the  opposition  to  the  imposi- 
tion of  Presbyterian  orthodoxy  on  England. 
This  question  of  toleration,  with  two  other 
questions  then  at  issue  between  the  army  and 
tl\e  Parliament — the  right  of  the  soldiers  to  be 
fairly'  i)aid  for  their  services,  and  their  claim 
to  have  a  voic«  in  making  a  safe  and  proper 
settlement  with  the  king — brought  him  into 
opposition  with  the  Parliament.  blatters 
came  to  a  crisis  when,  in  the  spring  of  1C47, 
Parliament  voted  the  disbandment  of  the 
army.  Cromwell  did  his  best  to  prevent  a 
rupture,  attempted  to  mediate  and  reconcile, 
and  when  these  attempts  failed  and  he  found 
himself  in  danger  of  arrest,  cast  in  his  lot 
with  Fairfax  and  the  army  (June  3,  1647). 
After  the  exclusion  of  the  eleven  members  ho 
took  an  active  part  in  the  debates  of  the 
Commons  and  the  negotiations  with  the  king. 
There  he  endeavoured  to  fix  a  limit  to  the 
establishment  of  Presbyterianism  (Oct.  13), 
and  supported  the  continuance  of  the  ne- 
gotiations with  the  king  in  spite  of  his 
rejection  of  the  nineteen  propositions.  He 
hoped  to  come  to  an  agreement  with  Charles 
on  the  basis  of  the  new  propositions,  which 
were  a  compromise  between  the  demands  of  the 
army  and  the  Parliament.  Even  after  the 
king's  flight  (Nov.  3)  he  still  continued  this 
policy,  until  the  rejection  of  the  four  Bills 
(Dec.  28»  1647),  and  the  outbreak  of  the 
second  Civil  War,  May,  1648,  taught  him  the 
impossibilit}''  of  trusting  Charles.  Probably 
in  March  or  April,  1648,  at  a  prayer  meeting 


of  the  officers  at  Windsor,  where  Cromwell 
was  present,  it  was  decided  to  call  the  king 
to  account  as  soon  as  peace  was  restored. 
Then  he  marched  against  the  Welsh  insur- 
gents (MayJ,  took  Pembroke  (July  11), 
hurried  nortn  to  meet  the  Scots,  and  tottilly 
defeated  them  at  Preston  and  Warrington 
(Aug.  17—19,  1648).  He  was  still  in  the 
north,  when  the  army  again  seized  the 
king,  and  put  an  end  to  the  Newport 
Treaty;  nor  had  he  any  part  in  Pride's 
Purge,  though  he  approved  of  both  these 
acts.  He  was  present  every  day  during 
the  king's  trial,  and  his  name  stands  third 
amongst  the  fifty-nine  attached  to  the 
wai'rant.  Naturally  ho  was  nominated  one 
of  the  Council  of  State,  but  as  he  was  ap- 
pointed commander  of  the  army  destined  for 
Ireland  (March  15),  ho  could  not  long 
take  part  in  their  sittings.  He  landed  at 
Dublin  August  15,  1649.  The  storming  of 
Droghoda  (Sept.  10)  was  followed  by  the  mas- 
sacre of  the  garrison,  which  Cromwell  justi- 
fied: first,  as  a  righteous  judgment  of  God; 
secondly,  as  tending  to  prevent  tlie  effusion 
of  blood  for  the  future.  Trim,  Dundalk,  and 
other  towns  were  at  once  abandoned ;  Arklow 
and  Enniscorthy  terrified  into  surrender; 
Wexford  held  out,  and  shared  the  fato  of 
Drogheda ;  and  the  campaign  closed  with  the 
unsuccessful  siege  of  Waterford.  In  seven 
months  Lcinster  had  been  regained.  In  the 
following  spring,  Kilkenny  f^Iarch  28,  1650) 
and  Clonmel  (Jilay  9)  were  talcen.  At  the  end 
of  May  Cromwell  returned  to  England,  to 
command — as  Fairfax  refused  to  do  so — the 
army  ordered  to  invade  Scotland.  For  about 
a  month  the  forces  of  Cromwell  and  Lesley 
manceuvred  round  Edinburgh,  the  Scots 
refusing  to  give  battle,  the  English  declining 
to  attack  positions  too  strong  for  them.  At 
the  end  of  August  Cromwell  was  forced  to 
retreat  to  Dunbar,  where  Lesley  attacked  him, 
and  was  routed  with  the  loss  of  3,000  men 
killed,  and  10,000  prisoners  (Sept.  3,  1650). 
Edinburgh  and  Leith  fell  into  Cromwell's 
hands;  the  west  of  Scotland  followed,  and 
before  Christmas  all  the  country  south  of  the 
Forth  was  in  his  possession.  From  February 
to  June,  1651,  he  was  ill,  and  his  army  inactive. 
On  June  25th  he  marched  against  Lesley,  who 
was  posted  at  Stirling,  and  failing  to  dis- 
lodge him,  crossed  into  Fifeshire,  subsequently 
capturing  Perth  (Aug.  2).  The  king*8  army 
marched  straight  into  England,  and  estab- 
lished itself  at  Worcester,  where  Cromwell 
attacked  and  destroyed  it  (Sept.  3,  1052). 
The  great  influence  these  services  gave  him, 
Cromwell  used  to  secure  as  speedily  as 
possible  the  settlement  the  country  so 
much  needed.  In  less  than  a  fortnight 
after  his  victory  he  raised  the  question  of 
a  new  Parliament  (Sept.  16),  and  succeeded 
in  inducing  the  House  to  fix  a  limit  for  its 
Ol^^l  power.  He  bec-ame  an  active  member  of 
the  conmiission  for  law  reform,  a  very  jsealoua 


Cro 


(  338  j 


Oro 


supporter  of  the  "  Bill  for  General  Pardon  and 
Oblivion,"  and  the  champion  of  fi'eedom  of 
conscience  in  the  committee  for  the  propa- 
gation of  the  gospel.  His  great  object  was  to 
use  his  influence  and  his  position  to  secure  the 
speedy  meeting  of  the  new  reformed  Parlia- 
ment, which,  according  to  the  decision  of  the 
Rump,  was  not  to  meet  till  Nov.,  1654.  The 
impatience  of  the  army  urged  him  on,  and  a 
petition  from  the  Council  of  Officers  (Aug. 
13,  1652)  demanded  more  alacrity  in  the 
necesaarj''  reforms.  The  bill  which  was  to 
settle  the  constitution  of  the  now  assembly 
seemed  to  Cromwell  and  the  officers  to  be 
meant  rather  to  perpetuate  and  recruit  the 
Rump  than  to  secure  these  reforms.  He 
therefore  endeavoured  to  stop  this  bill  by 
agreement,  or  to  persuade  the  Parliament  to 
delegate  their  powers;  and  when  he  found 
them  still  hurrjang  through  the  objectionable 
bill,  he  put  an  end  to  their  sitting  (April  20, 
1653).  The  result  of  this  action  was  the 
separation  of  the  civil  and  militar}*  elements 
of  the  republican  party,  and  the  continued 
refusal  of  the  former  (with  some  considerable 
exceptions)  to  recognise  the  authority  of  the 
other  as  legitimate.  Cromwell  and  the 
Council  of  Officers  began  by  appointing  a 
Comicil  of  State  of  thirteen  persons  (April  29 
— July  4,  1653).  Then  a  representiitive  as- 
sembly of  Puritan  notables  was  summoned  by 
the  Council  of  Officers,  to  effect  the  necessary 
reforms.  But  its  reforming  zeal  seemed  to 
threaten  the  foundations  of  law  and  rcligicm, 
so  the  more  conservative  members  resigned 
their  authority  into  the  hands  which  had  en- 
trusted it  to  them  (July  4 — Dec.  12,  1653). 
The  Council  of  Officers  renewed  their  delibera- 
tions under  Oliver  Cromwell's  presidency, 
and  decided  to  make  a  single  person  head  of 
the  government.  Cromwell  was  accordingly 
installed  liord  Protector  (Dec.  16,  1653),  to 
govern  with  the  aid  of  a  permanent  Council 
and  a  Parliament,  to  be  summoned  every  three 
years.  For  nine  months  Protector  and 
Council  governed,  raised  money,  and  legis- 
lated without  a  Parliament.  His  ^rst 
Parliament  met  on  September  3rd,  1654,  and 
immefliatcly  called  in  question  the  "  Instru- 
ment "  of  government,  and  claimed  to  revise 
the  constitution  and  limit  the  Protector's 
powers.  In  spite  of  the  exclusion  of  a 
hundred  members,  it  persisted  in  this  claim, 
and  Cromwell  dissolved  it  (Jan.  22,  1655). 
He  had  to  struggle  not  only  against  discon- 
tented republicans,  but  agiiimst  fresh  out- 
breaks of  the  Royalists.  He  replied  by  a 
further  development  of  military  rule,  and  by 

girtially  abandoning  his  policy  of  toleration, 
ngland  was  divided  (Aug.,  1 655)  into  twelve 
military  districts,  governed  by  major-gonerals, 
the  expenses  of  whose  administration  were 
supplied  by  an  income  tax  on  Royalists,  and 
the  public  sen'ices  of  the  C'hiirch  of  England 
were  suppres-sed  (Nov.,  1655).  Abroad,  how- 
ever,   the    prospect    was    more    favourable. 


Cromwell  had  sig^nalised  the  first  months  of 
his  rule  by  the  conclusion  of  advantageous 
treaties  with  Holland  (April  5,  1654),  Sweden 
(April  28),  Portugal  (July  10),  and  Denmark. 
Spain  and  France  contended  for  his  alliance. 
His  influence  forced  Savoy  to  restore  the 
privileges  of  the  Yaudois  (Aug.  19, 1655)  ;  the 
conquest  of  Jamaica  announced  his  rupturo 
with  Spain,  and  a  treaty  of  commerce  sealed 
his  friendship  *with  France  (Oct.  24,  1655). 
These  successes,  and  the  desire  to  obtain  some 
constitutional  sanction  for  his  government, 
led  Cromwell  to  call  a  second  Parliament 
(Sept.  17|  1656).  The  preliminary  exclusion 
of  about  a  hundred  refractory  members 
secured  a  more  docile  assembly,  in  deference 
to  whose  vote  Cromwell  gave  iip  his  insti- 
tution of  the  major-generals.  They  went 
on  to  revise  the  constitution,  to  establish  a 
new  House  of  Lorda,  and  to  offer  Cromwell 
the  title  of  king.  His  refusal  of  the  title, 
mainly  dictated  by  the  opposition  of  the  army, 
did  not  prevent  him  from  accepting  their  con. 
stitutional  amendments,  and  he  was  again, 
with  legally  defined  powers,  installed  as 
Protector  (June  26,  1657).  But  the  House  of 
Commons,  whose  composition  was  materially 
altered  by  the  admission  of  the  excludea 
members  and  the  absence  of  the  new  lords, 
rejected  the  authority  of  the  other  House,  and 
Cromwell  indignantly  dissolved  it  (Jan.  20, 
1658).  This  confusion  at  home  was  perhaps 
compensated  by  brighter  prospects  abroad* 
If  his  plan  for  the  union  of  the  Protes- 
tant powers  failed,  the  alliance  with  France 
ripened  into  an  offensive  and  defensive  league 
against  Spain,  and  the  battle  of  Dunlark 
(June  4,  1658)  made  his  arms  renowned 
through  Europe.  CromwelPs  rigour  was 
now  beginning  to  decay,  and  being  attacked 
by  a  fever,  he  died  Sept.  3,  1658.  Crom- 
well's person  and  character  are  thus  described 
by  a  gentleman  of  his  household : — **  His 
body  was  well  compact  and  strong;  his 
stature  under  six  foot  (I  believe  about  two 
inches) ;  his  head  so  shaped  as  you  might  see 
it  a  store-house  and  shop  both  of  a  vast 
treasury  of  natural  parts.  His  temper  ex- 
ceeding fiery,  as  I  have  known,  but  the  flame 
of  it  kept  down  for  the  most  part,  or  soon 
allayed  with  those  moral  endowments  he  had. 
He  was  naturally  compassionate  towards 
objects  in  distress,  even  to  an  effeminate 
measure ;  though  Grod  had  made  him  a  heart 
wherein  was  left  little  room  for  any  fear,  but 
what  was  due  to  himself,  of  which  there  wms 
a  large  proportion,  yet  did  he  exceed  in 
tenderness  towards  sufferers.  A  larger  soul, 
I  think,  hath  seldom  dwelt  in  a  house  of  clay 
than  his  was."  "  He  was  a  strong  man," 
adds  another  observer ;  "  in  the  dark  perils  of 
war,  in  the  high  places  of  the  field,  hope 
shone  in  him  like  a  pillar  of  fire  when  it  had 
gone  out  in  all  the  others."   [Commonwealth.] 

Carlyle,    Cromwell'*    L«tter»    and    Sp^ethu; 
Noble,  HouM  ofCromtc^l:  Qfirdiner,  Hutory  o/ 


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(  339  ) 


Cro 


Xmgland,  1603^1649,  and  Commonwealth  and 
ProUeionU,  1649—1660;  MBaaoa^Lifeo/MUton; 
Guiiot,  Hittoire  dt  la  Revolution  d'Analettrre  ; 
Sanfordp  StudU$  and  nivLstrationt  of  tM  Qreat 
BtihoUion ;  Thurloe  Papon  ;  Clarendon,  Hiatory  of 
tlio  BoMlion, ;  Whitefocke,  MenumaU. 

[C.  H.  F.]  "■ 

Cromwell,  Ralph,  Lord  (d,  1455),  was 
one  of  the  Council  of  Regency  during  Hemy 
yi.*8  minority.  He  sided  with  Beaufort 
against  Gloucester ;  in  the  year  1443  he  was 
appointed  Treasurer,  and  held  this  important 
office  for  ten  years,  during  which  time  he 
showed  considerahle  financial  ability.  In 
1449  an  attempt  was  made  to  assassinate 
him,  which  he  attributed  to  Suffolk.  .  He 
supported  the  Lancastrian  party,  but  died 
shortly  after  the  first  battle  of  St.  Albans. 

Cromwell.  Richaro  (6.  1626,  d.  1712), 
third  son  of  the  Protector,  was  educated  at 
Felstead  School,  entered  at  Lincoln's  Inn  1647, 
and  married  Dorothy  Mayor  1649.  During 
his  father's  life  he  lived  as  a  private  gentle- 
man in  the  country.  In  July,  1657,  he  was 
elected,  after  his  father's  resignation,  Chan- 
cellor of  the  University  of  Oxford,  and  about 
the  same  time  he  was  admitted  into  the 
Council  of  State.  His  father  on  his  death-bed 
nominated  him  as  his  successor,  and  he  was 
accepted  as  such  in  Enppknd  and  by  the 
European  powers.  In  his  now  position  he 
is  said  to  have  carried  himself  discreetly,  and 
better  than  was  expected.  A  Parliament  was 
assembled  on  Jan.  27,  1659,  which  recognised 
him  as  Protector,  but  the  republican  minority, 
headed  by  Vane  and  Hasclng,  united  ^ith  the 
officers  of  the  army,  headed  by  Lambert, 
Fleetwood,  and  Dcsborough,  to  force  him 
to  dissolve  Parliament  (April  22,  1659).  His 
supporters  urged  him  to  meet  force  by  force, 
but  he  replied,  "  I  will  not  have  a  drop 
of  blood  spilt  for  the  preservation  of  my 
greatness,  which  is  a  burden  to  me."  He 
signed  a  formal  abdication  (M&y,  1659),  in 
return  for  which  the  restored  Rump  under- 
took the  discharge  of  his  debts.  After  the 
Restoration  he  fled  to  the  Continent,  where 
he  remained  for  twenty  years,  returning  in 
1680. 

€from.W^eU,  Thomas,  Earl  of  Essex 
(rf.  1640).  The  early  life  of  Thomas  Cromwell 
is  obscure,  and  the  various  stories  told  con- 
cerning it  are  scarcely  consistent.  Ho  is 
said  to  have  been  the  son  of  a  blacksmith  at 
Putney.  In  early  youth  he  served  as  a  com- 
mon soldier  in  the  wars  of  Italy.  He  began 
a  commercial  career  with  a  Venetian  trader ; 
next  he  was  a  clerk  at  Antwerp,  and  then 
a  wool  merchant  at  Middlcburgh,  in  Zea- 
land. He  returned  to  England,  and  did 
business  as  a  scrivener,  being  half  lawyer,  half 
money-lender.  He  lent  money  to  the  poor 
nobles,  who  at  the  extrax'agant  court  of  Henry 
VI II  .were  often  reduced  to  sore  straits.  While 
engaged  in  these  pursuits  he  showed  great 


aptitude  for  business,  and  became  widely 
Imown.  In  1524  he  was  employed  by  Cardinal 
Wolsey  to  manage  the  details  of  business 
connected  with  the  suppression  of  the  smaller 
monasteries  and  the  foundation  of  Wolsev's 
Colleges  at  Ipswich  and  Oxford.  In  tLis 
occupation  Cromwell  showed  himself  unscru- 
pulous, and  became  very  unpopular.  On 
Wolsey's  fall,  in  1529,  he  showed  his  ex- 
treme cleverness  by  using  his  fidelity  to  a 
fallen  master  as  a  means  of  promoting  his 
own  interests.  He  advised  Wolsey  to  buy  off 
the  malice  of  his  enemies  by  judicious  grants 
of  pensions  out  of  the  revenues  of  his  bishopric. 
In  carrying  out  these  arrangements  he  com- 
mended himself  to  many  iK)werful  friends, 
and  prepared  the  way  for  passing  over  to  the 
service  of  the  king.  He  suggested  to  Henry 
YIII.  that  he  should  settle  the  divorce  ques- 
tion by  declaring  himself  supreme  head  of 
the  Church  of  England,  and  prosecuting 
the  matter  in  his  own  ecclesiastical  courts. 
The  advice  struck  Henry.  He  made  Cromwell 
a  member  of  the  Privy  Council,  and  soon 
afterwards  a  Secretary  of  State.  Cromwell 
devoted  his  energies  to  raising  the  royal  power 
above  all  other  authority,  and  establishing  by 
its  means  a  new  order  of  things.  His  political 
text-book,  according  to  Cardinal  Pole,  was 
Machiavelli*s  l^-ineipe.  He  looked  to  the 
strong  hand  of  absolutism  to  work  reforms. 
By  his  advice  the  royal  supremacy  was 
declared,  appeals  to  Rome  were  forbidden, 
and  the  king^s  divorce  was  pronounced  by  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterburj'.  In  1534  the  Act 
of  Supremacy  vested  authority  in  matters 
ecclesiastical  solely  in  the  crown,  and  in  the 
next  year  Cromwell  was  appointed  "  Vicar- 
General,"  or  the  king's  vicegerent  in  matters 
ecclesiastical.  He  was  already  Chancellor,  so 
that  he  now  held  in  his  own  hands  the  chief 
authority  in  things  secular  and  spiritual. 
Cromwell  set  himself  to  reduce  the  Church 
into  obedience  to  the  crown.  He  humbled 
the  bishops  by  treating  them  as  ro}*al  officials. 
He  struck  at  the  wealth  of  the  Church  by 
ordering  a  general  visitation  of  the  religious 
houses.  In  consequence  of  the  report  of  the 
visitors,  the  lesser  monasteries,  to  the  number 
of  400,  were  suppressed,  and  their  revenues 
granted  to  the  crown.  Cromwell's  hand  was 
felt  everywhere.  He  directed  the  clergy 
what  they  were  to  preach  about,  and  revoked 
the  licences  of  those  who  would  not  obey.  His 
spies  filled  the  land,  and  words  of  discontent 
were  wrested  into  proofs  of  conspiracy,  and  met 
with  condign  punishment.  The  execution  of 
More  and  Fisher  taught  men  that  they  were 
to  expect  no  mercy  unless  they  obeyed.  The 
northern  rebellion  was  crushed,  and  led  to  the 
suppression  of  the  remaining  monasteries. 
But  when  Cromwell's  success  seemed  certain, 
there  came  a  reaction.  The  violence  of  the 
advanced  Protestant  party  awakened  general 
discontent.  Henrj'  VIII.  found  thut  in  fol- 
lowing Cromwell  he  hud  become  allied  with 


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doctrines  which  he  was  not  prepared  to  accept. 
The  Act  of  iSix  Articles  (1539)  marked  a 
Catholic  reaction,  which  seriously  affected 
Cromweirs  position.  But  it  was  the  progress 
of  foreign  affairs  which  hrought  about  his  fall. 
The  changes  which  had  been  made  in  England 
were  viewed  with  anger  by  the  Emijeror 
Charles  V.,  who  was  hindered  from  inter- 
fering in  England  only  by  his  war  with 
France.  Henry  VIII.  trusted  to  his  French 
alliance ;  but  as  Franco  also  looked  suspiciously 
on  the  new  English  policj',  Cromwell  sought 
a  new  alliance  with  the  Lutheran  princes  of 
Grermany.  He  hoped  to  make  a  strong  coali- 
tion, by  which  Franco,  England,  and  the 
German  Lutherans  should  unite  to  crush  the 
power  of  the  house  of  Austria.  As  an  earnest 
of  this  policy,  he  laboured  for  the  marriage  of 
Henry  VIII.  with  Anne,  daughter  of  the 
Buko  of  Cloves,  and  niece  of  John  Frederick, 
Elector  of  Saxony,  who  was  the  head  of  the 
iSmalcaldic  League.  He  carried  his  point, 
and  received  a  new  sign  of  the  royal  &vour 
by  being  created  Earl  of  Essex.  But  the 
marriage  with  Anne  of  Clevos  was  unsuccess- 
ful both  on  personal  and  political  grounds. 
Henry  VIII.  was  disappointed  in  his  now 
wife,  and  conceived  an  aversion  for  her.  The 
political  schemes  of  Cromwell  did  not  prosper. 
France  drew  nearer  to  the  Emperor;  the 
Lutheran  princes  still  held  by  their  principle 
of  passive  it)sistance,  and  showed  no  signs  of 
taking  active  measures.  Henry  VIII.  was 
willing  to  allow  his  minister  full  power  so 
long  as  he  succeeded;  at  the  first  sign  of 
failure,  at  the  first  appearance  of  difficulty 
to  himself,  he  remorselessly  sacrificed  his 
favourite.  Cromwell  had  few  friends,  and 
his  disgrace  was  a  sure  moans  of  bringing 
back  the  king's  popularity.  On  June  10, 
1540,  Cromwell  was  arrc8te<i  in  the  Council 
Chamber  on  the  charge  of  high  treason.  A 
bill  of  attainder  was  rapidly  passed  through 
Parliament.  Cromwell  was  not  allowed  to 
speak  in  his  own  defence,  and  was  executed 
on  July  28,  1540.  Cromwell  lived  simply, 
and  devoted  himself  entirely  to  his  political 
occupations.  His  influence  over  the  king  was 
supreme  while  he  was  in  power,  and  the 
separation  of  the  English  Church  from  the 
Papacy  was  due  entirely  to  his  skilfully 
devised  measures.  He  was  resolute  and 
unscrupulous,  with  a  clearly -defined  policy. 
But  ho  advanced  too  fast,  till  he  stood  abso- 
lutely alone,  and  when  he  lost  the  royal 
favour  he  had  nothing  on  which  to  fall  back. 
He  risked  eveiything  on  the  marriage  of 
Henrj-  VI 1 1,  with  Anne  of  Cle  ves.  Had  Anne 
been  personally  attractive  to  the  king,  Crom- 
well's policy  might  have  developed  results 
of  more  permanent  influence. 

Pole,  Apnlogia  ad  Carolum  V, ;  Strjpe,  HfmO' 
rialt  of  Crnnmev;  Calnidar  of  State  Papera  of  the 
Reian  of  Uenry  VIII. ;  Froude,  Hwtory  of  JBng- 
land;  Oreon,  Kitioru  of  th%  Enolwh  Pennle; 
J.  a  Br«wer.  Hid,  of  the  Reign  of  Henry  VIII. 

[M.  C] 


Cropredy  Bridge,  The  Battlb  of  (Judo 

29,  1644),  was  fought  near  Banburj',  between 

the  Royalists,  led  by  Charles  I.  in  person,  and 

a  part  of  the  Parliamentary  forces,  commanded 

by   Sir  William  Waller,  whose  attempt  to 

cross   the  Chcrwell    and  attack  the  king's 

troops  in  the  rear  proved  unsuccessful.     The 

loss  on  the  side  of  the  Parliament  Was  very 

considerable. 

Clarendon,  Hist,  of  the  Reheilion ;  Whitelocke, 
Mtmoriale. 

Crotoye.  Battle  of  (1347),  between  the 
English  and  French  fleets,  was  occasioned 
by  the  attempt  of  the  latter  to  relieve  Calais, 
during  the  siege  of  the  town  by  Edward  III. 
The*  French  fleet  was  entirely  defeated,  and 
all  attempts  to  relieve  Calais  by  sea  were 
abandoned. 

Crowlaad,  or  Croyland,  a  town  of 
Lincolnshire,  about  eight  miles  north-east  of 
Peterborough,  is  the  site  of  a  great  abbey 
founded  in  714  by  Ethelbald  of  Mercia.  It 
was  burnt  by  the  Danes  in  870,  restored  by 
King  Ethelred  II.,  and  again  burnt  in  1091. 
In  1112  it  was  a  second  time  restored  on  a 
scale  of  considerable  splendour.  [For  Ckow- 
LAXD  Chronicle  see  IxouLPHrs.] 

Crown*  The.  In  England  monarchy  wa« 
one  direct  product  of  tlie  Anglo-Saxon  conquest 
in  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries.  In  their  Ger- 
man home  the  Saxons  were  ruled  by  elected 
magistrates  (ealdoi^nen)  in  time  of  peace,  and 
led  to  Imttle  by  elected  generals  {Ittretoga), 
whose  authority  expired  with  the  war.  Unlike 
their  old  tribal  forays,  the  expedition  to  Britain 
entailed  a  chronic  struggle  between  natives 
and  invaders, which  lasted  several  generations; 
and  as  the  duration  of  the  heret»ga's  excep- 
tional powers  were  defined  by  the  duration  ol 
the  war,  the  mere  force  of  circumstances  now 
rendered  those  powers  permanent.  This 
change,  amounting  to  the  creation  of  a  new 
office,  was  recognised,  and  sanctioned  by  the 
adoption  of  a  title  already  in  use  amongst 
other  Teutonic  tribes,  the  title  King^  or 
(7y»-ing  (head  of  the  Arm).  The  new  king 
was  ealdorman  and  heretoga  in  one ;  he  was 
still  elected,  but  the  danger  of  inteiTegnum 
in  the  presence  of  an  endless  war  leading  to 
the  practice  of  electing  his  successor  in  his 
lifetime,  the  influence  of  the  victorious  general 
was  usually  sufficient  to  secure  his  son's 
nomination.  The  prescription  thus  estab- 
lished gradually  confined  the  national  choice 
to  descendants  of  the  first  king,  and  mHh 
soon  explained  and  hallowed  the  preference 
by  investing  them  with  the  halo  of  a  divine 
pedigree.  Christianity  swept  away  the  claim 
to  descent  from  Woden,  but  more  than  com- 
pensated by  the  introduction  of  Old  Testa- 
ment ideas  and  the  example  of  the  Empire. 
The  king,  who  had  hitherto  differed  from 
his  subjects  only  in  degree,  began  to  assume 
the  style  and  arrogate  the  pretensions  of 
the  Byzantine  court.    The  oath  of  homage 


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Cro 


taken  by  his  thanes  was  assimilated  to  the 
saciamentum  (or  Koman  oath  of  military 
obedience,  originally  taken  by  the  ai*my  alone, 
but  extended  later  to  the  holders  of  civil  office, 
and  finally  to  aU  subjects),  and  by  the  time  of 
the  reign  of  Edmund  had  become  the  oath  of 
allegiance  exacted  from  every  freeman  of  full 
age.  The  king  was  now  lord  of  the  race  {cyne» 
fUaford) ;  plots  against  his  life  were  punishable, 
like  treason  against  any  hlaford  (lord),  with 
death  and  forfeiture ;  and  finally,  the  Statute 
of  Treasons y  'lb  Ed.  III.,  by  abolishing  this 
penalty  for  petty  ti*eason,  left  the  king  on  a 
constitutional  pinnacle,  no  longer  the  first 
among  equals. 

It  is  fi*om  this  fusion  of  Imperial  and  Teu- 
tonic ideas  that  the  theory  prevtJent  in  most 
European  systems  of  law  has  sprung.  The 
lawyers  distinguish  carefully  between  two 
kings — the  ideal  and  the  real.  The  former  is 
the  state :  the  fountain  of  legislation,  of  jus- 
tice, of  honour ;  i.e.,  the  despot  of  Imperial 
law.  This  ideal  person  resides  from  time  to 
time  in  the  real  king,  who  is  subject  to  aU 
the  imperfections  of  human  nature,  and  repre- 
sents Uie  Teutonic  head  of  the  kin,  limited  by 
the  caprice  and  free  instincts  of  his  subjects. 
The  relation  of  these^two  persons  forms  the 
main  subject  of  constitutional  history,  their 
identification  leading  to  despotism,  their  sepa- 
ration to  limited  monarchy.  In  England  that 
separation  is  enshrined  in  the  famous  resolu- 
tion  of  1642,  in  which  the  Lords  and  Commons 
declare  themselves  a  *^  council  ...  to  pro- 
vide for  the  necessities  .  .  .  of  the  kingdom, 
and  to  declare  the  king's  pleasure  in  those 
things  that  are  requisite  thereunto,  and  that 
what  they  do  therein  hath  the  stamp  of  royal 
authority,  although  his  Majesty,  seduced  by 
evil  counsel,  do  in  his  own  person  oppose  or 
interrupt.*'  This  victory  was  mainly  the 
result  of  financial  struggles. 

The  Kevenues  of  the  Crown  were  of  two 
kinds,  ordinary  and  extraordinary :  «.«.,  those 
which  belonged  to  the  crown  in  its  own  right, 
and  those  which  came  as  a  free  gift  from  its 
subjects ;  and  their  history  is  the  history  of 
the  absorption  of  the  ordinary  by  the  extra- 
ordinary. The  former  consisted  of  (1)  the 
rente  of  crown  lands  (1,422  manors  at  the  date 
of  the  Domesday  Survey,  1086) ;  (2)  purvey- 
ance (the  right  exercised  on  royal  progresses 
of  buying  at  the  lowest  prices,  and  using  forced 
labour) ;  (3)  feudal  incidents  (the  three  regular 
aids,  escheat,  forfeiture,  relief,  marriage, 
wardship) ;  (4)  customs  on  imported  goods 
(price  paid  by  foreign  merchants  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  royal  peace).  The  latter  consisted 
of  (1)  aids  granted  by  the  free  tenants  and 
clerg}*^;  (2)  tallage,  a  tax  taken  from  towns 
lying  in  the  ancient  demesne  (its  true  character 
is  shown  by  the  alternative  name,  donum) .  The 
erusade  of  Richard  I.,  the  wickedness  of  John, 
and  the  weakness  of  Henry  III.,  impaired  the 
ordinary  revenue  at  a  time  when  difficulties 
with  .Fiance  were  yearly  augmenting   the 


expenditure.  Edward  I.  met  the  deficiency 
of  the  one  by  an  expansion  of  the  other. 
To  this  end  he  remodelled  Parliament,  intro- 
ducing representatives  of  the  tax-paj-ing 
classes,  the  country'  gentr)-,  and  the  city  mer- 
chants ;  and  so  rapidly  did  the  power  of  the 
new  assembly  grow,  that  in  1275  it  confirmed 
to  the  king  the  old  customs  on  wool  and 
leather,  known  thenceforth  as  '*  magna  et 
antiqua  custuma :  "  a  grant  w^hich  at  one  blow 
transferred  customs  from  the  hereditary  to 
the  parliamontaiy  revenue.  In  1660,  the 
abolition  of  feudal  tenures  and  of  purveyance 
nan-owed  the  former  down  to  the  proceeds 
of  the  crown  estates ;  and  these  have  in  their 
turn  been  resigned  in  consideration  of  a  fixed 
pension.  At  first  the  powers  of  Parliament 
were  limited  to  the  making  of  the  grant,  the 
expending  of  which  lay  wholly  with  the  crown ; 
but  in  1378,  during  Ricluird  II.*8  minority, 
that  principle  of  appropriation  wtis  introduced 
(by  the  provision  that  the  tax  granted  for  the 
French  war  should  be  paid  over  to  two  parlia- 
mentary treasurers,  Philpot  and  Walworth), 
which,  after  a  temporary  collapse  in  the  period 
of  Tudor  and  Yorkist  despotism,  revived  under 
James  I.,  was  confirmed  by  the  Common- 
wealth, adopted  as  a  momentary  expedient  by 
the  Royalist  Parliament  (1665),  and  finally, 
by  the  insertion  of  Lord  Sofnei's*s  Clause 
(March,  1690),  acquired  a  permanent  position 
as  an  essential  element  of  the  original  grant. 

The  Ckown  was  the  Fount  of  Law.  "  Lex 
fit  consensu  populi,  constitutione  regis,'*  the 
maxim  of  the  Teutonic  empire  was  also  the 
theor}'  of  the  English  constitution,  and  endured 
in  its  original  freshness  till  in  Henry  VI.'s 
reign  the  Commons  adopted  the  form  of  bill 
instead  of  the  older  petition.  Yet  though  this 
change  practically  reversed  the  legislative 
position  of  king  and  Commons,  the  old  maxim 
still  represents  the  legal  theory.  The  crown 
was  also  the  Fount  of  Justice.  This  prin- 
ciple is  of  somewhat  later  origin,  the  shire 
and  hundred  courts  in  their  earliest  form 
deriving  authority,  not  fi'om  the  king,  but  from 
the  nation.  Even  so  late  as  the  reign  of  Henry 
III.,  the  king  might  be  sued  in  his  own  courts 
by  a  writ  of  the  form  "  Prajcipe  Henrico  Regi 
Anglise  ;"  nor  was  it  tiU  the  present  century 
that  the  abolition  of  private  appeals  in  crimi- 
nal cases  left  the  crown  sole  pi-osecutor,  and 
removed  the  last  limitation  on  the  royal  right 
of  pardon.  The  process  by  which  the  national 
courts  became  the  king's  courts,  and  the 
national  peace  the  king's  peace,  was  the  work 
of  Norman  centralisation  operating  through 
the  Curia  Regis  (q.v.).  To  strengthen  the 
local  courts  against  feudal  encroachment, 
Henrj'  I.  occasionally  sent  justices  of  the  Curia 
Regis  to  preside  in  them.  This  practice, 
brought  to  a  system  by  Henry  II.,  8ui)erin> 
duced,  to  the  mutual  satisfaction  of  king  and 
people,  the  royal  upon  the  national  peace,  till 
in  the  end  the  second  was  entirely  overgrown 
and  choked  by  the  first.     The  crown  was* 


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further  the  Fount  of  Honour.  In  the  days 
of  chivalry  any  knight  could  confer  the 
honour  of  knighthood.  But  with  the  decay 
of  feudal  service  the  political  nobility  of  the 
peerage  threw  the  social  nobility  of  the 
knights  completely  into  the  shade.  The  class 
which  owed  title  and  privilege  to  the  special 
writ  of  the  crown  became  far  the  most  promi- 
nent in  the  state  ;  the  legal  mind  soon  con- 
cluded that  the  monopoly  enjoyed  by  the 
crown  of  conferring  the  highest  dignity  must 
extend  d  fortiori  to  all  inferior  titles  of 
honour. 

Ckown  Supreme  Landowner.  Like  jus- 
tice, the  land  belonged  originally  to  the 
nation,  part  being  divided  into  alodial  hold- 
ings for  the  freemen,  the  rest  preserved, 
under  the  name  of  folk-land,  as  a  common 
stock  for  future  allotments.  These  were 
effected  by  charters  granted  by  the  witan  and 
king,  and  hence  were  called  boc-  or  charter- 
land.  The  king's  influence  growing  with  the 
number  of  his  thanes,  the  witan  came  to  be 
regarded  as  the  witness  rather  than  the  author 
of  the  deed  of  grant,  the  folk-land  changed 
insensibly  into  terra  reffis,  and  the  thanes 
into  feuoal  vassals.  The  Norman  Conquest 
completed  the  process.  By  the  simple  opera- 
tion of  the  law,  which  punished  rebellion  with 
forfeitui'e,  alodial  tenure  had,  by  the  time  of 
the  Conqueror's  death,  disappeared,  and  every 
landholder  in  the  kingdom  had  become  a 
tenant  mediate  or  immediate  of  the  crown. 
But  the  growth  of  the  constitutional  system 
and  the  abolition  of  feudal  tenures  (1660) 
have  degraded  this  once  all-important  maxim 
into  a  legal  pleasantry. 

Succession  to  the  Ckown.  The  king,  it  has 
been  shown,  was  in  early  times  elected ;  elected, 
that  is  to  say,  by  the  witan  and  accepted  by  the 
people,  their  choice  being  limited  by  unwritten 
custom  to  the  members  of  a  particular  family. 
Primogeniture,  the  offspring  of  feudal  tenure, 
did  not  affect  the  succession  till  the  king  of 
the  people  had  become  also  the  feudal  lord  of 
the  soil.  Yet  so  late  as  1199,  Hubert  Walter, 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  could  assert  with- 
out contradiction,  in  his  opening  speech  at 
the  coronation  of  John,  that  the  Lnglish  king 
rules  not  by  hereditary  right,  but  in  virtue  of 
his  election,  and  that  the  national  voice  which 
gave  could  also  take  back  the  crown.  The 
old  form  was  observed  even  at  the  coronation 
of  Charles  I.  (1625),  of  presenting  the  new 
king  to  the  crowd  at  the  four  comers  of  a 
raised  platform,  and  demanding  their  assent 
to  his  nomination.  The  ground  won  by  the 
solemn  deposition  of  two  kings,  Edward  II. 
and  Bichai-d  II.,  seemed  lost  in  the  Yorkist 
reaction,  but  the  accession  of  Henrj'  VII. 
brought  in  a  fresh  parliamentary  d^'nasty, 
and  though  the  Stuarts  for  a  time  forced 
on  the  nation  the  absolutist  maxims  of  the 
Scotch  court,  the  triumph  of  the  popular 
party  was  in  the  end  complete,  and  the  Kevo- 
lation  (1688)  established  for  ever  the  consti- 


tutional principle  that  the  King  of  England  is 

an  official  and  not  a  proprietary  ruler.  [Kino.] 

Allen,  On  the  Prero^tive;  Taylor^  Glory  o/ 
BegalUy ;  Heam,  The  Government  of  Sngland; 
Stubbs,  Cofutitutionol  Rietory,        r  jj ^  j^  jj^ -i 

Crowxii  The  Wearing  op  the.  As  part  of 
the  regalia,  the  crown  seems  to  have  been  at 
first  nothing  more  than  a  fillet  of  linen  or 
cloth,  intended  to  represent  the  halo  symbolical 
of  deity.  Like  most  of  the  other  r^;al  orna- 
ments, and  the  general  apparatus  of  court 
ceremonial,  the  gold  crown  was  borrowed  from 
the  Emperors  of  the  East,  who,  on  the  establish- 
ment of  Christianity  as  the  state  religion, 
claimed  for  themselves  the  theocratic  position 
of  the  ancient  Jewish  kings.  The  crown 
has  been  worn  by  the  English  monai'chs — 

(1)  At  their  Ooronation,  After  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  coronation  oath  by  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  a  special  service  is  cele- 
brated in  Westminster  Abbey,  in  the  course  of 
which  the  Dean  of  Westminster  solemnly 
anoints  the  new  king  with  holy  oil,  the  great 
dignitaries  invest  him  with  the  regalia,  the 
imposition  of  the  crown,  performed  by  the 
archbishop  himself,  constituting  the  essential 
act  of  investiture.  At  that  moment  "the 
trumpets  sound,  the  drums  beat,  and  the 
people  with  loud  and  repeated  shouts  cry  *  God 
save  the  king ! '  A  signal  is  also  given  from 
the  battlements  of  the  church,  at  which  the 
twenty-one  great  guns  in  St.  James's  Park  are 
fired,  and  also  the  ordnance  of  the  Tower." 

(2)  In  the  Norman  and  Angerin  periods  at  the 
Courts  or  Parliaments  held  on  the  three  great 
Church  festivals  of  the  year,  Christmas,  Easter, 
and  Michaelmas.  Edward  I.  first  omitted 
the  custom,  "  saying  merrily,"  that  "  crowns 
do  rather  onerate  than  honour  princes." 

The  regalia  used  for  the  coronation  were, 
till  the  Reformation,  kept  in  the  custody  of 
the  Dean  and  Chapter  of  Westminster,  both 
for  security  and  as  an  assertion  of  the  national 
character  of  investiture.  On  the  dissolution 
of  the  monasteries,  they  were  transferred 
from  the  national  to  the  royal  keeping  in 
the  Tower.  The  Long  Parliament  destroyed 
them,  as  a  protest  against  monarchical  govern- 
ment. On  the  Restoration  a  new  set  was 
made,  which  exists  at  the  present  day. 

[H.  R.  R.] 

Crown  2«aads  were  in  pre-Norman  times 
of  wide  extent,  all  the  folk-land  (q.v.)  gradually 
becoming  tetra  regisy  and  the  amount  of  this 
was  considerably  increased  by  the  confiscations 
of  William  I.  [Chown.]  The  re-g^rants,  how- 
ever, to  the  king's  followers  and  friends  soon 
reduced  the  amount  of  land  held  by  the  crown, 
and  under  Henr}'  III.  it  was  necessary  to  pass 
an  Act  of  resumption,  while  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  II.  an  Act  was  for  some  time  in  force 
forbidding  the  alienation  of  crown  lands. 
The  royal  demesnes  were  largely  increased  by 
forfeitures  in  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  by  the 
acquisitiveness  of  Henry  VII.,  and  by  the 


Cm 


(843) 


Cid 


ecclesiastical  confiscations  of  Henr>'^  YIII. ; 
but  the  necessities  of  James  I.  and  Charles  I., 
and  the  action  of  the  Long  Parliament,  dis- 
posed of  all  the  royal  estates,  which  were  only- 
recovered  in  part  by  the  Parliamentary  sales 
being  declared  void  at  the  Kestoration.  The 
wholesale  granting  away  of  the  crown  lands 
has  a  distinct  constitutional  importance,  as 
having  compelled  the  king  to  apply  to  Parlia- 
ment and  the  nation  for  his  income,  which 
was  often  granted  only  on  condition  of  good 
government.  The  lavishness  of  William  III. 
necessitated  an  Act  in  the  reign  of  Anne,  by 
which  the  alienation  of  crown  lands  was 
greatly  checked;  though,  in  1800,  this  Act 
was  declared  not  to  apply  to  the  private 
property  of  the  sovereign,  acquired  by  pur- 
chase or  inheritance  from  any  one  not  being 
a  sovereign  of  England.  Since  George  III., 
the  sovereign  on  his  accession  has  always  sur- 
rendered the  crown  lands  to  be  disposed  of  by 
Parliament,  Uke  the  other  revenues  of  the 
state,  for  the  public  service ;  their  superinten- 
dence lies  witii  the  Commissioners  of  Woods, 
Forests,  and  Land  Bevenues. 

Cmsades,  Thb.    The  general  history  of 

these  religious  wars  does  not  come  within  the 

Bcope  of  the  present  work,  but  a  few  words 

must  be  said  regarding  the  influence  of  the 

Crui»des  on  English  history.     In  the  first 

place,  the  fact  that  Robert  of  Normandy  joined 

the  first  Crusade  and,  in  his  anxiety  to  raise 

monev  for  his  expedition,  pawned  Normandy 

to  William  Ruf us,  perpetuated  for  120  years 

the  connection  of  England  with  that  duchy. 

Again,  the  eager  crusading  spirit  of  Richard 

I.  necessitated  his  raising  money  by  every 

expedient.     Thus  charters  were  sold  to  towns 

many  of  which  thereby  obtained  privileges 

which  they  would  otherwise  probably  never 

have  acquired ;  the  feudal  rights  of  England 

over  Scotland  were  renounced,  and  the  mde- 

pendence  of  that  kingdom  recognised  for  the 

first  time ;  oflices  of  all  kinds  were  bought  from 

the  king,  and  the  buyers  were  anxious  to 

recoup  themselves  out  of  the  pockets  of  the 

people.     But  Richard  I.*s  Crusade  did  more 

than  this ;  not  only  did  the  king's  absence 

from  England  and  Uie  oppressive  government 

of  his  minister  Longchamp  (q.v.)  give  John 

the  opportunity  of  coming  forward  as  the 

champion  of  tike  barons  and  the  people,  and 

thereby  of  earning  for  him  a  popularity  which 

did  much  to  support  him  when  he  came  to  the 

throne  himself,  but  the  heavy  taxes  imposed 

in  Richard's  absence,  and  the  large  sum  that 

had  to  be  raised  to  pay  his  ransom,  combined 

with  the  harsh  rule  of  the  royal  ministers, 

greatly  alienated  the  people  from  the  king ; 

and  whereas,  up  to  this  time,  there  had  been 

an  alliance  between  the  king  and  the  people 

against  the  oppression  and  turbulence  of  the 

feudal  nobles,  now  parties  are  changed  it  is 

the^  king  who  is  the  oppressor  of  the  people, 

while  tiie   baxons   come   forward   as   their 


champions,  and  thus  the  way  is  paved  for  that 
alliance  which,  in  the  next  reign,  produced 
Magna  Charta.  Of  later  Crusades  the 
most  important  in  English  history  is  the  one 
led  by  Richard  of  Cornwall  in  1240 ;  while 
Edward  I.,  by  taking  the  Cross  in  1268, 
relieves  England  of  the  presence  of  many  of 
the  leading  nobles  whose  absence  for  a  while 
was  necessar}'  if  the  wounds  caused  by  the 
Barons'  War  were  to  be  healed.  But  on  the 
whole  the  direct  influences  of  the  Crusades 
were  felt  less  in  England  than  in  most  of  the 
countries  of  Europe. 

CvldeaSy  The.  There  has  been  great 
controversy  both  as  to  the  orig^  and  applica- 
tion of  the  name  Culdee.  The  derivation  is 
probably  the  Celtic  Cele  De,  worshipper  of  God 
(not  Caalicola,  Ceelebs,  or  Columba,  as  some  have 
tried  to  prove).  The  name  does  not  appear 
until  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Columban 
monks  from  the  Pictish  kingdom  by  Ncctan 
Mac  Derili  in  717 ;  so  the  Culdees  are 
in  no  way  to  be  identified  with  the  early 
Columban  monks;  they  were  anchorites 
rather  than  monks,  practically  independent, 
being  under  the  control  of  their  own  abbots, 
and  owning  no  allegiance  to  Rome  until  they 
were  forced  to  conform  by  the  action  of 
Alexander  and  David.  Mr.  Skene  says 
of  them,  "  They  originally  sprang  from  that 
ascetic  order  who  adopted  a  solitar}'  service 
of  God  in  an  isolated  cell  as  the  highest  form 
of  religious  life,  and  who  were  termed  Deicolis. 
.  .  .  They  were  finally  brought  under  the 
canonica}  rule  along  with  the  secular  clergy, 
retaining,  however,  to  some  extent,  the 
nomenclature  of  the  monastery,  until  at 
length  the  name  of  Keledens  or  Culdee  be- 
came  almost  synonymous  with  that  of 
<  secular  canon.*  "  The  chief  Culdee  mon- 
asteries in  Scotland  were  at  Lochleven,  St. 
Andrews,  Abemethy,  Dunkeld,  Brechin, 
and  Dunblane.  The  Culdees  were  known  in 
Ireland  as  early  as  the  ninth  century,  and 
continued  to  exist  as  a  sect  of  secular  priests 
up  to  the  time  of  the  Reformation.  Their  chief 
establishment  was  at  Armagh. 

Skene,  CeUio  Scotland;  Bobertson,  RaHy  King$ 
of  Scotland;  Grab,  £ecles.  Rx$t.  of  ScoUand; 
Tiiimgan,  Bodet.  Hut.  of  Ireland, 

Cllll«n,  Cabdinal  [b.  1804,  d,  1878),  was 
Roman  Catholic  Archbishop  of  Dublin, 
Primate  of  Ireland,  and  Apostolic  Delegate. 
Descended  from  an  ancient  Celtic  family,  he 
entered  the  priesthood  and  became  head  of 
the  Irish  College  in  Rome,  and,  for  a  short 
time,  of  the  Propaganda.  Before  he  became 
Primate  he  had  been  Archbishop  of  Dublin. 
The  government  owed  much  to  him  in  the 
Fenian  rising,  against  which  he  spoke  with 
great  vigour ;  he  also  did  much  to  encourage 
the  temperance  cause. 

Cnllodaily  or  Drumxossib  Moor,  was 
the  scene  of  the  closing  effort  on  the  part 
of  the  Stuarts  to  regain  the  English  crown. 


Cni 


(  344  ) 


Ciuii 


The  Pretender,  Chnrles  Edward,  commanded 
an  army  of  Highlanders,  who  were  utterly 
defeated  by  the  royal  troops  under  the  Duke 
of  Cumberland  (q.v.).  This  memomble  battle 
was  fought  A2)ril  16,  1746.  [Pketsndeu,  The 
YouNo;  Jacohites.J 

Clll|^epper,  »Sik  Thomas  (</.  1541),  was 
a  relative  of  Catherine  Howard,  and  one 
of  those  executed  on  a  confession  of  having 
committed  adultery  with  her.  Sir  Thomas 
Culpepper,  it  appears,  had  not  only  carried  on 
a  criminal  correspondence  with  the  queen 
l)efore  her  marriage,  but  had  had  the  hardi- 
hood, when  the  court  was  staying  at  Lincoln 
in  1541,  to  get  introduced,  by  the  agency  of 
Lady  Rochford,  into  the  queen's  bed-chamber. 
On  inquiries  being  made  as  to  the  queen's 
conduct  both  after  as  well  as  before  her 
marriage,  Culi>eppcr  and  Lady  liochford  were 
both  executed  for  high  treason. 

Cumberland,  Grokob  Clifford,  Sun 
Eaul  of  {b.  1558,  d.  1605),  "  one  of  the  most 
remarktiblo  characters  of  his  age,"  early  dis- 
played a  taste  for  mival  adventure.  In  1586 
he  inflicted  considerable  damage  on  the  Por- 
tuguese commerce,  and  two  years  later  com- 
manded a  ship  in  the  attack  on  the  Spanish 
Armada  off  Calais.  Ho  subsec^uently  engaged 
in  several  marauding  expeditions  against  the 
Spaniards,  and  in  1598  took  Porto  Rico.  The 
earl,  besides  being  renowned  for  his  dashing 
exploits  by  sea,  was  an  accomplished  courtier 
and  a  great  favourite  of  the  queen,  by  whom 
he  was  made  a  Knight  of  the  Garter,  though 
his  character  was  not  altogether  free  from 
stain.  *"  Before  his  death,"  says  Mr.  Cun- 
ningham, **  he  had  squandered  his  fortune ; 
nor,  high  as  he  may  rank  as  a  man  of  talent, 
science,  enterprise,  and  chivalry',  is  his 
memory  as  a  husband  troe  from  the  charge  of 
cruelty." 

Campbell,  Briiwh  Admiralt;   Cunningham'B 
Livet  0/  Eminent  EnglUhmen, 

Cumberland,  Henry  Clifford,  1st  Earl 
OP  (d.  1542),  was  famous  as  the  only  northern 
noble  who  remained  loyal  to  the  king's  cause 
during  the  formidable  insurrection  of  1536, 
known  as  the  **  Pilgrimage  of  Grace."  His 
successful  defence  of  Skipton  Castle  against 
the  vigorous  attack  of  the  rebels  was  an  im- 
portant check  to  their  otherwise  triumphant 
progress  through  the  districts  north  of  the 
Humber,  and  considerably  advanced  him  in 
the  confidence  and  favour  of  the  king.  He  was 
created  Earl  of  Cumberland  in  July,  1525. 

Camberland,  William  Augustus,  Duke 
OP  {b.  1721,  d.  1765),  was  the  second  son  of 
George  II.  and  Queen  Caroline.  He  adopted 
a  military  career,  and  in  1743  was  wounded  at 
the  battle  of  Dcttingen.  In  1745  we  find  him 
objecting  to  his  projected  marria^  with  a 
deformed  Butch  princess,  and  sending  to  the 
dying  Lord  Orford  [Walpole]  for  adWco. 
Orford  recommended  him  to  agre^,  on  con. 


dition  of  receiWng  an  ample  establishment, 
which  would  at  once  cause  the  king  to  drop 
the  project.  The  plan  was  successful.  In 
the  same  year  he  was  appointed  CH)mmander- 
in-chief  of  the  allies  in  Flandera.  He  fought 
with  distinguished  gallantry  at  the  glorious 
defeat  of  Fontenoy.  He  was  then  recalled 
to  oppose  the  advance  of  the  Young  Pretender 
through  England,  and  made  liichfield  his 
head-quarters.  He  w^as  out-man(eu\Tcd  by 
the  insurgents,  however,  and  the  Scotch  got 
between  him  and  London.  On  their  retreat 
from  Derby,  he  stalled  in  pursuit,  but  was 
defeated  in  a  skirmish  at  Clifton,  and  allowed 
the  Highlanders  to  retire  unmolested.  After 
the  defeat  at  Falkirk,  ho  was  api)ointed 
commander-in-chief  in  Scotland,  and  arrived 
at  Hol>Tood  on  Jan.  30,  1746.  Ho  utterly 
defeated  Charles  Edward  at  Culloden  (q.v.). 
The  defeated  Highlanders  were  treated 
with  great  brutality,  many  of  them  being 
put  to  death  in  cold  blood,  and  the  country 
was  systematically  hairied.  By  these  cruel- 
ties the  duke  gained  the  title  of  "the 
Butcher."    The  thanks  of  Parliament,  and  a 

fension  of  j625,000  a  year,  were  voted  him. 
n  1747  he  again  commanded  in  Flanders, 
but  was  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Lawfeldt. 
Shortly  afterwards  he  transmitted  to  tho 
French  overtures  of  peace.  In  1757  he 
was  sent  to  command  the  army  in  Hanover. 
He  was  worsted  in  July  at  the  battle  of 
Lawfeldt,  and  his  disorganised  army  being 
surrounded  by  the  enemy,  he  was  com- 
pelled to  sign  a  convention  at  Closter-Seven. 
**  Here,"  said  George  II.,  when  he  received 
him,  "is  my  son,  who  has  ruined  me  and 
disgraced  himself."  The  duke  promptly  re- 
signed his  military  appointments.  For  the 
remainder  of  his  life  he  lived  in  seclusion,  his 
chief  friend  being  Henry  Fox.  In  1765 
George  III.,  wishing  to  rid  himself  of  Gren- 
ville  and  Bedford,  applied  to  his  uncle  for 
help.  The  latter  applied  to  Pitt,  but  found 
that  statesman,  influenced  by  Temple,  inclined 
to  proposals  which  could  not  be  accepted. 
The  duke,  therefore,  turned  to  Whig  houses, 
and  p^e^'ailed  on  them  to  form  a  ministry, 
with  Kockingham  at  its  head.  His  death  at 
Windsor  was  remarkably  sudden,  although  he 
had  previously  suffered  from  a  paralytic 
stroke,  and  his  constitution  had  been  utterly 
broken.  "  Of  all  the  members  of  the  royal 
family,"  saj-s  Mr.  liccky,  "  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Queen  Caroline,  ho  was  the  only  one 
who  possessed  any  remarkable  ability." 

Walpole,  George  It. ;   Leoky,  Hist,  of  Eng. ; 
Stanhope,  Hiat,  of  Eng, 

Cumbria — (l)  et^nnolog^cally,  is  a  more 
correct  form  of  Cambria,  and  equivalent  to 
Cumberland,  i.^.,  the  land  of  the  Cymry  or 
Welsh;  (2)  historically,  is  used  first  in  a 
wider  sense  to  denote  the  Br)'thonic  district 
between  tho  Clyde  and  tho  Ribble,  and  west 
of  the  Pennine  I^nge  and  Ettrick  Forest, 


Cum 


(  345  ) 


Cvr 


which  retained  its  native  (Cymric)  population 
after  the  English  Conquest,  and  became  in 
the  sixth  century  a  single  state;  secondly,  in  a 
narrower  sense  it  is  confined  to  the  southern- 
most portion  of   that  district,   the  modem 
Cumberland,    the    northern    portion    being 
called  Reged  and  Strathclydc.     But  Strath- 
dyde  (i.<?.,  valley  of  the  Clyde)  is  also  used  as 
equivalent  to   Cumbria  in  the  wider  sense. 
Tbe    dissolution  of    the  Roman    power    in 
Britain  seems  to  have  led  to  a  reversion  to 
the  primitive  divisions  of  the  Britons,  but  the 
constant  pressure  of  the  enemy  forced  them, 
no    loss    than    the    English    themselves,   to- 
greater  union.     Hence,  by  the  sixth  century, 
the    larger    Cumbria    was    consolidated   by 
Rhydderch  Hael  (561)  into  a  single  state.    It 
had  already  been,  according  to  one  theory, 
the  main  seat  of  the  power  of  Arthur  and  the 
Gwledigau,  had  sent  Cunedda  to  Gwynedd, 
and  had  produced  the  Four  Bards,  Taliesin, 
Aneurin,  Merddyn,  and  Llywarch  Hen.     If 
the    Goidel  still  ruled  in  much  of    North 
Wales,  it  was  the  largest  homogeneous  British 
state.      In  conjunction  with  the  Kings  of 
Scots  and  North  Welsh,  Rhydderch,  in  573, 
finally  defeated  the  heathen    party  at  the 
battle  of  Ardderyd  (Arthuret,  near  Carlisle). 
He  brought  Kentigem  back  from  SL  Asaph 
to  found  the  bishopric  of  Glasgow.    Alcluyd, 
the  modem  Dumlxirton  (fort  of  the  Britons), 
became  at  once  thn  northernmost  stronghold 
and  capital  of  the  state.    Carlisle  was  the 
chief  fortress  of  its  southern  portion.    The 
Cumbrian  state  became  so  powerful  that  it 
attempted  before  long  to  attack  the  Angles  of 
Northumbria;    but  the  terrible  iEthclfrith 
revenged  himself  by  the  conquest  of  Chester 
and  the  maspacre  of  the  monks  of  Bangor 
Iscoed ;    and   as    the    conquests    of    Edwin 
included  the  two  Monas,  they  could  hardly 
hare  left  out  **  Strathclyde,*'  as  Cumbria  was 
now  oft«n  called.    Whether  Cadwallon,  the 
ally  of  Penda,  was  or  was  not  a  Cumbrian 
cannot  bo  decided ;  but  his  fall,  in  conjunction 
with  the  severance  of  the  communication  be- 
tween Gwynedd  and  Cumbria,  prevented  the 
formation  of  a  single  gn^'eat  Welsh  state.    A 
long  gap  in    Cumbrian  history  marks  the 
overlordship  of  the  Northumbrian  Brctwaldas. 
At    their   fall,  kings    of   the  "Strathclyde 
Wealas"  again  appear  {e.ff,,  their  deaths  are 
mentioned  in  694  and  722),  but  they  possess 
only  local  importance ;  and  the  continuance  of 
the  Anglian    influence  in    Galloway   (q.v.) 
must  have  almost  cut  their  state  in  two.  In  the 
ninth  century  we  read  of  the  desolation  of 
Alcluyd  by  the  Danes,  and  a  later  Welsh 
legend  speaks  of  a  migration  from  the  Vale  of 
Clyde  to  the  Vale  of  Clwyd.     But  the  false 
etymology'  involved  in  the  identification  of  two 
words  sufficiently  refutes  this  unlikely  story. 
In  the  tenth  century  a  line  of  Scottish  princes 
became    rulers   of    Cumbria,   and,    in    946, 
Edmund  of    Wessex  conquered    the  whole 
country.    He  probably  annexed  the  district 


s6uth  of  the  Derwent,  and  certainly  bestowed 
all  north  of  that  stream  on  ilalcolm,  King  of 
Scots,  in  return  for  allegiance  and  help  against 
the  Danes.  But  the  connection  with  England 
did  not  cease,  at  least  for  the  part  south  of 
the  Sol  way,  which- William  Rufus,  in  1092, 
annexed  to  England.  Its  ruler,  Dolfin,  was 
an  Englishman,  so  that,  before  the  possible 
colonisation  of  Rufus,  which  revived  Carlisle, 
almost  in  ruins  since  Danish  devastations  in 
the  eighth  century,  the  Cymric  character  of 
the  district  had  not  been  entirely  kept  up. 
The  county  of  Cumberland  and  bishopric  of 
Carlisle  were  now  founded ;  but  the  northern 
part  still  remained  in  the  main  an  appanage  of 
Scotland,  and  was  bestowed  by  the  Scottish 
kings  on  their  sons.  Yet  a  twelfth  century 
charter  speaks  of  the  *•*  Walenses  "  as  a  sepa- 
rate race,  and  it  is  possible  that  their  speech 
lingered  in  remote  -^alleys  until  the  Reforma- 
tion. The  last  remnant  of  Cumbrian  in- 
dependence was  confined  to  the  Pictish  or 
Goidelic  enclave  of  Galloway,  and  their 
amalgamation  with  the  "  Scots*  into  a  single 
homogeneous  nation  by  the  common  bond  of 
anti-English  feeling  was  the  result  of  the  in- 
judicious legalism  of  Edward  I. 

The  meagre  Welsh  Chronicles,  Annaln  Cambria 
and  BrvA  y  Tywyaogiont  published  in  the  RolU 
Series,  ana  the  CKrontcI<w  of  the  P\ct»  and  SeoU, 
edited  by  Mr.  Skene.  In  Celtic  Scotland  Mr.  Skene 
has  collected  all  that  is  known  of  the  early  politi- 
cal, ecclesiastical,  and  social  history  of  Cumbria. 
The  Fame  author's  FowAncientBooka of  Walet  col- 
lects the  remains  of  the  possible  Cumbrian  hards, 
and  some  points  of  its  history  ore  luminously 
discussed  m  chap.  z.  of  the  Introduction,  See 
also  Bh^s,  Celtic  Britain;  Palgrave,  Kngliah 
CommonvtMltht  vol.  ii.,  pp.  cccxzv.— cccxzix. ; 
and  Freeman,  WiUiam  Bufua.        rip   E.  T  1 

Curfew,  The,  was  introduced  into  Eng- 
land by  William  the  Conqueror.  By  this 
custom  a  bell  was  rung  in  ever}-  town  at  eight 
o^clock  in  winter  and  at  sunset  in  summer,  when 
all  fires  and  lights  had  to  be  extinguished. 
This  regulation  caused  a  great  clamour  in 
England,  although  the  custom  was  at  that  time 
almost  universal  throughout  Europe ;  it  was 
a  call  to  prayers,  an  intimation  that  it  was 
bed-time,  and  a  means  of  guai*ding  against 
fire.  According  to  William  of  Jfalmesbury, 
Henr\'  I.  allowed  candles  to  bo  used  at 
court  after  curfew-bell.  The  custom  of 
ringing  the  curfew  as  an  intimation  of  the 
approach  of  night  was  continued  down  to  the 
seventeenth  century,  or  even  later,  though 
the  obligation  to  extinguish  fires  had,  of 
course,  been  long  since  abandoned. 

Curia  Re^is.  I'he  name  Curia  Kegis 
was  at  different  times  applied  to  three  dis- 
tinct bodies : — (1)  The  feuoal  assembly  of  the 
tcnants-in  chief;  (2)  the  Privy  Council, 
organised  under  Henry  I. ;  (3)  the  Court  of 
King's  Bench,  founded  in  1178.  (1)  In  (ho 
first  signification,  the  Curia  Regis  combined 
the  characters  of  Saxon  witan  and  Norman 


Cur 


(  346  ) 


Cvr 


feudal  court,  and  constituted  the  Great 
Couttcil  of  the  Realm,  whoso  consent  was 
required  for  the  imposition  of  exti'aordinary 
taxes  and  the  enactment  of  new  laws,  and 
whose  advice  on  questions  of  State  policy  the 
king  was  expected  at  least  to  consult.  In  the 
presence  of  this  body  was  undertaken  every 
royal  measure  of  national  importance,  judicial, 
financial,  executive,  and  legislative,  for  as 
yet  no  distinction  between  the  different 
functions  of  government  was  recognised ;  and 
thrice  a  year,  on  the  grcat  Church  festivals, 
Christmas,  Easter,  and  Whitsuntide,  the 
king  wore  his  crown  in  a  solemn  session 
convened  at  one  of  the  provincial  capitals. 
(2)  But  such  a  body  was  at  once  too  un- 
wieldy for  the  prompt  despatch  of  business, 
and  too  intcraiittent  to  preserve  adminis- 
trative continuity.  An  inner  council  soon 
appeared,  the  nucleus  of  which  was  provided 
in  the  royal  household,  and  took  shape  under 
Henry  I.  as  the  Ct4ria  Hegia  proper.  It  was 
pnictically  a  committee  of  the  first,  entrusted 
with  the  administration  generally,  legislation 
remaining,  of  course,  with  the  national 
coimcil,  and  composed  of  the  gprcat  officers 
of  State,  Justiciar,  Chancellor,  Treasurer; 
the  members  of  the  royal  household.  Con- 
stable, Marshal,  &c.;  a  number  of  clerks, 
chosen  by  the  crown.  This  mixed  composi- 
tion was  typical  of  tlie  character  of  the  body, 
which  in  diiforent  aspects  might  be  i-egarded 
as  {a)  the  Pri\'y  Council,  {b)  a  Bureau  of 
Administration,  {c)  a  High  Court  of  Justice, 
and  out  of  which  have  sprung  all  the  ad- 
ministmtive  institutions  of  the  kingdom. 
In  Henry  I.'s  eyes,  finance  was  at  once  the 
end  and  the  means  of  government.  It  was 
in  his  reign,  therefore,  that  the  Curia  threw 
out  the  first  of  its  many  offshoots,  the  Court  of 
Exchetjuer,  organised  by  the  Great  Justiciar, 
Roger  le  Poor,  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  unless, 
indeed,  the  two  bodies  are  pjirallel  develop- 
ments of  the  household,  sitting  in  different 
capacities.  From  this  moment  the  Curia 
Regis  confines  itself  mainly  to  judicial  work, 
and  its  members  are  styled  Juatices.  All 
appeals,  such  cases  of  first  instance  as 
touched  either  the  ro}-al  interest  or  the 
rights  and  conduct  of  tenants-in-cliief,  came 
before  this  court,  whoso  jurisdiction  was 
further  extended  by  the  system  of  writs  to 
cases  in  which  the  customary'  law  of  the 
local  courts  could  give  no  sufficient  remedy. 
[Justices.]  How  far  the  Exchequer  and  the 
Curia  Regis  were  co-extensive  is  uncertain; 
this  at  Iwist  is  known:  that  every  baron  of 
the  Exchequer  sat  also  as  a  justice  of  the 
Curia  Regis,  and  that  to  the  intimate  con- 
nection between  the  two  we  owe  the  system 
of  judicial  circuits.  The  first  itinerant 
visitation  by  membera  of  the  inner  council 
was  directed  solely  to  the  assessment  and 
collection  of  the  royal  dues:  but  as  an  im- 
portant  fraction  of  the  revenue  was  derived 
from  the  fines  inflicted  in  criminal  cases,  one 


duty  of  the  Treasury  officer  was  to  enter  the 
shire  couit,  and  hold  the  x)leas  of  the  crown. 
What  was  begun  by  the  Exchequer  from 
financial  considerations,  the  Curia  Regis  con- 
tinued and  extended  from  motives  of  policy. 
It  was  not,  however,  till  the  reoi-ganisation 
under  Henry  II.,  after  the  anarchy  of  Stephen*8 
reign,  that  the  system  became  part  of  the 
regular  judicial  machineiy ;  and  on  the 
reservation  to  the  Curia  Regis  of  the  throe 
assizes  of  Navel  disaeiain  (disx)uted  claim  to 
land),  MortcPancc»tey{\T\h.Qri\Aiiuie)y  Darein  pre' 
aentment  (advowsons),  regular  circuits  were 
established.  [Assize.]  (3)  The  Curia  Regis  still 
continued  to  sit  collectively,  acconqmnpng 
the  king^s  movements  from  place  to  place.  In 
II78  the  increasing  importance  of  the  judicial 
work  induced  Henry  to  establish  a  separate 
committee  of  five  judges  to  hear  the  pleas  of 
the  crown  (criminal  actions),  who  were  to  be 
fixed  to  one  spot.  This  is  the  origin  of  the 
Court  of  Kiitg^s  Bench,  the  Curia  Regis  in  the 
third  and  most  restricted  sense,  '*  the  judicial 
committee  of  the  conciliar  committee  of  the 
full  Curia  Regis."  To  art.  17  of  lilagna 
Charta  is  due  the  separation  of  the  third  law 
court,  that  of  Common  Pleas  (civil  actions), 
which  enacts  that  **The  Common  Pleas  shall 
not  follow  our  court,  but  shall  be  held  in 
some  fixed  place."  But  the  complete  separa- 
tion of  the  throe  bodies  by  the  establish- 
ment of  a  separate  staff  of  justices  for  each 
was  not  accomplished  till  late  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  III. 

The  Court  of  Equity  is  but  another  offshoot 
of  the  Curia  Regis.  Petitions  for  redress  of  the 
hardships  often  inflicted  by  the  common  law 
continued  to  l)e  heard  by  the  king,  in  tho 
presence  of  the  Privy  Council.  As  these  multi- 
plied, it  soon  became  the  custom  for  the  Chan- 
cellor to  arrange  them  before  their  submission 
to  the  king,  and  reject  the  more  extravagant. 
Insensibly,  this  preliminary  sorting  assumed 
greater  prominence,  till  by  the  reign  of 
Richard  II.  it  superseded  the  final  examina- 
tion altogether,  and  the  Chancellor's  juris- 
diction took  its  place  among  the  regular  law 
courts. 

This  fecundity,  however,  did  not  alter  the 
character,  though  it  impaired  the  vitality,  of 
the  Curia  Regis,  which,  after  an  intermittent 
activity  during  the  Lancastrian  period,  was 
organised,  on  the  accession  of  the  Tudors,  into 
the  Star  Chamber,  a  supreme  court,  specially 
directed  against  the  lawlessness  of  the  great 
feudal  houses;  and  to  this  day  the  Privy 
Council  retains,  though  it  never  exercisea, 
its  ancient  judicial  competence.  As  head  of 
the  Executive,  the  Curia  Regis  is  also  the 
lineal  ancestor  of  the  present  Privy  Council, 
and  its  infinitely  more  important  offsprings, 
the  Cabinet. 

Stnbbs,  Vretto BenedidM AVha*,  vol.  li.  (Rolla 
Series);  Heame,  Govt,  of  fnpland,  chap.  xi. ,- 
Stubbs,  Const.  Hut. ;  Gneist,  Eng.  Va/ai-rangv* 
gcKhichte.  [H.  R.  R,] 


Cur 


(  347  ; 


Ct13 


t 


wu.«..*»,  John  Philpot  {b,  lloOyd.  1817), 
was  bom  of  humble  parents  at  Newmarket, 
county  Cork,  and  in  1775  he  was  called - 
to  the  Irish  bar.  He  soon  rose  to  emi- 
nence. In  1782  he  took  silk,  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  was  returned  by  a  friend  for  a 
closo  borough  in  Westmeath.  He  at  once 
took  up  the  popular  cause  in  I'arliament, 
and  wa^  soon  recognised  as  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  orators  in  the  assembly.  In  1785 
Fitzgibbon,  the  Attorney-General,  challenged 
him  to  a  duel,  on  account  of  some  sarcastic 
woi-ds  which  Cui-ran  had  uttered  about  him 
in  Parliament.  The  duel  ended  without 
bloodshed,  but  Fitzgibbon,  as  Lord  Clare, 
throughout  his  life  did  his  best  to  ruin  his 
adversary.  In  Parliament  Curran  was,  in 
ability  at  least,  if  not  in  position,  the  leader 
of  the  Whig  party,  and  as  such  he  strongly 
opposed  the  measures  of  Pitt's  government 
with  regai*d  to  Ireland.  During  the  last  four 
years  of  the  century  Curran's  voice  was  con- 
stantly heard,  both  in  the  courts,  defending 
the  leaders  of  the  rebellion,  and  in  Parliament, 
loudly  protesting  against  the  Union.  The  un- 
dying hatred  of  Lord  Clare  almost  reduced 
Curran  to  beggary,  since  it  was  a  recognised 
fact  that  he  had  no  chance  of  winning  a  case 
in  Lord  Clare's  court,  and  practice  rapidly 
left  the  great  orator.  However,  in  1806, 
when  Fox  came  into  power,  and  Ponsonby 
became  Lord  Chancellor  of  Ireland,  Curran 
was  appointed  Master  of  the  Bolls.  In 
1814  he  retired  on  a  pension.  Ho  then 
visited  Paris  and  London,  where  he  became 
acquainted  with  Home  Tooke,  Sheridan,  and 
Lord  Erskine,  his  only  rival  in  eloquence  at 
the  English  bar.  He  spent  the  last  few  years 
of  his  life  partly  in  Ireland,  partly  in  this 
countrj' ;  but  his  health  was  giudually  break- 
ing down,  and  in  his  enfeebled  state  his  mind 
gave  way,  and  he  put  an  end  to  his  life  at 
Chelsea  on  the  1 3th  Oct.,  1817.  "  Mr.  Curran's 
place  at  the  Irish  bar,"  says  his  biographer, 
"has  not  ever  been  approached  since  his 
departure.  There  is  no  man,  not  merely 
next  him,  but  near  him." 

PhiUips,  Life  of  CwiTon.;  Plowden,  Hist,  of 
Jrelnnd;  Moore,  Life  of  Fitxgerald ;  Hardy,  Life 
of  Chademoid  ;  Qr&ttan's  Lijfe;  Froude,  Eitgli^h, 
in  Ireland, 

CrdStoins  first  appear  in  England  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  as  the  duties  leaded  on 
wine,  wool,  and  general  merchandise.  The 
tix  on  wnne,  which  was  taken  in  kind,  was 
culled  prisaffe.  Wool,  the  chief  source  of 
English  wealth,  was  often  made  the  subject  of 
violent  extortion,  and  the  exorbitant  toll  taken 
on  it  was  called  the  maUtote.  General 
merchandise  was  subject  to  an  ad  valorem  toll. 
By  the  Great  Charter,  art.  41,  the  king 
promised  liberty  of  trade  accorchng  to  the 
ancient  and  lawful  customs,  without  anv  male- 
totes.  ^luch  uncertainty  prevailed  as  to  the 
amount  which  should  be  levied  on  merchan- 
dise, until  the  first  Parliament  of  Edward  I., 


1275,  g^nted  the  king  a  fixed  amount  on 
wool,  skins,  and  leather,  which  is  called  the 
etutmna  inoffna  et  antiqtia.     This  grant  is  the 
constitutional    foundation    of   the    customs. 
To  this  grant  the  king,  in  the  Confirmatio 
Cartarum,  1297,  promises  to  conform.      Ho 
did  not  consider  that  he   broke    his   word 
by  making  an  arrangement  with  the  foreign 
merchants  for  the  piyment  of  higher  duties 
both  on  the  export  of  wool,  &c.,  and  on  the 
import  of  wine  and  other  merchandise.    This 
increase  was  called  the  parva^  or  nova  custuma. 
It  was  abolished  and  restored  in  the  rcign  of 
Edward  II.,  and  in  the  next  reign  became 
part  of  the  ordinary-  revenue,  and  was  recog- 
nised   by    statute.      The  popuUirity    which 
attended  the  early  part  of  the  French  war 
caused  Parliament  to  g^nt  the  king  extra- 
ordinary and  oppressive  customs    on  wool, 
which  amounted  to  the  maletotc.     A  statute 
of  1340  provided  that  this  exaction  should  not 
be  made  a  precedent,    and    that    the   king 
should  take  no  duties  without  the  consent  of 
his  Parliament.     During  the  latter  part  of 
his  reign  he  obtained  increased  customs  by 
arrangement  with  the    merchants.     At  last, 
after    a     considerable     struggle,     all    such 
arrangements  were,  in  1362,  declared  illegal. 
In  the  first  half  of  the  fourteenth  century 
the  customs  on  wine  and  merchandise  were 
taken  at  a  certain  rate  per  tun  and  j^er  pound, 
by    special  agreement  with  merchants  and 
towns.     These  customs  were,  in  1373,  made 
the  subject  of  a  grant  by  Parliament,  and  are 
then  called  tunnagc  and  poundage.      From 
the  fourth  year  of  Henry  IV.  to  the  ninth 
year  of  Wiliiam  III.  the  duty  per  pound  on 
all  export  and  import  merchandise,  except 
wool,  l:c.,  was  Is.,  and  for  this  cause  the  term 
subsidy  came  to   denote  a  general  duty  of 
5  per  cent.      Henry  V.    first  received  the 
grant  of  tannage  and  poundage  for  life,  and 
this  grant  was  made  to  all  subsequent  sove- 
reigns until  the  reign  of  Charles  I.     In  spite 
of  the  settlement  of  the  right  to  levy  customs, 
both  Mary  and  Elizabeth  acted  on  their  own 
authority  in  the  matter.     Yet  so  trifling  was 
the  exaction  in  either  case,  that  the  ver>'  in- 
novations of  these  queens  seemed  to  acknow- 
ledge   the     strength    of    the    claim  which 
Parliament  had  so  long  upheld.     James  added 
fresh  "impositions,"  as  these  arbitrarj'  cus- 
toms were  called.     These  impositions  were 
resisted,   but    were    declared    IcgJil    by    the 
judges  in  Bate,' a  Case.      Their  decision  was 
followed  by  the  production  in  1608  of  a  new 
book  of  rates,  which  added  imposition  to  the 
amount  of  £70,000   to  the   lawful   customs. 
Against     this     usurpation     the      Commons 
vigorously  protested.     When  Charles  aime  to 
the  throne,  the  Commons,  for  the  first  time  in 
two  hundred  years,  would  not  grant  tunnage 
and  poundage  to  the  king  for  life.     The  king 
levied  the  tax  without  the  gi*ant,  and  (1628) 
seized  the  goods  of  the  merchants  who  refused 
to  pay  it.    In  1640,  however,  an  Act  was 


Cus 


(348) 


Cut 


passed  (16  Car.  I.,  c.  8),  declaring  that  no  sudi 
payments  ought  to  be  imiwsed  without  com- 
mon consent  in  Parliament.  At  the  Restora- 
tion the  customs  were  again  gitintcd  to  the 
king  for  life,  and  a  book  of  rates  was 
authorised  by  Parliament,  and  signed  by  the 
Speaker.  The  settlement  of  the  i-evenue  after 
the  Ilevolution  closed  the  histoiT  of  the 
political  imi)ortanco  of  the  customs.  By 
9  AnnC)  c.  6,  tunnage  and  poundage  became 
part  of  the  national  income,  and  was  made 
mble  for  the  public  debt ;  and  in  the  reign  of 
George  II.  the  last  remnant  of  the  old 
customs  was  obliterated  by  the  purchase  of 
the  right  of  prisago  from  the  Duke  of  Grafton, 
to  whose  family  it  had  been  granted.  The 
system  of  levying  customs  by  lx>oks  of  rates, 
which  often  caused  confusion  and  loss,  was 
abolished  by  27  Geo.  III.,  c.  13,  the  Cttstoins 
Consolidation  Act,  which  provided  a  simple 
and  uniform  scheme  of  taxation.  Since  that 
date  several  alterations  have  been  made  in 
the  customs.  Among  these  changes,  the  most 
remarkable  arc  those  effected  by  the  Cttstotns 
Tanff  Amendment  Act  of  1860.  This  was 
the  result  of  a  treaty  with  France,  and  by  the 
reduction  of  the  duty  on  wine  effected  by  Mr. 
Gladstone,  it  has  made  the  light  ^dnes  of 
France  cheap  in  England.  Beneficial  as  this 
Act  has  been,  it  falls  short  in  two  respects  of 
the  highest  standard  of  policy  as  regards 
customs.  It  made  the  regulation  of  our 
finances  the  subiect  of  a  treaty  with  a  foreign 
country,  and  it  mtroduced  an  element  of  un- 
certainty into  a  tax,  by  levying  the  duty  on 
wine  in  proportion  to  tlie  alcohol  it  contained. 
The  whole  subject  of  duties  on  merchandise 
is  regarded  in  a  different  light  now  to  that 
which  ruled  our  policy  in  connection  with  the 
customs  a  century  and  a  half  ago.  Then 
taxes  on  commodities  were  imposed  with  a 
view  to  protecting  native  industry',  and  to 
benefit  particular  trades.  Now  the  only 
principle  which  aiuse^  their  imposition  is  the 
necessity  of  obtaining  revenue,  and  no  idea 
exists  of  tr^nng  to  favour  home  produce  at  the 
expense  of  the  foreign  producer.  It  was  also 
widely  held  that  a  nation  acted  wisely  in 
prohibiting  or  checking  the  export  of  useful 
commodities,  and  for  this  reason  in  early 
times  the  expoii;  customs  formed  the  principal, 
and  even  in  later  times  a  considerable,  x)art 
of  the  taxes  on  merchandise.  Sir  R.  Walpole 
saw  the  fallacy  of  this  theoiy,  and  maae  a 
step  towards  free  trade  by  abolishing  in  one 
year  duties  on  106  exports  and  38  imports. 
The  system  of  drawbacks ,  originally  looked 
on  siiiiply  as  a  means  of  encouraging  our 
shipping,  has  now  been  perfected  by  allowing 
the  repayment  of  the  whole  import  duty  on 
the  re-exportation  of  foreign  goods.  By  the 
use  of  bonded  warehouses,  the  merchant  is 
enabled  to  jmy  the  custom  at  the  time  most 
convenient  to  himself.  This  system  was  con- 
ceived by  Sir  R.  Walpole,  and  carried  out  in 
1803.    The  management  of  the  customs  is  in 


the  hands  of  a  chairman   and  a   board  of 

commissioners  (6  Goo.  lY.,  c.  106),  who  are 

under  the  control  of  the  Commissioners  of  the 

Treasury. 

Btubbs,  Consf..  Htttory,  c.  xvii. ;  McCuUoch*8 
SmiiK\  Wealth  of  HaHiyMi  HcCullocli'a  Diet,  of 
ComvMro$,  [W.  H.] 

Ciurtos  Sotnlonun  is  an  officer  of 
great  antiquity  who  serves  the  function  of 
keejMjr  of  the  records  of  the  sessions  of  a 
county.  Acts  were  passed  in  37  Henry  VIII. 
(1545)  and  3  &  4  Ed.  VI.  (1549)  considerably 
limiting  his  im][)ortance,  and  the  office  was 
finally  regulated  in  1688.  He  must  be  a 
justice  of  the  x^f^^^-'c,  and  of  the  quorum,  and 
IS  now  usually  the  lord-lieutenant  of  a  county, 
though  the  two  offices  are  quite  distinct, 
the  one  being  militarj'',  the  other  ci^•il. 

Cntch  is  a  native  state  of  India  which 
forms  a  peninsula  to  the  south  of  Scinde. 
The  liao  of  Cutch  entered  into  an  agree- 
ment ^4th  the  East  India  Company  in  1809, 
and  concluded  treaties  x^ith  Great  Britain  in 
1816.  Piracy  was  largely  carried  on  by  the 
inhabitants,  and  on  tliis  account,  and  in 
order  to  check  the  misgovemment  of  the 
province,  the  English  intervened  and  de- 
posed the  Rao.  By  a  treaty  'udth  Great 
Britain  made  in  1822,  the  country  became 
tributary  to  England,  and  received  a  Resi- 
dent appointed  by  the  Bombay  goveiTunent. 

Cuthbertf  St.  {d.  687),  was  in  all  pro- 
bability a  native  of  Northumbria,  and  bom 
in  the  district  which  afterwards  became  the 
Lothians.     Early  in  life  he  became  a  monk, 
and  afterwards  prior,  at  Melrose,  under  its 
first  abbot,   Eata,  one  of  the  disciples   of 
Aldan,  and  followed  him  when  he  was  trans- 
ferred to   Ripon.    Subseouently,  Eata  was 
appointed  Abbot  of  Lindisfame,  and  Cuthbcrt 
accompanied  him  thither  as  x>rior,  whence  ho 
retired  to  a  hermitage  on  the  adjacent  island 
of  Fame.    At  the  entreaties  of  Egfrod  of 
Korthumbria    he    quitted    his   retreat    and 
allowed  himself  to  be  consecrated  Bishop  of 
Lindisfame  by  Archbishop  Theodore  (686). 
Before  his  death,  he  again  retii'ed  to  his 
seclusion  at  Fame,  where  he  died,  ^larch  20, 
687.     Cuthbert's  life  while  at  Melrose  and 
Lindisfame  was  one  long  missionarj'  effort. 
He  travelled  over  all  northern  Northumbria, 
and  converted  great  numbers  from  heathen- 
ism.    His  fame  was  very  great  in  the  nortli, 
and  many  miracles  were  ascribed  to  his  relicsi. 
Throughout  the  Middle  Ages  his  shrine  at 
Durham  was  a  great  centre  of   pilgrimage, 
and  he  continued  to  be  the  favourite  saint 
of  northern  England. 

The  Lift  of  8t.  Cuthh'-rt  was  written  by  Bede, 
and  there  ia  another  Life  written  by  an  anony- 
menu  and  evidently  contemponmeoos  antbor. 
See  alec  Bede'a  £coU«ta«tf  caZ  History. 

Cnthredv  King  of  Wessex  (740 — 764), 
was  a  kinsman  of  ^thelhcard,  whom  Ke 
succeeded.      He   restored    the    podtioa    of 


Cut 


(  349) 


Dac 


Weflsex  to  what  it  had  been  in  the  days  of 
Ini.  In  743,  in  conjunction  with  the  Mer- 
cuinSy  he  defeated  the  Britons.  In  752 
Cuthred  and  his  people  rose  against  the 
yoke  of  the  Mercians,  and  utterly  defeated 
the  3Iercian  king  Ethelbald  at  Burford,  on 
the  borders  of  Oxfordshire  and  Gloucester- 
shire; In  the  next  year  he  once  more  de- 
feated the  Britons,  and  died  in  754  or  755, 
after  a  prosperous  and  victorious  career. 
[Wessiex.J 

Chlttack.  The  country'  on  the  Coroman- 
del  coast  forming  the  northern  portion  of 
Orissa,  and  lying  eastward  of  Berar.  It  was 
conquered  by  the  Mahrattas  in  1751,  and 
taken  from  them  by  the  British  at  the  outset 
of  the  campaign  of  1803,  the  fort  of  Cuttack 
surrendering  on  Oct.  14  in  that  year. 

Cutts.  JoHX,  Lord  {d.  1707),  served  with 
great  gallantry  in  the  wars  of  the  reigns 
of  William  III.  and  Anne.  At  the  battle 
of  the  Boxnie,  he  led  the  English  regiments 
that  had  served  under  the  states  General, 
and  was  rewarded  by  an  Irish  peerage. 
He  volunteered  for  the  unfortimato  expe- 
dition against  Brest.  He  led  the  forlorn 
hope  at  the  siege  of  Kamur,  and  for  his  utter 
contempt  of  danger  on  that  occasion  obtained 
the  honourable  nickname  of  *'  the  Salaman- 
der." In  1702  he  led  the  storminff  party 
against  Fort  St.  Michael,  the  stron^old  of 
Venloo;  and  at  the  battle  of  Blenheim  he 
conducted  the  assault  on  the  village,  but  was 
repulsed  with  terrible  loss.  Seeing  the 
strength  of  the  opposition,  Marlborough 
directed  him  to  keep  up  a  feigned  attack, 
while  the  main  effort  was  made  against  the 
French  centre.  In  1706  he  was  nuide  Com- 
mander-in-chief, and  one  of  the  Lord  Justices 
of  Ireland. 

Ibrlboroagh,  Di^patchet;  Itfacanlny,  Hiri.  of 
England. 

Cwielielxn  {f>.  611,  </.  636)  was  the  son  of 
Cynegils,  King  of  the  West  Saxons,  and  for 
some  time  shared  the  throne  of  his  father. 
Jealous  of  the  power  of  Edwin  of  North- 
nmbria,  in  626  he  sent  oS.  one  of  his  ser- 
A'ants  with  a  poisoned  dagger  to  murder  that 
king,  whose  life  was  saved  only  by  the  devo- 
tion of  his  dependant,  Edmer.  Two  years 
later  Cwichelm  and  his  father  were  worsted 
in  a  battle  near  Cirencester  by  the  ^Mercian 
king  Penda.  In  636  Cwichelm  was  baptised 
at  Dorchester  by  Birinus,  and  died  the  same 
Year. 

CymbelixLe  (Cuxorelix)  was  a  British 
chief,  whose  capital  was  at  Camulodunum 
(Colchester)  an(l  who,  from  the  number  of 
coins  bearing  his  name,  seems  to  have  l)een  a 
verj'  powerful  prince.  [Coixaoe.]  It  is  said 
that  one  of  his  sons,  Adminius^rebelled 
•gainst  him,  and  having  been  baxflbed^  by 


his  father,  sought  aid  from  the  Emperor 
Caligula.  Another  of  his  sons  was  the  well- 
known  Caractacus. 

Die  CawiuB ;  Wright.  The  Celt,  th9  Roman,  artfi 
the  Saxon. 

C3nnzy  is  the  native  name  of  the  Welsh. 
[Celts;  Britons:  Wales.]  There  are  ob- 
jections to  the  very  common  use  of  this  word 
in  a  more  general  sense  in  contrast  to  Gael, 
as  denoting  that  great  bi-anch  of  the  Celtic 
race  of  which  the  Welsh  are  the  type. 

Bb^s,  CfUte  Britain,  who  snggests  Brjrthons 
M  a  better  term  for  the  generic  seiiBe  of  Cjmry. 

Cynegils,  King  of  Wesscx  (611—643), 
was  the  son  of  Ceolric,  and  nephew  of  Ceol- 
wulf ,  whom  he  succeeded.  His  scm  or  brother, 
Cwichelm,  seems  to  have  been  associated 
with  him  in  the  govei*nnient.  In  614  they 
fought  against  the  Bntons  at  Bampton, 
and  routed  them.  They  ap)>ear  to  have 
been  hard  pressed  by  the  Northumbrians 
and  Mercians,  under  Edwin  and  Penda 
respectivelv.  In  628  Penda  attacked  Ciren- 
cester, and  a  treaty  was  made  there  which 
probably  circumscribed  the  boundaries  of 
Wessex  on  the  north-west.  In  635  C}*negils 
was  converted  to  Christianity  by  Birinus,  and 
was  baptised  at  Dorchester,  his  sponsor  being 
the  Northumbrian  king  Oswald,  who  after- 
wards became  his  son-in-law. 

Cynewnlfy  King  of  Wessex  (755? — 
784  ?),  was  descended  from  Cerdic,  and  became 
king  on  the  deposition  of  Sigebert.  He  en- 
gaged in  several  hard-fought  though  success- 
ful, conflicts  with  the  Britons,  but  at  what 
place  and  in  what  year  we  arc  not  informed. 
He  had  a  formidable  rival  in  Ofla  of  Mercia, 
and  in  777  the  stronghold  of  Bensington 
(near  Wallingf ord)  was  captured  by  that  king. 
In  784  (PJ  Cynewulf  was  murdered  at 
Merton,  in  Surrey,  by  CjTieheard,  the 
brother  of  the  former  king,  Sigebert.  This 
tragedy  is  verj'  finely  related  in  the  Anglo^ 
Saxon  Chronicle,  and  the  stor\'  is,  as  usual, 
amplified  by  Henry  of  Huntingdon. 

Cynric  (d.  660  ?),  the  son  of  Cerdic,  seems 
to  have  been  recognised  as  King  of  the  West 
Saxons,  conjointly  with  his  father,  in  619. 
He  extended  his  kingdom  after  his  father*s 
death  to  the  west  and  north,  defeating  the 
Britons  at  Old  Sarum,and  afterwards  fighting 
a  drawn  battle  with  them  at  a  place  which 
has  been  plausibly  identified  with  Banbur}-. 


DacreSy  Leonard,  of  Na worth  {d.  1581, 
"  of  the  crooked  back,"  a  powerful  gentleman 
of  Northumberland,  and  the  inheritor  of  the 
lands  of  Naworth.  Dacres  was  privy  to  the 
Catholic  Rebellion  of  theNorth  in  1569,  though 
he  did  not  take  an  active  part  in  it,  and  even 


Bac 


(  350  ) 


Dal 


sided  with  the  royalists  when  he  saw  all  was 
lost.  His  arrest  was,  nevertheless,  ordered,  but 
could  not  be  carried  into  execution,  owing  to 
the  large  number  of  men  who  assembled  at 
Naworth  to  protect  its  lord.  On  the  first  op- 
portunity Dacres  escaped  into  Scotland,  and 
subsequently  joined  the  Duke  of  Alva's  army 
in  the  Low  Countries. 

Aiken,  EUtaheth ;  Sadler,  State  Papers. 

HacreSf  Lord  op  Hukstmonceaux  {d. 
1541)  (Lord  Dacres  of  the  South),  was  a 
young  nobleman  who,  in  company  with 
several  friends,  had  engaged  in  a  deer-stealing 
expedition  to  the  park  of  an  unpopular  neigh- 
bour. During  the  affray  which  ensued  one 
of  the  foresters  was  killed,  and  the  whole 
party  were  brought  up  for  trial,  and  a  verdict 
of  wilful  murder  was  returned.  Despite  all 
the  efforts  of  Dacres's  friends,  Henry  VIII. 
would  not  consent  to  spare  the  young  man*s 
life,  saying  he  would  deal  out  equal  justice  to 
all  ranks.  Lord  Dacres  was  accordingly 
executed  in  1541. 

Deegsastan,  or  Bawston,  was  the  scene 
of  the  great  victory  won  by  Ethelfrith  of 
Northumbria  (1603)  over  Aidiin,  King  of  the 
Scots,  who  was  followed  by  a  large  force  of 
Iri»h  Picts  and  Briton*'  Kthelfrith  was 
assisted  by  the  Dalriads,^^,  A  gained  a  signal 
victory.  Dcegsastan  is  probably  Dawston  in 
Koxburghshire. 

Dalhousie,  0th  Earl  <^  {b,  1770,  d. 
1838),  distinguished  himself '  as  a  soldier 
in  the  earlier  vears  of  his  life.  For  his  ser- 
vices  in  the  French  War,  and  especially  at 
the  battle  of  Waterloo,  he  was  raised  to  a 
peerage  in  the  United  Kingdom.  In  1816  he 
was  a'ppointed  Governor  of  Nova  Scotia,  and 
four  years  later  Govemor-Greneral  of  Canada. 
More  of  a  soldier  than  a  statesman,  he  failed 
to  conciliate  the  democratic  party,  who  were 
clamourinj^  for  reforms.  About  this  time  a 
select  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons 
declared  the  grievances  of  the  Canadians  to 
be  real,  and  in  1828  Lord  Dalhousie  was 
recalled. 

HalllOXlsiey  James  Andrew  Browk-Ram- 
SAY,  1st  Marquis  and  IOtk  Earl  of  {b.  1812, 
d.  1860),  was  the  third  son  of  the  ninth  Earl 
of  Dalhousie,  and  was  educated  at  Harrow 
and  Oxford,  where  he  had  for  his  fellow- 
students  Lord  Canning  and  Lord  Elgin,  his 
successors  in  the  Indian  Viceroyalty.  He 
entered  the  House  of  Commons  young,  but 
was  soon  allied  to  the  Upper  House,  on  his 
father's  death.  Under  Sir  Robert  Peers 
ministry  he  was  successivelv  Vice-President 
and  President  (1844)  of  the  Board  of  Trade— 
a  post  in  which  he  perhaps  did  more  than  any 
other  statesman  for  the  development  of  our 
railway  system.  On  the  fall  of  Sir  Robert 
Peel's  government  he  did  not  quit  oflBce,  but 
was  soon  appointed  Governor-General  of 
India  (1848).   It  was  a  time  of  great  peril  for 


British  India,  where  the  Sikhs  were  threaten- 
ing much  trouble,  and  in  such  an  emergency 
Dalhousie  determined  to  be  on  the  scene  of 
danger.  After  the  victories  of  Goojerat  and 
Moultan,  he  re-organised  the  government  cf 
the  Punjaub,  and  in  1852,  by  the  capture  of 
Pegu,  completed  the  frontier  of  British 
Burmah.  The  remainder  of  his  term  of  office 
was  occupied  in  consolidating  the  great 
empire  under  his  rule.  Oude  and  Nagpore, 
in  addition  to  Pegu  and  the  Punjaub,  were 
brought  directly  under  our  government,  while 
the  Civil  Service  was  more  and  more  thrown 
open  to  all  natural  bom  subjects  of  the  crown, 
English  and  Hindoo  alike.  The  administrative 
dejpartments  received  fresh  energy  from  his 
reforms,  and  the  railway  system,  the  tele- 
graph, and  education  were  fostered  by  his 
care.  Under  the  strain  of  such  work  his 
health  began  to  fail,  and  in  1856  he  resigned 
office,  and  soon  afterwards  left  Calcutta  for 
Europe.  The  Indian  Mutiny,  which  so 
swiftly  followed  his  resignation,  was  by 
captious  critics  of  the  time  attributed  to  his 
passion  for  change ;  but  Parliament  passed  a 
vote  of  thanks  to  him  for  his  services,  and  the 
government  showed  its  sense  of  his  merits  by 
creating  him  a  marquis.  He  died  soon  after  his 
return  to  England,  while  still  comparatively 
a  young  man,  in  Doc.,  1860. 

Duke  of  Argyle,  India  under  Dalfcoti^'a  and 
Cawiitig.  [T.  A.  A] 

Dallmg,  Lord.    [^^^  Appendix.] 

Dalriada — Dal-Riada^  **  the  home  of  the 
descendants  of  Riada  " — was  (1)  a  district  in 
Ireland,  including  the  northern  half  of  county 
Antrim,  apparently  one  of  the  oldest  settle- 
ments of  the  Scots  among  the  Picts  of  Ulster; 
(2)  the  name  given  to  the  district  of  Argyle- 
shire,  settled  by  the  immigrant  Scots  from 
Ireland.  [For  the  histor}"^  of  the  Kifigdom  of 
Dalt'uid<ry  see  article  on  Scots.] 
Skene,  Celtic  ScoUavd,  toI.  i. 

Dairy,  The  Battle  op,  was  an  cft- 
giigement  fought  between  John  of  Lorn,  a 
relation  of  Comj-n,  and  Robert  Bruce.  In 
this  engagement  the  Scottish  king  distin- 
guished himself  by  the  skill  with  which  he 
moved  back  his  armoured  knights  from  the 
swarm  of  half-naked  Highlanders,  who  made 
the  att'ick  upon  ground  that  was  essentially 
unfavourable  for  the  operations  of  cavalr7. 

DBXtymple,  Sir  Hew  {b.  1750,  d.  1830), 
obtained  an  ensign^s  commission  in  the  31st 
Regiment  in  1762.  After  holding  various 
other  commands,  he  was  in  1806  appointed 
Governor  of  Gibraltar,  where  he  remained 
until  August,  1808,  when  he  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  British  army  in  Portugal 
He  arrived  at  head-quarters  the  day  after 
Wellesley's  victory  at  Vimiero,  and  super- 
seded Jkrard,  who  had  already  superseded 
Welleflp,    and   had   prevented   him   from 


Dal 


(351  ) 


Dan 


taking  full  advantage  of  his   victory.     On 

Junot's  propoflal,  terms  were  very  soon  made 

"by  Dalrymple  with  the  French,  which  were 

embodied  in  the  Convention  of  Cintra.    The 

news  of  that  convention  was  received  with  the 

loudest  indignation  in  England,  and  the  three 

commanders  were  recalled,  and  put  on  their 

trial.  Sir  Hew  was  deprived  of  his  command ; 

but  his  disgrace  was  of  brief  duration,  and 

terminiited  in  1812,  when  he  was  restored  to 

the  rank  of  general,  while  two  years  later  he 

Avas    made    a    baronet.      In    1818    he    was 

appointed  Governor  of  Blackness  Castle,  which 

post  he  seems  to  have  held  up  to  the  time  of 

bis  death.     [Vimieho  ;  Cintka.] 

CuDniiigham,  Eminent  Englidtmen ;   Napier, 
Ptningular  War, 

Dalrymplei  Sm  James.  [Stair,  Vis- 
count.] 

Dalryxnplei  Sm  John.  [Stair,  2nd  Yis- 

COIXT.  ] 

Dalzymplef  David.    [Hailer,  Lord.] 

Dalrymple,  Sir  James,  Master  of  Stair 
\b.  1619,  d.  i695),  was  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners sent  to  London  (1689)  to  oifer  the  "crown 
of  Scotland  to  William  III.  He  was  an  able 
and  unscrupulous  man,  so  unpopular  that  the 
Scotch  Parliament  endeavoured  to  pass  a 
measure  disqualifying  him  from  holding 
office,  on  the  ground  that  he  had  assailed  Hah 
liberties  of  the  country  in  the  previous  reigns. 
His  name  will,  owing  to  the  oi'dera  issued  by 
him  as  Secretary  for  Scotland,  ever  be  execrated 
in  history,  in  connection  with  the  Massacre 
of  Glencoe  (q.v.).  After  an  inquiry  into  the 
matter,  he  was  severely  censured  by  the 
Estates,  who  "begged  that  his  Majesty*^ 
would  give  such  orders  concerning  him  as  he 
might  deem  necessary  for  the  vindication  of 
his  government."  Lord  Macaulay  calls  him 
**  one  of  the  first  men  of  his  time — a  jurist,  a 
statesman,  a  fine  scholar,  an  eloquent  orator," 
and  considers  that  his  treacherous  cruelty  to 
the  Macdonalds  arose  froi^  the  fact  that 
regarding  them  as  he  did  in  the  light  of 
enemies  of  law,  of  industry,  and  of  trade,  he 
came  altogether  to  forget  the  turpitude  of 
the  means  in  the  excellence  of  the  end. 

Dalrymple,  Sir  John  (b.  1726,  <?.  1810), 
was  bom  in  Edinburgh,  educated  at  Cam- 
bridge, and  became  an  advocate  at  the  Scotch 
bar,  and  afterwards  a  judge  of  the  Scotch 
Exchequer.  He  wrote,  besides  some  legal 
works,  Memoirs  of  Great  Bi-itain  from  the 
iast  J'arliatnent  of  Charles  II,  to  the  Battle  of 
la  Hoffttef  3  vols.,  1771. 

Dalsielf  Thomas,  General  {d.  1685  F), 
distinguished  himself  as  an  officer  on  the 
royal  side  in  the  Parliamentary  wars.  He 
was  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Wawester, 
and  sent  ob  a  prisoner  to  the  To^H  from 
which,  however,  he  managed  to  eHpe  to 


Muscovy,  where  he  served  against  the  Poles  and 
Tartars.  After  the  Restoration,  ho  returned 
home  (1665),  and  was  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  of  Charles  II.'s  forces  in  Scotland — a 
post  which  he  held  till  his  death,  excepting 
for  the  few  days  when  he  was  superucnled  by 
the  Duke  of  Monmouth,  whom  Dal/a  el  is  said 
to  have  refused  to  serve.  He  defeated  the 
Covenanters  at  the  battle  of  Pentland  HiUs 
(1666),  only  losing  five  men  on  his  side,  and 
after  this  victory  is  said  by  Burnet  to  have 
"acted  the  Muscovite  too  grossly,"  threaten- 
ing to  spit  and  roast  all  the  disaffected. 
After  the  battle  of  Bothwell  Bridge  (1679), 
General  Dalzicl  arrived  at  the  royal  camp 
with  his  commission  renewed,  and  reproached 
the  Duke  of  Monmouth  for  his  leniency  to- 
wards the  insurgents.  He  was  remarkable 
for  the  eccentricity  of  his  appearance,  and  at 
London,  whither  he  always  went  once  a  year 
to  kiss  the  king*s  hand,  drew  around  him  a 
rabble  of  boys  to  stare  at  his  huge  white 
beard,  which,  not  having  been  shaved  since 
the  death  of  Charles  I.,  reached  to  his  waist. 
He  died  soon  after  the  accession  of  James  II., 
in  the  year  1685  or  1686. 

Smith,  Memoire  of  Crichton  ;  Bnmet,  History 
of  his  Oicn  Time;  Qranger,  Biographical  History, 

D'AmorjT,  K  ..h  (d.  1322),  married  one 
of  the  three  sisters  of  Gilbert  of  Clare,  Earl 
of  Gloucester.  In  1317,  when  war  broke 
out  between  the  Earls  of  Lancaster  and 
Warenne,  Rr  er  joined  with  the  Earl  of 
Pembroke  to  obtain  supremacy  in,  the  king^s 
councils.  In  1320  Lancaster  received  his 
help  in  his  attack  upon  the  Spencers;  and 
his  name  is  included  in  a  list  of  peers  who 
received  pardon  for  any  illegalities  they  might 
have  committed  in  bringing  the  favourites  to 
justice  (1321).  His  quarrel  with  the  younger 
Spencer  was  probably  due  to  their  joint 
claims  in  the  Gloucester  inheritance :  for 
they  had  married  sisters.  I^ter  in  the  same 
year,  when  Edward  IL  took  arms,  Roger 
D'Amor}'  was  one  of  the  first  to  feel  the 
effects  of  the  king*s  recovered  strength. 
His  castles  were  attacked,  and  before  long  he 
fell  into  the  hands  of  his  enemies  at  Tntbury — 
a  misfortune  which  he  did  not  long  sundve. 

Danegeldy  The,  was  a  tax  of  two 
shillings  on  each  hide  of  land,  and  was  levied 
primarily  as  a  tribute  for  the  Danes,  though 
it  continued  long  after  the  occasion  for  which 
it  was  first  levied  had  passed  away.  It  seems 
originally  to  have  been  a  tax  on  cultivated 
lands,  and  to  have  been  first  levied  in  the 
times  of  Ethelrcd  IL,  proWbly  for  the  firet 
time  in  991.  Edward  the  Confessor  abolished 
it,  but  William  the  Conqueror  seems  to  have 
revived  it  again  at  a  threefold  rate  of  six 
shillings  the  hide  (1084).  This  tax  was  con- 
tinued until  the  rei^  of  Henry  II.  An  im- 
position apparently  almost  identical  in  cha- 
racter with  the  Danegeld,  of  two  shillings  on 
the  hide,  formed  one  of  the  earliest  points  ot 


Dan 


(  352  ) 


Ba& 


dispute  between  Henry  II.  and  Beckct  in  1 163  ; 
and  as  from  this  very  year  the  Danegeld 
ceased  to  bo  a  distinct  item  in  tbo  king's 
revenue,  it  is  infoiTod  that  the  lianegeld  was 
thus  abolished  by  the  energetic  opposition  of 
the  ai-ehbishop.  From  this  time  it  was  for 
some  years  represented  in  the  accounts  by  a 
taXf  under  the  name  of  donuuiy  or  attxilium 
[AidI,  which,  according  to  Dr.  Stubbs,  was 
still  levied  on  a  now  computation  of  hidatje, 
till  under  Richard  I.  it  acquired  the  new 
name  of  carncttge  (q.v.). 

Stubbs,  Const,  Wit, ;  Freeman,  Iforma%  CaHf 
quat,  vol.  iv. 

Danelagh  (Baxelaw,  or  Denalaou). 
The  name  given  to  that  part  of  England 
where  Banish  blood,  customs,  and  laws  had 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent  modified,  or 
usurped  the  place  of,  the  corresponding 
Anglian  features,  Koughly  speaking,  wo 
may  say  that  the  Danish  influence  gradually 
lessened  as  the  distance  from  Yorkshire  in- 
cretused.  The  extent  of  Daneland  varied 
at  different  periods.  The  gi*eat  stretch  of 
country  that  was  in  later  times  included  under 
the  general  name  of  the  Danelagh  seems  to 
have  been  duo  to  throe,  if  not  four,  different 
colonisations.  First  came  the  settlement  in 
Deira,  which,  beginning  with  the  concjuest  of 
York  in  867,  was  consimimatcd  when  Halfden 
separated  from  the  southern  here  in  875, 
and  next  year  divided  Deira  among  his  host. 
The  southern  part  of  this  province  may  bo 
considered  as  the  very  heart  of  the  settle- 
ment, the  distinct  w^here  the  Danes  were  most 
:iumerous.  Here  the  typical  Danish  endings 
thorpe  and  eanter  ana  hy  occur  in  the 
greatest  profusion.  But  the  Danes  do  not 
appear  to  have  spread  into  Lancashii-e  in 
any  numbers,  and  the  Korse  names  in 
Cumberland  and  "Westmoreland  are  pro- 
bably due  to  invasions  of  another  timo 
and  family.  Kor  do  the  Danes  seem  to 
have  colonised  beyond  the  Tees.  Across 
this  boundary  river,  with  a  few  excep- 
tions, the  tons  and  the  hams  are  the 
rule,  and  it  is  said  that  only  four  by  a  are 
to  bo  found  north  of  the  last-named  river. 
Beyond  its  banks  are  Chester-le-Street  and 
Chesterwood  ;  Stockton  and  Middleham  tako 
the  place  of  Doncastor,  Whitby,  and  Barwick. 
But  even  within  the  more  strictly  Danish 
districts  of  the  north,  we  must  not  suppose  an 
cxtiri>ation  of  the  Anglian  inhabitants.  These, 
being  very  near  by  blood  and  language  to  their 
conquerors,  came  in  merely  as  new  lords,  with- 
out any  violent  'change,  to  an  entirely  fresh 
state  of  things.  So  Collingham  lies  close  by 
Netherby  and  Alverthorpe  by  Wakefield,  and 
Chester  House  not  verj'  far  from  North  AUer- 
ton.  The  second  great  Danish  colony  was  that 
of  Lincoln,  which  seems  to  have  spread  down 
to  the  borders  of  Holland  (a  district  distinctly 
non- Danish  in  its  local  nomenclature),  and  is 
marked  by  the  same  general  features  as  tho 


colony  in  Deira,  only  in  a  less  degree.  The 
heart  of  this  settlement  seems  to  have  been 
in  the  Lindsey  ux)lands.  The  partition  of  this 
2)art  of  the  couutry  took  place  probably  in 
877.  The  colonisation  of  Lindsev  seems 
to  be  distinct  from  that  which  included 
Leicester,  Nottingham,  Derby,  and  North- 
ampton, and  which,  in  some  parts,  even 
extended  a  few  miles  beyond  Watling  Street. 
In  later  years  this  settlement  appears  in 
history  as  embracing  Lincoln,  and  is  then 
known  as  the  '*  Five  Boroughs."  The  fourth 
and  last  important  Danish  conquest  was  that 
of  East  Anglia  and  £s$ex.  But  here  the 
colonisation  must  have  been  very  slight.  The 
tyjiical  Danish  endings  are  comparatively  rare 
both  in  Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  and  there  is  only 
one  district  that  is  largely  characterised  by  the 
hy  termination:  that  lying  round  the  mouth 
of  the  Yare.  Such  were  the  three  or  four  great 
divisions  of  the  Danish  settlements  in  Eng- 
land, and  their  furthest  extent  is  marked  by 
the  Treaty  of  Wedmore  between  Alfred  and 
Guthrum,  as  up  the  Thames  to  the  Lee,  along 
the  Leo  to  its  source,  then  to  Bedford,  and 
thence  up  the  Ouse  to  Watling  Street.  But 
tho  whole  of  this  territory  can  never  have 
been  in  any  strict  sense  Danish,  and  the 
greater  pjirt  was  gradually  won  back,  and  in- 
corporated with  the  Wt-st  Saxon  monarchy. 
Under  Edwai*d  the  Elder,  the  greater  part  of 
jftlcrcia  and  Essex  was  recovered ;  East  Anglia 
submitted  in  921,  as  did  the  Danish  earldom  of 
Northampton ;  while  in  94 1,  tho  Five  Boroughs 
were  finally  won  for  the  West  Saxon  crown. 
Meanwhile,  the  Danish  kingdom  of  the 
north  had  been  tottering,  and  was  deprived 
of  its  independence  by  Edred  (864). 

There  are,  unfortunately,  very  few  materials 
remaining  from  which  to  reconstruct  the 
special  features  even  of  those  divisions  of  the 
Danelagh  where  the  Scandinavian  influence 
was  strongest.  The  two  great  settlements  of 
Deira  and  Lindsey  were  divided  into  ridiuys, 
or  trithinytf  and  these  again  sub-divided 
into  wapentakes — a  term  which  corresjjonds 
with  the  hundpods  of  the  south.  The  court 
of  the  trithing  w^as  superior  to  that  of  the 
wapentake,  and  this  arrangement  has  been 
considered  to  point  to  a  systematic  di\4sion  of 
the  land,  more  especially  as,  in  Yorkshire,  all 
three  ridings  converge  towards  the  town  of 
York.  In  Domesdav,  Leicestershire,  Notting- 
hamshire, and  Der\)y8hire  appear  as  divided 
into  wapentakes,  but  tho  trithing,  as  was  to 
bo  expected,  is  not  to  be  found  in  these 
counties.  Northamptonshire  and  Kutland 
had  both  wapentakes  and  hundreds;  while 
the  East  Anglian  counties  had  neither 
trithing  nor  wapentake.  East  Anglia  was  for 
a  time  governed  by  its  own  Danish  king,  as 
■  was  Deira  in  the  north ;  but  there  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  any  such  dignity  in 
Lindsey  or  tho  Five  Boroughs,  though  each  of 
the  five  towns  may  have  had  its  own  army, 
with  its  own  etirl,  and  the  occurrence  of 


Dan 


(  363  ) 


Baa 


twelve  lawfnen  in  Lincoln  and  Stamford  may 
perhaps  point  to  a  similar  form  of  govern- 
ment in  Leicester  and  the  other  two  towns. 
The   difference  in  law  between  Danish  and 
West  Saxon  Britain  cannot  have  been  ver^' 
great.     ^^  The  customs  of  compurgation,  wer- 
geld,  and  other  pecuniar}''  compositions  for 
the  breach  of  the  peace,  were  common  to 
both  races.      But,  while  by  Alfred's  treaty 
with  Guthrum,  English  and  Danes  were  in 
£ast  Anglia  reckoned  equally  dear,  in  York- 
shire, the  wergeld  of  the  Danieii  hold  was  greater 
than   that  of  the  Anglian  or  Saxon  thegn, 
Mr.  Robertson  considers  that  the  Northern 
Danes  "  eradicated  every  vestige  of  proprie- 
tary rights  in  the  districts  actually  colonised," 
whereas  the  Eastern  Danes  quietly  settled  down 
alongside  of  the  earlier  Anglian  inhabitants ; 
and   Dr.  Stubbs  has  noticed  how  fully  the 
allodial  tenure  must  have  been  reinstated  in 
Yorkshire  and  East  Anglia.      But  in  any 
case,  however  trifling  they  may  have  been, 
certain   easily  recognisable    distinctions  did 
separate  the  laws  and  customs  of  the  Danelagh 
from  those  of  Mercia  and  Wessex.     It  is  to 
this  fact  that  Edgar  alludes  when  he  wills 
that  *'  with  the  Danes,  such  laws  should  stand 
as  they  best  may  choose ;  **  or,  again,  when  he 
bids  the  Danes  inflict  punishment  '*  according 
to  their  law.'*     Canute  recognises  the  same 
distinction,  which  re-appears  even  after  the 
Conquest,  till  it   vani&es  away  during  the 
wars  of  Stf^phen.     With  Henry  II.  the  king's 
justice  was  in  every  land,  and  the  historians 
of  his  reign,  in  using  the  term,  show  them- 
selves  uncertain  what  shires  belong  to  this 


<aivi8ion. 


The  following  are  the  shires  reckoned  in 
the  Danelagh  at  different  periods : — Yorkshire, 
Norfolk,  Suffolk,  Essex,  Nottinghamshire,  Lin- 
colnshire, Leicestershire,  Derbyshire,  Rutland, 
Northamptonshire,  Cambridgeshire,  Hunting- 
donshire, Buckinghamshire,  Bedfordshire, 
Hertfordshire.     [Danes.] 

Bobertson,  ScafJLand  under  \er  Early  Kings; 
Stubbs,  CoMtUutional  HUtary ;  Freeman,  Mov^ 
man  CcmqyMt ;  Qneai,  The  Conquett  of  Eiigland  ; 
Thorpe,  ilHCMnt  Law*  and  I«i«ti(ut«8  of  England; 
Wonaae,  IXines  in  England  ;  I.  Taylor,  Words  and 
Places;  StreatfeUd,  Lincolnsfkir*  and  the  Danes. 

[T.  A.  A.] 

DaiiOS  (also  called  Northmen,  orWiKiNos) 
are  generically  the  Scandinavian  freebooters 
and  immigrants  (not  only  those  from  Don- 
mark  proper),  whose  incursions  and  settle- 
ments fill  a  large  space  in  English  history 
from  the  eighth  to  the  eleventh  centur}'. 

Mr.  Freeman  has  distinguished  three  stages 
of  Danish  invasion,  in  which  the  objects  were 
plunder,  settlement,  and  conquest  respectively. 
(1)  The  first  stage  begins  with  the  devasta- 
tion of  Northumbria,  in  787.  Ever>'  year  saw 
fresh  swarms  of  pirates  pillaging  the  coasts, 
and  sometimes  penetrating  far  inland.  Not 
only  England,  but  all  Northern  Europe,  was 
exposed  to  these  inroads,  and  as  the  triumphs 

HMT.~12 


of  Charles  the  Great  had  made  access  to 
North  Germany  difficult,  it  was  by  sea  that 
they  commonly  went  on  their  forays.  Their 
object  was  mainly  plunder.  Settlement  or 
conquest  was  impossible.  Scandinavia  was 
out  up  into  so  many  petty  states,  that  the 
necessary  degree  of  cohesion  was  hardly  yet 
obtainable  for  combined  efforts.  Sated 
with  boot}',  the  sea-kings  returned  to  their 
native  dales  and  fjords,  to  sallv  forth  again 
at  the  approach  of  summer.  Fierce  heathens 
as  yet,  they  destroyed  every  Christian  shrine 
and  sanctuary,  spread  universal  misery  and 
want,  and  added  a  new  and  terrible  danger  to 
the  many  terrors  of  early  medisBval  times. 
(2)  Within  a  century  of  the  first  inroads 
of  the  Wikings,  a  great  i-evolution  in  Scandi- 
navia began  a  new  era.  Great  kings  arose  in 
the  north,  who  subjected  to  themselves  the 
wide  districts  that  became  known  as  Norway, 
Sweden,  and  Denmark.  The  j'arU  or  petty 
kinglets  who  ruled  each  harad  (district  or 
county)  of  Scandinavia  were  crushed  into  de- 
pendence on  a  new  centralising  national  power. 
Harold  the  Fair-haired  (Harfagr)  in  Norway, 
Gorm  the  Old  in  Denmark,  raised  themselves 
by  sheer  pei-sonal  vigoui'  into  the  position  of 
kings  of  the  whole  land.  Eric  of  Upsala,  to 
a  lesser  extent,  made  every  district  of  Sweden 
and  Gottland  acknowledge  the  political  and 
religious  supremacy  of  the  protc»ctor  of  the 
great  sanctuary  of  Upsala.  It  was  the  same 
process  that  was  consolidating  England  into 
a  single  state,  and  which  afterwards  became 
the  source  of  the  national  idea.  But  as  in 
England  and  Germany,  the  new  development 
proved  a  deadly  foe  to  the  primitive  Teutonic 
polity,  which  had  survived  till  the  eighth 
century  in  Scandinavia,  just  as  it  had  been  de- 
scribed by  Tacitus  in  the  first  century  in  Ger- 
many. All  conscr\'ative  instincts  revolted 
against  the  degradation  of  the  sovereign  jarl 
to  the  condition  of  personal  subordination  to 
the  new  monarch.  The  best  and  bravest  of 
the  Northmen  abandoned  their  native  land, 
and  sought  to  win  by  their  swords  a  new 
home  for  their  old  polity.  Hence  the  g^eat 
Scandinavian  migrations  of  the  ninth  century. 
Again  the  Northmen  poured  into  England, 
seeking,  like  the  English  themselves  three 
centuries  earlier,  a  definite  settlement.  The 
second  half  of  the  ninth  century  is  the  limit 
of  this  period ;  at  its  close  half  Britain  was 
Danish.  The  formidable  alliance  of  Danes 
and  West  Welsh,  which  Egbert  crushed  at 
Hengestesdun,  perhaps  marks  the  beginning 
of  the  change.  Under  Ethelred  I.  of  Wessex 
the  crisis  was  reached.  Between  867  and  869 
Northumbria,  long  distracted  by  anarchy, 
accepted  as  monarch  the  dependent  of  the 
pagan  invaders.  In  868  Alercia  was  overrun, 
and  in  870  the  martyrdom  of  the  sainted  King 
Edmund  attested  the  completeness  of  their 
conquest  of  East  Anglia.  In  871  the  ruling 
kingdom  of  the  West  Saxons  was  invaded. 
A    brilliant    series    of    hard-fought    battle^ 


San 


(354) 


San 


taught  the  invader  that  Wessex  was  not  so 
easy  a  prey  as  the  subject  states.  When 
Ethelred  died  in  the  middle  of  the  contest, 
his  brother  Alfi-od  kept  up  the  struggle.  Ho 
succeeded  in  clearing  his  own  territory  at  the 
expeivc  of  the  overlordship  won  by  £gbert. 
But  Deira,  Northumbrian  and  East  Anglia 
were  regularly  occupied  and  symmetrically 
divided  among  the  conquerors  with  the  same 
numerical  piticision  as  marks  the  allotment  of 
Iceland.  A  fi*esh  invasion  of  Wessex  in  878 
reduced  Alfred  to  the  lowest  pitch  of  degra- 
dation, but  his  marvellous  revival  led  to  the 
Treaty  of  Wedmore,  that  acknowledged  the 
status  quOy  and  g^ve  the  Danes  all  the  land 
north-east  of  Watling  Street  (•.«.,  Chester  to 
Hertford),  and  the  Lea  and  Lower  Thames. 
Within  this  Danelagh  a  new  Scandinavia 
arose;  and  a  new  swarm  of  haradskonuttgr^ 
like  Guthorm  of  East  Anglia,  seemed  to  undo 
the  work  of  the  Pcndas  and  Edwins.  North 
of  Deira  an  English  lino  Qontinued  to  reign 
in  Bamborough.  While  this  was  going  on 
in  England,  other  settlements  were  being 
effected  in  the  north  and  west.  Fresh  swarms 
of  Wikings,  who  fled  "  from  the  tyranny  of 
Harold  Fairhair,"  colonised  the  Orkneys, 
Shetland,  Faroe,  Hebrides,  and  the  southern 
isles  as  far  as  Man,  and  in  Sutherland  and 
Caithness  effected  a  settlement  on  the  main- 
land. Indignant  at  their  desertion,  Harold 
went  in  peraon  to  subdue  them  to  his  swa}'^. 
The  boldest  sought  a  remoter  home  in  the 
hitherto  desert  Iceland,  and  thence  in  Green- 
land and  Vinland  (Massachusetts)  are  said  to 
have  established  the  first  European  colonies  in 
the  New  World.  Others  went  to  the  cast  coast 
of  Ireland,  where  such  names  as  Waterfoi'd 
and  Wexford  perpetuate  the  memory  of  the 
Wiking  state.  Thence  thev  inflicted  severe 
blows  on  Wales  and  Strathclyde.  The  abun- 
dance of  fordsj  holinsy  and  garths  iu  the  region 
round  Milfoixl  Haven  testifies  that  the  wander- 
ing sea-king  found  amidst  the  deep  inlets  of 
south-western  Dyfed'the  likeness  of  the  fjords 
of  his  northern  home.  Fainter  traces  of  a  pos* 
sible  settlement  in  Anglesea,  clearer  ones  of 
an  occupation  of  the  lands  round  Sol  way  Firth, 
mark  the  ubiquity  of  the  sea-kings*  ravages. 
Sometimes,  as  in  the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands, 
and  in  the  extreme  north  of  Scotland,  they 
drove  away  the  old  Celtic  inhabitants.  In 
others  they  displayed  that  capacity  for  assimi- 
lation with  the  subject  race  that  always  marked 
their  descendants.  Outside  the  bounds  of 
Britain,  similar  colonising  bands  won  Nor- 
mandy from  the  Carolings,  and  effected  smaller 
settlements  on  other  parts  of  the  Gaulish 
coast.  Eastwards  over  the  Baltic,  Rurik  and 
his  Wikingfs  founded  a  dynasty  in  Russia, 
whence  the  wamnger  carried  the  terror  of  the 
Scandinavian  name  to  the  court  of  the  Eastern 
Caesars.    The  Peace  of  Wedmore  began  a  new 

Sjriod  in  the  relation  between  English  and 
anes.     For  a  century  we  hear  little  of  fresh 
invasions   from  beyond  sea,  but  a  constant 


war  went  on  between  the  Danes  in  England 
and  the  West  Saxon  monaix.'hs  who  cndea* 
▼oured  to  subdue  them.     Even  the  constant 
devastations  of   the  ''black   pagans,"  which 
laid  waste  Carlisle,  and  hai-ried  with  fearful 
effects  Wales  after  the  death  of  Howel  Dha, 
were  the  work  mostly  of  Danish  settlers  in 
Ireland,  or  of  colonists  among  the  Brythons 
themselves.     The  steps  of  this  new  struggle 
are  as   follows:    Alfi*ed  rested  content  with 
the  acknowledgment  of  his  overlordship  and 
the   recognition   of   Chnstianity   among  the 
Danish  settlers.     Edward  the  Elder  and  his 
sister  .^Ethelflced,  the  ''  Lady  of  the  Mercians," 
went  a  step  farther  by  building  a  strong  line 
of  fortress  along  the  frontier  of  the  Danelagh, 
which  prevented  further  invasions  of  Wessex 
and  West  Saxon  Mei*cia,  and  were  starting- 
points  for  the  subjection  of  the  sons  of  the 
Wikings.     Athelstan  exceeded  this  by  estab- 
lishing friendly  relations  with  the  princes  of 
Scandinavia,  by  defeating   the  great  confe- 
deracy of  Danes  and  Celts  at  Brunanburh,  and 
by  beginning  the  direct  re-conquest  of  the 
lands  ceded  at  Wedmore.     Edred,  or  Dunstan 
his  minister,  completed  the  process  by  the 
conc^uest  of  Northumbria  and  the  assumption 
of    imperial  titles.      Edgar,    called   first    to 
power  by  the  northern  and  Danish  half  of  the 
nation,  consolidated  the  process  by  renewing 
the  liberal,  yet  eff'ectual,  policy  of  Dunstan. 
Under  him,  the  Danes  became  Englishmen, 
and  the  Danelagh  a  merely  legal  distinction. 
The  re-conquest  was  thus  completed.     With 
Ethelred     the     Unready    everything     went 
wrong,  and  before  long  the  dangers  of  the 
eighth  and  ninth  centurj'  were  revived   by 
fresh  plunderings  of  new  Wiking  hordes  from 
Scandinavia.    But  the  first  stage  thus  renewed 
soon  led  to  the  second  coming  back,  and  the 
kings  of  the  noilh  were  now  too  powerful  to 
brook  subjects  establishing  new  Normandies 
or   Icelands  at  their  expense.     Hence  they 
resolved  to  take  part  in  these  expeditions  of 
plunder  and  settlement,  and  thu^  Mr.   Free- 
man*s   third   stage  of    political   conquest,    a 
stage  never  attained  on  the  Continent,  begins. 
The  King  of  all  Denmark  now  sets  to  work 
to  conquer  all  England.     After  many  failures, 
Swegen  succeeded  in  his  attempt,  and  handed 
down  his  power  to  his  greater  son,  Canute,  inrho 
reigned  as  legal  King  of  England  with  theassent 
of  the  English  people,  which,  if  formal  at  first, 
became  ultimately  as  real  as  any  such  popular 
recognitions  were,  and  was  only  withdrawn 
when  the  quarrels  and  misconduct  of  Hartha* 
Canute  and  Harold  led  to  the  restoration  of 
the  West  Saxon  line  in  Edward  the  Confessor. 
The    really  important   Danish    period    of 
English  »  history    now    ends ;    but    Wiking 
foi*>igc8  wei*c  still   not  unknown,  and  expe- 
ditions of  Danish  and  Norse  princes  still  con- 
tinued for  nearly  a  century.    In  England,  the 
great  invasion  of  the  heroic  Harold  Hardrada 
in    1066  miirht,   if    successful,  have  placed 
another  Danish  dynasty  on  the  throne.     All 


Dan 


(  356  ) 


Dan 


through  the  Conqueror's  reign  similar,  if 
fainter,  assaults  were  feared  m  the  nominal 
interest  of  the  English  cause.  The  extra- 
ordinary career  of  Magnus  of  Norway  among 
the  Western  Isles,  ending  in  his  war  in  Angle- 
sea  with  the  Earls  of  Chester  and  Shrewsbury 
in  1098,  was  tl^e  last  exploit  of  the  Wikings 
that  has  any  direct  relation  to  English  history. 
Brian  Boroin^e's  victory  of  Clontai-f  (1014) 
was  the  death-blow  to  the  Scandinavian  states 
in  Ireland.  But  in  Scotland,  though  Caith- 
ness was  annexed  in  1196,  it  was  not  till  1263 
that  the  battle  of  Largs  put  an  end  to  their 
capacity  for  aggression,  and  led  to  the  annex- 
ation of  the  Western  I^ands  to  Scotland ;  but 
they  retained  their  ecclesiastical  dependence 
on  Trondhjem  till  the  fifteenth  century,  when 
also  the  Onmeys  and  their  dependencies  were 
practically  handed  over  to  James  III. 

Apart  firom  the  general  misery  aad  want, 
these  plunderings  were  too  irregular  to  leave 
any  deeply-seated  effects  behind  them.  A 
retrogression  towards  barbarism,  the  decline  of 
learning  and  culture  that  attended  the  sack  of 
the  3Iercian  abbeys,  a  partial  forcing  on  of  the 
feudalising  tendency  as  best  adapted  for  de- 
fence, is  all  that  can  safely  be  ascribed  to  them. 
Little  })0«itively  can  be  afifirmed  of  the  results 
of  the  Danish  Conquest,  either  on  the  nation 
generally  or  on  those  special  districts  which 
became  Danish  by  the  Treaty  uf  Wedmore. 
That  they  had  a  bracing  effect  upon  the  nation 
can  Ba:fely  be  conjectured,  but  Mr.  Robertson's 
argument  that  "  a  great^  amount  of  freedom 
existed  in  the  Danelagh  than  in  Wessex  and 
English  Mercia  "  is  baaed  on  too  imperfect  an 
inductioii  to  be  safely  admitted  as  a  proved 
fact.  Still,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
advent  of  a  new  race,  whose  very  object  in 
emig^tion  was  to  preserve  their  old  Teutonic 
polity  unBtained  by  the  innovations  of  Har- 
fagr,  did  largely  tend  to  strengthen  at  a  time 
of  weakness  tne  traditional,  national,  and 
Teutonic  constitution  of  England,  and  so  in 
this  respect  to  retard  the  territorialising 
tendency.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  the 
effect  of  the  increased  militarisiQ  which 
foreign  invasion  necessitated  was  directly 
feud^.  If  the  Danes  put  off  the  unity  of 
England  by  undoing  the  work  of  Offa,  Ed- 
win, and  Egbert,  they  made  it  more  certain 
in  the  end  by  the  effacement  of  tribal  distinc- 
tions, and  by  the  consolidation  of  what  re- 
mained EngHsh,  which  directly  followed  the 
struggle  with  them.  But  it  is  very  impro- 
bable that  the  Danes  introduced  many  definite 
changes  in  law  or  custom.  The  peculiar 
usages  of  the  Danelagh  may  as  much  be 
Anglian  as  Danish.  Anyhow,  the  fact  that 
the  Danelagh  was  a  territory,  within  which 
all  of  whatever  race  acknowledged  the 
*' Danish  custom,*'  shows  that  absence  of 
personal  law  is  important  in  English  history. 
The  Danes  never  dispossessed  the  Anglian 
population;  their  institutions,  so  far  as  we 
know  them,  were  fundamentally  the  same  as 


the  English.  As  soon  as  they  became  Chris- 
tians they  wei*e  practically  E^lishmen,  just 
as  the  Normans  became  Frenchmen,  only  in 
both  cases  there  was  a  superior  vigour,  a  sur- 
vival of  the  old  Wiking  days.  Traces  in  local 
nomenclature ;  the  substitution  of  "  by  "  for 
"  tun ; "  the  "  forces,"  "  nesses,"  «*  fords,"  and 
''holms"  of  North  England;  the  division 
into  wapentakes  and  ridings,  are  clearly 
Danish;  but  such  effects  are  purely  super* 
ficial.  The  same  thing  took  a  new  name. 
The  wite,  the  doOm,  the  ealdorman,  the  frith, 
became  the  lahslit,  lah,  jarl,  and  grith.  But 
as  the  Northman  became  French  in  Normandy, 
so  he  became  Anglian  in  Mercia  and  GoideUc 
in  Man — which,  though  the  ver}'  centre  of 
Norse  power,  retains  to  this  day  its  Celtic 
speech,  while  half  the  place-names  of  the  island 
keep  their  original  form.  Only  in  the  region 
of  government  where  a  thoroughly  Norse  in- 
stitution was  superimposed  on  a  Celtic  polity, 
to  the  extinction  of  the  latter,  is  the  Danieh 
influence  clearly  displayed.  In  the  Hebrides 
the  clans  survived  the  Norse  jarls,  although 
the  local  names  betray  Norse  influence.  We 
may  conjecture  that  the  Danish  settlement 
began  the  series  of  events  that  has  made 
South  Pembrokeshire  an  English-speaking 
district.  In  Orkney  and  Shetland,  Caith- 
ness and  Sunderland,  alone  did  the  Conquest 
extend  so  thoroughly  as  to  supersede  the 
old  language  for  one  which,  under  later 
influences,  easily  became  English.  Though 
great  changes  followed  Canute's  domination,  it 
IS  very  hard  to  say  what  part  of  them  followed 
on  the  introduction  of  Northern  customs  and 
institutions.  Even  the  introduction  of  huscarls 
added  no  new  element  to  English  develop- 
ment. No  one  now  believes  that  Canute's 
"  forest-law  "  was  Danish.  Canute's  idea  of  a 
northern  empire  could  more  easily  be  got  from 
the  history  ox  Edgar  than  from  any  pi-ecedents 
of  anarchic  Scandinavia.  In  fact,  England 
had  more  influence  on  Denmark  and  Norway 
than  these  latter  had  on  her.  Canute's  reign  is 
of  the  greatest  political  importance,  as  pro- 
ducing on  a  small  scale  the  same  tendencies 
that  were  afterwards  developed  to  a  greater 
extent  by  the  Norman  Conquest.  But  only 
very  indirectly  can  Danish  influence  be  said 
to  be  a  factor  in  this  process.  The  Northern 
antiquaries,  who  refer  eveiy  point  of  similarity 
with  their  own  state  to  Danish  influence  on 
England,  ignore  how  much  both  have  in 
common,  and  the  assimilative  capacity  of  a 
barbarous  but  vigorous  race  in  contact  with 
one  of  superior,  though  only  slightly  superior, 
ci\'ilisation. 

Worsaoe's  Danes  and  Norvegians  in  England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland  is  the  fnllest  special  work 
on  ^is  subject,  but  its  naefalDeas  is  impaired 
by  the  readiness  with  which  every  English  insti- 
tution is  assigned  to  a  Scandinavian  original. 
Stubbs's  Cowtitutional  Hi$tortj,  i.  \  77,  gives  an 
ezbansUve  summary  of  the  general  effects  of 
the  Danish  invasions.  Cf.  Robertson,  Scotland 
«nd«r  her  Early  Kinga,  ii.,  Katay  on  the  Dane  Lav  ; 
and  Freeman,  Norman  Conqueet,  especially  for  the 


Daa 


(  366  ) 


Daar 


t^gn  of  Canute.  Konzad  Mauxer,  whose  Inland 
irives  the  best  ocooxmt  of  the  purest  form  of 
Scaudioavlau  polity  develoi)ed  iu  isolation,  has 
also,  iu  his  Kntiackt  Ueberachati,  treated  Ports  of 
the  subject  with  great  discrimination.  For  the 
Soandiuaviaus  at  home,  Snorro's  Hetnwkrinyla, 
trauslated  by  Lain^,  abridged  in  Carlyle's  Early 
Kings  of  Norway^  is  the  great  authority,  and 
Dahlmauu's  Qetehichte  von  Donnemark  a  good 
modem  account.  For  the  islands,  Munch's 
edition  of  Chrontooti  Rtgwn  MannuB  and  Ander- 
son's OrhxBy  hxga  Saja  are  important.  Cf.  Skene's 
Cfltic  Scotland,  especially  i.  302,  325-6,  338.  386, 
482.  [T.  F.  T.] 

Dangerfield,  Thomas  {d.  1685),  the 
invontor  of  the  **  Meal-Tub  Plot"  (q.v.),  was 
a  man  of  profligate  life,  who  had  been  more 
than  once  branded,  whipped,  and  imprisoned 
for  felony.  His  disclosures  impliaiting  the 
Presbyterian  leaders  were  not  believed,  and 
his  retractation  and  subsequent  accusation  of 
the  Catholics  led  fortunately  to  no  judicial 
murders,  as  in  the  case  of  his  fellow-informers, 
Gates  and  Bedloe.  [Popish  Plot.]  On  the 
accession  of  James  1 1.,  Dang^rfield  was  con- 
victed of  libel  in  connection  with  th6  Meal- 
Tub  Plot,  and  was  put  in  the  pillorj'  and 
M'hipped.  On  his  way  back  to  prison,  he  was 
brutsdly  assaulted  by  a  Ronuin  Catholic  lawyer 
named  Francis,  and  a  few  days  afterwards 
died. 

"D'ArhlBLy,  Madame  (b,  1752,  d.  1840), 
was  the  marriage  name  ot  Frances  Bumey, 
the  daughter  of  Dr.  Johnson's  friend,  Charles 
Burney,  and  the  authoress  of  HveUna,  Cecilia^ 
&c.  Her  MeimirSf  which  were  first  published 
in  1842,  are  of  some  value  for  the  informa- 
tion they  afford  us  concerning  the  court  of 
George  III. 

Daroyi  Thomas,  Lord  {d.  1539),  was  a 
faithful  subject  of  the  crown  through- 
out the  reign  of  Henry  VJI.  During  the 
Cornish  outbreak  of  1497,  being  made  one 
of  the  royal  commissioners  appointed  for  a 
thorough  investigation  of  the  various  cir- 
cumstances of  the  rebellion,  ho  showed  his 
zeal  for  the  king  by  the  merciless  severity 
of  his  proceedings.  Ltiter  on,  in  the  same 
year,  Dai'cy  accompanied  the  Earl  of  Surrey 
m  his  hasty  march  to  the  relief  of  Norham 
Castle,  then  closely  besieged  by  the  Scotch 
under  James  IV.  and  JPerkin  Warbeck; 
and  it  was  presumably  as  a  reward  for  his 
serWces  on  this  occasion  that  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  Constableship  of  Bamborough 
Castlej  and  in  1498  to  the  Captaincy  of  the 
town  of  Berwick  and  the  Wardenship  of  the 
Etist  and  Middle  Marches  of  Scotland. 
Darcy's  suspected  sympathy  with  the  insur- 
rection that  broke  out  in  Lincolnshire  in 
1537,  and  his  unmistakable  co-operation  with 
the  Yorkshire  nobles  in  the  popular  rising 
known  as  the  **  Pilgrimage  of  Grace,"  which 
immediately  succeeded  the  Lincolnshire  re- 
volt, were  circumstances  which  at  once 
singled  him  out  for  the  vengeance  of  Thomas 
CromwelL      A   very  brief  examination  was 


sufficient  to  prove  Darcy*8  treasonable  con- 
nection with  the  rioters  of  1537,  and  he  was 
accordingly  beheaded  June  20,  1539.  [Pil- 
okimagb  op  Grace.] 

Bacon's  Life  of  Henry  VII. ;  Froude,  Htst.  of 
England. 

DardaaelleSy  The  Passage  of  the,  was 
accomplished  in  1807  by  Sir  John  Duck- 
worth, who  thus  lent  considerable  aid  to  the 
Russian  troops  invading  Moldavia  and  Wal- 
lachia.  A  desultory  fire  was  opened  on  the 
English  shij^s  from  both  the  European  and 
Asiatic  sides  of  the  Straits,  but  without  much 
effect.  An  ultimatum  was  sent  to  •the  Turkish 
government,  which  opened  negotiations  so 
as  to  save  time.  So  successful  and  s|)cedy 
were  their  defences  that  the  English  adminil 
determined  at  last  to  retrace  his  steps  (3£arch 
1,  1807) — a  feat  which  he  accomplished  under 
heavj--  ire.  Admiral  Duckworth  then  con- 
tented himself  with  blockading  the  Straits. 
This  expedition,  though  unsuccessful  in  its 
results,  was  well  planned,  and  calculated,  had 
it  succeeded,  to  have  strengthened  very 
materially  the  resistance  offei'ed  by  Russia 
to  Napoleon. 

Darien  Company^  The.  After  found- 
ing the  Bank  of  England  in  1694  [Banking], 
Robert  Paterson  conceived  the  idea  of*  inau- 
gurating a  company  in  which  the  Scotch 
should  find  a  field  for  their  enterprise  et^ual 
to  that  possessed  by  the  English  in  the  East 
India  ComiMiny.  The  trade  with  Eastern 
and  Southern  Asia  had  long  been  passing  round 
by  the  Ca]K),  and  was  virtually  in  the  hands  of 
this  great  Company.  Paterson  therefore  argued 
that  by  establishing  a  colony  at  Darien,  the 
Eastern  world  might  more  directly  exchange 
its  pi*oduct8  with  the  Western.  In  1695  an 
Act  was  passed  in  the  Scottish  Parliament, 
giving  to  the  newly-formed  African  Company, 
whose  directors  were  equally  divided  between 
England  and  Scotland,  special  and  peculiar 
powers  to  make  settlements  and  build  cities, 
harbours,  and  fortifications  in  Asia,  Africa, 
or  America.  Thev  were  likewise  authorised  to 
make  alliances  with  distant  powers  in  these 
three  parts  of  the  world,  and  to  defend  them- 
selves if  attacked ;  while  to  restrain  pri\'ate 
adventurers,  all  other  Scotchmen  were  pro- 
hibited from  trading  in  the  districts  occupied 
by  the  said  company.  But  when  the  news  of 
this  concession  reached  England  the  Parlia- 
ment at  Westminster  was  loud  in  condemning^ 
such  unwarranted  privileges  granted  to  the 
Northern  kingdom,  and  William  was  forced 
to  disown  his  Commissioner's  Ac>t,  and  with- 
draw, as  King  of  England,  the  chai-ter  which 
as  King  of  Scotland,  he  had  grants  his  repre- 
sentative. The  result  of  this  outcry  was  that 
the  English  capital  was  withdrawn  from  the 
scheme,  and  its  whole  burden  thrown  on  tho 
Scotx^h,  who  soon  subscribed  a  nominal  sum  ot 
£400,000,  of  which,  however,  it  appears  that 
only  a  little  more  than  half  was  actually  paid 


Dar 


(367) 


Daar 


up.  It  was  not  ail  at  once  that  Paterson  made 
known  the  exact  spot  at  which  he  would  fix 
his  great  station,  and  even  when  the  fleet  was 
ready  to  sail,  in  1608,  its  destination  was  not 
precisely  known.  A  few  vessels  had  heen 
procured  from  Amsterdam  and  Hamburg,  the 
largest  of  which  would  have  been  one  of  the 
smallest  in  the  English  navy,  and  the  expedi- 
tion set  sail  under  the  guidance  of  a  council  of 
seven.  The  cargo  laid  in  seems  to  have  been 
just  the  things  which  would  ftot  b&  wanted 
by  the  inhabitants  of  the  region  to  which 
they  were  being  sent.  Huge  periwigs,  heav^*' 
woollen  stuffs,  and  hundreds  of  English  Bibles 
were  scarce  likely  to  meet  the  wants  of  the 
Spaniards  or  IncUans  dwelling  in  a  tropipal 
chme.  After  suffering  some  privation  for  lack 
of  provisions,  the  fleet  anchored  off  the  Isthmus 
of  Darien,  and  taking  possession  of  the  country, 
called  it  New  Caledonia,  and  at  once  com- 
menced to  dig  trenches  for  their  new  city  of 
New  Edinburgh.  Negotiations  were  opened 
with  the  natives,  and  the  representative  plan  of 
government  which  had  been  decided  upon  at 
home  was  commenced  to  be  carried  into  effect. 
Meanwhile  the  site  of  the  new  settlement 
became  known  in  Europe;  the  Spanish  am- 
bassador was  loud  in  his  complaints,  and  pre- 
parations were  made  in  the  Spanish  ports  for 
an  expedition  against  the  intruders.  But  in 
Scotltuid  the  fr&izy  increased,  and  in  August, 
1699,  four  more  ships  were  despatched  to  the 
isthmuBy  with  thirteen  hundred  men  on  board. 
Bat  by  the  time  the  new  expedition  reached 
its  destination  the  preceding  one  had  disap- 
peared. Unable  to  toil  in  tiie  tropical  heat, 
and  unaccustomed  to  tropical  foods,  the  Scotch 
settlers  perished  by  scores,  till  at  last  the  sur- 
vivors, disregarding  Paterson's  entreaties  to 
be  left  with  a  few  companions  to  welcome  the 
reinforcements  from  home,  put  off  for  New 
York ;  and  four  months  later  the  second  expe- 
dition found  the  site  of  New  Edinburgh  a 
wilderness.  It  was  in  vain  that  they  at- 
tempted to  reconstruct  the  colony.  Dissensions 
broke  out,  and  mortality  was  high;  and  to 
crown  all,  a  Spanish  squadron  anchored  off 
their  walls.  With  great  difficulty  a  negotia- 
tion was  opened  between  men  of  two  nations 
who  seem  not  to  have  had  any  acquaintance 
with  each  other's  language,  and  by  the 
middle  of  April  the  Scotdi  party  had  set  sail 
for  home,  having  already,  in  little  more  than 
four  months,  lost  nearly  a  quarter  of  their 
number. 

A  strikfaig  Mooimt  Is  given  in  Macanlaj,  Suit, 
of  England. 

Darlington,  Chaslottb  Sophia  Kil- 
ifANSEOOE,  Ck)t7NTES8  OF  {d.  1730),  was  one 
of  the  mistresses  of  George  I.  In  1721 
she  was  created  Countess  of  Leinster,  and  in 
the  following  year  Countess  of  Darlington. 
We  find  her,  with  her  sister  Kadame  de 
Platen  (in  opx>osition  to  the  rival  mistress, 
the  Duchess  of  Kendal),  supporting  Carteret 
m  his  straggle  for  power  witn  Towxishend  and 


Walpole.  "She  was,"  says  Lord  Stanhope, 
"  younger  and  more  handsome  than  her  nvid ; 
but,  like  her,  unwieldy  in  person  and  rapacious 
in  character.  From  her  grea.t  size  she  was 
called  *  the  Elephant.' ' ' 

Damley,  Henry  Stuaut,  Loud  {b.  1541,  rf. 

1567),  was  the  son  of  the  Earl  of  Lennox  and 

Lady  l^Iargaret  Douglas,  a  niece  of  Hcnrj'  VIII. 

In  1565  Mar}"  of  Scotland,  his  cousin,  saw  and 

at  once  fell  in  love  with  him.     The  marriage 

was  celebrated  in  the  summer  of  the  same 

year,  in  spite  of  violent  opposition  on  the 

Ijart  of  Mun'ay   and    the  Protestants,  who 

viewed   the    imion    of    their  queen  with  a 

Roman  Catholic  family  with  great  distrust. 

Damlcy  was  created  Duke  of  Albany,  and 

was  soon  afterwards,  by  order  of   his  wife, 

illegally  proclaimed  Kin^f  of  Scots.     Mary 

soon  found  her  mistake  in  marr>4ng  a  man 

who  was  at  pnce  foolish  and  profligate.    A 

coldness  sprang  up  between  them,  and  the 

murder    of   Kizzio,   to   which   Darnlcy  was 

a    party,    only    increased    it.      Loathed   as 

he  was  by  the   queen,  and  endangered  by 

her  reconciliation  to  his  bitterest  enemies, 

Damley  endeavoured  to  escape  to  France,  but 

was  not  ];)ermitted  to  leave  Scotland.    After 

the  birth  of  his  son,  aftciwards  James  YL, 

whose    christening    he    refused    to    attend, 

Dainley  was  seized  at  Glasgow  with  a  violent 

illness,  fi'om  which  he  had  barely  recovered 

when  Mar^' paid  him  a  visit  and  ui^g^  his 

removal  to  Edinburgh.    He  was  accordingly 

conveyed  to  a  small  house  close  to  the  city 

walls,  in  a  district  known  as  Kirk-of-Field. 

In  the  night  (Feb.  10,  1567),  the  house  was 

blown   up  with   gunpowder,  and  Damley*B 

body  was  found  next  morning  lying  in  the 

garden  by  that  of  his   jmge;    but  neither 

corpse  bore  traces  of  \iolence.    Public  feeling 

at  once  pointed  to  Bothwcll  as  the  murderer, 

and  moi*e  than  suspected  Mary  to  have  been 

an  accomplice  in  tne  crime.     The  strongest 

circumstantial  evidence  points  to  the  same 

conclusion. 

Schiem,  Botlbwell;  Qanthier,  Jfan«  Sf«art; 
HoBook.  Mary  Qut^n  qf  8coi» ;  Burton,  HigL  i 
Seottand. 

Darrein  Presentment.    [Assize.] 

Dartmonth,  William  Lbogb,  1st 
Eahl  of  (A.  1672,  d.  1750),  was  a  prominent 
statesman  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne.     His 

Sinciples  were  those  of  a  strong  Torj'  and 
igh  Churchman.  He  married  a  daughter  of 
the  Earl  of  Nottingham.  On  the  accession  of 
the  queen  he  became  a  member  of  the  Privy 
Council ;  and  on  the  downfall  of  Godolphin's 
ministry'  he  was  made  Secretarj'  of  State  and 
Keeper  of  the  Privy  Seal  of  Scotland  (1710). 
It  was  by  making  use  of  him  that  Marlborough 
tried  to  avoid  dismissal  from  his  appointments 
by  a  close  union  with  the  Torj'  ministry. 
Dartmouth  was  one  of  the  persons  appointed, 
by  Anne  to  confer  with  the  French  envoy 
Manager  on  the  preliminaries  for  the  Treaty 


(358) 


DaT 


of  Utrecht.  Tho  wholesale  creatioa  of  twelve 
peers  did  not  meet  with  his  appro\*al,  but  he 
continued  in  the  ministry,  and  was  created 
Loid  Privy  Seal  (1714).  On  the  accession  of 
George  he  ceased  to  take  any  share  in  politics. 
"  Dartmouth,"  says  Lord  Stanhope,  "  who  was 
suspected,  not  without  resjBon,  of  being  inclined 
to  a  restoration  of  tho  exiled  family,  was  a 
good-humoured  and  accomplished  nobleman 
who  made  no  enemies." 

Stanhope,  HiMt.  i^Eng. ;  Coze,  UaxfbwwuiK 

Daihwood,  Sir  Fiiancis,  created  Baron 
le  Despencor  {d,  1781),  the  son  of  Sir 
Francis  Dashwood  by  Lady  Mary  Fane,  ob- 
tained his  chief  claim  to  celebrity  in  early  life 
by  his  reckless  immorality  and  profaneness. 
From  such  scenes  as  those  of  his  "Francis- 
can Abbey**  at  Medmenham,  Sir  Francis  was 
summoned  to  become  Treasurer  of  the  Chamber 
in  1761,  in  which  office  Bute  found  him  so 
convenient  a  creature,  that  on  becoming  Prime 
Minister  he  appointed  him  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer.  Wilkes  well  understood  the  ab- 
surdity of  the  appointment,  when  he  said  that 
"  from  puzzling  all  his  life  at  tavern  bills  he  , 
was  called  by  Lord  Bute  to  administer  the 
finances  of  a  kingdoztf  above  one  hundred 
millions  in  debt."  To  remedy  this  deficit  the 
new  Chancellor  proposed  to  levy  a  tax  on  cider, 
which  at  once  produced  an  outcry  so  loud  that 
the  proposed  tax  had  to  bo  much  reduced. 
Even  then  it  was  productive  of  much  hardship, 
and  served  only  to  add  to  the  unpopularity  of 
Bute*s  administration.  Dashwood  had  at  any 
rate  the  good  sense  to  perceive  his  own  incom- 
petence. "  People,**  he  said,  *^  will  point  at 
me  in  the  streets,  and  say,  'There  goes  the 
worst  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  that  ever 
appeared.*  **  As  a  reward  for  ms  services  he 
was  created  Baron  le  Despencer,  and  with  his 
elevation  to  the  peerage  he  retired  from  the 
political  world. 

Stanhope,  Hiat.  of  Bng.  ;  Jesse,  Selvryn  and  his 
CoUfK-porarif ;  Wupole's  Mwrnoin  o/  Uu  Bei^n 
of  G«org0  III. 

Datlbeneyy  Giles,  Lord  {d.  1507),  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  in  1486,  in  recognition 
of  his  services  during  the  period  of  Hem*y 
VII. 's  exile.  Shortly  i3ter  receiving  this  proof 
of  royal  favour,  he  was  made  deputy  governor  of 
Calais,  and  while  acting  in  that  capacity  he 
headed  the  expedition  despatched  from  Eng- 
land with  secret  instructions  to  lend  all  possible 
assistance  to  the  Emperor  Maximilian.  These 
orders  Daubeney  executed  with  marked  success, 
and  compelled  the  French  to  raise  the  siege 
of  Dixmude.  By  a  well-timed  attack  on  their 
camp,  too,  he  inflicted  upon  them  severe  losses, 
slaying  over  8,000  men,  and  capturing  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  military  stores.  During 
the  Cornish  revolt  Daubeney  was  a  trusted 
leader  of  the  king's  forces.  His  energetic  attack 
on  the  rebels  at  Deptford  Bridge  precipitated 
the  general  engagement  at  Blackheath  (1497)  * 
which  ended  so  victoriously  for  Henry. 


David  1.,  I^ing  of  Scotland  («.  April  27, 
1124;  d.  May  24,   1153),    youngest    son  of 
Malcolm  Canmore  and  Miurgaret,  succeeded 
to  the  crown  of   Scotland  on  the  death  of 
his  brother,  Alexander  I.    Educated  at  the 
English    court,    owing    to     the     marriage 
of  his    sister   Matilda   with   Henry    I.,  he 
became  thoroughly  imbued  with  the  spirit  of 
feudalism.      On  his  brother  Edgar's  death 
(1107)  he  returned  to  Scotland  as  earl  of  the 
country  soutii  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde.    David 
had  at  this  time  married  ^latilda,  daughter 
of    Waltheof,  and   in   her   right   held   the 
English  earldoms  of  Northampton  and  Hun- 
tingdon.   On  the  death  of  his  brother  Alex- 
ander (1124),  he  added  the  territory  north  of 
the  Forth  and  Clyde  to  that  which  he  already 
ruled,  and  thus  united  the  whole  of  Scotland. 
The  result  of  his  early  education  speedily 
became  apparent  in  his  introduction  of  feudal 
institutions  and  ideas  hitherto  unknown  in 
his  native  land.    These  innovations,  hateful 
to  most  of  the  northern  nobles,  led,  during 
David's  absence  in  England,  to  a  rebellion, 
headed  by  Angus,  Earl  of  Moray,  and  Mal- 
colm, natural  son  of  Alexander  (1 1 30).  The  in- 
surgents, ho  we  ver,  were  soon  defeated,  and  their 
leader  slain.   Four  years  later  a  fresh  insurrec- 
tion was  planned,  but  was  defeated  by  Anglo- 
Norman  aid.    In  1136  David  entered  England 
at  the  head  of  a  large  army  to  support  his 
niece  Matilda,  Empress  of  Germany,  against 
Stephen,  her  rival  claimant  for  the  English 
crown.    A    peace  was,   however,  concluded 
which  lasted  until  1138,  when  David  under- 
took another  expedition  with  the  same  object 
in  view.    He  was,  however,  defeated  at  the 
famous  Battle  of  the  Standard  (q.v.).  Shortly 
afterwards,  in  1139,  another  peace  was  made 
at  Durham,  through  the  exertions  of  the 
Papal  legate.    In  1141,  after  the  capture  of 
Stephen  at  Lincoln,  David  again  joined  his 
niece,  narrowly  escaping   capture   at  Win- 
chester;   and  in    1149   knighted  Henry  of 
Anjou  at  Carlisle.     He  died  at  Carlisle  in 
^lay,  1153.    David  I.  acquired  a  very  con- 
siderable reputation   for  sanctity.    He  was 
the  founder  of  several  new  abbeys — ^notebly 
those  of  Holyrood  and  Melrose  —  and   was 
the  re-organiser  at  least  of  several  Scotch 
bishoprics. 

Boherteon,  Scotland  vnder  her  JSarli/  Xtngs  • 
Skene,  CMie  SoMand ;  Burton,  Hiti,  of  SootUmd. 

David  IX.,  King  of  Scotland  («,  June  7, 
1329,  d.  Feb.  22,  1371),  was  the  son  of  Kin^ 
Eobert  Bruce.  In  accordance  with  the  terms 
of  the  Treaty  of  Northampton,  he  was  mar- 
ried (1328)  to  the  Princess  Joanna  of  England. 
At  the  time  of  his  father's  death  (1329)  he 
was  only  five  years  of  age,  and  the  kingdom  was 
consequently  governed  by  regents.  In  1332,  on 
the  invasion  of  Edward  Baliol  (q.v.),  he  fled 
to  France,  and  did  not  return  till  1341. 
While  in  France  his  hostility  to  England 
increased,  as  well  as  his  friendship  for  the 


k 


BaT 


(  359  ) 


land  that  sheltered  him,  and  he  was  led  by 
these  leelings  to  cross  the  border  in  1346.  In 
Edward's  absence  the  northern  barons  were 
hurriedly  called  to  arms,  and  defeated  the 
invading  army  at  Neville's  Cross.  David  was 
himself  taken  prisoner,  and  was  not  released 
till  1357.  This  long  sojourn  in  England 
seems  to  have  begotten  a  love  of  English  ways 
in  the  king's  mind.  An  imprudent  marriage 
soon  gave  disgust  to  his  cousin,  the  High 
Steward  of  Scotland,  and  this  disgust  was  in- 
tensified when  he  proposed  (1363)  that  IMnce 
Lionel  of  England  should  be  accepted  as  his 
successor,  but  the  Scotch  Estates  unanimously 
rejected  the  proposal.  The  remainder  of  his 
reign  was  occupied  in  disputes  with  his  Par- 
liament, which  showed  a  ** surly  resoluteness" 
in  checking  the  abuses  of  the  royal  preroga- 
tive,    lie  died  in  the  year  1371. 

Davidf  Prince  of  Wales,  was  the  brother 
of  l4lewelyn,  by  whom  he  had  been  de- 
prived of  his  patrimony.  In  revenge  for  this 
m justice  David  called  together  several  Welsh 
chieftains — among  whom  Hhys  ap  Maredudd, 
the  scion  of  the  ancient  princes  of  South 
Wales,  was  the  most  eminent — to  espouse 
his  cause.  At  the  same  time  he  began  to 
intrigue  with  Edward  I.  (1276).  Next  year, 
when  L.lewel>'n  surrendered  to  the  English 
king,  one  of  the  first  conditions  of  the  peace 
was  the  reconciliation  of  the  two  broUiers. 
But  David,  although  Edward  had  married 
him  to  the  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Ferrers, 
and  granted  him  extensive  territories  in 
Wales  and  England,  soon  found  cause  of 
complaint  against  his  patron.  The  two 
brothers  united  against  the  stranger.  David 
surprised  Hawarden  Castle,  and  the  marshes 
were  laid  waste.  After  Llewelyn's  death, 
he  was  taken  prisoner  and  tried  at  Shrews- 
bury (Sept.  30,  1283).  Earls,  barons,  judges, 
knights  of  the  shires,  and  twenty  borough 
members,  were  all  present  on  this  solemn 
occasion;  but  the  baronage  alone  can  be 
considered  as  the  peers  of  the  culprit.  He 
was  condemned  to  death  and  executed  with 
circumstances  of  sjsecial  horror  as  a  traitor 
and  a  murderer. 

Bisbanger,    CknmieU;    The   Qreatmt  of  the 
PUtniagenetg. 

DaviSy  John  {d,  1605),  one  of  the  famous 
explorers  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  was  bom  near 
Dartmouth.  He  made  three  voyages  in  search 
of  a  north-west  passage  to  the  Pacific.  In 
the  first  he  coasted  round  the  south  of  Green- 
land and  Baffin's  Land  across  the  strait  that 
now  bears  hi^  name,  and  in  the  third  ho 
reached  the  entrance  of  Hudson's  Strait.  In 
ld91  he  accompanied  Thomas  Cavendish  (q.v.) 
to  the  South  Sea,  continuing  his  royago  when 
the  rest  of  the  expedition  had  returned.  .  In 
later  years  his  services  were  employed  in 
journeys  to  the  East  Indies  on  beludf  of  the 
newly  founded  company;  and  it  was  on  his 
letum  from  one  of  these  expeditions  that  ho 


met  with  his  fate — ^being  killed  by  Japanese 
pirates  off  the  coast  of  Malacca  in  1605. 

Davis,  Maky,  or  Moll,  was  a  n&tvartl 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Berkshire,  and 
one  of  Charles  II.'s  mistresses.  She  had 
by  the  kinff  one  daughter,  Mary  Tudor,  who 
was  married  to  the  Earl  of  Derwentwater. 

Davifloiiy  WiLLLuc  {d.  1608),  one  of 
the  diplomatists  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign, 
was  in  1575  sent  to  the  Low  Countries  to 
report  on  the  state  of  affairs;  in  1579  he  re- 
visited Holland,  an^  four  years  later  was 
again  employed  to  counteract  Scotch  influence 
there.  In  1586  he  became  a  principal 
Secretary  of  State,  and  was  in  favour  of  the 
execution  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots ;  it  is  well 
known  how  he  was  made  the  scapegoat  of  the 
other  ministers  for  his  excess  of  zeal  in  des- 
patching the  warrant  for  the  execution  (1587), 
after  he  had  procured  Elizabeth's  signature  to 
it.  It  will  always  remain  a  moot  point  how  far 
the  queen  was  really  ignorant  of  the  nature 
of  the  paper  she  had  signed,  and  of  its  des- 
patch, but  it  is  probable  that  she  found  it 
convenient  to  act  as  she  did  towards  Davison 
in  order  to  clear  herself  as  far  as  possible  of 
the  charge  of  having  desired  Mary's  death; 
whilst  Davison's  repeated  declarations  that  the 
queen  herself  had  ordered  the  warrant  to  be 
sent  off  did  not  tend  to  pacify  her  resentment. 
The  unfortunate  secretary  was  brought  to 
trial,  Feb.,  1587,  heavily  fined  and  imprisoned, 
and  in  spite  of  the  attempts  of  Essex  and 
Burleigh  to  procure  his  pardon,  was  never 
restored  to  favour. 

Day,  George,  Bishop  of  Chichester  {b, 
1501,  d,  1556),  was  educated  at  Cambridge, 
and  became  Provost  of  King's  College,  1538. 
Under  Edward  YI.  he  was  a  strenuous  op- 
ponent of  the  religious  changes,  and  for  this 
offence  was  committed  to  the  Fleet  (1550), 
and  soon  after  deprived  of  his  bishopric,  whidi 
he  had  held  since  1543.  Under  Mary  he  was 
released,  and  appointed,  with  Gardiner, 
Bonner,  and  Tunstall,  members  of  a  com- 
mission to  purify  the  episcopal  bench  (1553). 

Deane,  Henry  {d.  1503),  was  Prior  of 
Lanthony,  in  Monmouthshire,  and  entering 
Henry  VII.'s  service,  was  employed  hi 
several  public  ofiices.  When  Sir  Edward 
Poynings  was  appointed  Lord-Deputy  of 
Ireland,  Deane  was  appointed  Chancellor  of 
Ireland  (1495),  and  did  valuable  service  in 
aiding  Poynings'  work  of  restoring  order  and 
regular  government  in  that  country.  At 
the  time  of  his  Irish  Chancellorship,  Deane 
was  Bishop-elect  of  Bangor,  and  in  1501,  on 
the  death  of  Morton,  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, was  appointed  to  succeed  him  as  Pri- 
mate of  all  England.  Whilst  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  Henry  Deane  was  in  some  degree 
a  patron  of  Wolsoy,  whom  he  made  his 
domestic  chaplain.  He  died  February  16, 1503. 
Hook,  Ltvet  qf  the  Arehhiehoiy. 


Daa 


(  360  ) 


Dee 


Deane^  Richard  (b.  1610,  d.  1653),  son  of 
Edward  Deane,  of  Templo  Guyting,  Glouces- 
tershire, entered  the  Parliamentary  army  at 
the  beginning  of  the  Great  Rebellion,  served  in 
the  artillery  under  Essex,  until  taken  prisoner 
in  the  unfortunate  Cornish  campaign  of  1644. 
In  the  "  New  Model"  (q. v.)  he  was  Comptroller 
of  the  Ordnance,  and  in  1648  had  risen  to  the 
rank  of  adjutant-general.  He  commanded 
the  right  wing  of  CromwelFs  army  at  Preston, 
was  present  also  at  Worcester,  and  took  part 
in  the  subjugation  of  the  Highlands.  He  was 
deep  in  tne  confidence  of  Cromwell,  sided 
with  the  army  against  the  Parliament,  and 
with  the  Independents  against  the  Presby- 
terians, took  his  seat  in  the  court  which  tried 
the  king,  and  helped  to  secure  the  adhesion 
of  the  fleet  to  the  Protectorate.  In  1649  he 
had  been  appointed  one  of  the  three  generals 
at  sea,  in  which  capacity  he  commanded  in 
the  Dutch  War,  and  was  killed  in  the  battle 
off  the  North  Foreland,  June  2,  1653.  He 
seems  to  have  deserved  the  character  Essex 
gives  of  him  in  1644 :  "  an  honest,  judicious, 
and  stout  man.'* 

Debtp  LBoisLATXoy  coxcBRNiKO.  Among 
the  Teutonic  tribes  it  does  not  seem  that  a 
contract  was  concluded  by  any  set  form  of 
words  or  by  writing,  as  was  the  custom 
among  the  Romans  :  earnest  money  was  paid, 
or  the  bargain  concluded  by  the  delivevy  of  a 
straw  or  some  similar  token.  But  in  questions  of 
sale  it  was  necessary  to  have  witnesses  to  the 
transaction,  and  in  early  English  law  a  vary- 
ing number  of  upright  men  were  assigned  to 
each  hundred  and  burh,  for  the  purpose  of 
testifying  every  such  negotiation.  So  a 
statute  of  Ethelredl.  runs:  "Let  no  man  either 
buy  or  exchange  unless  he  have  burh  and  wit- 
ness ; "  while  Edgar's  law  requires  thirty- 
three  witnesses  for  the  larger  burhs,  but  only 
twelve  for  the  hundreds  and  snudler  towns. 
No  one  in  Anglo-Saxon  times  was  allowed  to 
take  the  law  into  his  own  bands  and  right 
himself  before  bringing  his  claim  before 
the  proper  court,  and  demanding  justice  four 
times.  We  may  suppose  similar  methods  of 
procedure  in  matters  of  debt  to  have  con- 
tinued in  the  local  courts,  subject  to  more 
or  less  change,  during  the  reigns  of  the  Nor- 
man and  E^rly  Plantagenet  kings;  though, 
as  Dr.  Stubbs  has  remarked,  alterations  are 
slowest  in  the  routine  business  of  the  petty 
courts.  There  are  still  extant  several  writs 
for  debt  issued  by  Henrv  I.,  several  being 
addressed  to  the  defendant.  Two  reigns 
later  the  writs  for  debt  found  in  Glanvil  are 
addressed  to  the  sherifp,  who  is  to  refer  the 
case,  if  necessary,  to  the  king  at  West- 
minster. Debt  was  just  commencing  to  be  a 
(question  for  the  king's  court.  In  Glanvil's 
time  the  method  of  deciding  questions  of  debt 
was  unsettled,  both  compurgation  and  the 
duel  being  allowed.  Later  on,  compurgation 
won  the  day.    With  the  reign  of  Edwaxd  I. 


we  find  a  statute  upon  the  question,  for- 
bidding anyone  to  be  distrained  for  debts 
not  due  (3  £d.  I.).  By  an  Act  passed  in  the 
21st  year  of  James  I.,  a  term  of  six  years 
is  set,  within  which  alone  the  recovery  of 
debts  is  legal;  while  another  Act  under  the 
same  king  forbids  a  tradesman's  books  to  be 
given  in  evidence  for  a  debt  unless  the  action 
be  brought  within  a  year.  An  Act  of  George 
II.  allowed  the  debt  of  the  plaintiff  to  be  set 
off  against  the  debt  of  the  defendant.  In  Nor- 
man times  there  was  considerable  difficulty  in 
making  lands  liable  for  the  debts  of  a  man 
after  his  decease;  and  even  in  the  debtor's 
lifetime  there  must  have  been  a  similar  dif- 
ficulty, till  Edward  I.,  in  the  Second  Statute  of 
Wesiminsferj  empowered  a  creditor  who  had 
obtained  a  judgment  in  his  favour  to  take  a 
moiety  of  the  debtor's  lands,  and  satisfy  him- 
self so  far  as  he  could.  Imprisonment  for 
debt  was  finally  abolished  by  32  &  33  Vict., 
c  62  (1869),  and  punishments  wore  provided 
for  fraudulent  debtors. 

Snayt  t<i  Anglo-Saxon  Lave  ;  Byelow,  Hwtory  of 
Procedure ;  Cunningluun,  Lava  Dictionary, 

Deeean.  ^as  the  name  originally  applied 
to  the  whole  peninsula  of  Indjun  souikh  of  the 
Yindhya  hills.  It  was  conquered  by  the 
Mohammedans  in  the  fourteenth  century 
and  formed  into  a  kingdom.  Long  before 
the  advance  of  the  English  into  Central  India 
it  had  been  broken  up  among  a  variety  of 
princes  and  feudatories,  and  the  term  Doccan 
came  to  be  technically  confined  to  the  domi- 
nions of  the  Nizam  (q.v.). 

Deoiamuiy  Catus,  was  Procurator  of 
Britain  when  Boadicea  rose  in  rebellion 
against  the  Romans,  and  his  extortion  is  said  to 
have  been  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  revolt. 
At  the  siege  of  Camulodunum,  the  Roman 
colonists  appealed  to  Catus  for  help,  aa 
Suetonius  Paulinus,  the  legate,  was  away 
in  Mona,  and  he  accordingly  sent  200  soldiers 
to  their  aid.  After  the  fall  of  Camulodunum, 
Catus  fled  to  Graul,  and  was  succeeded  in  hia 
office  by  Petilius  Cerealis. 

Declaratory  Act,  The.  In  1788  Mr. 
Pitt  brought  in  a  bill  to  explain  the  purport 
of  the  India  Act  of  1784.  It  declared  that 
there  was  no  step  which  could  have  been 
taken  by  the  Court  of  Directors  before  the 
passing  of  that  bill  touching  the  military  and 
political  concerns  of  India,  and  the  collection, 
management,  and  application  of  the  revenues, 
which  the  Board  of  Control  had  not  a  right  to 
take  by  the  provisions  of  that  bill :  that,  in 
fact,  the  whole  powers  of  government  had 
been  transferred  to  the  crown.  [East  India 
Company.] 

Declaration,  The  Royal  (Nov.  30, 
1660).  When  Charles  II.  was  restored,  the 
Irish  Royalists  naturally  hoped  for  the  resto- 
ration of  their  lands;  but  though,  strictly 
speaking,  their  hopes  were  justifiable,  it  was 


B* 


(  361  ) 


Bef 


muctically  inexpedient,  if  not  impossible,  for 
Charlee  to  entirely  upset  existing  arrange- 
ments. After  a  oommission  hud  sat,  and  the 
conflicting  claims  of  the  Irish  and  the  Puritans 
had  been  argued  before  it,  a  document  called 
"  The  Royal  Declaration  "  was  issued.  This 
excepted  from  all  indemnity  two  classes: 
thoso  concerned  in  the  Ulster  Massacre, 
and  those  concerned  in  regicide.  Protestant 
loyalists  and  certain  favoured  persons,  like 
Clanricarde  and  Mountgarrct,  wci'e  to  be  re- 
instated in  their  possessions  at  once ;  innocent 
Papists  were  also  to  be  restored,  but  the 
adventurers  and  soldiers  were  to  be  left  un- 
difiturbod  or  compensated.  Those  who  had 
accepted  lands  in  Connaught  were,  however, 
to  abide  by  their  bargains;  but  those  who 
had  not  done  so  were  to  have  their  cases 
considered  in  due  time.  This  declaration 
formed  the  basis  of  the  Act  of  Settlement  and 
Explanation  (q.v.). 

Froude,  Eng.  in  Ireland;  Lecky,  Hitt,  o/Eng. ; 
Carte,  Iriah  ^atvU$, 


Do  Domn  Conditionalibiis  (1285)  is 
the  title  by  which  the  first  article  of  the 
Second  Statute  of  Westminster  is  generally 
known.  This  law  is  extremely  important, 
as  bearing  on  the  relations  between  lord  and 
vassaJ.  Up  to  this  time  land  granted  to  a 
man  and  his  heirs  became,  on  the  death  of  an 
heir,  the  absolute  property  of  the  grantee, 
who  could  alienate  it  as  he  pleased.  It  was 
now  enacted  that  land  could  never  be 
alienated,  but  that  on  failure  of  heirs  it  must 
revert  to  the  original  grantor.  Thus  per- 
petual entail  was  established,  and  the  power  of 
the  kin^  considerably  increased  bv  great  fiefs 
constantly  falling  into  his  hands  through  such 
failure. 

Stnbbfl,  C<mat.  Hist. 


\,  Tub  Bridge  of  (1630),  was  in  1639 
held  by  the  Cavalier  party  in  Aberdeen  against 
the  Covenanting  forces  under  Montrose.  The 
Cavaliers  had  hurriedly  run  up  defences  of 
turf  and  stone  to  protect  the  crooked  and 
narrow  passage  of  the  seven-arched  bridge, 
and  held  out  against  the  enemy's  cannon  for 
a  whole  day.  Next  day  Montrose,  hy  a 
feigned  attempt  to  cross  the  river  at  a  neigh- 
bouring ford,  drew  oflf  a  great  part  of  the 
Oavalier  forces,  and  with  his  remaining  troops 
forced  the  bridge,  despite  the  opposition  of  the 
fifty  Cavaliers  still  left  to  defend  it. 

Deeify  The  Battle  of  (Nov.  13,  1804),  was 
fought  between  the  English,  commanded  by 
Greneral  Fraser,  and  the  army  of  Holkar, 
consisting  of  fourteen  battcdions  of  infantry, 
a  larp^  bodv  of  horse,  and  160  guns.  The 
English  dia  not  exceed  6,000,  but  among 
them  were  the  gallant  76th  Highlanders,  who 
bore  the  brunt  of  the  battle.  Tfiie  enemy  were 
completely  routed,  and  left  eighty-seven 
pieces  of  cannon  on  the  field.  But  the  victory 
was  purchased  by  the  death  of  the  genend, 
and  a  loss  of  643  killed  and  wounded.    The 

H1ST.-12* 


command  devolved  on  Colonel  Monson,  who 
had  the  satisfiaction  of  recovering  fourteen  of 
the  guns  he  had  lost  in  his  retreat.  During 
the  engagement  a  destructive  fire  was  opened 
on  the  British  from  the  fort  of  Beeg,  which 
belonged  to  the  Rajah  of  Bhurtpore.  A 
battering-train  was  ^ordered  up  from  Agra, 
and  the  fortreos  captured  Nov.  23. 

Wellesley,  Despatehm;  Mill,  Hist,  of  India, 

D^^aeukf,  Father  {d,  1534),  was  a  monk  of 
Henry  Villi's  reign,  who  was  executed  May  5, 
1534,  for  the  active  part  he  took  in  the  pro- 
motion of  the  conspiracv  set  on  foot  under 
the  auspices  of  the  so-called  "  Holy  Maid  of 
Kent" 

De  Facto  Xing,  Statute  of  (1495), 
was  passed  in  the  eleventh  year  of  Henry  VII., 
and  was  probably  due  to  the  insecurity  which 
most  people,  in  those  times  of  constant  civil 
war  and  rebellion,  must  have  felt,  no  matter 
to  what  side  they  adhered.  By  this  Act  it  is 
provided  that  aU  people  are  bound  by  their 
allegiance  to  ser>'e  the  king  for  the  time  being, 
and  that  no  person  attending  upon  the  king 
of  the  land  for  the  time  being  shall  be  con- 
victed of  high  treason,  or  by  Act  of  Parliament 
or  other  process  of  law  suffer  any  forfeiture 
or  imprisonment.  This  statute  was  the  sub- 
ject of  much  discussion  at  the  trial  of  the 
regicides  at  the  Restoration,  and  after  the 
Revolution  of  1688. 

Defender  of  the  Faith  (Fidei  Be- 
FBNsoK).  A  title  first  conferred  on  Henry 
VIII.  by  Pope  Lco.X.,  in  1521.  Even  so 
early  as  June,  1518,  when  Luther's  doctrines 
were  only  just  beginning  to  make  a  stir  in 
Europe,  we  find  allusions  to  Henry's  book  of 
controversy  against  the  Reformer ;  but  it  was 
not  till  more  than  three  years  later,  when  the 
king's  zeal  had  received  a  fresh  impulse  from 
the  publication  of  De  Captivitate  BabyUmiea^ 
with  its  fierce  attack  upon  the  seven  sacra- 
ments of  the  Romish  Church,  that  the  royal 
author  put  the  finishing  touches  to  his  work. 
Clerk,  the  English  ambassador  at  Rome, 
received  instructions  to  present  the  book  to 
the  Pope,  who  read  with  avidity  the  opening 
pages,  expressing  his  pleasure  at  almost  every 
line  by  a  nod  or  word  of  approval.  The 
king  said  the  Pope  had  passed  the  clerks  in 
their  own  fields.  Several  copies  were,  at  Leo's 
request,  placed  in  the  hands  of  some  of 
the  principal  cardinals ;  and  a  little  later  Leo 
received  the  ambassador  in  a  consistory  of 
twenty  bishops,  approved  the  book,  and  next 
day  conferred  on  its  author  the  title  '*  Fidei  De- 
fensor "  (Oct.  11, 1621).  This  title,  according 
to  Lingard,  was  intended  as  a  compensation  for 
the  title  "  Rex  Christianissimus,"  which  Julius 
II.  had  declared  to  be  forfeited  by  the  King  of 
Fiance,  and  had  conferred  upon  the  King  of 
England,  but  which  Leo  could  never  be 
brought  to  recognise.  Henry's  defence  of 
the  seven  sacraments,  Assertio  Septem  Samrn^ 


Def 


(  362  ) 


Dei 


mentorwn  was  published  at  London  in  July, 
lo21,  and  rapidly  passed  through  many 
editions;  it  was  translated  into  German  in 
1523,  and  into  English  a  few  years  later. 
Luther  published  a  fierce  reply  within  a  year, 
and  affected  to  consider  the  work  so  con- 
temptible a  treatise  that  it  must  have  been 
written  by  a  **  parcel  of  empty-headed  sophists," 
who  abused  the  king's  name  by  prefixing  it 
to  a  work  *'  stuffed  full  of  their  own  lies  and 
virulence." 

Lingard,  Hid.  of  3ng. 

DefenderSy  The,  were  a  party  in  Ireland 
that  owed  their  origin  to  a  faction  fight 
between  Catholics  and  Protestants  on  July  4, 
1784.  The  Protestants  were  called  Peep  o' 
Day  Bov^s  (q.v.),  as  they  visited  the  dweUmgs 
of  the  Catholic  Defenders  early  in  the  morn- 
ing and  took  away  their  arms.  The  great 
faction  fight  of  these  two  parties  was  the  battle 
of  Diamond  (q.v.^.  In  1793  they  rose  in  g^reat 
numbers,  nominally  to  prevent  the  enrolment 
of  the  militia,  and,  although  pacified  in  Sept., 
1795,  were  soon  in  activity  again.  The  name 
disappearsfromhistory  after  1798.  The  causes 
of  their  existence  were  to  a  large  extent 
agrarian. 

Defoe*  Daniel  (&.  1661,^.  1733),  was  the  son 
of  a  London  butcher,  named  Foe — the  former 
himself  adopted  the  French  prefix.  He  was 
educated  in  the  doctrines  of  Dissent  and 
Whiggism.  As  an  opponent  of  the  designs  of 
James  II.,  he  fought  in  the  rebellion  of  the 
Duke  of  Monmouth,  and  was  fortunate  enough 
to  escape.  Shortly  afterwards  he  published 
a  pamphlet,  warning  the  Dissenters  against 
the  designs  of  the  king.  After  the  Revo- 
lution, he  engaged  largely  in  trade,  and 
was  appointed  secretary  to  the  commission 
for  managing  the  duties  on  glass.  In  1697  his 
£isa^  on  FrqjeeU  appeared.  He  also  published 
a  treatise  on  Occasional  Conformity,  and 
another  in  favour  of  a  standing  army,  "  with 
the  consent  of  Pai'liament;*'  one  against  the 
impending  French  war,  and  one  On  the  Original 
Fower  of  the  Collective  Body  of  the  People  of 
England,  In  1701  his  True-bom  EngHahnian 
appeared,  a  satire  with  the  object  of  reproach- 
ing those  who  abused  William  as  a  foreigner. 
The  same  year  he  drew  up  the  Legion 
Memorial,  an  expression  of  public  opinion 
in  favour  of  William*s  European  designs, 
and  elicited  by  the  treatment  that  the  pre- 
senters of  the  Kentish  petition  received  from 
the  Conmions.  In  1702  he  published  his 
famous  pamphlet,  The  Shortest  Way  with 
Disaentertf  an  ironical  performance,  written 
in  High  Church  language,  which  deceived 
oven  the  Dissenters  themselves.  The  High 
Church  party  brought  the  work  before  the 
^tice  of  the  House,  and  it  was  condemned 
A>  be  burnt  by  the  common  hangman.  Defoe 
surrendered  himself  to  justice,  and  was  fined, 
put  in  the  pillor)'',  and  imprisoned.  From 
Newgate  he  issued  the  Jtevieto,  a  periodical 


paper,  that  was  the  predecessor  of  the  more 
famous  Spectator  of  Steele.  In  1704  he  was 
released  by  the  exeitions  of  Harley,  who 
sought  to  win  him  over  to  the  Tor^"-  side. 
]^foney  was  sent  him  by  the  queen  to  pay 
his  fine.  In  1706  he  published  a  satire  on 
the  High  Churchmen.  He  was  sent  to  Scot- 
land to  assist  the  Commission  for  the  Union ; 
and  his  commercial  knowledge  proved  of  use 
to  the  English  government,  while  he  at  the 
same  time  aided  them  with  his  pen.  His 
history  of  the  Union  was  published  in  1709. 
A  satirical  piece,  entitled  A  Seaeonable  Caution, 
against  the  Pretender,  which  he  vindicated 
in  the  Heview,  caused  his  second  impiisonment 
in  Newgate  (1711);  again  Harley  procm^ 
his  freedom.  On  the  accession  of  Greorge,  he 
was  treated  with  neglect,  and  exposed  to 
attacks  from  the  Whigs  on  account  of  hia 
friendship  with  Harley.  He  therefore  pub- 
lished An  Appeal  to  Honour  and  Just  ice,  though 
it  be  to  my  JForat  Ettemiee,  as  a  vindication  of 
his  political  career.  After  this  he  ceased  to 
write  openly  on  political  subjects,  though  it 
is  probable  that  he  was  largely  engaged  in 
surreptitious  political  journalism.  In  1719  he 
produced  the  immortal  Jtobinaon  Cruaoe^  and 
subsequently  a  large  number  of  otherromances. 

Defoe's  Lt/«  and  Workx,  ed.  by  W.  Lee  (1800); 
W.  WUaon,  IAf«  of  Defoe  (1830) ;  Prof.  W.  Minto. 
Defoe  (1879) ;  Wright,  Ufe  (IBM)-        [S.  J.  L.  J 

De  Grey,  Eakl  {b.  nsi,d.  1859),  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Thomas  Eobinson,  second  Lord 
Grantham.  On  his  father's  death,  he  entered 
the  House  of  Lords  as  Lord  Grantham,  1786, 
and,  on  the  death  of  his  maternal  aunt,  the 
Countess  de  Grey,  succeeded  to  the  earldom. 
In  1834—5  he  held  the  office  of  First  Loid  of 
the  Admiralty  under  Sir  R.  Peel.  When  Sir 
Robert  Peel  again  took  office,  in  1841,  £^1  de 
Grev  was  appointed  Lord- Lieutenant  of  Ire- 
land.. He  discharged  the  functions  of  his 
office  with  much  credit  up  to  June,  1844, 
when  he  retired,  to  the  great  regret  of  the 
people  of  Dublin. 

De  Hteretico  Combiirendo  was  the 

title  of  a  statute  enacted  in  1401  against 
the  Lollards.  It  was  granted  by  the  king, 
with  the  assent  of  the  Lords,  on  the  petition 
of  the  clerg3%  a  petition  couched  in  similar 
terms  being  presented  at  the  same  time  by 
the  Commons.  By  this  statute  a  heretic  con- 
victed before  a  spiritual  court,  and  refusing  to 
recant,  was  to  be  handed  over  to  the  civil 
power  to  be  burned.  Archbishop  Arundel 
was  the  prime  mover  in  the  matter,  and 
Henrj*  was  probably  not  nnwilUng  to  crush 
the  Ijollards,  who  were  more  or  less  closely 
connected  with  the  party  of  Richard  II. 

Deira  was  the  name  given  to  the  ancient 
Anglian  kingdom  stretching  from  the  Tees  or 
the  T}nne  to  tiie  Humber,  and  extending  inland 
to  the  boi'ders  of  the  British  roalm  of  Strath- 
Clyde.  Like  Kent  and  some  other  districts  of 
Bntain,  it  seems  to  have  retained  a  British. 


IM 


(  363  ) 


Del 


oame,  both  for  the  land  and  its  inhabitants, 
long    after  it  had  been    conquered  by  the 
Teutonic  tribes :  for  the  words  Deira  and  Deiri 
appear  to  be  both  related  to  the  old  Welsh  Deivr. 
In  all  probability',  both  Deira  and  its  northern 
neighbour,  Bemicia,  were,  like  Mercia,  origin- 
ally colonised  by  seyeral  tribes,  each  under  its 
own  leader.    Later  we  read  in  the  uiitglo-Haxofi 
Chronicle  that  Ida  established  the  kingdom  of 
Northumbria  in  647 — a  phrase  which  may 
fiiirly  enough  be  interpreted  as  implpng  that 
he  united  mto  one  aU  the  petty  settlements 
existing  in  his  time.    Ida*s  kingdom,  however, 
may  very  well  have  been  only  co-extensive 
wiitk  the  later  Bemicia,  for  we  are  told  that 
in  560  Ella  came  to  the  tlurone,  and  he  seems 
to  have  added  the  district  from  the  Tees  to 
the  Humber  to  his  realm.    On  his  death  (588), 
Ethelfrith  of  Bemicia  drove  out  Ella's  young 
son,   Edwin^    and   usurped    Deira.     Edwin, 
meanwhile,  had  taken  refuge  with  Eedwald, 
King  of  the  East  Angles,  and  the  two  together 
met,  and  overthrew  Ethelfrith  in  617.    Edwin 
now  seems  to  have  once  more  united  Deira  and 
Bemicia ;  but  as  if  to  show  how  ver}'  imper- 
fectly even  the  southern  part  of  his  realm  was 
knit  together,  we  read  of  his  having  to  subdue 
the  small  British  kingdoms  of  Lodis  (Leeds)  and 
Elmet,  both  l^dng  within  the  bounds  of  his 
native  country,  Deira.    The  two  kingdoms 
were  once  more  divided,  only,  however,  to  be 
permanentlv  re-united  under  Oswy,  the  son  of 
Ethelfrith  (642— 670).    From  this  time  the 
separate  kingdoms  of  Deira  and  Bemicia  may 
be  considered  as  merged  in  that  of  North- 
umbria.    But,  though  no  longer  independent 
kingdoms,  both  Deira  and  Bemicia  reappear 
as  separate  earldoms  under  the  g^reat  West 
Saxon  kings,  and  Deira  at  least  was  regularly 
partitioned  among  the  Danes  in  876.     Under 
Ethelred  the  two  provinces  appear  to  have  been 
often  disjoined,  but  were  once  more  united  bv 
Ethelred  towards  the  beginning  of  the  eleventn 
century'   (1006).    Canute  continued  this  ar- 
rangement ;  but  there  was  probably  a  subject- 
earl  for  the  Danes  of    Deira.      Before  the 
accession  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  Siward 
was  Earl  of  Deira  alone  till,  bv  the  murder  of 
Eardwulf ,  he  once  more  united  Bemicia  to  its 
southern  neighbour.     On  Siward's  death  all 
Northumbria  was  given  to  Tostig  (1055) ;  but 
on  his  banishment,  in  1065,  the  old  di^nsion 
appeared    once  more,  when  Morkere   ruled 
in  Deira,  and  Oswulf  in  Bemicia.    With  the 
Conquest  we  may  look  upon  the  old  name  of 
Deira  as  being  politically  extinct.    Nominally, 
the  two  earldoms  of  the  North  lingered  on  for 
a  few  years  under  Morkere  and  Grospatric,  but 
finally  disappear  in  the  time  of  the  great  harry- 
ing of  1 069.  This  strong  act  of  policy  or  cruelty 
may  have  done  much  to  obliterate  the  distinc- 
tion between  the  two  provinces — whether  this 
distinction  arose  from  purely  political  con- 
sido^ations,  from  a  difference  of  race  between 
the  Ang^^*^^  settlers  of  Deira  and  the  possibly 
Jutiah  settlen  of  Bemida,  or  was  in  latw 


years  mainlv  due  to  the  largo  infusion  of 
Danish  blood  that  was  from  975  undoubtedly 
present  in  the  more  southern  district.  [Nori 

[T.  A.  A.; 


iORTU- 


VMB&IA.] 


.] 


De  la  Kara.  Snt  Peter  (/.  1376),  one  of 
the  knights  of  the  shire  of  Hereford  in  the 
Good  Parliament  ( 1 376) ,  of  which  he  was  chosen 
Speaker.  In  this  capacity  he  laid  the  opinion 
of  the  Parliament  before  John  of  (Hunt  and 
the  Council,  and  though  the  duke  adjourned 
the  House,  continued  the  attack  on  the  offend- 
ing parties  next  day.  When  the  Parliament 
dispersed,  De  la  Mare  was  imprisoned  bv 
Lancaster's  order,  and  was  not  released  till 
Richard  II.'s  accession,  although  a  strong 
minority  in  the  Parliament  of  Januar>%  1377, 
demanded  his  liberation. 

Delawaray  Henry  Booth,  Lord  (b,  1651, 
d.  1694),  sat  as  member  for  (Chester  in  the 
reign  of  James  II.  He  was  accused  of  taking 
part  in  Monmouth's  rebellion,  and  tried  in 
the  Lord  High  Steward's  Court.  Although 
Jeffrey,  whom  Delaware  had  formerly  called 
a  "  drunken  jack-pudding,"  employed  all  his 
brutality  against  hun,  Delaware  was  acquitted. 
The  verdict  was  most  popular.  On  the  arrival 
of  the  Prince  of  Orange  m  England,  Delaware 
rose  for  him  at  the  head  of  his  tenants  in 
Cheshire,  and  marched  to  Manchester.  He  was 
one  of  the  messengers  sent  by  the  House  of 
Lords  to  James,  requestmg  him  to  retire  to 
Ham  on  the  Thames.  He  was  placed  on  the 
Treasury  Bench  and  made  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer.  He  soon  quarrelled  with  his 
colleagues,  Mordaunt  and  Gkxiolphin,  and 
attempted  to  drive  Halifax  from  office.  On 
the  appointment  of  Caermarthen  as  chief 
minister,  he  retired  from  office,  and  was 
created  Earl  of  Warrington  (1690).  Large 
grants  of  lands  belonging  to  Jesuits  were 
made  to  him,  and  a  large  sum  paid  him  for 
expenses  incurred  at  the  time  of  the  Revolu- 
tion. Nevertheless,  he  complained  bitterly  of 
the  injustice  of  his  treatment.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  written  a  bitter  pamphlet  when  Tory 
lord-lieutenants  were  substituted  for  Whigs. 
He  protested  against  the  rejection  of  the  Place 
Bill  of  1692.  *'  He  was,"  says  Macaulapr,  "  a 
zealous  Whig  .  .  .  gloomy  and  acrimonious." 

Delawave,  State  of.  [Colonies,  Ameri- 
can.] 

Delgon,  The  Battle  of  (574),  was  fought 
between  the  Scots  imder  Conall,  and  the  Picts, 
who  were  victorious,  killing  Conall's  son  Dun- 
can.   Delgon  is  in  Kintyre. 

ChronioU  of  the  Piclt  and  SeoU. 

DaUii  was  formerly  the  capital  of  the 
Mogul  empire,  and  was  definitely  annexed  by 
the  English,  Dec.  4,  1803. 

Delhi,  The  Battle  of  (Sept  11,  1803). 
(General  tAke  (q.v.),  with  a  British  force 
4,600  strong,  discovered  Bourquin,  Scindiah's 
general,    encamped   in   a  fortified   position 


Del 


(  364  ) 


Dem 


before  Delhi.  The  Mahrattas  amounted  to 
19,000  men,  and  were  drawn  up  with  their 
rear  resting  on  the  Jumna,  and  a  formidable 
train  of  artillery  in  front.  80  situated,  the 
position  of  the  enemy  appeared  impregnable ; 
and  Lake  ordered  his  cavalry,  who  were 
advancing  in  front,  to  execute  a  feigned 
retreat.  The  enemy,  deceived,  left  their  posi- 
tion, and  rushed  forward  yelling.  The  British 
infantry,  led  by  the  76th  Highlanders  and  by 
Lake  in  person,  advanced  steadily  amid 
showers  of  gi'ape,  and  after  firing  one  round, 
chared  with  the  bayonet.  The  shock  was 
irresistible;  the  ranks  of  the  enemy  broke  and 
fled  down  to  the  river,  in  which  the  greater 
number  perished.  The  British  loss  was  only 
about  400,  of  which  one-third  was  from  the 
ranks  of  the  Highlanders. 

Wellefllej,  Despatohet;  Mill,  Hist,  of  India, 

Delhi,  SiEOE  OF  (1804).  After  Colonel 
Monson's  unfortunate  expedition  into  Holkar's 
territory  had  been  forced  back  upon  Agra, 
Jeswunt  Gao  made  a  sudden  inciu*sion  to  the 
very  gates  of  Delhi  (Oct.  7).  This  city  was 
some  ten  miles  in  circumference,  defended 
only  by  dilapidated  walls  and  ruined  ramparts, 
and  filled  with  a  mixed  population,  not  yet 
accustomed  to  British  rule.  The  garrison 
was  so  small  as  not  to  admit  of  reUefs,  and 
provisions  and  sweetmeats  were  therefore 
served  out  to  them  on  the  ramparts,  but 
the  British  Resident,  Colonel  Ochterlony, 
animated  by  the  spirit  of  Clive,  and  nobly 
seconded  by  the  commandant.  Colonel  Brown, 
defended  the  place  for  nine  days  against 
20,000  Mahrattas  and  100  guns,  till  at  lenglJi 
Holkar,  despairing  of  success,  drew  ofiE  his 

army. 

Wellesler,  Detpatche*;  Mill,  Hist,   of  India; 
Qrant  Duif,  Maiirattoi. 

Delhi,  Siege  of  (1857).  On  May  11, 1867, 
the  mutineering  Sepoy  regiments  from  Meerut 
appeared  before  Delhi,  and,  despite  the  efforts 
of  Brigadier  Graves  and  Lieutenant  Wil- 
loughby,  the  town  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
rebels  on  that  day.  All  the  Europeans  who 
could  do  so  fled  precipitately,  and  the  city  of 
the  Great  Mogul  soon  became  the  centre  of 
the  revolt.  It  became  necessary  to  re-capture 
so  important  a  post,  and  on  the  8th  of  June, 
Sir  Henry  Barnard,  after  defeating  an  advance 
division  of  the  enemy,  oocupied  the  Ridge,  a 
rising  ground  some  two  miles  from  the  city. 
DeUu  was  defended  by  a  series  of  bastions 
sixteen  feet  high,  connected  by  long  curtains, 
with  here  and  there  a  martello  tower.  Bas- 
tions and  curtains  were  alike  of  solid  masonry, 
twelve  feet  thick,  and  the  whole  was  further 
strengthened  by  a  wide  and  deep  ditch.  The 
besieging  army  consisted  of  English  troops, 
Sikhs,  Afghans,  and  Ghoorkas,  whilst  the 
rebels  were  30,000  strong,  with  ample  provi- 
sions and  ammunition.  It  was  not  till  June 
23  that  operations  really  began  with  a  sally 
from  the  city,  which  was  beaten  back,  after 
a  day's  hard  fighting.    During  August  and 


September  the  English  quickened  their  pre- 
parations for  the  attack.  Brigadier  Nichoisoa 
arrived  at  the  camp  with  the  requisite  siege- 
train,  and  the  heavy  artillery  came  soon 
after.  On  Sept.  8  four  batteries  opened  fire 
on  the  city,  and  by  the  13th  a  breach  was 
made.  The  next  morning  saw  the  final 
assault.  Three  colimms  were  led  to  the  walls, 
while  a  foui-th  was  held  in  reserve.  For  six 
days  tbe  fighting  continued  in  the  streets, 
and  no  quarter  was  extended  to  men  with 
weapons  in  their  hands.  At  last,  on  Sept.  20, 
the  gates  of  the  palace  were  forced;  but  Baha> 
dur  Shah  had  in  the  meanwhile  escaped  to  the 
tomb  of  Homayun,  outside  the  city.  Hero  he 
was  captui*ed  by  Captain  Hodson,  and  his  two 
sons  shot  as  they  were  re-entering  the  city. 
This  was  the  turning-point  of  the  revolution, 
which  could  no  longer  threaten  any  consider- 
able danger,  when  its  nominal  head,  the  Great 
Mogul  king,  was  a  prisoner  in  the  hands  of 
the  English. 

Malleflon,  Indian  Mutiny;  Kaje,  Sepoy  War. 

De  IdOlxnep  Jean  Louis  {b,  1740,  d.  1806), 
was  bom  at  Geneva,  where  he  studied  for  the 
bar,  and  practised  as  an  advocate  till  forced 
to  leave  the  town,  from  the  offence  he  gave  to 
the  authorities  by  the  publication  of  his 
Examtn  det  trots  points  de  droit.  He  took 
refuge  in  England,  and  while  resident  in  this 
country,  made  a  careful  investigation  into  our 
government  and  laws,  the  results  of  which 
he  first  published  in  French  at  Amsterdam,  in 
1 77 1 ,  in  his  work  on  TVw  Constitution  of  England. 
This  was  almost  at  once  translated  into  English, 
and  was  for  many  years  a  standard  work  on 
the  subject  with  which  it  deals.  De  Lolme 
had  returned  to  Switzerland  many  years 
before  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1806. 

Delvilly  LoKD,  was  an  Irish  nobleman 
concerned  in  the  rebellion  of  Tyrone  and 
Tyrconnel  (1605).  He  was  imprisoned  in 
Dublin,  but  succeeded  in  making  his  escape. 
Afterwards  he  was  pardoned  by  James  I.,  and 
ci*eated  Earl  of  Westmeath. 

Demesne  Ijaads  were  the  estates  which 
belonged  to  the  crown,  and  in  early  da^^s  were 
one  of  the  main  sources  of  the  roj'al  revenue. 
When  these  had  been  held  by  the  crown 
since  the  time  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  they 
went  by  the  name  of  manors  of  ancient 
demesne ;  and  each  of  these  manors  of  ancient 
demesne  was  reckoned  as  a  hundred  in  itself, 
and,  like  the  hundred,  subject  to  the  shire- 
court.  In  the  times  of  Stephen  large  grants 
of  the  royal  property  were  made  for  the  sake 
of  purchasing  adherents  to  either  party ;  the 
resumption  of  these  grants  was  one  of  the 
first  reforms  brought  about  by  Henry  II.  A 
similar  course  of  conduct  had  been  pursued 
by  William  Marshall  in  the  early  daj'S  of 
Henry  III.,  and  again  by  Hubert  de  Burgh. 
In  later  ^'ears  it  became  a  custom  for  the 
kings  to  impoverish  themselves  by  these  im- 
prudent grants,  and  then  appeal  to  the  Estates 


Sem 


(  3Go  ) 


Den 


for  support.  It  is  to  this  abuse  that  the  oft- 
repeated  cry  of  reform  pointed — that  the  king 
should  "  live  of  his  own.' *  In  1 3 1 0  the  Ordainers 
forbade  the  king  to  make  these  gifts  without 
their  consent.  A  similar  spirit  was  shown  by 
the  Parliaments  of  1404,  1450,  and  other 
years.  In  the  latter  half  of  the  fifteenth 
century  the  crown  had  grown  so  poor  that 
Fortescue,  in  his  I>e  Laudibus  Legum  Anfflia^ 
suggests  a  general  resumption  of  the  royal 
possessions,  which  he  says  at  one  time 
extended  over  a  fifth  part  of  the  kingdom; 
and  he  suggests  that  for  the  future  the 
king  should  only  grant  estates  for  life. 
Several  towns  {e.g.,  Northampton)  were 
in  royal  demesne,  and  all  perhaps  to  be 
considered  as  so  being  unless  they  had  a 
special  lord.  The  king  was  considered  to 
have  a  peculiar  claim  upon  both  manors  and 
burghs  held  in  demesne — tallage;  and  this 
right  Edward  I.  continued  to  exact  even  after 
the  **  Confirmatio  Cartarum.'*  This  example 
was  followed  both  by  Edward  II.  and  Edward 
in.,  though  not  without  resistance ;  but  from 
the  latter  reign  we  may  regard  the  imposition 
as  extinct. 

Stabbs.  Conft  Hut. ;  Hallam,  Vtd.  Aga  and 
CofuL  HuL ;  Digby,  HiaL  of  Law  of  Seal  Pro- 
perty. 

DemetAy  The,  were  an  ancient  tribe  in- 
habiting the  south-west  comer  of  Wales. 
According  to  Mr.  Rh^s,  the^  consisted  of 
Goidels,  or  the  earlier  Celtic  immigrants, 
largely  mixed  with  the  remnants  of  the 
earner  pre-Celtic  occupants  of  our  island. 

Denbiifh.  Basil  Fexldino,  2md  Earl  {d, 
1676),  son  of  William  Feildin^,  and  Mary, 
dster  of  the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  was 
ambassador  in  Italy  from  1634  to  1638. 
When  the  Civil  War  began,  he  took  the  side 
of  the  Parliament,  in  opposition  to  his  father 
and  family,  and  commanded  a  regiment  at 
Bdgehill.  In  June,  1 643,  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief in  the  associated  counties  of 
Warwick,  Worcester,  Stafford,  and  Shropshire, 
and  exercised  his  trust  with  zeal  and  vigour 
till  the  passing  of  the  Self-denying  Ordinance. 
He  represented  the  Parliament  at  the  Treaty 
of  TJxbridge  and  in  other  negotiations. 
Though  he  refused  to  take  part  in  the  king's 
trial,  declaring  that  he  would  "rather  be 
torn  in  pieces  than  have  any  share  in  so 
infamous  a  business,"  he  became  a  member  of 
the  first  two  Councils  of  State  of  the  Common- 
wealth. A  zealous  Presbyterian,  he  assisted 
bis  party  in  bringing  about  the  Restoration, 
and  exerted  his  influence  on  the  side  of  mode- 
ration after  that  event. 

Denman,  Thomas,  Lord  {b.  1779,  d.  1864), 
was  the  son  of  Thomas  Denman,  a  London 
physician.  After  completing  his  education 
at  Cambridge,  he  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1806.  Distinguishing  himself  by  the  conduct 
of  many  casea,  such  as  the  defence  of  Lord 
Cochrane,  he  was  returned  to  Parliament  for 
Waieham  in  1818,  and  later  for  Nottingham 


— a  town  which  he  continued  to  represent  till 
he  was  made  Chief  Justice,  in  1832.  But  his 
greatest  success  was  obtained  when,  in 
company  with  Lord  Brougham,  he  was 
selected  to  defend  Queen  Caroline  in  1820, 
though  before  this  he  had  gained  great  repu- 
tation for  his  exertions  on  behalf  of  the 
Luddites  (q.v.),  and  for  the  repeal  of  the  Six 
Acts.  In  1834  he  was  appointed  Lord  Chief 
Justice,  an  ofiice  which  he  discharged  with  a 
conscientious  love  for  truth,  even  if,  as  was 
said,  with  something  of  the  spirit  of  an  advo- 
cate. Amongst  his  many  titles  to  renown 
must  be  enumerated  his  passion  for  liberty, 
his  exertions  against  the  slave  trade,  and  Ms 
aidour  for  the  amelioration  of  the  criminal 
laws. 

Arnold's  Life, 

Dttninark,  Relations  with.  The  consoli- 
dation of  the  Danish  state  by  "  Gorm  the 
Old,''  in  the  ninth  century,  had  a  twofold 
effect  on  English  histor}'.  Firstly,  it  sent 
the  fiercer  jarls  and  chiefs  to  find  new 
homes  of  liberty  beyond  the  sea ;  secondly,  it 
established  in  the  old  home  of  the  new  con- 
querors of  England  a  state  adequate  to  cope 
with  the  West  Saxon  monarchy  itself.  T^e 
dealings  of  England  with  the  Wiking  invaders 
are  summarised  in  another  article  fDAKES  nr 
England],  but  with  the  conquest  of  all  Eng- 
land, by  Swegen  (Svend)  and  Canute  (Knud),  a 
political  relation  of  the  most  intimate  cha- 
racter between  the  two  nations  resulted,  for 
England,  in  important  consequences — for 
Denmark  in  little  less  than  the  introduction 
of  civilisation  from  English  sources.  Vic- 
torious Denmark  was  in  danger  of  becoming 
dependent  on  conquered  England,  when  the 
death  of  Harthacanute,  in  1042,  severed  the 
two  countries.  Despite  the  internal  confusions 
which  resulted  from  the  decay  of  the  old 
Danish  dynasty,  the  successors  of  Canute  did 
not  at  once  ^ve  up  all  hopes  of  re-conquering 
his  great  prize.  Among  their  many  abortive 
attempts  may  be  specially  mentioned  those  of 
Saint  Canute  (1080—1086),  who,  both  before 
and  after  his  accession  to  the  Danish  throne, 
strove  earnestly  to  achieve  this  object.  But 
it  is  in  commercial  rather  than  in  political 
dealings  that  the  relations  between  Denmark 
and  England  were  now  kept  up.  In  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  the  Scandi- 
navian states  were  economically  boimd  to 
England  by  ties  as  close  as  those  which 
kept  England  in  dependence  on  the  Nether- 
lands. 

The  rise  of  the  Hanseatic  League  drove  the 
English  away  from  the  monopoly  of  the 
Danish  trade*;  but  when  the  Scandinavian 
kingdoms  sought  a  protector  from  the  over- 
bearing Hansa,  it  was  to  England  that  they 
turned.  In  1490  Heniy  VII.  concluded  a 
commercial  treaty  with  King  Hans,  by  which 
the  English,  in  return  for  paying  the  Sound 
dues,  were  allowed  to  have  great  privileges 
for  their  merchants,  including  the  right  of 


2>M  (1 

appoiating  coDsub  witli  jurisdiction  over 
olfenden  of  their  own   nauoiulity.      Chris* 

Uuu  11.  Bought  in  England  ussiHtiiuce  against 
the  revolted  Swedes,  but  his  clost  relatiTe, 
Chriitian  III.,  demanded  all  the  trBding 
rif(htB  of  the  Engliab  na  tho  price  of  their 
allianoB.  The  general  fiiendship  bctveen 
Sweden  and  France  led  Denmark  to  an 
English  alliancs.  James  I.  mairied  a  Danish 
■wife,  and  supported  Chrietian  IV.  in  his 
attack  on  the  Knipiro  in  1625.  But  the  estab- 
liahment  of  friendly  relationa  between  Eng- 
land and  Fi-anee  may  prol«bly  have  led  to  a 
certain  Hmeunt  of  hostility  betiveen  England 
and  Denmark  during  the  Beventeenth  centurj'. 
In  1662  Frederick  III.  powerfully  assisted 
the  Dutch  in  their  Btrugglo  against  the  Lonft 
Parliament  and  Cromwell.  ])ut  the  changed 
relations  of  EogLind  and  Holland,  a  new 
intimacy  with  the  great  Elector,  an  the  whole 
a  friend  of  England,  produced  another  turn 
in  Danish  polilics.  The  hostility  which 
Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  showed  to  England 
at  the  end  of  his  rcip;ii  only  resulted  in  Eng- 
land, Hanover,  and  Denmark  uniting  to  divide 
a  groat  part  of  the  (jermnn  territories  of 
Sweden.  Tho  close  connection  of  Denmark 
with  Itussia  was,  before  the  days  of  the  younger 
Pitt,  a  new  guarantee  of  English  friendship, 
which  not  even  the  divorce  of  tho  EnelJsh 
princess  Alatilda  from  Christian  VII.  ana  the 
•hort-lived  French  uolicy  of  Struensee  could 
aScct.  In  Ii80,  and  again  in  IBOl,  Denmark 
Joined  the  Li^ue  of  the  Neutrals  against  Eng- 
land ;  but  in  the  former  case  peace  was  main- 
tained, while  in  the  Utter  the  bombai-dment  of 
Copenhagen  by  Parker  and  the  dnith  at  Paul 
of  liussia ended  the  dispute.  In  IHDTEngland, 
fearful  lest  Napoleon  should  use  the  Danish 
nuvy  against  England,  sent  an  expedition  to 
Copenhagen,  which  effected  its  object  by 
seizing  the  Danish  fleet  at  the  expense  of  our 
friendly  reklions  with  Denmark.  When  peace 
WHS  made  in  IXIo,  Engknd  retained  of  her 
Danish  eonquosts  Heligoland.  During  the 
present  century  the  Schluswig-Uulsteia  ques- 
tion has  been  at  the  root  of  moHt  of  the 
dealings  between  England  and  nenmark. 
The  Treaty  of  London,  which  Settled  the 
Danish  sueccsaion,  was  largely  the  result  of 
English  Intervention.  The  war  against  Ger- 
many in  1S<A  was  ranhly  entered  into  by  t^e 
Danes,  in  the  behef  that  England  would  help 
them  to  i-elain  their  hold  over  the  duchies. 
They  were,  however,  disappointed,  and  their 
loss  uf  tho  much-disputed  territories  to  Prussia 
largely  neutralised  the  good  effect  which  the 
marriage  of  the  daughter  of  thiiir  new  king  to 
the  Prince  o£  Wales  hud  occasioned. 

DahlmaDDB  GrKKicUi  nm  Lanntmark  Is  a 
«cwd  aathoiitj  on  DaDuh  hiatorr  to  the  RcTor. 
lUtiOU;  Fminui,  ynrman  (bnquif,  brjugs  ont 
tha  larlr  dnliugi^  Schaiii,  Bagliicht  Uaniili- 
jwtitit,  lbs  trwliug  relations.         [T.  V.  T.] 


pony  and  the  Kajah  of  Belar.  Its  sti] 
wsK  that  Cuttack  should  be  cede< 
English :  t^t  the  lands  west  of  the  ^ 
which  had  belonged  to  the  Nizam,  s) 
reatoml  to  him ;  that  the  English 
arbitrate  on  bis  differences  with  thi 
and  Peiahwa;  and  that  all  Euroj 
any  nation  at  war  with  Enghuid  sl 
excluded  from  Berar. 

Saorliain,  Thk  Battli  of  (.577 
name  given  to  the  great  victor}'  b 
Ceawlin  of  AVessex  broke  up  the 
still  held  by  the  Welsh  into  two  p 
severing  the  Britons  south  of  the 
Channel  from  those  north  of  that 
As  a  consequence  of  this  victory 
Ciloucester,  and  Cirencester  fell  into  t 
of  the  West  Saxons.  Deorham  h 
identitied  with  Dereham,  a  village 
Bath  and  Chipping  Sodburj-. 

It 

tangle  the  true  instunces  of  a 
Bolomn  deposition  by  the  act  of  hii 
or  his  people  from  those  whore 
merely  have  been  the  result  of  a  i 
intrigue  or  disorderly  rebellion. 
latter  kind  Northumbria  offeni  tl 
examples,  for  out  of  fifteen  kiugs 
over  this  realm  in  the  eighth  eentu: 
two  seem  to  have  met  with  a  natun 
while  still  in  posseseion  of  the  thror 
of  these  thirteen  unfortunate  Idn^ 
three  can  bo  claimed  as  in  anv  way  i 
fying  Kemble'a  fifth  canon,  "that  th 
had  the  power  to  depose  the  kin) 
government  was  not  conducted  tor  th 
of  his  people."  If  we  turn  to  Wet 
question  becomes  a  little  clearer.  Ai 
to  Henry  of  Huntingdon,  Sigeberht 
prived  ef  his  kingly  office  in  76a,  a 
mature  deliberation  of  the  nohles  and 
and  with  the  consent  of  the  whole 
This  reads  like  Che  formal  act  of  o 
conscious  of  its  own  rights,  and  not 
to  assert  them  to  the  f  iill ;  but  it  is  t 
to  add  that  one  version  of  the  "  Ch: 
makos  the  statement  in  a  more 
manner  than  that  juat  given,  and  roi 
this  year  CiTiewull  deprived  King  S 
of  his  kingdom."  But  another  text 
more  eiphciC  tlian  Ucnry  of  Huntin 
ascribing  the  action  to  the  Wilan.  M 
two  centuries  and  a  half  Inter  it  appe 
the  crown  of  Englsnd  was  duly  tra 
by  the  English  Witan  from  Ethe 
Swend.  The  same  inherent  right  of 
to  discard  its  ruler  if  he  neglects  its  J 
may  be  seen  in  the  action  of  tho  N' 
brians  when  they  deposed  Tostig  fi 
earldom— an  instance  which  seems  sc 
forcibly  to  bring  out  the  fact  that  i 
the  very  latest  times  some  traditioi 
ever  faint,  of  their  old  independence  i 
the  great  English  kingdoms,  long  atl 


Dap 


(  867  ) 


Der 


had  been  incoixwraMHl  with  the  West  Saxon 
monarchy.  To  sum  up  the  foregoing  remarks, 
it  seems  evident  that  the  power  of  deposition 
was  in  early  English  times  recognised  as 
being  quite  within  the  compass  of  the  rights 
of  that  body  which  undoubtedly  had  elected 
the  sovereign  to  the  throne ;  and  it  is  unne- 
cessary to  call  in  examples  of  similar  pro- 
ceedings from  the  annals  of  kindred  Teutonic 
races  on  the  Continent. 

The  same  twofold  power  of  election  and 
deposition  seems  to  have  been  recognised  for 
many  hundred  years  after  the  Conquest.  That 
which  gave  had  the  right  to  take  away  also. 
But  by  the  time  of  our  next  insttmce  of  the 
execution  of  this  power,  things  wera  wearing 
a  somewhat  different  aspect.  The  royal 
power  had  been  growing  for  many  centuries ; 
a  vague  feeling  of  indefeasible  right  was 
abroad ;  the  Church  kwyers  had  done  much 
to  magnify  the  power  and  the  sacredness  of 
the  kingly  office.  Accordingly,  when  Bishop 
Stratford  brought  his  detailed  charges  against 
Edward  II.  before  the  Parliament  of  1327,  it 
was  considered  necessary'  to  secure  the  king's 
own  consent  to  his  son's  election.  Again,  in 
1399  the  same  problem  had  to  be  faced ;  for 
even  then  partisans  of  Bolingbroke  did  not 
seem  quite  sure  of  the  extent  of  the  rights 
of  Parliament.  The  question  was  debated 
whether  Richard  II.  should  be  requested  to 
resign  or  be  deposed,  and  it  was  finally  deter- 
mined to  make  things  perfectly  legal  by 
adopting  both  courses.  Richard  consented  to 
perform  his  part  of  this  programme,  and  Par- 
liament, after  hearing  the  long  catalogue  of 
charges  brought  agtiinst  the  king,  voted  that 
they  formed  a  sufficient  ground  for  his  depo- 
sition. In  these  two  last  instances  of  deposi- 
tion we  seem  to  see  signs  that  Parliament 
he8itate<l  as  to  the  extent  of  its  powers,  and 
required  the  king's  resignation  before  ventur- 
ing to  assert  its  own  authoritv.  The  case  of 
Charles  I.  is  so  exceptional  that  it  hardly 
comes  under  view  of  this  article.  But  by  the 
time  of  the  Revolution  of  1688,  the  doctrine 
of  the  king's  divine  right  had  been  formu- 
lated in  definite  terms,  and  whether  accepted 
or  not,  had  a  strong  influence  even  on  the 
minds  of  Whigs.  Unable  to  muster  up 
sufficient  courage  to  state  boldly  its  right  of 
deposition.  Parliament  on  this  occasion  took 
refuge  in  the  theor)'  of  abdication,  and  made 
the  king's  act  in  fleeing  from  the  kingdom 
equivalent  to  the  verbal  resignation  which 
had  been  extracted  from  the  unwilling  lips  of 
Edward  II.  and  Richard  II. 

To  sum  up,  it  may  be  said  that  the  power  of 
deposition  was  in  early  English  times  a  prac- 
tical, if  not  a  theoretical,  right,  belonging  to 
the  Witan  and  the  nation ;  but  after  the 
Conquest,  men  being  less  and  less  inclined  to 
break  in  upon  the  divinity,  which  to  their 
eyes  hedged  round  a  king,  while  still  exer- 
cising the  old  right  upon  occasion,  justifled 
it    to  themselves  by  requiring  a  voluntary 


renunciation  on  the  part  of  the  king  himself 
of  the  powers  conferred  on  him  at  his  conse- 
cration ;  and  when  this  could  not  be  obtained, 
allowed  the  fiict  of  the  king's  absence  to  be 
translated  into  an  act  of  abdication. 

StubbA,  Coiwi.  Uiat.,  esp.  vol.  i.,  ch.  vi.,  for  the 
dejposition  of  the  Anrio-Bazon  kings ;  Lingard, 
Hut.  of  £ii0.,  and  -Pauli,  Hiti.  of  £ny.,  for 
Biohard  II. ;  Hallam,  Const.  HUt.,  for  James  II. 

[T.  A.  A.] 

Derbj.  The  chief  town  of  Derbyshire 
was  originally  known  by  the  name  of  North- 
worthig,  and  owes  its  modem  name  of 
Derby,  or  Deorby^  to  the  Danes,  by  whom  it 
was  held  from  874  to  918,  when  Ethelfleda, 
Alfred's  daughter,  re-captured  it.  Later 
it  was  restored  to  them  as  one  of  the  five 
boroughs,  but  again  united  to  the  English 
ci*own  by  Edmund.  Under  Edward  the 
Confessor  it  was  a  royal  borough.  William 
the  Conqueror  conferred  it  on  William  de 
Ferrers,  and  Henry  I.,  who  seems  to  have 
conferred  on  the  town  its  first  charter, 
granted  it  to  the  Earls  of  Chester.  In  the  Civil 
War  of  the  seventeenth  century,  though  at  first 
Royalist,  it  was  soon  taken  by  the  Parliamen- 
tarians, and  remained  in  their  hands  till  the 
end  of  the  war.  In  later  history  it  is  chiefly 
famous  as  marking  the  farthest  point  reached 
by  the  Young  Pretender  in  1745. 

Derby  Dilly,  Thb.  In  1834  Lord 
Stanlejr  resigned  office  on  the  question  of 
secularising  the  surplus  of  the  Iriiah  Church 
revenues,  and  witn  Sir  James  Graham, 
Lord  Ripon,  the  Duke  of  Richmond,  and 
some  others,  formed  an  intermediate  party 
between  the  Whigs  and  the  Tories,  de- 
clining all  connection  with  either.  This 
unnatural  state  of  isolation  deprived  the 
country'  for  some  time  of  the  services  of  some 
of  its  ablest  statesmen.  The  clique  was 
derisively  known  as  the  "  Derby  DiUy,"  from 
its  leader,  Lord  Stanley,  the  heir  to  the  earldom 
of  Derby.  In  1841,  however,  this  third  party 
came  to  an  end,  most  of  its  members  joining 
Sir  Robert  Peel's  government. 

Derbjf  Eakluom  of.  Robert  de  Ferrers, 
lord  of  ittbury,  was  created  Earl  of  Derby  in 
1138.  The  earldom  continued  in  his  £&mily 
for  eight  generations,  until  Earl  Robert  (de 
Ferrers]  was  deprived,  in  consequence  of  his 
action  m  the  Biarons'  revolt,  by  the  Dictum 
de  Kenil worth,  1266.  The  earldom  was  re- 
vived, 1337,  in  favour  of  Henrj-  Plantagenet, 
afterwards  Duke  of  Lancaster,  and  father- 
in-law  of  John  of  Gaunt,  whose  son  Henrys 
afterwards  king,  is  styled  Earl  of  Derby 
during  Ms  father's  lifetime.  In  1485  the 
title  was  granted  to  Thomas  Stanley,  second 
Lord  Stanley,  in  whose  family  it  still  re- 
mains. The  elder  line  came  to  an  end  with 
the  death  of  James,  tenth  earl,  1736,  when 
the  title  devolved  upon  Sir  Edward  Stanley, 
descendant  of  a  brother  of  the  second  earl,  and 
the  lineal  ancestor  of  the  present  holder  of  the 
title,  Frederick,  sixteenth  earl  of  this  creation. 


"Der 


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Ber 


Derby,  Tuomah  Stanley,  Ibt  Eakl  of, 
and  2nd  &iron  Stanley  {d.  1504),  was  a  noble- 
man who  played  a  prominent  part  during  the 
reigns  of  Edward  IV.,  Richard  III.,  and 
Henry  VII.  He  nuimed  Warwick's  sister 
Eleanor,  and  gained  Edward  IV. 's  favour. 
In  Edward's  pretended  war  upon  France 
(1475),  in  support  of  Charles  the  Bold, 
Stanley  was  the  ready  recipient  of  the 
bribes  of  the  French  king,  and  it  was  in  a 
great  measure  in  consequence  of  his  counsel 
thuH  inspired  that  Edward  IV.  became  a 
party  to  the  Treaty  of  Pecquigny,  Sept.  13, 
1475.  During  the  brief  reign  of  Edward  V. 
Lord  Stanley  figured  as  a  loyal  upholder  of 
the  rights  of  his  young  sovereign,  and  was 
one  of  the  nobles  arrested  at  the  council 
board  in  Richard  of  Gloucester's  coup  (fetat 
of  the  1 3th  June,  1483.  Gloucester,  however, 
not  only  forbore  proceeding  to  extremities 
with  him,  but  sought  to  secure  his  service 
by  conferring  upon  him  the  high  office  of 
Constable  of  England.  On  the  death  of  his 
first  wife,  Eleanor  Neville,  Lord  Stanley 
married  ^largaret  Beaufort,  mother  of  Henry 
Tudor,  Earl  of  Richmond.  On  the  landing 
of  Henry  Tudor  at  Milford  Haven,  Loitl 
Stanley,  on  a  plea  of  illness,  refused  to  join 
Richard,  and  was  only  kept  from  following 
the  example  of  his  brother,  Sir  William 
Stanley,  who  had  openly*  united  with  the  in- 
vader, by  the  fact  of  bis  son,  Lord  Strange, 
being  detained  in  Richard's  hands  as  a 
security  for  his  father's  good  faith.  He 
still,  however,  kept  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  invaders  with  a  force  of  some  5,000  men, 
and  it  was  his  sudden  support  of  Richmond  in 
the  heat  of  the  battle  that  decided  the  day. 
At  the  coronation  of  his  step-son,  Henry  VII., 
at  which  he  officiated  as  High  Constable,  he 
was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  Earl  of  Derby ; 
and  apparently  continued  in  friendly  relations 
with  Henry  VII.  to  his  death. 

Derbv,  Euwakd  Stanley,  3ud  Earl 
OF  (d.  lo72),  on  the  death  of  Edward  VI., 
declared  in  favour  of  Hilary,  and  by  his  ex- 
ample aided  materially  in  preventing  any 
recognition  of  Lady  Jane  Grey  by  the  country 
at  largo.  He  filled  the  office  of  Lord  High 
Steward  at  Clary's  coronation,  and  subse- 
quently did  all  he  could  to  prevent  the 
queen's  marriage  with  Philip  of  Spain. 
tTnder  Elizabeth,  Lord  Derby's  religion  pre- 
vented him  from  finding  any  great  favour  at 
court ;  but  in  spite  of  strenuous  efforts  made 
by  the  CathoUc  peers  to  entice  him  into 
taking  an  active  part  in  the  Northern  rebellion 
of  1569,  he  refused  to  implicate  himself. 

Derby.  Fehdinakdo  Stanley,  5th  Eaul 
OF  {d.  1994),  was  the  grandson  of  Eleanor, 
Countess  of  Cumberland,  who  was  herself  the 
granddaughter  of  Henry  VII.,  through  his 
daughter  Mary,  the  wife  of  Charles  Brandon, 
Duke  of  Suffolk.  The  Jesuits,  upon  his  suc- 
cession to  the  title,  urged  him,  through  an 


agent  named  Hesketh,  to  assume  the  title  of 
king  of  England ;  but  the  earl  revealed  the 
plot  to  the  government,  and  was  poisoned 
for  his  loyalty  by  the  conspirators. 

Derby,  James  Stanley,  7th  Earl  of  {b, 
1 596,  rf.  1651 ),  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War 
was  appointed  by  the  king  Lord- Lieutenant 
of  Cheshire  and  Derbyshire,  as  he  was  then 
generally  believed  to  have  a  great  influence 
upon  the  people  of  those  two  counties.     He 
is  said  to  have  shed  the  first  blood  of  the 
CiA^l  War    in   a   skirmish    at    Manchester, 
July  15,  1642.     But  his  influence  was  over- 
rated, and  his  ability  apparently  insufficient 
for  the  post  he  held :  he  was  distrusted  by  the 
king,  and  not  supported  by  the  people.  In  spite 
of  several  successes,  he  was  forced  to  abandon 
the  struggle  and  i*etire  to  the  Isle  of  Man. 
Lathom  House  was  heroically  defended  by  his 
countess,  Charlotte,  till  December,  1643.     In 
1651  he  joined  Charles  II.  on  his  march  into 
England,  but  whilst  endeavouring  to  raise 
Lancashire,  was  surprised  and  defeated  by  CoL 
Robert  Lilbum  at  Wigan.  He  himself  escaped, 
and  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Worcester,  but 
was  taken  prisoner,  tried  by  court-maitial, 
condemned  to  death,  and  beheaded  at  Bolton, 
October  15,  1651.    The  countess  continued  to 
hold  the  Isle  of  Man  till  it  was  reduced  by 
Fairfax  in  Nov. ,  1 65 1 .    * '  He  waa  a  man,"  says 
Clarendon,  "  of  great  honour  and  clear  coui?ige, 
and  all  his  defects  and  misfortunes  proceeded 
from  his  having  lived  so  little  time  amongst 
his  equals  that  he  knew  not  how  to  treat  his 
inferiors." 

Clarendon,  Hi$t.  of  the  ReMlum  ;  Whitolocke, 
Memorials. 

Derby  (&.  1775,  d.  1851),  Edward  Smith 
Stanley,  13th  Eakl  or,  was  first  returned 
to  Parliament  in  1796.for  Preston.  In  1812 
he  was  elected  for  Lancashire,  which  he  con- 
tinued to  represent  till  the  changes  effected  by 
the  lieform  Bill.  In  1832  he  was  called  up  to 
the  House  of  Lords,  by  the  title  of  Buron 
Stanley  of  Bickerstaffe,  to  strengthen  the  Whig 
ministry.  In  1834,  on  his  father's  death,  he 
succeeded  to  the  earldom  of  Derby. 

Derby|EDWAUD  Geoffrey  Smith  Stan- 
ley, 14th  Eaul  of  {b.  1799,  <?.  1869),  entered 
Parliament  in  1820  as  member  for  Stockbridge. 
He  made  his  first  speech,  after  three  years* 
fdlent  voting*  in  favour  of  a  private  bill  for 
lighting  Manchester  with  gas,  and  its  ability 
was  noticed  by  Sir  James  Mackintosh.  In  1 827 
he  took  office  under  Mr.  Canning  as  Under 
Secretary'  for  the  Colonies.  On  the  death  of 
Canning,  Stanley  refused  to  join  the  Goderich 
mini8tr}\  He  waa  a  strenuous  advocate  of 
Catholic  Emancipation,  Parliamentary'  Re- 
form, reciprocity  in  free  trade,  with  a  moderate 
fixed  duty  on  com,  and  the  foreign  policy  of 
Mr.  Canning.  Therefore,  from  1828  to  1830 
he  remained  in  opposition.  He  then  took 
office  under  Lord  Grey  as  Chief  Secretary  for 
Ireland.    Mr.  Stanley  was  quite  as  earnest  as 


"D^r 


(  369  ) 


Bern 


Lord  John  Russell  himself,  and  much  mate 
vehement,  in  his  advocacy  of  the  Reform  Bill. 
The  state  of  Ireland  was  full  of  danger. 
The  triumph  in  the  matter  of  Catholic 
Emancipation,  and  many  grievances,  real  or 
fancied,  had  incited  the  people  to  attempt 
an  agitation  for  repeal  of  the  Union,  and 
every  kind  of  outrage  was  rife.  It  fell  to 
3Ir.  Stanley^s  lot  to  introduce  a  Ck)ercion 
Act  in  this  emergency,  and,  bb  a  consequence 
of  this,  he  became  very  unpopular  in  Ireland, 
and  was  frequently  embroiled  with  Daniel 
O'Connell.  In  ^lay,  1833,  Mr.  Stanley  was 
charged  with  the  duty  of  bringing  forward 
the  measure  for  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves, 
and  made  a  speech  of  remarkable  eloquence. 
In  1 834,  being  now  by  courtesy  Lord  Stanley, 
he  separated  himself  from  the  Whigs  on  the 
question  of  the  Irish  Church,  and  with  Sir 
James  Graham,  the  Duke  of  Richmond,  and 
some  others,  formed  the  intermediate  party 
known  as  the  "Derby  Dilly"  (q*v.).  He 
rejected  the  overtui'ee  made  to  him  by  Sir 
R.  Peel  in  1834,  but  accepted  them  in 
1841,  Vind  took  office  as  Secretary  of  State  for 
the  Colonies.  But  on  the  question  of  free 
trade  in  1846  Stanley  separated  from  Peel, 
and  wiis  formally,  and  by  the  advice  of  the 
Duke  of  Wellington,  installed  in  the  leader- 
ship of  the  Tory  party,  with  Lord  George 
Bentinck  and  Mr.  Disraeli  as  his  heutenants. 
In  1852  he  held  office  for  ten  months,  but 
by  the  end  of  the  year  had  to  give  way  to  the 
Coalition  ministry  of  Lord  Aberdeen.  In 
18o8,  being  Prime  Minister  again,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  passing  his  India  Bill,  but  was 
defeated  on  the  question  of  Parliamentary 
Reform.  An  app^  to  the  country  was  in- 
effectualy  and  he  resigned  office  in  June,  1869. 
In  1866  his  party  succeeded  in  defeating 
Lord  Russ^l's  now  Reform  Bill,  but  only  to 
pass  next  year  a  similar  one,  which  its 
opx>onent8  declared  to  be  of  a  stiU  more 
sweeping*  character.  Early  in  1868  Lord 
Derby  surrendered  the  leadership  of  his  party 
into  the  hands  of  Mr.  Disraeli,  and  retired 
into  private  life  on  October  23,  1869.  Lord 
Derby  was  for  many  years  Chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Oxford.  He  was  a  man  of  cul- 
tured taste,  and  a  good  Greek  scholar,  and  in 
1864  published  a  blank  verse  translation  of 
the  i7uM/,  which  attracted  a  considerable 
amount  of  notice  at  the  time.  Lord  Derby's 
speeches  were  gp'eatly  admired  for  their  elo- 
quence and  fire,  and  he  is  often  spoken  of  as 
the  "  Rupert  of  Debate." 

Derby.  Edward  Hexrt,  15th  Earl  of 
(i.  1826,  d,  1893),  son  of  the  preceding  Earl, 
entered  Parhament  as  member  for  L}'me 
Regis,  and  became  Under  Secretary  for 
Poreign  AfEairs  in  his  father's  first  ministry. 
In  Lord  Derby's  second  administration,  in 
1868—9,  he  was  Secretary  of  State  for  India, 
and  manag^  the  transfer  of  the  government 
from  the  directors  of  the  East  India  Company 


to  the  crown.  He  was  Secretary  of  State  for 
Foreign  Affairs  in  1866,  and  succeeded  to  his 
peerage  in  1869.  In  1874  he  was  Secretary 
for  Foreign  Affairs  in  Mr.  Disraeli's  cabinet, 
but  resigned  simultaneously  with  the  Earl  of 
Carnarvon,  the  Colonial  Secretary,  owing 
to '  differences  with  his  colleagues  on  the 
Eastern  Question  in  1878.  In  1880  he  aban- 
doned the  Conservatives,  and  in  1882  joined 
Mr.  Gladstone's  ministry  as  Colonial  Secretary. 
In  1886  he  parted  company  with  Mr.  Glad- 
stone  on  the  Home  Rule  question,  and  became 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Liberal  Unionists. 

Dering,  Sir  Edward  {b.  1598,  d.  1644), 
was  a  gentleman  of  Kent,  created  baronet  in 
1627,  and  member  for  the  county  in  the  Long 
Parliament.  In  the  discussions  on  ecclesias- 
tical questions  he  distinguished  himself  by  his 
opposition  to  Laud's  innovations,  and  was 
even  persuaded  to  introduce  the  "  Root  and 
Branch  "  Bill,  which  he  afterwards  opposed. 
He  also  opposed  the  Grand  Remonstrance, 
and  was,  in  February,  1642,  sent  to  the 
Tower  for  printing  his  speeches.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  the  war  he  raised  a  regiment  for 
tiie  king,  but  in  1644  took  the  Covenant, 
paid  a  composition  for  his  estate,  and  returned 
home  to  die  (June  22,  1644).  Sir  Edward 
published  a  volume  of  his  speeches  without 
the  leave  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  for 
this  reason  was  expelled  the  House,  and  his 
book  was  ordered  to  be  burnt  by  the  hangman. 
Proeeedings  in  Kent  (Camden  Soc.),  186L 

Prwcntwatery  James  Ratct.xffe,  Earl 
OF  {d,  1716),  was  a  grandson  of  Charles  II. 
by  his  mistress,  Moll  Davis.  He  was  a 
Roman  Catholic,  and  deeply  implicated  in 
the  ro hellion  of  1716,  for  which  he  was  tried 
and  executed  in  the  following  year,  at  the 
early  age  of  twenty-eight. 

Desborough.  (or  Disurow),  John,  second 
son  of  James  Desborough,  of  Eltisle^', 
Bucks,  was  bred  an  attorney,  and  married  m 
1636  Jane,  sister  of  Oliver  Cromwell.  In 
1642  he  became  quartermaster  in  the  troop 
raised  by  his  brother-in-law,  served  through- 
out the  war,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  major- 
general.  He  was  nominated  one  of  the 
commissioners  to  try  the  king,  but  refused  to 
act.  During  the  Protectorate  he  was  in  suc- 
cession Commisffloner  of  the  Navy,  member  of 
the  Scotch  Council,  Major-Gencral  in  charge 
of  the  counties  of  Wilts,  Dorset,  Somerset, 
Devon,  and  Cornwall,  and  one  of  the  admirals 
of  the  fleet  after  Blake's  death.  He  was  one 
of  Cromwell*s  Council  of  State,  and  appointed 
a  member  of  his  House  of  Lords,  but  opposed 
his  taking  the  crown.  After  Cromwell's  death, 
he  joined  the  Wallingford  House  part)',  helped 
to  overthrow  Richard,  and  to  turn  out  the 
restored  Long  Parliament.  At  the  Restora- 
tion he  was  incapacitated  from  all  public 
employment.  The  date  of  his  death  is  un- 
certain, but  he  appears  to  have  lived  till  1686. 
NoUe,  Tki  KouM  aS  CromwWl. 


Sm 


1  370) 


Dm 


DMU&ondy  Garrbtt,  Earl  of  {d,  1583), 
was  the  head  of  the  great  house  of  the 
southern  Fitzgeralds,  who  were  all-powerful 
in  Muxister.  Sir  Henry  Sidney  had  recom- 
mended that  this  province  should  be  made  into 
an  English  presidency  and  English  colonists 
introduced.  But  the  queen,  who  had 'set 
herself  against  this  plan,  demanded  that 
Desmond*s  influence  should  be  attacked  in 
another  way.  He  was  consequently  soon  ar- 
rested for  treason.  In  1568  he  submitted 
to  Elizabeth,  and  surrendered  his  property 
into  her  hands.  But  in  1574  he  broke 
out  in  rebellion  again,  and  once  more  in 
1579.  Kext  year  he  was  cooped  up  with  the 
Spaniards  by  Lord  Grey  at  Smerwick,  but 
escaped  the  horrible  fate  of  the  garrison.  At 
last,  after  wandering  about  for  more  than 
two  years,  his  hiding-place  was  betrayed  to 
the  English,  who  surrounded  his  cabin,  and 
murdered  him  in  his  bed  (1583). 

Desmond,  Sir  John-  (d,  1581),  was  the 
brother  of  (iarrett,  Earl  of  Desmond.  In 
the  hope  of  compromising  his  brother  with 
the  English  ho  murdered  two  English  officers 
at  Tralee  (1579).  The  whole  clan  then  sprang 
to  arms.  Sir  John  was  taken  prisoner  at  the 
fall  of  Kilmallock,  in  1580,  but  as  he  spoke 
English  fluently,  ho  managed  to  escape.  In 
December  next  year  he  fell  in  with  Sir  John 
Zouch  on  the  Avonmoro  River;  that  officer 
slew  him,  and  sent  his  head  to  Dublin. 

Desmond,  Maurice  Fitzobrald,  Earl 
OP,  was  one  of  the  early  Norman  conquerors  of 
Ireland.  Having  engaged  to  give  help  to  Der- 
mot.  King  of  Leinster,  he  landed  at  Wexford 
in  1169.  In  conjunction  with  that  monarch 
he  conquered  Dublin,  where  ho  was  besieged 
by  Roderic  and  an  immense  host  of  Irish  in 
1171.  By  his  advice  the  beleaguered  English 
sallied  forth  in  three  small  troops,  and  utterly 
routed  the  enemy  —  a  disaster  which  led  to 
the  dispersion  of  the  other  Irish  armies. 
When,  m  1171,  Henry  II.  visited  Ireland,  he 
appointed  Maurice  one  of  the  throe  chief 
governors  of  Dublin.  He  was  with  his 
colleague  De  Lacy  when  that  baron  was  so 
nearly  murdered  by  0'Rourke*8  treachery. 
Later,  Wexford  was  given  him  as  a  fief,  and 
here  he  died,  1176.  Giraldus  Cambrensis 
doscribes  him  as  a  man  of  action  rather  than 
of  words,  valiant,  and  second  to  none  in 
actiWty  of  enterprise. 

Qiraldus  Combrensij,  £x2>i»gnatio  HihenxicB. 

Despard,  Edward  Marcus,  Coloxel  {b. 
1750  ?  a.  1803),  was  bom  in  Ireland,  and  was 
early  employed  in  military  service  in  the 
West  Indies  and  the  Bay  of  Honduras,  where 
he  was  made  superintendent  of  the  English 
colony.  His  conduct  in  this  office  seems  to 
have  given  offence  to  the  settlers,  and  he  was 
recalled,  but  could  never  obtain  an  official 
investigation.  When  the  French  Revolution 
broke  out,  he  adopted  the  new  principles,  and 


was,  in  consequence,  put  in  prison.  On 
his  release  he  attempted  the  assassination 
of  George  III. ;  for  this  offence  he  was  tried 
and  executed  in  March,  1803. 

Despencer,  Barony  of.  The  first  baron 
of  this  name  is  Hugh  le  Despencer,  a  Steward 
of  Henry  I.  In  1264  Hugh  le  Despenccr, 
Justiciar  of  England,  was  summoned  to 
Parliament ;  in  1265  he  was  killed  at  the 
battle  of  Evesham  [Dbspekcer,  Hugh  lb,  1]. 
His  son  Hugh  was  created  Earl  of  Win- 
chester in  1322,  but  in  1326  was  declared 
a  traitor,  and  hanged.  The  same  fate  befell 
his  son  Hugh  ^*  the  Younger ''  a  month  later ; 
and  the  honours  of  both  became  forfeit. 
Hugh,  however,  the  son  of  the  latter,  appears 
to  have  been  summoned  to  Parliament  from 
1338—1349,  when  ho  died,  and  the  title 
devolved  upon  a  nephew,  whose  son  Thomas, 
fifth  baron  by  writ,  procured  the  reversal  of 
the  Act  declaring  his  ancestors  (Edward  II. *s 
ministers)  traitors.  Thomas  was  created  £arl 
of  Gloucester,  1397,  but  was  degraded,  1399, 
and  beheaded  by  the  populace,  1400,  when  his 
honours  became  forfeit.  His  attainder  was, 
however,  reversed  in  1461,  and  the  barony  of 
Despenccr  fell  into  abeyance  among  the  issue 
of  his  daughter  and  eventual  heiress,  Isabel, 
until  in  1604  it  was  conceded  to  Mary  Neville, 
wife  of  Sir  Thomas  Fane,  in  the  person  of 
whose  son  it  became  united  to  the  earldom  of 
Westmoreland.  In  1762,  and  again  in  1781, 
it  once  more  fell  into  abeyance,  but  ulti- 
mately devolved  upon  Sir  Thomas  Staplcton, 
in  whose  family  it  still  remains. 

Despenoer,  Hugh  le  {d.  1265),  was  ono 
of  the  leaders  of  the  baronial  opposition  to 
Henry  III.  In  1 258  he  was  chosen  as  ono  of 
the  commissioners  on  the  part  of  the  barons 
at  the  Oxford  Parliament,  and  in  1260  was 
appointed  Justiciar,  which  office  he  held  till 
1262.  In  the  next  year  he  was  once  more 
advanced  to  the  justiciarship,  and  when  tho 
war  broke  out  he  headed  the  citizens  of 
London  in  their  attacks  on  the  housoij  of  the 
royalists.  He  fought  bravely  at  Lewes,  took 
a  prominent  part  in  the  government  of 
De  Montfort,  and  fell  with  Earl  Simon  in  tho 
battle  of  Evesham.  His  death  is  celebrated  in 
one  of  the  political  songs  of  the  time,  which 
Mr.  Blaauw  translates  as  follows  : — 

*'  Despencer  true,  tbe  good  Sir  Hugh, 
Oiir  just.ioe  and  oar  friend, 
Borne  down  with  wrouff  amidst  the  thronfir* 
Has  met  bis  wretched  end." 


Despencer,  Hugh  le  (d.  1326),  son 
of  the  above,  and  known  as  **  the  Younger," 
married  Eleanor  de  Clare,  one  of  the  co- 
heiresses of  the  Earl  of  Gloucester.  He 
was  soon  involved  in  quarrels  with  the 
husbands  of  the  other  co-hciresses,  while 
the  favour  shown  him  by  the  king  arrayed  a 
great  part  of  the  baronage  against  him.    He 


Dm 


(  371  ) 


!>«▼ 


mis  banished  in  1321,  but  recalled  soon  after 
to  acquire  more  poesessioDS,  andalmost  supremo 
power  on  the  defeat  of  the  Earl  of  Lancaster 
at  Boroughbridge  (1322).  The  success  of  the 
queen  and  Mortinrer  in  1326  obliged  him  to 
llee,  but  he  was  captured,  and  beheaded  at 
Hereford  by  Mortimer^s  orders.  The  objects 
of  the  Despencers  seem  to  have  been  primarily 
selfish,  and  they  cared  but  little  for  the 
interests  of  the  king.  At  the  same  time,  it  is 
evident  that  they  wished  to  increase  the 
importance  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and 
use  it  to  counterbalance  the  baronage.  But 
they  entirely  failed  in  their  aims :  for  while 
they  alienated  the  barons,  the  v  did  not  secure 
to  themselves  the  affections  of  the  people. 

]>6sp6ncer,  Henky  lb  (d.  1406),  was  the 
grandson  of  Hugh  le  Despencer  the  Younger. 
In  1370  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Norwich,  and 
in  1381  distinguished  himself  by  putting 
down  the  revolt  in  Norfolk.  In  1383  he 
undertook  an  expedition  to  Flanders,  by 
which,  under  the  guise  of  a  crusade  against 
the  adherents  of  the  anti-Pope  element,  ho 
hoped  to  inflict  injury  on  the  French.  Ho 
captured  Oravolines,  Ypros,  and  other  places, 
but  was  eventually  obliged  to  retire,  and  on 
his  return  to  England  was  stripped  of  his 
temporalities  by  the  king. 

De    Tallaffio    non    oonoedendo, 

8tatute  op  (1297),  is  the  name  given  to  the 
Latin   form  of  the  g^rcat  statute  known  as 
the  Confirmatio  Cartarum,  which  forbade  (1) 
any  tallage  or  aid  to  be  taken  by  the  king 
without  the  consent  of  the  bishops,  earls, 
barons,  knights,  and  other  freemen  of  the 
realm ;  (2)  any  prize  in  com,  leather,  or  wool, 
&c.,  witiiout  the  owner's  consent;    (3)  the 
nuUtote  (q.v.).    Other  clauses  confirmed  the 
charteiB    and  liberties  of   both  clergy'  and 
la}*m.cn,  pardoned  the  great  earls  and  their 
partisans,  whose*  firmness  had  secured  Edward' s 
consent  to  this  law,  and  gave  orders  for  the 
publication  of  the  Charter.    Dr.  Stubbs  con- 
siders that  the  original  form  of  this  statute 
is  not  the  Latin,  but  rather  the  French  one, 
which  does  not  contain  the  word  tallage^  and 
a  couched  in  more  general  terms.  He  suggests 
that  the  Latin  form  may  be  the  rough  draft, 
or  informal  statement,  of  the  terms  of  the 
pacification,  and    may  stand    in   the   same 
relation  to  the  French  form,  which  became 
the  permanent  law  of  the  land,  as  the  Articles 
of  the  Barons  stand  in  to  the  Great  Charter 
of  1215.     It  was,  however,  referred  to  as  a 
statute  in  the  Petition  of  Right.    The  chief 
points  to  be  noticed  in  comparing  the  Con- 
finnatio  Cartarum  with  the  De  Tallagio  are 
that  the  former  does  not  contain  the  word 
'* tallage;"  the  latter  docs  not  reserve  the 
rights  of  the  king;    the  former  renounces 
only  **8uch  manner  of  aids/*  &c.,  while  the 
latter  contains  no  such  qualifpng  words. 
Stabbs,  Coiue.  Htft.  and  StUct  ChavUrt, 


Dettmifaily  Thb  Battle  of  (July  27, 
1743),  was  fought  during  the  War  of  the 
Austrian  Succession.  Lord  Stair,  who  was 
the  English  commander,  wished  to  drive 
the  French  from  Germany,  and  also,  if 
possible,  to  invade  Alsace  and  Lorraine.  Tha 
Duke  de  Noailles,  the  French  commander, 
marched  into  Franconia  against  him.  Stair  lay 
idly  on  the  Maine  with  40,000  men,  awaiting 
12,000  subsidised  Hanoverians.  Noailles 
scoured  the  country  to  the  south  of  the  river. 
Suddenly  Stair  marched  up  the  river  towards 
Franconia.  He  passed  Hanau,  and  moved 
towards  Aschaffenberg.  About  half-way  be- 
tween the  two  is  the  village  of  Dettingen. 
On  reaching  the  plain  of  Dettingen,  the 
English  found  that  De  Noailles  had  out- 
marched them,  and  thus  cut  them  off  from 
Aschaffenberg.  Here  they  were  joined  by 
King  George  II.  and  the  Duke  of  Cum- 
berland. It  was  determined  to  secure,  if 
possible,  the  retreat  to  Hanau.  But  Noailles 
had  sent  his  nephew,  the  Duke  de  Grammont, 
across  the  river  to  occupy  Dettingen.  Bridges 
were  thrown  across  the  I^Iaine,  and  Noailles* 
cannon  played  on  the  retreating  English.  It 
was  determined  to  cut  a  way  through  Graiki- 
mont's  forces.  The  French  commander, 
however,  leaving  a  strong  position  behind  a 
ravine,  advanced  to  the  attack,  thinking  he 
was  only  opposed  by  the  advanced  troops  of 
the  English.  Led  on  by  King  George,  the 
English  infiantry  broke  through  the  enemy. 
Grammont  retired  across  the  Maine ;  but  the 
retreat  became  a  rout,  and  6,000  men  were 
left  on  the  field.  George,  wishing  to  extricate 
himself  from  his  dangerous  position,  refrained 
from  pursuit,  and  pushed  on  for  Hanau. 
Stair,  furious  that  lus  advice  should  be  dis- 
regarded, sent  in  his  resignation,  which  was 
accepted.  Noailles  withdrew  into  Alsace, 
whiUier  he  was  followed  by  the  king,  and 
negotiations  for  peace  were  begun. 

Leckr,  Hut.  of  Sighiemfh  Cent. ;  Stanhoxte, 
Hiit.  of  Sng. ;  Arneth,  Maria  Thtrmia. 

DenJidedit,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(665—664),  was  a  West  Saxon  by  birth. 
His  native  name  was  Frithona,  which 
he  changed  for  his  Latin  appellation  on 
being  elected  to  the  see  of  Canterbury'.  He 
is  remarkable  as  being  the  first  Englishman 
elevated  to  the  archbishopric.  Ho  was  con- 
ciliatory towards  the  British  Church,  and 
Christianity  was  widely  extended  in  Mercia 
and  Northumbria  during  his  episcopate. 


The  town  of  Devizes  appears 
in  English  history  for  the  first  time  when 
Koger,  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  built  his  great 
castie  here,  during  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  It 
was  surrendered  to  Stephen  by  his  son  Nigel, 
Bishop  of  Ely,  when  that  last-mentioned 
monarch  threatened  to  hang  Bishop  Roger's 
son  if  the  rebellion  was  persisted  in.  A  few 
years  later  it  was  held  bv  Fitz-Hubert  on 
behalf  of  the  Empress  Maud. 


Deir 


(  372  ) 


Dev 


DdvisASy  RxcHAKD  OF,  was  the  author  of 
a  chronicle  of  the  reign  of  Kichard  I.  from 
1189 — 1192.  This  fragment  is  of  consider- 
able historical  value,  both  for  the  incidents  of 
the  Third  Crusade  and  for  the  condition  of 
England  in  Richard^s  absence.  Of  the  writer 
little  is  known,  except  that  he  was  a  member 
of  the  Priory  of  St.  Swithin  at  Winchester, 
and  tiiat  he  probably  died  before  the  completion 
of  his  work. 

Devon,  and  Devonsliirer  Pebhaob  op. 

The  "  third  penny  "  of  the  county  of  Devon  is 
said  to  have  been  granted  to  Richard  de  Red- 
vers.  Baron  of  Okehampton,  who  died  1137. 
His  descendants  bore  indifferently  the  title  of 
Earl  of  Devon  or  of  Exeter  until  the  failure 
of  the  eldest  line,  on  the  death  of  Isabel  de 
Redvors,  wife  of  William  de  Fortibus,  Earl 
of  Albemarle,  in  1293.  The  earldom  was, 
however,  successfully  claimed,  1335,  by  a 
cousin  of  the  late  countess,  Hugh  Ck>urte- 
nay,  fifth  Baron  Courtenay,  and  it  re- 
mained in  his  family  until  tiie  attainder  of 
Thomas  Courtena}-,  sixth  earl,  1461.  In  1469, 
Humphrey  Stacfford,  Baron  of  Southwicke, 
was  created  Earl  of  Devon ;  but  he  was  be- 
headed in  the  course  of  the  same  vear,  and 
the  patent  of  his  creation  was  annulled  by  a 
statute  of  148d,  when  the  earldom  was  re- 
stored to  the  Gourtenays  in  the  person  of 
Edward,  gpreat  nephew  of  the  third  earl. 
Edward^s  grandson,  Henry  Courtenay,  was 
created  Marquis  of  Exeter  in  1525,  but 
on  his  attainder,  in  1539,  his  honours 
became  forfeit.  His  son  Edward  was  re- 
stored to  both  titles;  his  death  without 
issue,  in  1556,  left  the  earldom  of  Devon  with- 
out a  claimant  until  1830 — 1,  when  it  was 
restored  to  William  Courtenay,  heir  male  of 
the  last  earl  of  the  Courtenay  family.  In  the 
interval,  in  1603,  another  earldom  of  Devon 
had  been  created  in  favour  of  Charles  Blount, 
eighth  Baron  Mountjoy,  in  whose  person  it 
became  extinct,  1606.  William  Cavendish, 
Baron  Cavendish  of  Hardwicke,  was  created 
Earl  of  Devonshire  in  1618.  His  great- 
grandson,  William,  fourth  earl,  was  created 
Duke  of  Devonshire  and  Marquis  of  Hart- 
ington,  1694,  for  his  services  in  connection 
with  the  Revolution  of  1688—9. 

HeiTOn,  William  Couktbkat,  Eabl  of 
(rf.  1511),  was  brother-in-law  of  Henry  VII.  *s 
queen,  by  his  marriage  with  Edward  IV.'s 
daughter,  Catherine.  When  Perkin  Warbeck, 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  year  1497,  followed 
up  his  landing  in  Cornwall  by  the  active 
siege  of  the  city  of  Exeter,  the  Earl  of 
Devon  was  foremost  among  the  English 
nobles  in  a  show  of  loyalty  to  Henry  VII., 
uid  made  a  special  effort  to  relieve  the 
city  before  the  arrival  of  the  succours  sent 
for  that  purpose  by  the  king  himself.  In 
1504,  however,  being  implicated  in  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  fugitive  Earl  of  Suffolk  by 


the  evidence  of  one  of  Henry  YIL's  spies,  Sir 
Robert  Curson,  Courtenay  was  attainted, 
and  deprived  of  his  estates  by  the  Parliament 
of  that  year,  under  the  Speakership  of  Dudley, 
and  was  kept  a  close  prisoner  in  the  Tower 
during  the  remainder  of  the  king's  life. 

Devon,  Edward  Courtenay,  Earl  of 
{d.  1556),  was  the  son  of  Edward  Courtenay, 
Marquia  of  Exeter,  who  was  the  son  of  Sir 
William  Courtenay  and  Catherine,  daughter 
of  Edward  IV.  After  the  execution  of  his 
Either,  in  1539,  for  conspiring  in  favour 
of  Reginald  Pole,  he  was  sent  to  the  Tower, 
and  confined  there  until  his  release  by  Mary, 
in  1553.  Whilst  still  in  prison  he  was  spoken  of 
as  the  probable  future  husband  of  the  queen. 
On  the  announcement  of  Mary's  determination 
to  wed  Philip  of  Spain,  a  strong  party  gathered 
round  Courtenay,  and  urged  Mm  to  jmLxry  the 
Princess  Elizabeth  and  to  declare  her  queen, 
whilst  they  undertook  to  rouse  the  countr>% 
and  to  gather  together  a  sufficient  number  of 
men  to  ensure  success.  The  chief  of  the 
conspirators  were  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt,  Sir 
James  Crofts,  and  the  Duke  of  Suffolk.  The 
plot  waa,  however,  betrayed  to  Grardiner  by 
Courtenay,  and  the  rebellion  was  easily 
crushed  by  the  courage  of  the  queen. 
Courtenay,  mistrusted  and  despised  for  his 
weakness,  was  sent  back  to  the  Tower,  and 
shortly  afterwards  exiled.  He  died  at  Venice 
in  1556.  Dr.  lingard  says  that  the  dissolute- 
ness of  his  life  waa  the  sole  cause  why  Mary 
would  not  consent  to  take  him  as  her  husband. 
His  character  is  thus  summed  up  by  Mr. 
Froude :  "  He  was  too  cowardly  for  a  dan- 
gerous enterprise,  too  incapable  for  an  intri- 
cate one,  and  his  weak  humour  made  men 
afraid  to  trust  themselves  to  a  person  who,  to 
save  himself,  might  at  any  moment  betray 
them. 

Noailles,  Amhaimadt»  en  AnglsUrre ;   Stowe, 
AnnaJ*;  Froude,  flut.  o/Eng. 

Devon,  Charlbs  Blount,  Earl  op  {b,  1 563, 
d.  1606) ,  was  the  second  son  of  Lord  Mountjoy. 
Having  won  the  favour  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  he 
became  a  rival  of  Essex,  with  whom  he  fought 
a  duel,  though  afterwards  the  two  became 
great  friends.  In  1594,  Blount,  who  had 
now  become  Lord  Mountjoy  by  the  death  of 
his  brother,  was  made  Governor  of  Ports- 
mouth, and  three  years  later  accompanied 
Essex  on  his  unfortunate  expedition  to  the 
Azores.  In  1601  he  was  made  Lord  Deputy 
of  Ireland,  and  successfully  crushed  the  re- 
bellion. He  was  created  fiarl  of  Devon  by 
James  I.  in  1603,  and  died  in  1606. 

Devonsliirer  William  Cavexdibh,  4th 
Earl  of,  afterwards  Duke  of  (5.  1640,  </.  1 712)^ 
sat  as  member  for  Derby  in  1661.  He  was 
sworn  of  the  Privy  Council  in  1679,  but  at  the 
end  of  the  year  he  petitioned  for  his  dismissal. 
He  was  a  zealous  Protestant  and  opponent  of 
the  court  party.     In  1685  he  was  insulted  in 


!>«▼ 


(  373  ) 


Bi» 


agambling  hooae  by  a  bravo  named  Colepepper. 
Indignant  at  meeting  this  man  at  court,  con- 
trary to  the  king's  promise,  he  publicly  insulted 
him,  after  his  chal&nge  had  been  declined.  Ue 
was  tried  before  the  King's  Bench,  pleaded 
guilty,  and  was  fined  the  enormous  sum  of 
£30 ,000.  He  was  imprisoned,  but  hearing  that 
he  was  about  to  appeal  from  the  ^judgment  of 
the  King's  Bench,  Jamesallowedhim  to  go  free, 
on  giving  a  bond  for  the  amount  of  the  fine. 
He  eagerly  joined  the  Kevolution  scheme,  and 
was  one  of  uiose  who  signed  the  invitation  to 
William  of  Orange.  When  William  landed 
in  England,  Devonshire  appeared  in  arms  at 
Derby,  and  proceeded  to  Nottingham,  which 
became  the  head-quarters  of  the  Northern  in- 
suirection.  A  meeting  of  peers  was  held  at 
his  house  to  discuss  the  settlement  of  the 
crown.  Soon  after  the  Revolution  he  was 
made  Lord  High  Steward,  and'  Knight 
of  the  Garter.  On  the  departure  of 
William  to  Ireland,  Devonshire  was  created 
one  of  the  Council  of  Nine,  and  vigorously 
superintended  the  fitting^out  of  the  ficet.  In 
1691  he  accompanied  the  king  to  Holland. 
He  was  accused,  apparently  falsely,  by 
Preston  of  dealings  with  St.  Germains,  but 
the  king  declined  to  listen  to  the  confession 
of  the  informer.  He  was  created  Duke  of 
Devonshireand  Marquisof  Hartingtonin  1694. 
On  William's  departure  for  the  Netherlands, 
he  was  appointed  one  of  the  Lords  Justices. 
Vfe  subsequently  find  him  declaring  against 
the  bill  on  the  Irish  land-grants.  He  also 
opposed  the  second  Partition  Treaty,  on  which 
his  opinion  had  not  been  asked.  He  was 
present  at  the  death  of  William  III.  He  was 
created  Lord  Steward  in  the  reign  of  Queen 
Anne,  and,  greatly  to  his  indignation,  dis- 
missed from  office  in  1710.  He  was  also  very 
indignant  at  the  appointment  of  his  kinsman 
Ormonde  to  the  command  of  the  army.  **  In 
wealth  and  influence,"  says  Macaulay,  '*  ho  was 
second  to  none  of  the  English  nobles,  and  the 
general  voice  designated  him  as  the  finest 
gentleman  of  his  time.  His  magnificence, 
his  tastes,  his  talents,  his  classical  learning, 
his  high  spirit,  the  grace  and  urbanity  of 
his  manners,  were  admitted  by  his  enemies. 
His  eulogists,  unhappily,  could  not  pretend 
that  his  morals  had  escaped  untainted  from 
the  widespread  contagion  of  that  age." 

Devonshirey  Spencbr  Ooxpton  Cavbn- 

DISH,  8th  Dujlb  op.    [Hartinoton.] 

I>0VtMnroll,  or  Daro&oviLLA,  was  the 
daughter  of  Alan  of  Galloway  and  of  Margaret, 
daughter  of  David  of  Huntingdon.  In  1233 
she  married  John  de  Baliol,  the  Lord  of  Har- 
ooort  and  Castle  Bumard,  in  England.  Upon 
the  death  of  Alan  (1234),  the  husbands  of  his 
three  daughters  divided  his  territory  amongst 
them.  It  was  Devorgoil  who,  after  she  had 
become  a  widow,  founded  and  endowed 
Balliol  College,  Oxford ;  and  it  was  her  son 


who  is  known  in  history  as  the  King  of  Scot- 
land and  competitor  of  liobert  Bruce. 

D'Swes.  Sir  Symonds  (b.  1602,  d.  1650), 
was  educated  at  Cambridge.  He  was  knighted 
by  Charles  I.,  and  received  a  baronetcy  in  1641. 
When  the  Civil  War  broke  out,  however,  he 
joined  the  Parliamentary  -part}'.  He  com- 
piled a  Journal  of  all  the  Parliaments  (both 
Lords  and  Commons)  of  Queen  Eb'zabeth's 
reign — a  work  which  was  published  several 
years  after  his  death,  in  1682,  and  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  for  the  domestic  events 
of  the  last  half  of  the  sixteenth  centur}\  His 
Memoin  were  published  from  the  MSS.  in 
1845,  by  Mr.  Halliwell. 

DeTdraSy  John  (1324),  was  an  impostor, 
who  claimed  to  be  the  true  son  of  Edward  I., 
asserting  that  he  had  been  changed  in  his 
cradle.  The  unpopularity  of  Edward  II.  led 
some  people  to  give  credence  to  his  story, 
but  his  followers  were  few,  and  he  was 
quickly  seized  and  executed. 

Bhoondia  Wangh  was  an  Afghan  chief 
who  took  service  with  Tippoo  Sahib.  On  the 
final  capture  of  Seringapatam,  1799,  he  es- 
caped, and  commenced  a  career  of  plunder 
on  his  own  account,  but  was  pursued  by 
Colonel  Wellesley,  defeated,  and  killed  Sep- 
tember 10,  1799. 

Dialogns  de  Scaccario  is  the  title  of 

a  work  compiled  in  the  twelfth  century 
by  Richard  Fitz-Nigel,  at  one  time  Treasurer 
of  the  Exchequer,  and  Bishop  of  London 
from  1189—1198.  This  treatise  is  divided  into 
two  books,  both  of  which  are  thrown  into  the 
form  of  a  dialogue  between  a  master  and  a 
scholar.  The  first  book,  in  eighteen  chapters, 
describes  what  the  Exchequer  is :  the  origin 
of  its  name,  the  duties  of  its  various  ofiicers, 
with  their  rights  and  honours,  the  definition 
of  the  various  legal  terms  used  in  the  govern* 
ment  of  the  country,  such  as  hundred,  mur- 
drum, danegeld,  county,  &c.,  and  the  busi- 
ness of  the  Treasury.  The  second  book, 
divided  into  twenty-eight  chapters,  treats  of 
summonses,  the  rendering  of  accounts  into 
the  Exchequer,  and  of  the  sheriffs  and  the 
different  branches  of  the  king's  revenue.  The 
IHaloffus  de  Seaeeario  was  first  printed  by 
Madox  in  his  History  of  the  Sxehequer^  and 
has  been  again  published  by  Dr.  Stubbs  in  his 
Select  Charters.  The  date  of  its  composition  is 
probably  about  the  year  1176  or  1177.  It  is 
a  work  of  great  importance,  and  throws  a  fiood 
of  light  upon  the  administrative  system  of  the 
Angevin  kings. 

Diamond,  The  Battle  of,  was  a  great 
faction  fight  fought  near  a  hamlet  bear- 
ing this  name  in  Armagh,  on  September  21, 
1795,  between  the  Peep  o*  Day  Boys  and  the 
Defenders  (q.v.).  The  victory  remained  with 
the  former  party,  who  slew  forty-ei^ht  of 
their  opponents.  It  was  shortly  after  this  fight 
that  the  first  Orange  Lodge  was  founded. 


Dio 


(374) 


mm 


DiCAtOy  Halph  de  {d,  1210),  was  a  chroni- 
cler,  whose     writings    are    of    considerable 
importance  for  the  reigns  of  Henry-  II.  and 
Richard  I.  This  author  was  for  a  long  period 
Bean  of  St.  PauVs  and  Archdeacon  of  Middle- 
sex.   The  former  office  he  appears  to  have  held 
as  early  as  1163,  while  to  the  latter  he  was 
elected  in   1181.     In  this   last  capacity  he 
caused  a  survey  of  the  estates  of  that  church 
to  be  made,  part  of  which  is  still  preserved, 
and  has  been  issued  by  the  Camden  Societv, 
under  the  title  of  The  Dotnetday  of  St.  Paufs, 
Balph  seems  to  have  been  employed  in  many 
important  missions  by  Henr^'  II.,  and  assisted 
Archbishop   Baldwin    at    the  coronation  of 
Kichard  I.      His  two  principal  works    are 
Abbreviationen  Chronieorum  and  Inuigines  HU- 
toriat'um.     The  former  of  these  consists  of  a 
history  of  the  world  from  the  Creation  down  to 
1147,  and  is  larg^ely  composed  of  extracts  from 
classical  and  mediaeval  writers.    In  parts  it  is 
largely  based  on  Robert  de  Monte,  a  writer  who « 
is  the  primary  authority  for  the  early  years 
(1147 — 1158)    of    Ralph's    more    important 
Imagines.    But  even  this  last  work  can  only  be 
described  as  contemporaneous,  in  the  strict 
sense  of  the  word,  from  the  year  1173  to  its 
conclusion,  1201,  for  which  x>oriod  it  is  of 
considerable  value.     Several  minor  historical 
documents  are  ascribed  to  the  same  hand.' 
Ralph  de  Diceto's  histories  have  been  edited 
by  Dr.  Stubbs  for  the  Rolls  Scries. 

Digby,  SxK  Kenklm  {b.  1603,  d,  1665), 
was  son  of  Sir  Everard  Digby,  who  was 
executed  for  his  share  in  the  Powder  Plot. 
In  1628  he  undertook  a  privateering  voyage 
to  the  Mediterranean,  in  which  he  distin- 
g^iished  himself  by  defeating  a  Venetian 
squadron  at  Scanderoon.  In  1636  he  became 
a  Catholic,  and  was  employed  by  the  queen, 
three  years  later,  to  obtain  money  from  his 
co-religrionists.  During  the  greater  part  of 
the  Civil  War  and  the  Protectorate  he  lived 
abroad,  occupying  himself  with  the  study  of 
natural  philosophy.  A  literary  contempo- 
rary compared  him  to  Pico  defla  Mirandola 
for  the  universality  of  his  knowledge,  and  a 
scientific  one  styled  him  *'the  Pliny  of  his 
age  for  lying."  "  The  truth  is,"  says  John 
Evelyn,  '*  Sir  Eenelm  was  an  arrant  mounte- 
bank." 

DiggeSy  Sir  Dudley  {b,  1583,  d.  1639),  was 
a  memoer  of  Parliament  in  James  I.'s  reign, 
and  was  occasionally  employed  by  the  king 
on  public  business :  as,  for  example,  on  the 
embassy  to  Russia  in  1618.  He  was  one  of  the 
chief  managers  of  Buckingham's  impeach- 
ment in  1626.  He  was  imprisoned  on  more 
than  one  occasion  for  his  language  against 
the  court,  and  in  the  Parliament  of  1628  he 
strongly  advocated  the  Petition  of  Right.  He 
subsequently  made  his  peace  with  the  king, 
and  in  1630  had  a  reversionary  grant  of  the 
^lastership  of  the  Rolls.  He  held  that  office 
from  1636  to  his  death  in  1639. 


IKlkef  Sir  Chablbs  {b.  1843),  the  son  of 
Sir  Charles  Wentworth  Dilke,  was  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  After  lea%ing 
college,  he  made  a  prolonged  tour  through  the 
United  States  and  the  British  Colonies  and 
India.  On  his  return,  he  published  a  volume 
called  Greater  BrUain^  which  attracted  much 
attention.  He  was  elected  in  1868  in  the 
Radical  interest  member  for  Chelsea.  In  1 872 
he  moved  in  the  House  for  an  inquiry  into  the 
Civil  List.  In  1880  he  took  office  as  Foreign 
Under  Secretary,  and  in  1882  became  Presi- 
dent of  the  Local  Government  Board.  He 
retired  from  public  life  in  1886,  but  returned 
to  the  House  of  Commons  in  1892.  His  **  Prob- 
lems of  Greater  Britain  *'  appeared  in  1890. 

XHnkiir  Hao.  The  title  of  the  chief 
minister  of  Scindiah.  In  1 86 1 ,  under  the  new 
Act,  he  became  one  of  the  Legislative  Council 
of  India. 

Dirlttton  CastlA*  seven  miles  north  of 
Haddington,  was,  after  a  long  siege,  taken  by 
Bishop  Anthony  Beck  for  Edward  I.,  in  1298 
It  was  destroyed  in  1660  by  General  Lambert. 

Disanning  Acts  (Ireland).  By  the 
7  Will,  md  ^lary,  1696,  all  Catholics  were 
ordered  to  deliver  up  their  arms,  excepting  only 
those  who  were  protected  by  the  Treaty  of 
Limerick  and  other  Articles,  and  who  were 
consequently  allowed  to  keep  a  sword  and 
pistols,  also  a  fowling-piece.  All  gun-makers 
were  to  be  Protestants,  and  to  admit  only 
Protestant  apprentices.  Every  justice  of  the 
peace  might  search  for  arms.  The  Act  was 
not  very  strictly  carried  out.  In  1730,  for 
instance,  a  Catholic  gentleman  was  convicted  of 
carr^nng  arms,  but  acquitted  because  the  Act 
applied  only  te  those  alive  at  the  time.  In  1 732 
Lord  Gormanstewn  and  some  other  gentlemen 
appeared  at  Trim  Assizes  with  their  swords ; 
they  were  convicted,  but  after  an  apolog}',  par- 
doned on  the  petition  of  the  Grand  Jury.  In 
1739  a  new  Disarming  Act  was  passed,  but 
little  observed.  In  1793  these  Acts  were  re- 
pealed as  regards  Catholics,  but  a  now  Act  (33 
George  III.)  was  passed  forbidding  any  person 
to  keep  arms  without  a  licence,  and  allowing 
a  search  for  arms  to  be  made. 

Duioipliney  Thb  Book  of  (1661),  was 
the  name  given  to  a  compilation  adopted  by 
the  Reformers  in  Scotland  as  a  basis  for 
the  re-organisation  of  their  Church  and  ito 
practice.  It  did  not,  however,  receive  the 
sanction  of  the  Estates.  In  1681  the  Second 
Book  of  Diseiplitu  was  issued,  with  a  view  to 
regulate  the  whole  system  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland,  but  likewise  failed  to  pass  the 
Estates. 

Dudnheritady  Thb,  was  the  name 
given  to  the  remnant  of  the  baronial  party 
who  held  out  after  the  battle  of  Eveshiun,  a 
general  sentence  of  forfeiture  having  been 
issued  against  all  those  who  had  fought 
on  the  side  of  De  Montfort.  The  disin* 
herited  lords  occupied  Kenilworth  and  the 


mm 


(376) 


mm 


Iflle  of  Ely  ;  the  former  pliice  surrendered 
at  the  end  of  1266,  on  the  terms  given  by  the 
''Dictum  of  Kenilworth,"  but  those  who 
▼ere  unwilling  to  accept  them  maintained 
the  struggle  in  the  Isle  of  Ely.  The  latter 
puity  was  not  reduced  till  1267»  but  was 
even  then  allowed  the  same  terms  that  the 
defenders  of  Kenilworth  had  obtained. 

Disinherited    Barons,    The,    were 

certain  lords  who  had  claims  in  Scotland,  and 
on  whose  behalf  it  was  provided  by  the 
Treaty  of  Northampton,  1328,  **  that  they 
should  be  restored  to  their  lands  and  estates, 
whereof  the  King  of  Scots  had  taken  posses- 
sion.'* The  Scotch  regency,  on  various  pre- 
texts, delayed  to  carry  out  this  article,  the 
result  being  that  the  barons  resolved  to 
support  Edward  Baliol  and  to  invade 
Scotland.  Chief  amongst  them  were  Beau- 
mont Eaxl  of  Buchan,  Thomas  Lord  Wake, 
David  de  Strathbogie,  and  Henry  de  Ferrers" 
On  the  success  of  Baliol  (1334),  the  barons 
began  to  quarrel  amongst  themselves  over 
their  spoils,  and  Baliol  soon  had  to  quit  the 
kingdom  he  had  partially  won. 


_  _  %  The,  was  the  name 

given  to  the  royal  prerogative,  by  which  the 
sovereign  was  enabled  to  exempt  individuals 
from  the  operation  of  the  penal  laws.      It  is 
analagous  to,  and  frequently  confused  with, 
the  SuMpenditig  Foioer,  by  which  a  right  was 
claimed  to   abrogate    one  or  more   statutes 
entirely.      The  origin  of  this  idea  may  be 
traced  to  the  ancient  royal  prerogative  of 
pardoning  individual  offenders,  from  which, 
in   an   ag^  of    unscientific    legislation,    the 
transition  to  a  power  of  previously  annulling 
the  penalties  of  a  statute  was  easy.    It  found 
countenance  in  the  clause  non^bstanUf  "  any 
law    to  the    contrary,''    introduoed  by  the 
Popes   into    their    Bulls   in  the  thirteenth 
century.    Henry  III.  imitated  this  clause  in 
proclamations  and  grants,  but  not  without 
protest;  and  in  1391  the  Commons  granted 
to  Richard  II.  the  right,  with  the  consent  of 
the  Lords,  of  dispensing  with  the  Statute  of 
ProAosors  until  the  next  Parliament,  assert- 
ing, however,  that  this  was  a  novelty,  and 
should  not  be  drawn  into  a  precedent.     The 
free  use  of  the  dispensing  power  alone  made 
it  possible  to  combine  the  retention  of  the 
Statutes  of  Provisors  and'  Praemunire  with 
friendly  relations  with   the    Papacy.     The 
power  was  frequently  disputed  by  Parlia- 
ment, and  although  asserted  by  Henry  V.  in 
1413,  with  regard  to  a    law  for  expelling 
aliens  from  the  kingdom,  a  statute  passed  in 
1444,  limiting  the  patents  of  sheriffs  to  a 
year,  especially  forbade  the  king  to  dispense 
with  this  provision,  or  to  remit  the  penalties 
for  breaking  it.    Under  Henry  YII.  the  dis- 
pensing power  was  frequently  employed  (the 
judges  even  deciding  that  the  king  might 
grant  exceptions  to  the  statute   of  1444) ; 
but  in  this  zoign  an  important  limitation  was 


introduced,  by  an  agreement  among  lawyers, 
that  the  king  could  not  dispense  with  the 
penalties  for  an  offence  against  the  common 
mw  (tnalum  in  m),  but  only  of  one  created  by 
statute  {tnalum  prohibitum).      In  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.,  however,  the  dispensing  power 
became  almost  unlimited  ;  it  was  true  that  the 
king  could  not  dispense  with  future  Acts  of 
Parliament,  but  he  could   *'with  things  in 
future  whereof  he  hath  an  inheritance."  The 
ingenuity  of  lawyers  failed  to  decide  finally 
the  limits  of  this  prerogative,  either  during 
the  Tudors  or  the  two  first  Stuarts,  by  whom 
it  was  fi'equently  exercised:  Lord  Coke,  for 
instance,  leaving  the  question  as  he  found  it 
by  deciding  that  **no  Act  of  Parliament  may 
bind  the  king  from  any  prerogative  which  is 
inseparable  from  his  person,  so  that  he  may 
not    dispense    with    it   by  a    non-obsianie. 
After  the  Restoration  the  dispensing  power 
was   revived    by  Charles   II.  for   tiie  new 
purpose  of  admitting  Catholics  to  office,  and 
in  virtue  of  it,  he  issued  the  Declaration  of 
Indulgenoe.      In    1673   the   country   party 
ventiured  to  challenge  the  right,  asserting, 
though  on  insufficient  grounds,  that  it  was 
confined  to  secular  matters,  and  by  threaten- 
ing to  withhold  supplies,  induced  the  king  to 
cancel  the  Declaration.    James  II.,  however, 
determined  to  use  the  power  on  a  wholesale 
scale  for  the  purpose  of  admitting  Catholics 
to   ecclesiastical  as  well  as  secular  offices, 
and,  after  dismissing  refractory  judges  and 
barristers,  brought  &e  question  to  an  issue 
in  Sir  Edward  Hale's  case  (1686).    This  was 
a   collusive   action — the   plaintiff,    Oodden, 
being  the  defendant's  servant,  who  claimed 
as  an  informer  a  penalty  of  £500,  to  which 
his  master  was  liaole  for  holding  the  com- 
mand of    a   regiment  without    taking   the 
Sacrament.      T^e  defendant  pleaded  letters 
patent  from  the  king,  and  the  judges,  with 
one  exception,  decidod  that  the  king  might 
dispense  with  penal  statutes  in   particular 
cases.    This  decision,  by  perpetuating  a  legal 
anomaly,  is  said  by  Hallam  to  have  "  seali^ 
the  condemnation  of  the  House  of  Stuart." 
Armed  with  this  weapon,  James  immediately 
proceeded  to  admit  Roman  Catholic  lords  to 
the  Privy  Council,  and  to  authorise  clerg}*- 
men  to  hold  benefices.      For  these  and  otiber 
arbitrary  acts  he  lost  the  crown,  and  the  Bill 
of    Rights  abolished   both  the    Suspending 
and  Dispensing  power,  declaring  that  **  the 
pretended  power  of  suspending  laws  and  the 
execution  of  laws  by  regal  authority  without 
Act  of  Parliament  is  lUegal;   and  that  the 
pretended  power  of  dispensing  with  laws  by 
regal  authority  without  Act  of  Parliament,  as 
it  hath  been  assumed  and  exercised  of  late, 
is  illegn^." 

Matthew  Paris,  Hi»t  Major.,  810  and  854: 
Coke,  £moWc,  18;  Stota  Trials,  xi.  1165— 1S80; 
Broom,  Const.  Law;  Hacaakj,  HiaL  ofSng., 
vols.  i.  and  U. ;  Hallam,  CoMt.  uist.,  ob.  ziv. 

XHflraeli,  Bbnjamik.    [Bbaconsficld.] 


Dfis 


(  376  ) 


Dod 


Dissenters.    [Nonconfokmists.] 
Dissenters'  Chapels  Bill  (7  and  8 

Vict.).  In  1844  Lord  Lyndliurst  carried  this 
measure,  which  provided  that  where  the 
founder  had  not  expressly  defined  the  doctrines 
or  form  of  worship  to  be  observed,  the  usage 
of  twenty-five  years  should  give  trustees  a  title 
to  their  endowment.  Its  occasion  was  an  attack 
by  some  of  the  Nonconformists  on  the  ten 
Presbyterian  congregations  which  had  diverged 
into  Unitarianism  during  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tur>%  and  which  had  in  most  instances  con- 
siderable endowments. 

Divine  BilpHt.  In  England  the  doctrine 
of  divine  right  of  sovereigns  grew  up  during 
the  sixteenth  centur}%  fiouri&cd  during  the 
seventeenth,  and  died  a  natural  death  in  the 
eighteenth.  The  idea  of  the  sacredncss  of 
hereditary  right  had  made  great  progress 
during  the  fifteenth  centur}*.  The  false  pedi- 
gree put  forth  by  Henry  of  Lancaster  to 
justify  his  claim  te  the  crown,  the  history 
of  the  Duke  of  York's  pretensions  to  the 
throne,  the  theory  by  which  Richard  III. 
strove  to  justify  his  usurpation,  and  the  care 
with  which  Henry  VII.  guarded  his  heredi- 
tary title  against  anything  which  might  seem 
to  impair  it,  mark  the  advance  of  this  view. 
The  tiieory  of  election  fell  more  and  more 
into  the  background.  At  the  coronation  of 
Edward  VI.,  the  king  was  presented  to  the 
people  as  their  lawful  and  undoubted  sovereign 
before  he  took  the  oath  to  preserve  the  laws 
and  liberties  of  the  realm.  Thus  the  very 
form  of  an  election  contract  was  destroyed. 
The  accession  of  James  I.  was  the  triumph  of 
hereditary  over  Parliamentary  title.  The 
resolution  which  recognised  him  as  king 
stated,  "  that  immediately  on  the  decease  of 
Elizabeth,  late  Queen  of  England,  the  impe- 
rial crown  of  the  realm  of  England  .  .  . 
did  by  inherent  birthright,  and  lawful  and 
undoubted  succession,  descend  and  come  to 
your  most  excellent  Majesty,  as  being  lineally, 
justly,  and  lawfully  next  and  sole  heir  of  the 
blood  royal  of  this  realm.**  Already  in  two 
of  the  religious  confessions  of  Henry  VIIL's 
reign — the  InstittUum  of  a  Chrutian  Man 
(1537)  and  the  Necessary  Doctrine  and  Erttdp- 
tioH  (1543) — the  duty  of  passive  obedience  had 
been  established  as  a  necessary  oonaequence 
of  the  fifth  commandment.  In  the  Canons  of 
1606  the  clei^y  went  so  far  in  enforcing  this 
view  that  the  king  felt  that  the  obedience 
they  demanded  for  a  de  faeto  king  under- 
mined his  hereditary  title.  He  was  also 
obliged,  at  the  complaint  of  Parliament,  to 
oondemn  the  theory  of  his  absolute  power 
put  forth  by  Gowell,  the  Professor  of  Civil 
Law  at  Cambridge,  in  his  Law  Dictionary. 
Under  Charles  I.  the  House  of  Commons 
complained  of  the  sermons  of  Sibthorpe  and 
Main  waring  (1627),  and  in  their  remonstrance 
of  May  26, 1642,  asserted  that  the  "  erroneous 
maxim  bekig  infused  into  princes  that  their 


kingdoms  are  their  own,  and  that  they  may 
do  with  them  what  they  will,  as  if  their 
kingdoms  were  for  them  and  not  they  for 
their  kingdoms  .  .  .  was  the  root  of  all 
the  subjects*  misery."  The  Act  by  which 
Charles  II.  was  made  to  succeed  immediately 
on  his  father*s  death,  and  his  reign  dated  ac> 
cordingly,  was  a  practical  acknowledgement  of 
the  doctrine  of  divine  right.  The  Church  of 
the  Kestoration  made  the  absolute  duty  of 
non-resisiance  part  of  its  teaching,  and  it  was 
also  made  part  of  the  oath  of  allegiance.  Both 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  proclaim^  this  duty, 
and  the  former  university  burnt  the  works  of  its 
opponents.  Closely  connected  with  the  doc- 
trine of  the  divine  right  was  the  custom  of 
touching  for  the  "  king's  evil,'*  which  was,  in 
the  eyes  of  the  people,  **a  visible,  palpable 
attestation  of  the  indefeasible  sanctity  of  the 
royal  hne.**  A  Latin  service  for  this  ceremony 
had  been  drawn  up  under  Henry  VII. ;  under 
Charles  L  an  English  one  took  its  place,  and 
during  the  reign  of  Anne  was  inserted  in  the 
Prayer  Book.  In  a  single  yeeo"  Charles  II. 
touched  8,500  persons ;  in  the  course  of  his 
reign  it  is  estimated  that  one  himdrcd 
thousand  persons  received  his  healing  touch. 
William  III.  naturally  never  attempted  to 
exercise  this  power,  but  Anne  revived  the 
ceremony.  It  was  again  abandoned  by  the 
Hanoverian  kings,  and  the  practice  was  only 
maintained  by  the  exiled  heirs  of  the  Stuarts. 
During  the  same  years  the  theory  of  divine 
right  was  passing  away.  It  revived  under 
Anne,  and  its  efficacy  was  preached  by  Sache- 
verell  and  other  divines.  But  when  George  I. 
came  to  the  throne,  with  a  title  based  on  the 
Act  of  Settlement  alone,  it  was  impossible  for 
any  party  which  accepted  the  Hanoverian 
succession  to  still  maintain  this  doctrine. 
Moreover,  as  the  Tories  were  in  opposition^ 
they  had  no  motive  for  exalting  the  monarchy. 
The  sole  party  which  continued  to  make  this 
tenet  part  of  their  faith  was  the  Jacobite 
party,  and  it  became  practically  extinct  by  the 
accession  of  George  III. 

Sir  R.  Filmer,  Original  of  Government,  1652,  and 
PolUical  DwoouraM,  1680. 

Dodixigton,  Gbokoe  Bubb  {b,  1691, 
d.  1762),  was  a  politician  of  some  prominence 
in  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
He  entered  Parliament  in  1715  as  member 
for  Winchelsea,  and  was  almost  at  once 
despatehed  as  ambassador  to  S]|jain,  where 
he  signed  the  Treaty  of  Madrid,  and  re- 
main^ till  1717.  He  inherited  a  mag* 
niflcent  property,  and  attached  himself  to 
Walpole's  party,  but  deserted  that  minister 
in  1741.  ^fore  tiiis  he  had,  in  1737,  used 
all  his  influence  with  Frederick,  Prince  of 
Wales,  to  dissuade  him  from  openly  setting 
his  father  at  defiance,  but  was  one  of  the  lead- 
ing friends  and  counsellors  of  the  prince  for 
many  years.  After  holding  several  oflSoes, 
he  became  the  confidential  friend  of  Lord 
Bute,  in  the  first  year  of  George  IIL*s  reign, 


Dod 


(  377  ) 


Dom 


and  was  by  that  nobleman*8  influence  created 
Baron  Melcombe.  Ho  did  not|  however, 
long  enjoy  his  new  honours,  but  died  the  next 
year.  lie  had  some  claims  to  being  a  patron 
of  men  of  letters,  and  it  was  to  him  that 
Thomson  dedicated  his  Summer,  Among  his 
friends  were  Young,  Fielding,  and  Lyttleton. 
He  left  behind  him  a  Diary  (pubhshed  in 
1784),  which  is  still  one  of  the  leading 
authorities  for  the  minor  history  of  the  times 
in  which  he  lived. 

Dodowah,  The  Battle  of  (1826),  took 
place  on  the  Gold  Coast,  between  a  British 
force,  under  Colonel  Purdon,  and  the 
Ashantees,  who,  after  lighting  with  des- 
perate bravery,  were  compelled  to  give  way. 

DoUaTy  Tub  Battle  of  (87o),  resulted  in 
a  complete  victory  for  the  Danes,  imder 
Thorstem,  over  Constantino  and  the  men  of 
Alban.  As  a  consequence  of  this  defeat, 
Constantino  was  compelled  to  cede  Caithness, 
Sutherland,  Ross,  and  Moray  to  the  invaders. 
Dollar  is  on  the  borders  of  Fife  and  Perth- 
shiro. 

2>olly's  Brae,  The  Riot  at,  occurred  on 
July  12,  1849.  Fifteen  hundred  Orangemen 
marched  through  this  defile,  which  is  near 
Castlewellan,  to  congratulate  the  Earl  of 
Roden,  their  provincial  grand  master.  On  their 
way  back  they  were  fired  on  by  the  Roman 
Catholics,  an  attack  which  the  Protestants 
were  not  slow  to  return.  The  result  of  the 
affray  was  that  the  latter  body  drove  back 
their  opponents,  who  left  four  dead  and  forty 
woimded  on  the  field.  The  question  was 
taken  up  in  Parliament,  and  the  Earl  of 
Roden  was  eventually  dismissed  from  his  lord- 
lieutenancy. 

AwMuA  JJUgittcr;  KainmiT^t  DebotM,  1849. 

SoniMlday  is  the  name  giten  to  the 
nieat  survey  of  England,  made  by  order  of 
WiUiam  the  Conqueror.  The  name  is  not 
found  before  the  Dinlogut  de  Seaeeario  (q.v.), 
in  which  (i.  16)  it  is  said  that  the  English 
called  the  book  of  the  survey  **  Domesdei,'* 
or  "the  day  of  judgment,*'  because  of  the 
strictness  of  the  examination.  It  has  also 
been  held  to  refer  to  the  day  of  holding  the 
courts  at  which  the  inquest  was  made.  In 
1084  England  was  threatened  with  invasion 
by  Canute  of  Denmark.  At  the  beginning  of 
that  year  the  king  laid  a  heavy  '*  geld,"  or 
tax,  on  all  England  of  six  shillings  on  the 
hide.  The  invasion  of  the  Northmen  was 
not  made.  The  threatened  danger,  however, 
and  the  tax  which  seems  connected  with  it, 
probably  made  the  Conqueror  anxious  to  as- 
certain the  capabilities  of  his  kingdom,  both 
as^  regards  defence  and  taxation.  At  the 
mid-winter  meeting  of  the  Witan,  after  "  deep 
speech  "  with  the  great  men,  the  king  ordered 
tiiat  a  survey  of  the  kingdom  should  be  made. 
For  the  purpose  of  the  survey  the  cotmtry 
was  divided   into    districts,  and  a  body  of 


commissioners  was  sent  to  hold  an  inquest  in 
each  district.  The  names  of  those  sent  into 
the  midland  counties  arc  preser\'ed,  and  show 
that  men  of  high  jx>sition  were  employed  in 
the  work.  They  were  bidden  to  inquire  who 
held  each  estate  in  the  time  of  King  Edward, 
who  held  it  at  the  time  of  the  inquest,  whut 
its  value  was  at  the  two  dates,  whether  that 
value  could  be  raised,  and  by  what  title  it 
was  held.  In  order  to  find  out  whether  an 
estate  was  capable  of  contributing  a  larger 
sum  to  the  royal  treasury,  minute  inquiries 
were  to  be  made  as  to  its  extent,  and  the 
men  and  beasts  it  supported.  The  commis- 
sioners gained  their  information  in  the  way 
in  which  such  matters  were  usually  managed 
in  England.  They  took  the  same  witness  of 
the  sheriff  and  the  French  (foreign)  barons, 
and  the  whole  hundred,  of  the  pncst,  the 
reeve,  and  six  villeins  of  each  township  :  that 
is,  they  learned  the  particulars  they  wished 
to  know  by  answers  made  on  oath  in  the 
hundred  court.  It  was  not  the  first  time 
that  an  inquest  had  been  held  to  ascertain 
the  value  of  the  land  throughout  the  country 
for  the  puniose  of  taxation ;  for  in  the  time 
of  Ethelrod  the  country  had  been  surveyed 
and  divided  for  the  assessment  of  the 
danegeld,  and  an  inquest  seems  to  have  been 
held  for  the  geld  of  1084.  It  is  evident, 
however,  that  these  had  not  been  of  the 
searching  nature  of  the  Domesday  Sui^'ey. 
Such  an  inquiry"  was  hateful  to  Englishmen. 
**  It  is  shame  to  tell,"  writes  the  chronicler, 
"  what  he  thought  it  no  shame  for  him  to  do. 
Ox  nor  cow  nor  swine  was  left  that  was  not 
set  down  upon  his  writ."  The  commissionei-s 
wrote  their  reports  on  separate  rolls,  and 
their  notes  were  afterwards  abridged  and 
ananged  by  the  king's  clerks.  The  inquest 
was  finished  in  the  summer  of  1086.  With 
its  completion  must  be  connected  the 
assembly  on  Salisbury  Plain  and  the  oath 
taken  to  William.  As  the  king  appeared  in 
the  survey  as  the  one  lord  of  every  man's 
land,  so  on  its  completion  all  landholders 
swore  fealty  to  him,  "  whose  men  so  ever 
'they  were."  ^  He  added  a  fresh  obligation, 
which  bound  all  landholders  equally  to  the 
mere  bond  of  tenure  which  connected  hie 
tenants  with  himself. 

Questions  of  right,  as  well  as  the  nature  of 
the  inquest,  led  to  irritation  and  to  some  blood- 
shed. With  matters  of  title  the  commissioners 
did  not  concern  themselves  further  than  to  re- 
cord the  conflicting  claims,  and  in  doing  this, 
they  treated  the  people  of  each  race  alike. 
Cases  of  illegal  occupation  are  often  ranged 
in  a  class  by  themselves,  and  include 
possessions  gained  by  defective  or  disputed 
titles,  as  weU  as  by  acts  of  violence,  iliese 
are  the  terra  oectfpata  of  the  western  shires, 
and  the  invasiones  of  Essex,  &c.  Few  in- 
dications can  be  found  in  the  record  of  the 
violence  of  the  Conquest.  The  rights  and 
obligations  of   each  landholder  are    settled 


Dom 


(  378  ) 


Bom 


by  those  of  his  anteeesBor,  and  the  date  at 
which  these  are  ascertained  is  that  of  the  death 
of  King  Edward,  expressed  in  the  Winchester 
edition  of  Domesday  by  T.  K.  E.,  and 
in  the  Exeter  edition  by  the  phrase  ea  die  qua 
rex  E.  vivtufuit  et  mortuus.  There  is  seldom 
anything  to  show  that  the  new  possessor  did 
not  succeed  his  anteceuor  peacefully,  and,  as  far 
as  possible,  all  reference  to  the  reign  of  Harold 
is  avoided.  Nevertheless,  the  record  bears 
witness  to  a  sweeping  confiscation  of  the  lands 
of  the  wealthier  and  more  powerful  class, 
and  in  a  lesser  degree  of  the  smaller  owners 
also,  to  widespread  devastation,  and  to  the  ruin 
of  many  boroughs.  Two  systems  of  measure- 
ment are  used  in  Domesday :  the  one  bv  the 
hide^  the  other  by  the  earueate.  The  hide  is 
used  to  signify  an  area  of  a  certain  rating 
value.  It  is  an  old  English  term,  and  though 
it  implies  an  area,  seems  in  Domesday  at  least 
to  be  of  uncertain  extent.  The  foreign  earu- 
eate is  the  co-relative  of  the  hide,  but  has  a 
more  constant  reference  to  area.  It  is  some- 
times used  of  land  which  is  non-hidated,  i.«., 
not  rated  for  the  payment  of  taxes.  In  both 
hide  and  earueate  the  terra  ad  unam  earucamy 
or  one  plough-land  of  definite  extent,  is  a 
principal  factor.  (On  these  matters  reference 
should  be  made  to  Mr.  Eyton*s  learned  works.) 
As  regards  feudal  organisation,  Domesday 
tells  us  nothing.  The  king  has  become  the 
overlord  of  all ;  to  him  all  alike  are  bound,  all 
title  is  derived  from  his  grant.  But  there  is 
no  sign  of  any  condition  of  tenure  different 
from  those  which  existed  before  the  Conquest. 
Knights*  fees  and  feudal  incidents  are  matters 
of  later  development. 

The  results  of  the  survey  are  preserved  in 
different  books.  The  Domesday  Book  is  the 
name  which  properly  belongs  to  the  two 
volumes  called  the  Exchequer  Domesday^  or, 
to  use  the  title  contained  in  the  book  itself, 
the  Liber  de  Wintonia.  The  first  of  the 
volumes  gives,  in  a  short  form,  the  survey  of 
thirty  counties;  the  second  contains  longer 
reiwrts  of  Essex,  Norfolk,  and  Suffolk.  All 
the  survey  is  thus  embraced  by  the  two 
volumes,  for  no  report  was  made  of  the  four 
northern  counties,  nor  of  Lancashire,  except 
as  regards  the  Fumess  district.  The 
volume  called  the  Exon  Damesdayy  from 
being  in  the  care  of  the  chapter  of  Exeter, 
contains  a  detailed  account  of  Wiltshire, 
Dorset,  Somerset,  Devonshire,  and  Cornwall. 
The  Itiqtmitio  Eliensie  is  devoted  to  the 
possessions  and  claims  of  the  abbey  of  Ely. 
Mr.  Freeman  considers  that  "these  three, 
the  second  volume  of  the  Exchequer  Domes- 
day^  the  Exon  Domesday,  and  the  Inquisitio 
Eliensis,  are  the  original  record  of  the 
survey  itself,  which  appears  in  the  first 
volume  of  the  Exchequer  Domesday  in  an 
abridged  shape."  Though  this  may  be  true 
of  the  other  two  volumes,  as  regards  the 
Exon  Domtsdat/f  ]^Ir.  Eyton  has  shown  that 
it  is  unlikely  that  it  stood  in  any  such  re- 


lation to  the  more  concisely  expressed  re- 
cord, and  from  internal  evidence  is  led  to 
believe  that  no  "single  entr}'  of  the  Ex- 
chequer codex  was  copied  or  abstracted  from 
the  Exeter  edition."  With  the  Exon  Domee' 
day  some  leaves  of  the  geld-inquest  of  1084 
are  carelessly  bound  up. 

Freeman,  NornMn,  Conquest,  iv.,  c.  21,  v.,  c.  S2, 
and  App. ;  Eyton,  Key  to  lH)mc«dav,  Donrndo!^ 
SlknAiee^  Dor»et  and  Somerset;  Sir  H.  Ellis,  In- 
troduetion  to  Domeaday,  The  Domeadaj  Book 
WAS  reprinted  by  tbe  Eeoord Commission,  ITKI^— 
1810,  andin  fao-simile  1864-^5.  [J.  K.] 

Dominica^  the  largest,  though  not  the 
most  important,  of  the  Leeward  Islands, 
was  discovered  by  Columbus,  1493,  on  a 
Sunday,  and  named  by  him  in  commemora- 
tion of  the  day.  It  was  at  first  colonised  by 
the  French,  but  in  1754  was  captured  by  the 
British  forces,  and  was  formally  ceded  to 
England  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  1763,  thougrh 
many  French  remained  on  the  island.  In 
1778  it  was  ravaged  by  the  French,  and  was 
taken  by  them jn  1781,  and  retained  for  a  period 
of  two  years.  In  1795  another  attack  was 
made  on  Donunica,  and  in  1805  the  idland 
was  once  more  ravaged  by  a  French  forc^ 
under  La  Grange.  In  1813  Dominica  was 
the  scene  of  a  Maroon  war,  but  the  insur- 
gents were  speedily  crushed ;  and  the  insur- 
rection was  made  a  pretext  for  the  employ- 
ment of  most  severe  measures  against  the 
slaves.  In  1871  Dominica  joined  the  federa- 
tion of  the  Leeward  Islands  (q.v.),  leaving 
previously  enjoyed  a  representative  govern- 
ment. 

Attwood,  Riat.  of  Dominica. 

Dominica,  The  Battle  op  (April  12,1 782) , 
resulted  in  the  destruction  of  the  French  naval 
power  in  the  West  Indies.  On  the  9th  of  April 
the  division  of  Sir  Samuel  Hood,  which,  con- 
sisting of  eight  ships,  had  got  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  fleet  under  Hodne3%  had  main- 
tained for  an  hour  an  unequal  contest  with 
fifteen  French  ships,  and  the  French  admiral 
had  thought  it  wise  to  retire  when  the  rest  of 
the  British  fieet  came  up.  The  next  two  days 
were  occupied  in  trying  to  bring  the  French 
to  action,  and  on  the  12th  Rodney  succeeded 
in  doing  so.  Favoured  by  the  wind,  he  took 
advantage  of  a  break  in  the  French  line,  and 
advancing  in  column,  cut  the  French  fleet  in 
two.  Sir  Samuel  Hood,  who  was  leading  the 
English  van,  at  once  became  engaged  with 
that  of  the  French  fleet,  while  Bodney  was 
busy  with  the  enemy's  centre.  The  action 
was  vigorously  carried  on,  and  the  atmo- 
sphere, which  was  very  still,  soon  became  so 
enveloped  in  smoke  that  the  fleets  mutually 
ceased  firing.  When  at  length  the  smoke 
cleared  away,  the  French  were  seen  in  full 
retreat.  A  chase  was  immediately  begun,  and 
five  ships  were  taken  or  destroyed,  including 
the  enormous  Vilie  de  J*aris,  Four  more 
were  soon  afterwards  captured  by  Hood  when 
cruising  among  the  islands.     The  F.ng1iflh 


X>om 


(  379  ) 


Don 


loss  in  the  two  actions  of  the  9th  and  12th 
was  comparatively  smaU.  Rodney  and  Hood 
were  hoth  raised  to  the  peerage.  The  battle 
itself  is  famous  in  naval  history  as  being  the 
tinit  in  which  the  manoeuvre  of  breaking  the 
line  was  practised. 

▲lien.  Naval  BaUUt;  Stanhope,  Hist,  of  Bng. 

DominicaiUi,  The,  or  Black  Fkiars. 
This  order  was  founded  by  Dominic  in  the 
beginning  of  the  twelfth  century,  and  ap- 
proved by  Innocent  III.  in  1215.  Thirteen 
brethren  of  this  order  crossed  into  England 
in  1221,  and  before  long  fixed  their  abode 
at  Oxford,  where  they  soon  became  prominent 
in  the  schools.  Their  second  English  house  was 
the  Blackfriars  in  London,  originally  situated 
where  Lincoln's  Inn  now  stan&,  but  removed 
from  this  place  about  1279.  At  the  time  of 
the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries  there  were 
fifty-eight  Dominican-houses  in  England  and 
Wales,  several  of  them  being  situated  in  the 
principal  towns,  such  as  Bristol,  Northampton, 
Salisbury,  York,  and  Leicester.    [Friars.] 

]>0]iiixiiBy  Marco  Aktonio  db  {b.  1566, 
d.  1624),  was  a  Jesuit,  who,  in  1604,  became 
Archbishop  of  Spalatro.  He  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Bishop  Bedell  in  Italy,  and  was 
induced  hy  him  to  quit  his  archbishopric  and 
come  to  England,  where  he  published  his 
work,  DeEepttbliea  JSeeUaiastiea  (1617),  which 
was  aimed  at  some  of  the  evils,  temporal  and  ^ 
ecclesiastical,  of  the  Papal  s}'stem.  De 
Dominis  professed  himself  a  Protestant,  and 
was  much  patronised  by  James  I.  and  the 
High  Chnr^hmen  in  England.  He  received 
the  Mastership  of  the  Savoy,  and  was  made 
Dean  of  Windsor.  In  England  he  saw  that 
his  Ambition  was  not  likely  to  be  gratified  by 
the  highest  honours  of  the  Church.  He, 
therefore,  returned  to  Rome  (1622),  where  his 
old  schoolfellow,  Gregory  JCV.,  was  Pope, 
and  seems  to  have  enterteined  the  idea  that 
by  his  efforts  England  might  be  restored  to 
the  Church  of  Rome.  But  on  the  death  of 
Gregory,  De  Dominis  was  arrested  by  the 
Inquisition,  and  imprisoned  in  the  castle  of 
St.  Angelo,  where  he  died. 

Newlftnd,  Life  of  De  Dominit ;  Gardiner,  Ht'tt. 
of  Bug,,  ie08—164S. 

Hoiuddy   son  of  Constantino  and  King 
of  Alban  (d.  910),  was  the  first  ruler  styled  by 
the  chroniclers  "  King  of  Alban."   He  reigned 
from  889  to  900,  and  was  occupied  during  the 
early  part  of  his  reign  in  repelling  the  attacks 
of  Sigurd,  the  brother  of  Harald  Harfagr, 
and  the  newly-appointed  earl  of  those  Nor- 
wegians who  had    fled   from    their   native 
country  on  the  accession  of  the  new  king, 
and  had.  already  begun  to  colonise  the  Orkney 
Islands.    The  new-comers  invaded  Caithness 
uid  Sutherland,   and    the   presence  of   the 
King  of  Alban  was  constantly  required  in  those 
parts  to  keep  them  at  bay,  though  their  incur- 
tions  could  hardly  affect  that  part  of  Scotland 
orer  which  Donald  really  reigned.    Later  on, 


a  fresh  body  of  Danes  from  Dublin  swept 
down  upon  the  kingdom  of  Alban  itself,  and 
Donald  was  slain  at  Dunotter  in  contest  with 
them. 

Donald  Baloch  of  the  Zales  was  a 

relative  of  Alexander  of  the  Isles,  on  whose 
captivity  he  raised  a  force  and  defeated  the 
royal  troops  under  the  Earl  of  Alar  at 
Lochaber  (1431).  James  I.  of  Scotland  was 
exceedingly  angpry  at  the  ill-success  of  his 
lieutenant,  and  increased  the  taxes  throughout . 
his  dominions  five-fold  for  the  purpose  of 
finding  funds  for  a  royal  progress  through 
the  Highlands.  Shortly  after,  Donald  was 
compelled  to  seek  refuge  in  Ireland,  where  he 
wasldlled. 

Donald  Bano.  Kino  of  Scotland,  was 
brother  of  Malcolm  Canmore,  whom  he 
succeeded  in  1093.  After  reigning  six 
months,  he  was  driven  out  by  his  nephew 
Duncan.  In  1094,  however,  on  Duncan's 
death,  he  recovered  the  throne,  which  he 
shared  for  three  years  with  Edmund,  son  of 
Malcolm.  For  some  three  years  Donald  Bane 
continued  to  rule  over  the  Scots  north  of  the 
great  firths,  while  Edmund,  as  the  son  of  the 
%)axon  Margaret,  reigned  over  the  more  Saxon 
population  of  the  Lowlands.  At  last,  in  1097, 
E<^;ar  Atheling,  with  the  assistance  of  an 
English  force,  after  defeating  and  imprisoning 
his  nephew  Edmund  and  Donald  Banc,  set  his 
other  nephew  Edgar  on  the  Scoteh  throne. 
Two  years  later  Donald  Bane  was  taken  pri- 
soner, and  after  being  blinded,  was  con- 
demned to  perpetual  imprisonment  till  his 
death.  He  was  buried  in  Dunfermline 
Abbey. 

Skene,  CefJtie  Scotland  ;  Bobertson,  Early  King* 
ofSootlafkd. 

Donald  Bane  MacWilliani  [d.  1187) 

claimed  to  be  a  descendant  of  Duncan,  son  of 
Malcolm  Canmore.  In  1181,  during  the 
absence  of  William  the  lion  at  the  English 
court,  he  tried,  with  the  aid  of  many  of  the 
Scottish  barons,  to  make  himself  king  of  the 
country  north  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde,  and 
for  six  years  he  there  maintained  a  sort  of 
irregular  warfare,  which  ended  in  his  defeat 
and  death  in  the  Spey  Valle}'-  (July,  1187). 

Donald  Brec,  or  Domnal  Breac, 

the  son  of  Eocha  (q.v.),  was  King  of 
Dalriada  (629->642).  In  634  Donald  was 
defeated  by  the  Angles  at  Calathios,  while 
attempting  to  wrest  from  their  hands  the 
district  between  the  Avon  and  the  Pentland 
Hills.  In  637  he  crossed  over  to  Ireland  with 
a  large  army  to  aid  Congal  Claen,  King  of 
Ulster,  against  the  King  of  Ireland,  but  was 
utterly  routed  at  the  battle  of  Magh  Hath. 
After  another  attack  upon  the  Anglian  terri- 
tory, in  which  he  was  assisted  by  the  Britons 
of  Alclyde,  he  seems  to  have  fallen  out  with 
this  last  race  upon  the  death  of  the  great 
Rhydderch  Hael,  and  was  slain  in  battle  with 
the  new  King  of  Alclyde  at  Sti-athcarron 


Bor 


(  380  ) 


Dor 


(642).     On  his  death,  the  kingdom  of  Dal- 
riada  reverted  to  anarchy. 

Dorchester,  Dudley  Carlbton,  Vis- 
count {b.  1573,  d.  1632),  was  ambassador  to 
the  republic  of  Venice  from  1610  to  1615, 
and  to  the  United  Pro\inces  from  1615  to 
1626.  During  the  second  Parliament  of 
Charles  I.  he  maintained  the  cause  of  the 
Idng  in  the  House  of  Commons,  and  attached 
himself  to  the  party  of  Buckingham.  In 
May,  1626,  he  was  created  Baron  Carleton, 
and'  on  July  25,  1628,  Viscoant  Dorchester. 
On  December  14  in  the  same  year  he  was 
appointed  Secretary  of  State,  and  in  that 
capacity  advocated  peace  with  France  and 
alliance  with  the  German  Protestants.  Cla- 
rendon says  '*he  understood  all  that  related 
to  foreign  employment,  and  the  condition  of 
other  princes  and  nations,  very  well,  but  was 
utterly  uilacquainted  with  the  government, 
laws,  and  customs  of  his  own  country,  and 
the  nature  of  the  people." 

DorcHester.  an  ancient  Boman  station, 
called  Dumovana,  or  Durinum,  was  a  place 
of  some  importance  under  the  Anglo-^axon 
kings,  and  was  made  the  seat  of  a  mint  by 
Athelstan.  The  remains  of  the  ancient 
Boman  fortifications  were  destroyed,  and  a 
Franciscan  prioiy  built  from  the  materials 
in  the  reign  of  i5dward  III.  ITie  towi^  was 
incorporated  in  the  same  reign,  and  returned 
two  members  to  Parliament  from  the  year 
1295  onwards. 

Dorclxester,  Cathbrdtb  Sedlbt,  Coxtn- 
TB8S  OF  (</.  1717),  was  the  daughter  of  Sir 
Charles  Sedloy,  and  mistress  of  «fames  II.,  by 
whom,  in  1686,  she  was  made  Countess  of 
Dorchester.  She  was  more  celebrated  for  her 
wit  and  vivacity  than  for  her  beauty ;  and  not- 
withstanding her  ridicule  of  the  Bomish  priests 
who  throng^  his  court,  seems  to  have  main- 
tained her  ascendency  over  James.  After  his 
exile  she  was  married  to  the  Earl  of  Fortmore. 
It  was  with  reference  to  her  disgrace,  and  to 
the  part  he  himself  took  in  the  Bevolution  of 
1688,  that  Sir  Charles  Sedley  said  of  James 
II. :  "  He  has  made  my  daughter  a  countess , 
I  will  nuJce  his  daughter  a  queen." 

DorislaiUL  Isaac  {d,  1649),  was  the  son 
of  a  minister  of  the  Dutch  Bef ormed  Churdi. 
He  was  appointed  Judge  Advocate  of  £s8ex*s 
army  on  accoimt  of  his  great  knowledge  of 
civil  law,  and  assisted  in  the  preparation  of  the 
charge  against  Charles  I.  In  May,  1649,  he 
was  sent  as  ambassador  from  the  Common- 
wealth to  Holland,  where  he  was  murdered  at 
the  Hague  by  some  servants  of  Montrose, 
headed  by  Colonel  Whitford  (May  12  or  16, 
1649).  He  was  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  but  exhumed  at  the  Bestoration. 

Peacock,  Army  ImU  of  Cavalier§  and  Sound. 
heada. 

Dorset.  Peekaob  of.  In  1397  John 
Beaufort,  Earl  of  Somerset,  eldest  son  of  , 


John  of  Graunt,  was  created  Marquit  of  Dortet, 
as  well  as  Marquis  of  Somerset ;  the  title  was 
continued  in  this  branch  of  the  Beaufort 
family  till  the  execution  and  forfeiture  of 
Henry,  Duke  of  Somerset,  1463.  In  1475, 
Thomas  Grey,  Jjord  Ferrers  of  Groby,  was 
created  Marquis  of  Dorset;  his  grandson, 
Henr}',  third  Marquis  of  Dorset,  and  Duke  of 
Suffolk,  was  attcunted  in  1554.  In  1603 
Thomas  Sackville,  Lord  Buckhurst,  was 
created  Earl  of  Dorset,  Lionel,  seventh  earl, 
was  created  Duke  of  Dorset  in  1720.  In  1843 
Charles,  the  fifth  duke,  died  unmarried,  and 
the  dukedom  became  extinct. 

Dorset,  Thomas  Gret,  Ist  Marquis  of 
{d.  1501),  was  a  son  of  Elizabeth  Woodville, 
the  subsequent  wife  of  Edward  IV.,  by 
her  first  husband.  Sir  John  Grey.  Sharing 
in  his  mother's  prosperity,  he  was  created 
Marquis  of  Dorset  in  1475,  and  escaped  the 
hostility  displayed  by  Gloucester  in  1483  to 
all  the  members  of  the  queen-dowager's 
family  by  taking  refuge  in  the  Sanctuary 
at  Westminster.  Escaping  thence  in  safety, 
he  joined  with  his  uncle.  Sir  Bichard  Wood- 
ville, in  an  attempt  to  seize  the  Tower  and 
raise  a  fleet ;  but  failure  drove  him  once  again 
to  concealment,  until  Buckingham's  rebellion 
afforded  him  another  opportunity  of  being  ac- 
tively hostile  to  Bichard  III.  This  movement 
likewise  failing,  he  forthwith  fled  over  the 
sea  to  make  one  of  the  powerful  party  of 
malcontents  supporting  the  Earl  of  Bichmond 
in  Britanny.  On  his  return  from  France, 
where  he  had  been  left  by  Henry  VII.  as 
security  for  the  French  king's  loan,  he  en- 
joyed the  royal  favour,  though  during  the 
Simnel  imposture  he  was  imprisoned  in  the 
Tower,  but  soon  released.  In  the  same  reig^ 
he  served  against  the  French  (1491);  four 
years  later  was  one  of  the  leaders  when  the 
rebels  were  vanquished  at  Blackheath. 

Dorset,  Henry  Grey,  Sed  Marquis 
OF  (d,  1564),  married  Frances,  daughter  of 
Charles  Brandon,  Duke  of  Suffolk,  and 
Itfary,  sister  of  Henry  VIII.  By  her  he 
became  the  father  of  Lady  Jane  Grey.  His 
weak  and  ambitious  chiuracter  caused  him 
to  lend  a  ready  ear  to  Northumberland's 
proposals  for  obtaining  an  alteration  of  the 
succession  in  favour  of  his  daughter.  When 
this  plot  failed,  Suffolk  was  pardoned  on  pay- 
ment of  a  fine,  but  in  the  following  year 
raised  a  rebellion  in  the  midland  counties,  in 
conjunction  with  that  of  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt 
(q.v.)  in  Kent.  His  few  troops  were  defeated 
near  Coventry  by  the  Earl  of  Huntingdon,  and 
the  duke,  having  taken  shelter  with  one  of  his 
retainers  named  Underwood,  was  by  him  be- 
traved  to  his  pursuers.  He  was  condemned, 
and  executed  Feb.  23,  1554,  a  few  days  after 
his  daughter,  Lady  Jane  Grey. 

Tytler,  Eng.  under  Bdvoard  VI.  and  Mary. 

Dorsetf  Thomas  Sackvillb,  Ist  Earl  of 
{b.  1536,  d.  1608),  was  the  soni  of  Sir  Bichaxd 


Do^ 


(381  ) 


Don 


Sackville.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  studied  at  the  Inner  Temple, 
fl^^d  served  in  various  diplomatic  employments 
on  the  Continent.  In  1567  he  was  created 
Lord  Buckhurst.  In  1587  he  was  ambassador 
to  the  United  Provinces,  and  succeeded 
Burleifi^h  as  Lord  Treasurer.  La  1604  he  was 
created  Earl  of  Dorset.  He  was  the  joint 
author  with  Thomas  Norton  of  the  tragedy 
of  Gorbodtte  (1561),  the  earliest  blank-verse 
drama  in  our  language. 

Dorset,  Chables  Sackville,  6th  Earl 
OF  {b.  1637,  d.  1706),  sat  for  East  Grinstead 
as  Lord  Buckhurst  in  1660,  but  declined  all 
public  employment.  In  1675  he  became 
Gentleman  of  the  Bedchamber,  and  next  year 
succeeded  to  his  father's  title.  In  the  reign 
of  James  11.  he  was  dismissed  from  the  lord- 
lieutcmancy  of  Sussex.  He  entered  into  com- 
munication with  the  Prince  of  Orange,  and  on 
the  landing  of  William,  assisted  the  Princess 
Anne  in  her  flight  from  Westminster.  He 
became  Lord  Chamberlain,  and  employed  his 
patronage  in  helping  genius  and  misfortune. 
On  the  departure  of  William  for  Ireland,  he 
was  apxwinted  in  Mary's  Council  of  Nine.  In 
1691  he  accompanied  William  to  Holland. 
He  was  declared  by  Preston,  on  the  detection 
of  his  plot,  to  be  in  communication  with  the 
Jacobite  court  of  St.  Germains.  The  accusa- 
tion was  probably  untrue,  although  Dorset 
was  no  doubt  angry  at  William's  leanings  to- 
wards the  Tories.  Dorset  is  better  known  as 
the  patron  of  Prior,  Dryden,  Oongreve,  and 
Addison,  than  as  a  politician.  Macaiday  thinks 
that  "had  he  been  driven  by  necessity  to  exert 
himself,  he  would  probably  have  risen  to  the 
highest  posts  in  the  Stafe." 

Johnson,  IAf€  of  Dortri;  Maoanlay,  Htti.  of 
England. 

Dost  Vahomed  {d.  1863)  was  the  brother 
of  Futteh  Khan,  the  vizier  of  ]^£ahmood  Shah 
in  Afghanistan.  In  conjunction  with  his 
brothers,  he  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  Cabul 
on  the  expulsion  of  Mahmood,  brother  of 
Shah  Soojah.  In  1834  Dost  Mahomed  suc- 
cessfully quelled  the  attempt  of  Shah  Soojah 
to  recover  Afghanistan,  but  during  this  war 
he  lost  the  province  of  Peshawur  definitely  to 
Runjeet  Singh.  In  1836  the  Dost  made  over- 
tures to  Lord  Auckland  for  arbitration,  and  on 
his  refusal  appealed  to  the  King  of  Persia. 
In  1837  he  sent  an  expedition  to  Peshawur, 
and  at  Jumrood  won  a  fruitless  victory.  In 
1838  overtm'es  for  an  alliance  were  made  to 
Dost  Mahomed,  and  an  embassy  sent  to  Cabul 
under  Captain  Bumes.  Dost  Mahomed  de- 
clared his  willingness  to  dismiss  the  Russian 
and  Persian  envoys,  provided  the  English 
would  assist  him  to  recover  Peshawur.  This 
the  Govemor-G(eneral  refused,  and  Dost 
Mahomed  therefore  turned  to  Persia  and 
Russia,  and  the  latter  power  guaranteed  the 
defence  of  Candahar.  Thereupon  the  English 
detennined  to  depose  him,  and  to  attain  this 


object,  the  Afghan  expedition  of  1839  was 
despatched.  Deserted  by  Persia,  with  a 
British  army  advancing  on  Cabul,  Dost 
Mahomed  fled  with  a  handful  of  followers  to 
the  Hindoo  Koosh.  After  being  kindly  re- 
ceived by  the  chief  of  Khooloom,  he  passed 
on  to  Bokhara,  where  he  was  detained  by  the 
Ameer;  but  on  effecting  his  escape,  he  re- 
turned to  Khooloom,  gathered  an  army  of 
Oosbegs,  and  crossing  the  Hindoo  Koosh, 
proclaimed  a  religious  war.  He  was  defeated, 
however,  September  18th,  by  Brigadier 
Dennie.  After  another  attempt  to  raise  the 
countn''  against  the  English,  he  surrendered 
to  Sir  William  Macnaughten,  and  was  brought 
to  Calcutta.  He  was  released  in  1842.  In 
the  second  Sikh  War  he  made  common 
cause  with  the  Sikhs,  and  captured  Peshawur, 
from  which,  however,  he  was  shortly  after 
driven  out.  In  1856 — 7  an  English  anny  was 
despatched  to  aid  him  against  the  Shah  of 
Persia,  who  had  seized  Herat.  Before  lio  died, 
he  had  succeeded  to  some  extent,  at  least,  in 
uniting  the  Afghan  power.  On  his  death, 
which  occurred  in  1863,  the  country  was 
divided  between  the  partisans  of  his  eldest 
son,  and  the  younger  one,  Shere  Ali,  to  whom 
Dost  Mahomed  had  bequeathed  his  throne. 
[Ajpohan  Waks.] 

Doughtyi  Thomas,  was  Drake's  second  in 
command  in  the  famous  voyage  of  1577.  He 
was  appointed  captain  of  a  Portuguese  vesisel 
captured  near  Santiago.  Soon  after  quitting 
the  Plate  River,  Doughty  deserted  -v^-ith  his 
men,  but  was  soon  overtaken,  and  his  crew 
transferred  to  Drake's  own  ship,  the  Pelican, 
On  the  Patagonian  coast  the  adventurers  came 
upon  a  gibbet,  on  which,  more  than  fifty  years 
before,  Magellan  had  hanged  his  mutineers ; 
and  this  spot  was  now  put  into  fresh  service 
for  the  execution  of  Doughty.  A  court- 
martial  was  extemporised.;  Doughtv  was  found 
guilty,  and  beheaded,  after  first  emljraeing  tlie 
admiral  and  partaking  of  the  holy  com- 
munion. A  story  of  the  time  makes  Drake 
to  have  been  the  executioner  in  pei-son. 

Douglas  Ca4rtle  (in  Lanarkshire),  during 
the  wars  of  Scotland  with  Edward  I.,  obtained 
the  name  of  the  "  Perilous  Castle  of  Douglas," 
from  the  difficulty  of  holding  it  against  the 
Scots.  It  was  three  times  re-captured  from 
the  English  by  Sir  James  Douglas,  and 
its  garrison  destroyed.  About  the  year  1451 
it  was  demolished  by  James  II. 's  orders,  while 
the  earl  was  absent  in  Home.  It  ^tis,  how- 
ever, rebuilt,  and  was  in  1639  garrisoned  by 
the  Covenanters. 

DonglaSy  The  Family  of,  is  supposed  to 
be  of  Flemish  origin.  The  first  member  of 
the  family  known  to  history  is  Sir  William 
Douglas,  the  friend  and  supporter  of  Wallace. 
The  vast  possessions  of  the  Douglas  family  in 
the  south  of  Scotland  rendered  them  for- 
midable antagonists  to  the  ro^'ul  power,  and 
the  fact  that  Archibald  Douglas  married  a 


Don 


(  382  ) 


3>oii 


daughter  of  Bailors  sister,  while  the  Stuarts 
were  only  descended  from  a  younger  daughter 
of  David  of  Huntingdon,  made  it  at  one 
time  by  no  means  impossible  that  a  Douglas 
would  succeed  in  driving  the  Stuarts  from 
the  throne.  Besides  their  estates  in  Soot- 
land,  the  Douglases  had  at  one  time  ex- 
tensive lands  in  England,  just  as  the  Percies 
had  similar  claims  in  Scotland.  These  claims 
were  to  have  been  satisfied  for  both  families 
accoi*ding  to  the  Treaty  of  Northampton ;  and 
it  has  been  remarked  that  a  slight  difference 
in  the  distribution  of  the  estates  of  either 
family  would  have  "  inverted  their  position, 
and  made  the  Percies  national  to  Scotland, 
the  Douglases  to  England**' 

Donsrlafl,  The  Peerage  of,  dates  from 
8u*  William  Douglas,  who  was  created  Earl 
of  Douglas  in  1357.  The  earldom  came 
to  an  end  in  1455  with  the  attainder 
of  James,  ninth  earl,  after  the  battle  of 
Arkenholm  and  the  unsuccessful  Douglas 
rebellion.  The  Fetrage  of  Angus  had  been 
conferred  on  George,  illegitimate  son  of  the 
first  Earl  of  Douglas,  in  1389.  In  the 
Douglas  rebellion  the  Angiises  adhered  to  the 
crown,  and  got  a  large  portion  of  their 
relatives'  estates.  In  1633  William,  eleventh 
Earl  of  Angus,  was  created  Marquis  of 
Doiiglas.  In  1703  Archibald,  third  marquis, 
was  created  Duke  of  Douglas.  The  dukedom 
of  Douglas  became  extinct  with  him  in  1761. 
The  estates  of  the  Douglas  family  were  the 
subject  of  a  protracted  law-suit,  known  as  the 
Douglas  Cause,  between  the  Duke  of  Hamilton 
and  Archibald  Stewart,  nephew  of  the  Duke 
of  Douglas,  who  obtained  the  estates  by  a 
judgment  of  the  House  of  Lords  in  1771,  and 
was  created  Baron  Douglas  in  1790.  The 
peerage  became  extinct  in  1857.  The  mar- 
quisate  of  Douglas  and  earldom  of  Angus 
passed  to  James,  seventh  Duke  of  Hamilton, 
on  the  death  of  Archibald,  Duke  of  Douglas, 
in  1761,  who  was  descended,  by  a  second 
marriage,  from  William,  first  Marquis  of 
Douglas  (d.  1633.)     [Hamilton.] 

DoxtglaM,  William,  1st  Earl  of,  was 
the  son  of  Sir  Archibald  Douglas.  On 
his  return  from  France,  where  he  had  been 
educated,  in  1346,  his  first  exploit  was  to 
drive  the  English  out  of  Douglasdale  and 
Teviotdale.  He  was  the  godson  of  Sir 
William  Douglas,  the  Knight  of  Liddesdale 
(q.v.),  whom  he  murdered  in  Ettrick  Forest 
(1353)  in  revenge.  In  1356  he  was  present 
at  the  battle  of  Poictiers;  and  in  1357  was 
created  Earl  of  Douglas.  On  the  death  of 
David  II.  he  is  said  to  have  intended  to 
have  disputed  the  succession  of  the  house  of 
Stuai-t,  but  was  bought  off  by  an  alliance 
between  his  son  and  lilargaret,  daughter  of 
Robert  II. 

Douglas,  James,  2nd  Eabl  of  {d,  1388), 
the  son  of  William,  Earl  of  Douglas,  married 


Margaret,  daughter  of  Kobert  II.  He  suc- 
ceeded to  the  title  in  1384.  He  was  renowned 
for  his  bravery  and  skilful  generalship.  In 
1385  he  took  part  in  a  raid  upon  England  in 
conjunction  with  a  body  of  French  troops 
under  John  of  Vienne.  In  1388  he  penetrated 
as  far  as  the  gates  of  York,  and  was  carrying 
away  Henry  Percy's  (Hotspur)  pennon  to 
Scotland,  when  he  was  met  by  the  Percies  at 
Otterbum.  This  battle  resulted  in  the  defeat 
of  the  Ensplish,  who  fled  from  the  field,  leaving 
their  leader,  Hotspur,  in  the  hands  of  the 
enemy ;  but  it  was  dearly  purchased  by  the 
Scots  with  the  death  of  the  Earl  of  Douglas. 

J}QXLglMMf  Archibald,  4th  Eabl  of  [d, 
1424),  was  the  son  of  Archibald,  third  Earl  of 
Douglas.  In  1400  his  ambition  procured  the 
man^age  of  his  sister  Marjory  with  the  Duke 
of  Rothesay  (q.v.),  the  heir  to  the  Scottish 
crown,  and  he  is  said  to  have  been  privy  to 
the  murder  of  that  young  prince  in  1402,  In 
the  September  of  the  same  year  he  headed  an 
army  collected  for  the  invasion  of  England, 
but  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  at  the 
battle  of  Homildon  HilL  On  his  release, 
he  joined  Percy,  in  whose  cause  he  was  again 
defeated  and  taken  prisoner  at  Shrewsbury 
(q.v.),  1403.  In  1421  he  crossed  over  to  France 
to  fight  against  the  English  in  that  country. 
There  he  was  created  Duke  of  Touraine,  and 
falling  in  the  battle  of  Yemeuil,  was  buried 
at  Tours. 


Douglas,  William,  6th  Eabl  of 
1440),  and  third  Duke  of  Touraine,  was 
the  son  of  Archibald,  fifth  Earl  of  Douglas, 
who  died  1439.  On  succeeding  to  the  earl- 
dom, he  incurred  the  enmity  of  Sir  W^illiam 
Crichton,  who  invited  him  to  pay  a  visit  to  the 
young  king,  James  IL,  at  Edinburgh  Cketle, 
and  there,  after  some  form  of  trial,  had  him 
beheaded,  along  with  his  brother  Da^d  (1440). 
The  young  earl  was  but  some  eighteen  years 
old  at  the  time  of  his  death. 

Douglas,  William,  8th  Earl  of  {d, 
1452),  succeeded  to  the  estates  on  the  death 
of  his  father,  James  the  Gross  (1443). 
He^was  a  man  of  turbulent  spirit  and  vast 
power,  possessing  a  large  part  of  southern 
Scotland.  Having  been  appointed  Lieutenant- 
Governor  by  James  II.,  he  rapidly  concen- 
trated his  power  by  entering  into  alliances 
with  the  Earls  of  Crawford  and  Boss  and 
other  great  nobles,  and  by  setting  on  foot 
intrigues  with  foreign  powers  and  'with  the 
English,  whom  he  had  defeated  on  the 
boniei's.  In  1450  he  passed  in  state  across 
the  seas  to  spend  the  Jubilee  in  Borne.  He 
speedily  lost  the  king's  favour,  and  was 
deprived  of  his  office :  a  judgment  for  which, 
however,  he  retaliated  by  various  acts  of 
defiance  of  the  royal  authority.  He  ravaged 
the  lands  of  many  of  the  king's  more  imme- 
diate friends,  even  daring  to  put  to  death  Sir 
John  Hemes,  and  assumed  the  position  of 
an  independent  prinoo^     In  1462  James  IL 


Don 


(  383  ) 


Don 


sammoned  him  to  an  interview  at  Stirling, 
during  which  the  kinff,  enraged  at  his  insolence, 
stabbed  him  in  the  wroat,  whereupon  he  was 
quickly  despatched  by  Sir  Patrick  Gray. 
He  married  his  cousin,  Margaret  Douglas,  the 
**  Fair  Maid  of  Galloway,"  and  so  re-united  the 
poesessions  of  the  house  of  Douglas. 
Pitsoottie,  CkronteZ*. 

DonfflaA,  James,  9th  Earl  op  {d.  1488), 
was  theorother  of  William,  Earl  of  Douglas 
(stabbed  by  James  II.  of  Scotland),  whom  he 
succeeded  as  head  of  the  family,  Feb.,  14d2. 
Almost  his  first  act  was  to  nail  a  defiance  of 
the  king  to  the  walls  of  the  Parliament  House, 
charging  hun  with  murder  and  perjury.  He 
then  declared  war  against  James,  for  which 
act  his  lands  were  subsequently  declared  for- 
feited to  the  crown  by  an  Act  passed  in  1464. 
But  before  long  the  Angus  branch  of  his  own 
family  sided  with  the  king,  and  in  1455  the 
Earl  of  Douglas  was  defeated  at  Arkenholm, 
two  of  his  brothers  perishing  in  the  battle. 
James  Douglas  was  compelled  to  seek  refuge 
in  England,  where  he  remained  until  he  was 
taken  prisoner  in  a  border  foray,  1484,  and 
was  soon  after  confined  in  the  monastery  of 
lindores,  where  he  died  in  1488,  the  last  of  his 
line.  * 

Doni^laAf  Sib  Abchibald  {d.  1333),  was 
the  youngest  brother  of  the  famous  Lord 
James  Douglas,  and  a  warm  adherent  of 
David  II.  In  1362,  hai-ing  defeated  Edward 
Baliol  at  Annan,  he  made  a  successful  raid  into 
Cumberland.  On  the  capture  of  Sir  Andrew 
Murray  (1333),  Douglas  was  chosen  Begent 
of  Scotland ;  but  in  the  same  year  he  was  de- 
feated and  taken  prisoner  at  Halidon  Hill, 
and  shortly  afterwards  died  of  his  wounds. 

Don^laSy  Sm  George  {d.  1647^,  was  a 
brother  of  Archibald,  sixth  Earl  of  Angus. 
Having  given  ofEence  to  James  V.  of 
Scotland,  he  was  banished  to  England  along 
with  his  brother  (1528).  Some  years  later  he 
took  part  (1532)  in  a  raid  on  Scotland,  to 
which  country  he  did  not  return  until  the  death 
of  James  V.,  1542,  when  his  forfeiture  was 
rescinded.  He  was  one  of  the  Assured  Lords 
(q.v.),  and  was  urgent  in  promoting  the  mar- 
riage of  Mary  with  Edward,  but  did  not  do 
much  real  service  to  Henrj'  VIII.,  except  by 
^ving  good  adxace  to  lus  ambassador.  Sir 
Kalph  &dler.  He  perished  at  the  battle  of 
Pinkie  (1547). 

Donfflas.  James,  Lord  {d.  1330),  called 
"The  Good,''  ^-as  the  son  of  Sir  William 
Doughui,  the  friend  of  Wallace.  l^Iany  stories, 
more  or  less  incredible,  are  told  of  him, 
as  of  most  of  the  other  patriots  who  were 
fighting  for  Scotland  at  this  time.  He  was  an 
able  and  gallant  partisan  of  Robert  Bruce, 
his  first  exploit  in  the  king's  cause  being  the 
capture  of  the  castle  of  Douglas  from  the 
English  in  1306,  and  the  massacre  of  its 
garrison.    He  was  in  command  of  one  of  the 


divisions  of  the  Scottish  arm}''  at  Bannock- 
bum  in  1314,  and  in  the  same  year  harried 
Northumberland  in  conjunction  with  Edward 
Bruce.  On  the  departure  of  Eobcrt  Bruce  for 
Ireland,  in  1316,  the  charge  of  the  kingdom 
was  committed  to  Douglais,  who  managed  to 
defeat  all  attempts  at  invasion  on  the  part  of 
the  English  nobles.  In  1319  he  invaded 
England  to  create  a  diversion  in  favour  of  the 
beleaguered  castle  of  Berwick,  and  won  a 
complete  victory  at  Milton,  in  Yorkshire.  In 
1327,  whilst  on  a  similar  expedition,  he  sur- 
prised the  English  camp  by  night  at  Stanhope 
Park,  in  Durham,  cutting,  it  is  said,  the  very 
ropes  of  King  Edward's  tent.  Later  on,  he 
was  one  of  the  Scotch  commissioners  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  Treaty  of  Northampton. 
After  the  death  of  Bruce  (1329),  Douglas  set 
out  on  an  expedition  to  Palestine  for  the 
purpose  of  convepng  the  king's  heart  to 
Jerusalem,  but  being  diverted  tram  his 
original  enterprise,  was  slain  in  battle  with 
the  Moors  in  Andalusia,  1330.  His  body  was 
brought  back  to  Scotland,  and  buried  at 
Douglas. 

Dalrrmple,  AtmoU  of  Scotland}  Burton,  Hiot, 
of  SeoUand, 


DouglaSp  Sir  William    {d.   1353), 
Knight  of  Liddesdale,  was   taken    pri» 


the 
prisoner 
(1332)  by  Sir  Antony  de  Lucy  in  a  raid  into 
Scotland,  and  by  order  of  Edward  III.  was 
put  in  irons.  On  his  release,  he  did  good 
service  against  the  English,  whom  he  ex- 
pelled from  Teviotdale  (1338).  In  1342  he 
took  Alexander  Bamsay  prisoner  owing  to 
a  private  feud,  and  starved  him  to  death  in 
his  castle  of  Hermitage ;  but  this  crime  was 
pardoned  by  David  II.,  who  even  made  its 
perpetrator  Governor  of  Roxburgh  Castle. 
Douglas  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of 
Neville's  Cross,  and  while  in  captirity, 
entered  into  treasonable  negotiations  with 
^Edward  III.  He  was  assassinated  in  1353, 
'whilst  hunting  in  Ettrick  Forest,  by  his  god- 
son, William,  Lord  Douglas. 

DahTinple,  AnnaU  of  Scotland. 

DoiiglajiBebellion,THE(i45i).  When 

William,  the  eighth  Earl  of  Douglas,  returned 
from  Rome  in  1451,  he  found  the  king's 
movements  directed  by  Crichton,  and 
unable  to  brook  a  sense  of  inferiority,  he  per- 
suaded his  own  dependants  and  the  Earls  of 
Crawford  and  Ross  to  enter  into  a  con- 
federacy with  him.  In  February,  1452,  he 
was  murdered  by  James's  own  hand,  leaving 
his  title  and  estates  to  his  brother  James,  who 
at  once  took  up  arms  to  avenge  his  relative's 
&te.  Though  reconciled  to  the  king  for  a 
time,  he  soon  grew  restless,  and  entered  into 
treasonable  communications  with  the  Duke  of 
York,  and  even  sent  a  letter  of  defiance  to 
James,  who  soon  drove  him  to  the  border8,where, 
however,  the  rebellious  nobleman  gathered 
a  force  of  40,000  men,  and  was  forced  to 
retreat  to  Fife.    At  Arkenholm  the  two  armies 


Dov 


(  384) 


met,  but  the  power  of  Douglas  was  thinned 
by  the  desertion  of  his  kinsman,  the  Earl  of 
Angus,  and  the  defection  of  the  Hamiltons. 
Abandoned  by  almost  all  his  followers,  the 
Earl  James  fled  to  Annandale,  and  thence  to 
England.  His  estatos  were  declared  for- 
feited by  the  Scotch  Parliament,  and  in  1484 
the  earl  himself  was  taken  piisoner  while  in- 
vading his  native  land,  and  condemned  to 
lead  a  monastic  life  till  his  death  (1488). 

Dover,  called  by  the  Komans  Dubris,  was 
a  place  of  considerable  importance  in  the 
early  history  of  England.  It  was  one  of  the 
Cinque  Ports,  and  a  very  usual  port  for  em- 
barkation to  the  Continent.  It  was  hero  that 
Eustace,  Count  of  Boulogne,  committed  the 
outrage  which  led  to  the  bajiishment  of  Godwin 
(1051).  At  this  time  the  town  held  its  pri- 
vileges by  suppl^-ing  the  crown  with  twenty 
ships  for  fifteen  days.  Hai'old  founded  a 
castle  here.  After  the  battle  of  Hastings  the 
town  was  burnt  by  William's  troops,  and  a 
few  years  later  Eustace  of  Boulogne  attempted 
to  seize  it  by  force  during  Willmm's  absence 
abroad  (1067).  It  was  taken  by  the  French 
in  1296 ;  in  1520  it  was  the  scene  of  Henry 
VIII.'s  interview  with  Charles  V.,  and  in 
1670,  of  the  negotiations  which  led  to  the 
Treaty  of  Dover.     [Cinuue  Ports.] 

Dover,  Thb  Treaty  of  (1670),  was  con- 
cluded between  Charles  II.  and  Louis  XIV., 
chiefly  through  the  iitstrumentalityof  Charles's 
sister,  the  D  uchess  of  Orleans.  By  this  ti*eaty : 
— (1)  England  and  France  were  to  declare  war 
against  Holland ;  and  England  was  to  receive 
the  province  of  Zeeland  in  ease  of  success. 
(2)  The  Prince  of  Orange  was,  if  possible,  to 
receive  an  indemnity.  (3)  Charles  was  to  assist 
Louis  to  make  good  his  claim  on  the  Spanish 
succession,  and  to  receive  as  his  reward  Ostend, 
together  with  any  conquests  he  might  make 
in  South  America.  (4)  Charles  was  to  receive 
a  subsidy  of  £300,000  a  year  from  Louis. 
These  four  clauses  comprised  the  whole  of  the 
pubUc  treaty,  which  was  signed  by  Shaftes- 
bury and  the  other  ministers,  but  there  were 
secret  clauses  known  only  to  Clifford,  Arling- 
ton, and  Ainindol,  by  which  Charles  was  to  re- 
establish Roman  Catholicism ;  while  to  enable 
him  to  crush  any  opposition  in  carrj'ing  out 
this  scheme,  Loms  was  to  give  him  £200,000 
a  year  and  6,000  French  troops. 

Babke,  Hist.  ofEng, ;  MacauUy,  EUt.  of  Bng. 

Downing,  Georob  (</.  1684  ?),  was  member 
for  Carlisle  in  1657.  It  was  he  who  seems  to 
have  first  suggested  that  the  *'  Instrument  of 
Government "  should  be  abolished,  and  a  new 
constitution,  which  aimed  at  reproducing  the 
old  constitution  under  a  dynasty  of  CromweL's, 
substituted  for  it.  After  the  Restoration,  he 
was  ESnglish  ambassador  at  the  Hague,  and 
in  1664  was  strongly  in  favour  of  making 
reprisals  on  the  Dutch,  a  course  of  conduct 
which  was  adopted,  though  not  in  the  king's 
name.   A  year  later  he  proposed  in  the  House 


of  Commons  that  the  method  of  contracting 
government  loans  through  the  goldsmiths 
should  be  abolished,  and  that  the  IVeasury 
should  constitute  itself  a  bank;  and  when 
his  plan  was  adopted,  he  received  a  subordinate 
part  in  that  department  of  State.  In  1672  he 
was  again  ambassador  in  Holland,  and  in  1678 
had  once  more  to  defend  his  financial  schemes 
in  the  House,  but  this  time  without  effect. 

Downs,  The  Battle  of  the  (1666),  was 
fought  between  the  English  fleet,  commanded 
by  the  Duke  of  Albemarle,  and  the  Dutch, 
under  De  Ruyter,  De  AVitt,  and  Van  Tromp. 
The  battle  lasted  for  several  days,  com- 
mencing on  the  1st  of  June.  On  the  3rd, 
Albemarle  retired,  after  setting  fire  to  bis 
disabled  ships,  and  late  in  the  evening  was 
joined  by  his  colleague.  Prince  Rupeit. 
The  battle  was  one  of  the  most  obstinate  and 
bloody  of  all  the  indecisive  battles  fought 
between  the  Dutch  and  the  English  in  the 
seventeenth  century. 

D'Oyloy,  CoLoxEL,  the  president  of  the 
first  military  council  in  Jamaica*  (1656),  suc- 
ceeded Major  Sedgewicke  as  governor,  and  by 
his  severe  measures  comix>llcd  the  disbanded 
soldiers  to  colonise  the  idand  for  England,  in 
accordance  with  the  wishes  of  Cromwell. 

Drako,  Sir  Francis  {b.  1545,  d.  1596),  was 
bom  at  Tavistock,  in  Devonshire.  Earl^ 
inured  to  a  sea  life,  he  accompanied  his 
relative.  Sir  John  Hawkins,  to  the  Spanish 
main,  and  subsequently,  in  1 570;  undertook  a 
voyage  on  his  own  accoimt  to  the  West  Indies. 
In  1572  he  sailed  ^-ith  two  vessels  to  make 
reprisals  upon  the  Spaniards  for  the  previous 
losses  he  had  sustained  at  their  hands,  and 
made  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  Nombre  de 
Dies.  On  his  return  to  England,  Di'ako  wus 
at  first  employed  by  Elizabeth  in  Ireland; 
but  in  1577  sailed,  with  her  sanction,  on 
another  expedition.  He  plundered  all  the 
Spanish  towns  on  the  coasts  of  ChUi  and 
Peru,  captured  immense  booty,  and  finally 
crossing  the  Pacific  Ocean,  returned  to 
England  round  the  Cape,  thus  circumna\d- 
gating  the  globe.  On  arriving  in  England, 
he  was  knighted  by  the  queen,  in  re- 
cognition of  his  daring  (1580).  Five  years 
later.  Sir  Francis  was  sent  with  a  fioet  to  the 
West  Indies,  where  he  captured  the  cities  of 
St.  lago,  St.  Domingo,  and  Carthagena.  In 
1587,  during  the  preparations  for  the  Spanish 
Armada,  he  commanded  a  fleet  which  did 
much  damage  in  the  port  of  Cadiz,  where  ho 
is  said  to  have  burnt  10,000  tons  of  shipping, 
an  operation  which  he  styled  **  singeing  the 
King  of  Spain's  beard."  He  then  captured 
an  immense  treasure-ship  off  the  Azores,  and 
returned  home  in  time  to  take  a  very  active  part 
in  the  defeat  of  the  Armada,  as  vice-admiral 
of  the  fleet.  In  1595,  in  conjunction  with 
Sir  John  Hawkins,  Drake  sailea  on  an  expe- 
dition to  the  West  Indies,  but  nothing  effectual 
was  done ;  and  Sir  Frands  died  on  board  his 


Drft 


(  386  ) 


Bm 


own  ship  off  Porto  Bello,  Jan.  28,  1596,  and 

was  buried  in  mid-ocean. 

8oath6j»  LivM  o/  the  AdmiroJIt;  Pnrchas, 
Ptl^nnu;  Barrow,  Naval  Worthie*;  Froude, 
&i$L<tf  Mng, 

Drapier's  l^ettem  (1724)  is  the  name 
of  a  pamphlet  written  by  8wift  against  the 
new  copper  coinage  which  the  government 
were  attempting  to  introduce  into  Ireland, 
and  the  monopoly  for  coining  which  had 
been  granted  to  a  person  named  Wood.  They 
profess  to  be  the  production  of  a  certain 
M.  B.,  a  drapier,  or  draper,  of  Dublin,  and  he, 
writing  as  an  ignorant,  unskilled  shopman, 
gives  utterance  to  his  own  apprehensions  of 
ruin.  While  professing  extreme  lo}'alty  to  the 
langy  the  honest  shopman  shows,  or  attempts 
to  uiow,  that  the  patent  was  unjust,  to  begin 
with ;  that  its  teiins  had  been  infringed,  and 
that  the  new  coins  tliemselves  were  base.  In 
this  publication  Swift  hit  the  public  taste  of 
Ireland,  and  became  unrivalled  in  popularity. 
So  great  was  the  impression  producoa  by  this 
work,  that  the  patent  had  to  be  withorawn 
from  Mr.  Wood,  who  was,  however,  compen- 
sated by  a  pension  of  £3,000  a  year. 

DrOffHada  is  noted  in  history  as  being  the 
place  wnere  the  Papal  legate  rapera  held  a 
synod  in  1 152,  on  wluch  occasion  the  authority 
c<  the  Roman  Church  was  greatly  strengthened 
in  Ireland.  It  was  at  this  town  that  Pojoiings' 
Act  was  passed  in  1494,  and  about  the  same 
time  a  mint  was  established  there.  In  Decem- 
ber, 1641,  Drogheda  was  besieged  by  O'Keil 
with  a  large  force  of  Irish,  but  was  for 
three  montna  successfully  defended  by  Sir 
Henry  Tichbome.  On  Sept.  3,  1649,  Crom- 
well appeared  before  the  town,  which  had 
been  garrisoned  by  Ormonde  with  his  best 
regiments,  most  of  them  English,  alto- 
gether 2,500  men,  commanded  by  Sir  Arthui* 
Aston,  an  officer  of  great  reputation.  On 
the  9th  the  liombardment  began;  a  storm 
attempted  by  the  Puritans  on  the  10th  failed, 
and  the  garrison  refused  to  surrender.  On 
the  12th  tne  storming  of  the  place  was  again 
attempted,  and  succeeded,  after  a  desperate 
struggle.  The  whole  garrison  was  put  to 
the  sword,  and  Sir  Arthur  himself  had  his 
brains  beaten  out.  Ci-omwell  admits  "that 
the  officers  w^ere  also  knocked  promiscuously 
on  the  head  except  two."  Altogether,  it 
seems  that  about  4,000  people  perished,  about 
half  of  whom  must  have  been  unarmed — ^so,  at 
least,  it  would  api)«ir  from  the  depositions  of 
eye- witnesses.  In  1 690  Drogheda  surrendered 
to  William  III.,  diiectly  after  the  battle  of 
the  IfejTic. 

Cromwell's  LtttevB ;  Carte,  Life  of  Ormonde ; 
Fronde,  £119.  tu  Ireland, 


d'Aubaine  is  an  old  rule  by 
^hich  the  property  of  a  decoitstHi  foreigner  was 
claimed  by  the  State  unless  the  defunct  man 
had  a  special  exemption.  This  rule  was  aot 
peculiar  to  England,  but  common  to  other 
Hist.- 13 


countries.  The  derivation  of  the  word 
"aubaine"  haa  been  variously  explained  aa 
from  alibinatuSf  or  advMta. 

Droits  of  Admiralty  are  the  rights 

claimed  by   the  government  of  England  on 

the  property  of  an  enemy  in  time  of  war. 

It  has  been  customary  in  maritime  war  to 

seize  the  property  of  an  enemy  if    found 

within  our  ports  on  the  outbreak  of  hostilities, 

and  this  is  then  considered  as  forming  part 

of  the  Droits  of  Admiralty.    Prizes  captured 

by  non-commissioned  vessels  are  also  said  to 

be  subject  to  the  same  conditions.    In  the 

Revolutionar>''  and    Napoleonic    wars    large 

sums  were  obtained  by  the  enforcement  of 

these  regulations,  but  for  the  most  part  the 

money  so  gained  was  devoted  to  the  public 

service.    By  an  Act  of  William  IV. 's  reign 

the  Droits  of  Admiralty  for  that  reign  were 

to  be  put  to  public  use,  and  the  Lord  High 

Admiral  is  no  longer  in  possession  of  boa 

claim  to  the  tenth  part  of  property  captured 

on  the  seas. 

Kent,  Commentaries ;  Bonner,  Law  Dictionary  ; 
Barrel!,  Law  Dictionary. 

DrilidJiyTHB,  were  the  priests  of  the  Celtic, 
people  in  Britain.  Our  chief,  and  it  may 
almost  be  said  our  only,  information  touching 
the  Druids  comes  from  Caesar.  He  tells  us  that 
there  were  in  Gaul  only  two  classes  who 
obtained  any  consideration,  the  common  people 
being  in  a  condition  little  above  slavery. 
These  two  claases  were  the  noble  order, 
Equites,  as  Ciesar  calls  them,  and  the  priestly 
order,  the  Druids.  The  last  presided  over 
all  the  reli^ous  functions.  They  had  the 
care  of  public  and  private  sacrifices,  and  they 
interpreted  the  religious  mytholog^\  To 
thom  the  youth  flocked  in  crowds  for  instruc- 
tion. They  were  too,  we  find,  the  judges  in 
all  cases,  both  criminal  and  civij,  settling 
questions  of  disputed  boundaries  or  aifairs  of 
inheritance,  as  well  as  those  connected  with 
infractions  of  the  law.  If  any  one  refused  to 
abide  by  their  decision,  they  could  inflict  on 
him  the  penalty  of  excommunication  or  inter* 
diction  nom  the  sacrifices,  which  deprived 
him  of  all  his  civil  rites,  and  cut  him  oft'  from 
all  commerce  with  his  fellow-men.  At  their 
head  was  one  chief  Druid,  who  succeeded  by 
election.  Generally,  the  claim  of  one  person 
to  succeed  to  the  vacant  post  was  universally 
recognised ;  sometimes,  however,  disputed 
claims  led  to  bloodshed.  Once  a  year  all  the 
people  who  had  any  cause  for  hearing 
assembled  in  the  most  central  part  of  Gaul, 
the  country  of  the  Ermites  (Chartres),  and 
were  judged  by  the  Druids :  much,  one  may 
fancy,  as  the  Israelites  were  judged  by  their 

i'udges.    As  has  been  already  said  [Celts], 
Britain  was  considered  the  esiwcial  nurserj' 
of  Druidism. 

Csesar  tells  us,  as  a  distinction,  that  the 
Germans  hud  no  Druids.  But  if  by  this  were 
meant  that  the  Germans  had  no  sacerdotal 


Bra 


(  386  ) 


Dry 


dafls,  the  statement  certainly  requires  modi- 
fication. The  Germans,  like  most  of  the 
Aryan  races  after  their  earliest  days,  had 
a  class  of  priests  who  stood  side  by  side  with 
their  kiogs  or  chiefs.  The  Celtic  Druids 
were,  we  may  feel  sure,  a  sacerdotal  class,  of 
the  same  kind  as  that  which  was  found  among 
their  kindred  nationalities:  that  is  to  say, 
their  essential  function  was  to  stand  foremost 
in  the  sacrifices,  aud  to  preserve  by  oral 
tradition  the  mythic  histories,  whether  of 
gods  or  hei*oes,  which  had  been  composed  in 
verse,  as  well  as  to  compose  fresh  forms  when 
required.  They  were  both  priests  and  bards : 
gleemen,  as  the  Saxons  said,  or,  as  the  Norse- 
men would  have  said,  scalds.  This  was  their 
^'ssential  character.  It  was  in  degree  chiefly 
that  their  functions  differed  from  those  of  the 
priests  of,  say,  the  heathen  Saxons.  The  Celts 
were  undoubtedly,  as  Ciesar  describes  them,  a 
very  religious  people,  and  being  such,  they 
had  raised  their  priesthood  to  a  position  of 
exceptional  power,  and  from  this  exceptional 
position  arose  their  functions  as  judges. 
We  easily  gather  this  much  from  UsBsar's 
account  of  the  Druids;  for  we  see  that  the 
■enforcement  of  their  decrees  was  not 
secured  by  ordinary  legal,  but  by  distinctly 
religious,  penalties:  they  forbade  men  the 
^sacrifices.  If  the  people  had  not  been  ex- 
ceptionally religious,  this  penalty  would  not 
have  carried  with  it  such  exceptional  terrors. 
Too  much  has  been  made  of  Pliny's  de- 
scription of  the  ceremonies  which  accompanied 
the  cutting  of  the  mistletoe  ;  for  we  have  no 
reason  to  think  that  this  was  in  an^  degfree 
the  central  point  of  the  Druidic  ntual,  or 
that  it  was  more  than  one  ^mong  twenty 
similar  rites.  Nov,  again,  must  we  take  too 
literally  a  beautiful  passage  in  which  Lucan 
de8cril>cs  the  high  ooctrines  of  the  Druids 
•concerning  the  future  life,  for  these  doctrines 
were  not  essentially  different  from  those 
which  have  been  held  by  all  the  Aryan 
nations.     [Celts.] 

Being  raised  to  such  a  high  position,  it  is 
;probable  that  the  Druids  took  unusual  care  to 
fence  themselves  round  with  the  mystery  of  a 
priestly  caste.  It  is  quito  possible  that  they 
may  among  themselves  have  cherished  doc- 
trines above  those  of  the  common  herd ;  but 
the  theor}'-  that  they  had  a  g^reat  and  secret 
■philosophy,  which  by  oral  tradition  they 
handed  down  far  into  the  Middle  Ages,  is 
«n  extravagant  notion  which  has  been 
cherished  by  enthusiastic  and  uncritical 
minds.     [Brehons.] 

Boiret  de  Balloquet,  Ethnoginie  GauloM,  tome 
iii. ;  H.  Gaidoz,  E§q\ti$ae  de  la  Rdigion.  Qatdoim. 
and  I>«ii  Druidea  tt  la  Qui  de  CKfne:  Fiutel 
de  Coalauge  in  the  Revue  Celtique,  tome  iv. 

[C.  F.  K.] 

Drnmclofff  The  Battle  of,  was  fought  on 
-the  borders  of  Lanarkshire  and  Ayrshire,  June 
11,  1679,  l>etween  a  party  of  the  Covenanters 
^ho  had  been  surprised  at  a  "  conventicle^* 


and  the  royal  troops  under  Claverhouso.  The 
Coveoanters,  who  were  led  by  Balfour  of 
Burleigh  and  Hackston  of  Rathillet,  were 
victorious. 

Dnuncmb,  Thb  Battle  of  (965),  was 
fought  between  Duff,  King  of  Alban,  and 
Colin,  son  of  Indulf,  a  rivsd  duimant  to  the 
throne.  The  latter  was  oompletely  defeated, 
two  of  his  chief  supporters,  the  Lord  of  Athol 
and  the  Abbot  of  Dunkeld,  being  slain. 

Dnunniond,  Sir  Gordon,  was  one  of 
the  English  genei'als  during  the  American 
War  of  1812—14.  In  1814  he  defeated  the 
Americans  at  Fort  Oswejgo,  and  soon  after- 
wards gained  a  second  victory  over  them  at 
Lundy's  Lane.  In  August  of  that  year,  how- 
ever, he  was  himself  defeated  at  JPort  Erie, 
to  which  he  afterwards  laid  unsuccessful 
siege.  In  1816  he  was  appointed  Governor- 
General  of  Canada. 

Dmnuiiondy  Sir  William  (d.  1828),  en- 
tered Parliament  in  1795  as  member  for  St. 
Mfiwes.  In  1 796  he  was  sent  as  envoy  ex- 
traordinary to  the  court  of  Naples,  and  in 
1801  he  was  appointed  ambasioidor  at  Con- 
stantinople. Sir 'WiUiam  was  more  distin- 
guished as  a  scholar  than  as  a  diplomatist, 
and  published  several  learned  works  on 
archaeology  and  classical  antiquities. 

DnixLkan   Parliament,  The  (1661), 

was  the  name  given  to  the  Scotch  Parliament 
elected  just  alter  the  Restoration.  This  Par- 
liament, which  was  strongly  Ro3^1ist,  passed 
a  measure  restoring  the  Lords  of  the  Articles 
(q.v.),  and  annulling  all  Acts  of  the  preceding 
twenty-eight  years. 

Dmry.  Sir  William  {d.  1579),  attained 
consideraDle  fame  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth 
as  an  able  general  and  administrator.  In  1567 
he  was  in  command  of  the  border  forces,  and 
in  1570,  in  conjunction  with  Lennox,  took 
Hamilton  from  the  Duke  of  Chatelherault. 
In  1573  he  conducted  the  siege  of  Edinburgh 
to  a  successful  issue,  and  received  the  thanks 
of  the  queen.  Three  years  later  Druiy  wa« 
made  President  of  Munster,  and  inaugurated 
his  entrance  upon  the  office  with  a  succeaaion 
of  vigorous  measures.  He  died  at  Cork,  1579. 

Drydan,  John  (ft.  1631,  d.  1700),  wasedu^ 
cated  at  Westminster  and  Cambridge.  At  the 
Restoration  he  appears  to  have  changed  his 
politics ;  for  after  having,  in  1659,  written  an 
elegiac  poem  on  the  death  of  Oliver  Cromwell, 
we  find  him  in  1660  ready  with  another  in 
honour  of  the  new  king.  From  this  time  there 
hardly  occurred  any  political  event  of  impor- 
tance that  is  not  alluded  to  in  his  pages.  The 
Dutch  were  satirised  in  1662  ;  and  five  years 
later  the  wonderful  events  of  1665 — ^6  were 
celebrated  in  the  Annus  Mirahilis.  In  1681 
he  published  his  greatest  work,  Ah»aicm  and 
Aehitopheh  a  political  satire,  directed  mainly 

S;ainst    the    intrigues  of    Shaftesbury    and 
onmouth  on  the  question  of  the  accessioin  of 


Dnb 


(S87) 


Dnd 


the  Duke  of  York.  All  the  churacien  in  this 
poem  are  intended  to  represent  the  chief 
statesmen  of  the  day  under  the  thin  disffuise  of 
Hebrew  names.  Thus  DaWd  is  Charles  II. ; 
Absalom,  his  favourite  son,  the  Duke  of  Mon- 
mouth ;  Achitophel,  the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury ; 
while  the  versatile  Duke  of  Buckingham  ap- 
pears as  Zimri.  The  attack  on  Shaftesbury 
was  before  long  continued  in  The  Medal^ 
while  by  the  nexi  year,  in  the  Religio  Laieiy  he 
WHS  again  engaged  upon  one  of  the  leading 
topics  of  the  day,  defending  the  Church  of 
England  against  the  attacks  of  the  Dissenters. 
Under  James  II.  Dr>'den  turned  Roman 
Catholic,  and  his  pension  as  Laureate,  an 
office  to  which  he  had  been  appointed  about 
the  year  1668,  was  rcnewed  after  a  tempoiury 
cessation.  Shortly  after  this  the  poet's  grati- 
tude evinced  itself  in  the  publication  of  the 
Mind  and  the  Fanth^r  (1687),  another  political 
and  religious  poem,  in  which  the  "  milk* white 
hind,  unspotted  and  unchanged,"  represents 
the  Cliurch  of  Rome ;  while  the  panther,  '*  the 
noblest  creature  of  the  spotted  kind,"  stands 
for  the  Church  of  England,  and  other  sects 
are  rcpi^esented  under  the  guise  of  -various 
beasts.  With  the  Revolution  his  various 
offices  were  taken  away  from  him,  and  he 
henceforward  confined  himself  to  purely  poet- 
ical work. 

An  edition  of  Dryden's  TForln,  with  a  IaU  "bj 
Sir  Walter  Soott,  tru  published  in  1806,  and  has 
been  reTiaed  and  re-issued  by  Mr.  Qeorge  Sslnta* 
bniy. 

Dublin  has  been  from  the  very  earliest 
times    a  place  of  great  importance  in  Irish 
history.     Its  name  bespeaks  a  Celtic  origin, 
and  it  has  been  identified  with  the  Eblana 
of  Ptolemy.    In  the  ninth    centur>'  it  fell 
into  the  hands  of    the  Ostmen,  or   Danes, 
who,    with    occasional  reverses,    kept    their 
footing  in  Ireland  till  the  time  of  Uie  Eng- 
lish conquest.     In  1171  the  town  was  unsuc- 
cessfully besieged  by  Roderick,  King  of  Con- 
naughty  v.nth  an  immense  host  of  Irish ;  and  in 
the  same  year  was  the  place  where  Henry  II. 
received  the  homage  of  the  Irish  chiefs.     The 
government  of  Dublin  was  then  confened  on 
Hugh  do  Lacy.    In  1207  the  new  English 
colony  WHS  granted  a  chaiter,  and  two  years 
later  was  ncai'ly  exterminated    by  a  native 
rising',  which  has  given  to  the  day  of  its  oc- 
currence the  title  of  Black  Monday.     Richard 
II.  appears  to  have  risited  Dublin  twice,  and 
was  being  entertained  there  when  news  came 
of  Bolingbroke*8  invasion.     In  1591  a  charter 
of  Queen  Elizabeth  founded  Trinity  College 
and  the  University  of  Dublin.    A  mediaeval 
foundation,  which  had  never  flourished,  came 
to  an   end   at    the    Reformation.     In    1646 
Dublin  was   besieged  by  the   I'apists,  and 
was   next  year    surrendered  to  the    Parlia- 
mentarian forces.    After  the  Revolution  of 
1688,  James  I.  held  a  Parliament  in  this  city, 
which,  however,  fell  into  the  hands  of  William 
IT  I.  soon  after  the  battle  of  the  Boj'ne.  In  later 


times  Dublin  has  been  the  head-quarters  of 
several  plots  and  seditious  projects,  such  as  the 
plot  of  Lord  E.  Fitzgerald  (1798),  of  Emmett 
(1803),  the  Fenian  Conspiiacy  of  1867,  and 
the  plot  of  the  Invincibles  in  1 882.  [Ikelakd.] 

Dnblijlf  The  Treaty  op,  conducted  by 
Ormonde  on  behalf  of  Charles  I.  and  the  Irish 
Council  of  Kilkenny,  became  substantially, 
After  the  failure  of  Glamorgan's  mission,  the 
public  part  of  Glamorgan's  treaty  (q.v.),  and 
was  ooncluded  on  March  28, 1646.  The  Papal 
nuncio  and  Owen  Roe  O'Neil  strongly  op- 
posed it,  and  a  sj'nod  at  Waterford  exconmiu- 
nicated  all  who  adhered  to  it.  It  was  practi- 
cally set  aside  by  the  Irish  advance  on  Dublin. 
Clarendon,  Bid.  of  the  Rtb. ;  Carte,  OrnioiicU. 

Dndair  Sinsode.  In  1870  six  British 
vessels  were  seised  by  the  Germans  at  Du- 
clair  in  the  course  of  their  military'  operations, 
and  sunk  in  the  Seine;  their  crows,  moreover, 
it  was  said,  were  treated  with  brutality. 
This  excited  considerable  irritation  in  Eng- 
land. On  explanations  being  demanded, 
Prince  Bismarck  showed  himsmf  ready  and 
desirous  to  avoid  all  cause  of  quarrel  by  satis- 
factorily explaining  away  all  causes  of  offence, 
and  offering  the  fullest  compensation  to  the 
parties  entitled  to  claim  it. 

Dudley,  Sxk  Edmund  {d.  1510),  was 
one  of  the  unprincipled  agents  of  Henry 
VII.'s  rapacity,  to  which  ho  contrived  to 
lend  a  kind  of  legal  support  by  founding  it 
in  many  cases  upon  a  i-oival  of  obsolete 
statutes.  In  1492  he  accomxjanicd  Hcmy  to 
Fran(«,  and  it  was  on  his  return  from  this 
expedition  that  he  united  ^rith  Empson  in 
inaugurating  that  system  of  exaction  for 
whic-h  he  has  obtained  so  unenviable  a 
notoriety.  In  1504  he  provides  an  example 
of  the  completeness  of  Henr\''s  power  at 
that  time  by  his  appearance  as  Speaker  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  while  the  king  con- 
ferred upon  him  also  the  lank  and  office 
of  a  baron  of  the  Exchequer.  Dudley  and 
his  partner  Empson  were  naturally  very  un- 
popular ;  they  were  men,  to  use  the  words 
of  Baoon,  *'  whom  the  people  esteemed  as 
his  [Henry  YII.'s]  horse-leeches  and  shearers, 
bold  men  and  careless  of  fame,  and  that 
took  toll  of  their  master's  grist.''  On  the 
death  of  Henry  YII.,  his  successor  could  find 
ho  better  way  to  ensure  popularity  at  the 
opening  of  his  reign  than  by  the  surrender  to 
the  people's  f  ur>'  o?  these  agents  of  his  father's 
oppression.  Dudley  and  Empson  were  accord- 
ingly arrested  on  a  charge  of  high  treason, 
were  at  once  condemned,  and  executed  in 
Augiujt,  1510.  So  general  was  the  disgust 
and  indignation  which  Dudley  and  Empson 
had  excited,  that  it  was  thought  necessary  to 
pass  a  special  Act  of  Parliament  to  prevent 
the  recurrence  of  the  illegalities  of  which  they 
had  been  guilty. 

Baoon,  Henry  YJL 


Dnd 


(  388  ) 


Dog 


I^ndley,  Lord  Guilpokd  (d.  1554),  son  of 

the    Duko    of    Northumberland    (q.v.))  'wbs 

married  in  1563  to  Lady  Jane  Grey  (q.v.)t 

whose  claim  to  the  throne  the  duke  intended 

to  assert  on  the  death  of  Edward  VI.     Upon 

the  &ilure  of  his  plot,  he  was  condemnea  to 

death  in  company  with   his  wife,  but  the 

sentence  was  not  carried  into  effect  till  1554, 

when  the  insurrection  of  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt 

(q.v.)  and  the  solicitations  of  Simon  Renard, 

the  ambassador  of  Charles  V.,  induced  Mary 

to  order  his  instant  execution.    [Gkey,  Lady 

Janb  ;  Mary.] 

Froude,  HiMt.  of  Eng. :  Stowe,  AnndU ;  Sir 
H.  Nicolas,  Life  of  Lady  Jan«  Qreg. 

Dudley,  Sir  Andrew,  brother  of  the 
Duke  of  Northumberland  (q.v.),  was  sent  in 
1553  to  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  foi*  the 
purpose  of  mediating  between  the  Spaniards 
and  the  French.  In  the  same  year  he  i*eceived 
instructions  from  his  brother  to  bribe  the 
King  of  Franco  to  send  an  army  to  England 
in  furtherance  of  the  scheme  for  placing  Lady 
Jane  Grey  on  the  throne.  For  this  he  was 
put  on  his  trial  and  condemned  to  death,  but 
was  afterwards  reprieved. 

Dudley^  Sir  Henry,  a  cousin  of  the 
Duko  of  Northumberland  (q.v.J,  formed  (in 
1556)  a  conspiracy  in  favour  of  the  Princess 
Elizabeth,  the  avowed  object  of  the  plot  being 
to  free  England  from  the  yoke  of  Catholicism 
and  Spain.  Elizabeth  was  to  bo  married  to 
Courtenay,  Earl  of  Devon,  who  had  been  the 
cause  of  the  previous  rebellion  of  1554.  A 
plan  was  also  laid  to  carry  off  a  lai'ge  amount 
of  Spanish  silver  from  the  Treasury ;  but  the 
whole  plot  was  betrayed  by  one  of  the  accom- 
plices, named  Thomas  White,  and  most  of  the 
conspirators  were  arrested.  Dudley  himself, 
however,  escaped  abroad. 

Dudley  and  Ward,  John  William 
Ward,  4th  Earl  op  (b.  1781,  d.  1833),  was 
elected  member  for  Downton  in  1802,  and  soon 
distinguished  himself  as  a  speaker  in  the  House 
of  Commons.  In  1820  he  succeeded  his  father 
in  the  peerage,  and  on  the  formation  of  Can- 
ning's ministry  became  head  of  the  Foreign 
Ofiioe  (1827),  in  which  capacity  he  signed  the 
Treaty  of  London,  and  the  same  year  was 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  an  earl.  In  1828  he 
left  the  Duke  of  Wellington's  Cabinet  with 
Huskisson  and  Palmerston,  and  died  a  few 
years  later,  in  1833.  He  was  a  man  of  ec- 
centric manners,  with  a  habit  of  thinking 
aloud.  It  was  of  him  that  Hogors  wrote  his 
celebrated  couplet — 

*'  ThBy  oay  Ward  haa  no  heiurt,  bat  I  deny  it : 
He  bos  a  heart,  he  gets  his  speeches  by  it.'^ 

Duelling.  The  practice  of  duelling 
seems  to  have  originated  from  the  Teutonic 
custom  of  trial  by  battle.  But  it  is  evident 
that  this  method  of  deciding  rights  did 
not  exist  in  England  before  the  Conquest. 
Under  William  the  Conqueror  it  was  ren- 
dered compulsory  only  between  two  Normans, 


but  was  gradually  extended  in  certain  cases 
to  both  races.  This  law,. though  it  had  long 
fallen  into  desuetude,  was  not  finally  abrogated 
till  1818,  after  it  had  in  the  preceding  year 
been  claimed  as  his  right  by  a  certain  Thornton, 
who  was  accused  of  murder.  The  practice  of 
duelling,not  as  a  solemn  appeal  to  heaven  for 
justice,  but  for  the  satisfaction  of  a  personal 
a&ont,  has  arisen  from  the  legal  custom,  and 
does  not  seem  to  have  occurred  in  England 
earlier  than  the  sixteenth  century,  though 
it  became  very  common  indeed  in  the  next 
one,  and  so  continued  till  the  last  generation. 
It  was  not  till  about  the  year  1843,  when 
Colonel  Fawcett  perished  at  the  hands  of  his 
brother-in-law,  that  the  public  feeling  was 
unmistakably  expressed  against  the  custom. 
After  this,  the  army,  in  whose  ranks  the 
sense  of  honour  and  claim  to  satisfy  it  by 
shedding  blood,  might  be  supposed  to  be 
strongest,  was  forbidden  to  have  recourse  to 
this  practice  under  heavy  penalties.  lliis 
regulation,  mainly  brought  about  by  the 
humanity  of  the  Prince  Consort,  seems  to 
have  been  of  almost  equal  effect  in  every  class 
of  the  community,  and  duelling  in  England 
has  now  been  for  many  years  a  thing  of  the 
past. 

Ihlff,  King  of  Alban,  was  the  son  of 
^lalcolm  I.,  and  succeeded  Indulf,  962.  In 
96d  he  defeated  Colin,  son  of  Indulf,  at  Drum- 
crub,  but  was  expelled  by  him  in  967. 
Duff  took  refuge  in  Forres,  where  he  was 
slain  at  the  Bridge  of  Kinloss,  967. 
Skene,  Celtic  Scotland. 

Dnffludale,  The  Battle  of  (1549),  re- 
sulted in  a  complete  defeat  of  the  Norfolk 
rebels,  under  Robert  Kct  (q.v.),  at  the  hands 
of  the  royal  troops  under  Warwick. 

Dugdala,  Sir  William  {b.  1605,<f.  1686), 
one  of  the  most  famous  of  the  English  seven- 
teenth century  antiquaries,  was  descended 
from  an  old  Lancashire  family.  Marrying  at 
the  early  age  of  seventeen,  he  soon  settled  at 
Blyth,  in  Warwickshire,  where  his  enthu- 
siasm for  the  jyast  was  kindled  by  the  ac- 
quaintances he  made  there.  In  163o  he  was 
introduced  to  Sir  Henry  Spelman,  like  himself 
a  famous  antiquary,  and  before  long  com- 
menced collecting  materials  for  his  groat 
work,  the  Monasticon  Anglieanum.  Fearing 
the  ruin  to  our  national  monuments  that 
might  ensue  from  the  Civil  War  that  was  on 
the  point  of  breaking  out,  in  1641  he  made 
copies  of  all  the  principal  monuments  in 
Westminster  Abbey  and  other  great  English 
Churches  and  cathedrals.  Next  year  he 
attended  Charles  I.^s  summons  to  York,  and 
was  present  at  Oxford  when  it  surrendered  to 
the  Parliament  in  1646.  After  the  Restora- 
tion he  was  appointed  Grarter  king-at-arms. 
Besides  his  great  work,  the  Mowutieon  AngU' 
eanum,  the  recognised  authority  on  EngUsh 
monastic   foundations  —  first  published   in 


Bilk 


(  389  ) 


Jhax 


separate  Tolumes  1655,  1661,  1673— Dugdale 
vas  the  author  of  the  Antiquities  of  Warwick' 
shire  (1656),  the  History  of  St,  FatU's  Cathe- 
dral (1658),  Origines  JudiciaUs  (1666,  &c.),the 
Baronage  of  England  (1675—6),  and  A  Short 
View  of  the  Late  Troubles  in  England  (1681), 
being  an  account  of  the  rise  and  progress  of 
the  Civil  War.  All  these  works,  except  the 
last,  are  perfect  mines  of  valuable  informa- 
tion, and  in  many  cases  are  the  more  remark- 
able from  being,  in  some  instances,  the  first 
serious  attempts  in  their  various  lines. 

Dnlcay  the  highest  title  in  the  English  peer- 
age, originated  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III., 
who  in.  1337  created  his  son,  the  Black  Prince, 
Duke  of  Cornwall.  The  first  instance  of  a 
person  not  a  member  of  the  royal  family 
being  created  a  duke  is  Robert  de  Yere,  who 
in  1386  was  made  Duke  of  Ireland.  The  title 
has  been  very  rarely  given,  and  at  present 
there  are  but  twenty-two  dukes  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  exclusive  of  the  princes  of  the 
blood  ix>yal.  The  word  "  duke  "  is  a  heritage 
of  the  Boman  Empire,  under  which  l£e 
"  duces  "  were  military  leaders ;  from 
Heroving^n  and  Carolingian  times  it  passed 
into  the  nomenclature  of  mediaeval  Europe, 
where  England  was  one  of  the  last  countries 
to  adopt  the  title.  Etymologically  it  is  the 
same  word  as  the  Italian  "  doge." 

IHi2iil>artO]i9  the  "fortress  of  the 
Britons,**  is  a  lofty  rock  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Lower  Clyde.  Originally  it  was  called 
Alcluyd,  and  was  the  chief  town  of  the 
Strathclydo  "Welsh.  Its  later  name  must 
have  been  given  by^  the  Picts.  In  756  it 
was  taken  \y  the  Pfcts  and  Northumbrians 
imder  Egbert.  Granted  to  John  Baliol  by 
Edward  I.,  it  was  in  1562  given  up  by  Arran 
to  Queen  Mary,  and  held  for  her  by  Lord 
Fleming.      It  was  to  Dumbarton  that  the 

Soeen  was  'trying  to  force  a  passage  when 
iie  was  defeated  at  Langside,  1568.  In  1571 
it  was  taken  from  Henry  by  Captain  Craw- 
ford, and  in  1640  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Covenanters. 

Diuimonia»  Damxonia,  or  West  Wales. 
The  British  kingdom  in  the  south-western 
pem'nsula  of  England.  Besides  the  quite 
separate  Dumnonii  of  the  district  round  the 
Roman  Wall,  there  was  in  Roman  times  a 
tribe  called  the  Dumnonii,  who  occupied  the 
whole  country  west  of  the  modem  Hampshire 
and  the  Bristol  Avon.  Some  recent  inquirers 
have  regarded  them  as  GoideUc  in  race,  and 
therefore  to  be  distinguished  sharply  from 
their  British  (Brythonic)  neighbours.  But, 
if  so,  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  the  Brythons, 
driven  westwards  by  the  Saxons,  were  able  in 
their  defeat  to  conquer  and  assimilate  these 
Goidels,  for  in  later  times  the  speech  of 
Cornwall  certainly  was  more  kindred  to  the 
Brythonic  than  tne  Goidelic  gfroup  of  Celtic 
kuigoages.     Perhaps  there  renminbi  traces  of 


an  earlier  race,  though,  the  Dumnonii  were 
roughly  Brythonic.  Anyhow,  the  sixth  cen- 
tury saw  a  Celtic  race  still  supreme  in  these 
regions,  and,  by  its  possession  of  the  lower 
Severn  valley,  in  communication  with  the 
"  North  Welsh"  beyond  the  Bristol  Channel. 
In  Gildas's  time^  the  tyrant  Constantino  was 
king  of  this  region  ;  but  with  the  advance  of 
the  West  Saxons  westwards,  the  Dumnonian 
kingdom  was  forced  into  narrower  limits. 
The  conquests  of  Ceawlin  in  577  (battle  of 
Deorham)  separated  it  from  the  modem 
Wales.  The  victory  of  Cenwealh  at  Pen 
drove  the  "  Brj-twoalas "  over  the  Parret 
(658),  and  the  tales  of  Armorican  migration 
attest  the  disorganisation  of  the  defeated 
race.  Centwine  extended  the  West  Saxon 
State  as  far  as  the  Exe,  and  Geraint,  the 
Dumnonian  monarch  was  signally  defeated  in 
710  by  Ine,  whose  organisation  of  the  Sher- 
borne bishopric,  and  refoundation  of  Glaston- 
bury Abbey,  shows  the  completeness  of  his 
conquests.  Yet  even  in  Egbert's  time  the 
West  Welsh  retained  theu'  freedom,  and 
revenged  their  defeat,  if  not  conquest,  in  815, 
by  joining  the  Danes  against  the  West  Saxon 
Bretwalda.  Their  defeat  at  Hengestesdun 
(835)  may  have  led  to  their  entire  subjection. 
Yet  it  was  only  temporary ;  for  Exeter  con- 
tinued to  be  jointly  inhabited  by  English  and 
Welsh  until  Athelstan  cxpcll^  the  latter; 
an  act  which  led  to  the  confinement  of  the 
Welsh  to  the  modem  Cornwall.  When  they 
were  subdued  directly  to  the  West  Saxons  we 
hardly  know ;  but  no  king  of  the  West  Welsh 
can  be  proved  to  have  existed  later  than  the 
Howel  who  did  homage  to  Athelstan.  The 
retention  of  the  Celtic  language,  at  least  till 
the  end  of  the  seventeenth  centur}',  still 
marked  oft  Cornwall  from  the  rest  of  the 
country.  But  the  last  trace  of  any  separate 
organisation  was  the  appointment  in  1051  of 
Odda  as  Earl  of  the  "  Wealas."  The  modem 
duchy  is  of  much  later  date.  Even  in  Domes- 
day tiiere  are  hardly  any  British  proper  names 
in  the  old  Dumnonia,  though  to  this  day  the 
great  majority  of  the  place-names  among  the 
dwellers  of  the  more  western  portion  are 
purely  Celtic. 

The  original  authorities  are  a  few  meagre 
entries  in  the  ohronicdes,  Welah  and  English, 
of  battles.    Philology  and  local  antiquities  xnaor 


f'lve  Bomething  more.  For  a  modem  acoonnt  see 
algrave's  £nyltah   CommontrMlth,  I.,  pp.  403 
— 411,  tmd  11.,  cclxiii. — cdxiv.  (with,  an  attempt 


to  establish  the  snoceasion  of  West  Welsh  kings.) 
For  the  ethnological  question  see  Bb^  CAtic 
Britain;  and  for  the  ancient  Dumnonii,  Elton's 
Origi-M  of  English  History,  pp.  233— 2$8.  Pol- 
wholes  Hintory  of  Comtcalt  gives  cnrioos  details 
of  the  surviTal  of  the  Cornish  language. 

[T.  F.  T.] 

Drmbar,  Black  Aones  of.  In  1339  the 
Earl  of  Scdisbtuy  laid  siege  to  the  foiiress  of 
Dunbar,  which  was  defended  in  the  absence 
of  its  governor,  the  Earl  of  March,  by  his 
wife  Agnes,  the  sister  of  Randolph,  Earl 
of  Murray.    So  successful  was  the  Countess 


Jhax 


(  390  ) 


Bon 


in  her  resistanco  to  tho  English  that  the 
KnglJHh  leader  was  obliged  to  withdraw  his 
forces. 

Dnnbar,  The  Battle  op  (April  27,  1296), 
resulted  in  a  comploto  victory  for  the  Englihh 
forces  under  Edward  I.  and  EarlWarenne  over 
tho  Scots  under  tho  Earl  of  Athol  and  Sir 
Patrick  Graham. 

Dlinbar,  The  Battle  of  (Sept.  3,  1650), 
resulted  in  a  complete  victory  for  tho  Parlia- 
mentary army  under  Cromwell,  Monk,  and 
Lambert,  over  tho  Scots  under  David  Leslie. 
Leslie  had  taken  up  a  sti'ong  position,  and 
foiiified  all  tho  heights  between  Edinburgh 
Castle  and  Leith.  For  a  wholo  month  Leslie 
kept  his  impregnable  position  till  it  seemed 
that  Cromwell  must  bo  starved  into  submission. 
Fearing  this  fate,  the  English  general  removed 
to  Dunbar,  where  he  oould  command  the  sea, 
and  Leslie  followed  him  along  tho  slopes, 
settling  finally  upon  the  hill  of  Don,  cutting 
off  the  retreat  of  the  enemy,  and  looking  down 
on  them  in  tho  town.  On  the  night  of 
Sept.  2nd  the  Scottish  army  forsook  its  strong 
position  and  foolishly  descended  to  the  lower 
ground.  Leslie's  caution  had  been  overcome 
by  the  rash  zeal  of  the  preachers  in  his  camp. 
At  daybreak  Cromwell  ordered  his  wholo 
force  to  advance  against  the  Scottish  horse, 
which  was  crossing  the  glen  of  the  Broxburn 
in  advance  of  the  main  body,  and  before  they 
had  time  to  form  their  lines  they  wero  driven 
back  on  their  own  ranks  behind,  and  the  day 
was  lost.  It  was  on  this  occasion  that  Crom- 
well uttered  his  memorable  quotation  as  tho 
sun  cleared  awav  the  mist  from  the  hills  and 
showed  the  certain  rout  of  his  enemies,  "  Let 
God  arise,  and  let  EUs  enemies  be  scattered." 
Three  thousand  men  perished  in  this  engage- 
ment, and  nearly  ten  thousand  were  taken 
prisoners.  From  Dunbar  Cromwell  passed  on 
to  Edinburgh,  and  in  a  short  time  aU  Scotland 
was  in  his  power. 

Corlyle,  Cromio«U'«  Ldten  and  ^techet. 

Dunbar  Castle,  in  Haddingtonshire, 
was  granted  to  Gospatric,  Earl  of  March,  by 
Malcolm  Canmoro.  It  was  taken  by  Edward 
I.  and  Earl  Warenne,  April  1296,  and  in 
1314  ijt  gave  shelter  to  Edward  II.  after  his 
flight  from  Bannockbum.  In  1339  it  was 
successfully  defended  for  nineteen  weeks 
against  tho  Earl  of  Salisbury  by  Black  Agnes 
oif  Dunbar.  It  was  garrisoned  by  French 
troops  during  Albany's  regency  in  tho  time 
of  James  V.,  who  gi*oatly  strengthened  its 
fortifications  after  its  evacuation  by  the 
foreigners.  It  gave  shelter  to  Mary  and 
Damley  after  the  murder  of  Kizzio,  L561,  and 
again  received  the  queen,  this  time  in  com- 
pany of  BothwcU,  on  the  rising  of  the  Con- 
federate LordH,  1567.  Its  castle  was  destroyed 
by  the  regent  Mun-ay. 

Dnncaily  Adam,  1st  ViscorNT  Camper- 
Down  {b.  1731,  d.  1804),  entered  the  navy  early 


in  life.  In  1 749  he  served  in  the  Mediterranean 
under  Keppel,  and  in  1755  was  sent  out  to 
America  in  the  fleet  which  conveyed  General 
Braddock's  troops.  He  was  wounded  in  the 
attack  on  Goroe,  and  obtained  his  lieutenancy 
soon  after  the  battle.  In  1761  he  took  part 
in  the  exjieditions  against  Belleisle  and 
Havannah,  and  was  entrusted  by  Keppel  with 
the  diflicult  task  of  landing  the  troops  in 
boats.  In  1779  he  was  employed  in  the 
Channel  till  he  accompanied  Rodney  to  tho 
relief  of  Gibraltar,  and  in  the  action  of 
Jan.  16,  1780,  Duncan  did  as  good  service 
as  any  one,  and  wus  so  haitily  used  in  tho 
battle  that  he  had  not  a  boat  wherewith  to 
take  possession  of  his  prizes.  In  1782  he 
proceeded  again  to  the  relief  of  Gibittltar,  on 
this  occasion  under  Loixl  Howe,  and  in  1787 
was  made  rear-admiral.  Seven  years  later  he 
received  the  command  of  a  fleet  stationed  in 
the  North  Sea,  and  in  this  office  had  to  watch 
the  Dutch  fleet  at  the  Texel.  Meanwhile  the 
mutiny  at  the  Nore  broke  out,  and  Admiral 
Duncan  found  himself  left  with  only  two 
ships  to  blockade  the  enemy.  His  firmness 
upon  this  occasion  contributed  in  no  small 
degree  to  the  suppression  of  this  outbreak; 
but  at  the  same  time  he  kept  up  the  semblance 
of  a  watch  upon  the  Dutch  admiral.  Later, 
by  retiring  to  Yarmouth,  he  gave  Do  Winter, 
the  Dutch  admiral,  an  opportunity  of  putting 
out  to  sea.  The  chance  was  immediatel)' 
taken  by  the  Dutch,  while  the  English  fleet 
made  every  effort  to  cut  off  their  I'cti'eat.  On 
Oct.  11,  1797,  he  managed  by  skilful  tactics 
to  get  between  the  enemy  and  the  land.  He 
then  broke  through  their  line,  and  after  a  stub- 
born contest  off  Camperdown  gained  a  complete 
victory,  capturing  two  frigates  and  eight  line* 
of-battlo  ships,  including  the  admiraPs  ship. 
Dimcan  was  at  once  rewarded  by  a  peerage 
and  a  large  pension.  He  remained,  however, 
for  two  years  more  in  the  North  Sea  before 
coming  home  to  spend  his  last  davs  in  retire- 
ment. He  died  suddenly  in  London  on  Aug. 
4,  1804.     [Campeudowx.] 

James,  Naval  Hiat.;  AliBOn,  Hist  ofEwrope; 
Stanhope,  Hitt.  ofEny, 

Dnncail  Z.,  King  of  Scothmd  (</.  1040),  son 
of  Crinan,  lay  abbot  of  Dunkeld,  succeeded 
his  maternal  g^randfather  Malcolm,  in  1034. 
Defeated  before  the  walls  of  Durham  in  the 
first  year  of  his  reign  by  Eardulf,  Earl  of 
Northumbria,  Duncan  next  attempted  to 
wrest  Caithness  from  Thorfinn,  Earl  of 
Orkney,  in  order  that  he  might  bestow  it 
upon  his  relative  Moddan.  In  this  attempt, 
however,  the  king  was  worsted  in  a  naval 
engagement  near  the  shores  of  the  Pentland 
Forth,  and  in  a  battle  at  Burghhead,  in  Elgin. 
About  this  time,  his  general,  Macbeth 
Mormaor,  of  Moray,  went  over  to  Thorfinn's 
side,  and  slew  Duncan  by  treachery  near 
Elgin,  Aug.  14,  1040.  Duncan,  who  is  called 
in  the  Sagas  Karl  Hundason  (hound*s  son). 


Bon 


(891  ) 


Bon 


married  a  daughter  of  Siward,  Earl  of  North- 
umberland. It  is  from  the  legendary  accounts 
preserved  of  the  incidents  of  this  reign  and 
the  next  that  Shakespeare  has  formed  the 
basis  of  his  groat  tragedy  Macbeth. 

Burton,  Hitt.  of  Scotland ;  Bobertson,  Scaly 
King9  of  Scotland. 

Blincail  ZZ.y  King  of  Scotland  («.  1094,  d. 
1095),  though  some  obscurity  surrounds  his 
birth,  was,  probably,  the  son  of  Malcolm  Can- 
more  by  his  first  wife.  When  quite  a  boy,  in 
1072,  Duncan  was  sent  as  a  hostage  to  the 
Bhoglish  court  after  the  Treaty  of  Abemethy. 
Therehe  remained  till  1093,  when,  with  Norman 
aid,  he  succeeded  in  driving  his  uncle,  Donald 
Bane  (q*v.)t  from  the  Sa>tch  throne.  Six 
months  afterwards,  however,  Donald  procured 
his  murder  at  the  hands  of  Malpedir  Macljean, 
Mormaor  of  Meams.  The  scene  of  this  crime 
was  Mondynee,  in  Kincardineshire,  and  a 
huge  monolith  that  is  still  found  there 
probably  commemorates  the  event.  The 
secret  of  his  fate  seems  to  be  in  the  ftict  that 
he  wafl  a  Norman  by  education  and  character, 
and  had  perhaps  agreed  to  hold  the  kingdom 
as  a  vassal  of  the  English  sovereign.  He 
does  not  seem  to  have  ever  been  fully  recog- 
nised except  in  Lothian  and  Cambria ;  for  the 
Gaelic  disti-icts  north  of  the  Forth  were  at 
most  only  divided  in  his  favour.  He  married 
the  daughter  of  Torpatric,  Earl  of  Northum- 
berland, by  whom  he  is  said  to  have  had  a  son 
William. 

Kobertaon,  EaHy  KingB  of  Scotland;  Burton, 
BiBt.  o/ Scotland. 

Jtancoube,  Chablxs,  was  originally 
'*a  goldsmith  of  very  moderate  wealth." 
He  amassed  a  large  fortune  by  banking, 
and  purchased  for  £90,000  the  estate  of 
Helmsley,  in  Yorkshire.  He  subsequently 
accepted  the  place  of  Cashier  of  the  Excise, 
from  which  he  derived  great  w^th; 
but  Montague  dismissed  him  from  the 
office  because  he  thought,  with  good  reason, 
that  he  was  not  a  man  to  be  trusted. 
In  1697  we  find  him  defending  Sunderland 
in  Parliament.  He  accused  Montague  of 
peculation*  but  failed  to  make  good  the 
charge,  and  was  in  turn  accused  of  fraud  and 
forgery  in  connection  with  the  Exchequer 
Bills.  A  bill  of  pains  and  penalties 
was  accordingly  brought  in  against  him,  after 
he  had  previously  been  sent  to  the  Tower  and 
expelled  the  House.  The  bill,  providing  for 
the  confiscation  of  the  greater  part  ox  his 
property  and  its  application  to  the  public 
Hcrvice,  passed  the  Commons.  It  was  felt, 
however,  that  the  measure  was  open  to  censure, 
and  that  his  jud«;e8  had  strong  motives  for 
voting  against  him.  XJr^ed  by  these  and 
other  reasons,  the  Lords  threw  out  the  bill, 
and  the  prisoner  was  released.  He  was,  how- 
ever, again  arrested  by  order  of  the  Commons, 
and  kept  in  prison  for  the  remainder  of  the 
sewioTi. 


DlincUllk  IB  noted  as  the  scene  of  the 
g^reat  defeat  suffered  by  John  de  Courcy 
at  the  hands  of  the  Irish  (1180).  In  1560 
the  town  was  unsuccessfully  besieged  by  the 
O'Neils ;  and,  in  1649,  Dundalk  surrendered 
to  Cromwell. 

DnndaUL  The  Battle  of  (Oct.  5,  1318), 
was  fought  during  the  invasion  of  northern 
Ireland  by  the  S^ts  under  Edward  Bruce. 
Edward  Bruce  had  3,000  men  with  him; 
among  the  commanders  were  the  De  Lacys. 
The  Anglo-Irish  army  was  led  by  John  de 
Bermingham.  The  victory  was  won  at  the  first 
onset  of  the  English  forces;  twenty-nine 
bannerets,  five  kmghts,  and  eighty  others 
fell  on  the  Scottish  side.  Bruce  himself  was 
Idlled,  and  his  head  was  sent  to  Edward  as  a 
trophy.  This  battle  put  an  end  to  the  Scottish 
invasion. 

Ihinflftlfi  Henst,  YxscouifT  Mblvillb 
(b.  1740,  d.  1811),  was  the  son  of  Robert 
Dundas,  who  was  for  many  years  President 
of  the  Court  of  Session.  Having  adopted 
the  bar  as  his  profession,  he  made  his 
way  with  wonderful  rapidity  to  the  top  of 
the  ladder,  being  Solicitor- General  in  1773 
and  Lord- Advocate  two  vears  later.  In  this 
position  he  threw  himself  eagerly  into  poli- 
tics, abandoning  the  law.  Attached  to  a 
ministry  which,  after  a  long  period  of  office, 
was  at  last  falling  beneath  a  weight  of  obloquy, 
Dundas  exhibited  so  much  spirit  and  ability 
that  he  was  at  once  recognised  as  promising 
to  rise  to  the  highest  power.  Not  the  smallest 
source  of  his  rising  reputation  was  the  minute 
*lmowledge  he  displayed  with  regard  to 
Indian  a&irs.  On  the  fall  of  North  s  minis- 
try. Lord  Rockingham  was  not  slow  to  avail 
himself  of  Dundas' s  services,  which  were  em- 
ployed in  the  treasury  of  the  navy,  an  office 
which  he  held  also  under  Lord  Shelbume. 
He  retired,  however,  on  the  formation  of  the 
Coalition  (1783),  but  did  not  have  long  to 
wait  before  he  resumed  his  old  post  under 
Pitt.  In  June,  1788,  he  resigned  that 
place  to  become  President  of  the  Board 
of  Control  with  a  seat  in  the  Cabinet. 
With  Pitt  he  resigned  in  1801,  and  was 
raised  to  the  peerage.  In  1804  he  again 
followed  Pitt  into  office,  and  was  appointed 
First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  where  he  re- 
mained until  1806,  when  he  was  impeached  for 
misappropriation  of  public  money  during  his 
former  period  of  control  over  the  Navy  Trea- 
sury. Pitt  defended  his  faithful  follower  and 
colleague  with  his  utmost  ability,  but  a 
strong  case  was  brought  against  him,  and 
when  the  numbcn  on  division  were  equal,  the 
Speaker  gave  his  casting  vote  against  Lord 
Melville.  Pitt  was  quite  broken  down  by  the 
blow,  and  did  not  live  long  enough  to  see  the 
censure  reversed  by  the  Lords  in  1807,  after 
which  the  name  of  Lord  Melville,  which  had 
been  erased,  was  restored  to  the  Privy  Council 
Ust.    He  had  retired,  however,  to  Scotland, 


Bon 


(  392  ) 


Bun 


and  never  again  took  any  pait    in   public 

affairs;  and  in  retirement  he  died  in  ^Ia}% 

1811.     That  Dundas  had  been   "guilty  of 

highly  culpable  laxity  in  transactions  relating 

to  public  money/*  no  one  can  doubt ;   but  no 

loss  had  accrued  to  the  State  in  consequence, 

and  it  was  undeniable  that  he  had  exhibited  a 

most  praiseworthy  energy  in   taking    some 

steps  to  remedy  the  hopeless  confusion  and 

mismanagement  which  had  for  many  years 

prevailed  at  the  Admiralty. 

Annual  RegUtw;  QrenvilU  Paper$;  Pellew, 
Sidmouth;  Rasaell,  Pox;  Conningham,  Eminent 
JBnglUhmtn. 

Dnndae,  in  Forfarshire,  was  granted  by 
William  the  Lion  to  his  brother  Da>nd  of 
Huntingdon  (q.v.).  It  was  taken  from  the 
English  by  Robert  Bruce  in  1306,  by  Edward 
Bruce,  1313,  and  pillaged  by  the  Protector 
Somerset.  In  1645  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
Montrose,  and  in  1651  was  stormed  by  Monk, 
who  put  the  whole  of  the  garrison  to  the 
sword. 

DundaOy  Viscount.    [Graham,  John.] 

Biindonald,  Thomas  Bahxes  Cochranb, 
10th  Earl  of  {b.  177 by  d.  1860),  after  brilliant 
service  against  the  French  as  commander  of 
the  Speedff  and  of  the  Fallas^  entered  Parlia- 
ment as  member  for  Westminster,  and  so 
excited  the  enmitv  of  the  authorities  by  his 
attacks  upon  naval  administration  that  when, 
in  1809,  he  failed  in  his  gallant  attempt. to 
destroy  the  French  fleet  off  Brest,  he  was  ^ut 
upon  half -pay.  In  1814  he  was  charged  with 
having  circulated  lying  news  of  the  Fall  of 
Napoleon  in  order  to  make  money  on  the 
Stock  Exchange,  and  though  innocent,  he 
was  cashiei'ed  and  imprisoned.  After  the 
Accession  of  William  IV.  he  was  granted  a 
**  free  pardon,"  and  became  a  Eear-Admiral. 

Bunfarmlinay  in  Fifeshire,  was  long  a 
favourite  residence  of  the  Kings  of  Scotland, 
some  of  whom  were  buried  in  the  monastery 
wliich  was  founded  by  Malcolm  Canmore,  and 
burnt  by  Edward  I.  in  1304. 

Dnngal,  the  son  of  Sealbach,  obtained 
the  throne  of  Dalriada  by  his  father's  abdica- 
tion in  723.  Ho  was  soon  afterwards  driven 
out  by  Kochaidh,  the  head  of  the  Cinel 
G'abran,  who  subsequently  resisted  Dungal's 
attempt  to  regain  the  throne  at  Ross  Foichen, 
though  the  old  king,  Sealbach,  had  himself 
is>sued  from  his  monaster}'  to  assist  his  son, 
727.  On  the  death  of  Eochaidh,  733,  he 
regained  the  kingdom  of  Dalriada,  but  a 
year  afterwards  was  compelled  by  Angus 
MiicFergus  to  take  refuge  for  a  time  in 
Ireland.  In  736  Angus  invaded  Dalriada, 
and  threw  Dungal  and  his  brother  into 
prison. 

Chron.  PteCs  and  Scot«  ;  Bobertson,  'Early  Kinge^ 

DvngailhilL  Battlb  of.  The  English 
army  under  Colonel  Michael  Jones  here 
defeated  the  Irish  on  August  8,  1647.    Six 


thousand  of  the  latter  fell,  while  the  English 
loss  was  inconsiderable. 

Dungannon  Convantion,  Thb  (Sept. 

8,  1785),  is  the  name  given  to  the  meeting  of 
therepresentativesof  270of  the  Irish  Volunteer 
companies  assembled  at  Dungannon  under 
Grattan's  influence.  These  delegates  passed 
several  resolutions,  the  object  of  which  was  to 
secure  Parliamentary  reform  for  Ireland;  if 
the  English  government  objected  to  them  the 
supplies  were  to  be  withheld.  A  convention 
was  to  have  met  at  Dublin  had  not  the  Duke 
of  Rutland  prevented  this  by  his  firmness. 
Fronde,  Eng.  in  Ireland;  Grattan's Xr»/e. 

Dnnkeld  is  chiefly  remarkable  as  being  the 
site  where  Constantine,  King  of  the  Picts  from 
789  to  820,  founded  a  church,  perhaps  about  the 
year  796,  to  which  Kenneth  MacAlpin  trans- 
ferred the  relics  of  Columba  from  lona  in  851. 
This  last  event  marked  the  date  of  the  final 
decay  of  the  ecclesiastical  rule  of  the  Abbots 
of  lona,  whose  representatives,  as  heads  of 
the  Pictish  Church,  wore  henceforth  to  be 
the  Abl)ots  of  Dunkeld.  In  time  Dimkold 
Abbey  fell  into  the  hands  of  a  lay  abbot, 
while  the  bishopric  of  Fortrenn,  which  in 
earlier  times  had  been  filled  by  the  Abbot  of 
Dunkeld,  passed  on  to  Abcmethv.  One  of 
the  mr)st  famous  names  in  early  Scottish 
history'  is  that  of  Crinan,  lay  Abbot  of  Dunkeld, 
whose  son  Duncan  became  King  of  Scotia. 
Duncan's  grandson,  David  I.,  either  restored 
or  established  it  as  a  bishopric  about  the  year 
1127.    [See  below.] 

Dnnkeld,  The  Battle  op  (Aug.  21, 1689), 
was  a  victor}'  gained  by  the  Cameronians  over 
the  Highlanders,  and  followed  closely  after 
]^Iacka^'*s  victory  at  St.  Johnston^s.  The  dis- 
orders in  the  Highland  army  had  increased,  and 
Lochiel  had  left  them  in  disgust.  Meanwhile, 
the  Scottish  Privy  Council,  against  Mackay*s 
wish,  had  sent  a  regiment  of  Cameronians  to 
garrison  Dunkeld  under  Cleland.  Cannon, 
at  the  head  of  500  men,  ad>'anced  against  the 
town.  The  outposts  of  the  Cameronians  were 
speedily  driven  m ;  but  the  greater  part  of  the 
regiment  made  its  stand  behind  a  wall  which 
surrounded  a  house  belonging  to  the  Marquis 
of  Athol.  After  all  ammunition  was  spent,  and 
when  both  Cleland  and  his  successor  in  com- 
mand, l^Iajor  Henderson,  had  been  shot  dead, 
the  Cameronians  succeeded  in  setting  fire  to 
the  houses  from  which  the  Highlanders  were 
firing  on  them.  Soon  disorder  spread  among 
the  Highland  host,  and  it  returned  hastily  to- 
wards Blair.  "  The  victorious  Puritans 
threw  their  caps  into  the  air  and  raised,  with 
one  voice,  a  psalm  of  triumph  and  thanks- 
giving. The  Cameronians  had  good  i*eason  to 
be  jo}^ul  and  thankful,  for  they  had  finished 
the  war." 

XhmMrlc  The  port  of  Dunkirk  was 
throughout  the  seventeenth  century  the  head- 


Dnn 


(  393  ) 


Bun 


qoarters  of  pirates  and  privateers  who  preyed 
on  British    commerce.    Accordingly,   when 
Cromwell  allied  himself  with  Louis    XIV. 
against  Spain  (March,  1657),  it  was  stipulated 
that  Dunkirk  and  Alardyke  should  be  be- 
sieged by  a  combined  French  and  English 
army,  and  belong  to  England  when  captured. 
Six   thousand    men,  first    under    Sir    John 
Reynolds,  afterwards  under  General  Thomas 
Morgan,    formed    the    English    contingent. 
Mardyke  was  captured  in  September,  1657, 
and  Dunkirk  besieged  in  the  following  ^lay. 
On  June  4th,  a  Spanish  army  under  Don 
John  of  Austria,  and  the  Prince  of  Conde,  in 
which  the  Dukes  of  York  and  Gloucester  were 
serving,  attempted  to  raise  the  siege,  and  was 
defeat^  with  great    loss.    The   town    sur- 
rendered four  davs  later,  and  remained  in 
English    hands  till    1662,   when  it  and  its 
dependencies  were  sold  to  Louis  XIV.  for  the 
sum  of  five  miUion  livres    (Oct.   27,    1662). 
The  attacks    on    English    trade    still    con- 
tinuing, Dunkirk  was  unsuccessfully  attacked 
by  a  combined  Dutch  and  English  fleet  in 
1694,  and  it  was  stipulated  by  the  Treaty  of 
Utrecht    that    the    fortifications    should   be 
destroyed,  and  the  port  blocked  up  (1713). 
This  stipulation  was  repeated  by  the  Treaties 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1748)  and  Paris  (1763). 
Nevertheless,  the  city  and  port  were  con- 
tinually restored,  and  in  the  years  1778  to 
1782,  tlie  corsairs  of  Dunkirk  captured  1,187 
English  vessels.     In  1 793  it  was  besieged  by 
an  English  army  under  the  Duke  of  York, 
with  the  intention  of  retaining  it  as  a  com- 
pensation for  the  expenses  of  the  war,  but  the 
victory  of  Hoondschotten,  by  which  the  corps 
posted  to  cover  his  operations   was    forced 
to  retreat,  obliged  the  duke  to  abandon  the 
enterprise. 

Dumiintfy  John,  Lord  Ashburton  {b. 
1731,  rf.  1785),  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1756, 
and  was  six  yecu^  later  employed  in  defending 
the  English  East  India  Company  against  the 
complaints  made  by  its  Dutch  rival.  In  1763 
he  defended  Wilkes,  and  in  1767  was  ap- 
pointed Solicitor-Generalf  an  ofiGLce  which  he 
held  tUl  1770.  It  was  he  who,  in  1780 
(April  6th),  brought  forward  the  memorable 
motion,  **  That  the  influence  of  the  crown 
has  increased,  is  increasing,  and  ought  to  be 
diminished,"  a  resolution  which  was  supported 
by  Fox,  and  carried  by  a  majority  of  eighteen. 
George  III.  was  severely  wounded  by  this 
and  the  following  votes,  feeling,  as  he  said  at 
the  time,  that  they  were  levelled  at  him  in 
person.  Two  years  later  Dunning  became 
Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster,  imder 
Lord  Rockingham^s  administration,  and  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  by  the  title  of  Lord 
Ashburton. 

• 

Dnnotter  (Dun  Nother),  in  Kincardine- 
shire, a  few  miles  south  of  Stonehaven,  is 
memorable  for  its  siege  by  Brude  I^IacBile  in 
681.    It  was  again  besieged  in  694,  and  in 

HI»T.-13* 


900  was  the  scene  of  the  murder  of  Donald 
II.  by  the  Danes.  In  934  Athelstan  advanced 
as  far  as  Dunotter  with  his  invading  army. 
The  oaBtle  of  Dunotter  was  taken  by  Sir 
William  Wallace  in  1298,  and  by  Sir  Andrew. 
Mory,  1356  ;  in  1645  it  was  besieged  by  Mont- 
rose, and  taken  by  Cromwell's  troops,  1651. 
The  castle  belonged  to  the  family  of  the 
Keiths,  Earls  MarischaL 

DiULBtable,  The  Ass  aim  of,  comprise  one 
of  me  most  valuable  of  the  monastic  chronicles. 
They  extend  from  the  Incarnation  to  the  year 
1297,  and  are  particularly  valuable  for  the 
reigns  of  John  and  Henry  III.  They  are 
published  in  the  Bolls  Seiies  under  the 
editorship  of  Mr.  Luard. 

I>llXUltable^  The  Town  of,  in  Bedford- 
shire, is  known  in  English  history  as  the  place 
where  the  barons  met  in  1244,  and  oraered 
the  papal  envoy  to  leave  England ;  and  where 
the  commissionei-s  for  the  divorce  of  Queen 
Catherine  sat  in  1533.  Dunstable  was  the 
seat  of  a  great  abbey  of  monks,  and  was 
made  the  property  of  the  foundation  in  1131. 

Dnnstan,  St.,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(960 — 988),  the  son  of  Hcorstan  and  Cyneth* 
ryth,  was  bom  near  Glastonbury.  Two 
of  his  kinsmen  were  bishops,  and  others 
were  attached  to  the  court,  while  his 
brother  as  "reeve"  looked  after  the 
secular  interests  of  Glastonbury  Abbey. 
Kings  Athelstan  and  Edmund  lived  >very 
often  in  that  neighbourhood,  and  Dunstan 
began  both  his  court  life  and  monastic  train- 
ing at  a  very  early  age.  He  became  guar- 
dian of  the  *'hord'*  of  Edmund,  and  was 
consequently  rewarded  with  the  abbacy  when 
still  very  young.  Glastonbury  was  then 
only  a  monastery  in  name,  served  by 
married  secular  derks,  though  even  in  its 
degradation  very  famous,  and  largely  fre- 
quented by  Irish  pilgrims  as  the  shrine  of 
St.  Patrick.  Dunstan  reformed  this  state  of 
things,  in  the  interests  of  education  rather 
tlian  as  a  fanatic  of  asceticism.  Many  tales 
are  told  of  this  early  period  of  Dunstan's 
life,  which  are  to  be  received  only  with  the 
utmost  caution.  Nearly  all  the  details  of 
his  biography  are  mythical.  In  946  Edred 
succeeded  Edmund.  He  was  very  sickly,, 
of  the  same  age  as  Dunstan,  and  the  pro- 
bable companion  of  his  youth.  Dunstan^ 
who  had  closely  attached  himself  to  the 
king's  mother,  Eadgifu,  and  other  great 
ladies,  now  began  his  political  career.  His 
policy  resulted  in  the  brilliant  successes  of  the 
West  Saxons,  under  Edred,  culminating  in 
the  conquest  of  Northumbria  from  the  Danes 
and  the  assumption  of  the  title  of  Ciesar  by 
the  English  king  in  955.  But  Dunstan  still 
continued  his  acti\nlty  as  a  teacher  at  Glaston- 
bury, and  refused  the  bishopric  of  Crediton. 
The  death  of  Edred  led  to  a  reversion  of 
Dunstan*8  policy.     He  had  ''aimed  at  the 


Dnn 


(  394  ) 


Dap 


unity  of  England  under  the  West  Saxon 
BasileuB,  but  giving  homo  rule  to  each  state.'* 
This  policy  was  disliked  by  the  West  Saxon 
nobility,  who  regarded  the  vassal  kingdoms 
as  their  own  prey,  and  desired  to  make  each 
state  a  dependency  of  Wessex.  Their  in- 
fluence triumphed  at  the  accession  of  Edwy, 
a  boy  of  under  fifteen.  The  ordinary  details 
of  the  stor}'  of  Bunstan's  fall  are  quite  in- 
credible,  but  it  remains  a  fact  that  the  next 
year  saw  him  banished.  His  stay  at  a  gteat 
Jucnedietine  abbey  in  Flanders  first  brought 
him  in  connection  with  the  monastic  revival 
with  which  his  name  has  been  so  closely  as- 
sociated. Meanwhile  the  dependent  states  re- 
volted from  Edwy,  whose  ministers,  besides 
their  reactionary  policy,  had  set  themselves 
too  much  against  the  monks  to  retain  their 
position.  The  Mercians  and  Northumbrians 
revolted,  and  chose  Edgar  king  ;  he  recalled 
Dunstan  and  made  him  Bishop,  first  of  Wor- 
cester, and  then  of  London  as  well.  His  re- 
tention of  a  chapter  of  secular  canons  at  both 
sees  shows  that  he  was  at  least  not  zealous  for 
the  monastic  cause.  On  the  death  of  Edwy, 
Wessex  also  acknowledged  Edgar,  and 
Dunstan  was  made  Archbishop  of  Ctinterbury, 
and  for  a  second  time  his  policy  triumphed. 
The  glorious  reign  of  Edgar  the  Peaceful 
was  the  result  of  the  realisation  of  Dunstan's 
ideas.  The  hegemony  of  Wessex  was  estab- 
lished on  a  firm  basis,  without  the  degiuda- 
tion  of  the  other  states.  In  ecclesiastical 
•affairs  also  the  monastic  question  came  to  a 
head,  but  how  far  Dunstan  was  identified 
with  this  movement  it  is  hard  to  say.  As  a 
Benedictine,  he  doubtless  preferred  monks  to 
secular  canons,  but  he  was  no  fanatic  to  force 
them  on  a  reluctant  race.  In  his  own  see  he 
did  not  expel  the  canons,  but  in  Mercia,  where 
the  fervour  of  monasticism  was  perhaps  needed 
to  repair  the  Danish  ravages,  monks  came  in 
«ver}'where.  But  JEthelwold  of  Winchester, 
'*  father  of  monks,"  was  the  real  monastic 
hero,  although  the  late  biographers  of 
Dunstan  connected  naturally  his  great  name 
with  what  to  them  was  the  great  movement 
of  the  age.  His  spiritual  acti'vdty,  how- 
ever, was  rather  the  activity  of  teacher  and 
organiser,  and  after  all  he  was  more  of  a 
statesman  than  an  ecclesiastic.  If  the  coro- 
nation of  Edgar  at  Bath  was  his  work,  and 
if  it  was  a  conscious  reproduction  of  the 
ceremony  which  made  Otto  I.  Emperor  of 
Rome,  his  claim  to  statesmanship  must  be 
exceptionally  high. 

With  Edgar*8  death  a  new  period  of  con- 
fusion begins.  After  the  troubled  reign  of 
Edward,  the  accession  of  Ethelred  the 
Unready  put  power  again  into  the  hands 
of  Dunstan's  enemies,  and  ended  finally  his 
political  career.  We  do  not  know  who  was 
the  ruler  of  England  during  Ethelred*s 
minority ;  but  it  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
Dunstan.  He  lived  on  till  988,  devoting  his 
Jast  years  to  the  government  of  his  diocese 


and    his    province,    and    in    the  pnrsuita  of 

literatui*e,  music,  and  the  finer  hundici-aits,  to 

which  he  was  alwavs  addicted.     In  his  old 

age,    as    at    Glastonburv    in  his  youth,  he 

reverted  to  the  same  studies  and  objects.     He 

was,  as    Bishop  Stubbs   says,   the   Gerbert, 

not  the  Hildebrand,   of  the  tenth  century. 

The   unreal  romances  of    later   biographera 

that  have  obscured  his  life  in  a  cloud  of 

myth    must    be    disregarded  for  earlier,    if 

scantier,  authorities,  if  we  desire  to  find  out 

what  the  real  man  was. 

The  materials  for  Dunstan's  bicwraphy  are 
collected  by  Br.  Stubbs^  iu  his  Memoriait  of 
Duncan,  in  the  Bolls  Senes.  The  Intradudion 
oontaius  all  that  is  known  of  the  saint's  career. 
Dr.  Stubbs's  collection  includes  a  life  by  an 
almost  contemporary  Saxon  monk,  whiph, 
nevertheless,  has  a  lar^e  legendary  element, 
and  later  biographies  by  Adalbert  and  b^  Osbem, 
and  still  later  by  Eodmer  and  William  of 
Malmesbury,  to  correct  Osbern's  mistakes.  It 
is  from  these  later  sources  that  accounts  like 
Mllman*8  iu  Latin  Chrittianity  are  drawn,  and 
which  consequently  give  entirely  fUae  im- 
pressions of  the  subject.  Hume's  famous 
account  represents  the  reaction  against  the 
monastic  idea  that  inspired  Osbem  and  Eadmer. 
Like  that  iu  most  of  tne  ordinary  histories  it  is 
historically  worthless.  Mr.  Bobertsou'a  Ei»a\f» 
on  Dunstan '«  Policy,  and  the  Coronation  o/Edgar^ 
in  his  HistoricaL  fcsayo,  are  extremely  sagges- 
tive,  but  their  theories  are  not  always  based  on 
definite  facte.  [T.  F.  T.] 

Dnpleix,  Joseph  {d,  1750),  was  appointed 
Qovemor  of  Pondicherry  for  the  French  East 
India  Company  in  1742.     Before  this  final 
promotion  he  had  spent  over  twenty  years  in 
the  East,  where  he  had  acquired  an  enormous 
fortune.    The  outbreak  of  the  war  in  1744 
gave  him,  as  he  thought,  an  opportunity  for 
establishing  the  French  ascendency.    Laboiu:- 
donnais,  the  French    admiral,  captured  the 
town  of  Madras,    and    Dupleix,    acting  as 
Govcrnor-in-chief,  and  intending  to  destroy 
all  the  English  settlements,  refused  to  ratify 
the  treaty  which  provided  for  the  restoration 
of   the  town.     But  this  act  of  perfidy  was 
rendered  useless  by  the    Peace    of    Aix-la- 
Chapelle  (1748),  which  stipulated  for  an  ex- 
change 01  conquests  in  India.    On  the  death 
of  the  Nizam-ul-Mulk  of  the  Deccan,  and  the 
dispute  for  the  succession  between  his  son,  Kazir 
Jung,  and  his  grandson,  I^Iuzuffer  Jung,  Du- 
pleix formed  a  confederacy  with  Chunda  Sahib, 
the  pretender  to  the  Camatic,  and  MuzufPer 
Jung  to  oust  the  English  candidates,  Nazir 
Jung  and  Mohammed  Ali,  and  eventually,  as 
he  hoped,  drive  the  English  from  India.    The 
whole  Camatic  was  overrun  by  the  French, 
and  the  English  and  their  nabob  were  cooped 
up   in  Trichinopoly.     Dupleix  was  equally 
successful  in  the  Deccan.    A  conspiracy  broke 
out  at  his  instigation.     Nazir  Jung  was  mur- 
dered, and  MuzufFer  Jung,  assuming  the  vacant 
dignity,    conferred    the    nabobship    of    the 
Camatic  on  Chimda    Sahib,  and  the  ^nce- 
ro^-alty  of  all  India  south  of  the  Kistna  on 
Dupleix.      Clive*8  daring  expedition  to  and 
defence  of  Arcot   divided  the  forces  of  the 


Dnp 


(  396  ) 


Bur 


allies,  and  the  long  string  of  successes  which 
followed,  caused  the  complete  failure  of  Du- 
pleix's  plans.  As  his  success  deserted  him 
his  employers  hecame  alienated.  In  1754  he 
was  recalled,  to  die  in  misery  and  poverty  a 
iow  years  afterwards  in  Paris. 

Duplin,  The  Battle  of  (Aug.  12,  1332), 
was  fought  in  Stratheam  between  Edward 
Baliol,  the  leader  of  the  discontented  barons, 
and  the  army  of  David  II.,  under  the  Earl  of 
Har.  Balioi,  though  at  the  head  of  a  much 
smaller  body  of  men,  and  in  a  most  dis- 
ad\'antageous  position,  won  a  complete  victory, 
owing  to  the  over-confidence  of  the  royalist 
troops. 

I>1iqiia8ney  Fokt.    [Fort  Duqvbsnb.] 

XHurluuii.  This  city  is  chiefly  memor- 
able in  early  English  history  as  the  site  to 
which  the  bishop  and  clerg}''  from  Holy 
Island  finally  transferred  the  relics  of  St. 
Aidan  to  escape  from  the  ravages  of  the 
Danes  towards  the  end  of  the  tenth  centuT}'. 
The  town  seems  to  have  suffered  at  the  hands 
of  William  the  Conqueror,  when  he  laid  waste 
the  North  in  1070.  The  same  king  built  a 
castle  here  in  1072.  Some  twenty  years  later 
Bishop  William  of  St.  Calais  commenced  to 
build  the  great  cathedral  (1093).  In  later 
history,  Durham  was,  for  its  position  near  f he 
borders,  a  place  of  great  military  importance 
in  the  wars  between  England  and  Scotland. 
As  the  seat  of  the  coifHs  of  the  Palatine  juris- 
diction of  its  bishop,  it  was  a  place  of  much 
political  importance.  Its  chapter  was  ex- 
ceedingly wealthy;  and  the  plan  of  Oliver 
Cromwell,  to  establish  a  university  out  of 
the  capitular  revenues,  was  revived  and  car- 
ried out  in  1833.     [Palatine  Counties.] 

IHirliam,  John  Geokob  Lambton,  Earl 
OF  {b.  1792,  d.  1840),  descended  from  one  of 
the  oldest  families  in  England,  was  the  son 
of  William  Henry  Lambton.  After  serving 
for  a  short  time  in  a  regiment  of  hussars,  he 
was  returned  to  Parliament  in  1814  for  the 
county  of  Durham,  and  soon  disting^shed 
himself  as  a  very  advanced  and  energetic  re- 
former. In  1821  he  brought  forward  a  plan 
of  his  own  for  Parliamentary  Keform.  In 
1828  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  with  the 
title  of  Baron  Durham.  When  the  ministry 
of  Lord  Grey  was  formed  in  November,  1830, 
Lord  Durham  became  Lord  Privy  Seal. 
During  the  difficulties  which  arose  out  of 
the  Belgian  question,  he  was  sent  to  St. 
Petersburg  on  a  special  mission  as  suc- 
cessor to  Lord  Heytesbur>-.  The  object 
of  his  journey  was  to  perauade  the  Rus- 
sian cabinet  to  g^ve  immediate  instruc- 
tions to  the  Russian  plenipotentiaries  in  the 
Ix)ndon  Conference  to  co-operate,  on  behalf 
of  his  Imperial  ^lajesty,  cordially  and  effec- 
tively, on  whatever  measures  mii{ht  ap- 
pear to  be  best  calculated  to  effect  the  early 
execution   of  the  treaty.    Russia,  however, 


was  as  yet  unwilling  to  join  the  Wesiem 
powers  in  measures  of  coercion  towards  Hol- 
land, and  hence  the  mission  was  a  failure.  In 
1833  he  was  created  Earl  of  Durham  in  reward 
for  his  services  of  the  previous  year  when 
sent  on  the  special  mission  to  Russia,  a  court  to 
which  he  was  accredited  ambassador  in  1836. 
In  1838  he  was  sent  to  Canada  during  the 
time  of  the  Canadian  Rebellion.  His  firmness 
and  arbitrariness,  though  they  saved  Canada, 
excited  a  great  opposition,  which  was  increased 
b^  his  lavish  display,  and  when  his  Cana- 
dian policy  was  attacked  by  Lord  Brougham, 
the  ministry  threw  him  over.  He  was  re- 
called and  returned  to  England,  where  he 
died  soon  after  at  Cowes,  in  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  in  July,  1840. 

Annual  Stgigter:  S.  Walpole,  HitL  of  Eng. 
from.  2826. 

Durhaaiy  Simeok  of  {d.  1129),  was  a 
historian  who  appears  to  have  been  a  monk 
and  precentor  of  Durham.  He  was  certainly 
living  in  1104,  and  probably  died  in  1129, 
as  for  that  year  his  great  work  is  continued 
by  a  different  hand.  The  chief  writings 
attributed  to  him  are  a  history'  of  Christianity 
in  Northumbria,  and  a  history'  of  the  Danish 
and  English  kings  from  the  time  of  Bedels 
death  to  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  He  appears 
to  have  prc6ei*ved  many  &cts  of  Anglian 
history  which  are  not  to  be  found  in  any  of  the 
existing  versions  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle^ 
and  which  would  otherwise  have  entirely 
perished  in  those  ages  when,  after  the  irrup- 
tion of  the  Danes,  Northumbria  was  little 
better  than  a  waste.  But  it  is  doubtful 
whether  all  the  works  that  pass  under  his 
name  arc  really  to  be  ascribed  to  his  pen. 

The  works  of  Simeon  of  Durham  were  printed 
by  Twysden,  in  his  Scinptorct  Dectm.  They 
have  also  been  published  by  the  Sortees  Society 
and  in  the  Bolls  Series. 

Dnrotri^as,  The,  were  an  ancient  British 
tribe,  occupying  the  present  county  of  Dorset. 
Prof.  Rhf  s  considers  them  to  have  been,  like 
the  Dumnonii  of  Cornwall  and  Devon,  in 
the  main  Goidels — that  is,  members  of  the 
earlier  Celtic  invasion,  and  therefore  more 
likely  to  be  to  a  considerable  extent  infused 
with  the  blood  of  the  pre-Celtic  races — rather 
than  Brythons. 

Bh^,  C«aic  BHiaxn. 

2>1irwardy  Allan  {d.  1275),  was  Justiciar 
of  Scotland  in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  and  married  to  an  illegitimate 
daughter  of  Alexander  II.  He  served  with 
great  credit  in  the  French  wars  under  Henr}' 
III.,  who  afterwards  supported  his  cause  in 
Scotland.  The  Durward  family  was  opposed 
to  the  influence  of  the  great  Norman  family 
of  tlie  Com}nis,  and  succeeded  in  wresting  the 
young  king,  Alexander  III.,  from  his  subjec- 
tion to  their '  rivals.  This  was  accomplished 
by  the  seizure  of  Edinburgh  Castle,  after 
which  the  aspect  of  affairs  in  Scotland  looked 
so  serious  that  Henry  III.  was  obliged  to 


Dyn 


(  896  ) 


come  northwards  and  personally  adjust  the 
government  (1255).  But  the  party  of  the 
Oomyns  soon  gained  ground,  and  Allan 
Durward  was  forced  to  flee  to  England,  where 
he  seems  to  have  been  always  in  favour  with 
Henry  III.  The  Comyns,  however,  lost  their 
great  leader,  the  Earl  of  Menteith,  upon  which 
Allan  Durward  seems  to  have  secured  his  old 
position.  At  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century 
Nicholas  de  Soulis,  one  of  his  descendants 
through  his  wife  ilaryoz,  claimed  the  suc- 
cession to  the  throne  of  Scotland,  a  claim 
which,  to  some  extent,  explains  the  charge 
brought  against  Allan,  in  his  lifetime,  of 
intriguing  with  the  Pope  for  the  legitimisa- 
tion  of  his  wife,  so  as  to  make  her  next  heir  to 
the  throne. 

DynlLoniy  John,  Lobd  {d,  1509),  was  a 
Torkist  leader  who,  in  1459,  sallied  forth 
.  from  Calais,  and,  proceeding  across  to  Sand- 
wich, captured  two  of  the  Lancastrian  nobles. 
Lord  Rivers  and  Lord  Scales,  whom  he  led 
back  with  him  to  Calais.  He  was  also  en- 
gaged in  the  battle  of  Towton,  and  for  his 
services  received  large  grants  of  land  from 
Edward  IV. 


ZSadmer  {if.  circa  1060,  d.  1 124)  was  a  monk 

of  Canterbury,  and  the  confidential  adviser  of 

Anselm.  H  e  was  elected  Bishop  of  St.  Andrews, 

but,  owing  to  a  misunderstanding,  was  never 

consecrated.     He  wrote  several  ecclesiastical 

biographies  and  theological  tracts,  besides  a 

Life  of  St.   Anselm  (VtCa  Antelmi)^  and  a 

History  of  His  own  Times  (Hiatm-ia  Novo- 

rum)f  extending  from  959  to   1122.     Both 

these  works  rank  very  high  as  authorities  for 

the  reigns  of  William  II.  and  Henry  II.,  and 

the  Vita  Anaehni  is  one  of  the  chief  sources 

of  information  with  regard  to  the  archbishop. 

Eadmer's    works  were    published  at  Paris, 

1721.     [Anselm.] 

Wharton,  Anglia  Sacra ;  Wright,  >  Bto^rapM'a 
Brit.  Literarta;  Church,  Lif^  ofAnsdm, 

EaldJUth.     [See  Index.] 

ZSaldgrth,  wife  of  Harold,  was  the  widow 
of  Grifydd,  King  of  North  VVales,  daughter 
of  Elfgar,  and  sister  of  Edwin  and  Morkere. 
The  date  of  her  second  marriage  is  doubtful, 
but  its  motive,  viz.,  to  secure  the  friendship 
of  her  powerful  brothers,  is  sufiiciently  plain. 
{Hakold.] 

XSaldomian.    [Alderman.] 


.,  King  of  Bemicia  (633—634], 
was  the  son  of  Ethelfrith.  After  his  fathers 
death  he  fled  to  Scotland,  where  he  was  con- 
verted to  Christianity.  On  the  death  of 
Edwin  he  returned  to  Northumbria,  and 
obtained  his  father* s  kingdom.  But,  like 
Osric,  he  relapsed  into  Paganism,  and  like 
him,  was  slain  by  Cudwallon. 


is  a  word  which  in  the  earliest  Anglo- 
Saxon  is  a  simple  title  of  honour,  denoting 
a  man  of  noble   blood.     It  was  thus  used 
in  the  laws  of  Ethelbert  [circa  600)  :    ♦*  If 
any   man  slay  a   man   in  an    eorl's    town, 
let    him    make    compensation    for    twelve 
shillings."      Its  use  was,  however,  restricted 
imtil  the  time  of  the  Banish  invasions ;  in  the 
days  of  Ethelred  the  title  began  to  supplant 
that  of  the  official  ealdorman,  owing  probably 
to  its  similarity  in  sound  with  the  Danish 
jarly  with  whici.  it  became  confused.     This 
change  was  completed  by  Canute,  who,  finding 
that  Uie  connection  between  the  sovereign  and 
the  Danish  jarl  was  closer  than  that  of  the 
sovereign  and  the  English  ealdorman,  gave  the 
carl  a  permanent  status  among  the  servitial 
nobility.     Finally,  he  divided  the  kingdom 
into  four  great  vice-regal  earldoms,  which 
continued  down  to  the  Conquest.     Under  the 
Norman  kings  the  title  of  earl  became  easily 
amalgamated  with  the  French  title  of  count, 
both  having  cornea  as  a  Latin  equivalent.    The 
nature  of  the  office  became  changed ;  it  ceased 
to  be  a  magistracy,  and  became  an  hereditary' 
fief.    The  first  earls  of  William  I.,  who,  even 
before  the  conspiracy  of  1075,  bestowed  the 
title  sparingly,  were  men  who  already  held 
the   title  of  count  in  Normandy,   or   were 
merely  the  successors  of  the  English  magis- 
trates of  the  same  name.    Exceptions  to  this 
rule  were    the    great   palatine  earldoms   of 
William,  which  he  created  probably  as  a  ])art 
of  the  national  svstem  of  defence.    Such  were 
the  earldom  of  Chester  on  the  Welsh  ^larches, 
and  the  bishopric  of  Durham  between  England 
and   Scotland;    the   earldom   of   Kent,   und 
the  earldom  of  Shropshire.     These  earls  were 
practically   indepenaent   princes;   land    was 
for  the  most  part  held  of  them,  not  of  the 
king ;  they  held  their  own  councils,  appointed 
the  Serins,  and  received  the  profito  of  the 
courts.     It  should  be  observed  that  they  were 
all  created  before  the  earls'   conspiracy   of 
1075.     The  sons  of  the  Conqueror  were  also 
cautious  in  creating  earldoms,  but  Stephen 
and  Matilda,   in    order    to  gain    adherents, 
created  many  of  these  dignities,  which  were 
for  the  most  part  perpetuated,  though  they 
were  at  first  titular,  supported  by  pensions 
on  the  Exchequer,  and  had  little  or  no  land  in 
the  districts  from  which   their  titles   were 
taken.    The  number  of  the  earls  was  carefully 
kept  down  by   the  earlier  Angevin    kings. 
These  dignities  were  hereditary,    and  were 
conferred  by  special  investiture,  the  sword  of 
the  shire  being  girt  on  by  the  king,  and  by 
this  ceremony  the  rank  was  conferred.     As 
the  successor  of  the  ealdorman,  or  rather  the 
ealdorman  under  another  name,  the  earl  also 
received  the  third  penny  of  the  county,  which 
after  the  thirteenth  century  was  changed  into 
a  creation  fee  of  £20.     His  relief  was  higher 
than   that  of  the  baron.      Gradually  these 
dignities  ceased  to  imply  a  territorial  juris- 
diction, and  became  merely  honorary.     They 


(  897  ) 


coald  bo  created  by  charter,  or  by  letters 
patent,  or  by  Act  of  Parliament,  a  custom 
introduced  by  Edward  III.  The  title  con- 
tinued to  be  taken  from  a  county,  or  county 
town  (with  the  exception  of  the  earldoms  of 
Arundel  and  of  March,  the  latter  being 
derived  from  the  Welsh  border  districts), 
long  after  all  local  authority  had  disappeared. 
Later  it  became  the  custom  for  commoners  and 
barons  created  earls  often  to  keep  their  own 
names  instead  of  adopting  local  titles.  An 
earl  takes  precedence  next  after  a  marquis, 
and  before  a  viscount  or  baron.  [Alderman  ; 
Palatinb  Counties.] 

Stabbs,  Const,  Hiat.,  chaps,  vi.,  xi.,  xx. ; 
Selden,  TUlea  of  Honour :  Lords'  Fiflk  Report  on 
the  Dignity  of  a  Pesr ;  Nicholas,  Hist.  Peerags ; 
Madox,  Baronia  Angliea, 

SarthqnakOi  Covncil  of  the  (1381), 
was  the  name  given  to  the  Svnod  which 
condemned  the  tenets  of  Wiclif  and  his 
followers.  [Wiclif.]  It  was  so  called  from 
a  shock  of  earthquake  which  was  felt  during 
its  first  sitting. 

EflUrt  Africa,  Brittsh.    [Isba.] 

ZSast  A-wgHo.      There  is  no  accoimt  left 
us  of   the  settlement  of  the  Angles  on  the 
eastern  shires  of  central  England,  nor  have  we 
even  any  such  entry  as  that  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Chronie/fif  which  for  the  more  northern  Anglian 
district  relates  that  Ida  assumed  the  kingdom 
of  Korthumbiia  in  the  year  647.    Nothing  of 
the  details  of  the  conquest  is  known  to  us 
now,  and  we  can  only  dimly  infer  a  twofold 
settlement,  which  has  perpetuated  itself  down 
to  our  own  days  in  the  two  counties  of  the 
North  Folk  and  the  South  Folk  (Norfolk  and 
Suffolk).     According  to  Mr.  Green's  surmise, 
the  conquest  of  Norfolk  at  least  was  the  work 
of  the  Gyrwas,  and  may  have  been  achieved 
towards    the    middle  of  the  sixth  century. 
The  first  historical  king  of  the  East  Angles  is 
Redwald,  the  protector  of  Edwin  (q.v.),  who 
reigned  from  about  693 — 617.    This  Redwald 
was,  according  to  Bede's  account,  the  grand- 
son   of    one    Uffa,    from   whom   the  East 
Anglian  kings  took  their  gentile  name  of 
Ufiings.     In  his  days,   East  Anglia  was  to 
some  extent  dependent  on  the  kingdom  of 
Kent,  and  Redwald  seems  to  have  become 
half  Christian  under  the  pressure  of  his  over- 
lord.   Bnt  the  new  creed  was    not    as  yet 
thoroughly  acceptable    to  the    mass  of  the 
people.     Redwalas  son  and*  successor,  Eorp- 
wald,  was  slain  by  one  of  his  own  subjects 
in  627  or  628,  the  year  of  his  conversion,  and 
for  three  years  at  least  the  land  reverted  to 
paganism.      But  at    last    Eorpwald's.  half- 
brother,    Sigebert    the     Learned,    who   had 
received  the  new  faith  during  his  exile  among 
the  Franks,  returned  to  rme  the  kingdom. 
Under  his  protection,  Felix  the  Burgundian 
commenced  the  work  of  re-conversion  or  con- 
version at  Dunwich.    Two  years  later,  Fursey, 
tn  Irish  monk,  came  over  to  East  Anglia,  and 


before  long  Sigebert    himself    resigned    his 
throne,  and  retired  into  a  monastery  (634). 
Next  year,  however,  he   was  dragged  forth 
from  his  retreat  by  his  people,  who  were  now 
yielding  before  the  gi'owth  of  3Iercia,  and 
perished  in  the  battle  against  Fenda.    Anna, 
the  nephew  of  licdwald,  succeeded,  and  is 
noted    chiefly  for  the   sanctity  of  his  four  • 
daughters,  who  all    eventually  embraced  a 
religious  Ufc.    It  w^as  at  his  court  that  Cen-  * 
wealh  of  Wessex  took  refuge,  when  driven 
out  of  his  own  country  by  Penda,  and  it  was 
while  resident  in  the  East  Anglian  realm  that 
he  became  a  Christian.     For  the  hospitable 
shelter  afforded  to  Cenwealh,  Anna  incurred 
the  resentment  of  Penda,  who  now  fell  on  the 
East  Anglians  and  utterly  destroyed  Anna 
and  his  host.     East    Anglia    seems  now   to 
have   been  dependent    on   Mercia  to    some 
extent,  and    Penda     ap.pears  to  have  used 
Anna's  brother  .£thelhere  as  a  tool  against 
Northumberland.    But    with  the    battle    of 
the  Winwaed,  the  sceptre  of  Britain  passed  to 
Oswiu  of  Northumbria,  and  doubtless    the 
East  Angles  from  this  time,  though  retaining 
their  own  king,  became  dependent  on  the 
great  kingdom  of  the  noith.     But  Mercia  was 
not  long  in  reviving,  and  it  may  well  be  that 
by  the  time  of  Oswiu's  death  the  power  of 
Northumbria    was    only    nominal    in    East 
Anglia.      During   the    reign    of    Wulphere 
(668 — 676),  the  East  Angles  seem  to  have 
been  practically  under  the  rule  of  Mercia. 
Towanls  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Aldwnlf , 
King  of  the  East  Angles,  the  new  diocese  of 
Elmham    was    founded    for    the   Northfolk. 
The  seat  of  this  see  was  removed  to  Thetford 
about  the  year  1078,  and  to  Norwich  in  1101, 
having  towards  the  end  of  the  ninth  century 
incorporated   Dunwich,    the   diocese   of   the 
Southfolk.      [Bishoprics.]     From  this  time 
we    may    regard    East    Anglia    as     being 
something  of  an  appendage  of  Mercia,  till  on 
the  fall  of  that  kingdom  it  was  attached  to 
Wessex.     In  accordance  with  this  view,  we 
find  Ethelbald  of  Mercia  leading  the  East 
Angles  to  fight  against  the  West  Saxons  at 
the  battle  <S  Burfoid  (762).     On  Ethelbald's 
death.    East   Anglia    seems  for    a    time    to 
have  thrown  off  £he  Mercian  yoke ;  but  before 
the  close  of  his  reign  it  must  again  have  been 
subject,  though  of  course  still  retaining  its 
own  kings.     East  Anglia  and  Mercia  were  the 
two  kingdoms   whose  fi-ontiers  marked  the 
boundaries  of  Offa's  short-lived  archbishopric 
of  Lichfield.     But  by  this  time  the  days  of 
Mercians  greatness  were  almost  niunbered,  and 
it  had  already  laid  up  a  deep  store  of  hatred 
in  the  subject  kingdom  of  East  Anglia.     For 
in  792,  Offii  had  caused  Ethelbert,  the  King  of 
the  East  Angles,  to  be  put  to  death,  and  had 
thereupon  sei^sed  his  kingdom.     Hence  it  is 
no  wonder  that  when  Egbert  of  Wessex  had 
defeated  Beomwulf  of  ^lercia  at  the  battle  of 
EUandune  (823),  the  King  of  the  FAst  Angles 
should  request  the  victorious   West    Sfl^on 


(  398  ) 


sovereign  to  help  them   to    throw  off   the 
Mercian  yoke,  and,  encouraged  by  his  promise, 
defeat  his  tyrannical  overlord  and  hisr  successor 
in  two  battles.     East  Aiiglia  seems  to  have 
still  clung  to  its  old  kings  under  the  West 
Saxon  overloixlship  till  the  days  of  the  Danish 
invasion,  when  its  last  native  king,  £dmund, 
was    murdered    by   the    Danes.      The    land 
was  then  taken  possession  of  by  the  invaders, 
and  by  the  Treaty  of  Wedmore  became  the 
seat  of  a  Danish  kingdom  under  Guthrum 
(878).    [Danelagh.]    Later  on,  notwithstand- 
ing the  treaty,  the  Danes  of  East  Anglia 
aided  Hastings  in  his  attacks  upon  Engltuid. 
Alfred's  son  and  successor,  however,  succeeded 
in    forcing    the    Danes    of    East  Anglia  to 
acknowledge  him  after  a  long  struggle,  which 
lasted  nearly  all  his  reign  (921).     Fi*om  this 
time,  though  owing  to  the  infusion  of  Danish 
blood  the  inhabitants  of  East  Anglia  may 
have  been  somewhat  inclined  to  side  with  the 
Danes    in    subsequent    invasions,  yet    their 
existence  as  a  separate  kingdom  ceased.    But 
though  part  and  parcel  of  the  English  king- 
dom, they  seem  still  to  have  retained  their 
own  Witan,  which  in  1004  bought  peace  of 
Sweyn.    When    the    kingdom  was    divided 
between    Canute  and    Edmund  Ironside  in 
1016,  East  Anglia  somewhat  strangely  fell,  to- 
gether with  South    England,  to  Edmund's 
share ;  on  Canute's  death  it  was  assigned,  with 
the  rest  of  the  countrj'-  north  of  the  Thames, 
to  Harold  as  superior  lord.     Under  Canute, 
East  Anglia  had  been  one  of  the  four  gi'eat 
earldoms  into  which  he  divided  his  whole 
kingdom,  and  it  continued  an  earldom  under 
Edward  the  Confessor.    Harold  seems  to  have 
been  appointed  to  this  office  about  the  3'ear 
1045,  and  in  the  latter  half  of  the  same  reign 
was    apparently  succeeded    by   his    brother 
Gyrth.     With    the    Conquest   the    sci^arate 
existence  of  East  Anglia  comes  to  an  end, 
and  from  this  time  its  history'  is  to  be  read  in 
the  history  of  England  generally.     [Angles  ; 
Anglo-Saxon  Kingdoms.] 

KiHos  OF  East  Akolia. 

Uffa  671—578 

Tytillus     ......  S78-S99 

Bedwald 539—617 

£orpwald 617—628 

Sigebert 631—634 

Egric fiSi— 635 

Anna 635—654 

Ethelhere 654—655 

Ethel  wold 655—664 

Ealdwulf 664—713 

▲Ifwold 713—740 

The  Anglo-Saxon  Ckron. ;  Lappenberg,  Anglo- 
Saxon  Kings;  Palgrave,  EiiyZufc  CnmrnanvBeaKn  i 
Froeman,  Old  £ng.  Hist.  [T.  A.  A.] 

XSast  India  Company,  Thb,  was  in- 
corporated by  charter,  in  1600,  under  the 
title  of  "The  Governor  and  Company  of 
Merchants  of  London  trading  to  the  East 
Indies,"  with  a  capital  of  £70,000.  In  spite 
of  the  opposition  of  the  Portuguese  and  the 
Dutch,  the  company  succeeded  in  establish- 
ing commercial  relations  with  the  Asiatics, 


and  founded  agencies  or  factories,  of  which 
the  most  important  was  that  of  Surat  (1614). 
Nevertheless  its  position  was  for  many  years 
most  precarious ;  its  only  possession  was  the 
island  of  Lantore,  and  after  the  ISIassacre  of 
Amboyna  (1623)  it  almost  ceased   to   exist. 
Better  times  came  with  the  establishment  of 
the  Hooghly  factory  (1642),  and  the  valuable 
acquisition  of  Bombay  as  pail  of  the  dower  of 
Catherine  of  Braganza  (1661),  to  which  the 
presidency  of  Western  India  was  transferred 
in   1685.      Fort  St.   George  became  a  pre- 
sidency in  1683,  and  was  afterwards  known  as 
that  of  Madras ;  it  was  separated  from  Bengal 
in  1681.     Charles  II.  gave  the  company  the 
important  privilege  of  making  peace  or  war 
on    their    own    account.       GnidiuUly     the 
monopoly  of  the  East  India  Company  became 
unpopular  in  England ;  rival  associations  were 
formed,  of  which  the  most  important  was  the 
unchartered  "New  Company,"  which  strove, 
though  unsuccessfully,  for  freedom  of  trade. 
Supported  by  the  Whig  party,  they  made  two 
vigorous  attempts,  in  1603  and  in  1698,  to 
prevent  the  renewal  of  the  East  India  Com- 
pany's   charter,    but    the    largesses    of    the 
company  in  secret  service  money  prevailed  in 
Parliament.     Lord   3Iontag^c,   however,   in 
the  same  year  established  a  rival  company  in 
tlie  Whig  interest,  known  as  the  "  General 
East  India  Comimny,"  or  English  Company. 
After  being  partially  united  in    1702,  they 
were  completely  consolidated  by  Lord   Go- 
dolphin  in   1708,   under  the  title  of  "The 
United  Company  of  IMerchants  of  England 
trading  to   the   East  Indies."     The   capital 
consisted  of  £3,200,000  lent  to  government 
at  5  per  cent.     From  this  time  the  historj^  of 
the  company  practically  becomes  the  history 
of  India  (q.v.),  and  it  will  be  sufficient  here  to 
indicate  briefly  the  chief  events  from  their 
non- military  side.    The  overthrow  by  Clive 
of  the  great  attempt  of  the  French  to  found 
an  empire  in  India  was  followed  by  a  period 
of  maladministration.      During  this  period, 
however,  was  inaugurated  in  Bengal  the  im- 
portant system  of  dual  government,  by  which 
native  princes  suiTendered  their  revenues  to 
the  English  in  return  for  a  pension,  and  the 
maintenance  by  the  company  of  an  army  of 
defence.     Clive  also  attempted  to  purify  the 
company  by  putting  a  stop  to  the  system  of 
private  trading  and  the  receipt  of  presents 
from  native  princes;    but  the  struggle  with 
Hyder  Ali   demoralised  them  still    further, 
and    Chatham    contemplated    seriously    the 
enforcemxjnt  of  the  dormant  rights  of   the 
crown.     The   Bengal    famine    of    1770   was 
followed  by  Lord  North's  Regulatifig  Act,  by 
which,  in  exchange  for  a  loan  of  a  million 
which   the   company  required,   and  the  re- 
mission of  the  annual  payment   to  govern- 
ment of  £400,000  a  year,  a  new  council  was 
appointed  by  Parliament;  a  supreme  court, 
of  which  the  judges  were  appointed  by  the 
crown,  was  established ;  and  the  Governor  of 


(  399  ] 


See 


Bengal  was  made  Governor-General  of  India. 
Dundaa'B  bill  of  1783  was  followed  in  Ko- 
vember  by  Fox^b  India  BiU^  of  which  the 
main  features  were  the  transfcrrence  of  the 
authority  of  the  company  to  seven  com- 
missioners nominated  in  the  first  instance  by 
Parliament,  and,  when  vacancies  occurred,  by 
the  crown ;  while  the  management  of  the 
property  and  commerce  of  the  company  was 
to  be  entrusted  to  a  subordinate  council  of 
directors,  entirely  under  the  superior  council 
and  nominated  by  the  Court  of  Proprietors. 
The  measure  was  very  unpopular,  and  the  king 
used  his  personal  influence  in  the  House  of 
Lords  to  procure  its  rejection.  PitVn  India 
BiU  of  the  following  year  was  framed  upon 
the  same  lines.  A  Board  of  Control  was 
established  as  a  ministerial  department, 
having  under  its  supervision  the  political 
conduct  of  the  company,  and  the  appointment 
of  the  highest  oihcers  was  subjected  to  the 
\eto  of  the  crown.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
company  was  allowed  the  entire  management 
of  its  business  afiEairs  and  patronage.  This 
double  government  continued  until  the  ad- 
ministration was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
crown.  Passing  over  the  settlement  of  the 
land-tenure  of  Bengal,  the  Mysore  and 
Mahratta  wars,  and  the  administration  of 
Lord  Amherst,  we  come  to  the  Governor- 
Generalship  of  Lord  William  Bentinck. 
The  privileges  of  the  company  during  this 
period  were  seriously  affected,  and  in  ex- 
change for  the  renewal  of  its  charter  for 
twenty  years,  it  was  forced  to  abandon  its 
monopoly  of  trade,  and  to  give  up  all  attempts 
to  r^tnct  the  settlement  of  Europeans  in 
India.  At  the  same  time  the  law  was  codi- 
iied,  and  a  legal  member,  not  a  servant  of  the 
company,  added  to  the  council.  The  anom- 
alous position  of  the  company  was  increased 
when,  in  1853,  the  patronage  of  the  civil 
service  was  taken  away  from  it  and  thrown 
open  to  competition.  The  Indian  Mutiny  pre- 
cipitated events  ;  and  after  Lord  Palmerston 
and  Lord  Derby  had  failed  to  produce  a 
satisfactoiy  solution  of  the  difficulty,  Lord 
John  Russell  proposed  that  the  House  should 
proceed  by  way  of  resolutions.  Upon  them 
was  based  the  Aeifor  the  Better  Gorernment  of 
India  (1858),  against  which  Mill  protested  so 
vigorously.  It  provided  that  the  entire  ad- 
ministration should  be  transferred  to  the 
crown,  which  was  to  govern  through  one  of 
the  Secretaries  of  State  assisted  by  a  council 
of  fifteen.  The  Governor-General  received  the 
new  title  of  Viceroy,  and  the  naval  and  military 
forces  of  the  company  were  united  with  the 
services  of  the  Queen.  The  Indian  revenues 
could  not,  without  the  consent  of  both  Houses 
of  Parliament,  be  applied  to  carry  on  military 
operations  beyond  the  frontier.  The  com- 
pany still  existed  as  a  medium  for  distributing 
stock,  but  was  finally  extinguished  in  1873. 

Knyc,  Admini*trntinn  of  thf  Eoht  Ivdia  Com- 
pany;    ICill.    Hitiory    of    India;     Malcolm. 


India;  Report  on  t\»  Affaire  of  the  Saet  India 
Company,  1858;  McCarthy,  Ulet,  of  Our  (hen 
TiniM,  vol.  iii ;  and  see  the  article  India. 

East  Betford  Question  (1827).  The 

borough  of  East  Hetford  had  been  convicted 
of  corruption,  and  the  question  of  the  manner 
in  which  its  franchise  should  be  disposed  of 
was  brought  before  the  House  of  Conunons. 
On  the  one  hand,  it  was  proposed  that  it  idiould 
be  given  to  the  town  of  Birmingham  ;  on 
the  other,  that  it  should  be  transferred  to  the 
hundred  in  which  East  Ketford  is  situated. 
The  Duke  of  Wellington  and  the  majority 
of  the  cabinet  supported  the  latter  alter- 
native ;  Mr.  Huskisson  voted  for  the  former, 
and  this  led  to  his  withdrawal  &om  tiie 
cabinet. 

Molesworth,  Hist,  of  the  Reform  BiU. 

Ebbflfleet,  in  the  Isle  of  Thanet,  is  iden- 
tified as  the  Wippedosfleot,  where  Hengest 
and  Horsa  (q.v.)  are  said  to  have  landed  (in 
450  Y)t  and  near  which  Hengest  and  Aesc 
some  years  later  totally  def efit^  the  Britons. 
Ebbsfleet  was  also  the  landing  place  of  St. 
Augustine  in  597. 

Eodssiaatioal  Conunisnon  Court, 

The,  was  established  by  James  II.  in  1686. 
It  was  composed  of  seven  members :  the  Lord 
Chancellor  (Jeffreys),  the  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbmy  (Sancroft),  who  excused  himself  from 
attending,  the  Bishops  of  Durham  and  Ro- 
chester, the  Lord  Treasurer  (Rochester),  and 
the  Chief  Justice  of  the  King's  Bench 
(Herbert).  It  enforced  the  king's  orders 
against  controversial  sermons,  deprived  the 
Master  of  Magdalen  College,  Cambridge,  for 
refusing  to  give  a  degree  to  a  Benedictine 
monk,  and  expelled  the  FeUows  of  Magdalen 
College,  Oxford,  for  refusing  to  elect  a  royal 
nominee  as  president.  After  the  acquittal  of 
the  Seven  Bishops,  and  the  publication  of  a 
manifesto  by  William  of  Orange,  James 
thought  it  advisable  to  give  way,  and  in 
October,  1688,  dissolved  the  Commission. 

EcclonasticalCominunoners.  [See 
Index.] 

Ecclesiastioal  Courts.    [See  below.] 

EcdasiastiGal     Jnrisdiotion.     In 

England  the  canon  law  has  a  separate 
history  from  that  which  prevailed  on  the 
Continent.  There  the  mfiuence  of  the 
Theodosian  Code  secured  it  a  uniform  pro- 
cedure and  a  ready  acceptance.  Here  it 
was  modified  by,  and  in  constant  antagonism 
to,  the  common  law.  Before  the  Conquest, 
the  law  of  the  Church  in  England  consisted  of 
rules  of  penance,  canons,  religious  laws,  and 
the  course  of  episcopal  jurisdiction.  Kules  of 
penance,  appropriating  to  every  sin  the 
amount  of  satisfaction  to  be  paid  by  the 
sinner,  nre  laid  down  in  the  penitentials  of 
Archbishop  Theodore,  Bede,  and  others. 
These  were  binding  only  in  so  far  as  con- 
science enforced  them.     Some  canons  from 


(400) 


abroad  wero  adopted,  and  others  were  made  ■ 
by  piroTUicial  coanciU.  Koyal  laws  on  re-  i 
ligiooa  mattm — t.g.^  the  laws  of  Alfred  ■ 
— are  not  properly  part  of  ecclesiastical  I 
law.  They  bad  their  bindini^  force  as  j 
part  of  the  law  of  the  land.  ,^Mides  these 
written  laws,  the  bishop  or  his  archdeacon, 
sittini^  in  the  shire  or  hundred  court, 
declared  the  law  on  ecclesiastical  matters; 
for  to  the  bishop  pertained  the  duty  of 
watching  over  sacred  persons  and  things,  and 
deciding  matrimonial  cases.  As  the  ealdor- 
man  pronounced  the  secular  law  in  matters 
which  were  secular,  so  in  ecclesiastical  cases 
the  bishop  prononncc'd  the  law  which  was 
proper  to  them.  fThe  ordinance  of  the  Con- 
queror, separating  the  spiritual  and  temporal 
courts,  provided  that  the  bishop  should  judge 
ecclesiastical  causes  in  his  own  court,  and 
at'cording  to  the  caiuins  and  epiacop^  laws, 
which  were  to  take  the  place  of  the  unwritten 
law  which  decided  these  matters.  With  this 
ordinance  must  be  connected  the  appoint- 
ment of  men  like  Lanfranc,  who  were  skilled 
in  the  law  of  the  Continent,  to  the  English 
episcopate.  Dioceses  now  were  broken  up 
into  different  territorial  archdeaconries  for 
the  purposes  of  jurisdiction.  During  the 
reign  of  Stephen,  the  bishops  were  upheld 
by  papal  interference,  and  the  middle  of  the 
twelftn  century  saw  a  great  epoch  in  the 
history  of  canonical  jurisprudence.  In  1149 
Archbishop  Theobald  brought  over  Yacarius 
from  Lombardy  to  teach  the  civil  law  in 
Oxford.  Yacarius  was  sent  out  of  the  king- 
dom by  Stephen,  but  the  study  which  had 
lately  oeen  revived  abroad  drew  many  from 
England  to  pursue  it  on  the  Continent. 
About  this  time  Gratian,  a  native  of  Tuscany, 
put  forth  his  Deeretum,  which  was  an  embodi- 
ment of  canon  law  as  it  then  stood.  As  the 
mode  of  procedure  and  many  principles  in 
canonical  jurisprudence  were  supplied  by  the 
civil  law,  the  two  systems  were  held  to  be 
closely  joined.  They  were  looked  upon  with 
dislike  by  the  common-lawyers  and  the 
crown.  Ecclesiastical  courts  were  continually 
trying  to  extend  their  jurisdiction.  They 
harassed  the  people,  and  encroached  on  the 
province  of  the  royal  courts.  Henry  II. 
curtailed  their  jurisdiction  by  taking  away 
from  them  case?  of  advowson^  &c.,  and  by 
the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon.  [Beckbt; 
Hbnuy  II.]  Their  encroachments  were 
checked  by  prohibitions  issued  by  the  royal 
courts.  As  the  Decretum  received  new  addi- 
tions from  successive  Popes,  so  the  English 
canon  law  was  enlarged  by  the  addition  of 
constitutions,  legatine  and  provincial.  Lega- 
tine  constitutions  began  from  the  legations  of 
Otho  and  Otterbuoric,  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
III.,  which  may  therefore  be  reckoned  as  the 

Sariod  at  which  the  received  text  of    the  > 
nglish    canon    law    began    to    be  formed. 
Successive    archbishops,    from    Langton    to 
Chichele,    framed    provincial    constitutions. 


Ecclesiastical  jurisprudence  was  so  dosely 
conne«*ted  with  papal  and  foreign  infloence 
that  it  met  with  little  favour  from  English- 
men  in  the  reign  of  ilenry  IIL  Complaint 
was  made  by  the  clergy  of  the  use  of  pro- 
hibitions. In  1236  the  barons  at  the  Covmcil 
of  Merton  refused  to  admit  canonical  or 
civilian  principles  into  the  laws  of  England  ; 
and  the  king  closed  the  law  schools  in  London 
where  the  canon  and  civil  laws  were  taught. 
Archbi»hop  Peckham,  a  notable  canonist, 
engaged  in  a  vain  stmgj;le  against  Edward  L 
He  drew  on  his  cause  the  defeat  inflicted  by 
the  writ  CireumspeeU  oralis,  founded  on  13 
Ed.  I.,  which  defines  the  province  of  eccle- 
siastical jurisdiction.  It  was  limited  to  caaes 
merely  spiritual  (e.^.,  heresy) ,  to  those  of 
deadly  an  (e.p,,  fomicationj,  of  tithes  and 
offerings,  and  of  assaults  done  on  clerks  and 
defamation  where  no  damages  were  claimed. 
It  extended  to  all  matrimonld  causes,  and  by 
customary  law  to  those  of  a  testamentary 
nature.  In  cases  in  which  the  condemned 
party  neglected  to  give  heed  to  the  eccle- 
siastical censure,  it  was  enforced  by  the  civil 
power.  For  the  bishop  sent  his  ti^nificarit 
to  the  sheriff,  who  thereupon  issued  a  writ 
De  excommunicato  capiendOy  by  which  the 
offender  was  imprisoned  until  he  made  satis- 
faction. The  ecclesiastical  authorities  seem, 
by  the  Articuli  Cirri  drawn  up  in  the  reign 
of  Edward  II.,  to  have  been  dJisaatisfied  with 
this  process,  and  received  answer  that  the 
writ  had  never  been  refused.  The  canonists 
held  that  this  writ  was  a  right,  and  Archbishop 
Boniface  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  declared 
that  its  refusal  might  be  answered  by  an  in- 
terdict. Chief  Justice  Coke,  however,  the  vio- 
lent opponent  of  canonical  pretension,  declared 
in  the  reign  of  James  I.  that  it  was  a  matter  of 
favour.  The  statute,  De  Meeretieo  eomdwendc, 
was  carried  out  by  the  ecclesiastical  and  civil 
authorities  acting  together.  The  StatuU 
of  Proviaort^  25  Ed.  III.,  st.  4,  by  restrain- 
ing the  Pope's  interference  with  patronage, 
and  of  Pntmuniref  16  Ric.  II.,  c.  6,  by 
checking  appeals  to  Rome,  lessened  the 
power  of  the  ecclesiastical  law.  In  the 
reign  of  Henry  V.,  Lyndwood,  the  Dean  of 
Arches,  compiled  his  ProvineiaUy  which  is  a 
code  of  English  canon  law.  The  study  of 
canonical  and  civil  jurisprudence  was  laijgely 
pursued  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  a 
degree  of  Doctor  of  both  laws  was  granted. 
A  body  of  skilled  judges  and  practitioners 
versed  in  the  science  of  law  existed  side  by 
side  with  those  of  the  common-law  courts. 

Early  in  the  reign  of  Henry  YIII.,  it  was 
evident  that  that  monarch  disliked  the 
canonical  jurisdiction.  His  breach  with  the 
Pope,  consequent  on  the  avocation  of  his 
divorce  case,  was  made  the  occasion  for  his 
attack  on  the  study  and  practice  of  canon 
law.  Having  caused  the  dergv  to  own  him 
as  supreme  head,  *'so  far  as  is  allowed  by 
the  law  of  Christ,**  he  procured  the  great 


Eco 


(401  ) 


Eoe 


petition  of  the  Commons  against  the  practice 
of  the  canon  law  in  1532.      On  this,  by  23 
Hen.  VIII.,  c  9,  the  appellate  jurisdiction  of 
the  archbic^op  waa    weakened,   and  by  25 
Hen.  VIII.,  c.  19,  the  power  uf  legislation 
was  taken  awav  from  Convocation,  and  the 
canon  law  wa8  declared  to  be  in  force,  subject 
to  a  total  revision  by  a  royal  commission. 
As  this  revision  has  never  been  made,  the 
canon  law  up  to  that  date,  in  so  far  as  any 
part  of  it  has  not  been  abolished  by  national 
legislation,   seems    to  rest   on  that  statute. 
Such  provisions  only  of  foreign  canon  law, 
however,  have  force  as  have  been  received  in 
England,   nor  can  any  law  bind  the  laity 
which  has  not  received  the  assent  of  Parlia- 
ment.    Henry  next  proceeded  to  destro}'  the 
study  of  canonical  jurisprudence.     He  issued 
a  mandate  forbidding  lectures  and  degrees 
in  canon  law.    From  that  time   the  legal 
doctorate  in  Oxford  has  only  been  in  civil  law, 
expressed  by  the  letters  D.C.L.,  while  Cam- 
bridge stiU  keeps  up  the  form  of  the  doctorate 
of  the  two  laws  by  the  LL.D.  degree.     A 
new  court  of  appeal  in  ecclesiastical  cases, 
composed  of  divines  and  civilians,  was  formed 
in  this  reig^  and  called  the  Court  of  Delegates, 
This  court  was  superseded  in  1831,  and  by  3 
and  4  WiU.  IV.  (1833),  c.  41,  it  was  enacted 
that  its  jurisdiction  should  be  transferred  to 
the  Judicial  Committee  of  the  Frivy  Councily  an 
arrangement  which  has  been  again  altered  by 
the  Supreme  Court  of  Judicature  Act,  1873. 
The  legislation  of  Edward  VI.  was  destructive 
of  all  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction.     During  his 
reign  an  abortive  attempt  was  made  by  Peter 
Mutyr,  in  his  Reformatio  Legum^  to  accomplish 
the  revision  promised  in   1534.    Elizabeth, 
while  making  as  little  declaration  of  power 
as  possible,  fully  kept  up  the  royal  supremacy 
in   action.      She    exercised   this  supremacy 
by  the  Court  of  High  Commistum,  founded  in 
virtue  of  1  Eliz.,  c.  1.    This  unconstitutional 
court  became  an  engine  of  t^Tanny,  in  which 
it  was  aided  in  no  small  degree  by  the  eccle- 
siastical practice  of  the  ex-offieio  oath.     The 
court  waa  abolished  by  16  Car.   I.,  c.    11, 
which  sets  forth  that  it  had  illegally  inflicted 
fines  and  imprisonments.    The  ex-officio  oath 
was  abolished  by  15  Car.  II.,  c  12.     The 
canons  of  1604,  though  approved  by  James  I., 
were  not  accepted  by  Parliament,  and  are 
therefore  only  binding  on  the  clergy.    This 
was  declared  by  Coke,  who    made   on  all 
occasionB  decided  resistance  to  ecclesiastical 
encroachment.    Unfortunately  this  resistance 
was  combined  with  an  undue  exaltation  of  the 
royal  prerogative  in  ecclesiastical  matters, 
and  tended  rather  to  the  subservience  of  the 
clergy  than  to  public  liberty.    That  some 
resistance  to  clerical  pretensions  was  needed 
is  shown  by  the  Articuli  Cleri  of  Archbishop 
Bancroft.      In   these   articles   remonstrance 
was  made  against  the  issue  of  prohibitions  by 
tho  courts  of  common  law,  and  against  their 
Jntexpreting    statutes   concerning    religion. 


Coke  declared  these  articles  to  be  **  mon- 
strous.'* A  lamentable  co-operation  between 
the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  jurisdictions  re- 
sulted in  the  execution  by  burning  of  two 
men  for  heresy  in  this  reign,  under  the  old 
statute  De  hteretieo  comburendo.  This  statute 
was  repealed  by  29  Car.  II.,  c.  29.  The 
gradual  advance  towards  toleration  weakened 
the  power  of  the  Church  to  punish  offenders 
against  her  laws,  though,  until  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  centur}-,  fine  or  imprisonment  and 
civil  disabilities  still  sometimes  followed  her 
censures.  At  length  the  power  of  coercive 
correction  was  taken  away  by  53  Greo.  III., 
c.  L27. 

The  ecclesiastical  courts  are — (1)  The  Court 
of  the  Arehdeacortf  of  which  his  Ofiicial  is 
judge,  and  which  takes  cognisance  of  matters 
affecting  the  Church  and  clergy  w^ithin  a 
distinct  district.  (2)  Tho  Coneistorg  Court  of 
the  bishop  or  archbishop,  of  which  the  Chan- 
cellor is  judge,  for  the  trial  of  ecclesiastical 
causes.  The  title  of  Chancellor  seems  to 
cover  the  two  offices  of  the  Official,  who  is 
concerned  for  the  most  part  in  what  may  be 
considered  temporal  .business,  and  of  the 
Vicar-Greneral,  whose  province  is  in  more 
purely  spiritual  matters.  (3)  The  Archbishops e 
Commissary  Court,  wliich  is  held  for  the 
archiepiscopal  diocese.  (4)  The  Court  of 
Audience,  in  which  formal  business  is  trans- 
acted, and  in  which  it  appears,  from  the  case 
of  the  Bishop  of  St.  Davids,  1696,  that 
bishops  may  be  visited  and  corrected.  (5)  The 
Court  of  Faculties,  which,  by  25  Hen.  VIIJ., 
c.  21,  has  power  to  grant  certain  dispensa- 
tions which  before  pertained  to  the  papal 
court.  This  court  is  now  chiefly  concerned 
in  the  grant  of  marriage  licences.  (6)  The 
Frerogative  Court  lost  its  jurisdiction  when 
the  Court  of  Frobate  and  Divorce  was  in- 
stituted, 20  and  21  Vict.,  c.  77,  c.  86.  (7)  The 
Viear-GeneraVs  Court  for  the  confirmation  of 
bishops ;  and  (8)  The  Court  of  Arches  [for 
which  see  AiiCHBisHOPs].  By  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Judicature  Act,  1873,  provision  was 
made  for  the  transfer  of  ecclesiastical  appeals 
from  the  Judicial  Committee  by  Order  in 
Council.  This  portion  of  the  Act,  however, 
was  repealed  by  39  and  40  Vict.,  c.  59,  which 
preser\'es  the  appellate  jurisdiction  of  the 
Judicial  Committee  in  these  cases,  and  pro- 
vides for  the  appointment  of  additional  lords 
of  appeal  in  onUnary,  and  for  the  attendance 
of  ecclesiastical  assessors.  These  provisions 
were  carried  out  bv  the  Rules  of  Nov.  28,  1876. 
[See  Chitty's  Dig'est,  1880.]  A  Ro}'al  com- 
mission to  inquire  into  the  whole  subject  of 
Ecclesiastical  Courts  and  their  jurisdiction 
drew  up  an  exhaustive  report  in  1883. 

Two  Piiblio  Stotttfory  Lectures  on  fhe  Hts(ory 
of  tKe  Canon  Lnto  in  EnglanA,  rvad  ia  Easter 
Term,  18^,  by  W.  Stnbbs,  D.D.,  &c  Tlio  writer 
b€^  to  acknowledge  the  kindness  of  the  Bishop 
of  Chester  in  allowing  free  use  to  be  made  m 
these  lectnres  in  the  above  nrticle.  See  also 
Gibson,  Codex;  PhiUimore,  Ecdes.  Lav;  and 


Eoc 


(402) 


Ecc 


eMpecially  the  Intiodiictioii  to  the  Report  of  the 
Boyal  Commieeion  on  EoeUnocttcol  CourU,  1883, 
which  is  a  most  Taluable  digest  of  the  whole 
history  of  the  subject.  [W.  H.] 

EcdenasticalTajcatioii.  (i)  Hoyal. 

— Before  the  Conquest,  the  differentiation  of 
clergy  from  laity  had  not  proceeded  far 
enough  to  necessitate  separate  ecclesiastical 
taxation.  The  clergy  paid  their  share  of  the 
dues  customary  from  citizens,  and  if  they 
were  in  any  way  distinguished  from  the  laity, 
it  was  on  account  of  their  participating,  on 
the  analogy  of  the  Empire,  in  certain  im- 
munities which,  so  early  as  the  Codes  of  Theo- 
dosius  and  Justinian,  were  permitted  to  the 
clerg}\  But  the  gi'eat  Papal  and  sacerdotal 
movement  of  the  eleventh  century  resulted 
in  the  formation  of  a  clerical  caste,  whose 
claim  for  absolute  immunity-  from  State 
burdens  was  based  on  right  divine.  Yet,  as 
citizens,  the  clergy  still  paid  taxes  like  other 
men.  Besides  their  necessary  share  in  in- 
direct taxation,  the  **  temporalities  of  the 
Church,"  their  lands,  were  chargeable  with 
the  ordinary'  feudal  services.  A  great  pro- 
portion of  lands  held  by  clerg}'men  were  held 
by  ordinary  lay  tenures,  with  incidents  pre- 
cisely similar.  £vcn  the  peculiar  clerical 
tenure  of  frankalmoign  did  not  exempt  the 
tenants  in  free  alms  from  heavy  burdens. 
The  spiritualities  of  the  Church,  however,  its 
tithes  and  offerings,  were  now  secure  ^m 
taxation.  But  the  growth  of  the  royal  power 
and  royal  needs  made  these  spiritualities  an 
ever-tempting  bait.  Gradually  attempts  were 
made  to  tax  them,  with  results  which,  though 
successful  for  the  crown,  led  to  the  growth 
of  the  constitutional  action  of  the  clergy, 
the  development  of  the  ecclesiastical  estate, 
and  the  establishment  of  Convocation.  The 
steps  of  the  process  are  as  follows.  As 
long  as  land  only  was  taxed,  the  clergy 
naturally  paid  with  the  rest.  Yet  Arch- 
bishop Theobald  demurred  at  the  clergy 
granting  Henry  II.  a  scutage,  though  his 
objections  were  overruled;  and  Henry  II. 
required  clerks  as  well  as  laymen  to  give 
account  of  and  pay  for  their  knights'  fees. 
The  Saladine  tithe  of  1187  began  the  new 
epoch  by  at  once  taxing  the  movables  of  the 
laity  and  the  spirituals  of  the  clergy.  Its 
religious  purpose  excused  an  innovation, 
which  at  once  became  a  precedent  for  more 
directly  secular  taxation.  The  ransom  of 
Richard  I.  took  even  the  chalices  of  the 
churches.  John's  attacks  on  the  wool  of 
the  Cistercians  led  the  way  to  his  formal 
demand  in  1207  of  a  grant  from  the  beneficed 
clergy  for  the  recovery  of  Normandy.  It 
was  refused,  and  a  similar  request  from 
Innocent  III.  was  forbidden  by  the  king. 
But  with  the  alliance  of  Pope  and  king,  a 
joint  pressure  was  put  on  the  clergy  which 
they  could  not  long  -withstand.  By  the  reign 
of  Henry  III.  taxation  of  spirituals  was  a 
regular  thing,  and    the  clergy  could   only 


obtain  that,  Uke  the  laity,  they  should  as- 
semble by  their  representatives,  and  grant 
the  tax  themselves,  instead  of  its  being  arbi- 
traiily  imposed  on  them  by  the  king.  The 
establishment  of  Convocation  (q.v.)  is  one 
result  of  this  process.  Under  Edward  I.  the 
clergy  became  a  regular  estate  of  the  realm, 
and  their  proctors  in  Parliament  generally 
were  compelled  to  make  much  larger  grants 
than  the  laity.  At  last  Edward  I.*h  demand 
of  half  their  revenues  led  to  their  taking 
refuge  in  Boniface  VlII.'s  bull,  Clerieia  laico»y 
which  forbade  clerical  taxation  by  the  crown. 
Edward's  answer  was  to  outlaw  the  whole 
clergy,  an  act  which  soon  led  to  a  compromise. 
It  is  unnecessary  to  trace  further  the  growth 
of  clerical  taxation,  except  to  notice  that  the 
clergy  objected  to  return  representatives  of 
their  estate  to  Parliament,  and  preferred  to 
tax  themselves  separately  in  their  clerical 
synod  to  sharing  in  the  burdens  and  delibera- 
tions of  the  nation.  The  importance  attached 
to  accurate  assessment  of  spiritual  incomes  is 
seen  in  the  minuteness  of  the  "  Valor  Eccle- 
siasticus"  of  Henry  VIII.  This  custom 
of  separate  clerical  taxation  continued  over 
the  Heformation,  until,  in  1664,  when  an 
agreement  between  Archbishop  Sheldon  and 
Clarendon  resulted  in  the  clerg>''8  abandoning 
this  right  and  reverting  to  the  custom  of 
Edward  I.  by  being  included  in  the  money 
bills  prepared  by  the  House  of  Commons. 
In  13  Car.  II.,  the  clergy  gave  their  last 
separate  subsidy.  They  received  in  compen- 
sation the  right  of  voting  at  Parliamentary 
elections,  but  it  was  too  late  for  them  to 
return,  as  of  old,  special  clerical  proctors  to  the 
House  of  Commons.     [Convocatio!?.] 

(2)  Papal. — Besides  these  special  royal  ex- 
actions, the  clergy  were  also  liable  to  heavj' 
taxation  at  the  hands  of  the  Pope.  This  was 
of  comparatively  late  origin,  for  Peter-pence 
was  not  an  exclusively  clerical  tax.  It 
reached  its  highest  point  under  Henry  III., 
when  to  ecclesiastical  the  Popes  added  tempo- 
ral supremacy  through  John's  submission,  and 
diminished  after  the  nationalist  movement  of 
the  fourteenth  century  affected  even  the 
Church,  but  was  a  subject  of  continual  com- 
plaint up  to  the  Reformation.  The  crown 
handed  over  the  clergy  to  the  Papacy  in  return 
for  Papal  permission  of  royal  exactions  moi*© 
often  than  it  protected  them  against  the  alien 
oppressor.     [Papacy,  Relations  with.] 

Stubbe,  Con««.  HiV.,  ii.  186  and  ii.  58S— 4; 
Bingham,  EccleexoKtioal  Antiquities,  sec.  v.  For 
clerical  iramunities  under  the  £mpire,  com- 


nare  Herzofr.    £nc;/cbj)d<iie,   8. v.  Im.rtkWiit&itn. 
liathbiny,  If" 
•iostteal  uiei. 


thbnry,  If  wt.  of  Convocation  ;  Collier,  "BccU- 
"  [T.  F.  T.] 


Ecclesiastical    TiUes    Bill,    Thb 

(1851),  was  passed  in  response  to  a  great 
popular  outcry  in  England  against  the  Pope. 
In  1850  much  commotion  was  caused  by  a 
papal  bull  appointing  a  Roman  Catholic  arch- 
bishop and  bishops  with  territorial  titles  in 


Edb 


(  408) 


Sdg 


England.  The  following  year  Ijovd  John 
Russell  xiassed  the  £colesia8tical  Titles  Act, 
declaring  the  Pope's  bull  null  and  void,  and 
imposing  penalties  on  all  who  carried  it  into 
effect.  The  excitement,  however,  soon  died 
away,  and  the  Act  was  repealed  in  1871. 

Edbert  (K^-dbbrht),  Pkji-in,  King  of  Kent 
(794 — 796),  seems  to  have  been  colhtterally 
connected  with  the  .^scings,  and  to  have 
formerly  been  an  ecclesiastic.  On  the  death 
of  Alric,  he  was  elected  king,  but  was  attacked 
by  Cenwulf  of  Mercia,  who  ravHge<f  Kent, 
and  obtained  the  excommunication  of  Edbert 
by  the  Pope.  Cenwulf  eventually  took 
Edbert  prisoner,  and  is  said  to  have  caused 
his  eyes  to  be  put  out  and  his  hands  ampu- 
tated, but  subsequently  liberated  him. 
Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle. 

Edbort  (Eaobzkht),  King  of  Northum- 
bria  (737 — 758),  was  first  cousin  of  Ceolwulf, 
whom  he  succeeded,  and  brother  of  Egbert, 
Archbinhop  of  York.  He  was  a  successful 
ruler ;  he  defeated  the  Mercians,  and  reduced 
the  British  kingdom  of  Strathclyde  to  sub- 
jection. His  friendship  was  sought  by  Pepin 
of  France,  who  sent  him  costly  presents. 
Like  his  predecessor,  he  abdicated  and  re- 
tired to  a  monastery,  where  he  lived  for  ten 
years. 

Edbnrn  (EADBrRH)  {eirea  800),  wife  of 
Beortric,  King  of  Wessex,  ^isoned  her 
husband  by  mistake,  having  mtended  the 
death  of  his  favourite,  Worr.  It  is  said  that, 
**  in  detestation  of  the  crime,  the  West  Saxons 
determined  that  henceforth  no  wife  of  a  king 
should  occupy  a  roj'al  throne  by  her  husband's 
side,  or  bear  the  title  of  queen."  She  fled  to 
the  court  of  Charles  the  Great,  who  made  her 
an  abbess.  '*  But  she  ruled  over  the  monas- 
tery ill,  and  did  wickedly  in  all  things." 
Expelled  thence,  after  many  wanderings,  she 
died  a  beggar  in  the  city  of  Pavia. 
William  of  Halmeabury ;  Aaaer. 

Bdgar(EADOAK),  Kino(&.  943,«.  959,  ef.  975), 
was  the  son  of  King  Edmund,  and  on  the  death 
of  Edred  seems  to  have  been  made  under-king 
of  Mercia  by  his  brother  Edwy.  But  in  957 
we  read  that  the  Mercians  and  Northumbrians 
chose  Edgar  for  their  king,  which,  together 
with  the  fact  that  just  at  this  time  he  recalled 
Dunstan  from  exile  and  made  him  Bishop  of 
Worcester,  looks  as  if  he  had  thrown  up  his 
allegiance  to  his  brother.  However  this  may 
be,  on  Edwy's  death  Edgar  was  at  once 
elected  king.  His  reign  owes  a  great  deal  of 
its  importance  and  success  to  Bunstan,  who 
was  practically  his  prime  minister.  The  re- 
forms in  the  Church  which  belong  to  this 
reign  were  the  joint  work  of  the  king  and  the 
archbishop.  Several  new  sees  were  established, 
and  above  forty  Benedictine  monasteries  are 
said  to  have  been  founded  by  Edgar.  There 
are  but  few  striking  events  recorded  in  Edgai*'8 
reign,  and  the  absence  of  Danish  invasions 


is  very  marked.  There  are  the  usual  wars 
against  the  Welsh,  but  even  of  these  we  read 
but  little  in  the  AmjlO'Saxon  Chronicle^  and 
certainly  Edgar  more  than  any  other  Saxon 
king  deserved  the  title  '*  Pacificus."  To  pro- 
tect the  countr}',  the  fleet  was  considerably 
increased,  and  once  a  year  it  sailed  ronnd  the 
island,  often  carrying  the  king  in  person.  It 
is  said  that  in  one  of  these  expeditions  Edgar 
reduced  the  Danes  in  Irelana  to  subjection, 
and  took  Dublin.  The  storv  of  Edgar*s 
being  rowed  on  the  Dee  by  eight  tributary 
kings  need  not  be  considered  altogether 
apocryphal.  The  Chronicle  tells  us  that  in 
973  he  was  met  at  Chester  by  six  kings,  who 
plighted  their  troth  to  him,  while  Florence  of 
^yorcester  enumerates  eight  kings  as  having 
taken  part  in  the  ceremony — Kenneth  of 
Scotland,  Malcolm  of  Cumbria,  Maccus  of 
Man,  Dunwallon  of  Strathclyde,  Siferth, 
lago,  and  Howell  of  Wales,  and  Inchill  of 
Westmoreland.  In  973,  after  he  had  been 
king  fifteen  years,  Edgar  was  solemnly 
crowned  at  Bath.  The  stor}'  that  this  coro- 
nation was  necessary  on  account  of  the 
penance  he  had  to  imdergo  for  the  abduction 
of  a  nun  rests  on  no  good  authority,  but  no 
other  solution  has  been  attempted  of  this 
curious  circumstance.  In  975  Edgar  died. 
He  had  been  twice  married :  first  to  Ethelfieda, 
by  whom  he  had  Edward,  who  succeeded  him, 
and  secondly  to  Elfrida  (JElfthryth),  who  be- 
came the  mother  of  Ethelred.  llie  numerous 
stories  of  his  amours,  though  no  doubt  greatly 
exaggerated,  show  his  private  character  to  be 
anything  but  exemplary ;  as  a  king,  however, 
he  was  a  worthy  successor  of  Alfred.  He  was 
the  first  West  Saxon  "  Emperor  "  who  made 
his  supremacy  really  felt  over  the  Mercians 
and  Northumbrians.  His  legislation  seems 
to  show  the  results  of  an  enlightened  attempt 
to  put  Saxons,  Angles,  and  Danes  on  a  perfect 
equality  before  the  law.  In  recording  his 
death,  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  gfivcs  an 
interesting  fragment  of  a  poetical  estimate  of 
the  king : — 

"ThiB  year  died  Edffar, 
King  of  the  English, 
Dear  Lord  of  West  Saxons, 
The  Mercians'  protector. 
Widely  was  it  known 
Through  many  nations 
Across  the  gannet's  bath  [i.«.,  the  sea], 
That  Edmund's  offspring 
Kings  remote 
Greatly  honoured, 
To  the  king  submitted. 
As  to  him  was  fitting. 
Was  no  fleet  so  insolent. 
No  host  so  strong. 
That  in  the  English  race 
Took  from  him  aught 
The  while  the  noble  king 
Beigned  on  his  throne  I  " 

Anglo-Saxon  Chron. ;  Florence  of  Worcpftteri 
Henry  of  Huntingdon;  Bobertson,  HirioriccS, 
Smay$ ;  Freeman,  Norman  Conqueatt  i.  67.  The 
laws  of  Edgar  ore  giren  in  Thorpe,  Ancient  Lavi 
and  InetitvteM,  I  272.  [F.  S.  P.] 

(Eadoar),    King    of    Scotland 


/ 


/ 


Edg 


(404  ) 


Bdi 


(1097  —  1107),  son  of  Malcolm  Canmore 
and  ]V£argaret,  obtained  the  crown  chiefly  by 
the  aid  of  his  uncle,  Edgar  Atheling  (q.v.). 
In  the  following  year  he  confirmed  Alagnus 
of  Norway  in  the  possession  of  the  isles ;  the 
rest  of  his  reign  was  exceedingly  uneventful, 
owing,  perhaps,  to  his  mild  chai^cter,  which 
has  caused  him  to  be  likened  to  £dward  the 
Confessor.  In  1100  his  sister  Matilda  mar- 
ried Henry  I.  of  England.  Edgar  died  in 
January,  1107,  and  was  buried  at  Dunferm- 
line ;  before  his  death  he  divided  the  kingdom 
between  his  two  brothers,  Alexander  and 
David,  making  the  latter  Earl  of  Lothian  and 
Cumbria. 

Edgar  Atheling  {b.  1058,  d.  eirea  1158), 
was  the  son  of  Edward,  the  son  of  Edmund 
Ironside.  On  the  death  of  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor, he  was  the  nearest  heir  to  the  throne, 
but  his  claims  were  disregarded,  and  even 
after  Harold's  death  there  were  verj"^  few  who 
seriously  advocated  his  cause.  William  re- 
ceived him  kindly,  and  for  two  years  he 
remained  at  the  Conqueror's  court,  but  in 
1068  his  friends,  fearing  for  his  security, 
withdrew  him  and  his  two  sisters  from 
England,  and  carried  them  to  Scotland,  where 
King  Malcolm  married  jVIargaret,  one  of  the 
sisters,  and  supported  Edgar*s  claims  in  many 
att^icks  upon  England.  But  these  were  in 
the  main  unsuccessful,  and  Edgar  at  length 
gave  up  his  claims  to  the  English  crown  on 
consideration  of  recei\ang  estates  and  a  pen- 
sion from  William.  After  remaining  some 
time  in  Scotland,  Edgar  went  over  to  Nor- 
mandy (1074),  and  formed  a  great  friendship 
with  the  Conqueror's  eldest  son,  Robert ;  soon 
after  this  he  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Italy  and 
Constantinople,  and  on  his  return,  supported 
Robert  against  William.  The  ill-success  of 
the  former  obliged  Edgar  to  flee  to  Scotland, 
whore  he  was  instrumental  in  effecting  a 
peace  between  Malcolm  and  William  Rufus. 
After  the  death  of  Malcolm  (1093),  Edgar 
took  his  sister's  childi'on  under  his  protection, 
and  eventually  got  leave  from  William  to 
raise  an  army  for  the  purpose  of  placing  his 
nephew,  Edgar,  on  the  Scotch  throne  (1097). 
Having  effected  this,  he  joined  the  Crusaders 
just  in  time  for  the  siege  of  Jerusalem.  Sub- 
sequently he  was  taken  prisoner  by  Henry  I. 
while  fighting  for  Robert  of  Normandy 
in  the  battle  of  Tonchebrai  (1106),  but  was 
soon  allowed  to  ransom  himself,  and  retired 
to  his  estates,  where  he  lived  peacefully  till 
he  was  nearly,  if  not  quite,  a  hundred  years 
of  age. 

AnglO'Saxon  Chron.;  Ordericua  Vitalis,  Ht«i. 
EodM. ;  Freeman,  NorvMm,  Conquest. 

EdgeC0te,THE  Battle  of  (July  26, 1469), 
Was  fought  between  the  insurgents,  led  by 
*' Robin  of  Redesdale,'*  and  the  troops  of  Ed- 
ward IV.,  under  the  Earl  of  Pembroke.  The 
former  were  completely  victorious.  Pembroke 
was  defeated  with  great  slaughter,  and  he  and 


his  brother,  Sir  William  Herbert,  were  taken 
prisoners,  and  put  to  death  by  the  rebels. 
Edgecote  is  in  Northamptonshire,  a  few  miles 
from  Banbury. 

Edgehill,  The  Battle  of  (October  23. 
1642),  was  the  first  battle  of  the  Civil  War  of 
the  seventeenth  century.     Two  months  be- 
fore,   the    king    had    raised    his    standard 
at  Nottingham,  and  on    September    9    the 
Parliamentary    army,     under     Essex,     left 
London.    The  king    at  first  marched  west- 
wards to  Shrewsbury,  where  his  force  was 
considerably   increased,    and   then    resolved 
to  push  rapidly  on  London.    Essex  deter- 
mined to  prevent  this,  and  marched  on  Wor- 
cester, where  the  two  armies  remained  for 
some  time  within  a  few  leagues  of  one  another. 
At  length  the  king  marched  forward,  and  on 
the  23rd  of  October  the  armies  met  at  Edge- 
hill,  near  Kineton,  in  Warwickshire,      'fiie 
Royalists  occupied  the  hill  while  Essex  drew 
up  his  troops    in  front  of  Kineton.      The 
king's  army  was  about  12,000  strong,  while 
Essex's  troops  numbered  about  10,000,  and  by 
Rupejt's  advice  the  king  determined  to  march 
down  the  hill  and  attack  the  enemy  on  the 
plain.    The  battle  began  about  two  in  the 
afternoon,  and  lasted  till  the  evening.  Rupert 
routed    the    Parliamentarian     cavalry',    but 
rashly  pursued  them  more  than  two   miles 
from  the  field,  till  stopped  by  the  arrival  of 
Hampden's   regiment    with    the    artillery. 
Meanwhile,  the  Royalist  infantry  had  been 
broken,  and  Rupert's  horse  were  in  too  great 
disorder  to  retrieve  the  fortunes  of  the  day. 
llie  •  forces  remained  facing  each  other  during 
the  night,  but  on  both  sides  large  numbers 
deserted,  and  in  the  morning  the  two  armies 
marched  away — the  king  into  Oxfordshire, 
Essex  to  Warwick.    The  Parliamentarian  loss 
was  heavier,  but  the   Royalists   lost   many 
ofiicers  of  raiik,  including  the  Earl  of  Lind- 
sey,  the  Commander-in-chief.    The  real  ad- 
vantages lay  with  the  king,  who  was  able  to 
capture  Banbury,  and  march  to  Oxford  with- 
out resistance. 

Clarendon,  Hi«t.  ofih$  BebtflZtom,  ii.  45;  Rush- 
worth,  v.  33  ;  Whitelocko,  MemorialB. 

Edinbuq^ll  {Eadwines  hyrig,  <*the  castle 
of  Edwin  ;  "  in  Gaelic,  Dunedittf  which  means 
the  same  thing)  was  founded  b}*  Edwin  of 
Northumbria  as  a  frontier  defence  against  the 
Picts,  and  became  the  chief  town  of  Lothian, 
which  the  cession  of  Canute  put  under  the 
Scottish  kings.  The  introduction  of  English 
and  Norman  usages  into  the  Scottish  royal 
house  made  Edinburgh  the  chief  royal  resi- 
dence and  capital.  It  was  g^ven  up  to  the 
English  in  1174,  but  by  the  Treaty  of  Falaise 
restored  to  the  Scots  in  1189.  In  1296 
Edward  I.  carried  off  the  regalia  from  the 
castle,  which  ifvas  a  few  years  afterwards 
re-taken  by  Robert  Bruce.  Li  1322  it  was  be- 
sieged by  Edward  II.,  and  in  1333  given  up  to 
Edward  IIL^from  whom  it  was  taken  in  1341. 


Sdi 


(  405  ) 


In  1544  Edinburgh  was  burnt  by  Hertford, 
and  shortly  aftem'urds  was  garrisoned  by  the 
French,  who  were  driven  out  by  the  Lords 
of  Congregation,  1559.  After  the  murder 
of  Damle\%  the  castle  was  taken  by  the  Con- 
federate Lords,  but  subsequently  became  the 
head-quarters  of  Queen  Mary's  party,  until 
Kirkcaldy  of  Grange  was  oompeUcd  to  sur- 
render it,  1573.  In  March,  1639,  the  castle 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Covenanters,  and  in 
1650  was  taken  by  Cromwell.  In  1689  it 
held  out  for  some  time  for  James  II.,  under 
the  Duke  of  Gordon.  In  1708  a  Jacobite  plot 
was  formed  for  seizing  the  castle,  another 
attempt  being  made  in  1715,  and  in  the  re- 
bellion of  1745  it  was  captured  by  the  High- 
landers. In  1583  the  University  of  Edinburgh 
was  founded  by  the  Town  Council,  partly 
from  the  proceeds  of  a  legacy  left  by  Kobert 
Beid,  Bishop  of  Orkney,  and  from  endow- 
ments bestowed  by  James  VI. 

Daniel    Wilaon,    Memorials     of    fdinbttrgH; 
James  Grant,  Old  and  Hmt  Xdmburgh. 

iEdinbiirglL,THE  Treaty  OF  (July  6, 1560), 
enactcxl  peace  between  England  and  Scotland 
on  condition  that  the  French  were  to  retire 
from  Scotland:  the  fortifications  of  Leith 
and  I>unbaT  to  bo  razed ;  and  a  fine  to  be  paid 
for  the  blazoning  of  English  arms  with  those 
of  Scotland  and  France  by  Mary. 

Edith  (Eadgyth)  id,  1075),  wife  of  Ed- 
ward  the  Confessor,  was  the  daughter  of  Earl 
Godwin,  and  in  1045  she  married  the  king. 
Her  relations  towards  her  husband  are  doubt- 
ful, but  she  probably  exerted  her  influence 
in  &vour  of  her  father's  policy,  as  on  the 
disgrace  of  Godwin,  in  1051,  she  was  banished 
from  the  king's  presence,  and  sent  to  a 
convent,  but  received  back  again  on  God- 
win's return  in  the  next  year.  She  favoured 
her  brother  Tostig  against  Harold,  and  after 
the  Conquest,  seems  to  have  been  treated  with 
great  respect  by  William.  She  died  in  1075. 
She  was  reverenced  alike  by  English  and 
Normans,  the  latter  apologising  for  her  origin 
in  the  famous  lino — 

*'  Sicat  Bfdna  roaam  genait  Oodwinns  Editham." 
[Edward  the  Confessor.] 

Li/e  0/  'RixarA  the  QonfeaMor  (RolUi  Series) ; 
Freeman,  JTorman  ConqiiMt. 

Sdith,  *'  SwANSNECK,"  was  the  mistress  of 
King  Harold.  She  it  was  who  is  said  to  have 
identified  his  body  after  the  battle  of  Hastings. 
Nothing  more  than  this  is  known  about  her. 

Edmiind  (Eadmund),  Kino  {p.  922,  s.  940, 
d,  946),  afterwards  called  Edmund  the  Elder 
by  historians,  was  the  son  of  Edward  the  Elder, 
and  brother  of  Athelstan.  Before  his  accession 
he  had  already  gained  renown  in  the  battle 
of  Brunanburh  (q.v.).  His  brief  reign  was 
chiefly  occupied  in  resisting  the  Danes,  whom 
he  frequency  defeated,  and  with  whom  he 
eventually  divided  his  kingdom,  as  Alfred  had 
done,  Watling  Street  being,  roughly  speaking, 


the  boundary.  The  most  important  events 
of  his  reign  are  the  recovery  of  Northumbria 
and  the  Mve  Burghs  from  the  Banes,  and 
the  grant  of  Cumberland  to  Malcolm,  King 
of  Scots,  in  945.  The  next  year  he  was  mur- 
dered at  Pucklechurch  by  a  robber  named 
Liofa.  His  wife  was  Ethelfleda,  a  daughter 
of  the  ealdorman  Elgar,  and  by  her  he 
had  two  sons,  Edwy  and  Edgar  (q.v.).  Ed- 
mund received  the  title  of  **  Magnificus,"  t.^., 
the  doer  of  great  deeds,  apparently  from  his 
successes  against  the  Danes.  His  sons  were 
so  young  at  the  time  of  his  death  that  they 
were  passed  over  in  favour  of  his  brother 
Edred. 

ilni;lo«Sa«on  Chrvti, ;  Lappenberg,  Anglo-Saxnn 
Kingt. 

Bdmiind  (EADMrxi))  Ironside  (b,  989, 
a.  Apr.,  d,  Nov.,  1016),  was  the  son  of  Ethelred 
II.  During  his  father's  lifetime  he  had  been 
active  in  opposing  the  Danes.  In  1015  he 
married  Aldgyth,  widow  of  Sigeferth,  and 
took  possession  of  the  Five  Burghs,  thus 
forming  a  kind  of  principality  of  Ms  own  in 
the  heart  of  the  Danish  district.  On  the 
death  of  Ethelred,  Edmund  was  chosen  king 
bv  the  citizens  of  London  and  those  of  the 
VQtan  who  wore  there,  while  the  rest  of  the 
people  elected  Canute.  The  brief  reign  of 
Edmund  is  taken  up  with  struggles  with  his 
rival,  in  which  the  valour  of  Edmund  and 
the  braver}'  of  his  followers  are  in  great 
measure  neutralised  by  the  treachery  of  Edric 
Strcona  and  others.  Immediately  after  his 
election  Edmund  left  London,  marched 
into  Wessex,  and  defeated  Canute  at  Fen 
Selwood.  Another  battle  was  fought  at 
Sherstone,  in  Wiltshire,  in  which  Edric's 
treachery  almost  caused  the  defeat  of  the 
English.  Edmund  next  relieved  London,  and 
won  a  victory  at  Brentford.  A  fourth  battle 
was  fought  at  Oxford,  where  the  Danes  were 
once  more  defeated,  and  **  all  men  said  that 
Edmund  would  have  destroyed  them  utterly 
had  not  Edric  beguiled  him  to  stop  the 
pursuit  at  Aylesford."  Shortly  after  this  the 
Danes  gained  a  great  victory  at  Assington 
(Assandun),  in  Essex,  in  which  the  Chronicle 
tells  us  *'  all  the  nobility  of  the  English  race 
was  destroyed,"  and  which  is  to  be  attributed 
to  the  defection  of  Edrfc  and  his  men.  Canute 
pursued  Edmund  to  Gloucester,  and  a  sixth 
battle  was  about  to  be  fought  when  the  Witan 
proposed  that  a  division  of  the  country  should 
be  made  between  the  two  kings.  For  this 
purpose  a  meeting  was  held  on  Olney  Island, 
close  to  Gloucester,  where  it  was  agreed  that 
Edmund  "  was  to  be  the  head  king,  and  have 
Wessex,  Essex,  and  East  Anglia,  with  the  city 
of  London ;  and  Canute  was  to  have  Mercia 
and  Northumbria.**  The  story  of  Edmund 
having  proposed  to  decide  the  matter  by 
single  combat  with  Canute  rests  on  no  g^d 
authority.  Very  soon  after  this,  on  November 
30,  1016|  Edmund  died,  having  very  probabljr 


^406) 


Bdu 


been    murdered   by    Edric.      He    left   two 

young  sons,  Edward  and  Edmund,  who  were 

exiled  by  Canute.  His  great  phywcal  strength, 

as  well  as  his  valiant  spirit,  gained  him  the 

surname  of  "Ironside."      He  reigned  only 

seven  months,  and  during  that  time  he  had 

fought  five  great  battles,  in  three  of  which  he 

was  completely  victorious,  and  in  the  others 

only  defeated  by  treachery. 

Anglo-Saxon  Chron. ;  Florence  of  Worcester ; 
Henry  of  Huntingdon;  Freeman,  Norman 
Conquutf  i.  411,  kc. 

EcLmtUld  (Eadmuxd),  King  of  Scotland 
(1094  —  1097),  son  of  Malcolm  Canmoro 
and  Margaret,  joined  his  uncle,  Donald 
Bane,  in  driving  his  half-brother  Duncan 
from  the  throne.  He  reigned  in  conjunction 
with  Donald  three  years,  having  Lothian  as 
his  especial  province.  In  1097  the  success  of 
Edgar,  his  brother,  prompted  him  to  retire  to 
a  monaster}'. 

Will,  of  Jiabnesbtixy ;  Fordan,  Seotiehronicon. 

Sdmund  (Eadmund),  St.,  King  of  East 
Anglia  (856 — 870).  Nothing  is  known  of 
his  life.  Of  his  death  we  are  told  that  in  870, 
having  been  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by 
the  Danes,  he  was  offered  his  life  and  kingdom 
on  condition  of  his  giving  up  Christianity  and 
acknowlediring  the  Danish  supremacy.  Re- 
fusing these  terms,  he  was  bound  to  a  tree  and 
shot  at  with  arrows,  and  at  last  beheaded, 
at  the  town  called  St.  Edmondsbury  in  honour 
of  him.  His  constancy  in  faith  earned  him 
canonisation,  and  the  English  Church  still 
keeps  his  name  in  remembrance  on  November 
20th,  the  day  of  his  martyrdom. 

Anglo-S^uBon  Chron. ;  Simeon  of  Dorham. 

Bdred  (Eadkeo),  Kino  (946—955^,  was 
the  son  of  Edward  the  Elder,  and  brotner  of 
Athclstan  and  Edward,  the  latter  of  whom  he 
succeeded.  He  is  said  to  have  been  weak  and 
sickly  in  health,  but  his  reign  was  an  active 
one,  and  the  administration  was  wisely  man- 
Hged,  for  Dunstan  was  his  chief  minister. 
In  947  the  Northumbrians  swore  allegiance 
to  him,  but  the  next  year  they  revolted,  and 
set  up  Eric,  son  of  Harold  Blaatand,  as  their 
king.  Therefore  Edred  overran  Northumbria, 
and  defeated  them  at  York.  Archbishop 
'Wulfstan  was  deposed  in  952,  and  imprisoned 
at  Jedburgh,  but  two  years  afterwards  he  was 
released,  and  made  Bishop  of  Dorchester. 
Edred  died  on  November  23rd,  955,  at  Frome, 
in  Somersetshire,  and  ^'as  succeeded  by  his 
nephew,  Edwy  (q.v).  Edred,  the  "  Chosen," 
or  "Excellent,"  as  he  was  called,  seems  to 
have  possessed  considerable  capacity.  He  was 
brave  and  industrious,  and  in  his  reigfn  were 
begun  the  administrative  and  eccleHiastical 
refoiTQS  afterwards  worked  out  by  Dunstan 
and  by  Edgar. 

Edric  (Eadric)  Streona  {d.  1017),  first 
appears  as  the  adviser  of  the  massacre  of  St. 
Brice.    Alter  this  he  seema  to  have  become 


the  favourite  adviser  of  Ethelred,  and  mar- 
ried his  daughter  Edith,  and  to  him  all  the 
crimes  and  treasons  of  the  coui't  are  attii- 
buted.  In  1005  he  treacherouslv  murdered 
Elfhelm,  Earl  of  Northumbria.  In  1007  he 
was  made  Ealdorman  of  the  Mercians ;  in  1009 
he  betrayed  the  English  army ;  in  1015  he 
murdered  Sigeferth  and  Morkere ;  and  in  the 
same  year,  after  making  an  attempt  on  the 
life  of  Edmund  Ironside,  he  openly  joined  the 
Danes.  At  the  battle  of  Sherstone,  by  pre- 
tending that  Edmund  had  been  slain,  he  tried 
to  throw  the  English  ranks  into  disorder,  but 
the  promptitude  of  the  English  king  pre- 
vented deieat,  and  almost  immediately  after- 
wards we  find  Edmund  reconciled  with  Edric. 
Once  moix)  in  tliis  year  Edric  played  the 
traitor,  and  by  detaining  Edmund,  prevented 
his  reaping  the  advantages  of  his  victory  at 
Otford.  At  the  battle  of  Assandun  he 
deserted  with  his  forces  to  Canute,  who  by 
this  means  defeated  the  English.  In  1017 
the  traitor  was  made  Earl  of  Mercia,  but 
before  the  year  was  out  he  was  put  to  death, 
by  whom  is  unknown.  His  crimes  may  have 
been  exaggerated  by  the  English  historian, 
but,  as  Mr.  Freeman  remarks,  without  be- 
lieving that  Edric  personally  wrought  all  the 
countless  and  inexplicable  treasons  which  are 
laid  to  his  charge,  it  is  impossible  to  doubt 
that  he  knew  how  to  exercise  an  extraordi- 
nary in^uence  over  men*s  minds,  and  that 
that  infiuence  was  always  exerted  for  evil. 

Anglo-Saxon  CTiron. ;  Will,  of   Malmeebary ; 
Freeman,  "Sormnn  Conquui, 

Edncatioil  in  England.  Systematic 
education  in  England  begins  with  the  con- 
version of  the  English  to  Christianity.  The 
English  Church  extended  its  influence  widely 
over  the  Continent.  Bede  is  the  representative 
of  its  culture.  Alcuin,  who  sprang  from  his 
school,  directed  the  educational  system  of 
Charles  the  Great.  Most  episcopal  sees  had 
schools  attached  to  them,  and  learning  was 
almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  clergy. 
Alfred  the  Great  conceived  the  idea  of  edu- 
cating the  people.  He  set  an  example  in  his 
own  court.  He  did  much  for  the  perfec- 
tion and  preservation  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
language  and  literature.  The  Norman  Con- 
quest introduced  a  new  language,  and  for  a 
time  checked  the  progress  of  Anglo-Saxon. 
But  I^anfranc  and  Anselm  transplanted 
foreign  culture  to  English  soil,  and  the  great 
ITnivei-sities  of  Cambridge  and  Oxford  raised 
their  heads.  It  is  said  that  Oxford  in  1209 
had  3,000  students.  Roger  Bacon  and  Duns 
Scotus  vied  with  the  best  teachers  of  the 
Continent,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century  the  students  are  fabled  to  have 
reached  1 5,000.  Colleges  where  students  and 
scholars  were  boarded  rose  in  both  universi- 
ties. Also  in  Norman  times  many  schools 
were  established  over  the  country  to  take  the 
place  of  the  Saxon  schools  which  had  dis- 
appeared.    A  principal  occupation   of    the 


Edn 


(407  ) 


Edu 


monastery  schoolH  was  to  preserve  the  history 
of  the  country.     Enp^land  is  especially  rich  in 
chronicles  of  this  period.     Ethelhard,  a  Bene- 
dictine abbot,  introduced  his  own  translation 
of  Eaclid  into  his  schools.     Disputations  were 
held,  and  prizes  in  poetry  and  grammar  were 
established.      We  find   dramatic   entertain- 
ments given  in  the  monastery  school  at  Dim- 
stable,  a  practice  which  has  been  continued 
till  our  own  day.      A  later  period  brings  us 
to  still  more  ambitious  eft'oils.      William  of 
Wykeham  founded  New  College,  at  Oxford, 
and  a  great  college  at  Winchester,  intended 
to  supply  between  them  the  whole  curriculum 
of    a   liberal  education.       Winchester    wa.s 
opened  in  1393.     In  imitation  of  this,  Henry 
Vl.  founded  King's  College,  at  Cambridge, 
and  Cton  College,  neai'  Windsor  (144  U.     In 
1447    four    London    clergymen  presented  a 
petition  to  Parliament  to  found  schools  in  the 
different  parishes.      The  only  result  of  this 
was  the  Mercers'  School,  at  which  was  edu- 
cated Colet,  who  in  1508  founded  St.  Paul's 
School.      The  suppression  of  the  monasteries 
at  the  Keformation  ought   to  have  provided 
funds   for  an    efficient    national    education, 
but    they     were    squandei-ed     by     Henr>' 
VIII.      Edward  VI.   founded  a  number  of 
ffxammar  schools  in  different  parts  of  Eng- 
und,   many   of  which  have  become  distin- 
g^uished,  the  principal  being  Chiist's  Hospital, 
founded  in  1552.     Elizabeth  to  some  extent 
continued  this  work.      The  principal  of  her 
foimdations  is  Westminster.      In  her  reign 
Judd  founded  Tunbridge  School ;  Lawrence 
Sheriff,  Rugby;   John  Lyons,  Harrow;  and 
in  the  next  reign  Thomas  Sutton  founded 
Charterhouse.  These  \'arious  efforts  did  much 
for  the  education  of  the  higher  and  middle 
classes,  but  the  education  of  the  lower  classes 
WHS  almost  entirely  neglected,      llie  Society 
for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge,  founded 
in  1698,  had  established  1,600  free  schools  by 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  ;  but 
this  number  was  very  insufficient.     Wesley's 
efforts  for  popular  education  were  principally 
confined  to  his  own  communion.      A    pre- 
cursor of  the  ]Siethodist  movement  in  Wales, 
Griffith  Jones,  of  Llanddowror,  effected  great 
changes  by  his  dystem  of  "  circulating  schools," 
but  his  efforts  were  purely  local.    Towards 
the  end   of  the  eighteenth  century,   Robert 
Raikes,  the  editor  of  the  Glowester  Journal^ 
awakened  public  interest  in  this  cause.     He 
began  to  t^ch  children  in  Gloucester  Cathe- 
dral during  the  service.   In  1785  was  founded 
**  The  Society  for  the  Support  and  Encourage- 
ment  of    Sunday    Schools   throughout    tiie 
British  Dominions."     Dissenters  joined  it  as 
well  as  Churchmen.      These  Sunday  schools 
gave  a  great  impulse  to  the  general  education 
of  the  poorer  classes.    Yrom  these  small  be- 
ginnings  the  Sunday  schools    were  almost 
universally  adopted.    A  further  advance  was 
•made  by  the  introduction  of  the  monitorial 
^system  by  Bell  and   Lancaster.     Bell,  who 


returned  to  England  in  1797,  had  organised 
this  method  of  mutual  instruction  whilst  he 
was  president  of  the  military  oii)han  school 
in  Madi'as.  Joseph  Lancaster,  a  young 
Quaker,  employed  the  same  method.  He  met 
with  great  success,  and  was  favoured  by  the 
court.  Under  this  impulse  the  British  and 
Foreign  School  Society  was  established  in 
1805.  In  these  schools  the  Bible  was  taught 
**  without  note  or  comment."  In  opposition 
to  this,  Dr.  Bell  gave  his  countenance  to 
the  **  National  Society  for  Promoting  the 
Education  of  the  Poor  in  the  Principles 
of  the  Established  Church,"  founded  in 
1811.  BeU,  at  his  death,  in  1832,  lelt 
£120,000  for  the  purpose  of  promoting 
national  education.  Lancaster  died  in 
poverty  in  America  in  1838.  By  the  ri\'al 
efforts  of  these  two  societies  education  was 
much  developed,  and  in  1833  a  propoilion  of 
about  one  in  eleven  of  the  whole  population 
was  attending  school.  Up  to  this  time  the 
goveiimient  had  taken  no  direct  pait  in  this 
movement,  but  the  year  1832  introduced 
a  change  in  this  respect.  In  that  year  a 
committee  was  appointed  to  inquire  into  the 
matter,  and  in  the  following  year  £20,000 
was  voted  for  the  education  of  the  people. 
In  order  to  avoid  religious  disputes,  the  sum 
was  divided  between  the  two  great  school 
societies,  and  the  grant  was  continued  in  suc- 
ceeding yeai'S.  In  1839  the  Committee  of 
the  Piivv  CoimcU  on  Education  was  formed. 
Its  action  was  at  first  exclusively  on  the 
lines  of  the  Church  of  England.  To  meet 
the  difficulty,  the  Independents  founded  the 
Congregational  Board  of  Education,  and  the 
Baptists  the  Voluntary  School  Society. 
The  further  development  of  the  action  of 
government  was  hindered  bv  the  divergence 
of  party  views  on  the  question.  One  party 
was  in  favour  of  an  entirely  voluntary  B}'stem, 
unconnected  with  the  State.  Among  the 
supporters  of  State  education,  some  were  in- 
clined to  a  gratuitous  system;  some  were 
for  denominational,  others  for  secular  educa- 
tion. An  impoilant  step  was  taken,  Eebruarj' 
25,  1856,  by  which  an  Education  Department 
was  established  in  two  divisions :  one  for  the 
education  of  the  people,  and  the  other  for  the 
development  of  science  and  art.  A  code  of 
regulations  was  published  in  April,  1860,  now 
known  as  the  "  old  code."  A  Roval  Commis* 
sfon,  appointed  in  1858,  reported  in  1861.  It 
gave  an  unfavourable  picture  of  the  state  of 
education  in  England.  In  July,  1861,  a  re- 
Wsed  code  of  regulations  was  issued,  chiefly 
under  the  influence  of  Mr.  Robert  Lowe.  It 
appeared  in  a  revised  form  in  l^Iay,  1862. 
It  reduced  the  subjects  of  t^ching  to  "  the 
three  It's," — reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic, 
established  six  standards  of  proficiency,  and 
asserted  the  principle  of  payment  by  results. 
The  management  of  schools  was  left  to  local 
bodies,  but  the  inspection  placed  in  the  hands 
of  government.     The  pay  of  the. teachers  was 


Edn 


(408) 


Edn 


diminished.  The  revised  code  was  severely 
criticised  in  its  details,  but  it  laid  a  founda- 
tion for  future  action,  and  indii'ectly  fami- 
liarised the  nation  with  the  duty  of  educa- 
ting the  people.  It  paved  the  way  for  the 
great  measure  of  Mr.  Forstcr,  the  Elemen- 
tary Education  Act,  which  became  law  on 
August  9,  1870,  and  authorised  the  formation 
of  School  Boards  for  the  purpose  of  providing 
public  elementary  education  under  the  super- 
vision of  elected  representatives  of  the  rate- 
payers.  It  was  followed  by  the  Free  Educa- 
tion Act  in  1891.  [O.  B.] 

Edncatioii  in  Ireland  is  by  tradition 

said  to  have  reached  a  high  pitch  of  excel- 
lence in  pre-Christian  times.  It  liad  its 
military  as  well  as  its  civil  side.  The  usual 
custom  was  for  the  principal  champions  to  pi*e- 
side  over  the  education,  chiefly  athletic,  of  the 
more  promising  youths,  and  this  system  was 
perpetuated  by  the  laws  of  fosterage,  which 
continued  in  force  as  late  as  a.d.  1600.  There 
were  also  central  military  schools  at  Tara 
and  the  capitals  of  the  other  kingdoms.  We 
are  told  that  when  the  Fianna  fFenians),  or 
national  militia,  was  establishea  (circa  140 
A.D.),  no  one  was  admitted  to  membership 
until  he  had  passed  a  strict  military  ex- 
amination, which  included  verso-making  as 
well  as  feats  of  corporeal  strength.  The  civil 
education  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Druids  and 
of  the  FileadhyOr  poets,  characters  often  united 
in  the  same  person,  though  the  former  were,  aa 
a  rule,  stationaxy,  while  the  latter,  a  highly 
privileged  and  protected  class,  wandered  about 
the  country  with  their  pupils.  Learning  was 
held  in  high  esteem ;  from  600  B.C.  we  have 
lists  of  great  lawyers,  historians,  and  poets 
v/ho  were  maintained  at  the  royal  courts. 
Cormac,  King  of  Erinn,  who  lived  in  the 
third  century,  endowed  schools  of  war,  history, 
and  jurisprudence  at  Tara,  and  we  are  told  that 
the  Ollamhs,  or  doctors  of  poetry  (or  rather, 
culture  generally),  had  to  submit  to  twelve 
years'  study  of  great  severity.  They  were 
declared  inviolate  by  law,  and  their  duties 
consisted  in  teaching  the  people  histor}-  by 
public  recitals,  uid  in  settling  questions  of 
genealogy.  With  the  arrival  of  St.  Patrick, 
education  was  revolutionised  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  Latin  and  of  Christianity.  A  g^eat  im- 
pulse was  now  given  to  learning ;  ccdesiastical 
schools  were  founded,  where  churchman  and 
layman  alike  gathei>ed  round  their  saintly 
teachers,  the  most  famous  being  the  School 
or  TJniveniity  of  Armagh,  where,  it  is  said,  a 
thii-d  of  the  city  was  given  over  to  foreign 
students,  so  great  was  its  fame.  Education  was 
conducted  on  a  well-organised  system ;  poor 
students  waited  on  the  rich  in  return  for  gifts 
of  food  and  clothing ;  and  the  efficiency  and 
functions  of  the  teachers  were  minutely 
provided  for  by  law.  During  the  sixth  and 
seventh  century,  Ireland  sent  forth  missiona- 
ries and  scholars  everywhere,  and  her  culture 


was  the  envy  of  Europe.  Neither  intenuU 
dissensions  nor  Danish  invasions  seem  to  have 
checked  the  advance  of  knowledge;  about 
A.D.  1000  we  find  poetry  cultivated  with  great 
assiduit}^  and  royal  preceptors  often  became 
ministers  of  state:  e.ff.,  O* Carroll,  under  Brian 
Boru.  A  great  number  of  schools  and  col- 
leges were,  however,  plundered  of  their 
wealth  during  the  anarchy  which  preceded 
the  Norman  invasion,  and  the  struggles 
that  fuUowed  that  event  destroyed  the  old 
Celtic  civilisation,  without,  uniortunately, 
substituting  that  of  England.  All  through 
the  Angevin  period  the  social  condition  of 
Ireland  degenerated.  The  English  settlers  at 
first  sent  their  sons  to  be  educated  in  Eng- 
land, and  after  they  had  become,  in  the  four- 
teenth centur}'',  '*more  Irish  than  the  Irish 
themselves,*'  did  not  have  them  educated  at 
all.  Nevertheless,  two  great  attempts  were 
made  to  establish  university  teaching:  the 
first  at  Dublin,  on  the  authority  of  a  bull  from 
Pope  Clement  Y.  in  1311,  an  effort  which 
struggled  on  until  the  reign  of  Eklward 
YI.,  and  the  second  at  Drogheda,  in  1465. 
Both  ultimately  failed  from  lack  of  funds. 
What  other  teaching  existed  was  purely  ec- 
clesiaatical,  and  many  learned  prieste  were 
brought  up  in  the  monasteries  and  convents 
which  had  been  built  by  the  invaders.  These 
became  rapidly  corrupt,  and  the  suppression 
of  the  religious  houses  of  the  Pale  by  Henry 
YIII.  was  not  very  detrimental  to  the  cause 
of  education.  Then  came  the  Reformation, 
bringing  with  it  educational  disabilities  for  the 
Catholics,  but  also  in  1591  the  foundation  of 
Dublin  Universit}'.  A  commencement  was 
made  by  the  establishment  by  charter  of 
Trinity  College,  which  was  to  be  the  Mater 
Universitatia  ;  but  though  it  flourished  greatly, 
the  efforts  in  the  seventeenth  century  to 
found  colleges  round  it  were  only  partially 
successful,  and  the  University  remained  unin- 
corporated. During  this  period  the  children 
of  uie  Catholic  gentry  were  for  the  most  paub 
educated  abroad  in  Catholic  seminaries,  or 
secretly  at  home  by  Jesuit  priests.  Education 
in  Ireland  continued  to  be  virtually  confined 
to  Protestants  until  1793,  when  the  disabilities 
excluding  Catholics  from  Dublin  University 
were  removed  by  law.  During  the  present  cen- 
tury many  efforts  have  been  made  to  solve  the 
vexed  question  of  Irish  University  Education. 
In  1850  the  Queen's  University,  with  colleges 
at  Belfast,  Cork,  and  Galway,  was  established, 
but  its  system  of  purely  secular  education  was 
disliked  by  the  Catholics,  and,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  college  at  Belfast,  it  proved  a 
complete  failure.  The  Catholic  University 
was  established  in  1854,  and  supported  by 
private  subscriptions.  Mr.  Gladstone's  Irish 
University  Bill  of  1873  was  the  most  complete 
of  the  many  schemes  which  endeavoured  to  re* 
concile  these  conflicting  institutions ;  its  aim 
was  to  make  Dublin  University  the  one  cen- 
tral university  to  which  the  other  colleges 


Bdu 


(  409  ) 


Sdu 


might  affiliate  themselves,  bat  it  satisfied  no 
ooe,  and  was  thrown  out  in  the  Commons. 
Tests  were,  however,  abolished  in  Dublin 
University,  and  the  Uueen*s  University  super- 
seded by  the  Royal  University,  for  which 
a  charter  was  granted  in  1880.  The  Grammar 
Schools  of  Ireland  date  from  the  time  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,  who  provided  that  a  school 
should  be  maintained  m  every  diocese ;  but 
though  grants  of  forfeited  land  were  given  for 
the  purpose  by  the  Stuarts,  the  scheme  was 
never  thoroughly  carried  out.  For  the  educa- 
tion of  candidates  for  the  Catholic  priesthood, 
Haynooth  College  was  foimded  in  1795,  and 
after  a  stormy  career,  was  permanently  en- 
dowed for  the  maintenance  of  five  hundred 
students  in  the  year  1845;  but  in  1869 
this  grant  was  i*epealed,  and  a  compen- 
sation given  instead.  It  is  as  yet  too  early 
to  discuss  the  benefits  of  the  Intermediate 
Education  Act  of  1878,  by  which  a  million 
of  the  Irish  Church  surplus  was  set  aside  for 
the  encouragement  and  endowment  of  in- 
termediate education.  Primary  Schools  were 
established  in  the  roign  of  Henry  YIII.,  who 
ordained  that  the  incumbent  should  maintain 
a  school  in  every  parish,  llus  duty  was, 
however,  shamefully  neglected,  and  the 
Charter  Schools,  started  in  1733  by  the  Fk>- 
testants,  with  the  avowed  intention  of  the 
conversion  of  the  children  of  the  poor,  though 
admirably  planned  on  a  system  of  industrial 
education,  failed  utterly,  through  the  hostility 
of  the  Catholic  prieeta,  the  falling  off  of  pri- 
vate benefeu!tions,  and  the  peculation  of  the 
annual  Parliamentary  grants.  [Chartbk 
BcHooLs.]  In  1811  the  Kildare  Place  Society 
for  Promoting  the  Education  of  the  Poor  on  the 
Principle  of  Secularism  was  founded  in  Dublin, 
and  in  1819  it  received  a  Parliamentar}*  grant. 
This  was  ultimately  withdrawn,  on  account  of 
the  outcry  of  the  Catholics,  but  in  1833  it  was 
vested  in  Commissioners  of  National  Ekiucation, 
by  whom  it  haa  been  excellently  administered. 

O'Cnrry,  Manntn  and  Cuatomt  of  the  Aneitfnt 
Iruh ;  Cnsaek,  Hid.  of  ths  Iritih  Nation  ;  Fronde, 
"Bnq.  in  Ireland;  Haverty,  H.vA.  of  IrAand; 
McCarthy,  Hut.  of  Our  Ourn  TivM^^  rol.  iv.;  Olftd- 
stone,  ^Mch  on  IritiK  I7niv«mty  BUI,  Hansard, 
vol.ocxiy.,col.878.  [L.  C.  8.] 

Sduoation  in  Bcotlaad.    It  is  im- 

possible  to  fix  witli  any  accuracy  the  date 
of  the  first  establishment  of  schools  in 
Scotland,  but  there  are  indications  in  the 
historical  records  that  thev  existed  from 
a  very  early  period.  Leammg  has  in  Scot- 
land always  been  in  advance  of  the  arts 
and  refinements  of  rivilisation,  which  in 
other  countries  usually  precede  letters.  For 
the  first  foundation  of  her  schools,  as  for  the 
introduction  of  hor  earliest  arts  and  indus- 
tries, Scotland  is  indebted  to  the  Church.  As 
early  as  the  twelfth  centurj'  there  is  mention 
of  schools  existing  in  certain  burghs  in  con- 
nection with  the  religious  houses  in  the 
neighbourhood.    With  the  building  of  every 


cathedral  church  a  school  would  spring  up  in 
the  city  for  the  instruction  of  the  choristers, 
and  though  the  teaching  was  mainly  intended 
to  fit  the  scholars  for  taking  pairt  in  tho 
religious  services,  it  was  not  confined  to 
choral  singing  and  chanting;  for  as  the 
service  of  the  Church  was  wholly  in  Latin,  a 
knowledge  of  Latin  was  absolutely  necessary 
for  all  who  took  part  ia  the  service,  and  the 
Latin  grammar  was  therefore  taught  in  the 
choral  schools.  Thus  the  choral  school  of 
the  Church  easily  developed  into  the  grammar 
school  of  the  burgh.  We  have  no  exact 
information  as  to  the  number  of  these  burghal 
schools  or  the  course  of  instruction  pursued 
even  at  so  lute  a  date  as  the  Reformation ; 
but  while  art  was  still  in  its  infancy,  and  all 
the  appliances  of  domestic  life  were  of  the 
rudest,  the  value  of  knowledge  and  the  desire 
for  it  was  felt  by  the  nation,  and  expressed 
by  a  series  of  '*  Education  Acts  "  passed  by 
the  Scots  Parliament.  The  first  official 
mention  of  national  education  is  in  1496. 
when  an  Act  of  Parliament  waa  passed 
requiring  "through  all  the  realm  that  all 
barons  and  freeholders  that  are  of  substance 
put  their  eldest  sons  and  heirs  to  the  schools, 
fra  they  be  aught  or  nine  years  of  age ;  and 
to  remain  at  the  grammar  schools  until  they 
be  competently  founded,  and  have  perfect 
Latin ;  and  thereafter  to  remain  three  years 
at  the  schools  of  art  and  jure,  so  that  they 
may  have  knowledge  and  understanding  of  the 
laws,"  under  pain  of  a  penalty  of  i'20.  In 
1579  another  Act  ordained  that  "  s^ng-schools 
be  pro\ided  in  burghs  for  the  instruction  of 
the  youth  in  music.'*  In  1621  an  Act  exempts 
colleges  and  schools  from  payment  of  a  taxa- 
tion ;  and  in  1633  an  Act  declares  that  every 
"plough-  or  husband-land  according  to  the 
worth  "  should  be  taxed  for  the  maintenance 
and  establishment  of  parish  schools.  In 
spite  of  these  enactments,  however,  oh  the 
re-establishment  of  the  Pre8b}'terian  Church 
it  was  found  that  the  existing  means  of 
education  was  not  sufficient  to  meet  the 
wants  of  the  people,  and  that  many  parishes: 
were  without  schools.  An  Act,  therefore, "  for 
settling  of  schools  "  was  passed  in  1696,  which 
orders  the  heritors  (landownei's)  of  every 
parish  in  the  kingdom  to  "  provide  a  com- 
modious house  for  a  school,  and  settle  and 
modify  a  salary  for  a  schoolmaster,  which 
shall  not  be  under  one  hundred  nor  above  two 
hundred  marks."  This  Act  was  the  basis  of 
the  parochial  school  system  of  Scotland,  and 
this  sj'^stem  continued  in  opi^ration  till  tho 
whole  machinery  of  education  was  revised, 
and  the  last  Education  Act  passed,  in  1872, 
when  it  was  again  found  that  the  existing 
means  of  education  was  inadequate  to  the 
population.  This  was  due  in  the  towns  to  the 
influx  of  strangers  caused  by  the  increase  of 
trade  and  manufactures.  In  the  rural  parishes, 
too,  the  heritors  bad  in  many  instances  so 
neglected  their  duty  that  there  was  no  house 


saw 


(  410  ; 


saw 


for  either  the  school  or  the  teachers.  The 
returns  showed  that  1,000  new  schools  were 
i-equired,  and  that  54,671  children  were 
without  accommodation.  The  Education  Act 
was  therefore  passed,  the  principles  of  which 
are  the  same  in  substance  as  those  of  the  Act 
of  1494 :  namely,  that  every  child  in  tho 
kingdom  shall  have  the  means  of  education 
placed  within  its  reac)^,  and  that  it  shall  be 
compelled  to  make  use  of  them.  The  new 
Act  places  the  management  of  the  pariah 
school  in  the  hands  of  a  school  board  elected 
by  the  ratepayers. 

AcU  t»f  iha  ScoU  PaAianunt;  Cosmo  Inues, 
Sktlchm  of  Earlu  Scotluh  Hidory  ;  Bartou,  Kvt, 
qfScQiXatid;  Tytler,  KUi.  o/ Scotland. 

[M.  M.] 

Edward  (Eadwahd)  the  Elder,  Kixo  [b. 
870,  9.  901,  d.  925),  was  the  son  and  successor 
of  Alfred.  Ho  had  already  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  wars  against  the  Danes,  and  seems 
to  have  been  unanimously  chosen  king  on  his 
father's  death;  but  Ethelwald,  a  son  of 
Ethelred,  put  forward  his  claim  to  the  throne, 
and  having  failed  to  excite  a  rebellion  in 
Wessex,  fled  to  Northumbria,  where  the 
Daoes  inade  him  their  king.  In  904  he  got 
possession  of  Essex,  and  the  next  ^^ear  ravaged 
Mercia.  Edward,  in  return,  invaded  tho 
Danelagh,  and  harried  it.  The  Kentish  men, 
against  his  orders,  remained  behind,  and  a 
battle  ensued,  in  which  the  Danes  were  vie* 
torious,  but  their  king,  Eric,  and  Ethelwald 
were  slain.  In  906  Edward  made  peace  with 
Giithrum,  the  son  and  successor  of  Eric. 
Edward  now  beg^,  with  the  aid  of  his  sister, 
Ethelfleda  (^thelflaed),  the  *'Lady  of  the  Mer- 
cians,* '  to  construct  fortresses  against  tho  Danes 
at  Chester,  Tamworth,  Warwick,  Hertford,  and 
other  places.  These  fortresses  were  mostly 
constructed  of  stone  or  brick,  a  great  improve- 
ment on  the  old  system  of  earthworks.  In 
910  the  Danes  broke  the  peace,  and  were 
defeated  by  Edward  at  Tottenhall,  and  in  tho 
next  year  at  Wodnesfield.  On  the  death  of 
iBthelflssd  in  918,  Edward  took  possession  of 
Mercia;  ''and  all  the  folk  there,  as  well 
Danish  as  English,  submitted  to  him."  In 
921  the  Danes  failed  in  an  attack  on  Tow- 
cester,  and  in  922  "all  the  people  in  Essex, 
East  Anglia,  and  the  rest  of  Mercia  submitted 
to  him,"  and  in  the  same  year  the  Welsh 
kings  *'  sought  him  to  lord.'*  Lastly,  in  924, 
"  the  King  of  the  Scots,  and  the  whole  nation 
of  the  Scots,  and  all  those  who  dwell  in 
Northumbria,  as  well  English  as  Danes,  and 
Northmen,  and  others,  and  also  the  King  of 
tho  Strathclyde  Britons,  and  all  the  Strath- 
clyde  Britons,  sought  him  to  father  and  to 
lord."  Edward  had  thus  in  some  sort  gained 
a  supremacy  over  all  Britain.  Wessex,  Kent, 
and  Sussex  were  his  by  inheritance,  and 
Mercia,  Essex,  and  East  Anglia  by  conquest 
from  the  Danes.  Besides  this,  Northumbria, 
Scotland,  Wales,  and  Strathclyde  did  homage 
to  him  as  overlord.     Edward  died  in  925, 


and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Athelstan.  He 
seems  to  have  had  three  wives  and  a  numerous 
family;  three  of  his  sons  reigned  after  him, 
and  of  his  daughters,  one  married  Charles 
the  Simple,  King  of  the  West  Franks ;  another 
(Ead^iftt)  Louis,  King  of  Aries;  Eadhild 
maiTied  liugh  the  Great,  Duke  of  the  French 
(the  father  by  another  wife  of  Hugh  Capet) ; 
while  Edith  oecame  the  wife  of  the  Emperor 
Otto  I.  Another  daughter  was  given  to  a 
prince  near  the  Alps,  and  another  to  Sitric, 
the  Northumbrian  king.  Of  King  Edward 
Mr.  Freeman  says :  "  It  is  only  the  unequalled 
glor}'  of  his  father  which  has  condemned  this 
prince,  one  of  the  greatest  rulers  that  England 
ever  beheld,  to  a  smaller  de^rce  of  popular 
fame  than  he  deserves.  His  whole  reigq 
bears  out  the  panegyric  passed  on  him  by  an 
ancient  writer,  Florence  of  Worcester,  that 
he  was  fully  his  father*s  equal  as  a  warrior 
and  a  ruler,  and  was  inferior  to  him  only  in 
those  literary'  labours  which  peculiarly  dis- 
tinguish Al&ed  among  the  princes  of   the 

age." 

ilnyIo-S(uon  Chvon. ;  Florence  of  Worcester, 
svh  anno  901:  Freeman,  Norman  Conquett,  i. 
58,  &o.  [S.  J.  L.] 

Edward  (Eadwakd)  the  Mahtyk,  King 
(«.  975,  d.  979),  was  the  eldest  son  of  Edgar, 
whom  he  succeeded  at  the  ago  of  thirteen.  His 
election  was  opposed  by  his  step-mother, 
Elfrida  (iElfthiTth),  on  behalf  of  her  own 
son,  Ethelred.  Edward,  however,  gained  the 
support  of  Dunstan,  and  was  accordingly 
elected.  His  short  reign  is  unimportant, 
except  for  the  banishment  of  OsLac,  the 
Elarl  of  Deira,  who  had  been  appointed  by 
Edgar.  His  accession  seems  to  have  led  to  a 
reaction  against  the  monastic  policy  of  Edgar, 
but  little  can  be  certainly  said  on  this  point. 
He  was  treacherously  murdered  in  979,  with- 
out doubt  at  the  instigation  of  his  step- 
mother, though  the  story  of  the  trageoy 
having  taken  place  at  Corfe  Castle,  and  the 
details  of  the  crime,  are  only  found  in  the 
later  chroniclers.  His  cruel  and  untimely 
f^te  gained  him  the  surname  of  the  Martj^, 
though  it  cannot  bo  affirmed  that  he  was  a 
martyr  either  to  religion  or  to  patriotism. 

Anglo-Saxon  Chron. ;  William  of  Malmesbmy, 
ii.  1^,  dec. ;  Freeman,  Norman  ConqutBt,  i  2Bo, 
Ac. 

Edward  (Eadward)  the  Confeshoh  («. 
1042,  d.  1066)  was  the  younger  son  of  Emma 
and  Ethelred  the  Unready,  and  was  bom  pit)- 
bably  about  1004.  This  Emma — or,  to  call  her 
by  her  English  name,  Edith — was  the  daughter 
of  Richard  Sanspeur,  great-grandfather  of 
William  the  Conqueror,  who  was  therefore 
second  cousin  to  Edward.  The  early  days  of 
Edward  and  his  brother  Alfred  were  spent  in 
Normandy,  at  the  coui-t  of  their  uncle,  Kichard 
the  Good ;  for  they  had  been  carried  there  by 
Emma  at  the  time  of  Sweyn's  success  in  1013, 
and  did  not  return  to  their  native  land  on  their 
mother*s  marriage  with  Canute  (1017).  Henoe 


(411) 


Bdw 


the  two  yoang  Athelings  grew  up  to  man- 
hood abroad,  and  learnt  to  prefer  the  Norman- 
French  customs  and  life  to  those  of  Enffland. 
It  is  uncertain  whether  Edward  had  any 
share  in  the  invasion  of  England  that  led  to 
Alfred's  death  in  1036  ;  but  Robert  the  Devil 
seems  to  have  made  at  least  one  effort  for  Uhe 
restoration  of  his  coiuins  a  few  years  before 
this  date.  When  Uardicanute  (Uarthacnut) 
succeeded  his  brother  Harold,  it  was  not  long 
before  he  invited  his  half-brother  Edward  to 
return  home,  and  thus  be  at  hand  to  assume 
the  throne  should  any  misfortune  happen  to 
himself  (1041).  Accordingly,  in  the  words  of 
the  Chronicle,  on  Uai'dicanute's  death,  in  June, 
1042,  **  all  folk  chose  Edward,  and  received  him 
forking,"  though  the  coronation  did  not  take 
place  at  Winchester  till  Easter  next  year. 
There  seems  to  have  been  some  opposition  to 
Edward's  succession — one  party  preferring 
the  claims  of  a  Danish  pretender,  Bweyn  £s- 
trithson,  Canute's  nephew — but  the  eloquence 
of  Bishop  Lyfing  and  Earl  (iodwin  carried 
the  day  in  favour  of  Ethelred's  son.  A  year 
or  two  later,  Magnus,  King  of  Norway  and 
Denmark,  was  preparing  to  make  good  his 
pretensions  on  England,  but  was  prevented 
from  carrying  out  his  project  by  the  attack 
of  his  rivals,  Harold  Hardrada  and  Sweyn 
(104d).  It  was  probably  for  her  connection 
with  Sweyn's  party  that  the  Witan  stripped 
Emma  of  her  treasures  (1043) ;  while  the 
dangers  of  this  Danish  element  led,  a  year 
or  two  later,  to  the  bauishment  of  the 
great  Danish  lords  in  England,  Sweyn's 
brother  Osbeom,  and  Osgod  Clapa  (1046). 
From  this  time  the  now  king's  throne  was 
secure. 

Meanwhile,  Edward  had  married  Godwin's 
daughter  Edith,  and  the  power  of  the  great 
earl's  house  was  g^wing  every  day.  At  the 
time  of  Edward's,  accession  there  were  four 
g^eat  earldoms,  of  which  only  one,  Wessex, 
was  in  the  hands  of  Godwin.  Siward  held 
Korthumbria,  Leofric  ^lercia,  while  another 
earl,  whose  name  is  lost,  ruled  East  Anglia. 
But  in  1043  Godwin's  eldest  son,  Swe^'n, 
received  an  earldom  irregularly  carved  out  of 
the  western  parts  of  Mercia  and  Wessex, 
including  Hereford,  Gloucester,  Oxford,  Berk- 
shire, and  Somerset ;  about  the  same  time  his 
nephew,  Beom,  received  the  earldom  of  the 
Middle  Angles,  and  his  second  son,  Harold, 
that  of  the  East  Angles  (1045).  But  Ed- 
ward could  never  forget  the  land  of  his  early 
life,  and  was  constantly  bringing  foreigners 
over  to  hold  rule  in  England.  His  nephew, 
Halph,  was  made  Earl  of  Worcester  and  Here- 
ford in  succession.  It  was,  however,  by  mani- 
pulating the  ecclesiastical  appointments  that 
Edward  found  his  readiest  way  of  placing  the 
strangers  in  high  office.  In  especial,  a  Norman 
monk,  Robert  of  Jumieges,  was  nominated 
Bishop  of  London  (1044),  and  some  six  years 
later  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (1051) ;  while 
another  Nonnan,  Ulf,  was  made  Bishop  of 


Dorchester  (1049).  But  all  the  time  these  and 
many  other  Norman  strangers  were  swarming 
into  the  land,  the  house  of  Godwin  u-oa 
becoming  more  and  more  the  centre  of 
the  national  party.  In  1051  things  came  to  a 
climax.  In  this  year  the  king,  who  had  a  few 
months  previously  rejected  the  choice  of  the 
Canterbury  menu  and  Godwin  for  the  see  of 
Canterbury,  gave  the  great  earl  still  further 
offence  by  requiring  him  to  punish  the  men  of 
Dover  for  vengeance  they  had  inflicted  on  the 
insolent  followers  of  Baldwin  of  Flanders. 
This  Godwin  refused  to  do  without  giving 
the  offenders  fiiiir  triaL  About  the  same  time 
he  had  another  charge  against  the  king's 
foreign  friends;  for  the  ** Welshmen,"  or 
French,  had  built  a  castle  in  Sweyn's  earldom 
of  Hereford,  and  were  working  all  the  harm 
they  could  on  the  people  thereabouts.  Godwin, 
being  summoned  to  attend  a  meeting  of  the 
Witan  at  Gloucester,  gathered  his  own  men 
and  those  of  his  sons  at  Beverstone,  not  far 
from  Malmesbury,  while  the  rival  hosts  of 
Siward,  Leofric,  and  Ralph  supported  the 
king  at  Gloucester.  The  meeting-place  was 
transferred  to  London,  and  Godwin's  case 
was  brought  forward  apparently  before  he 
could  arrive  himself.  Sweyn  was  outlawed 
once  more,  and  Godwin  and  Harold  summoned 
to  appear  as  criminals.  In  these  circum- 
stances flight  seemed  the  wisest  courso : 
Harold  crossed  over  to  DubUn,  and  Grodwin 
to  Flanders,  whence  they  returned  next  year 
to  drive  out  the  Norman  offenders  with  Arch- 
bishop Robert  and  Bishop  Ulf  at  their  head 
fl052).  Next  year,  however,  the  great  earl 
aied,  and  was  succeeded  in  his  West  Saxon 
proWnce  by  his  eldest  living  son,  Harold; 
for  Sweyn  had  died  on  his  way  back  from  a 
pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  (Sept.,  1052).  Upon 
this,  East  Anglia  was  given  to  Leof ric's  son 
^Ifgar ;  while  about  the  same  time  Siward 
undertook  his  expedition  against  ^lacbeth, 
and  procLiimed  ^lalcolm  King  of  Scots  (1054). 
On  Siward's  death,  next  year,  his  earldom 
was  given  to  Harold's  brother  Tostig.  In  the 
same  month  iElfgar  was  banished  from  the 
kingdom,  but  soon  returned  to  aid  the  Welsh 
in  their  foray  upon  Hereford.  Harold  was 
now  the  most  prominent  man  in  the  kingdom, 
and  to  him  was  entrusted  the  task  of  boating 
back  the  invaders,  though  in  the  reconcile- 
ment of  Gruffydd  he  seems  to  have  had  the 
co-operation  of  ^If gar's  Either,  Leofric  (1056) 
— apparently  a  token  of  some  approaches  to 
amity  between  the  two  great  rival  houses. 
East  Anglia  was  now  given  to  Harold's 
brother  Gyrth,  while  another  brother,  Leof  win, 
had  Kent  and  Essex,  and  the  other  shires  of 
south-east  England.  In  1062  Gruffydd  of 
Wales  once  more  invaded  England.  But  Haruld 
and  Tostig  united  their  forces  for  the  purpose 
of  harrying  his  land;  the  English  soldiers 
were  bidden  to  adopt  the  arms  and  tactics  of 
the  Welsh,  and  before  the  year  1063  was  out 
Gruffydd  was  dead,  and  his  kingdom  divided 


Edw 


(  412  ) 


Sdw 


l)etween  two  native  prinoes,  who  swore  fealty 

to  Edward.    In  1065  Northumberland  rose 

in    rebellion    against    Tostig,    and    elected 

Leofric's    grandson,   Morkere,    as   its   earl. 

Morkere,   in  combination  with  his  brother 

Eadwine,  who  had  been  Earl  of  Mercia  since 

about  the  year   1062,  appeared  in  arms  at 

Northampton,  perhaps  meditating  a  division 

of  the  kingdom,  and  certainly  declaring  that 

the  Northumbrians  would  no  longer  support 

the  tyrann}"-  of  Tostig.    Edward  would  have 

pushed    matters   to    extremes,    but    Harold 

persuaded  the  Oxford  gemot  to  confirm  the 

wishes  of  the  Northerners.    Accordingly  the 

Northumbrians  were  promised  a  renewal  of 

Canute's  laws,  and  Tostig  was  banished.   This 

was  the  last  important  event  in  Edward  the 

Confessor's  reign.    At  the  end  of  the  year 

1065  his  great  church  of  Westminster  was 

consecrated,  and  on  Jan.  5,  1066,  the  king 

died.      Edward  had   no   children,  and   for 

many  years  Harold's  position  in  the  kingdom 

had  been  such  that  it  was  scarcely  possible, 

under  all  the  circumstances,  to  elect  any  other 

successor.    Pious,  meditative,  and  given  up 

to  religious  exercises,  Edward,  as  it  has  been 

often  said,  was  more  fitted  for  a  Norman 

cloister  than  the  English  throne.    His  virtues 

earned  him  popular  respect;    but   he    was 

deficient  in  practical  vigour,  and  during  a 

large  part  of  his  rcig^  the  actual  business 

of  administration  was  managed  by  members 

of  the  house  of  Grodwin. 

Anglo-Siucon.  Chronicle;  Livet  of  Sdirard  tht 
Conf€$$or  (Bolls  Series);  Palgrave,  Ei$t.  of 
Normandy  and  England;  and  esp.  Freeman, 
Nonnan  Conquegt,  vol.  ii.  [S.  J.  L.] 

Edward  I.,  Kino  {b.  1239,  «.  1272,  d. 
1 307) ,  was  the  son  of  Henrj'  III.  At  fifteen  he 
married  Eleanor  of  Castile,  and  soon  afterwards 
his  father  gave  him  Gascony,  Ireland,  Bristol, 
and  the  march  between  the  Dee  and  the 
Conway,  where  he  had  early  experience  of 
Welsh  warfare.  He  sided  with  his  father  at  the 
time  of  the  Parliament  of  Oxford,  1258,  and 
was  carefull}'  watched  by  the  barons.     The 

girty  calling  itself  the  bachelorhood  of 
ngiand  ("Communitas  bachelerisB  totius 
Angli»**),  which,  in  1259,  urged  the  baronial 
government  to  fulfil  its  promises,  found  a 
leader  in  Edward,  who  acted  probably  in 
concert  with  Earl  Simon  against  the  council 
formed  at  Oxford.  This  concert  was  soon 
broken,  and  Edward  joined  his  father's  side. 
In  1263  he  seized  the  property  of  the  Londoners 
deposited  in  the  Temple,  and  seems  to  have 
been  much  hated  throughout  the  kingdom. 
His  rash  pursuit  of  the  Londoner  at  Lewes 
caused  the  defeat  of  the  royal  army.  He  was 
kept  in  a  kind  of  captivitv  until  he  escaped 
(Jlay,  1265)  from  Hereforcf.  The  same  year 
he  won  the  decisive  victory  of  Evesham.  The 
pacification  of  the  country  was  due  to  his 
wisdom  as  much  as  to  his  energy.  While  he 
was  active  in  reducing  the  strongholds  of  the 
Montfort  party  and  in  crushing  freebooters, 


he  successfully  advocated  a  healing  policy. 
In  1270  he  went  on  the  Crusade,  and  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  bravery.  In  1272 
he  narrowly  escaped  assassination.  That 
same  year  his  father  died,  and  Edward 
was  at  once  acknowledged  as  king.  He  heard 
the  news  on  his  way  home.  He  landed  in 
England,  and  was  crowned  in  1274.  Edward 
profited  by  the  troubles  of  his  father^s  reign. 
He  knew  the  needs  of  his  people,  and  set  him- 
self to  meet  them  by  good  laws.  He  worked 
not  only  for,  but  with,  his  people,  and  thus 
was  led  to  give  to'  all  aUke  their  share  in 
the  work.  He  was  valiant  and  prudent, 
and,  above  all,  fiiithful  to  his  word.  From 
his  education  he  had  imbibed  French  tastes 
and  thoughts.  They  encouraged  his  love  of 
power.  The  legal  turn  of  his  mind  made 
him  take  advantage  of  subtleties  which 
favoured  his  wishes ;  but  what  he  had  promised 
ho  fulfilled,  at  least  to  the  letter,  at  any  cost. 
His  kingly  pride,  his  love  of  order,  perhaps, 
too,  his  love  for  his  people,  caused  him  to 
strive  for  the  supremacy  of  England  in  this 
island.  Edward  at  once  began  to  amend  the 
evils  of  the  civil  wars.  In  1 275  his  first  Parlia- 
ment passed  the  First  Statute  of  Westminster, 
reciting  former  good  laws  and  usages ;  it  also 
granted  the  king  a  pa>inent  for  the  export  of 
wool  and  leather,  the  first  legal  origin  of  the 
customs.  [Customs.]  As  in  many  cases  wrong- 
ful claims  were  upheld  by  might,  a  commis- 
sion was  appointed  to  inquire  into  men's  rights. 
When  its  report  was  made,  the  circuit  judges 
were  empowered  to  issue  a  writ,  declaring  the 
grounds  upon  which  men  held  their  lands,  levied 
tolls,  &c.  Want  of  money  caused  the  issue  of 
a  writ  compelling  all  who  had  £20  in  land  to 
be  knighted,  or  pay  a  fine.  This  increased 
the  body  of  knighte,  and  tended  to  merge  the 
smaller  feudal  tenants  in  the  great  body  of 
freeholders.  Another  blow  was  given  to  feudal 
distinctions  by  the  Statute  oi  Winchester. 
This  statute  re-organised  the  national  force 
which  had  been  constituted  by  the  Assize  of 
Arms  [Hbnry  IIJ,  and  made  it  a  means  of 
keeping  order.  The  rights  of  the  feudal 
lords,  and  of  the  king  as  chief  of  them, 
were  preserved  by  the  Statute  of  Mortmain 
{De  Rel\gio8is\  which  forbade  grants  of  land 
to  ecclesiastical  bodies,  for  by  these  grante  the 
lord  was  robbed  of  his  rights.  This  measure 
was  provoked  by  an  attempt  of  Archbishop 
Peckham  to  extend  ecclesiastical  privileges. 
Edward,  however,  like  Honry  IT.,  would  have 
no  such  encroachments.  A  statute  called  Qttia 
Emptoresj  made  in  1290,  which  stopped  a  tenant 
from  granting  land,  to  be  held  of  himself  and 
not  of  his  lord,  had  the  same  eifect  as  the  Statute 
of  Mortmain  as  regards  the  rights  of  the  king 
and  other  feudal  lords.  Llewelyn,  Prince  of 
North  Wales,  who  had  been  oii  the  side  of 
Earl  Simon,  was  brought  to  submission  in 
1276.  His  brother  David  was  his  enemy,  and 
was  flavoured  and  rewarded  b}"*  Edward.  The 
brothers  were  reconciled,  and  in  1282  roee 


Sdw 


(413) 


against  the  king.     Llewelyn   was  defeated 
and  slain.      David  was  taken,  and  put  to 
death  as  a  traitor  at  Shrewsbury.    By  the 
Statute  of  Wales,  1284,  Edward  endeavoured  ' 
to  introduce  English  law  and  organisation 
into  that  oountry.    The  Welsh  war  added  to 
the  king*s  needs.    The  bulk  of  the  revenue 
now  came  from  taxes  on  personalty  and  cus- 
toms.    Parliamentary  assemblies  of  different 
kinda   were  often    called   to    make    g^rants, 
until,  in  1295,  Edward  called  an  assembly  of 
the  three  estates  of  the  realm,  which  have 
from  that  time  been    held  necessary   parts 
of  Parliament.   [Paxliambnt  ;  Convocation.] 
As  representatives  of  the  freeholders,  and  not 
the  lesser  tenants  of  the  crown,  sat  as  the 
third  estate.  Parliament  expresses  the  success 
of  the  policy  of  Edward,  which  Dr.  Stubbs 
has  defined  as  "the  elimination  of  the  doc- 
trine  of    tenure    from    political    life."     To 
please   the  people,  and  so  to  gain  money, 
Edward,  in  1290,  banished  the  Jews.  [Jews.] 
On  the  failure  of  the  heirs  of  William  the 
Lion,  Edward  was  called  (1291),  as  overlord 
of  Scotland,  to  settle  the  succession  to  the 
throne   of  that    kingdom.      He    decided    in 
favour  of  John  de  Baliol.     Edward  took  the 
opportunity  of  defining  and  increasing  the 
Bubordiziation  of    the  Scotch    king    to    the 
English   crown.     He  allowed  appeals  to  be 
made    to    his    court  by    the  Scotch   barons 
against  Baliol.      This  soon  caused  war,  and 
in  1296  Edward  conquered  Scotland,  deposrsd 
Baliol,  and  ruled  the  kingdom  as  his  own. 
Meanwh.ile,  Philip    lY.   of  France   fraudu- 
lently  aeized  on  Gascony.     War  followed, 
and  the  Scots  looked  for  help  from  France. 
A  constitutional  crisis  now  occurred  in  Eng- 
land.    Edward  had  made  heavy  demands  on 
the  wealth  of  the  Church.   In  obedience  to  a 
b^ of  Boniface  VIII.,  Archbishop  Winchelsey 
and  the  clergy  refused  (1297)  to  pay  any  more 
taxes  on    their  ecclesiastical  revenue.      The 
king,  in  return,  put  them  out  of  the  protection 
of  the    law.      The    merchants  were   angry 
because  the  king  heavily  taxed  and  seized 
their  wool:    the   earls    disliked  the    whole 
policy  of  Edward,  which  lessened  their  power ; 
all   classes   were  united  against    the    royal 
authority.    Edward  commanded  the  Constable 
and  Mfurshal  to  lead  a  force   to   Gasconv, 
while  he  went  to  Flanders,  and  they  fiatiy 
refused.      The  archbishop  and  the  king  were 
reconciled,    and    Edward  set  sail,  but    the 
attitude  of  affairs  was  so  threatening  that  he 
was  forced  to  grant  the  Confirmation  of  the 
Charters   by  which  he  renounced  taxation, 
direct  and  indirect,  without  the  consent  of  the 
nation.     This  great  concession  is  an  epoch  in 
our  constitution.     Edward  loyally  kept  his 
word,  and  by  the  Articles  upon  the  Charters 
(1300)  confirmed  it  afresh.     Some  irritation 
lingered  in  men's  minds,  which  was  especially 
visible  at  the  Parliament  at  Lincoln  (1301). 
In  consequence    of  his    anger  at   the   pro- 
ceedings at  Lincoln,  Edward,  by  agreement 


with  the  foreign  merchants,  levied  some  new 
customs,  the  origin  of  our  import  duties,  with- 
out consent  of  the  Estates.  This,  though 
quite  against  the  spirit,  was  not  contrary  to 
the  letter,  of  his  promise.  He  also  obtained 
from  the  Pope  absolution  from  his  word,  but 
did  not  take  advantage  of  it.  In  these  two 
matters  alone  did  Edward  seem  to  deal  with 
his  people  with  legal  subtlety. 

In  1297  a  revolt  took  place  in  the  Lowlands 
under  William  Wallace,  who  defeated  the 
English  near  Stirling.  The  revolt  was 
crushed  the  next  year  by  the  defeat  of  Wal- 
lace at  Falkirk.  The  war,  however,  lingered 
on  until  1304.  Meanwhile,  peace  was  made 
with  France,  and  Edward  married  IVIargaret, 
sister  of  Philip.  In  1305  Wallace  was  taken, 
and  put  to  death.  Edward  now  fully  annexed 
Scotland,  and  designed  that  it  should  send 
representatives  to  the  English  Parliament. 
But  in  1306,  Robert  Bruce,  grandson  of  one 
of  the  claimants  in  1291,  who  up  to  this  time 
had  adhered  to  Edward,  revolted,  killed  the 
regent  Comyn,  and  was  crowned  king  at 
Scone.  Bruce  was  defeated  by  the  Earl  of 
Pembroke,  but  stiU  remained  unconquered. 
Edward  marched  northwards  against  him, 
and  on  his  march,  died  at  Burgh-by-Sands,  in 
1307,  in  his  sixty-ninth  year.  The  perfection 
of  the  Parliamentary  system,  the  organisation 
of  the  law  courts,  the  great  statutes  which  he 
caused  to  be  made,  and  the  general  progress  of 
the  constitution,  mark  the  reign  as  of  the  first 
importance.  They  were  the  fruit  of  the 
wisdom,  the  legal  genius,  the  patriotism,  and 
the  good  faith  of  the  **  greatest  of  the  Plan- 
tagenets,"  as  Edward  I.  has  been  not  un- 
d^rvedly  styled. 

Biahaoflrer,  ChrcnicU;  Trivet,  ilnnals;  TTavcr- 
Uy  AimtdB;  Walter  of  Hemiugford,  HtMl.  cU 
Rehm  Qe$tit  Edward.  I.,  II.,  tt  III.  (printed  bj 
Heam) ;  Rotuli  ScoticB  (Record  Commisaioii) ; 
Stabba,  StUct  ChaHer;  Constitutional  Hut., 
and  The  Early  PlantaatneU :  Freeman,  Essays; 
The  Qreateat  of  the  Plantagenete ;  Paali«  Eng- 
lieche  Geschickte.  [W.  H.] 

Edward  II.,  King  {b.  1284,  «.  1307,  d, 
1327  P),  was  the  fourth  son  of  Edward  I.  and 
Eleanor  of  Castile,  but  the  death  of  his  three 
elder  brothers  made  him  heir  to  the  throne 
when  an  infant.  He  received  the  title  of 
Prince  of  Wales  in  1301.  In  1297  he  was 
appointed  regent  in  his  father's  absence,  and 
in  this  capacity  signed  the  Conjlrmaiio  Cat" 
tarutn.  In  1306  he  was  solemnly  knighted 
by  his  father,  whom  he  accompanied  on  his 
expedition  to  Scotland.  During  this  expedi- 
tion Edward  I.  died,  having  on  his  death-bed 
entreated  his  son  not  to  recall  Piers  Gaveston, 
his  comrade  and  favourite,  who  had  just  been 
banished,  and  to  continue  the  war  against 
the  Scots.  Both  those  requests,  or  ini unctions, 
were  disregarded  ;  the  Scotch  expedition  was 
abandoned,  and  Gavcston  was  not  only  re- 
called, but  created  Earl  of  Cornwall,  and 
during  the  king's  absence  in  France  made 
"custos"  of  the  kingdom.    From  this  date 


Sdw 


(414) 


tiU  1312  the  barons  were  straggling  against 
the  favourite  and  the  king's  misgovemment. 
In  1311  Edward  consented  to  certain  **  Ordi- 
nances/' which  practically  put  the  royal  power 
into  commission,  and  in  1312  Gaveston  was 
■eized  by  the  bairons,  and  put  to  death.    The 
revolution  threw  all  power  into  the  hands  of 
Thomas  of  Lancaster  and  his  confederates,  who 
appointed    ministers  and    settled  the  royal 
revenue  without  consulting   the  king,    llie 
defeat   at  Bannockbum   in    1314    destroyed 
what  little  influence  Edward  possessed,  and 
till  1321   Lancaster  was  supreme.     In  this 
year  Edward   got  a  new  favourite  in  the 
person  of  Hugh  lo  Di^pencer,  and  the  high- 
lianded  conduct  of  Lancaster  alienated  many 
of  the  barons  from  him,  so  that  in  1322  the 
king  was  able  to  get  together  a  sufficient 
force  to  defeat  him.     Lancaster  was  at  once 
beheaded,  the  Ordinances  of   1311  were  re- 
pealed,  and  the  baronial  party  for  the  time 
crushed.      The  latter  part  of  the  reign  is 
obscure.    It  would  seem  that  the  queen  was 
Jealous  of  the  power  of  the  Despencers;  at 
all  events,  she  intrigued  with  Roger  Mortimer, 
now  the  leader  of  the  barons,  against  her 
husband.    She  had  been  sent  over  to  France 
to  arrange  a  dispute  between  her  husband  and 
her  brother,  and  being  followed  by  Mortimer 
and  others,  she  collected  troops,  and  landed 
in  England,  whore  she  was  joined  by  many 
of  the  barons.    The  Despencers  were  executed 
and  the  king  himself   taken   prisoner,  and 
shortly    afterwards    compelled    to    abdicate. 
The  &te  of  Edward  is  somewhat  doubtful, 
though  it  is  generally  accepted  that  he  was 
secretly  murdered  in  Berkeley  Castle  on  Sept. 
21,   1307.     The  character  of  Edward  II.  was 
singularly  despicable.     He  was  devoid  of  self- 
control,    firmness,   and  dignity,    and  spent 
his   time  in  the  societ}'  of  &vonrites  and 
parasites.      His  reign  is  a  miserable    one ; 
defeat   and   disgrace  abroad,  treachery  and 
misgovemment  at  home:   nowhere   can  we 
find    conduct    that    is    praiseworthy.      The 
people,  contrasting  the  irresolute  arid  weak- 
minded  king  with  his  noble  and  brave  father, 
were   led  to  believe   that  he  was  no  true 
son  of   Edward    I.,  but  a  changeling,  and 
not  a  voice  was  raised  against  his  deposition. 
Edward   II.  was  the  weakest  of  the  Plan- 
tageneis,  and  showed  little  of  the  vigour  and 
capacity  for  government  which  distinguished 
most  of  his  family.     **  He  had  never,"  says 
I>r.  Stubbs,  "shown  himself  sensible  of  the 
dignity  and  .importance,   much  less  of  the 
responsibility,  of  kingship."    By  his  marriage 
with  Isabella  of  France  he  had  two  sons, 
Edward  and  John,  and  two  daughters,  Eleanor 
and  Joan. 

Trokelowo,  Annalet  (Bolls  Series) ;  Thomas 
de  la  Moor  (Camden  Society);  The  Life  of 
Edward  IL,  by  the  Monk  of  Malmesbury 
(printed  by  Heame,  mi) ;  Walter  of  Hemitig. 
for»l,  Hitt.  de  Rebv*  Gealia  Edvcard.  I.,  II.,  et  lit. 
(prinred  by  Heome) ;  Bymer,  Fasdera;  Adam  of 
Hirimuth  (Eng.  Hist.  Soc.)i  PaolJ,  Bngliaehe 


QesehiiOU^;   Uatgoxd,  Hi$t,   of  Eng.;    Stubbs. 
Oond,  Hist.  [S.  J.  L.] 

Edward  III.,  Kiko  {b,  Nov.  13,  1312, 
J.  Feb.  1,  1827,  d,  June  21,  1377),  »on  of 
Edward  II.,  was  bom  at  Windsor.  On  the 
deposition  of  his  father  the  yoang  prince  was 
appointed  guardian  of  the  kingdom  (Oct. 
1326),  and  crowned  early  the  following  year. 
During  his  minority  the  govebmnont  was 
entrusted  to  a  oouncul  of  regency,  of  which 
Henry  of  Lancaster  was  the  chief.  The 
administration,  however,  was  really  usurped 
by  Queen  Isabella  and  her  favounte,  Roger 
Mortimer.  But  the  latter  was  unpopular 
with  the  baronage,  and  had  incurred  general 
dislike  by  the  treaty  negotiated  with  the 
Scots  in  1328,  by  which  the  independence  of 
Scotland  was  recognised.  In  1380  the  king, 
who  deeply  resented  Mortimer's  arrogance, 
found  no  difficulty  in  forming  a  powerful 
combination  against  the  favourite.  Mortimer 
was  accordingly  seized  at  Nottingham,  taken 
to  the  Tower  (Oct  1330),  and  executed  a 
month  afterwards ;  while  the  queen  mother 
was  imprisoned  at  Castle  Rising,  where  she 
passed  the  remainder  of  her  Ufe.  Hence- 
forward  the  government  was  in  Edward's 
own  hands.  He  immediately  renewed  the 
English  attempts  on  Scotland,  assisted  Edward 
BaUol  in  his  endeavour  to  drive  out  the 
Bruce  dynasty  in  1332,  and  invaded  Scotland 
in  1333.  In  July  of  this  year  he  inflicted  a 
great  defeat  on  the  Scots  at  Halidon  Hill; 
reduced  the  south  of  Scotland  to  submission, 
and  caused  Baliol  to  be  proclaimed  king  of 
the  portion  bevond  the  Forth.  The  countiy, 
however,  was  nr  from  subdued,  and  Edwanrs 
nominee,  Baliol,  was  driven  from  his  throne, 
and  obliged  to  quit  the  country  till  restored 
by  the  English.  In  1336  Edward  again  led  a 
great  expedition  into  Scotland,  and  ravaged 
all  ^  the  south-east  of  the  country.  ^lean- 
while  difficulties  with  France  were  arising 
chiefly  because  of  the  disputes  between  Philip 
of  Vaiois  and  the  Flemings,  the  interruption 
to  the  Anglo- Flemish  trade,  and  the  aggres- 
sion of  Philip  on  Aquitaine.  In  1338  (July) 
Edward  went  to  Fhmders,  engaged  m  an 
alliance  with  the  popular  chiefs  who  were 
opposed  to  their  count,  and  concluded  a 
league  with  the  Emperor  Louis  V.,  who 
appointed  him  Vicar-General  of  the  Empire. 
In  the  following  year  Edward  advanced  into 
France,  but  the  French  retreated  before  him. 
In  1340  the  English  fleet,  commanded  by  the 
king,  won  a  great  naval  battle  over  the 
French  at  Sluys,  after  which  the  army  landed 
and  laid  siege  to  Toumay.  A  truce  was  con- 
cluded for  nine  months  and  Edward  suddenly 
returned  to  England  to  effect  an  administra- 
tive revolution  by  displacing  the  Chancellor 
and  Treasurer,  and  imprisoning  several  of  the 
judges,  under  the  impression  that  the  cor- 
ruption of  the  chief  officials  of  the  govern- 
ment had  prevented  his  receiving  the  proper 
return  from  the  taxes.    Mistrusting  derical 


Bdw 


(416) 


inflaence,  Edward  appointed  a  layman,  Sir 
Kobert  Bourchier,  Chancellor.  The  Archbishop 
of  Oanterbury,  Stratford,  came  forward  as  the 
champion  of  constitutional  liberties,  and  after 
a  violent  dispute,  Edward  summoned  a  Parlia- 
ment, and  in  return  for  large  grants  agreed 
to  confirm  the  privileges  of  the  barons  and 
clergj'.  In  Oct.,  1341,  however,  the  king 
revoked  the  -statute,  confessing  that  *'  he  had 
dissembled  as  ho  ought "  owing  to  the  pressure 
put  upon  him.  He  did  not  renew  his  opera- 
tions in  France  till  1342,  when  he  again  led 
an  expedition  against  France.  Nothing 
ett'ectual,  however,  was  done  till  1346,  when 
Edward  landed  at  La  Hogue,  in  Normandy, 
intending  to  join  the  Flemings.  But  the 
French  king,  with  a  large  army,  was  between 
him  and  Flanders  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Seine.  By  a  feint  upon  Paris  Edward  crossed 
the  river,  and  advanced  towards  the  Somme, 
which  he  also  crossed  near  Abbeville,  and  then 
won  the  great  victory  of  Crecy  (Aug.  6,  1346). 
Advancing  to  Calais  Edward  blockaded  the 
town,  and  captured  it  after  a  twelvemonth's 
siege.  The  exhaustion  of  his  own  kingdom 
was  so  great  that  the  king  was  unable  to 
follow  up  these  successes,  and  returned  to 
England  after  concluding  a  truce,  which  was 
renewed  from  time  to  time.  The  war  began 
afresh  in  1355.  The  king  himself  led  an 
srmy  from  Calais  but  e£Eected  nothing,  and 
was  obliged  to  return  home  to  repel  a  Scottish 
raid.  He  advanced  into  Scotiand,  laying 
waste  the  border  districts  with  great  cruelty. 
In  France  the  campaign  of  the  Black  Prince 
in  the  south-west  was  signalised  by  the 
splendid  victory  of  Poictiers,  and  the  capture 
of  the  French  king,  John  (Sept.  19,  1356). 
During  the  truce  that  followed,  the  Scottish 
king,  David,  taken  prisoner  at  Neville's  Cross 
(Oct.  17,  1346),  was  released,  and  peace  was 
made  with  Scotland.  In  1359  Edward  again 
invaded  France,  and  laid  waste  Champagne. 
In  1360  (May  8)  peace  was  made  at  Bretigny, 
and  the  English  obtained  Gascony  and 
Guienne,  with  the  counties  of  Saintonge, 
Perigord,  Limoges,  Oahors,  besides  Calais,  and 
a  Bum  of  three  million  marks  as  ransom  for 
the  French  king.  The  treaty,  however,  was 
not  carried  out,  and  the  war  continued  at 
first  in  Britanny,  and  afterwards  in  the  south, 
where  Aquitaine  and  Guienne  were  gradually 
recrovered  by  the  French,  so  that  at  the  end 
of  Edward's  reign  little  remained  of  all  his 
conquests  but  Calais  and  Bordeaux. 

The  later  years  of  Edward's  reign  were 
passed  in  a  state  of  partial  retirement  from 
public  affiiirs.  Old  before  his  time,  and  worn 
out  by  the  fatigues  of  his  toilsome  career, 
Edward  resigned  himself  to  the  influence  of 
his  mistress,  Alice  Ferrers,  and  allowed  the 
government  to  be  largely  carried  on  by  John 
of  Gaunt.  Of  the  struggles  between  the 
baronial  and  clerical  parties,  and  between 
the  reforming  party  in  the  Good  Parliament, 
who  looked  to  the  Black  Prince,  and  the 


Lancastrians,  the  king  was  an  almost  passive 
spectator.  In  1376  Edward  the  Black  Prince 
died,  and  the  king  was  called  upon  by  the 
Parliament  to  take  action  against  papal  and 
clerical  encroachments.  TMs,  however,  he 
refused  to  do.  The  following  year  saw  the 
influence  of  the  Lancastrians  restored,  and  a 
Parliament  elected  under  their  influence, 
which  reversed  all  the  measures  of  the  Good 
Parliament.  In  1377  the  old  king,  who 
had  now  lost  all  consideration  and  influence, 
died  almost  alone,  having  been  deserted 
by  nearly  all  his  relatives  and  attendants 
before  his  death.  The  splendid  militar>' 
exploits  of  Edward's  reign  in  later  times 
threw  a  false  glamour  round  his  reign.  But 
though  military  glory  was  the  ambition  of 
his  ufe,  there  is  little  reason  to  credit  him 
with  much  skill  as  a  general.  His  successes 
wore  due  to  the  splendid  tighting  material 
at  his  command  rather  than  to  his  strategical 
or  tactical  ability.  Nor  can  he  be  said  to 
merit  the  name  of  statesman.  He  was 
neither  great  as  an  administrator  nor  a  legis- 
lator. His  financial  management  was  so  bad 
that  he  was  constantly  overwhelmed  by  debt ; 
his  conquests  were  transient  and  Ul-con- 
ceived ;  and  he  altogether  failed  to  realise  the 
graiity  of  the  constitutional  and  social  crisis 
which  was  coming  to  a  head  in  his  reign.  And 
though  anxious  to  shine  as  the  ideal  champion 
of  chivalry,  he  was  ^th  cruel  and  treacherous. 

Robert  of  Avesbury,  ChronicU  (printed  by 
Heoxne) ;  Knyghton  (printed  in  Twysden,  Serip' 
tore*  Dtcem;  waiter  of  Hemiugford,  D«  RA. 
Qeut.  Ed.  J.,  IL,  et  IJI.;  FroUsart,  ChronieU, 
useful  for  the  battles  of  1  he  French  campaigns, 
bat  not  to  be  oonsidered  a  thoroughly  trast- 
worth^  historical  narrative:  Jeban  le  Bel, 
Chronxqvn;  W.  Longman,  Batoard  III.;  Pear- 
son, England  in  (h<  tourtetn'h  Century;  Pauli, 
Engliseht  Qe$ehieikt9;  Freeman,  Eauaya  {1st 
Series).  [S.  J.  L.] 

Sdward  IV.  {b.  Sept.,  1442,  a.  June  29, 
1461,  d.  Ap.  9, 1483),  the  son  of  Richard,  Duke 
of  York,  and  Cicely  Neville,  sister  of  Richard, 
Earl  of  8alisbur}%  was  bom  in  the  castle 
of  Rouen,  when  his  father  was  Governor  of 
France.  He  was  brought  up  by  Sir  Richard 
Crofte,  in  the  castle  of  Ludlow.  When  the 
Duke  of  York  advanced  his  claim  to  the 
crown  in  1460,  the  young  Earl  of  March  was 
sent  to  gather  troops  on  the  Welsh  borders. 
There  he  heard  the  news  of  his  father's 
defeat  and  death  at  Wakefield  on  Dec.  21. 
He  hastened  northwards,  but  was  pursued  by 
Jasper,  Eaii  of  Pembroke,  on  whom  he  turned, 
and  inflicted  a  crushing  defeat  at  Mortimer's 
Cross,  near  Wigmore,  on  Feb.  2,  1461.  The 
advance  of  Queen  Margaret's  lawless  northern 
troops  excited  the  fear  of  the  Londoners. 
Edward,  therefore,  on  marching  to  London, 
was  hailed  us  king  on  March  4.  Joined 
by  his  cousin  Richard,  E^rl  of  Warwick,  he 
hastened  northwards,  and  met  the  Lancastrian 
army  at  Towton,  where  he  won  a  bloody 
battle  on  March  29.   He  returned  to  London, 


Sdw 


(416) 


Bdw 


and  was  crowned  on  June  29.  The  Parlia- 
ment, which  met  in  November,  recognised 
Edward  IV.  as  succeeding  to  the  rights  of 
Richard  II.,  and  attainted  Henry  YI.  of  high 
treason.  The  youth,  the  handsome  appear- 
ance, the  geniality,  and  the  practical  vigour 
of  Edward  IV.  made  him  at  once  popular, 
and  gave  every  expectation  of  a  prosperous 
reign.  Queen  ]^largaret,  with  foreign  help, 
still  held  out  in  Northumberland;  but  the 
victories  of  Hedgeley  ISloor  and  Hexham  in 
1464,  and  the  capture  of  Henry  VI.  in  1465, 
seemed  to  secure  Edward  IV.  on  the  throne, 
and  the  Commons  recognised  the  fact  by 
granting  him  tunnage  and  ^undage  for  life. 
But  the  young  king  imperilled  his  position 
by  an  imprudent  marriage  with  the  Lady 
Elizabeth  Grey  of  Groby,  the  widowed 
daughter  of  a  Lancastrian  baron,  Richard 
"Woodville,  Lord  Rivers,  who  had  married 
Jacquetta  of  Luxemburg,  widow  of  his  former 
master,  the  Duke  of  Bedford.  This  marriage 
displeased  the  Earl  of  Warwick  and  the 
Nevilles,  who  had  planned  a  Burgundian  or 
French  alliance,  which  would  have  secured 
Edward  IV.'s  throne  from  foreign  attacks  in 
aid  of  the  Lancastrians.  The  marriage  was 
celebrated  secretly  in  May,  1464,  and  was  not 
declared  till  Sept.  29.  Soon  Edward  IV. 
showed  an  intention  of  raising  his  wife's 
relations  to  power  as  a  counterpoise  to  the 
Nevilles,  who  tried  to  keep  him  dependent  on 
themselves.  The  breach  between  the  king 
and  the  Earl  of  Warwick  rapidly  widened, 
and  in  1467  there  was  an  open  rupture. 
Warwick  wished  for  an  alliance  with  France, 
but  Edward  IV.  turned  to  Burgundy,  and 
promised  the  hand  of  his  sister  Margaret  to 
the  young  Duke  Charles  the  Bold.  The 
king's  brother,  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  followed 
the  usual  policy  of  the  heir  presumptive,  and 
sided  with  Warwick.  The  hopes  of  the 
Lancastrians  revived.  Edward  IV. 's  popu- 
larity had  gone,  and  in  1469  there  was  a 
rising  in  the  north  of  discontented  peasantry, 
led  by  "  Robin  of  Redesdalo."  The  Duke  of 
Clarence  declared  his  alliance  with  the  Elarl 
of  Warwick  by  marrying  his  daughter 
Isabella.  Warwick  and  Clarence  joined  the 
malcontent  Commons  in  pressing  for  reforms. 
Edward  IV.  was  unprepared  for  resistance, 
and  was  made  prisoner  by  Archbishop  Neville. 
But  Warwick  saw  that  a  division  between 
the  Yorkists  meant  the  success  of  the  Lancas* 
trians.  Edward  IV.  was  released,  and  a 
pacification  was  made.  In  March,  1470,  there 
was  a  rising  in  Lincolnshire,  headed  by  Sir 
Robert  Wells,  which  Edward  IV.  put  down 
with  promptitude  and  sternness.  At  the  same 
time  he  gained  proofs  that  Warwick  and 
Clarence  were  plotting  against  him.  They 
fled  to  France,  and  entered  into  negotiations 
with  Queen  Margaret.  Edward  IV.  showed 
unexpected  carelessness,  and  when,  in  Sept., 
1470,  Warwick  landed  in  England,  Edward 
IV.  was  not  prepared  to  meet  him.    Finding 


himself  deserted  on  every  side,  he  fled  to 
Flanders,  and  a  Lancastrian  restoration  was 
easily  accomplished.  Gathering  a  few  troops, 
Edward  IV.  landed  on  March  14,  1471,  at 
Ravenspur,  where  Henry  of  Lancaster  had 
landed  in  1399.  Like  him,  he  declared  at 
first  that  he  had  only  come  to  claim  his  an- 
cestral possessions,  the  duchy  of  York.  Soon 
he  was  proclaimed  king,  and  pressed  on  to 
Coventry,  where  Warwick  was  stationed. 
WarwicK,  ad\'ised  by  Clarence  to  await  his 
arri\'al  with  reinforcements,  refused  to  give 
battle.  Clarence  betrayed  his  father-in-law 
and  joined  his  brother,  who  hastened  to  Lon- 
don. Warwick  pursued,  and  a  bloody  battle 
was  fought  at  Bamct  on  Easter  Day  (April  14, 
1471),  in  which  Warwick  was  slain.  The 
victorious  king  then  turned  against  Queen 
Margaret,  who  had  landed  at  Weymouth.  He 
overtook  her  forces  at  Tewkesbury,  where  he 
again  conquered  on  May  4th,  and  treated  his 
captives  with  ruthless  severity.  On  May  21st 
Edward  IV.  returned  in  triumph  to  London, 
and  on  the  same  night  Henry  VI.  died  in  the 
Tower.  Edward  IV.  was  now  rid  of  his 
enemies.  The  Lancastrian  claimants  were 
destroyed,  the  powerful  nobles  had  fallen, 
Edward  IV.  was  secure  upon  the  throne,  the 
people  were  weary  of  war,  and  there  was  no 
one  to  oppose  the  will  of  the  king.  Edward 
IV.  used  his  victory  as  a  means  of  extortion. 
He  gathered  large  sums  of  money,  and  his 
obsequious  Parliament  granted  him  large 
supplies.  He  obtained  money  by  benevolences, 
and  was  a  skilful  beggar.  One  day  he  called 
on  a  rich  widow,  who  gave  him  £20  for  his 
pretty  face,  and  doubled  the  sum  when  he 
gave  her  a  kiss.  The  professed  object  for 
which  he  gathered  money  was  a  war  against 
France.  He  allied  himself  with  Charles  of 
Burgundy,  and  revived  the  old  claim  of 
Edward  III.  on  the  French  crown.  In  July, 
1475,  he  led  an  army  to  Calais.  The  expe- 
dition was  a  failure.  The  Duke  of  Burgundy 
was  engaged  elsewhere,  and  did  not  join  him. 
He  sent  him  a  message  to  advance  to  St. 
Quentin ;  when  Edward  IV.  arrived  there,  he 
was  greeted  by  a  fire  from  the  walls.  In- 
dignant at  such  treatment,  he  listened  to  the 
overtures  of  Louis  XI.,  who  was  willing  to 
pay  a  large  sum  for  the  friendship  of  England. 
The  English  nobles  were  open  to  the  bribes  of 
France,  and  a  truce  for  seven  years  was  con- 
cluded, on  condition  that  Louis  XI.  paid 
75,000  crowns,  gave  Edward  IV.  a  pension  of 
50.000  crowns,  and  betrothed  the  Dauphin  to 
Edward  IV. 's  daughter  Elizabeth.  'Die  two 
kings  met,  Aug.  29th,  on  the  bridge  of 
Pecquigny,  which  was  divided  by  a  lattice- 
work into  two  halves.  There  the  peace  was 
sworn,  and  Edward  IV.  returned  inglorious 
to  England.  Edward  IV. 's  policy  of  peace 
was,  however,  wise  for  England.  Commerce 
flourished,  and  the  king  himself  was  a  success- 
ful merchant.  He  was  given  to  pleasure,  and 
loved  magnificence.    Hu  court  was  disturbed 


(417) 


Sdw 


by  the  quanelB  of  his  brothers,  the  Dukes  of 
Clarence  and  Gloucester.    Clarence  was  way- 
ward, and  at  last  Edward  IV.  resolved  to  rid 
Kimaftlf  of  his  troublesomo  brother.    Before  a 
Parliament,  which  was  summoned  in  1478, 
Edward  IV.  accused  Clarence  of  many  offences, 
chiefly  of  plotting  with  the  Lancastrians  in 
1470.     Clarence  was  attainted,  and  met  his 
death  in  the  Tower.    For  the  next  five  years 
there  was  no  ParHament.    Edward  IV.  pre- 
ferred to  raise  money  by  stretching  his  pre- 
rogative to  the  utmost.    The  diftturbed  state 
of  Scotland  under  James  III.  gave  Edward 
IV.  some  hope  of  extending  his  power  in  that 
direction,  and  the  Duke  of  Gloucester  was 
sent  with  an  army  to  help  the  Duke  of  Albany 
against  the  Scottish  kmg.     No  permanent 
result  was   gained.     Nor  was  Edward  IV. 
more  sucrecMnul  in  his  scheme  for  founding  a 
strong  dynasty  by  means  of  family  alliances. 
He  projected  marriages  for  his  daughters,  but 
they  all  failed.    Louis  XI.  of  France  did-not 
abide  by  the  Peace  of  Pecquigny,  but  in 
1483  contracted  the  Dauphin  to  Margaret  of 
Austria,  rejecting  the  marriage  with  Eliza- 
beth of  England.    Edward  IV.  was  stung  by 
the  feeling  that  he  was  regarded  as  an  up- 
start by  &e  courts  of  Europe.     He  showed 
signs  ot  again  reviving  his  military  schemes, 
but  was  seized  by  an  illness,  the  result  of 
evil  living,  and  died  on  April  9,  1483,  in  his 
forty-first  year.  He  was  a  favourer  of  learned 
men,  cultivated,  and  magnificent.    His  per- 
sonal qualities  made  him  popular  to  the  end. 
But  he  was  cruel,  extortionate,  and  profligate. 
The  death  of  Clarence  shows  that  he  was 
without  natural  feeling,  and  had  all  the  cold- 
heartednees  of   a  selfish  libertine.     In  the 
wickedness  of   his  private    character  he  is 
rivalled  only  by  John  amongst  the  kings  of 

England. 

The  beet  oontemporsz^anthorities  are  William 
of  Worcester ;  John  Walworth ;  Robert  Fabyan, 
Philippe  deComminea ;  Th»  Pcuton  £ett«ra  (with 
Mr.  Gmirdxiar'a  valuable  introdnctioQaX  I<ater 
writers  :—HabiiifftoB,  Life  of  Edward  IV.,  in 
Xennett ;  Lingaxd,  Hwt.  o/Enq. ;  Pauli,  EtigUaehi 
QuckichU,  vol.  v.  ;  Stubba,  Ccntt.  Hi$t. 

[M.  C] 

Edward  V.,  Kino  (*.  Nov.  4,  1470,  r. 
April  9— June  22,  1483,  d,  1483),  the  eldest 
son  of  Edwurd  IV.,  was  created  Prince  of 
Wales  in  1471,  and  in  1479  Earl  of  Pem- 
broke.     In  1482  he  was  sent  to  Ludlow,  in 
the  Welsh  Marches,  being  under  the  guax- 
dianship  of  his  undo,  Earl  Rivers,  and  at- 
tended by  other  members  of  the  Woodville 
party.      He  was  at  Ludlow  when  his  father 
died,    and    almost  immediately    set  out  for 
London.      On  April  29  he  reached   Stony 
Stratford,  where  he  was  met  the  next  day  by 
the  Duke  of  Gloucester,   who    had  arrested 
lord   Rivers    and    Lord    Richard    Grey  at 
Northampton.       The     king     renewed    his 
journey    under    Gloucester's    charge,    and 
leached  London  on  Jklay  4.     The  Council 
Beems  to  have  already  recognised  Richard  as 

HlHT,— 14 


Protector,  and  the  coronation  was  fixed  for 
June  22.    The  young  king  was  lodged  in  the 
Tower,  his  mother  having  taken  sanctuary'  at 
Westminster    on   hearing  of   the  arrest  of 
Rivers  and  Grey.     On  June  13  Hastings  was 
arrested  and  executed,  and  about  the  same 
time  Rivers  and  Grey  were  beheaded  at  Pon- 
tefract,  whither    they    had  been   taken  by 
Richard's  orders.      Shortly    after    this    the 
queen  was  compelled  to  deliver  up  the  young 
Duke  of  York  to  Richard,  who  sent  him  to 
join  his  brother  in  the  Tower.      The  king's 
deposition  seems  now    to  have  been  deter- 
mined upon.    On  June  22,  Dr.  Shaw,  brother 
of  the  Lord  Mayor,  delivered  a  sermon  at 
Paul's    Cross,    in    which    he    insisted    that 
Edward  V.  and  his  brother  were  illegitimate, 
Edward  IV.  ha>dng  been  married,  or  at  all 
events   betrothed,  to    Lady  'Eleanor  Butler 
previously  to  his  marriage  with  Elizabeth 
Woodville.      On  the  2dtih  a  deputation  of 
nobles  and    citizens    of    London  waited  on 
Richard,  ofEering  him  the  crown,  which  he 
accepted,  and  the  next  day  began  to  reign  as 
Richard  III.      Meanwhile,  the  two  young 
princes  remained   in  the  Tower,  where,  at 
some  time  between  June  and  October,  they 
were  certainly  put  to  death  by  their  uncle's 
orders.      The  mystery  in  which  this  crime 
was  involved  has  led  many  writers  to  doubt 
whether  the  murder  actually  took  place,  but 
it  must  be  remembered  that  even  on  the  sup- 
position that  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  escaped, 
Edward  must    have  been  murdered,  and  it 
would    have  been    the  height    of  folly  for 
Richard  III.  to  have  put  one  of  his  nephews 
to  death  and  allowed  the  other  to  escape. 
Nor  are  the  murderers  likely  to  have  done 
their  work  so  badly  as  to  have  suffered  the 
escape  of  a  boy,  who,  even  if  not  taken  by  sur- 
prise, would  have  been  utterly  unable  to  resist 
them.      Mr.  Gairdner,  who  has  thoroughly 
investigated  the  whole  circumstances  of  the 
case,  sums  up  the  details  of  the  murder  thus : 
*'Some  time  after  Richard  had  set  out  on 
his  prog^ress  (August,  1483),  he  sent  a  mes- 
senger named    John  Green  to    Sir    Robert 
Brackenbury,  the  Constable  of  the  Tower, 
commanding    him   to    put    his    two  young 
nephews  to  death.      This  order  Brackenburv 
would  not  obey,  and  Green  returned  to  his 
master  at  Warwick.      Richard  was   greatly 
mortified,  but  sent  one  Sir  James  TyreU  to 
London,  with  a  warrant  to  Brackenbury  to 
deliver  up  to  him  for  one  night  aU  the  keys 
of  the  Tower.     Tyrell  thus  took  the  place 
into  his  keeping,  and  engaged  the  services  of 
Miles    Forest,  one  of    those  who  kept  the 
prince's  chamber,  and  John  Dighton,  his  own 
groom,  to  carry  out  the  wishes  of  the  tyrant. 
These  men  entered  the  chamber  when  the 
two    unfortunate     lads    were    asleep,    and 
smothered  them  under  pillows ;  then  having 
called  Sir  J&mes  to  see  the  bodies,  buried 
them  at  the  foot  of  a  staircase."    The  details 
pf  the  murder  were  obtained  from  a.  confession 


(418) 


Sdw 


made  hj  Sir  James  Tyrell  in  1502,  when 
he  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  on  a  charge 
of  treason,  and  there  is  no  reason  for  doubt- 
ing its  substantial  accuracy ;  in  addition  to 
which,  the  story  was  corroborated  by  a  dis- 
covery made  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II., 
when,  under  the  staircase  leading  to  the 
chapel  in  the  White  Tower,  the  skeletons  of 
two  young  lads,  whoso  apparent  ages  agreed 
with  those  of  the  unfortunate  princes,  were 
found  buried. 

Holinshed,  CKrontclM;  Hall,  Chronidett ;  More. 

I^»  of  Edward  V. ;  J.  Oftirducr,  Rtign  of  RioHmrd 

III. ;  Miss  Hasted,  Siehard  IIL  ;  and  the  esny 

on  Richard  III.  in  Pauli,  AufmiiM  lar  SnyUiehen 

.    OMfcicHU  [S.  J.  L.] 

« 

Bdward  VI.  (b,  Oct.  12,  1538,  s,  Jan.  28, 
1547,  d.  June  21,  1553),  was  the  son  of  Henry 
VIII.  and  Jane  Seymour,  and  was  bom  at 
Hampton  Court.  lie  was  carefully  educated 
under  the  attention  of  reforming  divines,  and 
became  a  zealous  adherent  of  the  new  views  of 
religion.  By  the  will  of  Henry  VIII.  he 
succeeded  to  the  throne  under  tiie  regency 
of  a  council  of  sixteen  members,  most  of  whom 
were  Reformers ;  and,  in  defiance  of  the  will, 
the  kinff^s  uncle,  Edward  3o>nnour,  flarl  of 
Hertford,  afterwards  Duke  of  Somerset,  ob- 
tained for  himself  the  title  of  Protector,  with 
the  practical  control  of  the  government.  In 
religious  matters  the  young  king  was  willing 
to  second  the  reforming  projects  of  Cranmer, 
and  willingly  assented  to  the  publication  of 
the  new  Liturgy  in  the  Prayer  Book  of  1549, 
and  the  Act  of  Uniformity.  As  early  as  1542 
a  plan  had  been  set  on  foot  for  the  marriage 
of  Edward  with  the  infant  Princess  Afary  of 
Scotland ;  and  it  was  partly  in  order  to  force 
this  marriage  upon  the  Scots  that  Somerset 
undertook  the  expedition  in  1549,  which  cul- 
minated in  the  fruitless  victory  of  Pinkie. 
The  ill-success  of  Somerset's  policy,  both  in 
home  and  foreign  afEairs,  brought  about  his 
fall.  The  king,  who  had  chafed  at  the 
studious  and  retired  life  to  which  the  Pro- 
tector compelled  him,  easily  vielded  to  the 
influence  of  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  afterwards 
Duke  of  Northumberland,  and  was  probably 
BO  unwilling  actor  in  the  series  of  events 
which  established  the  latter's  ascendency. 
Edward,  though,  as  his  literary  remains  show, 
he  now  took  a  lively  interest  in  public  afBairs, 
was  still  studious  and  much  interested  in  reli- 

£'ous  matters.  In  1 552  Cranmer  issued  arevised 
iturgy,  known  as  the  Second  Prayer  Book  of 
King  Edward  VI.,  and  the  Forty-two  Articles, 
whidi  were  of  a  thorougldy  Protestant 
tendency.  [Auticles.]  Meanwhile  Edward's 
health  was  failing.  He  was  always  delicate, 
and  his  health,  it  is  said,  had  been  greatly 
injured  by  Warwick's  removal  of  him  to 
Windsor  in  1550.  Convinced  of  the  necessity 
of  preserving  the  Protestant  settlement,  he 
allowed  himself  to  be  persuaded  by  North- 
umberland to  alter  the  settlement  of  the 
crown  as  arranged  in  Henry  VIIL's  will,  and 


to  make  a  will  excluding  l^Iar}'  and  Elizabeth 
from  the  succession  in  favour  of  Lady  Jane 
Grey,  the  daughter  of  Henry's  niece,  Frances, 
Countess  of  Suffolk,  and  daughter-in-law  of 
Northumberland,  which  was  subscribed  by 
the  Privy  Council,  June  21,  1553.  Then 
Edward  failed  rapidly,  and  on  Julv  6  died, 
Northumberland  oeing  supposed  by  many 
people  to  have  hastened  the  end  b^"*  poison. 
There  is,  however,  no  authentic  evidence  to 
confirm  the  suspicion.  Edwaixl  would  seem 
to  have  had  much  of  the  Tudor  talent  and 
some  of  the  Tudor  vices.  He  gave  signs  that 
he  might  have  become  arbitrary  and  despotic. 
His  abilities  were  considerable.  He  was  an  ac- 
complished scholar  for  his  age,  and  his  writings 
show  a  sagacity  altogether  beyond  his  years, 
and  giving  great  promise  for  Uie  future. 

Nicholls,  IMwav)!  R»maiM  cf  Etfwani  VL, 
18S7;  Tytlec,  Hiat.  of  Eng,  undtr  Bdward  VI.; 
iVoade,  Hitt.  of  Eng.,  vols.  iv.  and  ▼. 

[S.  J.  L.] 

fidward  the  Athblzno  (d.  1057)  was 
the  son  of  Edmund  Ironside,  ana  on  the  death 
of  his  father,  in  1017,  he  was  sent  first  to 
Sweden,  and  afterwards  to  Hungary.  Here 
he  lived  under  the  protection  of  King  Stephen, 
whose  niece,  Agatlia,  he  married.  In  1055 
Edward  the  Confessor  sent  for  him  as  being 
the  nearest  heir  to  the  throne,  and  Edward 
came  to  England  in  1057,  but  died  almost 
immediately  after  he  had  landed.  He  left 
three  children — Edgar  the  Atheling,  Mar- 
garet, and  Christina. 

Anglo-Saxon  Chron. ;  Freeman,  Iforman  Con^ 

qiMSt. 

Edward  the  Black  Prince  {b.  1330,  d. 
1376)  was  the  eldest  son  of  Edward  III.  and 
of  Philippa,  and  was  bom  at  Woodstock, 
June  15,  1330.  He  was  created  Duke  of 
Cornwall  in  1337,  and  Prince  of  Wales  in 
1343.  When  only  sixteen  years  of  age  he 
was  in  nominal  command  of  one  of  the 
divisions  of  the  English  army  at  Crecy,  and 
throughout  the  French  wars  he  played  an 
important  part.  In  1355  he  commanded  the 
army  which  invaded  south-eastern  France. 
He  marched  from  Bordeaux  through  Langue- 
doc,  burning  and  destrojing  the  towns  and 
villages,  and  converting  the  whole  country 
into  a  desert.  The  next  year  he  marched 
northwards,  and  was  met  by  a  great  army 
under  King  John  near  roictiers,  where 
(Sept.  19,  1356)  the  Black  Prince  won  a 
splendid  victon'.  In  1361  he  married  Joan, 
the  *<  Fair  Maid  of  Kent,"  and  in  1362  was 
created  Duke  of  Aquitaine,  and  received  as  his 
patrimony  the  possessions  of  the  English  crown 
m  the  south  of  France,  the  government  of 
which  he  assumed  in  1363.  In  1367  he  under- 
took an  expedition  into  Spain,  to  assist  Don 
Pedro  of  Caf^ile  in  refining  the  throne  of 
which  he  had  been  deprived  by  Henry  of  Tras- 
tamare,  aided  by  the  French.  Asmsted  by 
a  large  body  of  the  Free  Companies,  he  crossed 
the  l^rrenees  at  the  head  of  30,000  me&i  and 


Sdw 


(419) 


Sgh 


st  NavarretA  the  Black  Prince  won  the  third 
of  his  ffreat  yictorios,  and  completely  de- 
feated Pedro's  rival,  Prince  Henry,  with 
his  French  allies  under  Du  Guesdin.  But 
the  prince's  army*  rapidly  wasted  away  hy 
sickness,  and  with  his  own  health  fatally 
impaired,  he  was  compelled  to  recross  tiie 
Pyrenees.  On  the  breaking  out  of  war  once 
more  between  England  and  France  in  1369, 
£dward  took  Limoges  by  storm,  and  merci- 
lessly put  to  death  ail  the  inhabitants,  with- 
out distinction  of  age  or  sex.  In  1371  he  re- 
turned to  Fngland,  and  began  to  take  a 
prominent  part  in  English  politics  as  the 
champion  of  the  constitutional  policy  against 
the  corrupt  court  and  Lancastrian  party.  He 
took  a  large  share  in  originating  the  measures 
of  the  "  Good  Parliament "  of  1376,  though 
by  his  death  (June  8  of  that  year)  Uie  work 
was  to  a  g^reat  extent  undone.  The  prince 
was  a  gallant  soldier,  but  his  rictories  were 
probably  due  to  the  great  superiority  of  his 
troops  over  the  enemy  rather  than  to  his  own 
genOTalship.  Though  full  of  the  spurious 
knight-errantry  of  the  day,  he  was  mercilessly 
cruel  in  his  campaigns.  But  in  his  later 
years  he  showed  some  understanding  of  the 
political  difficulties  in  England,  and  was  very 
popular  with  the  Commons. 

Froissart,  Chrontol* ;  Jehan  1e  Bel,  Chroniqum  ; 
Paali,  Der  Sckieerze  Print,  1B09;  Peanon,  Hi*b, 
ofSmg.  in  FfyvrimwHh  Cmtury ;  Longman,  JSdward 

^n.  [S.  i.  L.] 


L,  son  of  Henrv  VI.  (*.  1463,  d. 

1471),  was  the  only  child  of  the  king  by  Mar- 
garet of  Anjou.  In  1 464  he  was  created  Prince 
of  Wales ;  the  Yorkists  asserting  that  he  was 
either  a  bastard  or  a  changeling.  After  the 
battle  of  Towton,  he  accompaniea  his  mother 
to  Scotland.  ]ji  1470  he  married  Anne 
Neville,  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Warwick. 
In  1471  he  fell  in  the  battle  of  Tewkesbury, 
or  was  put  to  death  immediately  afterwards ; 
but  the  story  that  he  was  stabbed  by  iUchard 
of  Gloucester  rests  on  no  good  autiiority. 

Edward,  eon  of  Richard  IIL  (h.  1473,  d, 
1484),  was  the  only  child  of  this  king  and 
Anne  Neville.  In  1477  he  was  created  Earl 
of  Salisbury,  and  in  1483  Prince  of  Wales 
and  Earl  A  Chester,  and  appointed  Lord- 
Lieutenant  of  Ireland.  In  February,  1484, 
the  members  of  the  two  houses  of  Parliament 
took  an  oath  to  support  his  succession  to  the 
throne,  bat  two  months  afterwards  he  died. 


(Eadwinb),  King  of  Northumbria 

(616—^33),  was  the  son  of  Ella,  King  of 
Beira.  Having  been  exiled  by  EUielfred,  he 
took  refuge  with  Redwald  of  East  Anglia. 
After  the  death  of  Ethelfred,  he  obtained 

Csssion  of  the  two  kingdoms  of  Deira  and 
icia,  the  sons  of  Ethelfred  having  fled  to 
Scotland.  He  conquered  the  little  British 
kingdom  of  Elmet,  obtained  suzerainty  over 
Han  and  Anglesey,  extended  his  kingdom  to 
the  Firth  of  Forth,  and  founded  Edinburgh, 


which  derives  its  name  from  him.  Uis  most 
powerful  rival  was  Cwichelm  of  Wessex,  who 
attempted  his  assassination.  This  project 
failed,  and  Edwin  defeated  him  in  626 ;  hut 
Penda  having  made  Mercia  independent  of 
Northumbria,  in  alliance  with  the  British 
prince  CsBdwalla,  defeated  and  slew  Edwin  at 
Heathfield  in  633.  Edwin's  reign  is  chiefly 
important  for  the  conversion  of  Northumbria 
to  Christianity.  His  second  wife  was  Ethel- 
burh,  daughter  of  Ethelbert  of  Kent,  who 
brought  with  her  Paulinus  the  bishop,  and 
their  influence,  aided  by  Edwin's  escape  from 
assassination  and  his  victory  over  the  West 
Saxons,  was  the  means  of  his  conversion.  He 
was  baptised  at  York  by  Paulinus,  who  was 
made  tne  first  archbishop  of  that  see.  So 
great  was  the  peace  and  tranquillity  of 
Northumbria  under  Edwin,  that  it  was  said 
'that  a  woman  with  her  new-bom  babe  might 
have  travelled  from  sea  to  sea  without  sus- 
taining injury. 

Bade,  £coI«sta«t{caI  History. 


(Eadwio),  Kino  (956—959),  was 
the  Bon^of  Edmund,  and  succeeded  to  the 
throne  on  the  death  of  his  unde,  Edred. 
The  account  of  his  reign  in  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Chronicle  is  extremely  meagre,  and 
subsequent  writers  who  attempt  to  supply 
details  evidently  write  with  strong  prejudice. 
What  we  can  gather  for  certain  is  that 
his  brother  Edgar  was  appointed  sub-king 
of  Northumbria  and  Mercia;  that  in  957  he 
made  himself  practically  independent  of 
Edwy ;  that  he  was  the  enemy  of  Dunstan,  and 
the  vigorous  opponent  of  his  policy,  and  that 
of  the  ecclesiastical  reformers.  His  marriage 
with  Elgiva  was  uncanonical,  and  seems  to 
have  occasioned  general  discontent.  In  958 
Odo,  the  archbishop,  divorced  them,  and  the 
next  year  Edwy  med — ^whether  murdered  or 
not  it  is  impossible  to  decide.  Ethelward  tells 
us  that  "  he  was  called  by  the  common  people 
the  second  Pankalus,  meaning  all-beautiful," 
and  that  he  was  '*  much  beloved.*'  On  the 
other  hand,  John  of  Wallingford,  a  thirteenth 
century  chronicler,  says  of  Edwy :  "  He  lovod 
the  peace  of  this  world,  which  panders  to  all 
vices,  and  is  the  mere  ape  of  virtue,  and  to 
it  he  limited  his  tastes.  For  he  was  g^ven  to 
the  pleasures  of  the  flesh,  was  negligent,  loved 
only  those  who  favoured  his  excesses,  and 
hated  the  good.'*  This  is  a  fair  specimen  of 
the  way  he  is  spoken  of  by  the  monkish 
historians,  who,  having  taken  Dunstan  as 
their  hero,  naturally  regarded  Edwy  as  the 
type  of  all  that  is  bad;  the  king  evidently 
opposed  "  the  policy  which  strove  everywhere 
to  substitute  monks  for  secular  canons." 
[Dunstan.] 

AnglO'Saxon  Chron. 

Egbert,  King  of  the  West  Saxons  (800— 
836),  was  bom  about  775.  On  the  death  of 
Cynewnlf,  he  laid  claim  to  the  throne,  but 
Brihtic  was  elected,  and  he  fled  to  Offii,  King 


(420) 


Sid 


of  Mercia.  Thither  the  vengeance  of  his 
rival  followed  him,  and  he  took  refuge  at  the 
court  of  Charles  the  Great.  A  close  friend* 
ship  arose  between  the  two,  and  Egbert 
'modelled  his  career  on  that  of  his  benefactor. 
In  the  year  that  Charles  was  crowned  Em- 
peror at  Rome,  Egbert,  in  his  absence,  was 
elected,  on  the  death  of  Brihtic,  to  the  throne 
of  Wessex.  He  returned  to  England,  and 
at  once  set  himself  to  win  for  himself  a 
superiority  over  the  island,  as  Charles  had 
established  a  dominion  on  the  Continent. 
The  greater  part  of  his  reign  was  spent  in  a 
struggle  with  Mercia,  a  contest  which  began 
before  his  return  to  assume  the  crown,  and 
culminated  in  a  great  victory  over  Beornwulf 
at  Ellandune  (823),  after  which  he  annexed 
the  little  kingdoms  which  had  become  Mercian 
dependencies,  and  four  years  later  the  great 
kingdom  itself  was  reduced.  The  smaller 
kingdoms  of  East  Anglia,  Kent,  Essex,  and 
Sussex  had  previously  submitted  to  him  with- 
out a  blow,  and  shortly  afterwards  Northum- 
bria,  a  prey  to  internal  dissensions,  owned  his 
overlordship.  Having  thus  founded  the  King- 
dom of  England,  Egbert  set  himself  to  reduce 
the  Welsh,  and  was  as  successful  as  he  had 
previously  been  over  the  Celtic  inhabitants  of 
Cornwall.  Over  the  Celts  north  of  the  Dee, 
however,  his  power  did  not  prevail.  In  this 
year  he  assumed  the  title  of  £ex  Anghrunij 
but  he  never,  like  Charles,  ventured  to  a^ire 
to  Imperial  honours.  Towards  the  end  of 
Egbert's  reign  an  old  enemy,  the  Danes, 
began  to  re-appear.  In  836  he  won  over  them 
and  the  Cornish  Welsh  a  great  battle  at  Hen- 
gestesdun,  which  for  the  time  checked  their 
invasions.  Almost  uniformly  successful  in 
war,  Egbert  displayed  a  wise  moderation  in 
oonfininff  his  efforts  to  the  acquisition  of  a 
great  independent  monarchy. 

^fij^lo  -  Saxon  Chron. ;  Lappenbexg,  Anglo- 
Saxon  Kings;  Bobertson,  Hw.  Esaays;  Free- 
man, Norman  Conquett.  [L.  C.  S.l 

Egfred  (Ecofkith),  King  of  Northumbria 
(670—685),  was  the  son  and  successor  of 
Oswy.  The  chief  interest  of  his  reign  lies 
in  his  relations  with  St.  Wilfred  (q.v.).  He 
was  defeated  by  Ethelfred,  and  compelled  to 
restore  Lindsey.  He  undertook  an  expedi- 
tion against  Ireland,  and  after  having  con- 
quered Cumberland,  was  slain  by  the  Picts  at 
the  battle  of  Kectansmere  (686). 

Egyvty  Hblationb  with.  The  series  of 
events  which  issued  in  the  establishment  of  a 
British  Protectorate  over  this  part  of  the 
dominions  of  the  Sultan  of  Turkey  may  be 
said  to  have  begun  with  the  sale  to  Great 
Britain  by  the  Khedive  Ismail,  in  1876,  of 
1 77,000  shares  in  the  Suez  Canal  for £4,000,000. 
An  inquiry  into  the  finances  of  the  country 
consequent  upon  this  transaction  showed  that 
they  were  deeply  involved,  and  a  dual  English 
and  French  control  was  created.  In  1882  the 
English  and  French  war-ships  were  sent  to 


Alexandria  to  overawe  Arabi  Pasha,  who  had 
defied  Ismail's  successor,  Tewfik,  and  on  the 
11th  of  July,  the  French  vessels  having  been 
withdrawn,  the  British  Admiral  bombarded 
and  then  occupied  the  city.  Shortly  after- 
wards Arabi  was  defeated  at  Tel-el-Kebir  and 
deported  to  Ceylon,  and  since  then  Egypt  has 
been  governed  under  British  supervision — an 
anangement  which  has  led  to  much  friction 
with  France.    [GrORDOir,  Cuablbs  Georgb.] 

XildoJly  John  Scott,  1st  Ea&l  (b.  1751, 
d.  1838),  was  bom  of  humble  parents  at  New- 
castle-on-Tyne.  At  school  he  evinced  such 
remarkable  ability  as  to  awaken  the  interest 
of  a  weedthy  neighbour,  who  assisted  in  send- 
ing him  to  Oxford.  He  obtained  a  fellowship 
at  University  College,  and  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1776,  He  rose  rapidly,  and  was  assisted 
by  the  friendship  of  Lord  lliurlow.  '  In  Par- 
liament he  warmly  opposed  Fox's  East  India 
Bill,  and  on  Pitt's  accession  to  office,  gave  him 
really  important  support.  In  1788  his  services 
were  rewarded  by  his  appointment  as  Solicitor- 
General.  In  1793  he  became  Attorney- 
General,  and  in  that  office  he  found  ample 
employment  in  the  prosecutions  which  were 
shortly  afterwards  instituted  against  Home 
Tooke  and  other  supposed  revolutionary 
characters.  In  1799  he  succeeded  Eyre  as 
Chief  Justice  of  the  Common  Pleas,  and 
was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Eldon. 
When  Pitt,  two  years  afterwards,  resigned  on 
the  Catholic  Question,  Lord  Eldon  accepted 
the  Great  Seal  at  the  king's  express  desire, 
and  while  holding  that  office  he  gained  the 
entire  confidence  of  G^rge  III.  On  the  acces- 
sion to  power  of  Fox  and  Lord  Grenville  he 
resigned,  but  again  became  Lord  Chancellor 
in  1807.  For  the  next  twenty  years  he  re- 
mained in  uninterrupted  possession  of  the 
woolsack.  He  warmly  took  the  part  of  the 
Duke  of  York  in  1809,  and  vigorously  opposed 
alike  any  relaxation  in  the  severities  of  the 
penal  code  and  any  concessions  to  the  Roman 
Catholics.  On  the  question  of  Regency,  in 
1811,  Lord  Eldon  incurred  very  warm  censure 
from  Lord  G^y,  for  having  on  several  occa- 
sions forged  the  king's  signature,  when,  the 
king  was  himself  incapable  of  signing  his 
name.  On  the  Prince  of  Wales  becoming 
Regent,  Lord  Eldon  soon  ingratiated  hims^ 
with  his  new  master  by  taking  a  very  decided 
part  against  the  Princess  Caroline.  In  1814 
he  be<»me  an  object  for  the  vengeance  of  the 
mob  in  the  Com  Law  Riots.  As  the  outcry 
for  Catholic  Emancipation  became  stronger, 
he  more  strongly  than  ever  opposed  the 
measure;  and  when  Canning  became  Prime 
Minister  (1827)  he  resigned  the  seal  to  Lord 
Lyndhurst.  He  never  held  office  again, 
though  to  the  very  last  he  continued  to  oppose 
the  measures  of  the  Whigs.  As  a  judge.  Lord 
Eldon  holds  high  rank,  and  contributed  much 
towards  making  our  system  of  equity  into 
a  perfect  whole.    Sir  JL  Maine  cal]|i  him 


Ela 


(421  ) 


Ble 


"the  first  of  our  equity  judges  who,  instead 
of  enlaiging  the  jurisprudence  of  his  court 
by  indirect  legislation,*  devoted  himself 
through  life  to  explaining  and  harmonising 
it.*'  His  great  fault  was  his  hesitation  in 
deciding  cases,  the  result  being  an  enormous 
increase  in  the  cost  of  litigation,  and  a  general 
feeling  among  the  public  that  Chancery  pro- 
ceedings were  interminable.  But  the  country 
owes  a  debt  of  gratitude  to  him  for  having  in- 
stituted the  office  of  Vice-Chancellor,  and  thus 
relieving  the  stagnation  on  the  Chancery  side. 

Twim,  Life  q^  Eldon  ;  CampbelL  Liv«$  of  the 
Chaneellon;  S.  Widpole,  Httt,  qfEng.from  282S. 

[W.  R.  S.] 

XSleanor  of  Aqnitaine  (^.  1122,  d, 

1204)  was  the  daughter  of  William,  Count 
of  Poitou,  and  heiress  not  merely  to  that 
province,  but  also  to  Saintonge,  Auvergne, 
Peiigord,  Angoumois,  Guienne,  and  Gascony. 
In  1137  she  was  married  to  Louis  VII.  of 
Prance,  thereby  uniting  the  south  with  the 
north  of  France.  With  him  she  went  on  the 
Second  Crusade,  and  her  conduct  on  the 
expedition  and  subsequently  was  so  light, 
that  in  1152  she  was  divorced  from  Louis, 
though  the  nominal  groimd  for  the  separation 
was  consanguinity.  In  the  same  year  she 
married  Henry  of  Anjou,  who,  two  years 
later,  became  King  of  England.  From  him 
she  became  gradually  estranged,  and  in  1173 
encouraged  her  sons  to  rebel  against  their 
father,  for  which  she  was  seized  and  impri- 
soned, and  remained  in  captivity,  with  but 
short  intervals,  for  sixteen  years.  On  her 
husband's  death,  she  was  released  by  Hichard, 
and  made  regent  of  the  kingdom  in  his  ab- 
sence ;  and  during  his  reign  she  did  all  in  her 
power  to  repress  the  ambition  of  John  and 
thwart  the  designs  of  Philip  Augustus.  She 
collected  the  ransom  for  Richard,  and  hers^ 
conveyed  it  to  Germany.  At  Richard's  death, 
she^  came  forward  again  as  John's  chief 
adviser.  She  used  her  influence  to  exclude 
Arthur,  and  took  command  of  the  army  that 
leduced  Anjou  to  submission,  and  subsequently 
went  to  Spain  to  fetch  her  grand-daughter, 
Blanche  of  Castillo.  To  the  last  moment  of 
her  life  she  was  engaged  in  political  affairs, 
and  shortly  before  her  end  was  striving  hard 
to  keep  to  their  allegiance  the  English  Wons, 
while  Philip  Augustus  was  attacking  Nor- 
mandy. 

Benedict  of  Peterborough,  ChrwicU  (Bolls 
Series) ;  Lyttelton,  Ufe  of  Henrv  11. 

Eleanor  of  Britanny  (^*  I24i)  was  the 

^nghter  of  Geoffrey  Plantagenet  and  Con- 
stance, Duchess  of  Britanny.  After  the  death 
of  her  brother  Arthur,  she  inherited  his  claim 
to  the  English  crown,  but  was  kept  a  prisoner 
by  John  in  Bristol  Castle,  where  she  remained 
for  many  years,  till  she  was  permitted  to  retire 
to  the  nunnery  at  Amesbury. 

Sleanor  of  Castile  {d.  1290),  wife  of 
£dward  I.,  was  Uie  sister  of  Alfonso  IV.  of 


Castile.  At  her  marriage  with  Edward  in 
1254,  her  brother  renounced  his  pretensions 
to  Gascony.  She  accompanied  her  husband 
on  his  crusade,  and  legend  said  saved  his  life 
by  sucking  the  poison  from  his  wound,  and 
was  crowned  with  him  in  August,  1274.  Her 
amiable  character  made  her  greatly  beloved 
by  the  people.  If  the  least  complaint  of 
oppression  came  anyhow  to  her  ears,  she  en- 
deavoured to  redress  the  wrong,  and  her 
large  revenues  were  so  administered  that  no 
oppression  by  her  officers  was  possible.  On 
her  way  to  join  her  husband  on  his  expedi- 
tion to  Scotland,  she  died  at  Grantham  in 
November,  1290.  Her  body  was  conveyed  to 
Westminster,  and  at  each  place  where  the 
funeral  procession  halted  a  richly-carved 
cross  was  erected.  Thirteen  in  all  of  these 
crosses  were  raised,  but  only  three,  those  at 
Northampton,  Geddington,  and  Waltham, 
remain. 

Strickland,  Liom  tf  th»  Queens  of  England, 

Eleanor  of  Provenoe,  Queen  {d.  1291), 

wife  of  Henry  III.,  was  the  daughter  of 
Raymond  Berenger,  Count  of  Provence.  The 
marriage  of  Henry  and  Eleanor  took  place  in 
1236,  and  the  young  queen  almost  imme- 
diately obtained  a  complete  ascendency  over 
her  husband,  which  she  used  for  the  purpose 
of  advancing  her  friends  and  relatives.  Her 
unde,  Bonirace  of  Savoy,  was  made  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  and  other  important 
offices  were  conferred  on  the  queen's  numerous 
relatives,  who  drained  the  land  by  their*  ra- 
pacity and  extortion.  Still,  the  Provencal 
marriage  was  not  without  its  good  results. 
Provence  was  at  this  time  the  most  cultured 
state  in  Europe;  literature  and  the  arts 
flourished,  and  the  court  was  the  chosen  resi- 
dence of  the  troubadours  and  scholars  of 
Europe.  Some  of  this  culture  found  its  way 
into  England,  but  it  hardly  compensated  for 
the  great  unpopularity  which  this  influx  of 
foreigners  brought  on  the  king  and  queen. 
A  quarrel  with  the  citizens  of  London  on 
account  of  a  heavy  duty  which  she  insisted 
they  should  pay  her  as  queen  on  all  ships 
unladen  at  Queenhithe,  and  the  rigorous 
exaction  of  *'  queen  gold,"  only  increased  the 
general  hatred  of  her.  Daring  the  king*s 
absence  from  England  in  1263  she  was  ap- 
pointed Keeper  of  the  Great  Seal,  and  actually 
sat  as  a  judge  in  the  Court  of  King's  Bench. 
In  1286  the  hatred  of  the  Londoners  against 
her  culminated,  and  it  needed  a  considerable 
military  escort  to  conduct  her  in  safety  from 
the  Tower  to  Windsor.  In  the  Barons'  War, 
which  she  more  than  any  one  had  helped  to 
bring  about,  she  showed  great  determination 
and  courage,  and  after  the  battle  of  Lewes 
had  to  take  refuge  in  France.  After  the  fall 
of  De  Montfort,  she  returned,  and  had  her 
revenge  on  the  citizens  of  Ijondon  who  were 
fined  20,000  marks  for  their  conduct  towards 
her.      Soon  after  Edward  I.'s  accession  she 


(  422  ) 


Ela 


retired  to  the  conyent  of  AmeBbury,  where  she 
died  in  1291. 

Royal  and  Hid,  L^tUn  of  Eteipi  of  Honry  IIL 

iBolU    Series);    Fauli,    Englx$eho    QtoehuMe; 
Haaaw,  Baron^  War, 

Eleaaor,  daughter  of  King  John  {d. 
1274^,  was  married  first  to  William  Marshall 
the  Younger,  and  in  1238,  secondly,  to  Simon 
de  Montfort.  This  latter  marriage  seems  to 
have  been  a  secret  one,  and  quarrels  soon 
arose  between  Henry  and  De  Montfort  con- 
coming  it.  After  tiie  death  of  her  husband 
at  Evesham  ^1265),  Eleanor  retired  to  France 
and  enterea  the  nunnery  of  Montargis, 
where  she  remained  till  her  death. 

El#Cti<mS9  Parliamskta&y,  are  held  in 
virtue  of  writs  issued  either  by  the  crown  for 
a  new  Parliament,  or  in  cases  of  vacancy  while 
the  House  is  in  session  out  of  Chancery  by 
the  Speaker^s  warrant  by  order  of  the  House. 
These  writs  are  addressed  to  the  sheriffs. 
Until  7  Hen.  IV.  the  sheriff  had  to  make  the 
return  in  person  in  forty  days.  The  election 
was  made  in  full  county  court,  at  the  next 
meeting  of  the  court  after  the  writ  was  re- 
ceived. It  appears  that  some  persons  were 
specially  summoned  to  the  election,  for  at  the 
beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  county 
court  was  no  longer  generally  attended  by 
great  people.  Much  irregularity  seems  to 
have  prevailed  in  the  election  of  knights  of 
the  shire  during  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries.  Sometimes  a  crowd  of  the  lower 
class  attended  the  court ;  sometimes  the  elec- 
tion was  made  by  a  few  great  people  or  their 
stewards ;  sometimes  it  was  managed  by 
lawyers  or  interested  persons,  and  often  the 
sheriff  ordered  matters  as  he  liked.  To  secure 
the  return  being  in  accordance  with  the  elec- 
tion, it  was  ordered  by  7  Hen.  IV.,  c.  16,  that 
it  should  be  attested  by  the  persons  electing 
in  an  indenture  attached  to  the  writ.  The 
indenture,  however,  was  only  signed  by  a  few 
of  those  who  attended  the  court,  and  it  seems 
that  sometimes  the  electors  chose  certain  of 
their  number  to  exercise  the  common  right 
of  voting.  When  this  was  the  case,  the  dele- 
gates signed  on  behalf  of  the  whole  body. 
Elections  for  cities  and  boroughs  were  for- 
mally made  in  the  county  court  under  the 
Plantagenet  kings.  The  obligation  of  pay- 
ment of  members*  wages  caused  the  towns 
to  be  anxious  to  escape  from  representation. 
When  the  electors  of  a  borough  had  made 
their  choice,  it  was  reported  to  the  sheriff  in 
the  court.  In  case  they  failed  to  elect,  he 
caused  members  to  be  chosen  from  them  along 
with  the  knights  of  the  shire.  The  ceremony 
which  came  in  later  times  to  be  called  the 
nomination,  and  to  be  incorrectly  regarded  as 
something  different  to  amere  prehminary  of  the 
election,  was  the  ancient  election  itself  in  the 
oonnty  court.  If  more  than  one  candidate 
was  proposed,  the  election  was  decided  by  a 
ahow  of   hands.      As  a  seat. in    Parliament 


became  an  object  of  ambition,  the  custom 
arose  of  taking  a  poll  of  other  electors  who 
might  not  at  the  time  be  present  at  the  court. 
A  poll  was  taken  only  when  demanded,  and  it 
was  at  first  incorrectly  regarded  as  an  act  of 
grace  on  the  part  of  sheriffs  to  grant  the  de- 
mand. There  was  no  limit  to  the  time  during 
which  the  sheriff  might  keep  open  the  court 
for  the  purpose  of  the  poll,  save  the  date  on 
which  the  writ  was  returnable.  Polling  in 
the  eighteenth  century  sometimes  lasted  for  a 
month,  and  in  cases  in  which  great  efforts 
were  made  to  secure  a  seat,  the  whole  period 
was  filled  with  drunkenness  and  riot.  The 
diFgraceful  scenes  which  marked  the  West- 
minster  election,  1784,  resulted  in  an  Act,  25 
Geo.  III.,  c.  84,  limiting  a  poll  to  fifteen  days, 
and  ordering  that  the  scrutiny  of  votes  should 
be  closed  six  days  before  the  return  was  made. 
In  the  ninth  year  of  George  IV.  this  period 
was  shortened  to  nine  days  in  the  case  of 
boroup^hs ;  by  2  WilL  IV.,  c.  45,  to  two  daya 
both  in  borough  and  county  elections,  and  by 
16  and  17  Vict.,  c.  15,  to  one  day  in  both. 
By  35  and  36  Vict.,  c.  33,  the  Ballot  Act 
[Ballot],  a  poll  follows  a  disputed  nomination 
as  a  matter  of  course,  without  being  specially 
demanded.  The  use  of  voting  papers  in 
university  elections,  provided  for  by  24  and 
25  Vict,  c.  53,  still  continues. 

Disputed  EUetiona  were,  up  to  the  time  of 
Henry  IV.,  decided  by  the  crown.  From 
1410  inquiry  as  to  the  accuracy  of  the  sheriff's 
return  was  made  hy  the  judges,  the  ultimate 
decision  still  remaining  with  the  crown.  The 
House  gained  the  right  of  deciding  those 
questions  at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
in  1553  a  committee  of  the  House  decided 
against  the  validity  of  the  election  of  Kowell, 
a  prebendary  of  Westminster.  It  successfully 
upheld  its  right  of  judgment  in  these  mattera 
against  the  will  of  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1586,  in 
the  Norfolk  election  case,  and  in  1604,  in  the 
case  of  Sir  F.  Goodwin,  obtained  from  the 
king  the  admission  that  it  was  the  proper 
judge  of  returns.  This  jurisdiction  was  exer- 
cised at  first  by  committees  specially  ap- 
pointed, and  then  by  the  Committee  of  Pri\'i- 
feges  and  Elections.  It  became  the  custom  to 
admit  members  who  were  either  privy  coun- 
cillors or  barristers  to  this  committee,  though 
not  nominated  to  it.  From  this  cause  the 
committee,  by  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  was  held  to  bo  open ;  and  for  the 
sake  of  orderly  management  these  cases  were 
soon  tried  at  the  bar  of  the  House.  Election 
petitions  were  thus  decided  by  a  trial  of  the 
strength  of  contending  parties,  without  regard 
to  the  facts  of  the  case.  To  remedy  this  evil, 
the  GrmvUle  Act^  1770,  proWded  for  the  elec- 
tion of  a  committee  (by  a  mixed  system  of 
ballot  and  selection)  for  the  adjudication  of 
election  cases.  Although  this  Act  effected  an 
improvement  in  the  practice  of  the  House,  it 
still  left  election  questions  within  the  area  of 
party  politics,  and  by  allowing  either  party  to 


Eld 


(423  ) 


Bte 


strike  out  a  certain  number  of  the  names 
chosen  by  ballot,  to  commit  the  decision  of  these 
cases  to  the  weakest  men  of  both  sides.  By 
the  EUetion  Fetitions  and  Corrupt  Practieet 
Act,  1868,  31  and  32  Vict.,  c.  125,  these  ques- 
tions were  placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Court  of  Common  Pleas,  as  i&r  as  concerns  the 
fitcts  of  an  election  which  has  been  questioned 
by  petition.  Such  petition  must  now,  by 
this  Act,  be  presented  to  the  Common  Pleas 
Division  of  the  High  Court  of  Justice,  and  the 
corresponding  courts  in  Scotland  and  Ireland. 
A  judge  of  these  courts  tries  the  petition  in 
the  county  or  borough  to  which  it  refers. 
After  he  luis  heard  the  case,  he  makes  a  report 
to  the  Sx>eaker  aa  to  the  validity  of  the  Sec- 
tion, the  prevalence  of  corrupt  practices,  the 
knowledge  of  the  candidate  concerning  such 
practices,  and  the  names  of  those  who  are 
guilty  of  them.  The  House  then  acts  on  the 
report  in  the  same  way  as  it  would  have  acted 
on  the  report  of  an  election  committee.  The 
House  has  not  given  up  its  constitutional  right 
of  deciding  questions  concerning  the  right  to 
its  seats  bv  the  Elections,  &c..  Act;  it  has 
simply  made  over  such  questions  as  are  raised 
by  petition  to  a  court  of  common  law  for  in- 
vestigation and  decision. 

Corrupt  Fraetieea  at  £leetionf, — ^These;  be- 
sides direct  bribery,  include  treating  and  undue 
influence  of  various  kinds.     By  the  Corrupt 
Practices  Act,  1868,  if  the  judge  reports  particu- 
lar persons  as  guilty  of  such  practices,  the  report 
is  laid  b^ore  the  Attomey-GeneraJy  who  in- 
stitutes a  prosecution  against  them  at  his  dis- 
cretion, without  the  intervention  of  the  House. 
If  the  report  declares  that  such  practices  have 
extensiv^y  prevailed  in  a  constituency,  the 
House  genemlly  suspends  the  writ,  and  if  the 
report  IS  confirmed  by  further  inquiry,  dis- 
franchises the  constituency  by  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment.    The  various  acts  which  imply  undue 
influence  or  corruption  were  carefully  defined 
by  the   Corrupt  Praeticea  Aet  of  1883,  and 
ver}'  stringent  penalties  enacted  against  prin- 
cipals as  well  as  their  agents  found  guilty 
of  these  practices.    [BkibekyJ     The  House 
is  very  strict    as  regards  influence,  and  in 
1641    and    1802    made    declarations   to  the 
effect    that    any    interference    in    election 
matters   by  peers  was   a  breach   of  privi- 
lege.     From  the   scope  of    the   latter    de- 
claration Irish  peers  elected  for  a  seat  in  the 
House  are  exempt.     To  secure  the  freedom 
of  election,  an  Act  (10  and  11  Vict.,  c.  21) 
orders  that  soldiers  shall  be   restrained  in 
barracks  daring  the  day  of  a  poll,  except  for 
the  purpose  of  voting  or  on  necessary  duty. 

£leetor$. — ^When  tiie  influence  of  feudal- 
ism on  the  constitution  was  destroyed,  the 
lessor  tenants-in-chief  were  merged  in  the 
general  bodv  of  freeholders.  In  the  Parlia- 
ment of  Edward  I.  the  Commons  did  not 
consist  of  the  lesser  tenants  of  the  crown 
mentioned  in  the  Great  Charter,  art.  14,  but 
ol  representatives  elected  by  the  freeholders 


in  countiesy  by  certain  electors  in  boroughs, 
and  by  the  clergy.    In  eountim^  the  origmal 
electors  were  those  who  composed  the  county 
court  in  which  the  election  was  held.    By 
the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century  it  seems 
that  many  came  to,  and  took  part  in,  an 
election  who  were  not  suitors  of  the  court. 
While  an  Act  of  1406  restrained  the  undue 
power  of  the  sheriff  in  making  returns,  it 
did  not  give  the  freeholders  the  tole  right 
of  election.    This  yas  not  secured  until  1430, 
(8  Hen.  VI.,  c.  7),  and  was  then  limited  to  a 
part  of  them.   This  Act  declares  that  elections 
are  wont  to  be  made  '*  by  persons  of  small 
substance  and  no  value,"  and  limits  tiie  right 
of  voting  to  resident  holders  of  free  land  of 
the  clear  annual  value  of  40s.,  and  two  years 
after  it  was  enacted  that  the  qualifying  free- 
hold should  lie  within  the  county.     By  these 
statutes  the  quality  of  tenure,  and  not  tJie 
quantity   of   interest,   was    regarded.      For 
instance,  a  life  estate  in  a  freehold  above  the 
specified  value  conferred  a  qualification,  while 
no  estate   in  copyhold   could   do   so,  even 
though  it  were  one  of  inheritance ;  and  copy- 
holders were  expressly  excluded   from   the 
franchise  by  31  Geo.  II.,  c.  14.    The  franchise 
in  eities  and  horought  before   1832  was  not 
determined  by  any  general  statute,  but  by 
special  acts,  by  charters,  or  by  usage.    Thus 
in    London,    the    parliamentary    franchise 
followed  the  municipal,  and  was  exercised  at 
different  periods  by  representatives  of  the 
wards,  by  the  common  councilmeii,  and  by 
the  Hverymen  of  the  companies.    The  exclu- 
sive policy  of  corporations  tended  to  restrict 
the  francluHe  in  most  chartered  boroughs,  so 
that  ultimately  a  co-optative  oligarchy  alone 
had  any  voice   in   the  election.     In   some 
others    it   had   a   popular   character,    and, 
in  default  of  any  contrary  usage  or  charter, 
belonged  to  inhabitant  householders,  or  else, 
as  in  Bristol,  which  was  a  county  of  itself,  to 
the  408.  freeholders.     Borough  franchise,  in- 
deed, was  altogether  a  matter  of  local  law. 
The  representation    of    the  eUrgy  was  the 
same  in  extent  and  mode  as  in  the  election 
of  proctors  for  Convocation  (q.v.).    University 
representation  was  established  by  James  I., 
and  in  this  case  the  ri^ht  to  vote  has  be- 
longed to  all  who  by  their  degree  constitute 
the    governing    body    of    the    Universities, 
even  though  non-resident.     By  the  Reform 
AH  of   1832,  2  Will.  IV.,  c.  45   [Reform; 
Rbpresbntation],  the  qualification  was  ex- 
tended in  counties  so  as  to  include  (1)  copy- 
holds, of  which  persons  were  seised  either  in 
law  or  equity,  either  of  inheritance  or  for  life, 
of  the  clear  annual  value  of  £10.     (2)  Lease- 
holds, for  the  unexpired  portion  of  a  term  of 
sixty  years  of  tbe  annual  value  of  £10,  or  of 
a  term  of  twenty  years  of  the  annual  value  of 
£5.    It  also  created  (3)  an  occupation  qualifi- 
cation for  a  tenant  of  lands,  ac,  at  a  clear 
rent  of  £50,  paid  yearly.    While,  however,  it 
presented  the  qualification  conferred  (4)  by 


(  424  •) 


freeholds   of   inheritance,  it  provided   that 
freehold  efltates  for  life,  of  which  the  annual 
value  was  less  than  ^10,  should  not  confer  a 
vote,  unless  there  was  bona  fde  occupation, 
or  where  such  freeholds  had  been  acquired  by 
marriage,  devise,  &c.    As  regards  cities  and 
boroughs,  the  Act  retained  some  rights  per- 
manently, e,g,^  those  of    the   freemen    and 
liverymen  of  London,  of  freeholders  and  burg- 
age tenants  in  cities  which  were  also  counties, 
&c.    Some  rights  were  retained  temporarily, 
as  those  of  freemen  and  burgage  tenants  m 
boroughs,   of   inhabitant  hous&olders,   &c., 
and  the  franchise  was  extended  in  fiivour  of 
the  sole  occupiers  of  any  premises  of  the 
annual  value  of  £10.    In  Scotland,  the  county 
franchise  was  fixed  ^2  Will.  IV.,  c.  65)  at  a 
£10  ownership,  and  included  some  classes  of 
leasehold.    The  borough  franchise  included 
£10  householders.    In  Ireland  at  the  time  of 
tiie  Catholic  Emancipation  Act,  the  qualifica- 
tion in  counties  was  raised  from  a  40s.  to  a 
£10  freehold.    In  1832  it  was  extended  by 
the  admission  of  certain  leaseholds  and  £10  , 
copyholds.    By  the  Reform  Act  of  1867,  30 
and  31    Vict.,   c   102,  the  franchise  stood 
thus — ^in  counties,  (1)  the  old  40s.  freeholders 
in  fee ;  (2)  the  holders  of  a  life  estate  from 
408.  to  £o,  if  of  freehold  tenure  and  with 
occupation ;  (3)  of  any  life  estate  above  £5  *, 
(4)  of  the  remainder  of  a  lease  of  sixty  years 
of  the  value  of  £5 ;  (5^  occupiersof  land,  &c.,  for 
twelve  months,  rated  at  not  less  than  £12;  (6) 
occupiers  whose  rent  is  assessed  at  £50.    In 
cities  and  boroughs  it  was  extended  to  (I)  all 
resident    householders    or   rated    occupants 
of   dwelling-houses,  after   payment  of    one 
year's    rates;     (2)    all    rated    occupants   of 
premises  other  than  houses,  of  the  value  of 
£10;    (3)  all  who  have  for  twelve  months 
been  in  the  separate  occupation  of  the  same 
lodgings,  which  are,  if  unfurnished,  of  the 
yearly  value  of  £10.    The  lodger  franchise 
has,  by  41  and  42  Vict.,  c.  26,  been  declared 
to  include  an  office,   studio,  shop,  &c     A 
change  of  apartments  in  the  same  house  is 
not  held  to  be  a  change  of  lodgings.    In 
Scotknd,  by  31  and  32  Vict.,  c.  48,  the  fran- 
chise is  granted,  in  counties,  to  a  £5  ownership 
and  a  £14  occupation.    A  household  and  a 
lodger  franchise  were  also  fixed  in  boroughs. 
In  Ireland,  by  13  and  14  Vict.,  c.  69,  an 
estate  in  fee  or  for  life  of  the  annual  value  of 
£5,  or  an  occupation  of  the  ^ue  of  £12,  con- 
feired  a  vote  for  a  county,  and  a  rated  occu- 
pation of  £8  for  a  borough  election.    By  the 
irith  Beform  Act,  1868,  a  household  occupa- 
tion rated  at  £4  and  a  lodger  franchise  of  £10 
were  created    in  boroughs.     In   1884,  Mr. 
Gladstone  introduced  a  Rtform  Bill  apply- 
ing to  the  whole  of  the  United  Kin^B^^™*' 
and  assimilating  the  franchise  in  counties 
with   that  in  boroughs.      By  this  measure, 
which   was   followed    by   a   Redistribution 
Act,    the    franchise    was    granted   to   (1) 
all    resident   male   householders    or    rated. 


occupants  of  dwelling-houses;    (2)  lodgen; 
(3)  certain  persons  not  occupying  separate 
tenements  or  apartments,  but  living  in  houses 
occupied  by  others,  who  were  to  vote  under 
what  was    called    the  "  service    franchise.'^ 
Disqualification   imder  aU  the  reform  bills 
attaches  to  females,  aliens,  in&nts,  &c.,  to 
all  peers  except  such  Irish  peers  who  have 
been  elected  to  a  seat,  to  certain  revenue 
officers,   to   police    constables,   to   those   in 
receipt  of  parochial  relief,  and  to  some  few 
others.    Irish  Catholics  were  admitted  to  the 
franchise  in  1793,  on  taking  the  oatiis  of 
all^^iance    and    abjuration.     In    1829,  Mr. 
Peel,    among    other    measures    of    Catholic 
Emancipation,  carried  a  new  form  of  oath,  by 
which  Catholics  were  enabled  to  vote  without 
doing  violence  to  their   convictions.      And 
finaUy,  by  6  and  6  Will.  IV.,  c  36,  all  oaths 
in  connection  with  the  right  of  electors  are 
done  away.    Every  one  claiming  to  exercise  a 
right  to  vote  for  a  member  of  Parliament 
must  see  that  his  name  is  registered  in  a  list 
drawn  up  by  the  overseers  of  the  pariah  in 
which  his  qualification  lies.    These  lists  are 
afterwards  revised  in  open  court  by  revising 
ifarrietertfVfho  decide  on  objections  and  <*-1«i*ni|. 
An  appeal  lies  to  the  Common  Pleas  from  the 
decision  of  thfese  officers. 

Persons  Elected, — During  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, the  terms  of  the  writs  which  specified 
the  condition  of  men  who  were  to  be  elected 
were  constantly  varied.  Efforts  were  made 
to  procure  the  election  of  "  belted  knights," 
or  at  least  of  squires  of  good  position,  as 
county  members,  and  of  men  of  the  higher 
class  of  burgesses  for  borough  members ;  and 
to  exclude  ^eriffs,  lawyers,  and  **  maintainors 
of  quarrels."  It  was  important  that  the  re- 
presentatives of  the  Commons  should  be  of  a 
rank  which  would  make  them  independent  of 
crown  influence  or  of  private  advantage. 
Notwithstanding  these  efforts,  it  was  often 
found  impossible  to  secure  men  of  the  position 
required  by  the  writs.  The  exclusion  of  the 
clergy  in  1371  was  the  result  of  special  cir- 
cumstances. Lawyers  were  several  times  ex- 
cluded (e,g,y  1402)  because  it  was  thought  they 
took  advantage  of  their  position  as  memb^s 
to  forward  the.  interests  of  their  clients. 
By  1  Hen.  V.,  c.  1,  residence  was  declared  a 
necessary  qualification.  This  statute  whs* 
however,  constantly  disregarded,  and  is  ex- 
pressly repealed  by  14  Geo.  III.,  o.  68.  A 
qualification  in  real  estate  was  adopted  9 
Anne,  c.  5,  and  was  fixed  at  £600  a  year  for 
countv,  and  £300  for  borough  mem^b^v.  By 
1  and  2  Vict.,  c.  48,  personalty  might  be 
reckoned  in  making  up  the  requirod  sum,  and 
now  by  21  and  22  Vict.,  c.  26,  all  property 
qualification  is  abolished.  Disqualification 
attaches  to  females,  aliens,  infants,  &c.,  to  all 
peers,  except  Irish  non-representative  peers,  to 
clergy  of  the  Church  of  England  (by  41  Geo. 
III.,  c.  63),  to  Roman  Catholic  clergy  (by  10 
Geo.  IV.|  c  7),  to  sheriffs  and  other  returning 


(426) 


BU 


offioen  as  regards  their  own  sphere  of  office,  to 
goYemment  contractorB,  bankmpts,  and  those 
oonvicted  of  felony  or  of  cormpt  practices  at 
elections  under  the  Acts  on  that  subject. 
Persons  holding  certain  places  of  profit  under 
the  crown  which  do  not  include  those  of 
the  various  ministers  and  officials  at  the  head 
of  the  great  departments  of  the  State,  were 
disqualified  by  6  Anne,  c.  7.  In  most  cases, 
pensions  held  during  pleasure  entail  disquali* 
fication.  The  Oathohc  Belief  Bill,  1829,  ad- 
mitted  Boman  OathoUcs  to  both  Houses  of 
Parliament  on  taking  a  special  oath  provided 
for  such  cases.  Jews,  though  elected  by  a 
constituency,  were  shut  out  from  the  House 
by  the  terms  of  the  Parliamentary  oath  until 
18^,  when  the  oath  was  so  altered  that  they 
were  able  to  take  it.  [Oaths.]  By  the  29 
and  30  Vict.,  c.  19,  religious  disabilities  were 
removed,  the  sole  condition  of  admission  to 
the  House  of  a  member  not  otherwise  dis- 
qualified being  that  he  take  the  oath  pre- 
scribed by  that  statute.  From  this  obligation 
Quakers,  Moravians,  and  some  other  reUgious 
bodies  have  been  exempted,  and  by  an  Act  of 
1888  the  relief  was  extended  to  persons  of  no 
religious  belief. 

Carter's  S»gtr»  on.  tlu  Lavo  of  SUctioM,  ed. 
1880 :  Stubbs,  Cotut.  Eiit.,  ch.  xv.,  xs. ;  Maj, 
Contt.  lliti.,  ch.  yi.,  ziiL :  Hay,  PariiavMnUry 
Practict.  [W.  H.] 

Slftrar  (^lfoab),  son  of  Leofric,  was 

made  £arl  of  East  Anglia  on  the  outlawry  of 

Harold  in  1051,  but  in  the  next  year,  Harold 

being  restored,  he  lost  his  earldom.    In  1053 

he  once  more  received  the  earldom.    In  1055 

he  was  accused  of  treason,  and  banished,  when 

he  allied  himself  with  the  Welsh,  and  ravaged 

Herefordshire,  but  was  compelled  to  submit 

by  Harold  ;  was  received  again  into  the  royal 

favour,  and  was  restored  to  his  earldom.    On 

the  death  of  Leofric,  he  was  made  Earl  of 

Mercia.    In  1058  he  was  again  outlawed,  and 

again  pardoned.    H«  died  probably  in  the 

vear  1062,  and  was  tuoceeded  in  his  earldom 

by  his  son  Edwin.     His  daughter  Aldgnrth 

married  (1)  Griffith,  Prince  of  North  Wales, 

and  (2)  Harold. 

Anglo-Saxon  CHron. ;  Freefman,  Norman  Coa- 
qyimt,  ii.  161. 

Elgiva  (MhFOiFv)  was  the  wife  of  King 
Edwy  (q.v.).  As  she  was  within  the  pro- 
hibited degrees,  Dunstan  and  Odo  endeavoured 
to  get  Edwy  to  divorce  her,  and  at  leng^  in 
958,  this  was  done.  Of  her  subsequent 
history  we  know  nothing,  the  stories  of  the 
cruelty  of  Odo  and  Dunstan  towards  her 
resting  on  no  good  authority. 

Eliot,  Sib  John  (b.  1570,  d.  1632),  a 
member  of  an  old  Cornwall  family,  was 
educated  at  Exeter  College,  Oxford,  and 
studied  law  in  London.  In  1614  he  entered 
Parliament  as  member  for  St.  Gteimans,  and 
at  once  rose  into  prominence  as  one  of  the 
focemost  orators  ox  the  time.    Early  in  life 

HWT.-14* 


he  had  formed  a  dose  friendship  with  Buck** 
ingham,  and  received  from  him  the  appoint* 
ment  of  Yice-Admiral  of  Devon.  In  this 
capacity  he  distinguished  himself  by  his 
energy  in  the  suppression  of  piracy ;  but  this 
raised  up  powerful  enemies  against  him,  and 
during  Buckingham's  absence  in  Spain  he  was 
imprisoned  on  a  false  charge  laid  against  him 
in  connection  with  his  capture  of  a  pirate 
named  Nutt.  On  the  return  of  Buckingham, 
in  1623,  Eliot  was  released,  and  took  his  seat 
in  the  Parliament  which  met  that  year,  and 
immediately  came  forward  as  one  of  the  pro* 
minent  champions  of  constitutional  ri^ts. 
In  the  Parliament  of  1625  he  was  strongly  in 
favour  of  putting  into  execution  the  laws 
against  the  Boman  Catholic  recusants,  and 
opposed  Wentworth  on  the  question  of  the 
latter's  election  for  Yorkshire.  In  the  second 
Parliament  of  Charles  I.  (1626),  Eliot  was 
the  recognised  leader  of  the  constitutional 
party.  He  moved  an  inquiry  into  the  mis- 
management of  the  government,  and  was 
foremost  in  demanding  that  the  conduct  of 
Buckingham  should  be  investigated.  In  con- 
sequence (May  11,  1626),  he  was  imprisoned 
in  the  Tower,  but  set  at  liberty  after  a  few 
days.  In  1627  Eliot  was  one  of  those  who, 
with  Hampden  and  Wentworth,  refused  to 
contribute  towards  the  forced  loan  levied  by 
the  crown,  and  was  imprisoned  in  the  Gato- 
house.  In  the  Parliament  of  1628  he  was 
again  foremost  in  the  attack  on  royal  mis- 
government,  and  bore  the  chief  share  in 
drawing  up  the  Bemonstrance  and  Petition  of 
Bight.  On  the  dissolution  of  the  Parliament 
he  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  (March, 
1629).  In  spite  of  his  application  for  a 
habeas  eorpus^  he  was  not  releued.  An  infor- 
mation was  laid  against  him  by  the  Attomey- 
Qeneral  in  the  Court  of  King's  Bench  for 
entering  into  a  conspiracy  to  resist  the  king's 
orders,  and  the  judge  sentenced  him  to  oe 
fined  £2,000  and  not  to  be  released  till  hB 
acknowledged  his  fault.  He  was  kept  in 
confinement,  and  his  health  was  brok^  by 
the  harsh  treatment  he  received,  and,  on 
Nov.  27,  1632,  he  died.  During  his  imprison- 
ment he  wrote  a  treatise  called  the  Monarchy 
of  Man^  which  embodied  his  views  on  the 
theory  of  constitutional  monarchy.  Eliot  waa 
one  of  the  ablest  as  well  as  the  most  estimable 
of  the  popular  leaders  of  Charles  L's  reign. 
"  Great  as  his  intellectual  powers  were,"  says 
Mr.  Gardiner,  "  it  was  not  by  mere  force  of 
intellect  that  he  won  his  way  to  distinction.  It 
was  the  moral  nature  of  the  man,  his  utter  self- 
forgetfulness,  which  made  him  what  he  was.". 

J.  Forater,  Sir  J.  Eliot;  S.  B.  Ckurdiner,  Hid. 
ofEng.,  190S-ieig,  ▼.  186,  te.         [g,  j.  L.] 

Slisabeth,  Qubsm  ib,  Sept.  7,  I53a, 
*.  Nov.  17,  1558,  rf.  Mar.  24,  1603),  the 
daughter  of  Henry  VIII.  and  Anne  Bole^-n, 
was  bom  at  Greenwich  on  Sept.  7,  1533. 
On   the   death   of   her   mother,    she    was 


(426  ) 


sent  to  the  castle  of  Uunsdon,  where  she 
and  her  half-sister  Mary  were  brought  up 
by  lady  Margaret  Bryan.  Afterwards  she 
shared  the  stu£eB  of  her  half-brother  Edward, 
who  became  greatly  attached  to  her.  On 
the  accession  of  Edward  VI.,  she  wtis 
committed  to  the  care  of  Catherine,  the 
Queen  Dowager,  who  soon  married  Thomas 
Seymour,  the  brother  of  the  Protector, 
Somerset.  Thomas  Seymour  showed  that  he 
nourished  ambitious  schemes,  and  he  was 
suspected  of  using  the  opportunities  which 
his  marriage  gave  him  of  tr^'ing  to  win  the 
affections  of  Elizabeth.  Catherine  died  in 
1548,  and  Thomas  Seymour^s  conduct  towards 
Elizabeth  was  one  of  the  charges  brought 
against  him,  and  was  the  subject  of  a  rigorous 
inq  uiry ,  in  which  the  young  girl  conducted  her- 
self with  great  dexterity.  Seymour  was  be- 
headed, and  Elizabeth  was  closely  watched  at 
Hatfield.  Here  she  pursued  her  studies  under 
the  direction  of  William  Grindal  and  Roger 
Ascham,  and  acquired  a  reputation  for  learn- 
ing. In  the  plot  of  Northumberland  to 
secure  the  throne  for  the  Lady  Jane  Grey, 
Elizabeth  took  no  part,  and  on  Mark's  acces- 
sion, was  treated  by  her  with  consideration. 
The  Imperial  ambassadors  doubted  about 
Elizabeth,  and  Mary  worked  hard  for  her 
conversion  to  Romanism.  Elizabeth  judged 
it  wise  to  give  way,  and  on  Sept.  9,  1653, 
attendJed  the  mass.  As  Mary's  marriage' 
project  with  Philip  of  Spain  advanced,  her 
suspicions  of  Elizabeth  increased,  and  in  De- 
cember Elizabeth  left  the  court,  and  retired  to 
Ashridge,  in  Buckinghamshire.  Mary  wished 
to  marry  Elizabeth  to  Edward  Courtenay, 
but  Courtenay  refused.  Wyatt's  rebellion 
brought  Elizabeth  and  Courtenay  into  sus- 
picion. Elizabeth  was  arrested  in  Feb.,  1554, 
and  was  thrown  into  the  Tower.  Every 
effort  was  made  to  obtain  evidence  against 
her,  but  without  success.  In  May  she  was 
released,  but  was  committed  to  the  care  of 
Sir  Henry  Bedingfield,  and  was  sent  to  Wood- 
stock. Philip  of  Spain,  on  his  arrival  in 
England,  showed  more  consideration  towards 
Elizabeth.  He  wished  to  marry  her  in  such 
a  way  as  to  promote  his  own  political  plans. 
First,  a  marriage  with  the  Duke  of  Savoy  was 
proposed,  and  in  April,  1555,  Elizabeth  was 
summoned  to  Hampton  Court,  whence,  at  the 
end  of  the  year,  she  went  to  Hatfield.  It 
,  needed  all  her  cleverness  to  escape  the  mar- 
Tiage  with  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  which  would 
have  sent  her  away  from  England.  When 
this  was  abandoned,  there  came  a  proposal  for 
Eric  of  Sweden,  son  of  Gustavus  Wasa,  which 
was  also  refused.  Elizabeth  in  her  early 
days  found  herself  surrounded  by  snares. 
She  learned  to  trust  no  one,  to  act  circum- 
4ipectly,  to  assume  an  ambiguous  attitude 
which  did  not  commit  her  to  anything  defi- 
nite, and  to  be  prepared  for  any  emergency. 
Mary  on  her  death-bed,  Nov.  6,  1558,  nomi- 
tnated  Elizabeth  as  her  successor,  in  the  hope 


that  she  would  maintain  the  Roman  Catholio 
reliffion.  Philip  of  Spain  trusted  that  he 
woiud  find  in  Elizabeth  a  complaiBant  ally. 
When  Elizabeth  succeeded  to  the  crown,  on 
Nov.  17,  1558,  she  had  already  gained  a 
large  experience  of  the  world  and  the  diffi- 
culties which  beset  her.  She  never  forgot 
that  her  position  must  be  maintained  by 
herself  alone,  and  that  her  interests  wexe  not 
those  of  any  particular  party  or  system.  She 
never  laid  aside  her  skill  in  balancing  her- 
self between  opposing  parties  and  husband- 
ing her  resources  so  as  to  profit  by  their 
mistakes. 

At  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  England  was 
without  money  and  without  resources,  and 
was  engaged  on  the  side  of  Spain  in  war  with 
France.  Philip  II.  wished  to  maintain  the 
English  alliance,  and  offered  his  hand  to 
Elizabeth.  But  the  marriage  with  PhiUp 
needed  a  dispensation  from  the  Pope;  and 
Paul  IV.  was  under  the  influence  of  France. 
He  was  ready  to  impugn  the  legitimacy 
of  Elizabeth.  Whatever  doubts  she  might 
have  had  about  her  policy  on  her  acces- 
sion, she  soon  saw  that  the  defence  of  Pro- 
testantism at  home  and  peace  with  France 
abroad  were  necessary  for  her  own  security. 
Her  first  measures  were  directed  to  a  religious 
settlement.  In  this  matter  she  reverted  to  her 
father's  plan :  freedom  of  the  Engli^  Church 
from  the  supremacy  of  the  Pope,  and  from 
beliefs  and  practices  which  were  unknown  to 
the  primitive  Church,  but  a  retention  of  its 
Catholic  foundation.  This  plan  suited  neither 
the  Calvinists  nor  the  adherents  of  the  old 
faith.  But  Elizabeth  appointed  a  committee 
of  divines  to  revise  the  Prayer  Book  of 
Edward  VI.,  and  Parliament  in  1559  re- 
established the  royal  supremacy,  approved 
the  revised  Praver  Book,  and  enf orcea  its  use 
b^  the  Act  of  Uniformity.  Many  of  the 
bishops  refused  obedience,  and  were  deprived 
of  their  sees.  The  new  Archbishop  of  Omter- 
bun',  Matthew  Parker,  was  the  chief  helper 
of  the  queen  in  carrying  out  her  ecclesiastical 
policy,  and  a  body  of  commissioners,  who 
afterwards  grew  into  the  Court  of  High 
Commission,  were  appointed  to  exercise  the 
ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  of  the  crown. 

But  the  greatest  danger  that  Elizabeth  had 
to  face  was  the  fact  that  the  next  in  order  of 
succession  to  the  English  crown  was  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots.  The  party  in  England  that 
was  favourable  to  the  old  religion  would  have 
welcomed  her  against  Elizabeth.  Mary  was 
supported  by  the  influence  of  the  Guises  in 
Fnmce,  and  it  was  possible  that  Philip  of  Spain 
might  unite  with  them  to  put  down  neresy  in 
England.  Elizabeth  was  urged  by  Parliament 
to  marry,  and  she  looked  round  for  some  forei^ 
alliance.  But  she  clearly  saw  the  difficulties 
that  beset  her.  If  she  married  a  Protestant, 
she  would  destroy  the  hopes  of  the  Catholics 
in  a  peaceful  accession  of  Mary ;  if  ^  she 
married  a  Catholio,  her  husband  would  either 


(427) 


zu 


1)6  some  insignificant  person,  or  her  marriage 
would  draw  her  into  political  combinations 
which  would  aacrifice  the  independence  of 
her  position.  Many  husbands  were  proposed, 
but  she  refused  them  all.  It  was  thought 
that  her  personal  iH:eference  was  for  Kobert 
Dudley,  fiarl  of  Leicester ;  but  she  abstained 
from  a  marriage  which  would  be  unpopular 
and  politically  useless.  She  used  marriage 
projects  as  means  of  political  temporising,  to 
a  degree  which  was  often  ludicrous.  She 
encouraged  in  her  court  a  fantastic  devotion 
to  her  person,  and  gloried  in  the  title  of  the 
**  Virgin  Queen."  The  pro^nreas  of  the  Refor- 
mation in  Scotland  gave  Elizabeth  a  means  of 
strengthening  herself  against  Mary.  In  Jan. , 
ld60,  she  ent^^  into  the  Treaty  of  Berwick,  by 
which  she  undertook  to  aid  the  rebel  lords  in 
expelling  the  French,  who,  under  the  queen 
regent,  Mary  of  Guise,  garrisoned  Edinburgh. 
She  was  rewarded  by  ib»  withdrawal  of  the 
French,  and  the  agreement  that  Mary  and 
Francis  H.  should  lay  aside  their  pretensions 
to  the  English  crown.  In  Dec,  1560,  Francis 
II.  died,  Mary  refused  to  sign  the  Treaty  of 
Edinburgh,  and  in  Aug.,  1561,  landed  in 
Scotland,  the  avowed  agent  of  the  policy  of 
the  Guises.  For  the  next  few  years  the 
history  of  England  centres  round  the  secret 
war  which  was  waged  with  feminine  astuteness 
between  the  two  queens.  Elizabeth  wished 
Mary  to  resign  her  claim  to  the  English 
succession,  offered  her  an  alliance,  and  a^eed 
to  recognise  her  as  successor.  Marv  refused 
to  gire  up  her  claim  for  a  doubtful  boon. 
She  hoped  to  win  back  Scotland  to  Catholicism, 
and  looked  about  for  a  husband  who  would 
help  her.  When,  in  1565,  she  married 
Damley,  it  was  a  great  blow  to  Elizabeth, 
who  aidJsd  Murray  and  the  rebel  lords,  but 
afterwards  disavowed  Uxem.  The  birth  of  a 
son  to  Mary  still  further  strengthened  her 
position ;  but  the  murder  of  Damley  and  the 
marriage  with  Bothwell  destroyed  Mary's 
hold  on  Scotland,  and  relieved  Elizabeth  from 
some  anxiety.  Mary's  flight  to  England  in 
1568  placed  Elizabeth  in  a  difficult  position. 
She  could  not  make  common  cause  with 
rebels  against  their  queen,  and  thereby  give 
a  dangerous  example ;  she  could  not  rertore 
Mary  to  the  Scottish  throne  against  the  wish 
of  her  subjects ;  she  could  not  leave  Mary  at 
large  in  England  to  be  a  centre  for  OathoUc 
l^ts ;  and  she  did  not  wish  to  send  her  to 
France,  where  she  would  be  an  instrument 
in  the  hands  of  the  Catholic  party.  The 
"  Casket  Letters  *'  (q.v.)  were  used  to  blacken 
Mary's  character ;  lAie  was  refused  an  inter- 
view, and  was  kept  in  confinement  in  England. 
It  was  not  a  magnanimous  policy,  but  it  was 
characteristic  of  Elizabeth's  caution.  Still, 
Mary  as  a  prisoner  was  powerful  for  mischief. 
There  was  a  plan  to  marry  her  to  the  Di^e  of 
Norfolk,  and  there  was  a  dangerous  rising  in 
the  north  in  favour  of  the  old  religion*  The 
Earls  of  Northumberland  and  Wefltmozeland 


advanced  to  Durham,  and  ordered  the  mass  to 
be  celebrated  in  the  cathedral.  But  the  Catho- 
lies  as  a  body  did  not  rise ;  the  rebellion  was 
put  down  with  severity  by  the  Earl  of  Sussex, 
and  England  at  the  end  of  1569  was  again 
peacefuL 

In  1570  Pope  Pius  V.  proceeded  to  the 
excommunication  of  Elisal)eth,  and  religious 
strife  was  consequently  aroused  in  England. 
Parliament  in  1571  retaliated  by  repressive 
measures  against  the  Catholics.  It  was 
declared  high  treason  to  call  the  queen  a 
heretic  or  to  name  her  successor.  The 
Established  Church  was  more  vigorously  set 
up  as  a  standard  of  orthodoxy,  and  Catholics 
and  Puritans  were  alike  required  to  conform. 
The  scheme  for  the  liberation  of  Mary  and 
her  marriage  with  the  Duke  of  Norfolk 
was  revived  by  foreign  aid.  A  Florentine, 
Bidolfi,  negotiated  between  the  English  con- 
spirators and  the  Pope  and  Philip  II.  Sup- 
plies were  to  be  furnished  from  abroad,  and 
the  Duke  of  Alva,  from  the  Netherlands,  was 
to  help  with  10,000  men.  The  plot,  however, 
was  discovered  by  the  vigilance  of  Burleigh, 
who  had  succeeded  in  organising  the  intel- 
ligence department  of  the  government  into 
great  efficiency.  The  Spanish  ambassador 
was  dismissed  from  England;  the  Duke  of 
Norfolk  was  imprisoned,  and  afterwards  be- 
headed on  June  2,  1572.  Philip  II.  was  pre- 
vented by  the  affiurs  of  the  Netherlands  and 
the  doubtful  condition  of  France  from  taking 
any  steps  against  England  for  the  time,  and 
from  1572  to  1576  England  was  left  in  peace. 

In  1676,  Philip  II.'s  half-brother,  Don 
John  of  Austria,  was  sent  as  governor  to  the 
Netherlands.  He  was  ambitious  of  invading 
England  and  marrying  Mary  of  Scotland. 
He  fiuled,  however,  to  pacify  the  Nether- 
landers,  snd  his  failure  led  to  his  untimely 
death  through  disappointment.  To  obtain 
foreign  help,  the  Netherlands  welcomed  as 
their  prince  the  brother  of  the  French  king, 
the  Duke  of  Anjou.  Negotiations  were  long 
continued  for  tiie  marriage  of  the  Duke 
of  Anjou  to  Elizabeth,  which  would 
have  marked  an  alliance  of  England  and 
France  against  Spain.  If  Elizabeth  could 
have  been  certain  of  securing  this  end,  she 
would  have  consented  to  the  marriage.  As  it 
was,  she  affected  great  coyness  as  a  means  of 
gaining  time.  Her  doubts  were  justified. 
The  Duke  of  Anjou  failed  in  the  Netherlands, 
because  he  tried  to  override  the  constitution. 
Elizabeth  saw  that  there  was  no  hope  of  a 
firm  alliance  with  France.  In  Ekigland  she 
was  exposed  to  the  incessant  plots  of  the 
Catholic  party,  who  tried  to  raise  Ireland 
against  her.  In  1579  James  Fitzmaurico, 
brother  of  the  Earl  of  Desmond,  landed  with 
Spanish  troops,  and  took  possession  of  the 
Fort  of  Smerwick,  near  Kerry.  It  was  in- 
stantly besieged  by  the  deputy.  Lord  Grey  de 
Wilton,  and  was  driven  to  surrender,  whereon 
the  Spaniards  were  massacred  by  a  body  of 


(  428  ) 


EU 


troops  under  the  command  of  Sir  Walter 
Baleigh.  Hatred  of  Spain  had  become  a 
principle  in  the  minds  of  Englishmen,  and 
their  attempt  on  Ireland  was  mercileflsly  put 
down.  More  active  than  soldiers  were  the 
Jesuit  missionaries,  who,  in  loSO,  were  sent  to 
England  to  reyive  the  spirits  of  the  Catholics. 
With  unflinching  boldness  and  groat  dexterity 
they-  travelled  about  England,  and  organised 
the  Catholic  party.  Chief  of  these  Jesuits 
was  Campian,  who  was  taken  prisoner  and 
put  to  death  for  conspiring  against  the  queen. 
The  Catholics  were  severely  persecuted,  and 
the  Protestant  spirit  of  England  was  quickened 
by  perpetual  'suspicion.  A  plot  to  assassinate 
Baizabeih,  of  which  Francis  Throgmorton 
was  the  chief  agent,  was  discovered  in  1584, 
and  again  the  Spanish  ambassador  was  or- 
dered to  quit  Ihigland.  The  sentiment  of 
loyalty  to  the  person  of  Elizabeth  grew 
strong  among  the  people,  and  a  voluntary 
association  was  formed  for  her  defence.  Its 
members  undertook  to  prosecute  to  death  all 
who  should  attempt  the  queen's  life,  or  in 
whose  behalf  such  attempts  should  be  made. 
This  was  a  threat  against  IVIary,  whose  death 
was  thus  sure  to  follow  immediately  on  the 
assassination  of  Elizabeth. 

Meanwhile,  the  hostility  between  England 
and  Spain  was  becoming  more  and  more  ap- 
parent. France,  under  the  pressure  of  the 
religious  wars,  had  admitted  Spanish  influence, 
and  had  withdrawn  all  appearance  of  help 
from  the  Netherlands.  Elizabeth  found  it 
wise  to  send  help  to  the  Netherlands,  but  she 
sent  as  little  as  she  could.  She  never  believed 
that  they  would  make  good  their  stand  against 
the  Spanish  jwwer,  but  with  a  niggardly  hand 
she  helped  them  to  prolong  their  struggle.  In 
the  end  of  1685  the  Earl  of  Leicester  was  sent 
to  Holland  with  English  troops.  Leicester 
did  little  more  than  besiege  Zutphen,  and 
Elizabeth  negotiated  with  Spain,  and  was 
ready  to  betray  the  Netherlands  if  thereby 
she  could  have  secured  peace.  Philip  II., 
however,  was  irritated  against  England,  both 
on  account  of  the  help  sent  to  the  Nether- 
lands, and  still  more  on  account  of  the  damage 
done  to  Spanish  trade  in  the  West  Indies  by 
the  piratical  raids  of  Sir  Francis  Drake.  ^A 
Spanish  invasion  of  England  was  immin^t, 
and  plots  against  EUzabeth*s  life  were  reso- 
lutely carried  on.  At  the  end  of  1586,  a 
plot,  contrived  by  Antony  Babington,  was 
discovered  by  the  Secretary,  Sir  Francis  Wal- 
singham.  He  allowed  it  to  proceed  till  he 
had  obtained  evidence  which  implicated  Mary 
of  Scotland.  Then  Babington  was  executed, 
and  a  commission  was  appointed  to  try  Mary, 
who  was  found  guilty.  For  a  long  time 
Elizabeth  hesitated  to  put  i^Iary  to  death.  At 
last  she  signed  the  warrant,  but  gave  no 
orders  that  it  should  be  carried  into  effect. 
Mary  was  beheaded  in  February,  1587,  and 
Elizabeth  professed  that  it  was  done  -nnthout 
her  knowledge.    She  tried  with  characteristic 


duplicity  to  free  herself  of  personal  responsi- 
bility, but  England  rejoiced  that  it  was  rid 
of  one  who  was  such  a  fertile  source  of  danger 
and  disturbance. 

Mary's  death  brought  the  Spanish  invasion 
nearer.  So  long  as  Mary  lived,  Philip  II. 
was  bound  to  fight  in  her  name ;  on  her  death 
he  put  forward  his  own  claim  to  the  English 
crown.  A  raid  of  Drake  on  Cadiz,  in  April, 
1587,  stirred  Philip  II.  to  greater  indignation. 
In  May,  1588,  a  large  fleet,  known  as  *'  the 
Invincible  Armada,''  set  sail  for  England.  Its 
huge  ships  were  ill-suited  to  the  task.  The 
preparations  for  a  junction  with  ships  from  the 
Netherlands  failed.  The  Armada  was  thrown 
into  disorder  by  the  smaller  and  swifter  craft 
of  the  English.  A  storm  completed  its  dis- 
comfiture, and  England  was  saved  from  a 
landing  on  its  shores.  During  the  days  of 
peril  Elizabeth  showed  great  courage,  and 
addressed  in  stirring  woitls  the  volunteers  who 
gathered  at  Tilbury.  She  was  personally 
brave,  and  knew  how  to  deal  with  her  people. 
The  defeat  of  the  Armada  gave  an  impulse 
to  English  seamanship,  which  had  been  grow- 
ing rapidly  during  Elizabeth's  reign.  Then 
for  the  first  time  the  English  showed  those 
qualities  which  have  secured  for  them  the 
mastery  of  the  sea.  An  aggressive  war  against 
Spain  was  rapidly  planned,  and  the  Portu- 
guese were  urged  to  revolt  from  Philip  II. 
In  1589  an  expedition  was  undertaken  against 
Lisbon,  which  failed  in  its  main  object,  but 
convinced  the  English  that  Spain  was  not 
such  a  formidable  foe  as  they  had  thought. 
From  tl^  time  English  privateers  cruised  the 
Spanish  main  and  crippled  the  Spanish  trade. 
Sir  Walter  Baleigh  was  energetic  in  urgfing 
schemes  of  colonisation  in  opposition  to  Spain. 
In  1584  he  colonised  Vfrginia,  which  he 
called  after  the  Virgin  Queen.  In  1592  he 
penetrated  to  the  Isthmus  of  Darien,  and  in 
1595  to  Gruiana.  Though  little  was  done  at 
the  time,  the  way  was  prepared  for  future 
efforts. 

Spain  was  beaten  back  both  in  France  and 
in  the  Netherlands,  and  Elizabeth,  in  her  old 
age,  was  inclined  to  peace.  But  the  martial 
ariour  of  England  was  aroused,  and  the  Earl 
of  Essex  was  eag^r  to  distinguish  himself. 
In  1696  an  expedition  was  made  against  Cadiz, 
which  was  sacked  by  Essex.  Next  year  he  and 
Baleigh  set  out  on  what  was  known  as  "  The 
Island  Voyage,"  which  was  a  failure,  owing 
to  quarrels  between  the  two  commanders. 
Elizabeth  and  Burleigh  were  more  and  more 
desirous  for  peace.  But  troubles  broke  out  in 
Ireland,  where  Hugh  O'Neil,  Earl  of  Tyrone, 
gathered  together  the  tribes  of  Ulster,  and 
surprised  the  Fort  of  Blackwater.  In 
Ireland,  Elizabeth  found  occupation  for  the 
energy  of  Essex,  whose  ambition  was  bound- 
less and  whose  popularity  was  great.  But 
Essex,  contrary  to  his  orders,  ent^ed  into 
negotiations  with  Tyrone,  and  concluded 
peace.    When  he  returned  to   England  in 


su 


(429  ) 


1599,  he  was  called  to  account  for  his  conduct. 
He  had  many  enemies,  and  was  disgraced, 
heing  confined  as  a  prisoner  in  his  own  house. 
At  last,  trusting  to  his  popularity,  he  made  a 
desperate  rising,  in  the  hopes  of  getting  the 
queen  into  his  hands.  The  people  refused  to 
follow  him.    He  was  taken  prisoner,  found 

fttilty  of  high  treason,  and  heheaded  in 
ebruary,  1601.  Elizabeth  sorely  felt  tho 
necessity  of  putting  Easex  to  death,  and  never 
quite  recovered  from  her  grief.  As  she  grew 
old  she  missed  the  homage  of  her  people.  The 
expenses  of  the  Irish  war  forced  her  to  apply 
to  Parliament  for  money,  and  Parliament 
attacked  the  royal  grants  of  monopolies. 
Elizabeth  gave  way  with  good  grace,  and  her 
last  years  saw  the  defeat  of  Tyrone's  forces 
by  Lord  Monntjoy,  in  1602.  Elizabeth  had  a 
growing  feeling  of  want  of  sympathy  between 
herself  and  the  new  generation  which  she  had 
fostered.  Her  last  days  were  unhappy,  and 
she  died  in  March  23,  1603,  after  in<Ucating 
the  King  of  Scotland  us  her  successor. 

Elizabeth  lived  in  perilous  times,  and  the 
fortunes  of  England  were  curioudy  inter- 
woven with  her  personal  security.  She  found 
England  discouraged,  disunited,  and  poor; 
she  left  it  with  a  strong  national  spirit,  pros- 
perous, and  resolute.  Her  policy  was  shifty, 
out  her  means  were  scanty.  She  knew  how 
to  choose  wise  advisers,  but  she  never  en- 
tirely trusted  them.  She  knew  how  to 
play  upon  human  weakness,  and  she  was 
better  served  at  smaller  cost  than  any  other 
aoverei^i.  England,  in  her  reign,  made 
great  advances  in  every  way,  and  then  first 
assumed  the  chief  characteristics  which  still 
distinguish  it.  Though  many  of  Elizabeth's 
doings  were  unworthy,  she  never  forgot  the 
interests  of  her  people,  and  she  never  lost 
their  affection.  It  is  her  greatest  praise  that 
her  objects  were  those  of  her  people,  and  that 
England  prospered  under  her  riUe. 

Camden,  Hut.  of  Blitnheth;  Naunton,  Fray* 
menta  Rtgalia;  Sir  John  Harrington,  Nug9 
Antiqua;  Calendar  of  8taU  Papen;  Stxype, 
Life  of  Parker ;  Fronde,  HUt.  qf  Bug.  ;  Halum, 
Con$L  Hi$t.j  Oreen,  Hist,  of  tht  BnglUh  PwpU; 
l^iesener,  ha  JeuiMCM  d'ElixaJMh  d'AngUt»rt9, 
trans,  by  Mist  Yonge ;  Aikin, ,  Court  of  Qu«en 
:BliMah€th.  [At  C.] 

Elisabeth  Woodville,  Quekx,  wife  of 

Edward  IV.  (6.  eirea  1431,  d.  1492),  was  the 
daughter  of  Sir  Richard  Woodville  (afterwards 
Earl  Rivers)  by  Jacquetta  of  Luxemburg, 
widow  of  John,  Duke  of  Bedford.  She  marri^ 
first,  about  1452,  Sir  John  Grey,  son  and  heir 
of  Lord  Ferrers  of  Groby.  He  died  in  1461, 
leaving  her  with  two  sons,  Thomas,  after- 
wards Marquis  of  Dorset,  and  Richard.  The 
Woodvilles  and  the  Greys  were  alike  strong 
partisans  of  the  Lancastrian  cause,  and  on 
the  accession  of  Edward  IV.  the  widow  of 
Sir  John  Grey  was  deprived  of  her  inheritance, 
and  obliged  to  remain  at  her  father's  house  at 
Grafton  in  Northamptonshire.  Here  she 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Edward  IV.,  who 


privately  married  her  in  1464.  During  the 
period  of  Lancastrian  supremacy,  on  the  flight 
of  Edward  IV.  and  the  restoration  of  Henry 
VL,  Elizabeth  took  refuge  in  sanctuary, 
and  here  her  son  Edward  was  bom.  On  the 
death  of  her  husband  she  had  once  more'to 
take  sanctuary,  being  alarmed  by  the  measures 
adopted  by  Richard  against  her  family.  She 
remained  in  sanctuary  with  her  daughters  till 
after  the  failure  of  Buckingham's  insurrection 
(in  which  she  was  implicated),  when, in  1484, 
she  was  induced  to  leave  her  retreat,  and 
went,  with  her  remaining  children,  to  Richard. 
There  can  bo  little  doubt  that  she  connived  at 
Richard's  scheme  for  marrying  her  eldest 
daughter  Elizabeth,  and  that  she  had  lost  all 
hopes  in  Richmond;  but  this  plan  Richard 
was  obliged  to  give  up,  and  after  the  battle 
of  Bosworth  Elizabeth  gladly  wedded  her 
daughter  to  the  victor  Henry.  For  the  re- 
maining years  of  her  life  she  lived  in  peace, 
though  apparently  on  no  very  good  terms 
with  her  son-in-law. 

Elisabeth  of  Tork^  Queen,  wife  of 
Henr^'VIL  (b.  1465,  </.  1503),  was  the  daughter 
of  Edward  lY.  and  Elizabeth  >VoodviUe.  After 
being  almost  betrothed  to  Richard  III.  she  was 
married  to  Henr>''  VI L,  somewhat  against 
her  will,  it  would  appear.  She  took  little 
part  in  public  affairs,  and  appears  to  have  been 
treated  with  some  coldness  by  her  husband. 

EUa  (^lle)  {d.  517  P)  was  the  founder 
of  the  kmgdom  of  Sussex.  He  is  said  to 
have  come  (in  477)  with  his  three  son% 
Cymen,  Whencing,  and  Cissaito  Cymenesora, 
which  is  identified  by  Lappenberg  with 
Keynor  in  Solsea.  He  fought  a  great  battle 
with  the  Britons,  the  issue  of  which  was 
doubtful.  Having  obtained  reinforcements, 
Ella  captured  tho  g^reat  fortress  of  Anderida 
(q.v.),  and  entirely  destroyed  the  British 
power  in  Sussex.  He  is  reckoned  by  Bede  aa 
the  first  Bretwalda,  but  this  is  extremely 
doubtful  if  we  consider  the  narrow  compass 
of  the  Germanic  possessions  in  Britain  at  that 
time,  and  the  fact  that  there  is  no  mention 
of  a  second  Bretwalda  for  nearly  a  century. 
It  is  curious  that  we  have  no  genealogy  of 
Ella  as  we  havo  of  all  tho  other  founders 
of  the  English  kingdoms  in  Britain.  Ella 
is  said  to  have  reigned  forty  years,  and  to 
have  been  succeeded  by  his  son  Cissa.  [Brbt- 

WALJ)A.] 

Bede,  Hid.  EcdenoMt.   Anglw.i  Anglo-Staon 
Chronide, 

EUaadiine,  The  Battle  of  (823),  was 
fought  between  the  Mercians,  under  Beom- 
wulf,  and  the  West  Saxons,  under  Egbert, 
and  resulted  in  a  total  rout  of  the  former.  It 
has  been  identified  with  Allington,  near  Ames- 
bury,  in  Wiltshire. 

Ebnet  was  the  name  of  a  little  British 
kingdom  situated  between  Leeds  and  York, 
which  retained  ito  independence  till  it  was 


(  430) 


find 


conquered  by  Edwin,  and  annexed  to  Nor- 
thumbria  about  625. 

^1ififi1ia.wt,  Thomas  of  (d.  cirea  1426),  was 
a  monk  of  St  Augustine's,  Canterbury,  and 
afterwards  Prior  of  Leyton,  in  Nottingham- 
shire. He  wrote  a  Life  of  Senry  V,,  and  a 
Mistory  of  the  Motuutety  of  St.  Auguetine*8 
from  696  to  1191.  Both  these  works  have 
been  printed  in  the  Rolls  Series. 

Elpliixurfeoney  Mountstua&t  {b,  1779, 
d,  18o9),  was  sent  to  India  as  a  writer  in  1795. 
In  1801  he  was  appointed  assistant  to  the 
Resident  at  Poonah.  He  was  present  at 
Assy^e.  After  the  war  he  became  British 
Resident  at  Kagpore.  In  1807  he  was  sent  on 
a  mission  to  Cabul.  In  1810,  on  his  return, 
he  was  appointed  Resident  at  Poonah.  He 
fought  the  battle  of  Kirkee  in  1817,  when 
Bajee  Rao  attacked  the  British  Residency. 
In  1818  he  was  appointed  Commissioner  of 
the  Poonah  territory ;  and  he  became  Gover- 
nor of  Bombay  in  1819.  In  1827  he  returned 
to  England.  In  1834  he  was  offered  the 
Govemor-Greneralship,  but  refused.  The  rest 
of  his  life  was  uneyentf ul,  and  he  died  peace- 
fully in  his  eightieth  year. 

Kaye,  Indian  QfUcen ;  Elphinstona's  Uwmoin 
(18S4). 

Ely,  The  Isle  of,  was  originally  an  oasis 
in  the  midst  of  the  marshes  of  Cambridgeshire 
and  the  fen  land.  It  owes  its  chief  £ime  to 
the  g^reat  abbey  which  was  founded  there  by 
at.  Etheldreda  in  673.  In  970  it  was  re- 
founded  by  Ethelwold,  Bishop  of  Winchester, 
and  settled  with  Benedictines,  having  been, 
a  hundred  years  previously,  destroyed  by 
the  Danes.  It  was  here  that  Herewaid 
formed  his  Court  of  Refuge,  which  in  1071 
was  taken  by  William  the  Conqueror.  In 
1108  Ely  was  made  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  by 
Henry  I.  After  the  battle  of  Evesham  and 
the  surrender  of  Kenilworth,  some  of  the 
barons  escaped  to  Ely*  but  their  stronghold 
was  taken  by  Prince  Edward  in  1267. 

fimaaoipationy  Catholic.  [Catholic 
Emancipation.] 

Emancipation,  Neoro.  [Slave Trade.] 

Emi^rationy  in  its  restricted  sense,  is  used 
for  the  departureof  persons  from  a  country  with 
a  highly  organised  society  and  thick  popula- 
tion  to  settle  in  one  with  abundance  of  un- 
cultivated soil.  The  word  is  opposed,  never- 
theless, to  colonisation,  which  implies  rather 
the  first  settlement  in  a  new  land,  whereas 
emigration  signifies  that  the  country  of  which 
it  is  the  object  has  already  made  some  advance 
in  civilisation.  Hence  emigration  in  its 
proper  sense  cannot  be  said  to  have  system- 
atically begun  in  England  previous  to  1815, 
on  the  termination  of  the  great  war  with 
the  French*  Empire.  In  that  year  the  num- 
ber of  emigrants  was  only  2,081;  in  the 


following  year  it  had  increased  to  12,510,  and 
it  was  34,987  in  1819.    The  average  annuid 
number  of  those  who  emigrated  in  the  ten 
years  from  1825  to  1834  was  60,304 ;    from 
1835  to  1844  it  was  75,923,  thus  showing  a 
steady  rise,  though  there  was  a  drop  during 
the  nrst  half  of  the  latter  decade.    During 
the  five  years  ending  1853  the  average  rosi> 
as  high  as  323,002,  an  exceptional  rate,  pro- 
bably due  to  such  extraordinary  causes  as  the 
Irish  famine,  the  gold  discoveries  in  Australia 
and  California,  and  the  development  of  the 
resources  of  America  through  the  adoption  of 
free  trade  in  England.    The  average  sank  to 
nearly  a  half  during  the  Crimean  War,  and  in 
1860,  when  the  struggle  between  the  Northern 
and  Southern  States  was  raging,  the   total 
was  only  91,770.    In  1870  it  was  256,940 ;  in 
1879  it  was  217.16a.  and  332,294  in  1880,  the 
increase  being  chiefly  of  Irish  emigrants.    In 
1893  the  number  was  209,1 17.   The  countries 
^o  which  our  emigration  is  chiefly  directed 
are    British    North    America,    the     United 
States,  and  Australia.    The  first  of  these  was 
in  favour  until   1835,  after  which  the  out- 
break of  the  Canadian  rebellion,  the   pre- 
ference of  the  enormously  increasing  number 
of  Irish  emigrants  for  American  institutions, 
together  with  other  and  more  general  causes, 
turned  the  scale ;  nor  is  it  to  be  anticipated 
that  the  recent  development  of  agriculture  in 
Manitoba  will  be  able  to  equalise  numbers 
which  in  1892  were  respectively  150,339  and 
23,254.  It  should  be  observed  that  the  Scotch 
emigrate  less  readily  than  the  other  inhabitants 
of  the  British  Isles ;  the  numbers  in  1892  were 
133,815   English,   52,902   Irish,  and   23,325 
Scotch.  Many  thousands  of  foreigners,  mostly 
Germans,  also  sail  every  year  from  British 
ports.  The  fact  that  emigration  was  pioneered 
by  themovements  of  whole  communities  driven 
forth  by  religious  persecution,  and  bound  for 
unknown  and  uncivilised  lands,  is  the  main 
cause  of  the  tendency  of  earlier  emigration 
to  base  itself  on  organised  schemes.     Thus 
Wakefield's  scheme  of  combined  emigration 
had  its  prototypes  in  the  Pilgrim  Fathers, 
and  afterwards  in  the  ill-fated  Darien  expedi- 
tion.   Now,  however,  the  settled  condition  of 
the  United  States  and  of  our  colonies  renders 
such  precautions  unnecessary,  except,  as  in  the 
case  of  ]^Ir.  Tukc*s  recent  plan,  wnen  dealing 
with  a  pauperised  and  helpless  class  like  the 
Western  Irish.    All  that  need  be  done  is  to 
provide  for  the  safe  and  cheap  transit  and 
reception  of  individuals.     This  first  ren>on- 
sibihty  was  placed  in  1831  in  the  hands  of 
the  Emigration   CommieaioHy    part   of    whose 
duties  was  to  distribute  useful  information, 
which  is  now  done  by  the  Emigrants*  Informa- 
tion OflSce.  It  was  regulated  by  law  in  various 
Pasungere    Acts  providing  for  the  comfort 
and  protection  of  emigrants,  the  first  of  which 
was  passed  in  1835,  and  those  now  in  force  in 
1855  and  1863.     The  welfare  of  settlers  is 
watched  over  in  the  colonies  by  goveininent 


Sup 


(431) 


Bmp 


inmiigration  agents,  who  are  bound  to  tupply 
all  information  free  of  cost,  and  this  system 
is  carried  to  great  perfection  in  the  States. 
It  is  unnecessary  to  discuss  the  economical 
aspects  of  State  emigration.  It  has  been 
frequently  adopted  as  a  relief  for  pauperism, 
notably  by  the  Poor  Law  Amendment  Act  of 
1834,  and  the  Irieh  Land  Aet  of  1880.  On 
the  other  side,  the  colonies  have  offered 
unusual  and  artificial  advantages  in  order  to 
secure  manual  labour :  thus,  New  South  Wales 
about  1830  started  a  bounty  system,  by  which 
contractors  who  introduced  immigrants  re- 
cexved  so  much  per  head;  and  part  of  the 
proceeds  of  the  crown  lands  in  the  colonies, 
especially  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand,  was 
applied  by  the  Land  and  Emigration  Board 
(a  department  of  the  Colonial  Office,  estab- 
lished in  1S49)  to  the  introduction  of  labourers. 
The  upset  price  of  land  is  also  placed  as  low 
as  possible.  There  is  another  and  darker  side 
of  the  emigration  question,  namely,  the  intro- 
duction into  our  ooloniee  of  inlerior  races, 
such  as  the  Chinese  and  Hindoos,  which  will 
have  to  be  faced  in  the  immediate  future. 

WaksAeld,  AH  of  CoIontMiion;  Sir  O.  C. 
Lewis,  Qotwmmeid  of  Dnen^encim;  Qoldwin 
Smith,  The  JSmpire;  Kniffht,  Poltiioal  Cyclo- 
podio.  Sound  statistical  and  grmem  informa- 
tion  can  be  obtained  from  the  2i(at«mam'«  Jtar 
Book  and  the  dfUmiaX  Qfiee  Liet.     [L.  C.  S.] 

fimpiro,  Rblations  with  the.  Cut  off 
from  the  Roman  Empire  by  the  English  Con- 
quest, Britain  began  again  to  have  dealings 
with  the  *'  world  state,"  when  Christianity  and 
political  consolidation  had  renewed  civilisa- 
tion and  intercourse  with  the  world.  The 
Mercian  overlords  of  the  eighth  century  cor- 
responded on  equal  terms  with  the  great 
house  that  was  soon  to  restore  the  glory  of 
the  Cffisars.  Charles  the  Qreat*8  jealousy  of 
Offa  led  to  his  support  of  the  exiled  Egbert 
of  Weasez,  whose  accession  to  the  West 
Saxon  throne  must  have  strengthened  the 
relations  of  the  two  powers,  and  who  may 
have  found  in  the  Carlovingian  Empire  a 
model  for  imitation.  The  presence  of  learned 
men  like  Alcuin  in  Charles's  court  had  a 
similar  tendency.  The  correspondence  of 
Ethelwulf  with  Louis  the  Pious,  whose  grand- 
daughter he  afterwards  married,  kept  up  the 
connection.  Athelstan's  sister's  marriage  to 
Charles  the  Simple,  and  his  support  of  Louis 
*'  Ultramarinxui,*'  continued  the  dealings  with 
the  Carlovingian  hotise,  even  when  empire 
had  almost  stepped  ixom  it.  English  deahngs 
with  the  Saxon  Emperors  were  still  more 
intimate.  Henry  the  Fowler  married  his  son 
Otto  to  Athelstan's  sister,  and  Giesebracht 
points  out  the  similarity  of  Henry's  power  in 
G^ermany  and  that  of  the  West  Saxon  over- 
lords inlEngland,  and  even  suggests  conscious 
imitation.  With  the  acquisition  of  the  Im- 
perial dignity.  Otto  aspired  to  a  far  higher 
power  than  Ms  father.  But  if  Henry  copied 
▲thelstan,  the  second  coronation  of  Edgar  at 


Bath  as  ^  Emperor  of  Britain**  suggests  that 
that  monarch  aspired  to  rival  Otto's  crowningr 
by  John  XII.  The  assumption  of  Imperiiu 
titles  by  the  great  early  English  kings  shows 
that  they  aimed  at  least  at  absolute  equality 
in  dignity  with  the  Emperors.  It  is  remark- 
able that  under  such  circumstances  good 
relations  were  maintained.  The  innumerable 
coincidences  of  law  and  usage  between  Eng- 
land and  the  Empire,  though  in  the  mam 
instances  of  parallel  development  rather  than 
of  influence,  may  in  some  cases  illustrate  the 
effects  of  this  constant  intercourse.  The 
Norman  Conquest  allied  England  with  the 
Papacy,  but  the  continuity  of  the  national 
tradition  soon  tended  to  re-unite  English 
king  and  Roman  Emperor  in  a  common  hos- 
tility to  the  Hildebrandine  Papacy.  William 
I.  and  Henry  I.'s  contest  with  Anselm  is  tiie 
English  reflection  of  the  Investiture  Contest. 
But  the  superior  prudence  of  the  English 
monarehs  avoided  that  direct  breach  with  the 
Church  which  was,  perhaps,  inevitable  in 
Grermany.  Even  marriage  alliances,  such  as 
that  between  Matilda  and  Henry  V.,  did  not 
result  in  joining  England  with  tiie  Empire  in 
its  extreme  measures,  but  rather  led  to  the 
Concordat  of  Worms,  which  the  agreement 
between  Henry  and  Ansekn  had  anticipated. 
With  Henry  II.  begins  another  period  of 
still  closer  relations.  Henceforth  the  Imperial 
alliance  becomes  one  of  the  permanent  tradi- 
tions of  our  mediaeval  foreign  policy.  Henry 
mkrried  his  daughter  to  Hemy  the  lion,  and 
instituted  close  friendship  with  the  Guelflo 
house  without  impdring  his  friendly  relations 
with  the  rival  Hohenstaufen  on  the  Imperial 
throne.  In  fact,  Frederick  Barbarossa's  con- 
test with  Alexander  III.  necessarily  produced 
close  relations  with  Henry,  engaged  in  his 
struggle  with  Becket.  Only  the  prudence  of 
his  aimsers  prevented  Heniy  being  bound  by 
his  ambassadors  to  support  Airbarossa's  schis- 
matic Pope.  The  Third  Crusade  was  entered 
into  by  fVederick  as  by  Richard  I.,  although 
the  English  monarch  had  given  a  home  to  his 
nephew  Otto  after  the  fall  of  Henry  the  Lion 
had  driven  him  from  Germany.  Hence  the 
jealousy  of  the  Emperor  Henry  Vl.,  Richard's 
captivity  on  his  return,  and  humiliating  sur- 
render of  the  Imperial  crown  of  Britain  to  the 
German  Emperor.  Henceforth,  hostility  to 
the  Hohenstaufen  Emperors  became  the  gi^eat 
principle  of  Richard^s  and  John's  foreign 
policy.  But  the  battie  of  Bouvines  put  an 
end  to  the  hopes  of  the  Guelfic  line,  and 
the  house  opposed  to  England  became  undis- 
puted Emperors.  Gradually  the  strong  bonds 
of  connection  were  renewed,  and  the  sister  of 
Henry  III.  became  the  bride  of  Frederick  II. 
All  ^gland  watched  with  keen  interest  that 
Emperor's  struggle  with  the  Papacy,  though 
Henry  himself  was  too  much  bound  by  his 
papal  connection  and  personal  religious 
scruples  to  give  him  any  help.  But  solong 
as  his  nephew  remained  alive  as  Frederick's 


(432) 


heir,  Henry  refused  to  join  in  the  papal 
crtLEode  against  the  Hohenstaufen.  His 
acceptance  of  the  Sicilian  throne  for  £dmund 
of  Lancaster  was  only  ivhen  his  aister^s  son 
was  dead.  But  the  great  connection  between 
England  and  the  Empire  in  this  reign  is  the 
election  of  Richard  of  Cornwall,  Henry's 
brother,  as  King  of  the  Romans.  Though 
never  master  of  Germany,  Richard  was  yet 
the  most  powerful  of  the  claimants  during 
the  Great  Inteiregnum.  His  influence  led 
directly  to  the  dose  commercial  dealings 
between  England  and  the  Hansa.  He  ob- 
tained for  his  brother  great  privileges  for  the 
Steelyard,  and  imported  Harz  miners  to  work 
the  tin  mines  of  his  Cornish  earldom.  But 
with  the  fall  of  the  Hohenstaufen  the  glory 
of  the  Empire  had  departed;  though  in  its 
weakness,  as  in  its  strength,  it  adhered  to  its 
English  connection.  Rudolf  of  Hapsburg 
had  a  scheme  for  renewing  the  middle  king- 
dom in  conjunction  with  Edward  I.  Adolf  of 
Nassau  served  as  a  hireling  in  the  army  of 
that  same  monarch ;  Louis  of  Bavaria  was 
closely  allied  with  Edward  III.  They  married 
sisters,  and  had  in  the  French  king  and  the 
Avignon  Popes  common  objects  of  hostility. 
At  Coblenz,  in  1338,  Louis  made  Edward 
Imperial  Vicar.  But  the  quarrel  for  the 
Hainault  succession  broke  up  a  friendship 
which  Louis*  weakness  made  improfitable  to 
England.  Even  then  he  found  in  the  Eng- 
lishman, William  of  Ockham,  a  warm  defender 
of  his  theoretical  claims.  The  Luxemburg 
house  now  acquired  the  Empire,  and  their 
alliance  with  France  brought  a  new  coolness 
between  England  and  the  Empire,  that  was 
not  fully  ended  till  Richard  II.  married 
Wenzel's  sister,  Anne  of  Bohemia.  [Bohemia, 
Relations  with.]  The  friendship  of  Sigis- 
mund  and  Henry  v.,  their  common  religious 
and  European  policy,  was  a  fitting  crown 
to  the  mtniisdval  dealings  of  England  and 
the  Empire;  for  after  Sigismund's  last 
assertion  of  the  international  power  of  the 
Empire  at  Constance,  that  splendid  theory 
ceased  to  have  any  practical  working.  Eng- 
land continued  the  friend  of  the  nomiiml 
Emperors,  but  it  is  with  the  rulers  of  here- 
ditary dominions,  not  with  the  nominal  Em- 
perors, that  these  dealings  really  occurred. 
[BuRouNDY,  Relations  with.]  Charles  V., 
who  for  a  time  aspired  to  a  renewal  of  the  Im- 
perial power,  inherited  not  only  the  Imperial, 
but  the  Burgundian  and  Spanish  alliances  of 
England,  and  was  thus  united  to  her  by  a 
triple  bond.  Even  this  was  sundered  by  the 
Reformation,  though  the  old  Imperial  alliance 
may  be  regarded  as  renewed  in  the  dealings  of 
England  with  the  German  Protestants.  Witii 
the  rise  of  Louis  XIV.'s  ascendency,  the 
Anglo-Imperial  alliance  is  renewed,  and  con- 
tinued with  few  breaks  till  the  end  of  the  Em- 
pire in  1806.    [Austria,  Relations  with.] 

Pauli,  Engli$che  Ouohiehte.  brings  cmt  verj 
clearly  the  general  deBlings  of  Bi^laiid  and  the 


Empire  in  mediiBTal  times;  Oieeebrafiht's  DU 
Devitehg  Kaiteneii  and  Von  Banmer's  OmeihiekU 
d0r  Hohnutauftn  maj  be  referred  to  for  more 
detailed  information.  rT   F   T  1 


Eupson,  SuL  Richard  {d.  1510),  was  the 

son  Of  a  tradesman  at  Towoeeter.  He 
devoted  himself  to  the  law,  and  came  under 
the  notice  of  Henry  VII.,  who  employed  him 
in  public  duties,  and  especially  in  financial 
affairs.  Together  with  Dudley,  Empson  was 
the  chief  agent  of  the  illegal  or  quasi-legal 
extortion  of  Henry's  reign.  He  incurred 
great  unpopularity  in  consequence,  and  was 
executed  with  Dudley  at  the  beginning  of  the 
next  reign-    [Dudley.] 

EndOBlires.    [Comxok  Lands.] 

Engagement,  The,  1647,  was  a  name 
given  to  a  compact  made  at  Newport,  in 
the  Isle  of  Wight,  with  the  Scotch  Commis- 
sioners, by  whidi  Charles  I.  engaged  to  sup- 
port the  Covenant  and  the  Presbyterian 
party;  the  Covenanters,  on  the  other  hand, 
promising  to  assist  him  against  the  Parlia- 
ment.   [Charles  L] 

Englefleld,  The  Battle  of  (871),  fought 
between  the  English,  under  the  ealdorman 
Ethelwulf,  and  the  Danes,  resulted  in  the 
victory  of  the  former — Sidroc,  one  of  the 
Danish  jarls,  being  slain.  Englefield  is  a 
village  in  Berkshire,  about  six  miles  west  of 
Reading. 

Engluk  Conquest  of  Britain,  Thb. 

A  close  connection  is  disoemible  between 
the  differing  forms  of  Roman  power  in  the 
island  and  the  history  of  this  great  movement. 
From  the  cessation  of  that  power  in  its  tem- 
poral form  sprang  the  conditions  that  gave  it 
birth ;  with  the  introduction  of  the  spiritual 
form  it  entered  upon  a  new  stage,  whose  be- 
ginning may  be  taken  as  marking  not  merely 
its  complete  success,  but  its  virtual  ending. 
As  an  historical  landscape,  therefore,  it  may 
be  said  to  lie  between  the  year  410,  the  date 
of  the  departure  of  the  Roman  officials,  and 
596,  th&t  of  the  arrival  of  St  Augustine. 
But  these  dates  enclose  the  darkest  period 
of  British  history ;  next  to  nothing  that  is 
trustworthy  has  been  recorded  of  the  details 
of  the  Conquest;  and  notwithstanding  the 
huge  contributions  that  genius  and  scholar- 
ship have  made  to  the  subject  of  late  years, 
the  fraction  of  solid,  or  even  probable,  fact 
remains  as  meagre  as  ever.  And  our  best 
authorities  differ  as  widely  as  men  can  diffsr 
regarding  the  value  and  interpretation  of  the 
fra^entary  and  confused  accounts  that 
tradition  preserved  among  the  conquerors; 
between  qualified  acceptance  and  almost  un- 
qualified rejection  our  most  masterly  historical 
intellects  are  divided.  Anything  like  an  exact 
account  is  impossible. 

When  the  authorities  of  the  Empire  parted 
with  the  trust  of  defending  Britain  they  left 
to  the  inhabitants  their  exoellent  militaxy 


(433) 


organisation,  which  had  hitherto  held  in 
check  or  repelled  the  Tarious  assailants  of  the 
province.  At  first  the  Bomanised  Britons 
showed  some  capacity  for  working  it  from 
their  own  resources;  armies  of  their  own 
raising,  led  by  chiefs  of  their  own  blood,  seem 
to  have  stepped  into  the  vacant  positions,  and 
xnaintained  the  system  of  defences  that  Rome 
had  created  in  comparative  efficiency.  Of 
these,  the  most  valuable  was  the  line  of  for- 
tresses that  kept  guard  upon  the  Saxon 
shore,  along  which  the  most  persevering,  re- 
lentless, and  formidable  enemies  of  Britain, 
the  Saxons,  had  been  prowling  in  their 
"  keels  '*  for  generations,  plundering  and 
ravaging  the  neighbouring  lands,  and  possibly 
forming  scattered  settlements  upon  them. 
The  liberated  Britons  naturally  continued 
upon  this  harassed  frontier  the  vigilance  their 
Roman  masters  had  before  observed ;  and 
the  office  of  Count  of  the  Saxon  Shore, 
hitherto  perhaps  the  most  responsible  in  the 
country,  is  thought  to  have  been  retained, 
and  to  have  been  first  filled  under  the  altered 
circumstances  by  one  Ambrosius,  or  Emr}'8, 
whose  faithful  discharge  of  his  trust  appears 
to  have  won  him  the  lavish  admiration  of  his 
countrymen.  It  would  seem  that  under  his 
guidance  the  Britons  gave  some  promise  of 
ability  to  maintain  their  position. 

Soon,  however,  the  prospect  darkened.  The 
awful  crisis  in  the  history  of  the  island 
which  Roman  valour  and  skill  had  so  long 
kept  back  again  approached,  and  the  neces- 
sary warlike  vigour  and  civil  virtue  for 
coping  with  it  were  no  longer  forthcoming. 
Aner  a  brief  quiescence,  the  old  inveterate 
foeB  of  Romanised  Britain  swarmed  again  to 
the  attack;  the  Picts  from  the  North,  the 
Scots  from  Ireland,  descended  on  her 
towns  and  fields,  and  spread  slaughter  and 
ruin  wherever  they  went.  Above  all,  the 
German  "Nook"  sent  forth  in  new  abundance 
its  untiring  bands  of  hardy  and  merciless  ad- 
venturers— called  Saxons,  Angles,  and  Jutes, 
but  soon  to  bear  the  common  name  of  English 
— who  sailed  up  and  down  the  eastern  coast, 
and  landing  at  unguarded  places,  pillaged  and 
plundered  almost  unchecked.  Then  the 
loose- jointed  political  and  military  orgaipsa- 
tion  of  the  Britons  fell  to  pieces ;  dvil  discord 
paralysed  the  state;  the  struggles  of  rival 
princes — tyrants,  as  they  were  called — the 
rage  of  factions,  wasted  the  strength  of  the 
people;  famine  and  pestilence  thinned  their 
ranks;  and  the  little  hardihood  that  Roman 
rule  had  left  in  the  native  character  thus 
missed  its  small  measure  of  effect.  The  fit- 
ful efforts  of  isolated  chieftains  to  stem  the 
torrent  of  calamity  having  proved  unavailing, 
it  would  seem  that  the  southern  Britons  were 
tempted  to  try  the  course  of  making  allies  of 
one  class  of  their  assailants  against  the  other, 
and  applied  to  the  Saxons  for  help.  The  Saxons 
came  to  their  help,  nothing  loth,  and  so  got 
within  the  defences  of    the    Saxon  Shore, 


secured  their  footing  in  the  land,  and  after 
driving  back  the  Picts  and  Scots,  quickly 
found  a  pretext  for  turning  their  arms  against 
theij  hosts,  and  wrested  from  them  a  con- 
siderable share  of  the  soil  they  had  come  to 
defend. 

Whether  such  was  the  actual  form  of  the 
event  or  not,  we  may  accept  as  an  historical  fact 
that  in  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  (450, 
449,  or  earlier),  an  alien  race  of  German 
origin  seized  upon  a  part  x)f  south-eastern 
Britain  with  the  fixed  purpose  of  keeping  it, 
and  thus  set  an  example  which,  cheeriuUy 
and  promptly  followed  bv  their  kinsfolk,  led 
to  the  complete  transfer  irom  a  substantially 
Celtic  to  a  substantially  Teutonic  population 
of  the  greater  part  of  the  country  that  is  now 
called  England.  Later  records  give  us  a  few 
names  of  men  and  scraps  of  incidents  belong- 
ing to  this  momentous  process,  which  can 
hardly  be  altogether  fictitious.  According  to 
these,  Kent,  the  first-fruits  of  German  cun- 
ning and  daring,  was  conquered  and  occupied 
by  Jutish  warriors  between  449  and  473 ; 
Sussex  by  Saxon  between  477  and  491; 
Wessex  by  Saxqn  and  Jutish  between  495  and 
519 ;  and  in  part  simultaneously  with  these, 
in  part  after  them,  and  till  about  550,  the 
other  communities  and  states  of  the  same 
origin — Middlesex,  Essex,  East  Anglia,  the 
miscellany  of  settlements  that  ultimately 
coalesced  into  Mercia,  and  Deira,  and  Bemi- 
cia — were  founded,  some  by  Saxons,  some  by 
Angles,  and  some  by  both.  But  shadowy  as 
is  our  knowledge  of  the  foundation  of  the 
southern  settlements,  of  the  foundation  of  the 
northern  settlements  we  know  nothing.  The 
first  sight  that  we  get  of  these  is  after  they 
have  become  fuUy  established  and  powerful 
organisations.  Within  a  century  after  their 
first  landing  in  force  the  terrible  strangers  had 
got  into  their  exclusive  possession  the  eastern 
half  of  the  island  south  of  the  Forth. 

The  whole  of  this  land  was  won  by  the 
edge  of  the  sword.  Throughout,  the  work  of 
conquest  was  in  substance  a  mere  killing  and 
taking  possession;  fields  of  slaughter,  sackings 
of  cities,  massacre  and  depopulation,  spoiling 
and  burning  of  homesteads,  leading  into  cap- 
tivity, every  conceivable  shame  and  horror 
that  can  befall  a  race  make  the  history'  of 
eastern  Britain  during  this  time;  the  indis- 
tinct lamentations  of  the  vanquished,  the 
more  definite  traditions  of  the  victors,  concur  in 
proving  this.  From  the  British  side  Gildas 
exclaims,  "  Some  were  caught  in  the  hills  and 
slaughtered,  others  were  worn  out  with 
hunger,  and  yielded  to  a  life-long  slaver}-. 
Some  passed  across  the  sea ....  others  trusted 
their  lives  to  the  clefts  of  the  mountains,  to 
the  forests,  and  rocks  of  the  sea.**  From  the 
English  side  we  learn  such  facts  as  that,  in 
473,  "the  Welsh  fied  the  English  as  fire;" 
that  in  491  the  South  Saxons  "  slew  all  that 
dwelt  within  '*  Anderida,  "  nor  was  as  much 
as  one  Briton  left  alive ;  **  that  in  508  Cerdio 


(434) 


and  Cynric  "slew  a  British  king  and  five 
thousand  men  with  him."  And  tho  name 
"Flame-bearer/'  given  in  Welsh  literature 
to  a  Bemician  king  (Ida  or  Theodric),  is  fear- 
fully expressive. 

Not  that  the  career  of  the  conquerors  was 
one  of  unbroken  success.  Kow  and  then  the 
frenzied  resistance  of  the  Britons  checked, 
perhaps  even  beat  back,  the  advance  of  the 
English ;  one  illustrious  British  hero,  Arthur, 
by  a  Ufe  of  valiant  deeds,  laid  the  foundation 
01  a  fame  now  almost  entirely  poetical,  and  one 
splendid  victory  postponed  liie  fatal  day  for 
the  Britons  of  the  west.  In  whatever  part 
of  the  island  he  fought,  the  fact  of  his 
fighting  nobly  against  the  invaders  is  now 
generally  admitted  [Arthur]  ;  and  the  battle 
of  Mont  Badoniem  (416  or  420),  whatever  its 
site,  whether  gained  by  Arthur  or  another, 
was  undoubte(Uy  a  defeat  for  the  English,  and 
secured  the  Welsh  a  breathing-8i>ace  of  some 
length.  But  neither  devoted  courage  nor 
flashes  of  success  could  save  British  civilisa- 
tion from  the  ruin  that  was  coming  upon  it 
like  a  fate ;  the  onward  march  of  the  ruthless 
German  swordsmen  was  arrested,  only  to 
begin  anew  aft^r  a  time  with  undiminished 
ferocity. 

This  fresh  advance,  which  began  about  660, 
and  carried  the  West  Saxon  arms  to  the 
Severn,  and  almost  to  the  Dee,  has  this  special 
interest:  that  the  persons  and  events  that 
belong  to  it  are  unmistakably  historical. 
Whatever  misgivings  we  may  have  about 
Hengist,  Cissa,  and  Cerdic,  we  cannot'  but 
feel  confident  that  CeawUn  and  Cuthwine 
really  lived,  and  that  the  victory  of  the  former 
at  Deorham  (577) f  and  of  the  latter  at  Bed- 
ford (571),  were  real  achievements.  Un- 
doubtedly, too,  the  area  of  permanent  English 
occupation  was  much  extended  by  the  aggres- 
sions of  these  princes ;  it  had  certainly  now 
reached  the  Bristol  Channel. 

The  manner  of  the  conquest  is  well  expressed 
by  Bishop  Stubbs: — "The  conquest  of 
Britain  was  the  result  of  a  series  of  separate 
expeditions,  long  continued,  and  perhaps,  in 
point  of  time,  continuous,  but  unconnected, 
and  independent  of  one  another.  It  was 
conducted  by  single  chieftains,  who  had 
nothing  in  common  with  the  nation  they 
attacked,  and  who  were  about  neither  to 
amalgamate  with  them  nor  to  tolerate  their 
continued  existence."  This  last  statement  is 
not  undisputed.  While  one  school  of  his- 
torians has  no  doubt  of  the  utter  effacement 
not  merely  of  the  British  nation,  but  even  of 
the  British  population  throughout  the  con- 
quered districts,  another  maintains  that  a  not 
inconsiderable  portion  of  the  conquered  must 
have  been  spai^d  and  that  their  descendants 
ultimately  mixed  with  the  descendants  of  the 
conquerors ;  that,  in  fact,  modem  England  is 
not  an  exclusively  Teutonic,  but  lu'gely  a 
Celtic,  nationality.  The  truth,  perhaps,  is 
that  the  practice  of  the  conquerors  varied: 


while  extermination  was  the  rule  in  their 
earlier  conquests,  they  allowed  many  excep- 
tions to  it  as  the  tide  of  war  went  west.  But 
of  the  substantial  effacement  of  British  civili- 
sation  there  can  scarcely  be  a  doubt ;  in  this 
respect  the  conquest  was  simply  a  destroying 
deluge  of  barbarism,  that  swept  away  almost 
every  trace  of  the  greatness  that  once  had 
been. 

Gildas,  Pe  IPacidto  firitonum;  Kennitu, 
Hutoria  Bntonum  ;  Ths  Anglo-Baxvn  Chronicle ; 
J.  B.  Ojeeu, nu  UakinQ  of  Enylaiuij  Elton, 
Oriyifu  o/  EngMA.  fltatory.  [J.  B.] 

Bngliflhryy    Presbntmemt   op,    was  a 

system  introduced  by  William  the  Conqueror, 

whereby  if  a  man  were  found  murd^^,  it 

was  assumed  that  he  was  a  Norman,  and  the 

hundred  fined  accordingly,  unless  it  was  proved 

otherwise.    It  fell  into  disuse  about  the  time 

of  Richard  I.,  the  two  races  havihg  mixed  to 

such  an  extent  that  it  was  impossible  to  say 

who  was  an   Englishman  and  who    was  a 

Norman.      It    was    not,    however,    finally 

abolished  till  1339. 

IHoIoyus  da  Seaeoaxio,  L,  cap.  10;  Stnbbs,  Sfltfot 
Chartwn,  p.  193. 

Eoclia  Burdhe,  or  <<Th6  Tellow- 
Haired,"  succeeded  his  father,  Aidan,  as  King* 
of  Dalriada,  606.  In  629,  the  year  of  his 
death,  he  fought  in  the  battle  of  Fedhacoin, 
in  Ireland,  on  the  side  of  the  Cruithough, 
against  his  own  son,  Conadh  Cerr,  in  whose 
favour  he  had  resigned  Dalriada  on  the  ac- 
quisition of  the  province  of  Galloway.  [Dal- 
riada.] 

Equity.    [Chancery.] 

BnurtiailSf  The,  were  so  called  because 
they  held  the  views  of  the  Swiss  theologian 
Erastus  (1524 — 83)  on  the  inability  of  the 
Church  to  exercise  discipline  by  censure, 
excommunicatioTi,  &c. ;  ito  province  being, 
according  to  their  theory,  confined  to  teach- 
ing. There  never  was  an  actual  sect  of 
Erastians*in  England;  but  their  ideas  on 
Church  government  were  advocated  by  many 
leading  divines,  and  in  the  Westminster 
Assembly  (1643 — 49)  were  represented  by  the 
powerful  eloquence  of  Whitelocke,  Light- 
foot,  and  Selden.  A  proposition,  however, 
condemnatory  of  their  doctrines  was  carried 
almost  unanimously,  and,  though  the, "  Chai>- 
ter  of  Church  Censures "  in  which  it  occurs 
was  never  formally  ratified  by  Parliament, 
Erastianism  failed  from  that  time  to  take 
deep  root.  In  Scotland  the  word  is  often 
vaguely  used  by  extreme  Presbyterians  as  a 
term  of  reproach  against  the  more  moderate 
party ;  it  frequently  occurs  in  the  history  of 
the  disputes  which  resulted  in  the  secession 
of  the  Free  Church. 

ColUer,  Eccl«na<f  iool  IFM.  ;  Bogne  and  Beamet, 
Hue.  of  IHnwt:  Chalmers,  Lt/«  and  Wribimgt. 

Brrol,  Francis,  Earl  of  {d.  1631),  was 
Constable  of  Scotland,  and  one  of  the  signers 
of  the  *' Spanish   Blanks.*'     He  ¥^8  con- 


im) 


Teiied  to  the  Bomiah  Church  by  a  Jesuit 
named  Father  Edmond  Hay,  but  in  1597 
iound  it  to  hia  interest  to  return  to  the  Pro- 
testant party,  and  to  obtain  the  revocation  of 
his  forfeiture. 


I,  Thomas,  Lobd  (b.  1750,  d.  1823), 
the  third  son  of  the  tenth  Earl  of  Buchan, 
was  educated  at  the  High  School,  Edinburgh, 
and  St.  Andrews  University.     At  the  age  of 
fourteen  he  entered  the  navy,  but  after  four 
years,   disgusted  at  not  being  promoted,  he 
exchanged  the    navy  for  the  army.    After 
seven  years  in  his  new  profession,  he  left  it 
to  enter  at  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  in  1778  both 
took  his  degree  and  was  called  to  the  bar. 
His  first  brief  was  held  in  defence  of  Captain 
Baillie,     a    naval     o£Bcer    who    had    been 
doomed  by  the  ministry  for  daring  to  expose 
the    abuses    permitted    by    the  Admiialty. 
Erskine's    fame    was   made    at   once,    and 
was    confirmed    in  the    following    January 
by  his  brilliant  defence  ol  Admiral  Keppel 
in  court-martial,  which  was  followed  soon 
afterwards   by   his  equally  powerful  speech 
on    behalf    of    Lord    George    Gordon.     In 
November,  1783,  he  was  returned  to  Parlia- 
ment for  Portsmouth,  and  did  his  utmost  in 
support  of  Fox*s  India  Bill.     His  iame  is 
specially  connected  with  his  constant  efforts 
to   establish  the  rights   of    juries   in  libel 
cases.      In    1794    he   made    a    bold    stand 
against  the  doctrine  of  constructive  treason 
which  it  was  attempted  to  lay  down  in  the 
trials  of  Hardy,  Home  Tooke,  and  ThelwalL 
For  the  next  twelve  years  he  was  recognised 
as    leader  in   the  courts    at    Westminster 
and  was   in  all   State  trials   to  be   found 
retained  for  the  defence.    In  Parliament  he 
was  a  firm  supporter  of  Fox,  and  followed 
him  in  his  temporary  retirement  from  the 
House.     Addington  offered  him  a  ]^ce  as 
Attomey-Geneml    in     1801,    but    Erskine 
dedinea  it.     On  the  accession  to  ]^wer  of 
the   Fox  and  GrenviUe   ministry  in   1806, 
Erskine  received  the  Chancellorship.  During 
his  short  tenure  of  that  office  he  had  the 
satisfaction  of   announcing  the   passixig  of 
the  Bill  for  the  Abolition  of  Slavery.    For 
the  fifteen  years  after  retiring  from  office 
in    1807y    he    took    little  part   in    politics. 
On  the  trial  of  Queen  Caroline,  he  broke 
away    reluctantly    from   his    long-standing 
friendship  with  the  Prince  Regent,  because 
he  felt   bound    to  support  the  cause  of   a 
woman  whom  he  oonsid^ed  to  be  innocent  and 
injured. 

Erakiiie,  Spetehe*;  Fobs,  JudgM  of  Sngland; 
Holland,  Mm,  of  tht  Liberal  Party  t  Brooirham, 
Sketehw ;  QrtwoiXU  Papers ;  Walpole,  mat.  of 
Bf^.  from  1816;  State  Triob. 

Esclieat  (from  the  Norman-French  etehet; 
eehiimf  to  iaXL)  means  the  reversion  of  land  to 
the  lord.  It  could  happen  in  two  ways: 
(1)  per  defectum  sanguinis,  through  want  of 
hears;  or  (2)  per  delictum  tenentiSy  through 
the  crime  of  the  tenant,  in  cases  of  treason 


or  felony ;  the  distinction  between  it  and  for* 
feiture  (q.v.)  being,  that  the  first  is  regarded 
as  a  natural  event,  the  second  as  the  direct 
consequence  of  an  illegal  act.  It  affected 
tenants  in  fee-simple  only.  The  law  of 
escheats  was  introduced  into  England  by  the 
Normans,  and,  in  the  troubled  state  of  the 
times,  it  was  not  unusual  for  the  estates  of 
some  great  noble  to  fall  to  the  crown.  They 
either  continued  in  the  possession  of  the 
king?  under  the  title  of  an  honour,  and  were 
administered  like  a  shire,  or  were  granted  out 
Again  as  an  hereditary  fief.  In  the  first  case» 
the  immediate  tenants  were  protected  by 
Magna  Charta  from  being  treated  as  tenants- 
in-chief  to  the  crown,  and  need  only  pay 
such  dues  as  they  would  have  owed  to  their 
mesne  lord.  The  wanton  bestowal  of  escheated 
elands  upon  favourites  and  relations  was  a 
'^frequent  charge  against  weak  kings  like 
Henry  III.  and  Kichard  II.,  while  Edward  II. 
in  1809  was  accused  of  depriving  men  of 
their  lands  who  had  a  perfectly  good  title,  a 
practice  which  the  royal  officers  of  Henry  VII. 
carried  to  a  state  of  great  perfection.  In 
Escheat  propter  delictum  the  land  passed  to  the 
mext  heir,  subject  to  the  superior  right  of  the 
crown  in  the  case  of  treason  for  life,  in  the 
case  of  felony  for  a  year  and  a  day.  It  was 
confined  in  1833  to  cases  of  treason  or  murder, 
and  the  law  on  the  subject  was  further  defined 
in  1888.  By  the  Felony  Act  of  1880,  ad- 
ministrators were  appointed  to  the  convict^s 
property,  and  it  could  be  resumed  if  his  sen- 
tence expired.  Eteheat  propter  defectum  is 
now  most  common  in  cases  of  bastardy.  The 
land  passes  to  the  sovereign,  except  in  the 
case  of  copyhold  estates,  which  g^  to  the 
lord  of  the  manor. 

In  Scotland  there  was  escheat  for  debt  as 
well  as  for  treason;  it  was  abolished  in 
1737.  Single  escheat,  however,  by  which 
the  prisoner*s  movables  are  forfeited  to  the 
crown,  still  exists  as  a  punishment  for 
crime. 

Stabbs,  SAodk  Charters  (DialofiM  d«  3caccorio)i 
StabbB,  Come.  Hu^,  vol  i.,ch.ii.  Statutes  4 aiid 
5  Wm.  IV.,  cap.  28, 1  and  2  Viot,  cap.  69. 


Kingdom  of.  In  Celtic  and 
Koman  times  the  district  lying  to  the  north 
ol  the  lower  course  of  the  Thames  was  in- 
habited by  the  tribe  of  the  Trinobantes. 
In  this  region  the  Bomans  founded  many  of 
their  most  important  towns,  such  as  Camulo- 
dunum,  London,  and  Verulam ;  and  towards 
the  end  of  the  period  of  their  rule  it  formed 
part  of  the  domain  of  the  "Comes  Littoris 
Saxonici,*'  or  Count  of  the  Saxon  Shore. 
When  tiie  Boman  power  was  weakening, 
Essex  seems  to  have  fallen  an  easy  prey  to 
the  Teutonic  invaders;  but  there' is  no  record 
left  to  toll  us  of  the  exact  process  or  time  of 
this  invasion.  It  seems  probable,  however, 
that  the  attack  was  made  by  way  of  the 
estuary  of  the  Stour  and  Chelm,  rather  than 


(486) 


Esi 


up  the  Thames  Valley ;  and  we  know  that  the 
conquest  was  achieved  by  Saxons,  and  not  by 
Anglian  tribes,  such  as  colonised  the  neigh- 
bouring counties  to  the  north.  The  East 
Saxons  do  not  seem  to  have  spread  far  inland, 
being,  in  all  probability,  checked  in  their 
onward  course  by  the  great  wood  district 
l}dng  to  the  west,  whose  relics  still  survive 
in  Hainault  and  Epping  Forest.  In  the 
same  manner  the  South  Saxons'  progress 
was  barred  by  the  Andreadesweald,  and  for 
this  reason  neither  Sussex  nor  Essex  ever 
developed  into  one  of  the  great  kingdoms. 
But  the  East  Saxons,  though  they  do  not 
appear  to  have  ever  had  a  Bretwalda,  as  the 
South  Saxons  had,  were  in  one  respect  happier 
than  the  South  Saxons ;  for  it  was  into  their 
hands  that  the  great  town  of  London  fell.  We 
read  in  Bede  that  by  the  year  604  it  was  the 
**  Metropolis"  of  Sebert,  King  of  the  East 
Saxons,  and  about  the  same  year  it  became 
the  seat  of  Mellitus,  whom  Etilielbert  of  Kent 
sent  to  preach  to  that  tribe.  Bede  tells  us 
how,  on  the  death  of  Sebert  (616),  the  country 
relapsed  into  Paganism,  from  which  it  was 
not  converted  till  many  years  later.  Mellitus 
was  driven  to  QauI,  and  seems  to  have 
returned  only  to  occupy  the  metropolitan  see 
of  Canterbur}'',  leaving  London  without  a 
bishop  till  654.  On  the  accession  of  Sigebert, 
who  had  been  baptised  by  Finian,  Bishop  of 
Lindisfame,  Ceadda  was  invited  from  Mercia 
to  undertake  the  office  of  Bishop  of  the  East 
Saxons,  the  see  of  London  was  I'enewed,  and 
before  the  century  was  out  an  East  Anglian 
king  (Sebbi)  had  exchanged  his  crown  for  the 
garb  of  a  monk  in  London.  By  this  time  the 
East  Saxons  seem  to  have  been  in  greater  or 
less  subjection  to  Mercia ;  and  though  a  late 
legend  speaks  of  their  largely  increasing 
their  bounds  to  the  north  and  west,  this 
kingdom  seems  to  have  for  the  future  flue* 
tuated  between  Mercian  and  West  Saxon 
rule.  At  last,  after  the  battle  of  Ellandun, 
the  Chronicle  tells  us  how  the  East  Saxons 
*'  turned  to  Egbert,  because  they  had  formerly- 
been  forced  from  his  kinsmen  unjustly.** 
Probably  the  old  line  of  East  Saxon  kings 
had  now  died  out,  and  the  people  were  more 
willing  to  have  a  Saxon  than  an  Anglian 
ruler.  But  Essex  was  not  as  yet  thoroughly 
merged  in  the  West  Saxon  kingdom;  on 
Edgar's  death  it  was  detached  from  Wessex, 
and  given,  with  Kent,  Surrey,  and  Sussex,  to 
Athelstan  (836).  We  have  now  reached  the 
times  of  the  Banish  invasions.  When  East 
Anglia  was  over-run,  and  St.  Edmund 
martyred  bv  these  marauders,  Essex  seems  to 
have  shared  the  fate  of  its  northern  neigh* 
hour,  and  some  years  later,  by  the  Treaty  of 
Wedmore  (878),  was,  together  with  London, 
left  in  the  hands  of  Gutiirum.  Later  on  we 
find  the  Essex  Danes  taking  a  prominent  part 
in  the  invasion  of  894,  and  next  year  the 
whole  Danish  army  that  had  already  harried 
North  Wales  retired  by  way  of  Northumber- 


land and  East  Anglia  to  the  Isle  of  Mersea, 
on  the  Essex  coast.  With  Edward  the  Elder, 
however,  the  tide  began  to  turn  against  the 
strangers ;  in  913  he  built  the  burgh  of  Hert- 
ford, and  in  midsummer  of  the  same  year 
brought  his  army  to  Maldon,  while  the 
fortress  of  Witham  was  building;  ''and  a  good 
deal  of  the  folk  submitted  to  him  who  were 
before  under  the  power  of  the  Danish  men." 
In  921  the  inhabitants  of  Kent  and  Surrey, 
aided  by  many  East  Saxons,  wrested  Col- 
chester out  of  the  hands  of  the  Danes,  though 
not  without  destroying  the  town.  However, 
before  the  year  was  out  Edward  had  repaired 
the  fortress  and  permanently  taken  the 
district  into  his  power,  for  the  army  of  East 
Anglia  swore  fealty  to  him  at  the  same  time. 
Towards  the  end  of  tiie  century  (991)  Essex 
WBs  once  more  exposed  to  the  ravages  of  the 
Danes,  and  when  Ethelred  promised  them 
tribute  in  1011,  Essex  is  mentioned  as  one  of 
the  districts  they  had  over-run.  When 
England  was  divided  between  Canute  and 
Edmimd  Ironside  (1016),  Edmund  received 
East  Anglia  and  Essex,  together  with  the 
district  south  of  the  Thames — a  sure  proof 
that  there  was  not  a  ver}"  large  number  of 
Danes  settled  in  the  two  first-mentioned 
provinces.  From  this  time  the  history  of 
Essex  belongs  to  that  of  England  generally. 
In  the  days  of  Edward  the  Confessor  it 
formed  a  part  of  Harold^s  East  Anglian 
earldom,  and  towards  the  end  of  the  reign 
part  of  Leofwine*s  anomalous  earldom,  which 
included  Kent,  Surrey,  and  much  besides. 

EiKos  OF  Essex. 

Escwine s.    527 

Sleda «.    587 

Sebert d.    616 

Seward  and  Sigebert   .  616—617 

Sigebert  the  little      .               .  617—658 

Sigebert  the  Qood  658—680 

Sigehere (?) 

Stebbe $,605 

Sigeheard d.    694 

Swoefred d.    704 

OfEa r««.    709 

Selred 709—746 

Anglo-Saxon  Chron. ;  Bede,  Hid.  Eoclst. ;  Lap- 

Sinberg,  Anglo-Saxon  Jfitigt;  Freeman,  (MBnjf. 
«*•  [T.  A.  A.] 

Essex,  Pesraoer  of.  a  Barony  of  Essex 
was  held  under  William  I.  by  one  Swene,  who 
possessed  twenty- two  lordships  in  that  county; 
but  the  lands  were  confiscated  on  the  defeat 
of  his  grandson,  Henry  de  Essex,  in  judicial 
combat  (1163).  In  the  meanwhile,  the 
Empress  Maud  granted  (1144)  the  Earldom 
of  Essex,  with  the  third  penny  of  the  count}', 
to  Geoffrey  de  Mandeville,  from  whom  it 
passed  successively  to  his  two  sons.  Hiey 
dying  childless,  it  was  allowed  (1199)  to 
Geoffirev  Fitz-Peter  (Fitz-Piers),  the  Justiciar, 
huslkina  of  a  g^rand-niece  of  the  first  earl. 
Geoffrey  again  had  two  sons  who  succeeded 
him,  but  left  no  issue ;  and  the  title  was  con- 
ferred, some  time  before  1239,  upon  a  son  of 
a  sister  of  the  last  earl,  Humphrey  de  Ik^on, 


(437) 


Earl  of  Hereford,  in  whoae  family  it  continued 
until  Humphrey  de  fiohun,  Earl  of  North- 
ampton, Hereford,  and  Essex,  died  (1372), 
'wiuiout  male  issue.  The  latter's  elder 
daughter  and  co-heiress,  Eleanor,  then  gave 
the  title  to  her  husband,  Thomas  of  Wood- 
stock, son  of  Edward  III.,  and  afterwards 
Duke  of  Gloucester.  On  his  murder  (1397), 
the  earldom  of  Essex  lay  dormant  until  it 
was  revived  in  favour  of  Thomas's  eventual 
heir,  Thomas,  Lord  Bourchier,  Count  of  Eu, 
ia  Normandy  (1461).  With  the  death,  of  his 
g^randson  (1539)  it  became  extinct,  and  was 
immediately  re-granted  to  the  famous  Thomas 
Cromwell  On  CromwelFs  attainder,  in  1540, 
his  honours  became  forfeit,  and  in  1543  the 
earldom  was  given  to  WilUam  Parr,  brother 
of  Queen  Katharine  Parr,  and  husband  of  the 
only  daughter  of  the  last  Bourchier,  Earl  of 
Essex.  Parr  was  afterwards  created  Marquis 
of  Northampton  (1546),  but  attainted  in  1553. 
In  1572  the  earldom  of  Essex  was  once  more 
revived  in  favour  of  Walter  Devereux,  second 
Viscount  Hereford.  His  son  Robert  was 
attainted  in  1601,  but  the  honours  were 
restored  two  years  later  to  his  son,  Robert, 
on  whose  death  without  issue  (1646)  the  title 
became  extinct.  Finally,  in  1661,  Arthur 
Capel,  second  Baron  Capel,  was  created  Earl 
of  Esiex  and  Viscoimt  Maldon,  and  by  his 
descendant  the  title  is  at  present  held. 


:,  Henry  Bovkchibh,  Earl  of 
(d.  1483),  was  the  son  of  Lord  Bourchier, 
and  brother  of  Thomas  Bourchier,  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury.  In  1454  he  was  created  Lord 
High  Treasurer,  but  forsook  the  Lancastrian 
cause,  and  espoused  that  of  York.  On  Edward 
IV.'s  accession  to  the  throne,  he  was  again 
mude  Treasurer,  and  was  created  Earl  of 
Essex. 

Essex,  Walter  Dsvsreux,  1st  Earl  of 
{b.  eirea  1640,  d.  1576),  son  of  Sir  Richard 
Devereux,  succeeded  his  grandfather  as  Vis- 
count Hereford  (1558) ;  married  (1561)  Lettice, 
daughter  of  Sir  Francis  Knollys.  He  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  fidelity  during  the  con- 
spiracy of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk  and  the  rising 
of  the  North,  and  was  therefore  created  Ean 
.of  Essex  (1672).  The  following  year  he  under- 
took, with  other  noble  adventurers,  the  con- 
quest of  Ulster ;  but,  owing  it  is  supposed,  to 
the  machinations  of  Leicester,  his  expedition 
was  a  total  failure.  In  1574  he  was  appointed 
Governor  of  TJlster,  with  an  independent 
commission,  and  in  1576  Earl  Marshal  of 
Ireland.  He  succeeded  in  effecting  no  per- 
manent conquest,  but  signalised  himself  by 
the  treacherous  murder  of  his  guest,  Sir 
Brian  O'Neil,  and  by  ordering  the  massacre 
of  the  women  and  children  of  the  Scots  of 
Antrim  on  the  Island  of  Rathlin.  He  died 
in  September,  1576. 


Robert  Devereux,  2nd  Earl  of 
ih,  1567,  d.  1601),  entered  Trinity  CoUege, 


Cambridge,  in  1577.  On  Ms  appearance  at 
court,  in  1854,  he  became  at  once  a  favourite 
with  both  queen  and  people.  In  1585  he 
accompanied  Leicester  to  Holland,  distin- 
gpiished  himself  at  Zutphen,  and  was,  in 
1588,  appointed  Greneral  of  the  Horse  in  the 
army  raised  to  meet  the  Spanish  Armada. 
In  1591  he  commanded  the  auxiliaries  sent 
to  assist  Henry  IV.  in  Normandy,  but  his 
chief  military  exploit  was  the  capture  of 
Cadiz  in  1596.  Not  content  with  his  great 
position  as  favourite,  and  his  reputation  as  a 
soldier,  he  also  aimed  at  eminence  as  a  states- 
man, and  from  1592  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  foreign  affairs.  He  headed  the 
party  that  demanded  the  vigorous  prosecution 
of  the  war  against  Spain,  opposed  the  cautious 
policy  of  Burleigh,  and  entered  into  com- 
munication with  King  James,  whom  he  urged 
to  demand  recognition  as  the  queen's  heir. 
On  the  death  of  Burleigh,  however,  his  son 
succeeded  to  his  power,  and  Essex,  a  few 
months  later,  eager  for  an  opportunity  of 
gaining  power  and  credit,  obtained  the  post 
of  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and  was 
charged  with  the  task  of  suppressing  Tyrone's 
rebellion  (March,  1599).  His  conduct  in 
Ireland  exposed  both  his  ability  and  his 
honesty  to  injurious  suspicions.  Instead  of 
at  once  attacking  the  main  strength  of  the 
rebels  in  Ulster,  or  consolidating  the  EngUsh 
power  in  Leinster,  he  wasted  his  time  and 
his  army  in  marching  and  counter-marching, 
in  gainmg  little  victories,  and  achieving  no 
substantial  success,  ^lien  he  did  attack 
Tyrone,  he  speedily  admitted  him  to  peace, 
on  terms  which  seemed  to  be  dictated  by 
private  ambition  rather  than  by  public  policy. 
For  this  he  was,  on  Ms  return  to  England,  dis- 
graced, tried  by  a  special  commission,  dismissed 
Irom  all  his  offices,  and  was  for  a  time  in 
custody.  Believing  Ms  punishment  to  be  the 
work  of  his  enemies  in  the  Council,  he  set  on 
foot  a  conspiracy  to  force  his  way  into  the 
queen's  presence,  and  to  remove  his  omtonents 
from,  the  government  by  arms.  But  his 
attempted  eotip  tTetat  failed,  and  he  was 
apprehended,  tried  by  the  Lord  High 
Steward's  Court,  sentenced  to  death  for 
high  treason,  and  executed  on  Feb.  25, 
1601.  He  affirmed  that  his  design  was 
merely  to  go  with  Ms  friends  and  petition 
the  queen,  and  to  gain  their  petition  to 
remove  from  the  queen's  chamber  Raleigh 
and  Cecil,  his  enemies ;  that  he  had  never  in 
any  way  intended  to  hurt  the  queen.  By  the 
ruling  of  the  court  in  this  case,  it  was  held 
treason  to  compel  the  king  by  force  to  change 
his  policy. 

CamdoD,    AnnaltB:   Ailin,    Court    c(f  QiMta 
Elizabeth ;  Stat*  Trial*.  TC   H   F  1 


:,  Robert  Devereux,  3kd  Earl  op 
(b.  1592,  d.  1646),  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
educated  at  Eton,  and  at  Merton  College, 
Oxford.       In    1606    he    married    Frances 


(438) 


Howard,  from  whom  he  was  divorced  seTen 
years  later,  in  order  that  she  might  many 
the  Earl  of  Rochester.  He  distinguished 
himself  as  a  soldier,  serving  in  the  Palatinate 
(1620),  in  Holland  (1622—3),  in  Mansfeld's 
army  (1624),  and  in  the  expedition  to  Cadiz 
(1625).  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Scotch 
rebellion,  he  was  appointed  by  Charles  I. 
lieutenant-general  of  the  English  army. 
He  is  described  as  being  then  ''the  moirt 
popular  man  in  the  kingdom,  and  the 
darling  of  the  swordmen."  At  the  opening 
of  the  Long  Parliament  he  sided  with  the 

Sopular  party,  urged  the  execution  of 
trafford,  and  though  holding  the  office  of 
Chamberlain,  refused  to  follow  the  king  to 
York.  He  was  appointed  in  July,  1642, 
general  of  the  army  raised  by  the  Parlia- 
ment, and  commanded  at  Edgehill  (Oct.  23). 
In  the  spring  of  1643,  after  capturing  Reaa- 
ing,  he  marched  on  Oxford,  but  was  pre- 
vented by  bad  weather  and  sickness  amongst 
his  troops  from  besieging  it.  In  the  autumn 
of  the  same  year  he  performed  his  ereatest 
exploit  during  the  war,  the  relief  of  Glou- 
cester (Sept.  5),  followed  by  the  victory  of 
Newbury  (Sept.  20).  In  June,  next  year,  he 
marched*  into  the  west  of  England  to  relieve 
Lyme,  leaving  Waller  the  task  of  pursuing 
the  king.  After  relieving  Lyme,  and  taking 
some  of  the  royal  fortr»»es  in  Devon  and 
Dorset,  he  proceeded  into  Cornwall  There 
he  found  himself,  contrary  to  his  expectations, 
unsupported  by  the  country,  and  distressed 
for  provisions,  whilst  the  king,  who  had 
defeated  Waller,  prevented  his  retreat,  drove 
him  further  west,  and  speedily  reduced  his 
army  to  extremities.  The  cavaJry  broke 
ihrough  the  king's  lines,  and  came  safe  away; 
Essex  himself  escaped  by  sea;  but  the  in- 
fantry were  forced  to  surrender  (Sept.,  1644). 
Nevertheless,  the  Parliament  appointed  him 
to  command  the  new  army  which  was 
being  collected.  Illness,  however,  prevented 
him  being  present  at  the  second  battle  of 
Newbury,  and  on  April  2,  1645,  he  laid  down 
his  commission  in  obedience  to  the  Self- 
Denving  Ordinance.  As  a  general,  he 
exhibited  great  irresolution,  and  too  often 
allowed  his  judgment  as  a  soldier  to  be  over- 
ruled by  political  considerations.  Clarendon 
charges  him  with  pride  and  ambition,  but 
admits  his  honesty  and  praises  his  fidelity. 

Clarendon,  HUt.  of  the  £«b«lIi4>n;Whitelocke, 
KfmoriaU;  Haj,  Hi$t.  of  Long  Pari. 

[C.  H.  F.] 
EssttXy  Arthur  Capel,  Earl  of  (6.  1635, 
d.  1683),  son  of  Arthur,  Lord  Capel,  created 
Ejirl  of  E&sex  in  1660,  was  a  leading  mem- 
ber of  the  Country  Party  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.  From  1672  to  1676  he  was  Lord- 
Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and  in  1679  he  was 
appointed  First  Commissioner  of  the  Trea- 
sury, but  resigned  before  long.  In  1683  he 
was  concerned  in  the  Revolutionary  Plot,  and 
was  arrested  and  committed  to  the  Tower. 


But  before  his  trial  could  come  on,  he 
found  to  have  committed  suicide.  Macaulay 
characterises  him  as  **  a  man  of  solid,  though 
not  brilliant  parts,  and  of  grave  and  meUm- 
choly  character." 

Estates  of  Scotland,  Tub.  In  Scot- 
land the  Hepreeentative  Assembly  of  the 
nation  had  more  in  common  with  the  French 
than  with  the  English  Parliament.  The 
deputies  of  the  ''  Three  Estates,"  that  is,  the 
clergy,  the  barons,  and  the  burgesses,  sat  in 
one  chamber.  The  Chancellor  was  President. 
The  officers  of  State  had  seats  in  virtue  of 
their  offices ;  and  the  judges  of  the  Court  d 
Session  sat  round  a  table  in  the  centre  of  the 
hall,  between  the  barons  and  the  commons. 
The  earliest  laws  of  the  kings  of  the  Scots 
were  passed  in  "  Assizes."  The  first  &iiit 
indications  of  a  National  Council  appear  in 
the  reign  of  Alexander  I.  This  council  is 
called  the  Curia  Regis  from  the  reign  of 
William  the  lion  tUl  the  death  of  Alexander 
III.  The  Assembly  which  met  at  Scone  in 
1286,  to  determine  the  succession  of  the 
crown,  is  the  first  recorded  meeting  of  the 
Parliament.  It  consisted  only  of  the  great 
tenants  of  the  crown,  met  to  choose  their 
liege  lord.  In  the  appeal  to  Edward  to 
adjudge  the  crown,  and  in  the  Treaty  of  Brig- 
ham,  1290,  the  ^^oommunity"  is  mentioned 
for  the  first  time  us  having  a  voice  in  the 
affairs  of  the  nation ;  and  to  the  treaty  be- 
tween John  Baliol  and  Philip  of  fVanoe  the 
seals  of  six  burghs  are  appended.  The  Paiw 
liament  of  Bob^  Bruce  at  Cambnskenneth 
was  the  first  in  which  the  representatives  of 
the  «<  Third  Estate,'*  the  deputies  of  the 
burghs,  had  a  place.  From  this  time  their 
place  in  the  National  Council  was  secure.  The 
ag^reement  for  the  payment  of  the  ransom  of 
David  II.  bears  the  seal  of  seven  burgesses, 
as  well  as  those  of  bishops  and  barons.  At 
first  each  royal  burgh  was  required  to  send 
two  members  to  Parliament;  but  as  the 
burghs  were  privileged  to  hold  their  own 
Court  of  the  Four  Burght^  which  had 
sovereign  authority  in  all  burghal  disputes 
and  questions,  they  were  disposed  to  shirk 
Parliamentary  attendance  ;  and  in  1619  it  was 
enacted  by  the  Convention  of  Burghs  that 
each  burgh  should  send  one  member  only  to 
the  Estates,  save  Edinburgh,  which  was  to 
send  two.  Commissaries  to  represent  the 
lesser  barons  date  from  the  reign  of  James  I. 
By  an  Act  of  1428  these  lesser  barons  were 
relieved  from  their  attendance,  on  condition 
that  they  elected  two  commissaries  for  each 
shire.  Ever}*-  one  holding  land  from  the 
crown  was  to  have  a  voice  in  the  election.  A 
statute  of  James  yj.  limited  the  right  of 
voting  to  those  who  had  their  land  m  free 
tenantry  and  lived  within  the  shire.  The 
statute  of  1661  extended  this  right  to  all  who 
held  lands  of  the  king  to  the  extent  of  £1,000 
Scots   real   rent.      There   was   no  regular 


Bat 


(  439) 


attfcndance  of  the  c^mmlMHries  till  late  in 
the  roign  of  James  VI.  The  commiaBaries 
and  the  memhers  of  the  burf^hs  were  paid  for 
their  attendance.  An  Act  of  1 66 1  fixes  their  pay 
at  £5  Scots  per  day  during  their  attendance  and 
their  joume]^  to  and  fro.  All  the  work  of  the 
Scotch  Parliament  was  done  by  permanent 
committees — the  practice  of  debating  in  full 
Parliament  being  unknown.  When  the  Estates 
met  they  elected  a  committee  composed  of 
members  from  each  of  the  three  divisions.  To 
this  committee  the  work  of  discussing  and 
maturing  the  measures  to  be  passed  was 
banded  over.  The  Estates  did  not  ait  while 
the  committee  was  at  work.  When  the  Bills 
were  ready,  they  met  and  passed  them.  This 
oommittee  was  called  the  Lord*  of  the  Arti* 
eles.  This  practice  began  in  the  reign  of 
David  II.,  to  let  the  members  go  home  to  get 
in  the  harvest.  In  the  reign  of  James  I.  it 
had  become  established  as  a  regular  part  of 
parliamentary  procedure.  There  was  no  fixed 
rule  for  choosing  the  Lords  of  the  Articles, 
either  as  regarded  their  number  or  the  mode 
of  their  election.  This  uncertainty  led  to  the 
struggle  between  the  Estates  and  Charles  I., 
in  1633.  The  Lord^  of  the  Articles  then 
numbered  thirty-two,  and  an  attempt  was 
made  to  rob  the  majority  in  the  Estates 
of  its  power  against  the  crown  by  adroit 
management  in  their  election.  Eight  bishops 
were  first  elected ;  they  in  their  turn  chose 
eight  barons,  and  barons  and  bishops  together 
chose  eight  commissaries  and  eight  burgesses. 
Thus  the  whole  committee  were  picked  parti- 
sans of  the  bishops.  The  Estates  protested, 
each  division  claiming  the  right  to  elect  its 
own  delegates.  This  matter  of  the  election 
of  the  Liords  of  the  Articles  was  again 
fought  over  in  1689.  The  Parliament  which 
had  put  William  on  the  throne  demanded  the 
jig^t  of  disonsHing  measures  in  plain  Parlia- 
ment, after  the  English  fashion.  The  king 
at  first  refused  to  agree  to  this,  and  offered 
to  increase  the  number  of  the  Lords  of  the 
Articles  to  thirty-three,  and  to  leave  the 
Estates  •peiiect  freedom  of  election ;  but  the 
Estates  were  firm  in  their  demands.  William 
yielded,  and  an  Act  of  1690  finally  abolidied 
the  Lords  of  the  Articles.  The  Estates  were 
formerly  the  highest  court  of  justice,  and 
professed  to  give  *'  remeid  of  law  *'  in  cases 
of  appeal  against  the  justiciars  and  sheriffs. 
To  manage  this  judicial  business,  a  committee, 
called  the  Lord*  Auditor*  of  Complaint*,  was 
appointed,  but  its  powers  only  lasted  while 
Parliament  was  sitting.  In  1503  it  was  made 
permanent;  the  members,  to  be  chosen  by 
the  crown,  were  to  sit  continually  in  Edin- 
burgh. By  James  V.  the  Lords  Auditors  and 
the  liOrds  of  the  Ck>uncil  were  united  to  form 
the  Court  of  Session.  Thus  it  was  that  the 
^'Estates"  grew  out  of  the  council  of  the 
king ;  to  the  barons  were  joined  the  clergy, 
and  in  the  fourteenth  century  the  representa- 
tivee  of  corporations.    The  lesser  barons  were 


not  regularly  represented  by  commissaries  till 
the  latter  piut  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Scotttth  StatutM,  published  by  the  Beooid  Com- 
niwion ;  Ancient  Laws  and  Cuctonu  of  Burgh*  r/ 
Scotland;  Innes,  Lectwre*  on  SeottUh  Ltgal  An- 
HquitiM;  SteTenaon,  DocummtB  connseted  viiih 
th*  Hi9t,  of  Scotland;  E.  W.  Kobertson, 
Scotland  vnaer  th»  Early  King* ;  J.  H.  Barton, 
Uitt.  of  Scotland.  [M.  M.] 

ISstatds  of  the   Bealm,   Thb,  are 

defined  by  Bishop  Stubbs  as  "the  several 
orders,  states,  or  conditions  of  men  who  are 
recog^sed  as  possessing  political  power."  As 
originally  constituted  in  England  they  were 
the  nobles,  the  clergy,  and  the  commons. 
The  mistake  of  describing  the  three  Estates  as 
consisting  of  the  King,  Lords,  and  Commons, 
is  quite  as  old  as  the  fifteenth  century,  and  is 
due  to  the  failure  of  the  Parliamentary  repre- 
sentation of  the  clergy  as  a  separate  Estate. 
This  failure  has  caus^t  the  Estates  to  assume 
the  Parliamentary  form  of  Lords  Spiritual, 
Lords  Temporal,  and  Commons.  The  prece- 
dence given  to  the  clergy  would  appear  to  be 
a  matter  of  courtesy ;  the  Commons  {eommu' 
nita*  eof/nnunitatumj  the  general  body  into 
which  organised  bodies  of  freemen  are  com- 
bined) is  always  the  third  Estate.  It  was 
some  time  before  the  three  Estates  assumed 
their  final  form.  At  one  time  there  seemed 
to  be  some  probability  that  there  would  be  a 
sub-estate  of  the  law^'ers,  who  were  much 
favoured  by  Edward  I.,  and  of  the  merchants, 
who  were  frequently  consulted  previous  to 
the  imposition  of  taxation  upon  their  order. 
It  was  some  time,  too,  before  the  lesser 
nobility  separated  from  the  baronage,  and 
before  the  prelates  were  included  in  the  latter 
body,  the  lesser  clergy  preferring  to  assemble 
in  Convocation.  In  Scotland  the  three  Estates 
comprised  the  prelates,  the  tenants-in-chief, 
great  and  small,  and  the  townsmen.  In  1428, 
James  I.,  in  imitation  of  the  English  system, 
instituted  commissioners  of  shires,  to  super- 
sede the  personal  appearance  of  the  minor 
tenants-in-chief;  then  the  three  Estates  became 
the  lords  lay  and  clerical,  the  commissioners 
of  shires,  and  the  burgesses,  who  throughout 
their  history  continued  to  sit  in  one  house. 
In  1640,  Parliament  re-arranged  itself  into 
three  Estates — ^the  nobility,  ihe  barons,  or 
representatives  of  the  smaller  freeholders,  and 
the  burgesses  with  their  commissioners,  to  the 
exclusion  of  the  bishops,  but  this  was  repealed 
on  the  restoration  of  the  episcopacy  by 
Charles  n. 

See  the  admirable  diaciissloii  of  the  whole 
subject  in  Stubbi^a  Con*L  Hi*L,  it,  chap.  xr. 
Also  X^rd^  Bfport  on  ik*  JHgnity  of  a  P**r,  sad 
Erskine,  Jnstituie*  of  the  Law  of  Scotland. 

EstataSy  The  Committee  op  the,  was 
appointed  by  the  Scotch  Parliament  of  1640 
to  act  in  permanence  during  the  recesses,  both 
in  the  camp  and  at  the  capital.  It  consisted 
of  BO  many  ^m  each  of  the  three  Estates, 
which  were  now  defined  to  be  the  nobility, 
barons,  and  burgesses.    It  dissolved  in  1648^ 


Etk 


(440  ) 


Sih 


after  the  battle'  of  Preston,  but  a  new  Ck)m- 
mittee  was  formed  by  Argyle  and  his  friends, 
who  treated  with  the  victorious  Cromwell. 
After  the  battle  of  Worcester,  those  of  the 
Committee  of  £states  who  had  supported  the 
coronation  of  Charles  II.  at  Scone  were  sent 
as  prisoners  to  London.  The  Committee  was 
resumed  after  the  Restoration,  pending  the 
arrival  of  the  Commissioner,  Middleton.  It 
signalised  its  short  reign  by  committing  to 
prison  some  Eemonstrant  clergy. 

Barton,  Hut.  of  Scotland,  vols.  tI.  and  Til. 

Sthaadiuiy  The  Battle  of  (878),  was  the 
great  victory  of  Alfred  over  the  Banes  after  his 
retirement  to  Athelney ;  this  led  immediately 
to  the  treaty  with  Guthrum.  [Alfred.] 
Ethandun  has  been  identified  with  Edington, 
near  Westbury,  Wilts;  with  Yatton,  five  miles 
north-west  of  Chippenham ;  and  with  Hed- 
dington,  which  is  on  the  Koman  road  between 
Bath  and  Maryborough. 

Sthol  is  defined  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
dictionaries  as  equivalent  to  terra  heredi- 
taria &ndfundu»  patemuSf  or  sometimes,  in  a 
wider  sense,  to  patria.  It  is  the  word  used 
to  translate  country  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
version  of  St.  Luke.  It  is  the  same  word 
as  the  odal  of  the  Scandinavian  races. 
Though  perhaps  not  etymologically  con- 
nected with  *^alod" — a  relationship  which, 
however,  some  scholars  allow — it  has  prac- 
tically the  same  signification,  and  denotes  the 
land  which  in  early  Teutonic  days  belong^ 
indefeasibly  to  the  head  of  each  house- 
hold, and  which  its  owner  held,  not  of  the 
king's  gift  or  any  other  man's  favour,  free  from 
all  burdens  save  that  of  the  public  defence. 
Perhaps  from  the  very  earliest  days  the  ethel 
may  have  been  subject  to  assist  in  the  repair 
of  bridges  and  the  maintenance  of  fortifica- 
tions, as  well  as  to  serve  in  the  fyrd  ;  but  the 
**  trinoda  neeestitat  *'  is  said  not  to  appear  in 
genuine  Anglo-Saxon  documents  before  the 
beginning  of  the  eighth  century.  The  alod, 
or  ethel,  was  the  primitive  homestead,  the 
possession  of  which  marked  out  the  fully- 
qu^fied  freeman  from  all  other  men.  By 
virtue  of  this  ownership  he  was  justified  in 
taking  part  in  the  council  of  his  nation,  and 
in  fighting  in  its  wars.  For  the  title-deeds  of 
his  estate  he  looked  primarily  to  no  written 
evidence,  but  to  the  undisputed  possession  by 
which  he  and  his  ancestors  had  held  the  soil. 
Later,  as  more  and  more  of  the  folk-land  was 
changed  into  book-land,  and  the  greater  secu- 
rity of  chartered  proof  became  evident,  the 
owner  of  an  ethel  g^raduaUy  took  to  the 
custom  of  receiving  Charters.  Many  of  the 
smaller  allodial  holders,  indeed,  seem  to  have 
sold  their  land  to  the  wealthier  lords,  or  to 
have  commended  themselves  to  a  patron,  and 
BO  received  back  their  old  estates  as  a  gift. 
The  word  etJielj  or  athely  occurs  in  many  com- 
pounds, both  in  the  names  of  persons  and 


places,  e.ff.f    Ath^lstan,   Atheling,  Ethelred, 
Athelney,  &c.    [Alodlal  Land.] 

Kemble,  8axon$  in  England ;  Stabbs,  Con«t. 
EUt. ;  Hallam,  Middle  Agu  ;  Skeat,  Etymolo^ieot 
JWc**onary.  [T.  A.  A.] 

XSthelbald  (^thelbald),  King  of  the 
West  Saxons  (855  —  860),  succeeded  his 
father,  Ethelwulf.  His  marriage  with  his 
step-mother,  Judith,  is  the  solitary  fact  we 
know  about  him  with  certainty,  as  there  is  a 
gap  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  from  865  to 
860. 

Ethelbald  (JEthblbald)  (6. 716,  d,  757), 
King  of  Mercia,  was  descended  from  one 
of  &e  brothers  of  Penda.  He  was  per- 
secuted by  Ceolred,  and  took  refuge  in  the 
marshes  of  Fenland.  On  the  death  of 
Ceolred,  he  was  unanimously  chosen  king. 
His  reign  was  distinguished  by  many  success- 
ful conflicts  against  the  Britons,  and  though 
he  &iled  to  subdue  Northumbria  and  Wessex, 
he  assumed  the  title  of  *'Rex  Britannise." 
He  was  defeated  by  Cathred  of  Wessex 
at  Burford,  in  752,  and  again,  in  757,  at 
which  battle  he  is  supposed  to  have  been 
slain. 

Ethelbert  (^Ethelberht)  («.  860,  d,  866}, 
King  of  the  West  Saxons,  succeeded  his 
father,  Ethelwulf,  in  the  kingdom  of  Kent, 
and  his  brother  Ethelbald  in  Wessex,  though 
according  to  his  Other's  will  the  latter  king- 
dom should  have  gone  to  Ethelred.  The 
Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  tolls  us  that  *'  he  held 
the  kingdom  in  good  order  and  great  tran- 
quillity." Most  of  his  reign  was  occupied 
in  repelling  the  incursions  of  the  Danes, 
who  were  at  this  time  strong  enough  and 
bold  enough  to  attack  Winchester,  the  royal 
city  of  the  West  Saxon  kings. 

Ethelbert(^THBLBEBHT)  (6.560?  if.6i6), 

King  of  Kent,  ranks  as  the  liurd  Bretwalda. 

We  are  told  that  *'in  the  infancy  of  his 

reign  he  was  such  an  object  of  contempt  to 

the  neighbouring  kings,  that,  defeated  in  two 

battles,  he  could  scarcely  jprotect  his  frontier; 

but  in  riper  years  he  qmckly,  by  successive 

victories,  subjugated  every  kingdom  of  the 

Angles,  with  the  exception  of  Northumbria." 

This  statement  of  William  of  Alalmesbury  is 

greatly    exaggerated,    and   probably    means 

nttle  more  thian  that  he  conquerea  Sussex 

and  Essex,  and  obtained  a  nominal  suzerainty 

over  the  other  kingdoms.    His  marriage  with 

Bertha,    daughter   of    Charibert,    King    of 

Soissons,  is  the  important  event  in  his  reign, 

as   it  led   indirectly  to  the  coming  of  St. 

Augustine  and  the  conversion  of  Ethelbert 

to  Christianity  (597).    Ethelbert  was  the  first 

king  among  the  Anglo-Saxons  who  drew  up 

a  code  of  laws. 

ilnylo- Saxon  Chron. ;  William  of  Halmesbury ; 
Ijappenberg,  Anglo-Saxon  ITtnyt. 

Ethelfleda  (^thelfljed)  {d,  919),  was 
a  daughter  of  King  Alfred.    She  was  married 


Eth 


(  441  ) 


Bth 


to  the  Ealdorman  Ethelred,  and,  together  "with 
her  husband,  ruled  over  Mercia.  She  was 
of  great  assistance  to  her  brother  Edward 
in  hib  wars  against  the  Banes,  and  joined  him 
in  rebuilding  Chester  and  other  ancient  towns 
that  had  fallen  into  decay.  In  916  her  troops 
defeated  the  Welsh  at  Brecknock.  Her 
husband  died  in  912,  and  she  left  only  a 
daughter,  Elf  win,  whom  Edward  deprived  of 
the  government  of  Mercia,  and  forcibly 
carried  off  to  Wessez.  Ethelfleda  seems  to 
have  had  the  title  of  "The  Lady  of  the 
Mercians,"  expressive  of  the  power  she 
possessed,  and  the  relations  in  which  she 
stood  to  Edward. 

Florence  of  Worcester ;  Anglo-Saxon  Chron, ; 
Freeman,  Korman  Conqaut,  toI.  i. 

Stkelfritll  (^thblfrith).  King  of 
Northumbria  (593 — 617),  was  the  son  and 
successor  of  Etbelric.  He  married  a  daughter 
of  EUa  of  Deira,  and  incorporated  that  state 
with  his  own  kingdom  of  Bemida,  having 
driven  Edwin  (q.v.),  the  son  of  Ella,  into 
exUe.  He  was  a  far-sighted  and  successful 
king.  He  defeated  the  Scots  and  the  Britons, 
and  captured  the  city  ot  Chester.  He  de- 
stroyed the  monastery  of  Bangor^'scoed,  and 
put  all  the  monks  to  death,  asserting  that  as 
they  prayed  for  his  defeat,  they  were,  though 
unarmed,  fighting  against  him.  Ethelfritii, 
having  learnt  that  his  brother-in-law,  Edwin, 
had  taken  refuge  with  Redwald  of  East 
Anglia,  demanded  that  he  should  be  given 
np ;  and  on  his  request  being  refused,  war 
ensued,  in  which  Ethelfrith  was  defeated  and 
slain. 

Xthellieard  (^tkelhbard)  («.  725,  d, 

740),  King  of  Wessex,  succeeded  his  brother- 
in-law,  Ina.  He  was  descended  from  Cehiic, 
but  belonged  probably  to  a  distant  branch 
of  the  Toyil  house.  His  election  was  opposed 
by  the  Atheling  Oswald,  but  unsuccesnuUy. 
His  reign  was  an  unfortunate  one ;  the  British 
recovered  something  of  what  they  had  lost, 
and  the  Mercians  captured  Somerton  (733), 
an  important  border  fortress,  now  a  mere 
Tillage,  between  Oxford  and  Banbury;  and 
Wessex  was  obliged,  in  some  degree,  to  own 
the  Mercian  overlordship. 

Etlielliiui  (^THBLHtm),  called  "The 
Proud  Ealdorman,"  rebelled  against  Cuthred 
of  Wessex  in  750,  but  was  defeated,  and 
pardoned.  In  752,  it  was  chiefly  owing  to 
his  bravery  that  the  West  Saxons  won  the 
battle  of  Burford. 

Ethelnoth  (^thelkoth),  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  (1020—1038),  had  been  one  of 
the  chaplams  of  Canute,  and  was  one  of  that 
king^s  chief  advisers.  It  is  to  him  that  we 
must  attribute  much  of  Canute's  dvil  and 
ecdesiastical  policy.  Ethelnoth  was  a  man 
of  large  Tiews,  and  being  himself  a  secular, 
did  much  to  improve  we  position  of  the 
Boqular  dergy.     During   Canute's   absence 


from  England,  Ethelnoth  was  one  of  the 
regents  of  the  kingdom,  and  to  him  the  king 
addressed  his  famous  letter  describing  his 
visit  to  Home.  On  Canute's  death,  in  1035, 
Ethelnoth  refused  to  crown  Harold,  and  pro- 
hibited any  of  the  bishops  doing  so. 

William  of  Malxneebnry;  Encomium  Emma; 
Hook,  ArehbUhopt  of  Canterbury, 

Etlielred  (JEthelrbd)  I.,  King  of  the 
West  Saxons  (866—871),  was  the  son  of 
Ethelwulf,  and  succeeded  on  the  death  of 
his  brother  Ethdbert.  His  reign  is  important 
for  his  ^[reat  struggle  with  the  Danes.  At 
first  the  invading  host  attacked  the  tributaiy 
provinces.  Northumberland,  disputed  between 
rival  king^  fell  an  easy  'pvey,  and  one  or 
two  other  provinces  received  a  tributary 
crown  at  the  hands  of  the  heathen  invaders. 
They  next  entered  Mercia.  The  West  Saxon 
monarch,  hasteninpp  to  the  relief  of  his  vassals, 
was  unable  to  dislodge  the  invaders  from 
Nottingham,  which  ^ey  had  seized.  East 
Anglia  was  completely  conquered,  and  its 
king,  Edmund,  put  to  death.  In  871  the 
Danes  attacked  Wessex,  and  made  Reading 
their  head-quarters.  Thence  they  sallied 
forth,  and  no  less  than  nine  pitched  battles 
("folk-fights"),  besides  numerous  smaller 
engagements,  were  fought  between  the  Danes, 
led  by  Bagsecg  and  Halfdene,  and  the  English, 
under  Ethelred  and  his  brother  Alfred.  The 
most  important  of  these  fights  took  place  at 
Ashdown,  in  which  the  English  were  com- 
pletely victorious ;  but  in  many  of  the  other 
battles  the  Danes  got  the  upper  hand.  In  the 
midst  of  this  struggle  Ethelred  died,  proba- 
bly of  his  wounds.  He  was  succeeded  l)y  his 
brother  Alfred.    [Danes;  Alfred.] 

Asaer,  Life  of  Alfred:  Anglo-Saxon  Chiron, ; 
Panh,  Life  of  Alfred, 

Ethelred  (JEthelrbd)  XX,,  Kiko  {b.  968, 
t.  979,  d.  lOief,  sometimes  called  the  "  Un- 
ready " — ^the  rurposeless — the  son  of  Edgar 
by  Klfrida,  was  bom  in  the  year  968,  and  suc- 
ceeded on  the  murder  of  his  half-brother 
Edward.  During  the  early  part  of  his  reign 
the  government  was  in  the  hands  of  Ms 
mother,  and  very  probably  Dunstan  (q.v.) 
remained  chief  adviser.  We  read  of  in- 
cursions of  the  Danes  from  the  veiy  com- 
mencement of  this  reign,  but  it  was  not 
till  after  the  death  of  Dunstan,  in  988,  that 
we  have  the  beginning  of  Danish  attempts 
at  settlement.  In  991  East  Anglia  was 
attacked,  and  the  great  battle  of  IVIaldon 
fought,  in  which  the  brave  Ealdorman 
Brihtnoth  was  slain.  In  this  year  too,  by 
the  advice  of  Archbishop  Sigeric,  the  fatal 
plan  of  bu^'ing  off  the  invaders  was  adopted. 
In  addition  to  foreign  enemies,  Ethelred 
had  to  contend  against  treason  at  home, 
his  two  fevourites,  Elfric,  Ealdorman  of 
Mercia,  and  Edric  Streona,  frequently  be- 
traying his  plans  to  the  Danes.  After  re- 
pelled raids  on  England,  Olaf  of  Norway 


Bth 


(442  ) 


£th 


was  boaght  off  in  994.  But  the  Danes  still 
continued  their  incursions.  In  997  Devon 
and  Cornwall,  in  998  Doi'set  and  Hampshire, 
and  in  999  Kent,  were  carried  by  them. 
In  1000  Ethelred  led  an  aimy  into  Cum- 
berland against  Alalcolm,  who  had  refused 
to  pay  money  for  bujing  off  the  Danes, 
and  in  the  same  year  an  £2nglish  force  in- 
vaded Normandy  unsuccessfully.  The  quarrel 
with  Normandy  was,  however,  soon  made 
up,  and  in  1002  Ethelred  married  Emma, 
the  sister  of  the  Norman  duke.  In  that  year 
the  sum  of  £24,000  was  paid  to  the  Danes. 
This  year  also  saw  an  attempt  to  exterminate 
the  Danes  by  the  massacre  of  St.  Brice 
(1002),  which,  far  from  accomplishing  its 
purpose,  only  led  to  Sweyn  gathering  a  large 
force  together  to  avenge  the  slaughter.  Uo 
captured  Exeter  and  Salisbury,  and  met 
with  no  resistance,  save  in  East  Anglia.  In 
1006  "the  g^i^eat  fleet  came  to  Sandwich,  and 
did  all  as  they  were  wont ;  they  ravaged  and 
burned  and  destroyed  wherever  thev  went." 
Once  more  they  were  bribed  to  leave  England. 
In  1008  Ethelred  got  together  a  fleet  to  oppose 
the  Danes,  but  quaiTcLs  among  the  commanders 
and  a  great  storm  ruined  this  project,  and  tho 
last  chance  against  the  invaders  was  gone. 
In  1009  London  was  ineffectually  attacked, 
but  Oxford  was  burnt,  and  "  at  length  there 
was  no  head  man  who  would  assemble  forces, 
but  each  fled  as  he  best  might;  nor  at  the 
last  woald  even  one  shiro  help  another." 
In  1013  Sweyn  made  another  great  attack 
on  England.  The  North  at  once  submitted 
to  him,  and  by  the  end  of  tho  year  he  was 
master  of  the  whole  countr}',  and  was 
acknowledged  king,  and  Ethelied  fled,  with 
his  wife  and  children,  to  his  brother-in- 
law's  court  in  Normandy.  But  Sweyn's 
death,  in  Februar>%  1014,  enabled  Ethel- 
red to  return.  With  tho  aid  of  his  son 
Edmund  he  drove  out  Canute,  who  had  been 
chosen  king  by  the  Danish  portion  of  the 
inhabitants.  But  Canute  i-ctuined  in  1015, 
and  ravaged  Wesscx ;  next  year  he  fwissed 
into  Mercia  and  Northumbria,  which  sub- 
mitted to  him.  While  ho  was  preparing  for 
the  final  conquest  of  Wossex,  Ethelred  died 
(April  23, 10 1 6) .  Ethelred  was  twice  married, 
his  first  wife  being  JElflsed,  and  his  second, 
Emma  of  Normandy.  Of  Ethelred  the 
Afifflo-Saxoti  Chronicle  says,  "he  held  his 
kingdom  with  great  toil  and  great  diffi- 
culties the  while  that  his  life  lasted."  Among 
the  West  Saxon  kings,  Mr.  Freeman  remarks, 
"  Ethelred  stands  alone  in  presenting  the 
wretched  spectacle  of  a  long  reign  of  utter 
misgovemment,  imrcdeemed,  as  ikv  as  we  can 
see,  by  any  of  those  personal  excellences 
which  have  sometimes  caused  public  errors 
and  crimes  to  be  forgotten." 

iln^lo-SoMm  Chrtm, ;  Loppenberg,  ^tiglo-Saxon 
KifiQt  i  Freemaa,  ITorm.  Conq,^  vol.  i. 

Bthelred  (.£thslred}.  King  of  Mercia 


(675 — 704),  was  the  son  of  Penda  and  brother 
of  Wulfere,  whom  he  succeeded.  Ue  married 
Osthryth,  sister  of  Alfi'ed  of  Northumbria. 
He  defeated  Lothaire  of  Kent  in  675,  and 
ravaged  tho  whole  of  that  kingdom.  The 
remainder  of  his  reign  was  peao^ul,  save  for 
an  attack  on  his  brother-in-law,  whom  he 
compelled  to  restore  the  province  of  Lindsey 
to  Mercia.  He  resigned  the  crown  in  704  in 
&vour  of  his  nephew,  Cenred,  and  became 
a  monk  in  the  abbey  of  Bardesey,  where  he 
died,  in  716. 

Ethelred  (JEthelhep),  King  of  North- 
umbria (774—779  and  789—793),  was  the 
son  of  Ethelwald.  In  the  fifth  year  of  his 
reign  he  was  compelled  to  abdicate  and  fly 
the  countr}',  but  the  death  of  Alf  wold  and  the 
bad  government  of  Oswold  afforded  an  oppor- 
tunity for  his  return.  He  attempt^  to 
strengthen  himself  by  the  murder  of  his 
uncle,  but  in  the  sequel  was  himself  assassi- 
nated by  some  of  his  thegns. 

Bthelwald  (Ethelwald)  Mo11«  King 
of  Northumbria  (759 — 765),  succeeded  after 
the  murder  of  Oswulf.  His  parentage  ia 
unknown,  but  ver}*-  probably  he  was  one  of 
the  thegns  who  assassinated  Oswulf.  Civil 
war  distracted  his  reign,  and  he  was  even- 
tually defeated,  and  obliged  to  resign  his 
throne. 

Sthelwald  (JEthelwald)  was  the  son 
of  Ethelred  I.  In  901  he  rebelled  against 
Edward  tho  Elder,  and  seized  Wai%ham,  say- 
ing that  he  would  either  live  thero  or  die 
thero,  but  on  the  approach  of  Edward,  he  fled 
to  the  Danes  in  Northumbria.  In  904  he 
subdued  Essex,  and  persuaded  the  East 
Anglian  Danes  to  invade  Mercia,  but  in  906 
was  slain  in  a  skirmish. 

Ethelweard  (^Ethelweard),  or  as  he 
styles  himsf^lf  *'Fabius  Questor  Ethel- 
werdus,"  was  the  author  of  a  Latin  Chronicle 
of  the  Saxon  Kings  of  England.  Of  the 
author  nothing  is  known  with  certainty, 
beyond  the  fact  that  ho  was  (according  to  his 
own  account)  the  great-grandson  of  King 
Ethelred,  brother  of  Alfred  the  Great.  He 
probably  died  in  the  closing  years  of  the 
tenth  century.  Ethelweard's  Chronicle  ex- 
tends from  the  Creation  to  the  reig^  of 
Edgar.  It  is  for  the  most  part  a  mere  Latin 
abridgment  of  Bedels  Ecelesiaatieal  HUiory 
and  the  Angh^Saxon  Chronicle ;  but,  sa^^s  Sir 
T.  Hardy,  "  he  has  the  merit  of  being  the 
only  Latin  historian  in  an  intei*val  of  two 
centuries." 

Ethel weard's  ChronicU  was  first  printed  by 
Sir  H.  SATile  in  1596,  in  Seriptom  Pott  B«dam, 
and  has  been  reprinted  in  the  Mcnumenta 
HiatorioB  BritanniiB, 

XSthelwnlf  (iETKELwrLp),  King  of  the 
West  Saxons  (».  837,  rf.  858),  was  the  son  of 
Egbert,  whom  he  succeeded.  His  reign  was 
occupied  in  great  measure  in  repelling  the 


(443) 


incnnions  of  the  Danes,  by  whom  he  was 

defeated,    in     840,     at     Charmouth,     and 

who,    in    851,    captured    Canterbury    and 

London,  and  drove  out  the  Mercian  king. 

Ethel wulf  marched  against  them,  and  routed 

them  at  Oekley;    and  in  853  he    assisted 

Burhred,  King  of  Mercia,  against  the  North 

Welsh,   **and  made  them   all    obedient  to 

him."     In  855  the  Danes,  for  the  first  time, 

wintered  in  England,  and  in  this  year  Ethel- 

wulf  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome,  whither  he 

had  sent  his  youngest  son,  Alfred,  two  years 

previoualy.     On  his  way  home  be  married 

Judith,    daughter    of    Charles   the    Bold, 

King  of  the  West  fVanks,  and  grandson  of 

Charleniagne.      During  his   absence,  Asser 

tells  us,  his  son,  Etbelbald,  conspired  against 

him,  and  Ethelwulf ,  on  his  T>;tum,  to  avoid  a 

civil  war,  gave  up  Wessex  to  him,  retaining 

only  Kent  for  himself.    Ethelwulf  is  best 

known  for  his  famous  '*  Donation,"  which  is 

often  said  to  have  originated  the  system  of 

Tithes  (q.v.).    In  reality,  it  was  merely  "the  ' 

devotion  of  a  tenth  part  of  his  private  estate 

to  ecclesiHstical  purposes,  the  relief  of  a  tenth 

part  of  the   folk-land   from   all    payments 

except  the  Trinoda  neeettitasy  and  the  direction 

that  every  ten  hides  of  his  land  should  provide 

for  one  poor  man  or  stranger." 

ilMfflo-Sonm    ChronicXei    Lappenbery,  Ang\»- 
Baxcn  Kings;  Stubbo,  Contt.  Hut.,  chap.  viii. 


{d.  1153),  the  second  son  of 
King  Stephen,  was  heir-apparent  to  his 
father  by  the  death  of  his  elder  brother,  Bald- 
win. Stephen  was  extremely  ^xixious  that 
Eustace  should  be  crowned  king  in  his  life- 
time, thus  ensuring  the  succession  to  him,  but 
this  the  Pope  refused  to  allow,  it  being  evi- 
dent that  such  a  course  would  only  perpetuate 
the  period  of  civil  war.  Eustace  died  in  1153, 
and  thus  the  way  was  open  for  the  compro- 
mise between  Stephen  and  Henry  II.,  which 
was  effected  by  the  Treaty  of  Wallingford. 
Eustace  married  Constance,  sister  of  Louis 
VII.  of  France,  but  left  no  children. 

Butaw  Springs,  The  Battle  of  (Sept.  8, 
1781),  was  the  last  serious  engagement  in  the 
American  War  of  Independence.  On  the  de- 
parture of  Lord  Bawdon  for  England,  Colonel 
Stewart  had  succeeded  to  the  command  at 
Charleston.  Grreene  was  too  strong  and  too  un- 
embarrassed to  remain  any  longer  quiet,  and  he 
descended  from  the  Santee  HUls,  with  the  in- 
tention of  driving  the  British  into  Charleston, 
and  there  blockading  them.  Stewart  met  him 
at  the  Eutaw  Springs.  At  first  the  English 
were  repulsed  along  the  whole  line,  but  they 
gained  time  to  rafly,  and  returning  to  the 
attack,  drove  the  Americans  from  thjir  posi- 
tions, and  remained  masters  of  the  field. 
Their  loss,  however,  was  seven  hundred  men, 
who  could  be  ill  spared,  especially  in  their 
then  critical  condition  of  affairs.  Stewart 
was  too  much  weakened  to  reap  any  results 
from  his  victory,  and  was  compelled  to  faU 


back  to  Charleston  Neck,  and  to  look  on 

while  Greene  overran  South   Carolina  and 

Georgia. 

Bancroft.  Hid.  of  Amtrioan   jR«volu(ton,   iv.^ 
ebap.  24;  Stanhope*  HiU.  ofEng.t  chap.  5i. 

Srelyn,  Jokx  {b.  1620,  d.  1706),  served 
in  several  official  positions  during  the  reign  ot 
Charlea  II.  He  was  one  of  the  Council  for 
the  Management  of  the  Plantations,  and  a 
member  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  in  1695 
he  became  Treasurer  of  Greenwich  Hospital. 
Evelyn  wrote  several  works  on  horticulture, 
architecture,  and  general  literature.  He  was 
also  the  author  of  a  Diat'y,  which,  together 
with  his  letters,  was  fint  printed  in  1818, 
and  has  been  frequently  republished.  Evelj'n's 
Memoirs  are  of  great  value  for  their  sketches 
of  persons  and  society  during  the  latter  half 
of  the  seventeenth  centur}\ 

Sveshaniy  Thb  Battle  of  (1265),  was 
fought  during  the  Barons'  War  between  Prince 
Edward  and  Simon  de  Montfort.  The  quarrel 
with  the  De  Clares  and  the  escape  of  Prince 
Edward  had  arrayed  a  formidable  band  of 
enemies  against  De  Montfort.  The  royalists 
were  in  the  Welsh  Marches,  whither  Simon 
set  out  against  them :  but  by  the  capture  of 
Gloucester  they  cut  off  his  retreat,  and  haring 
routed  the  younger  Simon,  Edward  marched  to 
Evesham,  where  De  Montfort  was  waiting  for 
his  son.  On  August  4  the  armies  met,  and  De 
Montfort  at  once  peix^ived  that  he  was  alto- 
gether  outnumbered.  ^*  God  have  mercy  on 
our  souls,"  he  cried,  "  for  our  bodies  are  the 
prince's  ! "  In  vain  he  attempted  to  force  his 
way  to  Kenilworth,  and  at  lenKth  all  he  could 
do  was  to  draw  his  troops  round  him  in  a  com- 

Skct  ring,  and  await  the  attack  of  the  royalists, 
is  son  Henry  fell  at  his  feet,  and  at  last  the 
earl  himself  rushed  into  the  thickest  of  the 
fight,  and  was  hewn  down.  The  royalists 
refused  quarter,  and  terrible  havoc  was  made 
of  the  li^ronial  forces.  "  The  victor}'  of  the 
king's  party  at  Evesham,"  says  ^Ir.  Blaanw, 
"  was  so  complete,  that  the  oisproportionate 
loss  on  the  other  side,  betokening  more  a 
surprise  than  a  battle,  caused  it  to  be  thus 
described  by  Robert  of  Gloucester:  'Such 
was  the  murder  of  Evesham,  for  battle  none 
it  was  ! ' "  The  royalists  had  distinguished 
themselves  by  red  crosses  on  their  arms,  and 
the  few  who  fell  in  the  action  owed  their 
death  to  neglect  of  this  precaution,  being  killed 
by  their  own  comrades  in  mistake. 

Matt.   Paris.  Hiat,  Ma^. ;    Blaauw,   Baroiu* 
War  ;  Pauli,  Simon  d«  Uwiifovi. 

SveflliailLy  Thb  Chroniclb  of,  is  a 
monastic  record,  containing  a  history  from  the 
foundation  of  the  abbey  at  the  end  of  the 
seventh  century  to  the  year  1415.  Though 
of  slight  historical  value,  it  is  important  for  the 
accurate  and  detailed  picture  it  gives  of  the 
inner  and  daily  life  of  a  great  abbey. 

SxclMq^uer  was  the  name  of  the  court 
in  which,  after  the  Conquest,  the  financial 


(444  ) 


business  of  the  country  was  transacted.  The 
name  arose  from  the  chequered  cloth,  like  a 
chess-board,  which  covered  the  table  of  the 
(iourt.  The  chequers  were  probably  useful  in 
counting  money,  for  which  purpose  counters 
were  used  as  late  as  the  reign  of  Edward  II. 
The  organisation  of  the  court  dates  from 
Henry  I.,  and  it  seems  to  have  been  originally 
merely  a  specialised  financial  committee  of  the 
Great  Council.  Its  principal  officers  were  the 
great  officers  of  the  state  and  household,  with 
certain  others,  councillors  or  judges,  appointed 
by  the  king,  who  were  called  Barons  of  the 
Exchequer  (Baronet  Seacearii) .  The  court  was 
generally  held  at  Westminster,  but  was  not 
fixed  there  in  the  twelfth  century.  Henry  11. 
restored  the  court,  and  a  full  account  of  it  as 
it  existed  in  his  reign  is  contained  in  the 
work  called  Dialogm  de  Seaceario.  Two  full 
sessions  were  held  each  vear,  at  Easter  and 
Michaelmas.  At  these  the  sheriffs  gave  in 
their  accounts.  These  accounts  were  rendered 
in  three  divisions :  in  the  prefer ^  at  which 
the  sheriff  paid  the  larger  part  of  the 
money  in  hand ;  the  vUue  eompoti^  or  state- 
ment; and  the  twntna,  or  final  balance,  with 
vouchers.  All  the  revenue  from  the  ferm  or 
rent  of  the  counties,  the  danegeld,  pleas  of 
the  crown,  aids,  and  other  feudal  dues,  were 
thus  brought  into  the  Exchequer.  The  ac- 
counts with  the  sheriffs  were  kept  by  tallies, 
or  pieces  of  wood  inscribed  and  notched. 
These  were  divided  down  the  middle,  and  one- 
half  was  kept  by  the  sheriff  and  the  other  by 
the  court.  Pa^-ment  of  the  ferm  of  the 
counties  was  made  in  money  instead  of  in 
kind  in  the  reign  of  Henr}''  II.  Besides  the 
receipt  of  revenue,  the  business  of  the  Ex- 
chequer included  jurisdiction  in  cases  which 
affected  the  revenue  by  the  payment  of  fines ; 
it  recorded  ag^reements,  charters,  and  feoff- 
ments ;  and  it  sometimes  seems  to  have  acted 
as  a  political  council  of  state,  especially  in 
matters  of  foreign  treaties.  "When  the  office 
of  Justiciar  became  extinct,  the  place  of 
president  at  the  Exchequer  Boara,  which 
formerly  belonged  to  the  Justiciar,  was  taken 
by  the  Treasurer.  By  4  &  5  Will.  IV.,  c.  16, 
the  whole  position  of  the  Exchequer  as  regards 
the  receipt  of  revenue  was  changed.  For 
this  purpose  its  organisation  consists  of  a 
Board,  at  the  head  of  which  is  an  officer  called 
the  Comptroller-General.  All  revenue  is  paid 
into  the  Bank  of  England  to  his  account,  and 
all  payments  made  by  the  Exchequer  are  made 
in  virtue  of  warrants  from  the  Treasury. 

The  Exchequer  must  also  be  considered 
with  reference  to  jurisdiction.  No  small  part 
of  its  iudicial  business  was  lost  by  the  separa- 
tion of  the  Court  of  Common  Fleas  from  the 
King's  Bench  (Magna  Charta,  art.  17).  It 
still  retained  jurisdiction  in  revenue  cases, 
and  in  the  pleas  of  all  who  were  in  any  way 
connected  with  the  court.  Special  leave  was 
also  given  to  implead  in  the  Exchecmer  as 
an  indulgence.    Like  the  other  conns,  the 


Exchequer  drew  business  to  itself  wherever  it 
was  possible.  This  usurpation  of  jurisdiction 
was  made  a  subject  of  complaint,  and  by  the 
Artieuli  super  cartas  (28  Ed.  I.,  c  4)  it  was 
provided  that  no  common  pleas  except  those 
of  privileged  persons  should  be  heard  in  that 
court.  From  the  reign  of  Edward  II.  a 
regular  series  of  Chief  Barons  begins.  With 
this  separate  organisation,  however,  the  usur- 
pation by  the  Exchequer  of  jurisdiction 
properly  belonging  to  other  courts  continued. 
It  drew  jurisdiction  to  itself  by  means  of  a 
writ  of  quo  minus,  in  which  it  was  suggested 
that  the  plaintiff  was  indebted  to  the  crown, 
and  needed  payment  from  the  defendant  to 
enable  him  to  pay  the  king.  Courts  of  Ex- 
chequer were  set  up  in  Scotland  and  in  Ireland, 
when  those  countries  were  united  to  England 
as  regards  legislation.  The  fiction  of  the  writ 
of  quo  minus  was  abolished  by  2  Will.  lY.,  c 
39 — the  Uniformity  of  Process  Act — and  a 
proper  jurisdiction  was  given  to  the  Elz- 
chequer.  An  equitable  jurisdiction  also  per- 
tained to  this  court,  which  was  extended  by 
the  same  means  as  those  used  in  its  common 
law  side.  While,  however,  the  barons  were 
the  judges  on  the  common  law  side,  the  Trea- 
surer and  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  pre- 
sided in  equity  cases.  The  appointment  of 
the  Chancier  dates  from  the  reign  of  Edward 
II.  In  his  oath  of  office  he  bound  himself  to 
use  the  seal  of  the  Exchequer  for  no  writs  of 
other  courts  while  the  Chancery  was  within 
twenty  miles.  The  last  case  in  which  the 
Chancellor  exercised  judicial  functions  was  in 
1735.  The  equity  business  of  the  Exchequer 
was  transferred  to  the  Court  of  Chancery  by 
5  Yict.,  c.  6.  The  Court  of  Exchequer  has 
now  become,  by  the  Act  of  1873,  the  Ex- 
chequer Division  of  the  High  Court  of 
Justice.  The  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
has  now  no  judicial  functions,  and  is  the 
member  of  the  cabinet  who  is  at  the  head  of 
the  financial  administration  and  acts  as 
Minister  of  Finance. 

The  Court  of  Exchequer  Chamber  was  erected 
as  a  statutory  court  by  31  Ed.  III.,  c.  12,  to 
decide  cases  on  writs  of  error  from  the 
common  law  side  of  the  Exchequer.  Its  j udges 
were  the  Lord  Chancellor,  the  Lord  Treasurer, 
and  the  justices  of  the  King's  Bench  and 
Common  Pleas.  This  court  was  re-organised 
by  27  Eliz.,  c.  8,  which  may  indeed  be  more 
properly  said  to  have  created  a  new  court, 
having  jurisdiction  in  appeal  from  the  King's 
Bench.  By  1  WilL  IV.,  c.  70,  a  new  court  was 
erected,  for  the  judgments  of  each  common- 
law  court  were  made  subject  to  revision  by 
the  judges  of  the  other  two  courts  sitting  in 
the  £x<3kequer  Chamber.  The  appellate  juris- 
diction of  this  court  was  transrerred  to  the 
new  Court  of  Appeal,  founded  by  the  ^- 
prem0  Court  of  Judicature  Act  (36  &  37 
Vict.,  c.  66,  s.  18). 

Uadox,  Hi  A  of  ths  Sxekstptsr ;  Stabbs,  OsmC 
Hiat.,  chape,  xi.,  XV.  [W.  H.] 


(446) 


I,  Ths,  is  generally  defined  as  a 
duty  charged  before  fheir  sale  on  goods  which 
are  manunu;tured  and  consumed  at  home ;  but 
it  is  sometimes  used  of  any  tax  laid  upon  the 
retail  trade.  It  is  generally  supposed  that 
this  tax  was  first  levied  in  England  by  the 
Parliamentary  party  in  the  time  of  the  Civil 
War ;  but  it  is  obvious  that  some  of  the  im- 
posts of  the  later  Angevin  kings  may  have 
been  exacted  in  this  way.  However,  it  was 
not  until  1643,  when  an  excise  on  liquors  was 
imposed,  in  imitation  of  the  Dutch,  by  an 
ordinance  of  both  Houses,  and  afterwards  b^ 
the  king's  rival  convention  at  Oxford,  that  it 
became  a  recognised  source  of  revenue.  After 
the  Kestoration  half  its  produce  was  assigned 
to  the  crown  in  compensation  for  the  surrender 
of  the  revenues  derived  from  feudal  tenure, 
whereby  the  burdens  of  the  rich  were  trans- 
ferred to  the  whole  nation.  James  II.  ob- 
tained from  his  first  Parliament  extra  excise 
and  custom  duties,  valued  at  £900,000  a  year, 
but  only  £300,000  of  this,  taken  from  the 
excise,  was  granted  to  William  and  Mary, 
although  the  revenue  granted  to  Charles  II. 
was  continued.  At  the  same  time,  Parliament 
declared  the  excise  to  be  *'  the  most  easy  and 
indifferent  levy  that  could  be  laid  upon  the 
people.'*  This  view  was  not  shared  by  the 
nation  at  large,  and  the  excise  long  continued 
to  be  a  most  obnoxious  tax,  the  popular  preju- 
dices, caused  partly  by  the  practice  of  lettmg 
oat  the  duties  in  farm,  and  partly  by  the 
obscurity  of  the  statutes  bearing  on  the  sub- 
ject, being  even  entertained  by  men  like  Black- 
stone  and  Dr.  Johnson.  Sir  Robert  Walpole, 
in  1733,  found  them  fatal  to  his  celebrated 
Excise  Scheme.  He  wished  to  conciliate  the 
country  gentlemen  by  diminishing  the  land- 
tax  to  one  shilling,  and  for  that  purpose  im- 
posed a  duty  on  salt.  When  the  new  tax  was 
found  to  fall  short  by  two-thirds  of  the  re- 
quired amount,  he  proposed — ^not  indeed,  as 
had  been  reported — a  general  system  of  excise, 
but  the  substitution  of  excise  duties  for  cus- 
toms duties  on  wine  and  tobacco.  By  this 
means  smuggling  would  be  lessened,  while  by 
a  system  of  warehousing  without  tax  for  re- 
exportation, London  would  become  a  free  port. 
The  Opposition,  however,  raised  a  most  Wolent 
outcry  against  the  measure,  and  the  general 
dislike  to  it  was  so  great  that  it  was  thought  an 
attempt  to  enforce  it  would  have  been  met  by 
armed  resistance  in  some  localities,  the  ministe- 
rial party  dwindled  rapidly  away,  and  Walpole 
was  compelled  to  withdraw  the  bill  based  upon 
his  resolution.  Subsequent  ministries,  how- 
ever, increased  the  amount  of  the  excise  duties, 
partly  to  decrease  drunkenness  (for  instance, 
m  1746  a  tax  of  20s.  a  gallon  was  laid  on 
spirits,  and  in  consequence  smuggling  in- 
creased a  hundredfold),  and  levied  them  on  a 
large  number  of  commodities.  This  was  espe- 
cially the  case  during  the  great  struggle  with 
Napoleon,  when  the  excise  included  taxes  on 
nearly  ever}"  conceivable  article  of  home  manu- 


facture and  consumption — ^licences  to  permit 
persons  to  carry  on  certain  trades,  to  shoot 
game,  post-horse  duties,  duties  on  sales  by 
auction,  and  other  impositions.  A  great  many 
of  these  duties  have,  however,  since  been 
abolished,  and  others  have  been  transferred  to 
the  customs.  The  excise  is  now  almost  con- 
fined to  British  spirits  and  malt  liquors.  The 
noana^ment  of  the  excise  has  also  been 
simplified,  notably  in  1823,  when  the  separate 
boards  for  the  three  kingdoms  were  abolished, 
and  in- 1848,  when  the  B<iard  left  Gresham 
House,  and  was  merged  with  those  of  stamps 
and  taxes  into  the  Inland  Revenue  Board  at 
Somerset  House.    [CrsTOMs.] 

Haaband,  Codedicn  of  Ordinanoea,  p.  267; 
Comnunu  Joumalt,  Sept.,  1660 ;  Hallun,  Coiuf. 
Hitt,  iU,  chaps,  z.,  zi. ;  Liogaxd,  z.  267;  Stan- 
hope, HifC.  0/  England,  ii.  16 ;  Reporta  of  <h« 
Commimoneri  of  Excise In^utry,  1883  \1  kB  G^. 
IV.,  C.  53 ;  8  dl  4  Vict.,  c.  6,  7.  [L.  C.  S.] 

Sxoliudon  Billy  The,  was  first  brought 
into  the  House  of  Commons  in  1679.  It  dis- 
abled the  Duke  of  York,  as  a  Papist,  from 
succeeding  to  the  crown,  should  he  outlive 
his  brother.  It  met  with  consideiable  oppo- 
sition in  the  Commons,  but  eventually  passed 
by  207  votes  to  128,  upon  which  Charles 
dissolved  Parliament.  He  was,  however,  soon 
obliged  to  summon  it  again  ^October,  1680), 
and  the  Exclusion  Bill  was  again  passed  by  the 
Commons ;  but  the  Lords,  chiefly  through  the 
influence  of  Halifax,  rejected  it  by  63  to  30. 
In  January,  1681,  the  Commons  vdted  that 
no  supplies  should  be  granted  till  the  Exclusion 
Bill  was  passed,  and  refused  to  entertain 
Halifax's  proposal,  by  which  James  was  to 
rule  only  in  name,  a  regent  being  appointed 
on  his  accession  to  the  crown.  Again  the 
Parliament  was  dissolved  (January  16,  1681), 
but  not  before  the  Commons  had  voted  that 
the  opponents  of  the  Exclusion  Bill  were  traitors 
bought  with  French  money.  Again,  in  the 
Parnament  which  met  at  Oxford  in  March, 
1681,  the  Commons  insisted  on  the  passing  of 
-  the  Exclusion  Bill.  But  this  Parli^ent  was 
in  like  manner  dissolved,  and  Charles  sum- 
moned no  more  Parliaments  during  his  reign, 
and  consequenUy,  the  Exclusion  Bill  fell 
through.  The  Exclusion  Bill  had  proposed 
that  the  crown  should  descend  to  the  heirs  of 
the  Duke  of  York  on  Charles's  demise,  in  the 
same  manner  as  if  the  duke  was  himself 
dead ;  but  in  spite  of  the  temper  of  the  times 
a  great  deal  of  opposition  to  the  measure  arose 
from  the  fear  that  Shaftesbury  and  others 
were  desirous  of  making  Monmouth  king. 

Burnet,  Hist,  qf  his  Own  lYm*;  Hanke,  HUi, 
ofEt\g. ;  Macaulay,  Hut.  of  Bng.;  Chiutie,  Life 
of  Sh<i/lMbury. 


was  probably  a  hill-fort  of  the 
Celtic  inhabitants  of  Damnonia.  Its  ancient 
name  Caer  JTixc  became  Itea,  or  Itea  Datnno^ 
niorum  in  Latin,  and  ExaneeatUr  in  Anglo- 
Saxon.  Conquered  by  the  English  at  an 
uncertain  date,  the  city  was  strongly  fortified 


(446) 


by  Athelstan.  It  was  several  times  besieged 
by  the  Danes  in  the  reifi;ns  of  Alfred  and 
Ethelred  II.,  and  captured  by  Swevn,  owing 
to  the  treason  of  its  governor,  Hugh .  the 
French,  in  1003.  It  was  erected  an  episcopal 
see  by  Edward^  the  Confessor  in  1046.  In 
1067  Exeter  was  besieged  and  captured  by 
William  the  Conqueror.  In  Sept.,  1497, 
it  was  unsuccessfully  besieged  bv  Perkin 
Warbeck,  and  in  1549  it  successfully  stood  a 
great  siege  against  the  Western  insurgents, 
lluroughout  the  Ci\'il  War,  Exeter  was  for 
the  moat  part  Royalist.  It  was  captured  by 
Prince  Maurice •  in  1642,  and  remained  in  the 
hands  of  the  king's  adherents  till  nearly  the 
close  of  the  war,  when  it  was  retaken  by 
Fairfax  (1646).  It  was  the  first  important 
place  in  England  reached  by  William  of 
Orange,  who  entered  Exeter  Nov.  9,  1688. 
The  cathedral,  which  was  commenced  by 
Bishop  William  of  Warlewast  in  1112,  or 
I)erhap9  earlior,  was  not  completed  till  late  in 
the  fifteenth  century. 

Sxeter,  Peerage  of.  In  early  times  the 
Earls  of  Devon  were  frequently  styled  Earls 
of  Exeter.  The  first  distinct  peerage  deriving 
its  name  from  the  city  was  the  dukedom  of 
Exeter,  conferred,  1397,  upon  John  Holland, 
Earl  of  Huntin^on,  third  son  of  Thomas 
Holland,  Earl  of  Kent  (son-in-law  of  Edmund 
Plantagenet,  Earl  of  Kent),  in  1399 ;  how- 
ever,' the  duke  was  degraded,  and  his  honours 
became  ^Forfeit.     In  1416  Thomas  Beaufort, 

S)ungest  son  of  John  of  Gaunt,  was  created 
uke  of  Exeter  for  his  life.  Afterwards, 
1443,  John  Holland,  son  of  the  first  duke, 
was  created  duke,  having  been  restored  in 
blood  and  honours  twenty-six  years  earlier. 
The  dukedom,  however,  again  liecame  forfeit 
on  the  attainder  of  his  son  Henry,  1461.  In 
1525,  Henry  Courtenay,  Earl  of  Devon, 
was  made  Marquis  of  Exeter,  as  was  also  his 
son  Edward,  1553,  the  father  having  been 
attainted  in  1539 ;  on  Edward's  death,  without 
issue,  1556,  the  title  became  extinct.  In  1605 
Thomas  Cecil,  second  Lord  Burghley,  was 
created  £arl  of  Exeter,  and  the  honour  still 
remains  in  his  family,  Henry  Cecil,  tenth  earl, 
haWng  been  advanced  to  a  Marqttitats  of  the 
same  style,  1801. 


,,  Henry  Holland,  Ditxb  op 
(d.  1473),  was  the  son  of  John,  Duke  of 
Exeter.  He  was  one  of  the  principal  leaders 
of  the  Lancastrian  party,  though  he  married 
Anne,  daughter  of  Richard,  Duke  of  York. 
He  fought  in  the  battles  of  Wakefield  and 
Towton,  and  after  the  latter,  escaped  to  Scot- 
land, and  was  attainted  by  Edward  lY.  He 
afterwards  returned,  and  fought  in  the  battle 
of  Bamet,  where  he  was  left  for  dead  on  the 
field,  but  recovering,  fied  to  France,  where  he 
was  in  such  abject  poverty  that  he  was 
obliged  to  beg  his  br^ad  in  the  streets.  In 
1473  his  corpse  was  discovered  on  the  sea- 


shore near  Dover,  without  any  clue  as  to  how 
it  got  there. 

Sxeterp  Thomas  Beaufort,  Dukb  of 
(d.  1427),  was  the  son  of  John  of  Gaunt  and 
Catherine  Sw3mf  ord.  He  was  appointed  Cap- 
tain of  Calais  in  1407,  and  in  1410  succeeded 
Arundel  as  Chancellor.  He  held  the  Great 
Seal  for  two  years,  and  on  his  resignation,  was 
created  Earl  of  Dorset.  He  was  one  of  the 
commanders  in  the  French  wars  of  Henry  V. 
and  Henry  VI.'s  reigns,  and  in  1415  was  made 
Duke  of  Exeter.  He  was  taken  prisoner  in  the 
battle  of  Beaug6  in  1421,  but  was  released 
soon  after,  and  was  one  of  the  Council  during 
the  minorit%'  of  Henry  VI.  He  married 
Margaret,  daughter  of  Sir  T.  Neville,  but 
left  no  issue. 


%  Thomas  Cecil,  Earl  of  {b.  1542, 
d,  1622),  uie  eldest  son  of  Lord  Burleigh, 
was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  queen*s  troops 
against  the  northern  rebels  m  1569;  he 
took  part  in  the  Scotch  expedition  in  favour 
of  the  Regent  Murray,  and  subsequently  did 
good  service  in  the  Low  Countries,  in  reward 
for  which  he  was  made  Governor  of  Hull, 
1585.  He  was  created  Earl  of  Exeter  by 
James  L,  1605. 

Szliiliitiony  The  Great  (1851).  The 
idea  of  holding  a  great  international  exposi- 
tion of  the  industnal  products  of  the  world, 
if  it  did  not  originate  with  Prince  Albert,  the 
husband  of  Queen  Victoria,  was  taken  up  by 
him  with  so  much  energ^%  that  the  credit 
belongs  to  him.  Under  his  auspices  a  Royal 
Commission  for  this  purpose  was  issaed  in 
Jan.,  1850,  and  on  ^lay  1,  1851,  the  exhibition 
was  opened  by  the  Queen  in  Hyde  Park. 
It  remained  open  till  Oct.  15,  1851,  having 
attained  a  success  beyond  all  expectation. 
The  buildings  of  glass  and  iron  were  sub- 
sequently removed  to  form  the  Crystal  Pklace 
at  Sydenham.  A  second  international  ex- 
hibition was  held  from  May  to  November, 
1862 ;  and  since  then  many  others  have  been 
held  in  London  and  almost  every  ci\dliBed 
capital. 

SztoXL.  Sir  Piers,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  a  mative  of  Sir  Nicholas  Exton,  who 
was  Lord  Mayor  of  London  in  1386  and  1387. 
Exton  is  said  to  have  murdered  Richard  II. 
in  Pontefract  Castle,  but  the  whole  circum- 
stances of  Richard's  death  are  too  obscure  to 
allow  us  to  charge  him  with  the  crime  with 
any  degree  of  confidence. 

Sxtradition  is  the  surrender  of  fugitives 
from  justice  by  one  state  to  another.  No 
systematic  usage  in  this  matter  prevailed 
until  the  present  century.  Perhaps  the  only 
early  treaty  containing  a  prorision  as  to 
extradition  was  that  of  1174,  between  William 
of  Scotland  and  Henry  II.,  wherein  it  was 
agreed  that  persons  gmlty  of  felony  in  Eng- 
land taking  refuge  in  Scotland  would  be 
given  up,  and  vice  ver$d.     But   the   other 


Fab 


(447) 


Fac 


mediaeval  treaties  usually  quoted — e.g,^  the 
Inttreursua  Magnm  with  Flanders  in  1497 — 
appear  to  have  contained  nothing  more  than 
general  promises  not  to  harbour  rebels.    The 
question  of  extradition  seems  to  have  been 
first  investigated  by  Grotios  and  the  jurists  of 
the  seventeenth  eentuiy,  who  laid  down  the 
principle  that  states  were  bound,  either  by 
the  law  of  nations  or  by  reasons  of  "  comity, 
to  give  up  fugitive  criminals:  but  the  earliest 
distinct  statement  of  English  common  law 
was  the  declaration  of  the  Court  of  Exchequer 
in  1749,  that  "  the  government  may  send  a 
prisoner  to  answer  for  a  crime  wherever  com- 
mitted."    Yet  such  dicta,  though  recognising 
the  duty  of  extradition,  were  of  slight  au- 
thority, and  action  upon  them  could  have  been 
prevented  by  an  appeal  for  a  writ  of  Habeas 
Corpus.    England  for  the  first  time  bound 
itself  by  treaty  at  the  Peace  of  Amiens  in 
1802,  in  which  it  was  agi'eed  witli  France 
that  fugitives  charged  with  forgeiT,  fraudu- 
lent  bemkruptcy,  or  muVler  should  be  sur- 
rendered.    Duiing   the  early    \xcei    of    the 
present  century  the  law  of  extradition  was 
rapidly  developed  in  the  United  States,  owing 
to  the  need  of  some  arrangement  between  the 
States  forming  the  Union  and  between  the 
United    States  and    Oinada.     In    England, 
however,  the  history  of    extradition    really 
^gins  with  the  treaties  of   1842  with  the 
United  States,  and  of  1843  with  France.    In 
1862  a  new  convention  was  made  with  France, 
and  in  this,  for  the  first  time,  exception  was  made 
in  the  esse  of  persons  charged  with  political 
offences.     Each  of   these  treaties  had  been 
confirmed  by  Act  of  Parliament,  the  con- 
stitutional doctrine  being  that,  though  the 
crown  could  make   extradition  treaties,  the 
executive  could  not  carr>*  them  out  without 
statutory  authority.     On  the  other  hand,  "  it 
may  be  regarde^  as  certain  that  England  will 
not  sumender  fugitives  except  under  a  treaty  *' 
(Wheaton,  InUmational  X^tr,  ed.  Boyd,  J  11^> 
ri).     The  Extradition  Act  of  1870  empowered 
the  executive  to  cam-  out  extradition  treaties 
made  in  accordance  with  its  pi'ovisions,  %*iz., 
that  no  fugitive  should  be  surrendered  for  a 
political  offence,  nor  tried  for  any  but  the 
crime  for  which  he  was  demanded.    Under 
this   statute  extradition  ti'eaties    have  been 
made  with  almost  every  European  state,  and 
with  some  others. 

S.  Clarke,  La\t  of  Extraditiim,  2nd  ed.,  1874. 

[W.  J.  A.] 


Faliyaa,  or  Fabiaa,  Robert  {d.  1512), 
was  an  English  chronicler  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. He  was  a  prosperous  London  citizen,  and 
beoune  sheriff  in  1493.  His  book,  A  Concor- 
dance o/Kistoriet,  begins,  as  usual,  with  Brutus, 
ttad  is  a  commonplace  compilation  up  to  his 


own  time,  when  it  becomes  moderately  useful 
as  contemporar}',  if  uncritical,  evidence,  and 
is  especially  full  on  London  history.  The  first 
edition  was  printed  in  1516. 

Factory  Ziegulation.  The  great 
development  of  English  industry  towards  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  centur}',  unaccompanied 
by  any  State  regulation  or  supervision,  led  to 
gross  and  wide-spread  neglect  of  the  com- 
monest precautions  for  the  preservation  of 
the  health  of  the  workers.  In  the  present 
century  a  long  series  of  Acts  have  beon 
passed  designed  to  protect  the  health  of 
labourers  in  factories  and  workshops,  and 
especially  of  women  and  children.  The 
Health  and  Morale  Act  of  1802  (42  Geo.  III., 
c.  73),  was  passed  at  the  instance  of  Sir 
Robert  Peel  the  elder.  It  provided  for 
the  cleansing  tmd  ventilation  of  factories; 
but  the  scandals  of  the  apprentice  system  had 
produced  the  Act,  and  it  was  mainly  directed 
to  limiting  the  hours  of  apprentices'  work  to 
twelve  a  day,  the  prohibition  for  them  of 
night  work,  with  some  arrangements  for  their 
clothing,  education,  and  moral  well-being. 
The  Second  Factory  Act  of  1819  (59  Geo. 
III.,  0.  56)  was  passed  on  the  recommenda- 
tion of  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons^ 
appointed  in  1816.  Its  operation  was  limited 
to  cotton-mills.  By  it,  children  under  nine 
were  not  to  be  employed  at  all.  Between 
nine  and  sixteen,  they  were  not  to  work 
over  twelve  houn  a  day,  and  night  work 
was  prohibited.  In  1833,  lord  Althorpe*e 
Act  (3  &  4  Will.  IV.,  c.  103)  became  law. 
It  introduced  the  "  half-time "  principle 
for  '*  children "  («.«.,  those  between  nine 
and  thirteen),  and  made  their  education 
out  of  work  houn  compulsory'.  The  provi- 
sions confined  by  earlier  Acts  to  cotton-mills 
were  made  more  general,  and  a  new  departure 
was  made  by  some  provision  for  the  welfare 
of  '*  young  penons"  (».;.,  those  between 
thirteen  and  eighteen).  Inspecton  were 
appointed  to  see  the  Acts  carried  out,  as  the 
justices  had  proved  but  inefficient  executon 
of  previous  legislation.  But  a  more  general 
law  was  still  wanted,  and  Sir  Robert  FeeVe 
Factory  Act,  1844  (7  &  8  Vict.,  c.  15},  was 
passed.  Lord  Ashley's  long  and  philanthropic 
agitation  had  won  two  rictories  over  the 
government  in  the  House  of  Commons  in 
favour  of  a  ten  houn'  limit  to  the  labour  of 
women  and  children.  At  last.  Peel  agreed  to 
accept  a  twelve  houn*  limit,  and  the  amended 
bill  of  Lord  Ashley  thus  became  law.  Its  pro- 
visions were  that  the  working  hours  of  chiloren 
under  thirteen  should  be  diminished  to  six  and 
a  half  hours  per  day ;  that  the  time  during 
which  they  were  to  be  under  daily  instruction 
in  schools  should  be  extended  from  two  to 
two  and  a  half  houn  in  winter,  and  three 
houn  in  summer ;  that  the  labour  of  persons 
between  thiiteen  and  eighteen,  and  of  adult 
women  (now  first  brought  under  the  Factory 


(  448) 


Acts),  should  be  limited  to  twelve  hours  a  day ; 
that  a  certificate  of  baptism  should  be  pro- 
duced, if  demanded,  to  prove  that  the  child 
was  really  of  the  age  required  by  the  law; 
that  the  amount  of  the  fines  impoised  for  the 
violation  of  the  law  should  be  diminished, 
but  that  they  should  be  inflicted  for  each 
person  improperly  worked,  instead  of  for 
each  offence,  which  might  include  several 
persons;  and  that  machinery  should  be 
guarded,  to  prevent  accident  Inspectors 
were  appointed  to  carry  out  the  Act.  In 
1847,  Mr.  Fielden,  member  for  Oldham, 
introduced  and  carried  a  bill  which  limited 
the  labour  of  young  people  between  the  ages 
of  thirteen  and  eighteen  to  twelve  houi's  a 
day,  allowing  two  hours  out  of  the  twelve 
for  meals;  and  he  further  proposed  that 
the  same  restriction  should  apply  to  females 
above  eighteen  years  of  age.  The  principle 
of  State  regulation  of  the  labour  of  women 
and  children  was  thus  fully  recognised. 
The  piecemeal  method  of  English  legislation 
rendered  it  now  necessar}''  for  the  friends  of 
the  Factory  Acts  to  get  supplemental 
statutes  passed  to  include  the  unprotected 
industries.  A  few  of  these  Acts,  though  of 
less  general  and  more  technical  interest,  may 
be  biiefly  particularised.  They  included  the 
Mining  Act  of  1842,  which  entirely  prohibited 
female  and  child  labour  in  mines.  In  1845, 
Lord  Ashley's  Print-works^  Act  was  passed. 
In  1850  a  thorough  measure  for  supervising 
mines  was  passed  {Coal  and  Iron  Mines  Act), 
Not  till  1860  were  bleaching  and  dye-works 
included  in  the  Acts;  not  till  1867  were  all 
factories  included  in  the  scope  of  the  Factory 
Acts  Extension  and  Workshop  Regulation  Acts 
(30  &  31  Vict.,  c.  103  &  146) ;  and  even  here 
small  exceptions  required  subsequent  legisla- 
tion, and  the  mistake  of  the  Act  of  1867  in 
entrusting  the  working  to  local  authority 
had  to  be  corrected  in  1871  by  its  trans- 
ferrence  to  government  inspectors.  In  1878 
was  passed  Sir  H.  A.  (now  viscount)  Cross's 
great  measure,  the  Factory  and  Workshop  Act 
(41  Vict.,  c.  16),  repealing,  consolidating,  and 
amending  all  prior  acts.  There  was  further 
legislation  in  1891.  In  1886  Sir  John 
Lubbock's  Shop  Hours  Acty  limiting  the  hours 
of  labour  for  young  persons  in  retail  shops, 
was  passed. 

You  Plener,  English  Factory  Legidationt  trans- 
lated by  Weinman,  is  the  standard  hlstorv. 
For  tbe  working  of  the  Acts,  see  Rspcrt  of  ths 
Factory  Acts  Commission.  Notcntt's  Late  ReuUing 
to  Factories  will  explain  the  present  law.  A 
briefer  account  can  be  found  in  Stanley  Jevons, 
Ths  State  in  Sslation  to  Labour.      [T.  F.  T.  ] 


[,  Ferdinand©  (*.  1584,  d.  1648), 
2nd  Bahon  (of  Cameron,  in  the  peerage 
of  Scotland),  son  of  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax, 
of  Denton,  Yorkshire,  married  Alary,  daughter 
of  Lord  Sheffield.  Lord  Fairfax  repre- 
sented Yorkshire  in  the  Long  Parliament, 
and    was   appointed,   in   Nov.,   1642,    com- 


mander-in-chief of  the  Parliamentary''  forces 
in  the  northern  counties.  After  some  successes 
he  was  obliged  to  retreat  into  the  West  Kiding 
before  the  superior  forces  of  the  Marquis  of 
Newcastle,  and  suffei-ed  a  severe  defeat  at 
Adwalton  Moor,  near  Bradford  (June  30, 
1643).  With  the  remainder  of  his  troops  he 
made  his  way  to  Hull,  which  he  successfully 
held  against  Newcastle's  army,  until  he  forced 
them  to  raise  the  siege  (Sept.  2 — Oct.  11, 
1643).  He  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Marston 
Moor,  and  on  the  capture  of  York  by  the 
combined  army  (July,  1644)  was  appointed 
its  governor.  Me  resigned  in  consequence  of 
the  Self-Denying  Ordinance,  and  died  March 
14,  1648. 


:,  Thomas,  3rd  Lord  {b.  Jan.  12, 
1612,  d.  1671),  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
educated  at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
and  married  Anne,  daughter  of  Lord  Vere 
(1637).  He  served  in  the  royal  army  against 
the  Scots,  and  was  kfiighted  by  the  king  for 
his  services.  When  the  Civil  War  began  he 
acted  as  his  father's  lieutenant  in  Yorkshire. 
On  Jan.  23,  1643,  he  recaptured  Leeds,  and 
on  May  2l8t  Wakefield,  making  on  the  latter 
occasion  1,400  prisoners.  After  the  defeat  at 
Adwalton  Moor,  at  which  he  was  present,  he 
made  his  way  to  Hull,  but  during  the  siege 
joined  Cromwell  in  Lincolnshire  with  hi| 
Yorkshire  horse,  and  helped  to  gain  the  battle 
of  Winceby  (Oct.  12,  1643).  On  Jan.  28, 
1644,  he  defeated  the  king's  Irish  troops  at 
Nantwich,  and  reconquei^  the  county  of 
Cheshire  for  the  Parliament.  On  April  12th 
he  defeated  Lord  Bellasis,  the  Grovemor  of 
York,  at  Selby,  taking  1,600  prisoners.  He 
took  part  in  the  siege  oi  York,  and  commanded 
the  right  wing  of  the  Parliamentar}*'  horse  at 
Marston  Moor,  and  after  the  rout  of  that  wing 
joined  Lord  Manchester's  divi|ion.  After  the 
victory  he  was  occupied  in  reducing  the 
Yorkshire  fortresses.  These  suooesses  led  the 
House  of  Commons  to  appoint  him  commander 
of  the  New  Model  Army  (Jan.  21,  1645).  He 
took  the  field  at  the  end  of  April,  1645,  with 
the  intention  of  relieving  Taunton,  but  was 
recalled  from  the  West  to  besiege  Oxford. 
On  the  news  of  the  king's  capture  of  Leicester, 
he  raised  the  siege  of  Oxford  (June  5),  and 
overtook  and  defeated  Charles  at  Naseby 
(June  14).  Then  he  turned  westward  again, 
relieved  Taunton,  defeated  Groring  at  I^ng- 
port  (July  10),  and  captured  Bridgwater, 
Bristol,  Tiverton,  and  other  Ro^nalist  strong- 
holds. WiUi  the  defeat  of  Sir  Kalph  Hopton 
at  Torrington,  early  in  1646  (Feb.  16],  the 
subjugation  of  the  West  was  completea,  and 
the  surrenders  of  Oxfoi'd  (June  24)  and 
Baglaii  (Aug.  19)  brought  the  first  Civil 
War  to  an  end.  In  the  quarrels  which  took 
place  next  year  between  the  army  and  the 
Parliament,  Fairfax,  after  labouring  hard  to 
effect  a  reconciliation,  cast  in  his  lot  with  the 
army,  and  shared  the  responsibility  for  the 


Fal 


(  *4»  ) 


lU 


expulsion  of  tlie  eleven  members.  On  the 
outbreak  of  the  second  Civil  War,  Fairfax 
defeated  the  Kentish  Bo^iilists  at  Maidstone 
(June  1,  1648),  and  after  ten  weeks'  siege 
obliged  those  who  had  taken  refuge  in  Col* 
ehester  to  surrender.  He  seems  to  have  been 
willing  to  approve  of  the  trial  and  deposition 
of  the  king,  but  he  refused  to  sit  in  1^  High 
Court  of  Justice,  and  on  June  26,  1660,  re- 
signed his  command  rather  than  invade  Scot- 
land. During  the  Protectorate  he  took  no 
part  in  public  alEairs.  In  Richard  Cromwell's 
Parliament  he  represented  Yorkshire,  and 
after  the  dissolution  of  that  assembly  was 
appointed  by  the  Rump  a  member  of  the 
Council  of  State,  but  did  not  act.  When 
Monk  marched  into  England  Fairfax  raised 
volunteers,  was  joined  by  a  large  part  of 
Lambert's  forces*  and  occupied  Yore.  He 
openly  declared  for  a  free  Parliament,  and  for 
the  restoration  of  the  king  (Jan.,  1660),  thus 
exercising  an  important  influence  in  bringing 
about  the  Restoration.  His  death  took  place 
in  1671.  He  was  an  able  general  ana  an 
honest  man,  but  had  none  of  the  qualities  of 
a  statesman,  so  that,  to  use  the  phrase  of 
Clarendon,  he  was  throughout  **  overwitted  " 
by  CromwelL 

FaizCftz,  Short  JfmioruiU  in  tbo  Afiiiqiuarian 
Etp0iiwry,  toL  UL,  1B06:  C.  Morkham,  Xif«  of 
tht  Grtat  Xord  Fairfax ;  whitelocke,  MtmonaX* ; 
Clarendon,  Hue.  oftU  BtbeUiw.     [C.  H.  F.] 

PalcoxLbenr,  Elizabeth,  Countess  of 
(6.  1637,  d.  niTj,  was  the  third  daughter  of 
Oliver  Cromwell;  she  was  married  in  1667  to 
Viscount  (afterwards  Earl  of)  F^conberg. 
Always  attached  to  the  Church  of  England,  she 
exerted  herself  in  favour  of  the  Restoration. 
During  Charles  II.'s  reign  she  frequently 
appeared  at  court. 

Falconbevgy  William  Neville,  Lord 
(d.  1462),  was  the  son  of  Ralph,  Earl  of 
Westmorland,  and  brother  of  the  Earl  of 
SalisbuiT.  Ho  distinguished  himself  in  the 
siege  of  Orleans  and  other  operations  in 
France  in  Henry  VI.'s  reign.  He  espoused 
the  Yorkist  cause,  and  fought  at  Towton. 
In  1461  he  was  made  Earl  of  Kent. 

Falconliridge,  or  Fanconberg,  The 

Bastajid  of,  was  an  illegitimate  son  of  Wil- 
liam Neville,  Lord  Falconberg.  In  1471  he 
landed  in  Kent  to  make  a  last  attempt  in 
favour  of  Henry  VI.  He  got  together  some 
men,  and  forced  an  entrauce  into  London, 
with  the  design  of  liberating  Henry  from  the 
Tower.  But  when  he  burned  Aldgate  and 
London  Bridge,  the  citizens  rose  against 
him,  and  he  was  compelled  to  retire.  This 
attempt  made  it  necessary  for  Edwaoxl  to  put 
'Henry  to  death. 


was  the  scene  of  a  .  battle  be- 
tween the  Scotch  and  the  English,  July 
22,  1298.  This  was  fought  in  the  valley 
between  the  town  of  Falkirk  and  the 
River  Carron,  resulting  in  a  victor>'  for 
Hist.— 16 


the  English,  who  were  commanded  by 
Edward  I.,  the  Earl  Marshal,  and  Anthony 
Beck,  Bishop  of  Durham,  over  a  far  inferior 
Scotch  force,  led  by  Wallace  and  Sir  John 
Gndiame,  the  latter  of  whom  was  killed. 
Wallace  had  arranged  the  Scottish  pikemen, 
on  whom  he  mainly  relied,  in  four  circular 
bodies,  connected  by  archers.  The  front  was 
defended  by  palisades,  and  by  a  morass 
beyond  them.  Behind  the  mam  body  was 
marshalled  the  cavalry,  to.  prevent  retreat. 
Well  might  Wallace  say,  "  I  have  brocht  you 
to  the  king,  hop  gif  ye  can."  The  first 
attacks  of  the  English,  led  by  the  Earl 
Marshal,  failed  through  the  Engli^  becoming 
entangled  in  the  morass.  The  Bishop  of 
Durham  then  attempted  a  flank  charge,  to 
avoid  the  bog,  but  was  equally  unsuccesidPul. 
A  third  attack  by  the  king  in  person  changed 
the  fortunes  of  the  da  v.  The  circles  were 
broken  by  the  Engliui  archers,  and  the 
mounted  Imights  completed  the  destruction  of 
the  enemy.  The  Scottish  army  was  com- 
pletely shattered,  and  Wallace,  though  lie 
escaped  from  the  field,  remained  a  hunted 
fugitive  for  the  short  remainder  of  his  life. 

FaUdrk,  The  Battle  op  (1746),  was 
fought  between  the  royal  troops  and  tlie 
Young  Pretender,  the  former  being  defeated. 

Falklaad,  Hbnuy  Cahby,  Lobd  {d,  1633), 
was  Deputy  of  Ireland  between  1622  and 
1629.  His  inquiry  into  defective  titles,  and 
transplantation  of  many  native  septs  in  favour 
of  English  settlers,  were  among  the  causes  of 
the  Rebellion  of  1641.  But  his  comparatively 
mild  government  was  ill  adapted  to  carry  out 
Charles  I.*s  policy,  and  he  was  removed  to 
make  room  for  StndSord. 

PaUdand,  Lucius  Carey,  Lohd,  son  of 
the  preceding  (b,  1610,  d,  1643J,  was  educated 
at  Dublin,  and  served  in  the  Low  Countries. 
Returning  to  his  seat  of  Great  Tew,  in  Oxford- 
shire, he  gathered  round  him  there,  and  ut 
the  neighbouring  university,  a  small  band  of 
liberal  theologians.  In  1640  he  entered  tlie 
Long  Parliament.  A  devoted  lover  of  Con- 
stitutionalism, and  an  opponent  of  arbitral  y 
power  in  any  shape,  Falkland  had  no 
sympathy  with  the  government  of  StraJGFord 
and  Charles ;  but  he  believed  that  the  royal 
government  might  be  amended  or  reformed. 
He  accordingly  became  the  leader  of  that 
Parliamentary  Royalist  party  that  almost 
succeeded  in  preventing  the  passage  of  the 
Grand  Remonstrance.  He  verv  unwillingly 
joined  tiie  war  on  the  Royalist  side,  and 
almost  courted  the  death  he  met  at  Newbuiy, 
his  *  last  words  being  "  Peace,  peace."  His 
personal  gifts,  liberal  spirit,  and  relations 
to  the  parties  of  his  time,  invest  his  career 
with  unusual  interest. 

Clarendon,  Hid.  of  th»  £«6«Uion;  G«rdin«r» 
Hue.  ofBng.,  1603—1642, 

FalUand  Castl6f  in  Fifeshire,  was  the 
scene  of   the  Duke  of   Rothesay's   murder 


Fal 


(450) 


in  1482.  In  1692,  Lord  Both  well  made  one 
of  his  nomerous  attempts  to  seize  James  VI. 
while  he  was  in  the  castle. 

FaUdand  Islands,  The,  are  a  group  of 
islands  Ij'ing  in  the  South  Atltintic,  and  con- 
sisting of  ^wt  and  West  Falkland,  together 
with  about  two  hundred  smaller  islands ;  they 
were  discovered  by  John  Davis  in  1592.  In 
1 690  an  English  na\'igator,  named  Strong,  gave 
them  their  present  name.  In  1764  Commo- 
dore BjTon  took  possession  of  them  for  the 
crown  of  England.  In  the  same  year,  how- 
ever, a  French  settlement  was  formed^  there, 
under  M.  de  BougainWUe,  and  the  islands 
were  successfully  claimed,  by  the  Spaniards 
in  1767,  who  di'ove  out  the  French  colonists 
and  also  some  English  settles.  In  the  year 
1771  the  Falkland  Islands  were  restored  to 
the  British  government,  but  were  left 
unoolonised  for  many  years.  In  1820  the 
action  of  Buenos  A^Tes  in  establishing  a 
settlement  on  the  islands  roused  the  jealousy 
of  the  English  government,  whose  protest,  in 
1829,  resulted  in  the  restoration  of  Uie  islands 
to  the  British  in  1853.  Now  they  are  chiefly 
used  as  a  whaling  station  and  for  the  pur- 
poses of  sheep-farming.  They  are  ruled  by 
a  governor,  assisted  by  an  executive  council 
and  a  legislative  council,  both  of  which  are 
appointed  by  the  crown.  The  population  is 
about  1,800. 

B.    M.   Hartin,    Britiak    CoUmUt;    Creasj, 
Britannic  Empin» 

Family  Coxnpaety  The,  is  the  name 
applied  to  various  treaties  between  the  Bour- 
bon Kings  of  Spain  and  France  during  the 
eighteenSi  century.  The  first  compact  TOgan 
in  1733,  and  being  specially  directed  against 
English  trade  led,  in  1739,  to  a  war  between 
Spain  and  England.  The  more  famous  com- 
pact was  in  1761,  and  its  object  was  to  asso- 
ciate Spain  to  Prance  in  the  Seven  Years'  W«r. 
Pitt  had  timely  warning  of  the  agreement, 
and  the  refusal  of  George  III.  to  sanction  an 
attack  on  Spain  led  to  bis  resignation.  But 
when  the  compact  became  known,  war  was 
inevitable. 


ff  The  GoTTOir,  is  the  name 
generally  given  to  the  distress .  among  the 
cotton  operatives  in  Lancashire,  in  the  year 
1863.  It  resulted  mainly  from  the  ftulure  of 
the  supply  of  raw  cotton  from  America,  in 
consequence  of  the  war  between  the  North  and 
the  South.  Energetic  efforts  were  made  to 
relieve  the  sufferers,  and  a  series  of  good 
years  after  the  war  ended  efbiced  all  traces  of 
distress. 

Famine^  The  Potato  (Ireland).  In 
1847  a  failure  of  the  potato  crop  caused  the 
superabundant  cottier  population  of  Ireland 
to  experience  severe  distress,  which,  coming 
after  several  years  of  scarcity,  soon  became  as 
serious  as  an  absolute  famine.  Despite  the 
r^)eal  of  the  Com  Laws  and  the  exertions 


of  State  and  private  benevolence,  many 
perished,  and  more  escaped  by  emigrating 
to  America.  Among  the  political  conse- 
quences of  the  famine  was  the  revolutionary 
movement  of  Smith  O'Brien  in  1848,  but 
more  important  was  the  social  and  economical 
revolution  which  the  famine  effected.  The 
diminution  of  the  population  from  eight 
millions  to  not  much  more  than  five ;  the  dis- 
appearance of  oottier  tenancy  in  many  parts 
<rf  Ireland;  great  changes  in  the  ownership 
and  cultivation  of  land ;  the  introduction 
of  the  **  English  system  "  of  competition  and 
free  contract;  the  raising  in  some  degree  of 
the  standard  of  living  ;  and  the  creatiim  of 
a  new  set  of  grievances,  while  old  ones  were 
removed — all  flowed  from  the  potato  famine. 

FaanineSy  Indian.  The  irregularity  of 
the  rainfall  of  a  tropical  climate,  hostile  in- 
vasion, plagues  of  locusts,  storms,  imperfec- 
tions in  the  system  of  transport,  and  excessive 
export  of  grain,  have  been  the  many  causes 
of  Indian  limine.  A  dense  and  poor  popu* 
lation,  whose  increase  is  checked  by  no  pru* 
dential  restraints,  and  which  has  few  manu- 
factures as  a  refuge  when  agriculture  fiails^ 
must  always  be  liable  to  experience  the  wx>rBt 
forms  of  such  scarcities.  The  removal  of 
th.e  old  positive  checks  on  p^ulatiou  by 
the  strong  government  of  the  English  has^ 
if  anything,  increased  the  tendency  to  famine, 
though  better  organisation  of  relief  has  made 
their  effects  often  less  disastrous.  But  in  the 
early  years  of  English  rule  in  India  (notably 
in  1770,  1781—83,  and  again  in  1790—92) 
there  were  severe  famines.  The  experience  of 
these  years  led  to  the  beginning  of  those 
remedial  measures  which  have  in  recent 
times  made  Indian  famines,  which  still  recur 
with  disastrous  frequency,  much  less  terrible. 
In  1860  and  1861  no  rain  fell  between  the 
Jumna  and  the  Sutlej,  and  the  sufferings 
of  the  people  were  frightful.  No  less  than 
500,000  human  beings  are  believed  to  have 
perished,  and  the  whole  of  the  population, 
notwithstanding  the  benevolent  exertions  of 
government  and  individuals,  and  the  receipt  of 
la^Tge  subscriptions  from  England,  endured 
misery  which  it  was  hopeless  to  alleviate  in  pro- 

e>rtion  to  the  existing  necessity.  In  1865  rain 
iled  in  Orissa,  and  scarcity  began  to  prevail, 
which  passed  into  absolute  famine  almost 
without  notice,  and  certainly  without  pre- 
caution. Till  it  reached  an  alarming  height, 
the  government  of  Bengal  was  inactive,  and 
the  time  passed  by  in  which  supplies  of  grain 
could  be  sent  by  sea.  When  tne  people  were 
perishing  in  thousands,  no  vessel  could  ap- 
proach the  coast,  and  the  supplies  forwarded 
by  land  were  utterly  insufficient  to  meet 
the  general  wants.  The  immediate  de- 
struction of  human  life  was  estimated  at 
two  millions,  and  the  amount  of  human 
suffering  had  been  incalculably  great 
At  the  end  of  1873,  over  a  large  tract  of 


(461  ) 


Fm 


country  estiinated  to  contain  no  less  than 
28  millions   of   people,  comprising    several 
important  provinces  of  Bengal  and  Behar, 
the  great  harvest   of    the  year   was    hope- 
lessly  withering  for    want   of    rain.      The 
i4>rjl  crop  of  1874  also  proved   a   failure. 
The  government  made  great  efforts.     The 
stock    of    rice   it    purchased    amounted   to 
600,000  tons.     The  difficulty,  however,  was 
how  to  distribute  it;  but  the    government 
overcame  this  so  effectually,  that  it  is  said 
that  fewer  persons  died  of  starvation  in  Bengal 
and  Behar  than  in  an  ordinary  year.    The  cost 
of  the  relief  operations  was  ten  millions.    In 
1876  and  1877  the  rainfall  was  lamentably  de- 
ficient, and  in  the  latter  year  failed  altogether 
over  parts  of  Madras,  Bombay,  HyderabEMl,  and 
Mysore.    In  1876  the  area  of  failure  was  so 
vast  that  famine  prices  were  inevitable,  and  b^ 
December  food  grains  were  three  times  their 
ordinary  price.    From  September  com  was  im- 
ported largely  from  all  piurts.  All  that  could  be 
were  employed  on  public  works;  grataitous 
relief  began  on  a  large  scale,  and  the  activity 
of  the  government,  and  the  liberality  of  indi- 
viduals, staved  off  a  vast  amount  of  distress. 
Much  has  been  done  of  late  years  in  the  way 
of  permanent  works,  with  a  view  of  prevent- 
ing the  recuzrence  of  famine. 

Famonui  Idbelliui  was  the  title  of  a 
document  sent  by  Edward  III.  in  1341  to  all 
tbie  bishops  and  chapters  in  the  kingdom, 
containing  the  recapitulation  of  all  the 
charges  which  the  king  had  brought  against 
Archbishop  Stratford. 


especially  in  the  forms  ^nita  eomi- 
tattu  (farm  of  the  shire),  and  Jlnna  burgi 
(farm  of  the  borough),  was  the  technical 
name  for  the  composition  paid — in  the  former 
case  by  the  ahenff,  and  the  latter  by  the 
rudimentary  corporation  [Towns]  —  to  the 
crown  or  lord  in  return  for  the  privilege  of 
collecting  and  appropriating  the  taxes  of 
the  district. 

Pamliaai  Castle,  the  residence  d  the 
Bishops  of  Winchester,  overlooking  the  town 
of  that  name  in  the  S.W.  angle  of  Surrey, 
was  built  by  Henry  de  Blois,  destroyed  by 
Henry  III.  as  adulterine,  but  rebuilt  subee- 
qnenUy.  It  waa  governed  by  Denham  for 
Charles  I.,  and  captured  by  Waller  in  1642, 
when  its  fortifications  were  finally  demolished. 


^^mmm  Cattle,  ft  famous  stronghold  on  the 
«oa8t  of  North  Berwickshire  near  St.  Abb's 
Head,  was  the  place  to  which  the  conspirators 
in  the  Growrie  plot  (q.v.)  proposed  to  carrj'  off 
James  YI. 

Fastolf^  Sir  John  {d.  1469),  was  an  English 
general  of  some  reputation  in  the  struggles  for 
tiie  retention  of  Fiance  under  Henry  VI.  In 
1429  he  was  thoroughly  beaten  at  Patay  by 
the  Bfaid  of  Orleans,  in  the  Paston  Letters 
we  have  copious  accounts  of  his  private  life ; 
these  show  him  to  have  been  hard,  grasping, 


and  litigious.  It  has  been  suggested  that  be 
was  the  prototype  of  Shakespeare's  Falstaff, 
with  whom  he  has  nothing  in  common,  except 
it  be  in  the  resemblance  between  their  names. 
J.  Qaixdnor,  Introd.  to  Poaton  Lettent. 

Favourite,  a  word  of  ill-omen  in  English 
history,  is  generally  used  to  designate  a  person 
who,  having  ingratiated  himself  with  the 
sovereign,  uses  his  power  unworthily  and  for 
his  own  ends,  who  unduly  influences  lus  master, 
and  who,  without  sharing  ministerial  respon- 
sibility, becomes  practicslly  the  chief  mimster 
of  the  realm.  We  can  hardly  consider  such 
men  as  Edric  Streona  in  the  light  of  favourites, 
though  it  is  difficult  to  account  otherwise  for 
the  immense  influence  they  gained  over  the 
royal  mind ;  moreover  the  Anglo-Saxon  con- 
stitution did  not  afford  much  opportunity  for 
the  favourite.  The  Norman  kings  were  too 
wise  to  endanger  their  position  by  favouritism, 
and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  early 
Plantagenets.  FlambardandFalkesdeBreauU 
are  unworthy  instruments  in  the  hands  of 
unscrupulous  kings,  and  the  power  of  such 
creatures  is  not  derived  from  the  mere  favour 
of  royalty.  The  real  beginning  of  favouritism 
in  England  may  be  seen  in  the  Poitevins  and 
Savoyards  who  thronged  to  the  court  of 
Henry  III.,  and  of  whom  the  unknown 
satirist  of  the  day  says : — 

**  A  paltry  set  of  mm  is  tronbliiiff  all  the  land— 
Dme  out  or  let  them  die,  that  base  ungodly  band." 

Edward  II.'s  infatuation  for  Gaveston  shows 
what  i^vouritism  may  lead  to.  Gaveston  is 
the  typical  favourite— handsome,  brave,  and 
high-spirited,  armed  with  all  the  accomplish- 
ments of  the  age,  but  arrogant,  self-seeking, 
and  utterly  recldess  of  consequences,  whether 
to  himself  or  to  his  master.  The  opposition 
is  heightened  by  the  fact  tiiat  he  is  a  foreigner, 
but  the  same  objection  cannot  be  urged 
Against  the  Despencers,  who  succeeded  Gaves- 
ton in  Edward*s  affections.  Here  the  oppo- 
sition is  personal,  and  is  directed  also  against 
those  influences  which  tend  to  separate  the 
king  from  his  barons.  But  the  displacement 
of  the  Despencers  and  their  weak-minded 
master  only  brings  on  the  scene  a  far  more 
criminal  uvourite  than  any  that  had  ap- 
peared before.  For  nearly  four  years  England 
IS  under  the  rule  of  Roger  Mortimer,  whose 
criminal  intrigue  with  the  queen  is  the  chief 
source  of  his  power.  At  the  end  of  Edward 
III.^s  reign  the  king  falls  for  a  time  under  the 
influence  of  a  wor^ess  woman,  Alice  Perrers, 
who  abuses  her  power,  not  only  by  obtaining 
lands  and  possessions  for  herself,  but  by 
interfering  with  the  course  of  justice.  The 
next  reign  is  that  of  a  young  prince  who 
makes  a  bold  attempt  to  govern  by  ministers 
of  his  own  choice ;  but  favouritism  creeps  in, 
and  De  Vere  must  fall  into  the  same  category 
with  the  Despencers,  even  if  De  la  Pole  does 
not  deserve  the  title  of  favourite.  Henry  VI. 
and  his  queen,  by  the  power  they  gave  to 


Faw 


(  462  ) 


F«l 


BttfloUc  and  Somersot,  alienated  the  nobles, 
and  laid  themselves  open  to  the  charge  of 
favouritism,  an  accusation  which  their  antago- 
nists were  only  too  glad  to  take  up.  The 
influence  of  such  a  woman  as  Jane  Shore  in 
the  time  of  Edward  IV.  was  probably  not  verj' 
gr^t,  though  Richard  III.  thought  it  worth 
while  to  make  a  severe  example  of  her. 
The  Tudors  were  far  too  able'  and  far  too 
determined  to  desire  or  need  the  aid  of 
&vourites,  and  the  relations  of  Leicester 
and  Essex  to  Queen  Elizabeth  were  rather 
of  a  personal  than  of  a  political  character. 
James  I.*8  nature  needed  some  friend  to 
lean  upon,  and  he  found  his  favourite,  first 
in  Somerset,  and,  subsequently,  in  Bucking- 
ham. Charles  II.  was  too  astute  to  injure 
his  position  by  favouritism,  and  the  secret 
advisers  of  James  II.,  such  as  Father  Petre, 
based  their  influence  on  religious  rather  than 
on  personal  grounds.  The  Dutch  followers 
of  William  III.  were  unjustly  stigmatised  as 
favourites,  a  name  more  deservedly  applied  to 
Lady  Marlborough  and  Mrs.  ^Masham  in  the 
next  reign,  or  to  the  venal  mistresses  of  the 
first  two  Georges.  Ck>n8titutional  govern- 
ment made  favouritism  impossible.  Bute  was 
stigmatised  as  a  favourite,  but  George*s  effort 
to  make  him  supreme  in  the  councils  of  the 
nation  was  mainly  part  of  that  king's  per- 
sistent policy  to  nominate  his  own  ministers. 
Favouritism  may  now  be  considered  extinct, 
and  the  methods  of  government  have  become 
of  such  a  character  that  its  revival  is  hardly 
Kkely.  [P.  S.  P.] 

Fawkes,  Guy  {b.  1570,  d,  1606),  was  the 
agent  and  most  famous  conspiiutor  in  the 
Gunpowder  Plot.  A  Yorkshireman  by  birth, 
he  became  a  Catholic,  and  having  wasted  his 
patrimony,  served  with  the  Spanish  army  in 
the  Netherlands,  whence  he  returned  to  at- 
tempt to  carry  out  the  well-known  conspiracy 
with  which  his  name  is  inseparably  connected. 
He  was  executed  in  1 606.  [Gunpo  wobb  Plot.] 

Fealty  is,  as  its  etymology'  shows,  a  promise 
of  fidelity,  made  by  one  man  to  another. 
As  used  m  a  technical  sense  in  feudal  law  it 
differs  from  homage,  in  that  it  had  no  con- 
nection with  the  holding  of  land,  and  from 
allegiance,  which  was  due  to  the  sovereign 
only,  and  was  a  national,  not  a  feudal  obliga- 
tion. The  oath  of  fealty  was  taken  at  the 
time  of  doing  homage,  and  when  not 
taken  to  the  king,  in  words  something  like 
these — "Hear  you  this,  my  lord  A,  that 
I,  B,  from  this  day  forward  will  hear  you 
faith  of  life  and  limb,  sa\'ing  my  faith  to  the 
king  and  his  heirs  (».«.,  8a\'ing  the  oath  of 
allegiance  which  was  taken  by  every  subject), 
and  the  services  which  belong  to  you  for  the 
fees  and  tenements  I  hold  of  you,  lawfully 
will  perform  to  you,  as  they  become  due,  to 
the  best  of  my  power,  so  help  me  Qod  and 
the  saints."  On  the  Continent  generally,  and 
in  palatinate  jurisdictions  in  England,  the 


oath  of  fealty  would  be  taken  absolutely 
without  any  saving  clause  reserving  duty  to 
the  monarch  as  above.    [Fevdalism.] 


(•.0.,  the  TaU),  chief  of 
the  Dalriadic  tribe  of  Cinel  Loam,  endea- 
voured unsuccessfully  to  throw  off  the  yoke 
of  the  Britons  and  Angles,  in  678,  in  which 
year  three  battles  were  fought.  In  685  he 
joined  forces  with  Brude,  son  of  Bile,  and 
adN'anced  with  great  success  against  his 
enemies.    He  died  697. 

Feckenliamy  John  {d.  .1585),  last  Abbot 
of  Westminster^was  under  Henry  VIII.  an 
Anglican,  and  JBonner's  chaplain.  He  was 
imprisoned  throughout  the  reign  of  Edward 
VI:,  and  rewarded  by  Maiywith  the  abbacy  of 
the  revived  monastery  of  Westminster.  He  is 
described  as  "  a  man  full  of  tender  and  gentle 
humanity,"  and  all  parties  speak  well  of 
him.  He  attended  the  first  Parliament  of 
Elizabeth,  but  was  deprived  and  imprisoned, 
and  though  regaining  partial  liberty  in  1578 
by  partial  conformity,  was  again  imprisoned 
tul  his  death. 

Felony.    The  original  meaning  of  this 
word  is  still  obscure.   According  to  Mr.  Skeat 
(Etpmol.  Dict.)f  <* felon"  is  of  Celtic  origin, 
irom  a  verb   meaning  to   betray,  deceive, 
fail.     This  may  explain  the  fact  that  the 
early    feudal   lawyers    constantly  used    the 
term  "  felony  "  to  describe  an  act  of  treason 
or  disobedience  to  a  lord  "  by  which  a  fief  is 
lost " — e.g,j  refusal  to  follow  the  lord  to  war, 
or  neglect  for  a  year  and  a  day  to  ask  investi- 
ture.   Thus  the  term  became  associated  with 
the  idea  of  forfeiture,  and  was  extended  to 
erimes  of  such  a  nature  as  to  induce  forfeiture 
of  lands  or  goods.    Hence  arose  the  division 
of    crimes  into  felonies    and  mUdemeanours^ 
though  no  clear  definition  of  either  word  is 
possible.    Not  all  crimes  invohdng  forfeiture 
are  felonies;    for  this  would   include   mis- 
prision of  treason,  which  is  only  a  misde- 
meanour.   "If  felony  is  defined  as  a  crime 
punishable  with  death,  it  excludes  pett}*^  lar- 
ceny, which  was  never  capital,  and  includes 
piracy,  which  was  never  felony.    Felony  was 
substantially  a  name  for  the  more  heinous 
crimes,  and  all  felonies  were  punishable  by 
death,  except   petty   larceny   and   mayhem 
(i.e.f  maiming),  which  came  by  degrees  to  be 
treated  as  a  misdemeanour.    If  a  crime  was 
made  felony  by  statute,  the  use  of  the  name 
implied  the  punishment  of  death,   subject, 
however,  to  the  rules  as  to  benefit  of  clerg>'. 
Thus,  broadly  speaking,  felony  may  be  de- 
fined as  the  name  appropriated  to    crimes 
punishable  by  death,  misdemeanours  being  a 
name  for  all  minor  offences  "  (Stephen,  Hiet. 
of  Crim.  LatOf  ch.  xx.).    There  are  two  main 
differences  as  to  procedure  in  cases  of  felony 
and  misdemeanour.      In  the  first   place,  a 
warrant  is  not  necessary  for  arrests  for  felony, 
while,  as  a  rule,  it  is  necessary  for  misde- 


7*1 


(453) 


meanour;  and  secondly,  a  person  committed 
for  trial  for  felony  is  not  entitled  to  be 
bailed,  while  a  person  accused  of  misde- 
meanour is  usually  bo  entitled.  Since,  how- 
ever, milder  punishments  have  been  subBti> 
tuted  for  deaUi,  and  the  Felony  Act  of  1870 
has  abolished  forfeiture,  the  distinction  be- 
tween felonies  and  misdemeanours  has  become 
Off  little  practical  importance. 

Stephen,  Sitt.  of  the  Oriminal  Laa, 

Pelton,  John  {d,  1628).  A  dismissed  officer 
of  the  army  who,  partly  from  private  wrongs, 
partly  from  fanaticism,  assassinated  the  Duke 
of  Buckingham  in  1628,  at  Portsmouth.  He 
was  hang^  at  Tyburn. 

Pexiiail.  Consjliracy,  The.    The  name 
is  said  to  be  derived  from  Fion  or  Finn 
MacCoul,  the  Fingul  of  Macpherson*s  Ossian. 
The  Fenians  formed  at  one  time  a  sort  of 
standing  militia  in  Ireland.      The    Fenian 
'* brotherhood"  was  formed  in  Ireland  and 
the  United  States,  to  liberate  Ireland  from 
the  connection  with  England  and  establish  a 
republic.     Secret  drillings  in  connection  with 
this  society  began  to  take  place  frequently  in 
1864,  but  the  society  is  supposed  to  have  been 
formed  as  early  as  1858.     On  Sept.  15,  1864, 
the  Irish  government  of  Lord  Wodehouse 
at  last  became  possessed  of  information  con- 
vincing them  of  the  treasonabTe  character  of 
these  proceedings.    In  consequence,  between 
the  16th.  and  30th  of  that  month,  sixty-five 
persons  were  arrested  in  Dublin  and  about 
twenty  in  Cork,  while  O'Donovan  Rossa,  who 
was  one  of  the  conspirators,  also  had  his 
paper,  the  IrtMh  People,  confiscated.    Stephens, 
the  "  Head  Centre,**  was  among  the  prisoners. 
A  commission  had  since  November  been  sit- 
ting in  Ireland  to  try  the  prisoners,  and  many  of 
them,  including  O'Donovan  Rossa,  were  con- 
victed of  treason  felony,  and  sentenced  to 
periods  of  penal  servitude  var^'ing  from  five 
to  ten  years.    Important  discoveries  had  also 
been  xnade  in  Ireland  of  documents  belonging 
to  the  Fenians.    In  May,  1866,  the  American 
Fenians  made  a  raid  into  Canada,  but  were 
promptly    repulsed.     Late    in    the   autumn 
large  stores  of  arms  were  seized,  and  the 
garrison  of   Ireland  largely  increased;  but 
no  blood  was  shed.    In  1867  the  rebellion  so 
long  threatened  seemed  at  last  to  be  break- 
ing out.    On  Feb.  11th  came  an  attempt  to 
surprise  Chester,  and  on  the   12th  an  out- 
break in  Kerry.      The  defence  of  Kilmal- 
lock  police  barracks,  however,  showed  the 
feebleness    of    the    movement.      In    March 
followed    an    attack    on    the    barracks    at 
Tallaght ;  it  was  repulsed,  and  208  prisoners 
were  brought  into  Dublin.     The  spirit  of 
the  Fenians  in  Ireland  was  now  quite  broken; 
thus,  1,000  men  who  held  the  market-place  at 
Drogheda  fled  at  the    approach    of    a  few 
policemen.      In  May  a  special  commission 
began  to  sit  to  try  the  rebels,  and  many  of 
than  were  convicted.    None  were,  however. 


executed.    On  Sept.  18  an  attack  was  made 

on  a  police  van  at  Manchester,  and  on  Dec.  13 

the  attempt  to  blow  up  ClerkcnweU  Gaol 

In    Ireland,  in    1868,    attacks    on    isolated 

martello  towers  became    frequent,   and  the 

Habeas  Corpus    Act   was    again    suspended 

till  March    1,    1869.      In    1870    a    Fenian 

raid  into  Manitoba  was  dinvcn  back  by  the 

militia,  and,  in  1871  a  similar  attempt  was 

roughly  put  down  by  United  States  troops, 

General  Grant  having  issued  a  proclamation 

against  them.     In  Jan.,  1871,  most  of  the 

Fenian  convicts  had  been  released,  and  were 

uproariously  welcomed  in  the  United  States. 

But  the  organisation  of  Irish  sedition  passed 

into  different  hands,  and  the  Fenian  leaders 

lost  their  influence.     The  French  Communist 

General,  Cluseret,  who  had  been  in  the  Fenian 

service,   says,  most  probably  with  truth : — 

"  Their  insurrection  was  foolishly  planned, 

and  still  more  foolishly  executed.*' 

Annual     R«ifigter;    Fra$er'$   Magann$,    1872; 
McCarthy,  Hist  of  Our  Own  Timea. 

[B.  S.] 

Fennington  Bridge,  Thb  Battle  of 
(1549),  was  fought  in  Devonshire  between  the 
royal  troops,  under  Lord  Russell  and  Sir 
Peter  Carew,  and  the  Cornish  rebds,  who 
were  completely  defeated. 

Fenwleky  Sir  John  {d.  1697).    A  zealous 
Tory  member  of  the  Parliament  of  1685,  who 
became,   after  the  Restoration,  one  of   the 
most  ardent  Jacobite  conspirators.  In  1695  he 
joined  Chamock,  Porter,  and  others  in  designs 
against  the  king,  which  ripened  next  year 
into  the  Assassination  Plot.    His  fellow-cen- 
n>irator,  Porter,  informed  the  government  of 
^e  whole  intrigue,  and  Sir  John  attempted 
to  escape  to  France,  but  was  arrested  near 
Romney  ^larsh.    He  was  committed  to  the 
Tower.     In  order  to  gain  time,  he  offered  to 
disclose  all  ho  knew  touching  the  Jacobite 
plots.      His  artful    confession,   while  silent 
about  the  real  Jacobite  plotters,   contained 
a  great  deal  of  evidence — mostly  true,  no 
doubt  —  against    Marlborough,    Godolphin, 
Russell,  and  Shrewsbur}',  who  had  from  time 
to  time  intrigued  with  the  court  of  St.  Ger- 
mains.  Furious  at  the  charges  brought  against 
their  party,  the  Whigs  determined  to  pursue  the 
subject.     Fenwick  was  examined  by  William, 
but  refused  to  make  anv  disclosures.    He  had 
heard  that  his  wife.  Lady  Mary  Fenwick, 
had    succeeded    in    getting    Goodman — the 
only  other  witness  against  him — out  of  the 
country,  and  Porter's  evidence  remained  un- 
supported.   But  the  Whigs,  not  to  be  baulked 
of  their  prey,  brought  in  a  bill  of  attainder 
against  him,  which  the  Commons  passed,  by 
186  to  156.     The  bill  passed  through  its  first 
stage  in  the  Lords  without  a  division.    After 
a  violent  struggle,  the  second  reading  was 
carried,  by  73  to  53,  and  the  third,  by  68 
votes  to  61.  On  Jan.  28  Fenwick  was  executed. 
Hallam's  opinion  on  the  act  of  attainder  is 


Feo 


(464) 


Fet 


that,  "  it  did  not,  like  some  acta  of  attainder, 

inflict  a  punishment  heyond  the  offence,  but 

supplied  the  deficiency   of  legal  evidence/* 

Tet,  allowing  the  substantial  justice  of  the 

sentence,  it  is  questionable  whether  it  was  not 

ill-advised  to  break  from  the  rigid  rules  of 

law,  especially  for  so  second-rate  a  person  as 

Fenwick. 

8taU  TriaU;  Comment'  JoMmab;  HaUam, 
OmMt,  Hist. ;  Banke.  Hitt.  of  Bng, ;  Maoaaloj, 
RiiLcfEng. 

V^OrmfoltVLBL,  corresponding  to  the 
Naturalia  of  the  Franks,  was  in  Anglo-Saxon 
times  partlv  a  tax,  partly  a  gift  in  kind,  levied 
on  the  produce  of  the  land  for  the  support  of 
the  king  and  his  household. 


,,  Lord  of  Galloway  (rfL  1161), 
was  contemporary  with  David  I.  of  Scot- 
land, whom  he  assisted  with  soldiers  at  the 
Battle  of  the  Standard.  In  1160  he  joined 
the  sons  of  Malcolm  MacBeth  against  King 
]&Ialcolm,  but  was  forced  to  submit  to  the 
royal  power.  He  retired  to  a  monastery,  and 
died  1161.  He  married  Elizabeth,  natural 
daughter  of  Henry  I. 


^  Mor  {d.  501),  son  of  Ere,  King 
of  Irisfi'Dalriada,  crossed  over  at  the  end  of 
the  fifth  century  with  his  brothen.  Loam 
Mor  and  Angus,  and  founded  in  Argyleshire 
a  Scottish  colony,  which  afterwards  developed 
into  the  kingdom  of  Dalriada. 

Forgnsonf  Robert  {d.  1714).  A  Scotch 
clergyman  who  got  a  living  in  England,  but, 
being  a  Presbjrtcrian,  was  expelled  in  1762, 
and  became  a  schoolmaster  and  Dissenting 
preacher.  He  was  a  man  of  bad  character, 
and  constantly  involved  in  plots.  Being  a 
furious  Whig,  he  was  expellea  from  England 
after  the  failure  of  the  Rye  House  Plot.  He 
then  went  to  Holland,  instigated  and  took 
part  in  Monmouth's  rebellion,  escaped  after 
S^dgemoor,  and  joined  William  III.  s  expedi- 
tion. Disgusted,  however,  at  his  inadequate 
reward,  he  turned  Jacobite,  and  shared  in  the 
Assassination  Plot  and  Montgomery's  Plot. 
Notwithstanding  his  connection  with  so  many 
conspiracies,  he  escaped  every  danger,  and 
died  a  natural  death. 

Ferosesliary  Thb  Battle  op  (Dec.  21, 
1845),  was  fought  between  the  Sikhs  under 
Lall  Sing,  35,000  in  number,  with  100  guns, 
and  the  English  under  Sir  Hugh  Gk>ugh.  The 
English  began  operations  by  attacking  at  night 
the  entrenched  camp  of  the  enemy  round  the 
village  of  Ferozeshar ;  but  the  storm  of  shot 
was  terrific,  and  entirely  frustrated  the  rash 
attempt  to  carry  the  camp  by  a  charge. 
When  day  dawned  the  assault  was  renewed, 
and  as  quarrels  had  broken  out  among  the 
Sikh  leaders,  the  resistance  was  comparatively 
feeble,  and  the  Sikhs  were  finally  put  to 
flight.  That  this  battle  was  the  moat  severe 
ever  fought  in  India  was  due  almost  as  much 


to  the  rash  blundering  of  the  English  as  to 
the  valour  of  the  Sikhs.     [Sikh  Wabs.] 


ly  RoBE&T,  Bishop  of  St.  David's 
{d,  1555),  was  deprived  of  his  see  by 
Mary,  having  previously  been  imprisoned 
by  Northumberland,  at  the  instance  of 
some  of  his  clergy  who  accused  him  of 
neglect  of  duty.  He  was  condemned  for 
heresy,  and  burnt  at  Carmarthen,  Match  30, 
1555.  Mr.  Froude  says  of  him : — *'  He  was  a 
man  of  large  humanity,  justice,  and  upright- 
ness, neither  conspicuous  as  a  theologian  nor 
prominent  as  a  preacher,  but  remarkable 
chiefly  for  good  sense  and  a  kindly  imagi- 
native tenderness.**  This  seems  a  rather 
exaggerated  view  of  a  very  ordinary  man, 
who,  with  excellent  intentions,  was  quite 
unable  to  cope  with  the  difficulties  of  his 
position. 


^  Geo&oe  {b,  1512,  d.  1579).  A 
law^'er,  dramatist,  and  poet  of  some  celebrity, 
mainly  remembered  from  his  connection  with 
a  famous  case  of  privilege  of  Parliament.  In 
1543,  while  member  for  Pl^^mouth,  he  was 
imprisoned  for  debt.  Parliament  took  up  his 
case,  and  compelled  the  Sheriff  of  London, 
with  his  officers  and  the  creditor  as  well,  to 
appear  at  the  bar,  and  sent  them  all  to  prison. 
A  remarkable  trial  followed,  leading  to 
Ferrers's  release  by  virtue  of  his  privilege. 
Henry  VIII.,  in  whose  sernce  Ferrers  was, 
warmly  took  up  his  cause. 

Hatsell's  Prtoidmtt ;  Hallam,  dmti,  Hitt. 

Ferrybridge,  The  Baitlb  of  (1461),  was 
fought  just  before  the  battle  of  Towton.  The 
Yorkists  who  were  at  Pontefract  attempted 
to  secure  the  passage  of  the  Aire  at  Ferry- 
bridge; but  a  bod}'  of  light  cavalry  under 
Lord  Clifford  was  detached  by  the  Lancss- 
trians,  attacked  and  defeated  the  Yorkists, 
and  slew  Lord  Fitzwalter  their  leader.  The 
Yorkists,  however,  succeeded  in  crossing  the 
Aire  at  Castleford,  three  miles  higher  up  tiie 
river,  and  in  attempting  to  regain  the  main 
body  of  the  Lancastrians  at  Towton,  Clifford 
was  defeated  and  slain. 

Fethanleatf,  Thb  Battle  of  (584),  was 
fought  between  Ceawlin  and  Cutha,  Kings  of 
the  West  Saxons  and  the  Britons.  Cutha 
was  slain,  and  Ceawlin,  though  he  took  many 
towns  and  countless  booty,  says  the  Chronicle, 
returned  in  anger  to  his  own  country.  Henry 
of  Huntingdon  says  that  the  English  were 
defeated,  but  afterwards  rallied  by  C^iwlin, 
and  so  won  the  day.  Dr.  Guest  identifies 
his  Fethanleag  with  Faddiley,  near  Nantwich, 
in  Cheshire,  and  regards  the  battle  as  a  critical 
one  in  the  conquest  of  the  Severn  Valley  by 
the  English.  As  compared  with  the  great 
victor)'  of  Deorham  in  577,  which  gave  the 
Welsh  the  Lower  Severn,  it  was  a  check  on 
the  English.  If,  as  Dr.  Guest  holds,  C^wlin*s 
destruction  of  Uriconium,  lamented  in  the 


Feu 


(466  ) 


Fm 


Welsh  elegy  on   the  death  of   Cynddylan, 

marked  the  beginning  of  the  campaign,  the 

defeat  of  Faddiley  left  the  Middle  Severn 

Welsh  until  the  days  of  Ofla,  and  even  Chester 

until  the  reign  of  Ethelfrith. 

AngloStuion  Chronicle  i  Gnest,  The  Cwnqueat  of 
the  Severn  VaUey  {Origine*  C^ttica,  vol.  ii.). 

FendaUmi  (for  etymology  see  Fibf)  is 
in  its  most  geiieral  sense  definea  as  an  organi- 
sation of  society  based  on  land  tenure.  It  is 
applied  specially  to  the  system  which  arose  in 
Western  Europe  after  the  dissolution  of  the 
Carlovingian  Empire,  and  also  less  fully  to 
special  and  analogous  systems  which  sprang 
up  among  the  Germanic  peoples  not  directly 
included  in  that  empire — as  England  or 
Sweden — ^but  where  similar  tendencies  after- 
wards manifested  themselves.  We  must  dis- 
tinguish feudalism  in  its  legal,  political,  and 
«ven  in  its  vaguer  social  aspects.  Legal 
feudalism  indicates  a  certain  method  of  land 
tenure.  Political  feudalism  followed  when 
every  regalian  right  became  attached  to 
ownership  of  land  by  a  feudal  tenure.  The 
social  ideal  of  a  feudal  society  necessarily  fol- 
lowed at  a  later  stage. 

The  main  source  of  feudalism,  both  in  Eng- 
land and  on  the  Continent,  is  to  be  found  in  the 
primitive  German  Constitution.  The  settle- 
ment of  tlie  wandering  nations  had  made  that 
primitive  personal  polity  a  territorial  one,  and 
its  essentially  unprogressive  character  on  the 
old  lines  necessitated  a  new  system  to  meet 
the  varying  needs  of  a  progressive  society. 
Contact  with  dying  Imperialism  precipitated 
but  did  not  create  this  pr(5co8s  out  of  which 
feudalism  sprang. 

In -the  Frankish  Empire,  Charles  the  Great 
bound  together  the  national  German  state  of 
the  Franks,  the  traditions  of  Roman  law  and 
empire,  and  his  own  gift  of  a  powerful  ad- 
ministrative system.  XTnder  his  feeble  des- 
cendants this  8^'stem  broke  down.  After  the 
anarchy  which  this  process  occasioned,  the 
organised  anarchy  oz  feudalism  arose,  from 
the  beneficiary  system,  the  practice  of  com- 
mendation, and  the  grants  of  immunity  which 
were  superadded  to  them.  The  king  was  in 
the  habit  of  granting  lands  out  of  his  own 
vast  estates  to  followers  on  the  special  promise 
of  fidelit}',  and  lesser  proprietors  in  fuU 
sovereignty  surrendered  their  nominal  alod  to 
a  great  church  or  noble,  to  receive  it  back  as 
a  tenant  protected  by  a  powerful  patron. 
These  lands  were  the  benejUia,  the  territorial 
source  of  feudalism,  and  the  condition  on 
which  they  were  very  commonly  held  was  mili- 
tary service.  Commendation  was  personal,  and 
consisted  in  a  man  submitting  himself  to  a 
lord,  whose  vassal  and  man  [Homage  ;  Vassal] 
he  became.  **  The  union  of  the  beneficiary 
tie  with  that  of  commendation,"  says  Dr. 
Btnbbs,  *<  completed  the  idea  of  feudal  obliga- 
tion.'' The  third  element  arose  as  follows. 
The  national  courts  had  become  stereotyped 


or  ineffective,  and  it  became  customary  to 
unite  to  the  grant  of  a  beneficium  a  ^;nuit 
to  its  lord  of  power  to  exercise  full  junsdio- 
tion  within  it.  Thus  the  fief  or  benefice  was 
withdrawn  from  the  national  system,  and 
when  these  grants  of  immunity  from  the  courts 
of  the  gau  became  general,  and  when  political 
functions  followed  judicial  ones,  we  have  the 
complete  feudalism  of  eleventh  century  France 
— when,  though  ties  of  feudal  dependence 
united  the  meanest  vassal  to  the  crown  as 
supreme  overlord,  the  national  system  had 
become  obliterated,  central  power  nominal, 
and  all  real  power  in  the  hands  of  a 
multitude  of  landowners,  who  had  every  re- 
galian right  in  their  own  estate.  This  was  the 
system  which  the  barons  of  Normandy  lived 
under,  and  which  they  would  fain  have 
brought  to  England  with  them. 

In  England,  however,  a  similar  but  inde- 
pendent process  had  set  in.  The  ComiUUu9 
of  the  old  Germans  which  had  died  out 
in  Gaul,  became  in  England  the  source  of  a 
new  organisation  of  society.  The  king's 
thegns,  the  eofnites  in  a  later  stage,  re- 
ceived with  grants  of  folkland,  grants  of  im- 
munities from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  popular 
courts,  which  resulted  in  the  establishment  of 
practical  feudalism  on  these  eokm  or  fran- 
chises. The  free  man  bowed  his  neck  for 
bread  or  protection.  Everything  became  terri- 
torialised.  What  was  originally  the  exception 
rapidly  tended  to  become  the  rule.  The  g^reat 
earls,  as  on  the  Continent,  gradually  threw 
off  their  neutral  character.  Harold  suggests 
the  parallel  of  Hugh  Capet,  and  Continental 
feudalism  found  a  soil  ready  to  receive  it. 

William  I.  and  his  sons  brought  with  them 
feudal  theory  and  feudal  practice.  To  him, 
as  to  his  barons,  no  legal  theory  of  tenure 
was  possible  but  the  feudal  one;  and  the 
^neration  after  the  Conquest  saw  feudalism 
m  its  legal  aspect  established  universally  in 
England.  But  William  had  seen  how 
feudalism  as  a  s}*Btem  of  government  meant 
mere  anarchy  in  Normandy,  and  did  his 
best  to  prevent  its  introduction  into  England. 
The  barons  naturally  desired  as  much 
power  here  as  at  home;  but  save  in  the 
Border  Palatinates  [Palatine  Countxsb; 
BoBDBBs],  and  then  in  Wales  and  Ireland, 
which  the  barons  won  as  independent  ad- 
venturers, the  Norman  kings  refused  them 
this.  Bebellion  after  rebellion  broke  out  and 
was  crushed.  At  last  Henry  I.'s  defeat  of 
Robert  of  Belesme  settled  the  question  for 
his  reign.  Under  Stephen  the  barons  won 
the  day,  and  then  alone  did  feudal  government 

Srevail  in  England.  Henr>*  II.,  in  1174,  put 
own  the  fii^  revolt  of  the  feudal  party. 
His  administrative  system  rendered  his  tn- 
umph  x>ennanent.  Only  under  Henr}'  III.*8 
minority  were  there  some  slight  tendencies  to 
a  feudal  survival.  Edward  I.  destroyed  the 
political  importance  of  land  tenure.  Hence- 
foiih  the  barons  fought,  not  to  abolish  the 


(  ^^6  ) 


central  state  in  favour  of  feudal  localum,  but 
to  ^t  the  machinery  of  the  central  state  into 
their  own  hands.  They  fought,  not  to  get  rid  of 
the  crown,  but  to  put  the  monarchy  in  com- 
mission. The  chivalry  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury, though  the  result  of  a  feudal  ideal,  was 
powerless  to  bring  back  real  feudalism.  The 
baronial  power  perished  with  the  Wars  of  the 
Roses.  The  legal  theory'  remained,  with  its 
obligation  of  fealty  and  homage,  its  incidents 
of  aids,  wardships,  marriage,  its  military  ser- 
vice, and  other  effects. 

James  I.  unsuccessfully  attempted  to  abolish 
feudal  tenures.  An  Act  of  1660  actually  effected 
this.  The  very  indefinite  sense  in  which 
feudalism  is  sometimes  used  as  indicating  the 
power  of  the  landed  aristocracy  need  not  be 
dealt  with.  Yet  the  English  land  law  remains 
full  of  vestiges  of  feudalism.  Every  copy- 
holder still  owes  to  the  lord  of  the  manor  the 
feudal  incidents.  Lands  of  the  intestate  and 
kinless  deceased  still  escheat  to  the  next  lord. 

For  English  feodalistn,  Stobba's  Cotutituticwd 
Historv  IB  the  Bapreine  authority.  Waitz's 
Devtteke  Verianungtgetohichtc  stands  in  similar 
relation  to  tne  feudalism  of  the  Frank  Empire. 
The  eighteenth  oentory  treatises  and  the  law 
books  are  all  tainted  b^  the  false  theory  of  the 
origin  of  feudalism,  wmoh  Waits  finally  demo- 
lished. Many  of  the  French  writers  whose 
works  would  otherwise  be  of  great  value,  suffer 
from  the  same  defect.  Both's  QeschiohU  dat 
Btn^ficiahoetenM  und  Fmcdalitdt,  is  a  supplement 
and  check  on  Waltz,  with  whom  he  is  at  vari- 
anoe  on  some  important  points.  References  to 
the  special  articles  on  each  of  the  feudal  inci- 
dents will  supply  the  details  of  the  feudal 
system  in  Englimd.  [T.  F.  T.] 

VevevBhsaai,  Louis  Duras,  Earl  of. 
A  French  noble,  nephew  of  Turenne,  who 
entered  the  English  service  under  Charles  II. 
and  James  II.,  commanded  the  army  which 
defeated  Monmouth  at  Sedgemoor,  and, 
though  his  incapacity  in  that  campaign  was 
only  equalled  by  his  brutality,  was  made 
general-in-chief  of  the  army  that  James  II. 
collected  to  overawe  his  people.  In  1688  he 
disbanded  that  army,  and  was  for  a  time  im- 
prisoned by  William  HI. 
Macaulay,  Ui$t.  of  Eng. 


or  Fee  (Lat.  feudum^  feodum)^  is 
derived  from  the  old  German  word  for  cattle 
(modem  High  German,  Vieh ;  old  High 
German,  Jihu;  Gothic,  faihu;  Old  English, 
feok)y  which  got  to  be  used  in  the  sense  of 
money  or  property  in  general  (cf.  peeunia). 
It  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  second 
syllable  has  any  connection  with  od,  also 
meaning  property.  The  word  first  appears  in 
the  ninth  century,  and  gradually  acquires 
the  technical  meaning  of  land  held  of  a  lord 
by  feudal  tenure  [Feudalism]  or  military 
service. 

Stnbbs,  Cotwt.  Eitt. ;  Duoauge,  Glonary  (s.v.). 

FieldeUy  John,  originally  a  labourer, 
became  master  of  a  factory,  and  from  1832— 
1847  was  M.P.  for  Oldham.    He  is  chiefly 


remembered  by  his  exertions  in  favour  of  the 
Factory  Acts,  especially  the  Ten  Hours  Bill. 

Fiennes.  [Say  and  Sblb,  Lord.] 
FienneSy  Nathaniel,  second  son  of  Lord 
Say  and  Sele,  was  educated  at  Winchester 
and  at  New  College,  Oxford.  He  was  elected 
member  of  the  Long  Parliament  for  Banbury, 
and  became  a  leader  amongst  the  **  Boot  and 
Branch  "  party.  He  was  appointed  in  1641 
one  of  the  committee  to  attend  the  king  to 
Scotland.  In  1642  he  accepted  a  colonel's 
commission  in  Essex's  army,  and  took  part 
in  the  battle  of  Edgehill.  In  the  following 
year  he  surrendered  Bristol  to  Prince  Bupert 
(July,  1643),  under  circumstances  which 
made  him  suspected  of  either  treacheiy  or 
cowardice.  For  this  he  was  accused  bv 
Walker  and  Prynne,  tried  by  court  martial, 
and  sentenced  to  death.  His  former  services, 
and  his  family  interest,  secured  him  a  pardon, 
but  he  was  obliged  to  abandon  public  afEairs, 
and  leave  the  kingdom  for  several  years. 
He  returned,  regained  the  confidence  of  his 
party,  and  became,  in  January,  1648,  a 
member  of  the  Committee  of  the  Two  King- 
doms, but  was  expelled  from  Parliament  by 
Pride's  Purge.  In  Cromwell's  first  Parlia- 
ment he  represented  the  count}',  in  the  second 
the  University,  of  Oxford.  He  became 
a  member  of  the  Council  of  State  (1654), 
Commissioner  of  the  Great  Seal  (163.5),  one 
of  Cromwell's  lords  (1657),  and  was  one  of 
the  principal  speakers  in  the  discussions  con- 
cerning the  offer  of  the  crown  to  the 
Protector  (1657).  He  assisted  in  proclaiming 
Richard  Cromwell,  and  adhered  to  his  party 
till  the  re-establishment  of  the  Long  Parlia^ 
ment  deprived  him  of  his  office.  Aft^  the 
Restoration  he  retired  into  private  life,  and 
died  in  1669.  Fiennes  was  an  eloquent 
speaker,  and  a  man  of  decided  opinions,  but 
irresolute  in  action,  and  constitutionally 
timid.  <'  His  great  and  special  merit  is  the 
firm  stand  which  he  made  in  favour  of 
religious  liberty  against  the  narrow  bigotry 
of  the  Presbyterian  party." 

Sanford,  Studin  of  th«  QrtA  Bcbeaion;  Feat. 
Jvdge»  of  England. 

Fifteentlui  was  the  name  given  to  a 
grant  voted  by  Parliament  to  the  sovereign, 
which  was  originally,  as  the  name  implies,  a 
tax  of  one  fifteenth  on  movables.  But  in  the 
reign  of  Edward  III.  a  valuation  was  taken, 
and  henceforth  when  Parliament  voted  a 
fifteenth  each  parish  voted  a  fixed  sum,  ac- 
cording to  that  valuation.  ^Vhat  for  the 
counties  was  a  fifteenth  was  in  towns  a 
tenth,  which  followed  the  same  rule.  The 
whole  amoimt  of  a  tenth  and  fifteenth,  in 
Coke's  time,  was  only  £29,000. 

Fifth  Monarchy  Men.  An  extreme 
sect  of  the  period  of  the  Puritan  Revolution, 
largely  found  in  the  army,  which  supported 
Cromwell,  in  the  belief  that  his  govenmient 
was  the  beginning  of  the  **  Fifth  Monaichy,** 


ni 


(«7) 


dniing  which  the  miUeimial  reign  of  Ghmt 
on  earth  vrould  take  place.  The  previouB 
four  monarchiee  were  the  AaByrian,  Persian, 
Cbedan,  and  Roman.  But  such  fanatics 
conld  not  but  be  in  opposition  to  any  estab- 
lished goTemment,  and  Cromwell  had  some 
difficulties  with  them.  In  1661,  the  revolt  of 
Venner  was  largely  supported  by  this  sect. 

Fiji  Islands.  The,  are  a  group  of  about 
250  iSanda,  of  which  about  a  third  are  in- 
habited. They  Ke  between  177**  E.  and  178** 
W.  long.,  and  between  16*  and  20*»  S.  lat. 
The  largest  of  the  islands  is  Viti  Levu,  and 
the  only  other  of  any  size  is  Vanua  Levu. 
The  Fiji  group  was  first  discovered  by  Captain 
Cook,  in  1773.  They  were  ceded  to  Inland 
by  the  native  chiefs,  in  1874,  and  are  at 
present  governed  by  a  High  Commissioner. 
Fiji  is  an  important  station  between  Panama 
and  Australia,  and  the  High  Conunissioner  is 
in  apoaition  to  regulate  the  Polynesian  labour 
tramc. 

Sinvthe,  3\m  Month*  in  Fiji;  Williams,  Fiji 
and  (fc«  Fijiant. 

Filmsr,  Sir  Robbkt  {d.  Hrea  1663),  was 
a  gentleman  of  Kent,  who  matriculated  at 
Oaoibridge  (1604),  fought  for  the  king  during 
the  Civu  War,  and  wrote  in  defence  of 
monarchy.  His  chief  works  were  The  Free- 
Adders*  Grand  Inquest  (published  1679),  A 
Treatise  an  the  Jhtnetions  of  the  Commons  in 
J*arliamentf  written  in  answer  to  Prynne,  and 
Patriareha  (published  1680).  Filmer  started 
by  denying  the  doctrine  that  mankind  is 
naturally  endowed  and  bom  with  freedom 
from  all  subjection,  and  at  liberty  to  choose 
what  form  of  government  it  pleased;  and 
that  the  power  which  any  one  man  hath  over 
others  was  at  first  bestowed  accoi'ding  to  the 
discretion  of  the  multitude.  He  went  on  to 
derive  regal  authority  from  the  authority  of 
a  father  over  his  family,  as  it  was  exercised 
by  the  patriarchs.  From  the  patriarchs,  by 
hereditary  descent,  this  authority  was  trans- 
mitted to  different  royal  houses.  The  royal 
authority,  therefore,  resembled  the  natiural 
authority  of  a  father  over  his  children.  The 
kingdom  and  its  head,  like  the  &mily  and  its 
head,  existed  by  divine  ordinance.  The  king 
received  from  God  "his  royal  charter  of  a 
universal  father,''  and  ruled,  therefore,  by 
divine  right.  The  subject  was,  in  con- 
sequence, bound  to  absolute  obedience,  and  had 
no  right  to  depose  a  king  or  alter  the  line  of 
succession.  Filmer's  book  was  published  in  the 
midst  of  the  discussions  on  the  Exclusion 
BiUf  and  his  theory  supplied  a  powerful 
argument  to  those  who  denied  the  competence 
of  Parliament  to  exclude  James  &om  tiie 
throne. 

J.  Oairdner,  Shtdiet  in  fn^Iuh  B^itAor^, 

Finch,  John,  Lord  (6.  1684,  d.  1660), 
was  the  son  of  Sir  Henry  Finch,  an  eminent 
lawyer.  He  was  a  member  of  Charles  I.'s 
first    two    Parliaments,    and    was    chosen 

HIST.-16* 


Speaker  of  the  third,  which  met  in  1628. 
He  speedily  showed  himself  a  decided 
partisan  of  the  king,  and,  in  1629,  he  refused 
to  read  a  remonstrance  against  tunnage  and 
poundage  after  the  king's  message  for  the 
adjournment  of  Parliament  had  been  de- 
livered. A  tumult  occurred,  during  whic^ 
the  Speaker  was  held  down  in  his  chair,  and 
Holies  read  the  protestation  to  the  House. 
In  1637  Finch  was  made  Chief  Justice  of  the 
Common  Pleas,  in  which  capacity  he  delivered 
judgment  against  Hampden  in  ti^e  case  of 
ship-money.  In  1640  he  was  made  Lord 
Keeper,  but,  fearing  the  vengeance  of  the 
Long  Parliament,  he  fled  from  England,  at 
the  end  of  the  same  year,  to  Holland,  where 
he  remained  till  1660,  when  he  returned  to 
Enghmd,  and  took  part  in  the  trials  of  the 
Regicides.  The  character  of  "an  unprincipled 
lawyer  and  a  time-serving  minister,"  which 
Mr.  Foss  gives  him,  seems  to  bo  only  too 
well  deserved,  and  he  died  universally 
despised. 

Clarendon,  Hut.  of  the  JZ«b«Ut<m ;  Whitelooka 
Jf fmoriab  ;  Foss,  Judgts  of  JBn^land. 

FinolU      [NOTTINOHAM,  EaKL   op.] 

Fines,  Thb  Statute  of,  an  Act  of  the 

fourth  year  of  Henry  VII.,  was  based  on  a 

similar  one  of  Richard  III.    It  enacts  that 

a  fine,  levied  with  proclamations  in  a  public 

court  of  justice,  shall,  after  five  years,  be 

under,  ordinary  circumstances  a  bar  to  all 

claims  upon  lands.    Its  main  object  was  to 

give  security  of  tenure  to  existing  tenants  by 

fixing  a  short  term  of  prescription;  a  measure 

very  necessary  just  after  the  Wars  of  the 

Roses.     It  did  not,  as  some  have  thought, 

g^ve  liberty  of  alienation  with  the  view  of 

luring  on  a  spendthrift  nobility  to  ruin. 

Hallam,  Coiwt.  RiA.}  Beeves,  RiA,  of  SngluH 
laic. 

FinffleilfTHB  Battle  of  (719),  near  Loch- 
avich  in  Argyleshire,  wa9  fought  between 
Selvach,  King  of  Dahiada,  and  his  brother, 
Aincellach,  whom  he  had  driven  out  in  698. 
Aincellach  made  a  desperate  effort  to  recover 
his  kingdom,  but  was  slain. 

Knlay  Qaestion,  Thb.  Mr.  Finlay, 
the  Greek  historian,  had  settled  in  Athens 
when  Greece  became  independent.  Some  of 
his  land  had  been  seized  lor  the  purpose  of 
rounding  off  the  new  palace  gardens  of  King 
Otho,  and  Mr.  Finlay  had  declined  to  tfUce 
the  terms  offered  him,  which  had  been 
accepted  by  all  the  other  landowners  in  a 
similar  position.  He  appealed  to  the  English 
govenuneut,  and  his  case  was  lumped  with 
tiie  Padfico  and  the  Fantdme  case  into  one 
grand  grievance,  for  which  the  British  govern- 
ment demanded  compensation.     [Pacifioo.] 

FirbolffS.  One  of  the  legendary  or 
fabulous  tribes  of  the  earliest  period  of  Irish 
history.  They  may,  it  has  oeen  thought, 
correspond  to  the  pre-Aryan  inhabitants  of 
Ireland. 


(468  7 


rii 


Fire  of  ^ndon,  Thi  Great  (Sept.  2--6, 
1666),  broke  out  accidentally  in  a  house  near 
London  Bridge,  but  a  strong  east  wind  caused 
it  to  spread  with  great  rapidity,  and  for 
some  days  London  was  given  up  to  the 
flames.  Two-thirds  of  London  was  destroyed 
— eighty-nine  churches,  including  St.  Paul's 
Oathedral,  and  more  than  13,000  dwelling- 
houses.  But  the  fire,  though  destroying 
so  much,  was  most  beneficial  in  thoroughly 
eradicating  the  plague.  The  fever  dens  in 
which  it  continually  lurked  were  burnt,  and 
the  new  houses  which  were  erected  were  far 
more  healthy  and  better  arranged.  The  fire 
was  attributed  to  the  hated  Papists,  and  on 
the  Monument,  which  was  erected  to  com- 
memorate it,  the  Romanists  were  directly 
charged  with  being  the  authors  of  tiie  terrible 
conflagration. 

First  of  jrnne.  The  Battle  of  the 
(1794),  was  a  naval  engagement  fought  during 
the  wars  of  the  Frendi  Revolution.  The 
French  had  collected  a  fleet  of  twenty-six 
ships  at  Brest,  which  put  out  on  May  20  to 
meet  ^  convoy  of  com  ships  expected  from 
Amerfica.  On  the  28th  Lord  Howe  with  the 
Channel  fleet  brought  them  to  a  partial  engage- 
ment; but  it  was  not  till  June  1  that  he 
was  able  to  bring  about  a  decisive  encounter. 
Having  the  wind  of  the  enemy,  he  resolved 
to  break  through  the  French  fleet,  and  fi^ht 
it  to  leeward.  The  enemy  lay  in  close  line 
of  battle,  stretching  from*  east  to  west,  and 
Howe*8  object  was  not  to  come  down  on  it 
perpendicularly,  but  to  sail  abreast  of  it  imtil 
each  ship  got  an  opportunity  of  breaking 
through  it.  It  was  impossible,  however,  to 
carry  out  the  manoeuvre  in  detail,  and  five 
only  of  the  ships,  besides  the  flag-ship,  suc- 
ceeded in  passing  through,  while  the  rest 
engaged  the  enemy  on  the  windward  side. 
But  in  whatever  position  the  British  ships 
closed  with  the  enemy,  their  mode  of  fighting 
was  too  fierce  to  be  long  resisted,  and  after  a 
few  hours  the  French  ships  which  were  able 
began  to  move  off;  nor  was  the  pursuit 
vigorously  carried  out.  As  it  was,  however, 
eight  ships  had  been  lost  to  the  enemy,  and 
8,000  men,  while  tbe  English  admiral  returned 
his  losses  at  1,160  in  killed  and  wounded ; 
but  the  com  ships  escaped  to  Brest.  The 
moral  effects  of  the  factory  were  greater 
than  the  material  [Howe,  Jjobh  ;  Bridfobt, 
Viscount.] 

James,    Naval  Hist.;  Alleii,   Bottlat   of  ths 
Navy  ;  AUson,  Hiri.  of  Europe, 

TiMhf  Simon  {d.  1531),  an  associate  of 
Tyndall,  and  one  of  the  earliest  English  Pto- 
teistants,  became  famous  as  the  author  of  the 
popular  attack  on  the  clergy  called  the 
Supplieatum  of  Beggarly  which  led  him  into 
a  controversy  with  More. 

Fisher,  John,  Bishop  of  Rochester  [h, 
1469,  d.  1635),  was  bom  at  Beverley.  After  a 
distinguished  Cambridge  career,  in  which  he 


took  a  prominent  part  in  bringing  the  studies 
of  that  university  abreast  of  the  new  learning, 
both  in  Greek  and  theology,  he  was  chosen  in 
1504  Bishop  of  Rochester,  and  was  also  from 
1505 — 8  Master  of  Queen's  College,  Cam- 
bridge. A  man.  of  honesty,  piety,  and  deter- 
mination, but  of  strict  conservative  principlBS^ 
he  became  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  party 
opposed  to  Henry  VIII.'s  divorce,  listened  to 
the  Nun  of  Kent,  opposed  the  royal  supre- 
macy, and  was  imprisoned  in  1534,  and 
attainted.  His  untimely  appointment  aa 
cardinal  by  Paul  III.  led  to  his  execution,  after 
trial  by  a  special  commission,  on  June  22, 
1535. 


_  is  a  small  town  in  Pembroke- 

shire, onli  land-locked  haven  in  the  north  of 
that  county.  Near  here,  at  Llanwnda,  1,400 
French  soldiers  landed  on  February  22,  1797 ; 
but  they  were  the  scum  of  every  ^ol  in 
France,  and  showed  little  power  ol  resLstance. 
Frightened,  as  the  story  goes,  by  the  red  coata 
and  tall  hats  of  the  old  Welsh  women,  they 
surrendered  on  February  24,  to  the  ill-armed 
local  militia  under  Lord  Cawdor. 

Fitton,  Alexander,  a  barrister  of  no  re- 
putationorcharacter,  was  made  Lord  Chancellor 
of  Ireland  by  James  I.  in  1688.  He  had 
been  detected  in  forgery,  and  his  only  recom- 
mendation was  that  he  had  recently  become 
a  Roman  Catholic.  After  Tyrconners  death 
he  became  one  of  the  Lords  Justices  appointed 
to  govern  Ireland. 

MacanUj,  KUt,  of  Eng. 

Fiti-Aldlieliily  William  db,  was  sent 
by  Henry  II.,  in  1171,  to  treat  with  Roderick 
O'Connor.  He  was  again  in  Ireland  aa 
Henry's  envoy,  with  the  bulls  of  Adrian 
IV.  and  Alexander  III.  In  1176  he  be- 
came Strongbow^s  successor  as  Crovemor  of 
Ireland.  He  was  strongly  opposed  to  the 
Greraldines,  and  defrauded  Fitz-Maurice*s  sons 
of  part  of  their  inheritance  in  1177.  He  was 
recalled,  not  having  signalised  himself  in  any 
other  way. 

Fiti-Athulf,  Constantote  {d.  1222), 
was  the  leader  of  a  riot  in  London  in  1222» 
which,  though  it  owed  its  origin  to  trivial 
circumstances,  became  most  serious  in  its 
results,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  secretly 
fomented  by  Louis  of  France.  It  was,  how- 
ever, summarily  put  down  by  Hubert  de 
Burgh;  Fitz-Athulf  was  hanged  and  his 
followers  fined  or  mutilated. 

Fitsgeraldy  Lord  Edwabd  {b.  Oct.  15, 
1763,  d.  June  4,  1798],  was  a  younger 
son  of  the  Duke  of  Lemster,  and  married 
the  reputed  daughter  of  Philippe  EgaUte. 
In  1784  he  was  a  member  of  the  Irish  B&rlia- 
ment,  and  opposed  the  Address.  In  1793  he 
was  compelled  to  apologise  for  words  reflect- 
ing on  the  Lord-Lieutenant.  Just  before,  he 
had  gone  to  Paris  as  envoy  of  the  United 
Irishmen.     In    1796    he    took   their  oath. 


lit 


(460) 


Kt 


and  again  went  over  to  the  Continent,  met 
Hoche  in  Switzerland,  and  settled  on  a  French 
inrasion.  On  his  return  to  Ireland  he  k6i>t 
up  a  constant  correspondence  with  France 
through  his  wife  at  Hamburg.  In  Oct., 
1797,  a  *' person,'*  as  he  is  called,  gave  infor- 
mation of  this  to  Pitt,  and  allowed  himself  to 
be  employed  as  a  spy,  but  he  refused  to  come 
forward  as  a  witness,  and  the  government 
could  not,  therefore,  arrest  Lonl  Edward. 
On  March  12,  1798,  he  escaped,  while  his 
fellow-conspirators  were  seized.  A  reward 
of  £1,000  was  o£Fered  for  his  apprehension, 
but  he  continued  undiscovered  in  his  hiding- 
placo  in  Dublin.  Finally,  however,  he  was 
betraved  by  a  man  whose  name  never  tran- 
spired, and  on  May  19th  between  five  and  six 
o  clock  he  was  seized  on  his  bed.  He  stabbed 
Ryan  and  Swan,  two  of  the  officers,  but 
was  disabled  by  a  pistol-shot  and  was  cap- 
tured. The  seal  of  the  United  Irishmen  and 
a  plan  for  the  surprise  of  Dublin  was  found 
on  him.  Before  he  could  be  tried,  he  died  of 
his  wounds  (June  4,  1798). 

Moore,  JAS*  ^  Xord  £.  Piby«rald;  Fxoode, 
£n(fluh  tn  Irdond. 

Fitsgeraldi,  Mau&icb,  one  of  the  Norman 

conquerors  of  Ireland,  was  the  second  son  of 

Nesta   (former  mistress  of   Henry   I.)  and 

Gerald,  Lord  of    Carew,  in   Pembrokeshire. 

He  landed  at  Wexford  in  1169  in  company 

with  Fitz-Stephen.     He  is  mentioned  as  a 

leader  in  the  sally  from  Dublin  which  led  to 

O'Connor's  flight  m  1 1 70.    He  was  with  John 

de  Lacy  when  O'Kuark  was  killed,  and  got 

Wicklow  Castle  as  a  fief.    He  died  in  1176. 

Giraldus  says  of  him  that  he  (Ued  leaving  no 

man  behind  him  stronger  in  constancy  and 

fiuth.    His  sons  were  deprived  of  Wicklow, 

but  got  other  estates  instead.     He  is  the 

ancestor  of  the  houses  of  Kildare  and  Desmond, 

and  of  the  Fitzgerald  family  generally. 

Qiraldns  Cambrensis,  JBxpuynatto  Hibemuv; 
lortteKton's  Henry  IT. 

Fitltferaldy  Lord  Thomas  [d,  1636), 
■on  of  Gerald,  ninth  Earl  of  Kildare,  and 
-vice-deputy  for  him.  On  his  father's  arrest 
by  Henry  VIII.,  Lord  Thomas  excited  in 
1635  a  somewhat  formidable  revolt  in  Ireland, 
which  for  a  time  was  very  successful.  But 
the  storming  of  Maynooth,  the  great  strong- 
hold of  the  Fitzgeralds,  by  Skeffington,  led  to 
the  ruin  of  their  cause.  After  a  long  period 
of  wandering,  Thomas  surrendered  to  the 
English,  and  was  hung  with  his  five  uncles  at 
Tyburn  on  Feb.  3,  1636. 
Fxonda,  Httt.  ofBng. 

Fitsgeraldy  Si&  Thomas  Tudkin  {d, 
1810),  was  High  Sheriff  of  Tippexary  during 
the  rebellion  of  1798.  He  conmiitted  and 
encouraged  the  most  frightful  barbarities. 
One  man  named  Wright  was  flogged  nearly 
to  death  for  having  a  note  in  French  in  his 
pocket.  After  the  rebellion  he  was  fined 
£500  by  a  jury  on  this  account ;  but  govern- 


ment paid  his  fine,  and  in  1801  made  him  a 
baronet.  Froude  says  that  his  Beveritiee 
prevented  an  outbreak  in  Tipperary. 

Fitigerald  and  Vesci,  Lord  (d,  1843), 
an  Irish^ory  politician  of  some  mark,  repre- 
sented Clare  in  the  House  of  Commons  till 
turned  out  by  O'Connell,  on  seeking  re- 
election after  appointment  to  office.  From 
1828 — 1830  he  was  Pa^'master  and  Presideflt 
of  the  Board  of  Trade;  and  from  1841— 
1843,  President  of  the  Board  of  Control. 

Fitigerald^  Family  of.  Their  reputed 
ancestor  was  William,  Castellan  of  Windsor 
in  the  Conqueror*8  reign ;  from  him  was  de- 
scended Grerald,  father  of  Maurice  Fitz^rald 
and  William  Fitzmanrice:  the  latter  is  the 
ancestor  of  the  Knight  of  Kerr}''  and  of 
the  Marquis  of  Lansdowne.  Maurice  Fits- 
gerald,  the  founder  of  the  house,  secured 
large  grants,  among  them  the  barony  of 
Ofialey.  In  1206  his  son  became  Baron  of 
Offaley.  The  baron*s  brother  was  Lord 
Justice,  and  fought  against  the  l^Iarshalls  on 
King  John's  behalf.  The  younger  brother  of 
the  seventh  Lord  Oifaley,  Maurice,  was,  in 
1329,  created  Earl  of  Desmond,  and  the  Lord 
Offaley  himself  became  Earl  of  Kildare. 
From  this  time  the  Fitzgeralds  became  practi- 
cally the  rulers  of  Ireland,  or  at  least  of  the 
English  part  of  it.  The  destruction  of  the 
houses  ox  De  Burgh  and  De  Lacy  left  the 
•  Butlers  as  their  sole  rivals.  From  the  defeat 
of  Edward  Bruce  to  the  reign  of  James  I.,  the 
history  of  Ireland  is  made  up  of  their  con- 
stant wars  with  the  Butlers.  For  the  destruc- 
tion of  their  immense  power,  see  the  articles 
on  the  Earls  of  Kildare  and  Desmond.  The 
first  branch  is  still  represented  in  our  own 
day  by  the  ducal  house  of  Leinster. 

Barke's  Peerage  and  Extinct  Peerage;  ITiooIsa, 
Sittorie  Feenxft. 

Fitsgibbon.  Johx  {b.  1748,  d.  1802),  was 
created  Baron  Fitzg^bbon  in  1789,  Viscount 
in  1793,  Earl  of  aare  in  1795.  He  distin- 
guished himself  greatly  at  Trinity  College,  and 
was  even  then  the  rival  of  Grattan.  He  soon 
made  a  name  at  the  bar.  In  the  year  1787  he 
first  signalised  himself  as  Tor}'  member  for 
Dublin,  by  speaking  against  the  vote  of  thanks 
to  the  Volunteers,  then  at  the  height  of  their 
popularity.  His  second  great  speech  was 
airected  against  Flood*s  Reform  Bill,  which 
was  lost.  In  1784  he  became  Attorney- 
General,  and  as  such  had  the  courage  to  attack 
the  Sheriff  of  Dublin,  as  he  was  assembling 
the  freeholders  to  elect  representatives 'to  a 
new  illegal  congresa  In  1785  he  fought  a 
duel  wiui  Curran.  On  Jan.  31,  1787,  he 
brought  in  a  Conspiracy  Bill,  and  he  was  one 
of  the  few  Irishmen  who  opposed  the  Regency 
Bill  in  1788.  In  1789  he  became  a  peer  and 
Lord  Chancellor.  During  Lord  Camden's 
administration,  he  was  virtually  Governor  of 
Ireland,  and  was  the  mainstay  of  the  govern- 


Fit 


(460) 


Fit 


ment  during  the  BebeUion  of  1798.  The  in- 
surgents hated  hkn  more  than  any  other 
man.  Lord  Comwallis,  though  he  came  out 
to  Ireland  prejudiced  against  him,  declared 
later  that  he  was  *'  by  fso*  the  most  moderate 
and  right-headed  man  in  the  country."  Ho 
defended  the  Union  in  a  great  speech  on 
Feb.  10,  1800,  in  the  Irish  Parliament.  In 
the  following  year  he  made  a  bitter  attack  on 
the  absentee  Whig  lords  in  the  English  Par- 
liament. In  1802  he  died,  and  his  burial 
was  nearly  interrupted  by  a  furious  mob.  A 
typical  upholder  of  the  Protestant  ascendency^ 
Fitzgibboa  is  Mr.  Froude's  special  hero. 

Fronde,  Englith  in  Ireland ;  Flowdeu,  Life  of 
QraUan. 

Fila-Gilberty  Richard,  or  Richard  db 
Glare,  was  a  Norman  btiron,  nearly  related 
to  William  the  Conqueror.  He  accompanied 
William  to  England,  and  received  lavish 
grants  of  land,  among  which  was  the  manor 
of  Clare,  from  which  he  took  the  name  which 
his  descendants  likewise  adopted.  He  was 
appointed  joint  regent  of  England  during  Wil- 
ham's  absence  in  1073,  and  in  1076  was  in- 
strumental in  quelling  the  rebellion  of  the 
Earls  of  Herefonl  and  Norfolk.  He  lived  on 
till  the  reign  of  Henry  I. 

Fitiharris,  Edward  {d.  1681).  An  Irish 
adventurer,  who  in  1681  concocted  a  libel  upon 
the  king  and  the  Duke  of  York,  in  which  he 
advocated  the  deposition  of  the  one,  and  the 
exclusion  of  the  other.  This  manuscript  he 
probably  intended  to  place  in  the  study  of  one 
of  the  prominent  Whig  statesmen,  and  then, 
by  discovering  it  himself,  earn  the  wages  of 
an  informer.  He  was,  however,  betrayed  by 
an  accomplice,  and  sent  to  the  Tower,  where 
he  invented  a  Popish  Plot  for  the  murder  of 
the  king,  and  the  boiling  down  of  the  leading 
Whigs  into  a  jelly,  to  be  used  for  anointing 
future  Popish  kings.  Fitzharris  was  im- 
peached by  the  Commons,  but  the  Lords  de- 
clared that  they  had  no  power  of  tr^ng  a 
commoner,  as  that  would  be  a  violation  of 
MRgna.  Charta,  while  the  Commons  asserted 
their  right  of  impeachment.  The  dissolution 
of  Parliament  settled  the  fate  of  Fitzharris, 
who  was  tried  for  high  treason  before  the 
King's  Bench,  and  executed. 

Hallaxn,  Conct.  Hist. ;  Parliammiary  History  ; 
SiaUTriaU. 

Fits-Herbert,  Mrs.,  a  Roman  Catholic 
lady,  with  whom  George,  Prince  of  Wales,  in 
1787,  went  through  the  ceremony  of  mar- 
riage. If  the  Royal  Marriage  Act  had  not 
invalidated  this  marriage  as  contracted  with- 
out the  royal  consent,  the  Act  of  Settlement 
would  have  deprived  Greorge  of  his  rights  of 
succession.  To  get  his  debts  paid,  Greorge 
persuaded  Fox  to  publicly  deny  his  mairiage 
with  Mrs.  Fitz-Herbert,  and  afterwards  denied 
that  he  had  instructed  Fox  to  do  so. 

Fiti-Joceliii,  Rboinald,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  id,  1191),  was  the  son  of  Jocelin, 


Bishop  of  Salisbury,  and  was  elected  Bishop 
of  Bath  and  Wells  in  1174.  On  the  death  of 
Archbishop  Baldwin,  the  monks  of  Canter- 
bury, in  opposition  to  King  Richard  and 
Earl  John,  each  of  whom  had  his  own 
nominee,  chose  Reginald  to  fill  the  Vacant  see. 
Almost  immediately  after  his  election  he  was 
seized  with  illness,  and  expired  in  less  than  a 
month. 

Hook,  ArehhishcpM  of  Canterbury. 

Fits-Mauricev  James  {d.  1579),  was  the 
brother  of  the  sixteenth  'Earl  of  Desmond, 
and  far  superior  to  him  in  address  and 
military  skill.  When  the  head  of  the  family 
was  made  a  prisoner  by  Sidney,  he  roused  the 
Geraldines,  and,  uniting  with  other  chiefs,  he 
took  Kilmallock.  He  went  over  to  Spain  to 
get  help  in  1570,  but  on  his  return,  had  to 
submit  to  Sir  John  Perrot  in  1571.  He 
then  again  went  abroad,  and  in  vain  tried  to 
induce  France  and  Spain  to  come  to  the  aid 
of  the  Irish  Catholics.  Pope  Gregory  XIIL, 
however,  entrusted  him  with  a  force  of  a  few 
hundred  men,  and  he  set  sail  with  them  in 
1579,  and  landed  at  Smerwick.  Not  finding 
there  the  support  he  expected,  he  went  off 
into  Tipperary,  where  he  was  soon  after- 
wards slain  in  battle. 

Fronde,  HMtory  qf  En^fiand. 

Fitl-lfiffelf  Richard,  or  Fitz-Neal  (d, 
1198),  was  tne  son  of  Nigel,  Bishop  of  Ely, 
and  g^reat-ziephew  of  Bi^op  Koger,  of 
Salisbury.  He  was  appointed  Treasurer  of 
England  in  1165,  which  office  he  seems  to 
have  held  till  his  death,  having  also  been  made 
Bishop  of  London  in  1189.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  history  of  Henry  II.*s  reign,  en- 
titled Trieolumnus,  which  is  probably  the 
basis  of  what  used  to  be  attributed  to  Bene- 
dict of  Peterborough;  but  his  more  famous 
work  is  the  Dialogut  de  SeaceariOf  which 
his  position  and  connection  with  Nigel  and 
Roger  made  extremel}'  important  and  trust- 
worthy. 

Stubbt,  Pr^ooM  to  Bmudict  of  P«l«i*boroii4l^ 
(BoUb  Series).  The  DialoguM  ia  printed  In 
Stubbs's  Select  ChaHen, 

Fits-Osbem.  Roqer,  Earl  of  Hereford, 
was  the  son  of  William  Fitz-Osbem.  In 
1075  he  entered  into  a  plot  with  Ralph 
Guader  against  William  1.,  the  immediate 
cause  being  the  king's  refusal  to  allow  the 
mairiage  between  Ralph  and  Fitz-Osbem^s 
sister.  Being  defeated  and  taken  prisoner, 
he  was  sentenced'  to  deprivation  of  his  lands 
and  titles  and  perpetual  captivity.  [Norwich, 
Bridal  op.] 

Fits-Osbem,  William  {d.  1072),  was  a 
Norman  baron,  somewhat  distantly  connected 
with  the  Conqueror.  He  was  very  instru- 
mental in  obtaining  the  sanction  of  the 
Norman  nobles  to  the  invasion  of  England, 
and  commanded  one  of  the  wings  at  the 
battle  of  Hastings.    He  received  the  Palatine 


nt 


(461) 


Fit 


earldom  of  Hereford  as  hiB  reward.  During 
the  king*8  absence  in  Normandy  he  acted  as 
regent,  and,  in  1069,  assisted  in  suppressing 
the  insurrections  in  the  north  and  west  of 
England.  In  1072  he  went  over  to  Flanders, 
where  he  was  slain,  while  fighting  in  a  civil 
war. 

Freeman,  ITbrnum  ConqnesL 

Fiti-Osbert,  William  (d.  1196),  known 
ako  as  William  lx>ngbeard,  the  first  dema- 
gogue in  English  history,  served  in  the  Third 
Crusade,  and  is' described  as  a  man  of  great 
eloquence.  In  1196  a  poll-tax  was  levied  on 
London,  and  Fitz-Osbert  organised  a  resistance 
to  it,  and  enrolled,  it  is  said,  more  than  50,000 
men.  He  held  meetings,  denounced  the 
oppression  of  the  governing  bourgeoisie,  and 
proclaimed  himself  the  saviour  of  the  poor. 
lilie  Justiciar,  Hubert  Walter,  collected 
troops,  and  speedily  awed  the  city  into  sub- 
mission. Fitz-Osbert  took  sanctuary  in  St. 
MAiy-le-Bow,  where  he  was  attacked,  by  fire, 
and  eventually  captured.  He  was  at  once 
tried,  and  put  to  death  as  a  traitot.  Of  his 
character  and  aims  it  is  difficult  to  judge,  as 
contemporary  writers  express  such  very  op- 
posite views.  William  of  Newburgh  says: — 
''The  contriver  and  fomenter  of  so  much 
evil  perished  at  the  command  of  justice,  and 
the  madness  of  this  wicked  conspiracy  ex- 
pired with  its  author:  and  those  persons, 
mdeed,  who  were  of  more  healthful  and 
cautious  dispositions  rejoiced  when  they 
beheld  or  heard  of  his  punishment,  washing 
their  hands  in  the  blood  of  the  sinner.*'  On 
the  other  hand,  Matthew  Paris  says : — "  So 
perished  William  Longbeard,  for  endeavour- 
ing to  uphold  the  cause  of  right  and  the  poor. 
If  it  be  the  cause  which  makes  the  martyr, 
DO  man  may  be  more  justly  described  as  a 
martyr  than  he.*' 

Paali,  BngliMcHu  GttckiehJte;  Hook,  Uvea  of  the 
ilrchbtshops;  William  of  Newburgh. 

TitB-Veter,  Geofpuby  (d,  1213),  was 
probably  the  son  of  Simon  Fitz-Peter,  one  of 
Henry  II. 's  justices.  He  himself  acted  as 
an  itinerant  judge,  and  Bichard  I.  placed 
him  on  the  council  which  was  to  act,  with 
the  Justiciar,  during  the  king's  absence  on 
the  Crusade.  In  1198  he  was  appointed 
Justiciar,  which  office  he  contrived  to  hold 
till  his  death.  His  administration  was  charac- 
terised by  gpreat  sternness  and  rigid  impar- 
tiality, and  he  did  what  he  could  to  restrain 
the  excesses  of  John,  who,  on  hearing  of  his 
death,  exclaimed,  with  an  oath,  "Now,  for 
the  first  time,  am  I  King  of  England." 
Fitz-Peter  was  created  Earl  of  Essex  in  1199. 

Fits-Roy,  Sir  Charlbs,  was  Governor 
of  New  South  Wales  (1847—8].  His  tenure 
of  office  was  chiefly  remarkable  for  disputes 
between  the  Home  and  the  Colonial  govern- 
ments as  to  the  proposed  change  of  constitu- 
tion in  New  South  Wales. 


FitE-Stoplieil,  Robert,  a  Norman  con* 

queror  in  South  Wales  and  Ireland,  was  the 

son  of  Nesta,  the  former  mistress  of  Henry 

I.,    and   of    Stephen  de    Marisco.      When 

Dermot  came  to  Wales  to  collect  succours, 

he    was    the    captive    of  a  Welsh  prince; 

but     on    his     release,    in     1169,    he     led 

thirty  knights,  sixty  men-at-arms,  and  three 

huniired  archers  to  Ireland.    With  this  force 

he    took    Wexford;  but,  in   1170,  he  was 

induced  by  treachery  to  surrender  at  Oarrig. 

When  Henry  II.  landed,  in   1171,  he  was 

taken  before  him  at  Waterford  as  a  traitor. 

He  was,  however,  restored  to  &vour,  and 

entrusted  with  the  custody  of  Wexford.     He 

followed  Henry  abroad,  in  1174;   was  sent 

over  to  Ireland,  again  recalled,  but  finally, 

in   1177,  invested   with    the    command   in 

southern  Munster.    In  1182  he  was  besieged 

in  Cork,  but  rescued  by  Raymond  le  Grros. 

Qiraldas   Cambrensis,  JSxpttgnotio  HiberwuB; 
Moore,  Hut.  q/"  Irelarut. 

FitB-Stephen,  William  {d.  1191).  A 
monk  of  Canterbur}',  the  eye-witness  of  the 
murder  of  his  master,  Becket,  whose  biog^phy 
he  wrote,  to  which  was  prefixed  a  remarkable 
description  of  London. 

Fits-ITrse,  Rbginald.  A  knight  in  the 
service  of  Henry  II.,  and  one  of  the  murderers 
of  St  Thomas.    [Becket.] 

Fits-Walter,  Milo  {d,  1146),  was  one  of 
the  itinerant  justices  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
I.  On  that  kmg^s  death  he  assisted  Stephen 
in  his  attempt  to  gain  the  crown,  but  before 
long  he  deserted  the  king,  and  strenuously 
supported  the  Empress  Matilda,  who  gave 
him  the  title  of  Earl  of  Hereford,  together 
with  considerable  lands  and  privileges.  He 
was  accidentally  killed  in  1146. 

Fits- Walter,  Robert.  A  northern  baron, 
who,  as  an  old  enemy  of  John,  was  selected 
by  the  baronial  confederacy  as  the  leader  in 
the  struggle  that  finally  resulted  in  the  grant 
of  Magna  Charta. 

Fita-William,  Sir  William  {d.  1543), 
was  a  famous  naval  commander  of  Henry 
VIII.'s  time.  In  1513,  and  again  in  1622—24, 
he  won  victories  over  the  French,  and  in  1537 
was  made  Earl  of  Southampton  and  Privy 
Seal 

Fitswilliam,  William,  4th  Earl  {b. 
1748,  d.  1833),  was  of  the  distinguished 
Yorkshire  Whig  family,  and  nephew  of 
Rockingham,  and  opposed  the  American 
War  and  Pitt's  earlier  ministry.  Taking 
panic  at  the  French  revolutionary  excesses 
he  deserted  Fox.  He  was  made  Lord- 
Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  but  recalled,  because 
too  liberal,  just  before  1798.  This  alienated 
him  from  the  government,  and  he  became 
President  of  the  Council  under  Gren\alle,  in 
1807,  and  lived  to  share  in  and  see  the  success 
of  the  lieform  Bill  agitation.    He  was  one  of 


TiT 


(462) 


ru 


the  best  specimens  of  the  Whig  grandee  of 
the  eighteenth  centur>\ 
Btonhope,  IAS9  of  Fm. 

Five  Borouglui  of  Xeroia.   A  rude 

confederacy  of  Danish  boroughs,  correspond- 
ing, as  some  have  thought,  to  the  older  divi- 
sions of  north-eastern  Mercia.  They  were 
Derby,  LincoUi,  Leicester,  Stamford,  and 
Nottingham.  They  were  each  ruled  by  their 
'<  jarl,"  with  twelve  lawmen  administering 
Danish  law  in  each,  while  a  common  court 
existed  for  the  whole  confederacy.  They 
were  conquered  by  Edward  the  lUder;  and 
reconquered  in  940  bv  Edmund,  who  seems  to 
have  allowed  them  full  enjoyment  of  their 
local  privileges.    [Danelaoh.j 

nva  Xembers,  The.  In  January, 
1642,  Charles  I.,  believing  that  the  Parlia- 
mentary leaders  intended  to  impeach  the 
queen,  resolved  to  prevent  it  by  impeaching  her 
asMuIants.  He  selected,  as  the  chief  offenders, 
five  members  of  the  House  of  Commons,  John 
Pym  (Tavistock),  John  Hampden  (Bucking- 
hamshire), Denzil  Holies  (Dorchester),  Sir 
Arthur  Haselrig  (Leicestenhire),  and  Wil- 
liam Strode  (Dorchester).  Lord  Kimbolton 
was  included  in  the  same  impeachment  on 
January  3.  Sir  Edward  Herbert,  the  Attorney- 
General,  laid  the  charges  before  the  House 
of  Lords,  who  at  once  appointed  a  committee 
to  inquire  whether  his  procedure  had  been 
according  to  law.  On  the  same  day  the  king 
sent  the  Sergeant-atrarms  to  the  House  of 
Commons  with  orders  to  arrest  the  five 
members.  Charles  was  urged  on  by  Lord 
Digby  and  the  queen  to  arrest  the  members 
himself,  and  about  three  o*clock  on  the  after- 
noon of  January  4,  started  from  Whitehall 
with  about  four  hundred  armed  men  to  ap- 
prehend them.  The  accused  members  had 
been  warned  by  a  message  from  Lady  Car- 
lisle, and  escaped  by  the  river  into  the  city. 
The  king  entered  the  House,  leaving  about 
eighty  armed  men  in  the  lobby,  and  made  a 
speecn  in  which  he  said  that  since  they  had 
disobeyed  his  orders,  he  had  come  to  arrest 
the  members  himself.  He  commanded  the 
Speaker  to  tell  him  whether  the  accused 
members  were  present ;.  and  when  Lenthal 
refused  to  do  so,  and  the  king  saw  with  his 
'>wn  eyes  that  "  the  birds  were  flown,"  he  re- 
tired, sa^'ing,  *<  I  assure  you,  on  the  word  of 
a  king,  I  never  did  intend  any  force,  but 
shall  proceed  against  them  in  a  legal  and  fair 
way,  for  I  never  meant  any  other."  The 
House  adjourned  till  the  11th,  appointing  a 
committee  to  sit  in  the  interval  at  Guildhall. 
This  committee  voted,  on  the  6th,  that  the 
impeachment,  the  personal  issue  of  the  war- 
rants by  the  king,  and  the  attempt  to  arrest 
the  impeached  members  were  alike  illegal. 
Addresses  and  petitions  on  behalf  of  the  ac- 
cused members  poured  in  from  the  city  and 
the  country.  On  the  11th  the  Commons  re- 
turned in  triumph  to  Westminster,  and  two 


days  later  the  king  announced  that,  as  the 
legality  of  the  impeachment  of  the  members 
had  been  doubted,  he  would  now  abandon  it, 
and  proceed  andnst  them  "  in  an  unquestion- 
able way."  The  justifiable  distrurt  caused 
by  this  attempt  induced  the  leaders  of  the 
Parliament  to  demand  substantial  securities 
from  the  king,  and  so  led  to  war. 

8.  B.  Gardiner,  Kut.  ofE^.,  1603—2649,  voL 
z. ;  Hallam,  CoiutitiUtonal  Hwtory. 

Five-Mile  Act,  Tub  (1665),  enacted 
that  no  Nonconforming  clergyman  should 
come  within  five  miles  of  any  corporate  town 
or  any  place  where  he  had  once  ministersd 
(except  when  travelling),  nor  act  as  a  tutor 
or  schoolmaster  unless  he  first  took  the 
oath  of  non-resistance,  and  swore  to  attempt 
no  alteration  of  the  constitution  in  Church  or 
State.  It  was  one  of  the  series  of  repressive 
measures,  popularly  known  as  the  "  Claren- 
don Code,"  and  was  aimed  at  depriving  the 
ejected  clergy  of  their  means  of  livelihood, 
both  by  preaching  and  teaching. 

Flatf  I  Honour  of  tub.  From  very  early 
times  {Ke  English  required  foreign  ships  to 
salute  English  vessels  within  the  narrow  seas 
by  lowering  their  flag.  This  question  was 
vehemently  contested  by  their  commercial 
rivals,  the  Dutch,  and  was  one  of  the  smaller 
points  of  the  chronic  dispute  between  the  two 
nations  in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury.   The  Dutch  admitted  the  claim  in  1673. 

Flatfellaats,  Thb.    A  sect  of  fanatical 

enthusiasts  of  the  thirteenth  centur}',  who 

formed  special  fraternities  for  the  observation 

of  flagellation  as  a  solemn  and  public  religious 

ceremony.    Started  in  1210  by  St.  Anthony 

of   Padua,    this   order   became    widespread 

through  the  teaching  of  Rainer  of  Perugia. 

In  tl^  reign  of  Edward  III.,  120  of  them 

crossed  into  England,  but  their  long  prooet'- 

sions  and  self-immolation  did  not  produce  a 

single  convert. 

Fdntemaim,   Di$   Chriaaickin   QtUiUrgMeU- 
aehajlm, 

Flambard,  Ralph  {d.  1128),  was  a  Nor- 
man of  low  origin,  who  after  Lanfnmc*B  death 
became  the  chief  minister  of  William  Ruf  us. 
To  his  malign  influence  may  be  attributed  much 
of  the  tyranny  and  oppression  of  this  reign. 
He  devised  new  impositions,  and  enriched  him- 
self as  well  as  the  king,  by  keeping  the  sees 
and  abbeys  vacant.  Under  him  ue  position  of 
Justiciar  gradually  became  a  definite  office. 
In  1099  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Duriiam. 
On  the  accession  of  Henry  I.  he  was  at  once 
arrested  and  imprisoned  in  the  Tower,  from 
which,  however,  he  very  soon  managed  to 
escape,  and  took  refuge  in  Normandy  with 
Robert,  whom  he  encouraged  in  his  invasion 
of  England.  Henry  subsequently  allowed 
him  to  return  to  his  bishopric,  where  he  re- 
mained peaceably  till  his  death,  occupyini; 
himself  chiefly  in  architectural  and  ecclesias- 
tical works.    His  character  is  painted  in  tho 


JTU 


(483  ) 


FU 


darkest  characters  by  the  chroniclers.  William 
of  Malmesbnry  says,  "  If  at  any  time  a  royal 
edict  was  issued  that  England  should  pay  a 
oertain  tribute,  it  was  doubled  by  this  plun- 
derer of  the  rich,  this  exterminator  oi  the 
poor,  this  confisoator  of  other  men's  inheri- 
tance. He  was  an  invincible  pleader,  as 
onrestrained  in  his  words  as  in  his  actions, 
and  equally  furious  against  the  meek  or  the 
turbulent.  Wherefore  the  king  used  to  laugh 
and  say,  'that  he  was  the  only  man  who 
knew  how  to  employ  his  talents  in  this  way, 
4U)d  cared  for  no  one's  hatred  so  long  as  he 
4xnild  please  his  master.'  " 
Freeman,  WiUiam  Evfim. 


Thomas,  was  a  Cornish  attor- 
ney, whose  harangues  incited  the  Comishmen 
to  revolt,  in  1491,  against  Henry  YII.'s  ex- 
cessive taxation.  He  led  them  on  their  march 
to  Blackheath,  and  on  the  suppression  of  the 
levolt  was  hanged  as  a  traitor. 
Baeon,  flwi.  of  Smry  VU. 

FlaaderSy  Relations  with.  Nominally 
a  fief  of  France,  Flanders  was  very  early  of 
sufficient  importance  to  have  close  deaUngs 
with  England.  The  name  '*  Baldwinsland," 
given  by  the  early  English  to  the  countiy, 
suggests  the  frequency  of  the  dynastic  rela- 
tions between  the  courts.  The  fixst  Count 
Baldwin  married  Judith,  the  Frankish  widow 
of  Ethelwutf  of  Wessex,  and  their  son  married 
.Xlfthiyth  (Elfrida),  a  daughter  of  Alfred 
the  Great.  Dunstan  found  in  his  exile  a 
Tef uge  in  a  Flemish  monastery.  Grodwin,  in 
1061,  was  warmly  welcomed  by  the  great 
Baldwin,  whose  dealings  with  England  were 
singulariy  intimate.  He  died  soon  after  his 
iKm-in«law,  William  I.,  had  conquered  the 
kiBgdom.  Later  in  William's  reign,  Qerbod 
of  Chester,  and  William  Fitz-Osbern  found 
captivity  and  death  respectively  through 
warUke  intervention  in  Flemish  quarrels. 
Another  Baldwin  supported  William  Fits- 
Bobert  a^nst  his  uncle  Henry  I.  Flemish 
mercenaries  and  William  of  Ypres  fought 
for  Stephen.  Count  Philip  joined  in  1173 
the  great  confederation  whidi  the  younger 
Henry  had  excited  against  his  father 
Henry  II.  But  gradually  the  old  changing 
relations  settled  down  into  a  general  friend- 
ship, when  not  only  dynastic  accidents,  but 
a  common  policy  of  alliance  against  the 
encroachments  of  the  French  kings,  and  the 
growing  pressure  of  economical  necessities, 
firmly  bound  together  the  two  countries. 
Count  Ferdinand  joined  John  and  his  nephew, 
Otto  lY.,  in  the  oonfederac}'-  that  was  dis- 
solved by  the  battle  of  Bouvinee  (1213). 
Edward  I.  ended,  by  the  Treaty  of  Montreml 
(1274)  with  Count  Guy,  the  hostilities  be- 
tween his  father  and  Margaret  of  Flanders. 
Ony,  on  the  whole,  gave  Edward  efficient 
support  against  Philip  the  Fair.  But  the 
growth  of  the  doth  laude  in  Flanders  had 
hound  its  great  towns  to  England,  whence 


came  the  raw  wool  which  Ghent  or  Ypres 
nuide  up  into  doth,  and  the  Hanse  factories 
of  London  and  Bruges  may  have  added  a 
further  link.  On  the  other  hand,  the  rising 
power  of  the  towns  compelled  the  Flemish 
counts  to  rely  on  French  hdp ;  and  thus,  while 
the  alliance  of  England  and  the  towns  was 
strengthened,  her  relations  with  the  counts 
grew  cool.  At  last,  in  1336,  Jacob  van 
Artevdde,  the  Ghent  leader,  concluded  a 
firm  alliance  with  Edward  III.  against  Count 
Louis  and  Philip  VI.,  which  continued  till 
Artevdde's  death,  in  1345.  The  renewed 
disturbances  at  Ghent,  under  Philip  van 
Artevdde  in  1381,  were  in  dose  analogy  and 
direct  connection  with  the  contemporary 
revolutionary  movement  under  Wat  Tyler, 
and  even  Bishop  Spencer's  crusade  against 
the  Clementists  practically  turned  to  the 
help  of  the  Flemish  townsmen.  But  the 
accession  of  the  Burgundian  house  to  Flanders 
restored  the  old  friendship  of  the  princes, 
thoug]^  partly  at  the  expense  of  the  popular 
party.  In  1496  the  treaty  styled  Magntu 
IntereurtuB  expelled  Perkvn  Warbeck  from 
Flanders,  and  allowed  full  freedom  of  trade 
between  the  two  countries.  But  henceforth 
Flandeis  is  only  a  fragment  of  a  larger  state. 

PauU,  "BngUuih*  QeKhichU ;  Scha&x,  Engliaeht 
SanddKpcUtik ;  Maopherson,  Hut.  o/Cam«MrM; 
Aahlqr,  Jams*  and  Pntiip  van  Artmfiidd. 

[T.  F.  T.] 

Flftvia  CnsaxiMuds  was  one  of  the 
districts  of  Roman  Britain.  Its  situation  is 
unknown. 

Fleet  PriflPlly  a  famous  London  gaol,  a 
long's  prison  since  the  twelfth  century,  was 
situatea  on  the  east  side  of  Famngdon  Street, 
on  the  bank  of  the  Fleet  rivulet.  The  Fleet 
was  burnt  down  by  Wat  Tyler,  and  became  of 
great  historical  interest,  as  the  prison  of  reli- 
gious offenders  on  both  sides,  under  IVIary  and 
Elizabeth,  and  of  the  victims  of  the  Star 
Chamber.  On  the  abolition  of  the  Star  Cham- 
ber, it  became  a  prison  for  debtors  and  those 
committed  for  contempt.  It  was  again  burnt 
in  the  Gordon  riots,  and  abolished  iu  1841. 
In  the  eighteenth  century  the  Fleet  became 
famous  for  the  irregular  marriages  contracted 
there  by  dergymen  of  abandoned  character, 
and  in  prison  or  within  the  precincts  for  debt. 
Lord  Hardwicke's  Marriage  Act  (1753)  put 
an  end  to  this  abuse. 

Bam,  Hi$t.  of  Fltet  Marriage;  Loftie,  Sid.  of 
London. 

Fleetwood^  Chakles  {d.  circa  1692)« 
the  son  of  Sir  William  Fleetwood,  was 
one  of  those  gentlemen  of  the  Inns  of  Court 
who  enlisted  in  the  body-guard  of  the  Earl 
of  Essex.  He  also  served  in  the  army  of  the 
Eastern  Association  under  Oliver  Cromwdl. 
In  the  New  Model  he  commanded  a  regiment 
of  horse,  and,  after  the  capture  of  BristoL 
was  appointed  governor  of  that  place.  In 
Oct.,  1646,  he  became  member  for  Bucking- 


Fla 


(  464  ) 


Tie 


hamshire.  He  took  no  part  in  the  king*s 
death,  though  his  brother  George  sat  amongst 
the  j udges.  In  1 650  Fleetwood  was  lieutenant- 
general  of  the  army  under  Cromwell  which 
invaded  Scotland.  As  such,  he  shared  in  the 
victory  of  Dunbar,  and  played  a  very  im- 
portant part  in  the  battle  of  Worcester.  On 
the  death  of  Ireton,  Fleetwood  married  his 
widow,  GromwelPs  daughter  Bridget ;  and, 
after  the  commandership^in-chief  m  Ireland 
had  been  refused  by  Lambert,  Fleetwood  was 
appointed  to  that  post  (Jime,  1652).  In 
March,  1654,  he  became  Lord  Deputy,  but 
was  recalled  to  England  in  the  summer  of 
1655,  probably  because  he  was  not  sufficiently 
active  in  pulling  on  the  transplantation  of 
the  Catholics  and  suppressing  the  exercise  of 
the  Catholic  religion.  On  his  return,  he 
took  his  place  as  a  member  of  Cromwell's 
Council,  and  as  one  of  his  major-generals. 
Notwithstanding  his  relationship  to  the  Pro- 
tector, he  opposed  his  taking  the  crown,  but 
accepted  a  place  in  his  House  of  Lords. 
Fleetwood  had  some  expectation  of  being 
nominated  Cromwell's  successor,  but,  never- 
theless, accepted  the  appointment  of  Richard 
Cromwell.  However,  he  headed  the  party 
among  the  officers  which  wished  to  make  the 
army  independent  of  the  civil  power.  Their 
plan  was  to  make  Fleetwood  commander-in- 
chief,  independent  of  the  Protector,  and 
practically  a  co-ordinate  power  with  him. 
Not  succeeding  in  this,  he  and  the  Council  of 
Officers  forced  Richard  to  dissolve  Parliament. 
The  Rump,  directly  it  was  restored,  appointed 
him  commander-in-chief  of  the  land  forces  in 
England  and  Scotland,  and  one  of  the  Com- 
mission of  Seven,  who  were  to  appoint  officers 
(May,*  1659) ;  but  as  they  attempted  to  subject 
the  army  to  the  Parliament,  he  broke  up  the 
House  (Oct.,  1659),  and  established  the 
"Committee  of  Safety."  Monk's  advance, 
and  the  spread  of  di^iffection  in  army  and 
people,  obliged  him  to  recall  the  Parlifunent, 
though  Whitelocke  very  nearly  persuaded 
him  to  bring  back  the  king  instead.  He  was 
deprived  of  his  office  by  Parliament,  and, 
after  the  king's  return,  perpetually  incapaci- 
tated from  public  employment.  He  is  said 
to  have  Uved  till  1692. 

ClajraDdon,   HM.  of  th«   IMf. ;   Whitelocke, 
IfMnonals;  Ludlow,  Ifemoirs;  Carlyle,  Cromioell. 

Fleming,  Sir  Thomas  {d,  1613),  a  pro- 
minent memDer  of  the  Parliaments  of  1601 
and  1604,  was  Recorder  of  London  (1594), 
and  Solicitor-General  the  following  year. 
He  took  part  in  the  trial  of  the  Earl  of  Essex, 
and  becfune  Chief  Baron  of  the  Exchequer 
in  1604.  Coke  calls  him  '^a  man  of  great 
judgment,  integrity,  and  discretion." 
Fo88,  Judges  of  England. 

nemings  in  England.  At  various 
times,  large  colonies  of  Flemish  settlers  have 
been  brought  over  to  England.  The  close 
commercial  and  political  relations  of  the  two 


countries  largely  occasioned  this  emigxatian. 
Henry  I.  is  reputed  to  have  settled  Lower 
and  Southern  Dyfed  with  Flemings.  He 
certainly  thoroughly  expelled  the  Welsh,  and 
planted  the  countiy  with  Teutonic  settlers, 
who  speedily  became  English,  and  have  re- 
mained so  to  the  present  time,  without 
any  tendency  to  amcugamate  with  the  sur- 
rounding Celts.  Not  to  mention  the  Flemish 
mercenaries  of  Stephen's  reign,  we  find  large 
numbers  of  Flemish  weavers  settling  in 
England,  especially  in  the  eastern  counties, 
where  Norwich  became  the  great  seat  of  the 
clothing  industry.  These  Flemings  taught 
the  English  to  make  up  their  own  wool  into 
cloth,  instead  of  exporting  it  to  the  looms  of 
Flanders.  Later  stiU,  the  Reformation  led 
to  a  large  emigration  of  Flemish  Protestants 
into  England. 

Fleta.  The  name  usually  given  to  a  very- 
valuable  work  on  English  law,  written  some 
time  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  Its  date  is 
approximately  fixed  by  the  fact  that  the 
Statute  of  Westminster  the  Second  (13  Ed.  I.) 
is  the  last  statute  quoted.  It  derives  its 
name  from  the  fact  that  it  is  said  to  have 
been  written  by  an  unknown  prisoner  in  the 
Fleet. 

Flotclier,  Andkew,  of  Saltoun  {b.  1653» 
d,  1716),  was  educated  by  Bishop  Burnet, 
then  minister  of  Saltoun.  He  first  appears 
as  Commissioner  for  East  Lothian  in  the 
Scotch  Parliament ;  but  his  opposition  to  the 
court  occasioned  his  outlawry  and  the  con- 
fiscation of  his  estates.  In  1685  he  engaged 
in  Monmouth's  rebellion  [MonxouthI^  but 
quarrelled  with  a  f^ow-omcer  named  Dare^ 
and  shot  him.  Monmouth  was  obliged  to 
dismiss  Fletcher,  who  withdrew  to  the  Conti- 
nent, and  entered  the  Austrian  service  against 
the  Turks.  In  1688  he  joined  William  of 
Orange  at  the  Hague,  and  after  the  Revolu- 
tion his  estates  were  restored  to  him.  He 
soon  joined  the  "  Club,"  a  body  of  poUticians 
who  were  dissatisfied  with  the  Revolution 
Settlement  in  Scotland.  Proud  of  his  good 
family  and  theoretical  Liberalism,  Fletcher 
hated  monarchy  and  democracy:  and  desired  to 
make  Scotland  an  oligarchical  republic,  of  the 
Venetian  or  Bernese  type.  At  this  time  he 
published  two  Discourses  concerning  the 
affairs  of  Scotland,  in  one  of  which  he 
recommended  predial  slaver}'  as  a  remedy 
for  pauperism.  He  formed  a  friendship  wim 
Paterson,  the  originator  of  the  Bank  of 
England,  and  supported  his  Darien  scheme. 
In  Anne's  reign  he  led  the  "  Patriots  '*  in 
their  opposition  to  the  Union.  In  1703  he 
introduced  his  **  Limitations "  for  Queen 
Anne's  successor,  some  of  which  strangely 
anticipate  modem  LibcraUsm,  and  was  a  prime 
mover  of  the  "BiU  of  Security,"  which 
passed  in  1704,  while  the  '^Limitations" 
were  accepted  in  1705.  But,  finding  he 
could  not  withstand  the  Union,  he  exerted 


Fie 


(466  ) 


Flo 


his  influence  more  pxactically  to  secure  free- 
dom of  trade.  This  attitude,  rather  than  any 
real  cohnection  with  the  Jacobite  conspiiucies, 
led  to  his  arrest  in  1708. 

Lord  Bnclian,  1aS%  of  FUtchsr:  Burton,  Hi$t, 
of  Sootland ;  Maoanlay,  Hiat.  €f  England, 

Fletcher,  Kicha&d  {d.  1596),  Bishop  of 
London,  **  a  comely  and  courtly  prelate,"  was 
made  Dean  of  Peterborough  (1683),  in  which 
capacity  he  attended  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  at 
her  execution.  He  was  a  great  favourite  of 
£lizabeth*s,  by  whom  he  was  advanced  succes- 
sively to  the  Bees  of  Oxford,  Worcester,  and 
London,  but  lost  her  regard  on  his  marriage, 
for  which  he  was  suspended.  He  was  the 
father  of  Fletcher  the  dramatist,  and  the 
uncle  of  Fhineas  Fletcher,  the  poet. 

neums  is  ft  small  town,  fifteen  miles 
west  of  Namur,  famous  for  several  battles, 
and  especially  those  in  1690  and  1794.  lu'the 
former  engagement  (July  1,  1690),  the  Duke 
of  Luxemburg  gained  a  well-contested  victory 
over  the  Dutch  and  Imperialists  under  the 
Prince  of  Waldeck.  The  latter  (June  26, 
1794)  resulted  in  victory  for  Marshal  Jourdan 
over  the  Prince  of  Coburg. 

nodden  Field,  The  Battle  op  (Sept. 
9,  1513),  was  fought  between  James  TV, 
of  Sootland  and  the  English  under  the 
Earl  of  Suirey.  The  most  noteworthy 
circumstances  of  this  engagement  are:  (1) 
The  skilful  movement  by  which  the  Earl 
of  Surrey  succeeded  in  crossing  the  river 
Till,  and  cutting  off  all  communication  be- 
tween King  James  and  Scotland.  (2)  The 
omission  of  the  Scots  to  take  advantage  of 
the  &vourable  moment  for  attack  presented 
b^  the  passage  of  the  English  army  over  the 
nver.  (3)  The  utter  defeat  of  the  English 
right  wing  under  Sir  Edward  Howard,  and 
the  loss  of  this  success  to  the  Scots  through 
the  misconduct  of  the  troops  of  Earls  Huntly 
and  Home,  who,  instead  of  following  up  their 
victory,  abandoned  themselves  to  pillaging 
the  baggage  of  both  armies.  (4)  The  prowess 
of  the  English  archers,  whose  murderous 
volleys  threw  the  Scottish  right,  led  by 
Lennox  and  Argyle,  into  complete  confusion, 
and  rendered  their  subsequent  defeat  and 
ruinous  flight  a  comparatively  easy  matter. 
(5)  The  desperate  resistance  against  over- 
whelming nambers  made  by  die  Scottish 
centre,  and  the  death  of  James  lY.  during 
the  heat  of  the  contest.  (6)  The  indecisive- 
ness  of  the  conflict.  Notwithstanding  re- 
verses elsewhere,  and  the  death  of  their  king, 
the  Scots  succeeded  in  holding  Flodden  Hill 
during  the  night,  and  only  abandoned  their 
position  at  the  dawn  of  the  next  day  on 
learning  the  real  state  of  afiairs.  Meanwhile, 
on  the  English  side,  the  contest  had  so  nearly 
resulted  in  a  defeat  that  Surrey  was  quite 
unable  to  prosecute  the  war  with  any  vigour. 
The  loss  of  the  Scots  in  this  battle  was  from 
8,000  to  10,000  men;  that  of  the  English 


from  6,000  to  7,000.    At  the  commencement 
of  the  battle,  the  contending  armies  mustered 
respectively  30,000  and  32,000  men. 
Burton,  Hi$t.  of  Sootland. 

Flood,  Hemby  (b,  1732,  d.  1791),  was  the 
son  of  Warden  Flood,  Chief  Justice  of  the 
King's  Bench  in  Ireland.  He  studied  at 
Dublin  and  at  Oxford,  and  in  1769  entered  the 
Lish  Parliament  as  member  for  Kilkenny ;  and 
about  1761  he  became  the  idol  of  the  Irish 
patriots.  In  1767  he  successfully  opposed  an 
attempt  made  by  government  to  increase  the 
Irish  army.  In  1773  he  was  the  most  vigor- 
ous supporter  of  the  Absentee  Tax,  and  the 
real  leader  of  the  Opposition  to  the  Castle.  In 
1774,  however,  he  came  to  terms  with  Lord 
Harcourt,  the  Lord-lieutenant,  and  finally 
contented  himself  with  a  vice-treasurership,  a 
sinecure  of  £3,600  a  year.  In  1779,  however, 
he  again  deserted  the  government,  and  advo- 
cated free  trade.  In  1781  he  attacked  the 
Castle  expenditure.  His  name  was  now 
struck  off  the  list  of  Privy  Councillors,  and 
he  lost  his  place.  He  then  tried  to  supplant 
Grattan,  and  recover  his  old  position,  but 
was  twice  defeated.  In  1782  ho  stood  forth 
as  a  defender  of  Protestant  ascendency. 
When  Grattan  was  rewarded  for  his  services, 
his  friends  tried  to  get  a  reward  for  him,  too, 
but  failed,  and  a  bitter  personal  attack  on 
Grattan  being  unsuccessful,  he  left  Ireland 
for  England.  In  1783  he  returned.  Another 
quarrel  with  Grattan  would  have  ended  in  a 
duel  if  they  had  not  both  been  ordered  into 
custody.  Flood  now  took  the  part  of  the 
Volunteers,  and  agitated  for  a  Reform  Bill : 
he  was,  however,  averse  to  the  Catholic 
claims.  In  1784  his  great  motion  for  Heform 
was  defeated,  and  his  influence  continuing 
to  decline,  he  again  went  to  England  in  1 787. 
Since  1786  he  had  had  a  seat  in  the  EnglifAi 
Parliament,  but  he  was  little  appreciated,  and 
a  motion  for  Bef orm  brought  forward  by  him 
in  1790  was  a  failure. 

Fxonde,  English  in  Inland;  Plowden,  L^f*  of 
Qrattan. 

Florence  of  Worcester  {d.  1118).    A 

monk  of  Worcester,  and  compiler  of  a  Chroni- 
cle from  the  Creation  to  the  year  of  his  death. 
The  earlier  part  is  taken  from  Marianus 
Scotus ;  and  the  English  part  previous  to  his 
own  age  is  a  free  translation  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Chronicle  with  occasional  additions. 
For  his  own  period,  Florence  is  very  valuable, 
and  though  not  possessing  the  literary  merit 
of  William  of  IVIalmesbury,  is  lucid,  honest, 
and  fair.  Florence  of  Worcester's  Chronicle 
has  been  published  by  the  English  Historical 
Society. 

Florida,  Thb,  was  a  ship  built  in 
Birkenhead,  nominally  for  the  use  of  the 
Italian  government.  It  got  out  of  the 
Mersey  without  the  slight^t  difficulty,  al- 
though the  American  government  had  warned 
ours  of  her  real  purpose  as  a  Confederate 


no 


(466) 


F<a 


privateer.  Within  three  months  ehe  had 
captnred  fifteen  veeselB.  Thirteen  of  these 
she  burnt,  and  the  other  two  were  conTerted 
into  cruisers  by  the  Confederate  government. 
The  damage  done  by  the  Florida  was  included 
in  the  Greneva  award  with  the  Alabama  and 
other  claims.      [Geneva  Convention.] 

Fl07d'8  Case  (1621).  Floyd  was  a 
Cathohc  barrister,  who,  in  prison,  had  uttered 
disrespectful  language  against  the  Elector 
Palatine  and  his  wife.  Parliament,  then  sit- 
ting^and  disgusted  at  Jameses  obstinate  aver- 
sion to  their  zeal  for  the  cause  of  the  Palatine, 
inflicted  on  Floyd  a  heavy  fine,  together  with 
whipping,  the  pillory,  branding,  and  impri- 
sonment. The  Commons  took  the  initiative, 
but  the  Lords  inflicted  the  sentence.  This 
case  illustrates  the  indeflnite  right  of  Parlia- 
ment to  exercise  jurisdiction  even  over  those 
not  its  members,  and  for  offences  not  directly 
against  the  House. 

Hallam,  Cwui.  Mitt. 

Tlyinip  Squadron  {Squadrone  volante) 
is  the  name  ota  party  of  Scotch  politicians, 
formed  about  1705.  It  was  borrowed  from 
the  famous  "  Flying  Squadron  "  of  indepen- 
dent cardinals  during  the  previous  generation 
at  the  Papal  Court.  Lord  Tweeddale  was  the 
leader  of  this  *'  New  Party,"  which,  by  keep- 
ing close  together,  and  joining  first  one  side 
and  then  the  other  in  the  Union  debates,  had 
for  some  time  a  good  deal  of  power.  It  had 
the  fate  of  the  Union  question  in  its  own 
hands,  and  its  adhesion  to  the  cause  of  the 
government  in  1706  secured  the  triumph  of 
that  measure. 

Barton,  Hitt.  o/  Scotland  aod  IMyn  of  QiMm 

Foley^  Paul,  a  Tory  politician  in  the 
reign  ox  William  III.,  began  his  political 
career  as  a  Whig,  but  about  1690  became  a 
Tory.  He  was  so  wealthy — ^his  fiather  was  a 
successful  ironmaster — that  it  was  unnecessary 
for  him  to  follow  law  as  a  profession ;  but 
he  had  studied  it  carefully  as  a  science.  He 
paraded  his  independence  and  disinterested- 
ness rather  ostentatiously,  and  ''  was  so  much 
afraid,"  says  Macaulay,  "  of  being  thought  to 
fawn  that  he  was  almost  always  g^w&ng.*' 
In  1695  he  was  chosen  Speaker  of  the  House 
of  Commons,  and  was  again  re-dected  at  the 
close  of  the  year.  In  1696  he  proposed  the 
establishment  of  the  Land  Bank. 
Maoaolay,  UUi.  ofBng, 

Foliot,  GiLBBBT  {d.  1187),  was  a  monk  of 
Clugny,  and  became  Bishop  of  Hereford  and, 
subsequently,  of  London.  He  is  mainly  re- 
markable by  his  zeal  for  the  cause  of  Henrj'  II., 
and  in  the  disputes  with  Becket  was  sent  to 
Bome  by  the  king  in  1 164  to  represent  his  case 
to  the  Pope.  He  was  excommunicated  by 
Becket,  but  the  Pope  withdrew  the  sentence ; 
a  second  excommunication  shortly  afterwards  . 
followed,  but  on  that  occasion  the  Pope  con- 


firmed the  archbishop's  sentence,  and  Foliot 
was  suspended  from  his  functions,  and  not 
restored  till  after  Becket' s  death.  FoKot  was 
•  a  man  of  learning,  and  his  letters  are  of  con- 
siderable value,  but  he  has  been  traduced 
without  mercy  by  the  partisans  of  Becket. 
John  of  SsUtbiuy ;  Bobertson*  B*dut. 

PolUaad.  The  public  lands  of  the  nation 
in  old  English  history.  When  the  English 
came  to  Britain,  though  individual  property 
in  land  was  the  rule,  the  idea  of  corporate 
property  in  it  so  far  existed  that  after 
giving  to  each  individual,  family,  or  township 
their  appropriate  share,  it  was  natural  that 
what  remained  over  should  continue  the  pro- 
perty of  the  tribe  or  nation.  With  the  con- 
solidation of  the  original  states  into  a  single 
kingdom,  the  aggregate  amount  of  folkUmd 
became  very  large.  It  was  under  the  control 
of  the  king  with  the  counsel  and  consent  of 
his  Witan.  As  time  went  on,  large  grants  of 
f oUdand  were  made,  both  to  individuals  who 
had  done  services  to  king  and  people,  and  to 
communities.  Thus  the  new  nobility  of 
services  and  the  monasteries  received  their 
endowment  from  this  source.  Land  thus 
cut  off  from  folkland  was  called  bocland 
(q.v.),  i.e.f  land  granted  by  boc  or  charter. 
The  alienation  could  be  made  only  with 
the  consent  and  witness  of  the  Witan. 
Temporary  rights  over  folkland  were  also 
frequently  granted  in  the  form  of  leases  for 
services  or  money  payments.  These  became 
in  time  fixed  and  constant,  so  that  the 
land  became  practically  in  possession  of  the 
lessees.  Thus  folkland  was  being  constantly 
diminished  in  quantity ;  and  as,  meanwhile, 
the  development  of  the  theory  of  royalty 
subordinated  the  Witan  to  the  crown,  the 
king,  as  representative  of  the  nation,  acquired 
practically  the  disposal  of  it.  Ultimately, 
about  the  time  of  the  Norman  Conquest,  the 
remnant  of  folkland  became  Urra  regUy  the 
king's  domain ;  and  the  private  property  of 
the  crown,  hitherto  distinct,  became  merged 
with  it.  It  is  only  in  recent  times  that  the 
distinction  of  crown  or  national  lands  and 
the  private  estate  of  the  sovereign  has  been 
restored.  But  a  long  series  of  land  grants 
by  every  weak  or  foolish  king,  despite  occa- 
sional resumptions,  has  reduced  the  crown 
lands  to  a  comparatively  trifling  amount. 
They  are  now  under  the  control  of  the  Com- 
missioners of  Woods  and  Forests.  Folkland, 
as  distinct  from  the  royal  domain,  was  peculiar 
to  England.  The  **  commons  "  in  possession 
of  the  township,  or  some  smaller  community, 
were  not  considered  a  part  of  it,  though  also, 
in  a  sense,  the  property  of  the  people. 

Until  reoentir,  the  nature  of  folkland  was 
yetf  imperfectij  understood.  See  for  the 
wiouB  Old  theories  Schmld's  Q^at/tf  dtr  Angti- 
SochMn;  for  the  view  now  nnivenaUjr  aooepted, 
see  Stubbs's  Coiut.  Hut,  and  the  aatboritiM 
there  qnoted ;  and  eepedall j  Eemble'e  Suom 
in  England;  and  K.  Hauler's  KrUiacik*  Ud>^ 
tchau.  pr.  F.  T.] 


7ol 


(*«7) 


Tor 


PoDcmootf  the  meeting  of  the  people,  is 
the  old  English  name  for  the  great  aflsembly 
of  the  nation  for  political,  judicial,  and 
general  deliberative  functions.  Tacitus  tdls 
us  how  the  Germans  of  his  time  consulted  the 
whole  nation  on  all  important  matters,  and 
the  Gampus  Martins  or  liadius  of  the  Franks 
was  in  later  times  the  folkmoot  of  that 
nation.  Among  the  Scandinavian  peoples 
such  moots  continued  to  a  much  later  age, 
as  the  Icelandic  Althing^  and  the  great 
Swedish  Tingy  which  met  at  UpsrUa.  In 
England,  there  never  was  a  true  folkmoot  of 
the  whole  nation  which  assembled  together 
at  any  single  place  until  the  establishment  of 
the  House  of  Commons.  The  Witenagemot 
(q.v.)  was,  though  indirectly  a  national 
senate,  directly  nothing  more  than  a  gather- 
ing of  magnates.  The  Shiremoot  or  County 
Court  (q.v.),  however,  composed  of  the  re- 
presentatives of  every  township  within  its 
jurisdiction,  was  a  complete  folkmoot  for  the 
district  comprised  in  the  shire.  The  House 
of  Commons,  formed  by  concentrating  in  a 
single  assembly  the  representatives  of  the 
shins,  was  its  lineal  successor  and  natural 
development. 

Stubbs,  Ccm^,  Hift. ;  Kemble,  Saanxf  %n  Bna- 

Umd.  [T.  F.  T.] 

FonteiUMrf'^HS Battle  of  ^May  1 1, 1745), 
was  foufi^ht  during  the  Austrian  Succession 
War,  and  resulted  in  a  victory  for  the  French. 
TheBukeof  Cumberland  advanced  with  50,000 
English,  Dutch,  and  Austrian  troops  to  relieve 
Toumay,  besieged  by  Marshal  Saxe.  The 
French,  while  continuing  the  siege,  took  up  a 
very  strong  position  south  of  the  town  to  cover 
their  operations.  On  their  right  was  the 
Scheldt,  along  their  front  a  steep  and  narrow 
valley,  at  their  left  a  wood  with  forts.  This 
strong  position  the  allies  attempted  to  take. 
The  Dutch  under  the  Prince  of  Waldeck, 
after  a  spiritless  attempt  had  failed,  with- 
drew from  the  field.  6ut  the  mass  of  the 
English  and  Hanoverian  troops  won  the 
heights  opposite  them;  and  if  supported 
by  the  Dutch,  must  have  retainea  their 
position.  As  it  was,  fresh  troops  from  the 
French  side  gradually  forced  them  to  retire, 
with  a  steadiness  as  great  as  that  displayed 
during  their  advance.  The  capture  of  Tour- 
nay  followed  this  French  victory ;  but  it  was 
rattier  the  withdrawal  of  troops  to  Scotland 
to  oppose  the  Pretender  than  the  effects  of 
Fontenoy  that  made  the  subsequent  campaign 
in  Flanders  so  disastrous  to  the  allies. 

Stanhope,  EM.  cf  Eng. ;  Ameth.  Maria 
TKemia. 

Fordun,  Johk  {Jl.  eirea  1377).  A  Scottish 

chronicler,  whose  Seotiehronieon  has  been  the 

bajris  of  the  legendary  history  of  Scotland. 

His  artificially-constructed  scheme  of  history* 

must,  says  Mr.  Skene,  be  entirely  rejected. 

Fordnn's  ChrcnicU  of  tKe  Soottuk  Vatwm  has 
been  edited,  with  English  tranalation,  Intro- 
daotion  and  notes,  by  Mr.  W.  F.  Skene. 


Foreign  l^egion,  Thb.  Prince  Albert's 
special  idea  during  the  Crimean  War  was  to 
raise  a  foreign  legion,  and  instructions  weire 
given  to  the  English  ministers  at  foreign 
courts  to  aid  this  project.  The  result  was  a 
series  of  collisions  with  foreign  powers,  and 
especially  a  serious  quarrel  with  the  American 
government,  on  account  of  the  dismissal  of 
Mr.  Crampton,  the  English  minister,  for 
his  proceedings  in  this  direction.  In  the  end 
some  few  Swiss  and  other  foreigners  were  en- 
listed, who  never  did  anything  of  importance. 
AtrnMoX  RtQ^tim- ;  Hanserd,  JMNite. 

Foreign     Enlistment    Act,    Thb 

(1819),  forbade  British  subjects  to  take  service 
with  a  foreign  state  without  royal  licence^ 
and  also  the  equipment  of  ships  to  be  used 
against  a  power  with  which  England  was  at 
peace.  It  was  specially  suspended  to  allow 
Sir  de  Lacy  Evans  to  raise  a  British  Legion 
against  the  Carlists  in  Spain  in  1835.  The 
Alabama  and  other  affairs  led  to  some  trials 
in  1862  and  1863,  the  proceedings  of  which 
showed  that  the  Acts  required  amendment. 
This  was  done  by  a  new  Foreign  Enlistment 
Act,  passed  in  1870. 

Forest.  Miles,  was  one  of  the  murderers 
of  Edward  V.  and  his  brother  Richard  in^  1483. 
As  a  reward  he  was  made  keeper  of  the  ward- 
robe at  Barnard  Castle ;  but  sifter  the  death  of 
Bichard  III.,  he  took  sanctuary,  where,  ac- 
cording to  Sir  Thomas  More,  he  '*  piecemeal 
rotted  away."^ 

Forests/  Forest,  from  the  Norman  Con- 
quest to  theCommonwealth,  bore  the  tech- 
nical signification  of  crown  land  reserved  lor 
the  purposes  of  the  chase,  and,  as  such,  culti- 
vateid  and  inhabited  on  sufferance  if  at  all. 
A  forest  was  defined  as  containing  eig^t 
things :  soil,  covert,  laws,  courts,  judges, 
officers,  game,  boundsj  ( It  comprised  both 
"  vert  *' — i,e.y  trees,  underwood,  and  turf — and 
"  venison  " — 1.«.,  the  hart,  the  hind,  the  hare, 
the  boar,  the  wolf,  which  are  beasts  of  forest ; 
the  buck,  doe,  fox,  marten,  which  are  beasts  of 
chase ;  the  rabbit,  pheasant,  partridge,  quail, 
mallard,  heron,  &c.,  which  are  beasts  and 
fowls  of  warren^  rThe  land  subject  to  forest 
law  need  not  Be  Sail  wooded,  «.^.,  Cornwall 
was  ** forest"  under  John.  But  the  forest 
districts  did,  of  course,  mainly  ooincide  with 
the  great  woods  which,  in  old  days,  had  made 
even  the  Roman  roads  deflect  from  a  straight 
coursOf'Sand  which  had  then,  under  Roman 
rule,  bo^  cleared  away  by  the  legionary,  the 
metal-worker,  the  citizen,  the  pjasant,  to 
grow  up  again  in  time  to  check  the  advances 
of  Angles  and  Saxons,  to  force  this  advance 
to  take  certain  lines,  and  to  limit  its  first 
results  to  the  establishment,  at  least  in  Mid- 
England,  of  petty  and  isolated  "  folks."  Thus 
the  West  Saxons  found  their  natural  bounda- 
ries determined  by  Andred*s  Weald  on  the 
east,  by  Selwood  on  the  west,  as  decisively  as 
by  the'Tbames  and  the  sea  on  the  north  and 


For 


(468) 


For 


on  the  south.  Kentish  folk,  East  Saxons, 
and  East  Angles  were  cut  off  from  each  other 
by  marsh  and  wood ;  so  were  Mid- Angles 
from  West  Angles,  Deirans  from  Bernicians ; 
while  along  the  Severn,  in  the  Peak  district, 
and  in  the  hills  of  the  kingdom  of  Elmet,  the 
nature  of  the  ground  long  barred  the  way 
westward,  and  from  the  Clyde  to  the  Parret, 
the  Welsh  confronted  the  invaders  in  a  long 
continuous  line  until  the  seventh  century. 
The  mighty  Andred*s  Weald,  even  in  Bede's 
day,  lay  stretched  for  120  miles  from  Hamp- 
shire to  the  Medway.  The  Wire  Wood  covered 
what  are  now  Worcestershire,  Shropshire, 
and  Staffordshve,  as  Arden  once  covere^ War- 
wickshire.  Epping  Forest  was  part  of  a  greater 
whole,  which  extended  from  London  nearly 
to  the  Wash,  as  another  such  region  from  the 
Peak  to  the  Trent;  from  the  Peak  to  the 
Tees  was  little  but  desert ;  from  Tees  to  Tyne 
was  one  great  forest  in  St.  Cuthbert's  days. 
These  great  woods  were  being  rapidly  cleared 
or  opened  out,  when  the  Norman  kings  came 
and  largely  increased  them;  as  by  the  de- 
populating and  "afforesting"  a  district  con- 
taming  twenty-two  churches,  to  form  the 
New  Forest.  But  they  also  introduced  the 
new  Forest  Iaws,  by  which  the  Conqueror, 
who  '*  loved  the  tall  stags  as  if  he  had  been 
their  father,"  inflicted  a  cruel  penalty  (the 
loss  of  eyes)  for  hunting  the  royal  deer.  The 
so-called  Forest  Laws  of  Canute,  a  palpable 
forgery  of  '  the  twelfth  century,  probably 
represent  the  state  of  things  under  Henry  I. ; 
they  make  it  capital  **  to  kill  a  stag  as  to  kill  a 
man ; "  merely  to  hunt  a  deer  was  punished 
by  the  lash,  if  the  offender  wera,A  villein ;  if 
a  freeman,  by  a  heavy  fine.  (Within  the 
forest  bounds,  no  bows  were  to  be  carried 
without  a  licence,  no  dogs  were  to  be  kept  but 
mastiffs,  and  those  to  be  **  lawed  '*  by  cutting 
off  the  daws  of  each  forefoot.VIn  Henry 
II.'s  Forest  Assize  the  third  offence'is  capital ; 
and  even  Edward  I.  allows  a  trespasser  who 
should  resist  the  hud  "and  cry  to  be  lawfully 
slain,  and  requires  a  solemn  inquest  and  ver- 
dict to  be  taken  upon  the  body  of  a  dead  stag. 
The  same  jealous  watch  .^H^gexerdsed  over 
**  vert "  as  07er  "  vemson.*S  Tlie  forest  courts 
and  officers,  under  the  haila  of  Henry  II.,  be- 
came an  exact  analogy  of  the  shire  c^rstem,  to 
which  they  stood  as  it  were  as  rivals.  The 
Court  of  Beg^uard  was  indeed  held  only  every 
three  years,  for  the  "  lawing  '*  of  dogs,  agist- 
ment of  cattle,  &c.  ^But  the  wood-mote,  or 
Court  of  Attachment,  met  every  forty  days, 
and  therein  the  foresters  made  their  present- 
ments to  the  verderers,  a  jury  of  inhabitants. < 
•Tresentments  reaffirmed  went  before  the  s  wain^ 
nk)ot,  which  met  thrice  a  year ;  while  final 
judgment  was  given  at  the  Justice  Seat,  or 
occasional  visits  of  itinerant  foreist  justices^^ 
This  last  office  was  abolished  in  57  G^rge 
m.,  the  criminal  law  of  the  forest  having 
already  been  almost  wholly  repealed  in  7 
Qeor^e  III.     Nothing  stood  more  in  the  way 


of  that  alliance  between  the  king  and  the^ 
English  people  against  the  Norman  baronage 
— ^that  alliance  on  which  hung,  for  mor^  than 
a  century  apd  a  half,  the  very  existence  of 
/the  throne-^than  this  tyrannous  forest  system. 
^  Even  in  hiS  great  need,  in  the  very  charter*^' 
by  which  he  purchased  his  accession,  Henry  I. 
insists  on  retaining  his  father*  s  forests ;  and 
Stephen,  too,  who  gave  up  everything,  could 
not  bring  himself  to  keep  his  promise  of  giving 
up  the  forests  which  Henry  I.  had  added^ 
Henry  II.  developed  them  into  an  organisation 
under  a  m^bter  forester  and  sixteen  forest  jus- 
ticiaries. (John  was  forced  into  an  engagement 
to  give  up  those  added  by  himself,  and  **  to 
consider  the  extensions  made  by  his  father  and 
brother ;  **  but  we  find  one  of  the  grievances 
at  the  Parliament  of  Oxford,  in  1258,  is  that 
neither  this,  nor  the  engagement  made  in 
1217  by  Henry  III.'s  mmistors,  in  his  name, 
had  been  carried  out.")  \lt  was  not  until  the 
last  year  of  the  centttry  that  the  often-pro- 
mised *<  perambulation  *'  was  made,  and  the 
forest  bounds  reduced,  by  a  strict  inquiry  be- 
tween th^  royal  officers  and  the  local  repre- 
sentatives. I  It  was  characteristic  of  the  short- 
sightedness of  the  Stuart  kings  that  they 
revived  this  old  source  of  discontent.  Traces 
are  to  be  found  under  James  I.  of  attempts  to 
restore  the  old  claims  in  their  fulness,  and  at 
last  Noy*s  bullying  chicanery  won  a  suicidal 
victory  in  the  decisions  of  1633 — 37,  which 
inquired  into  all  alterations  made  since  John 
and  Henry  IL,  and  undid  much  of  the 
"Perapibuiation"of  1300. 

The  forest  policy  of  the  earlier  kings  is  not 
to  be  explained  by  a  royal  infatuation  for  the 
pleasures  of  the  chase.  C  The  forests,  in  fact, 
offered  to  the  king  (I)  a  revenue,  (2)  an  armed 
force,  (3)  a  jurisdiction  altogether  outside  the 
ever-narrwving  circle  of   his    constitutional 
pHOsition.  .Thus  (1)  the  crown  derived  con- 
siderable  profits  from    such    rights    as  the 
<*  pannage  "  of  swine  and  the  agistment  of 
cattle  within  these  vast  domains ;  the  chimi- 
nagium,  or  tax  on  carts  which  came  to  take 
fuel,  charcoal,  or  bark ;  the  "  pleas  **  of  th^ 
forest    courts,    and    the    fines  on  offenders.) 
But  too  often  the  forests  were  treated  as' 
an    inexhaustible    treasury,  /  wherefrom    to 
make  grants  to  courtiers.    (Again   (2),  the 
host  of  stewards,  foresters,  reguardors,  agis- 
tors, woodreeves,  and  bailiffs  were  a  rude 
substitute'  for  a  standing  army  and  a  ro^-al 
police.      (3)    The    code    of   forest    law,  too, 
stood  out  in  relief  from  the  common  law ; 
what  was  *'not  justice  in  itself,  was  justice 
according  to  the  forest  law,"  and  these  courts 
could  enforce  an  attendance  even  from  the 
groat  lord  who  claimed  a  franchise  superior 
to  hundred  and  shire  moot,  even  from  the 
clergy,   who   could  in  other  cases  appeal  to 
their  ordinarjC^  They  were,  indeed,  as  Henry 
II.*s  Treasure^  calls  them,  **the  shrine  and 
bower  of  kingship,"  a  royal  counterpoise  at 
once  to  the  baronial "  liberty  "  and  the  popular 


Tor 


(  469  } 


For 


"  flhire-moot,"  an  imperium  in  imperio.  The 
king  claimed  a  supervision  over  the  very 
parks  and  woodlands  of  his  earls  and  barons, 
bishops  and  abbots,  whether  ^thin  a  forest's 
bounds  or  not.  "  A  subject,"  says  Coke,  **  can- 
not have  more  than  a  chaae,  unless  by  ex- 
press grant,  first,  of  the  privilege  of  a  royal 
forest,  and  then  of  the  jurisdiction  belonging 

?&reto.'* 
To  a  people  feeling  the  ordinary  courts 
an  irksome  burden,  the  added  duty  of  attend- 
ance at  the  forest  courts  must  have  seemed 
intolerable.  And  yet,  till  Magna  Charta,  this 
was  enf oroed,  probably  in  more  than  half  the 
shires,  on  all  alike,  whether  dwellers  in  forest 
bounds  or  not.  In  the  Forest  Charter  of 
1217,  concessions  are  made  which  show  how 
well  grounded  the  complaints  were^  the 
swain-moot  is  to  be  convened  not  more  than 
three  times  a  year,  and  the  Court  of  Attach- 
ment every  forty  days ;  the  necessary  officers 
and  parties  alone  are  bound  to  attend.  The 
keepers  of  royal  castles  are  forbidden  to  hold 
forest  pleas ;  the  same  rules  henceforth  are  to 
be  binding  on  the  barons'  and  prelates'  con- 
di]|<!t  to  their  mesne  vassals. 

(llie  forests  reached  their  widest  extent  in 
the  reign  of  John.    Not  merely  were  there 
such  woods  as  Delamere,  Windsor,  Whittle- 
bury,  Dean,  the  New  Forest,  Andred,  Sher- 
wood, Selwood,  Arden,  and  such  hill  districts 
as  the  Chiltems,  the  Peak,  Exmoor,  Dart- 
moor, the  Yorkshire  Wolds  ;  but  whole  coun- 
ties were  reckoned  as  forests^  and  subject  to 
forest  law,  tf.^.,  Devonshire,  Cornwall,  Essex, 
Eutland,    Noxthamptonshire,    Leicestershire, 
Lanca8hire.j  (Edward  I.'s   concessions  then 
"  disforested^"  an  immense  proportion  of  lands 
hitherto  included,  perhaps  two-thirds  of  the 
whole.)    But  Henry  VIII.  added  Hampton 
Court,  the  royal  rights  still  weighed  on  twenty 
counties  in  the  Tudor  reigns,  and  the  number 
of  royal  forests  was  still  reckoned  at  sixty- 
eight  in  the  eighteenth  century.    The  Com- 
monwealth Commission,  whichlsat  to  carry  out 
the  remedial  Act  of  1641,  did  not  act  on  the 
suggestion  made  for  a  complete  sale  of  them ; 
but  the  reductions  it  effected  were  not  wholly 
lost  at  the  Restoration.     Most  of  the  forest 
laws,  and  many  of  the  forest  dues,  became 
obsolete.     And'it  now  became  the  turn  of  the 
people  to  encroach  upon  the  crown.    When 
mvestigation  was  made  at  the  end  of  last 
century,  and  early  in  this,  it  was  found  that 
endless  unlicensed  enclosures  had  been  effected ; 
iniquitous  transfers    made   under    colour  of 
sale;    timber  was  stolen,    mines   neglected, 
plantations  mismanaged;  officials  had  trans- 
formed themselves  into  owners;  and  there 
were  only  twenty  forests  which  could  supply 
timber  for  the  navy.     But  under  the  pro- 
vision of  several  Acts  of  George  III.,  and  the 
Consolidating  Act  of  10  George  IV.,  c.  50,  a 
better  system  of  management  was  inaugurated 
about  180$.  Twelve  of  the  twenty  royalforests 
thenremaining  were  re-indosedand  re-planted. 


and  a  commission  appointed  in  1838  ^^radually 
simplified  their  organisation,  and  unproved 
their  yield,  till,  a  few  years  ago,  the  eight 
royid  forests  which  remained  yielded  an 
average  profit  of  £8,000  a  year,  as  against  an 
actual  loss  in  1846 — 7 — 8,  due  to  former  mi»- 
management.  Some  have  been  sold,  as  Sher- 
wood to  the  Duke  of  Grafton,  and  some  opened 
out  to  agriculture,  as  large  parts  of  Windsor. 
The  office  of  Woods  and  Forests  was  separated 
from  the  department  of  Public  Works  m  1851. 
This  by  no  means  represents  the  whole  result 
of  their  work,  for  much  of  the  old  forest 
domains  are  now  classed  as  crown  lands,  and 
on  them  the  revenue  has  risen  from  £250,000, 
in  1853,  to  over  £400,000,  a  sum  which  more 
than  covers  tiie  Queen's  Civil  List.  It  is 
singular  that  in  this  way  those  royal  demesne 
Lands,  of  which  the  forests  once  formed  the 
main  part,  after  straining  therelations  between 
crown  and  people  for  centuries,  and  assisting 
unduly  to  magnify  the  prerogative,  while 
they  soon  failed  to  add  to  its  real  strength,  or 
materially  to  aid  the  Exchequer,  have  at  last 
been  made  to  cover  the  cost  of  the  monarch's 
establishment. 

Th«  KvmAr^A  fiott*  (passim) ;  BonMsday  Boofc; 
Coke,  InjtitittM,  It.  820—1 ;  Manwood,^ orratLawt 
aaas) :  ^hh  R0pwi  of  DvmOy  Kt^er  cif  PvJblie 
Btcwdt ;  Moordt  of  Commu»wm«ri  of  Wood»  and 
Forrats,  1787— 1883.  eepeciaUy  those  for  1850  and 
1881 ;  C(dmidar9  of  State  Papen  {DomMiie)  wndsr 
Jamm  I.  and  Charlu  I.,  especially  Introdnction 
to  Calendar  for  1634-^ ;  Green,  Making  of  Eng- 
land; Pearaon,  Hittorioal  Maps  of  Sngland ; 
Stubba,  S«l0Ct  Charterg;  Stanford,  Hwtorioal 
JIfap  of  England  and  Wdlt$,  [A.  L.  S.] 

Forfeitiirecxf  Lands.  (nFoKTasAsoN. 

The  earliest  law  of  treason,  tnat  of  Alfred, 
enacted  that  if  a  man  plotted  a^inst  the 
king's  life,  he  should  be  *<  liable  m  his  life 
and  in  all  that  he  has ; "  and  in  the  first 
detailed  discussion  of  the  subject,  that  of 
Bracton  {tetnp,  Henry  III.),  forfeiture  is  set 
down  as  one  of  the  penalties.  From  this 
period  the  law  was  unchanging  until  1870. 
llie  traitor  forfeited  to  the  crown  for  ever  all 
his  freehold  lands,  whether  entailed  or  not,  all 
rights  to  freehold  lands  which  he  then  had  or 
might  afterwaids  acquire,  and  all  interests  in 
land  for  life  or  other  term  of  years.  Sentence  of 
forfeiture  was  retro-active  as  &ir  as  the  date 
of  the  act  of  treason;  it  therefore  annulled  all 
deeds  of  conveyance,  &c.,  which  might  have 
been  made  since,  but  did  not  affect  a  wife's 
jointure  which  had  been  settled  on  her  pre- 
viously. Dower,  on  the  other  hand,  was  for- 
feited by  5  and  6  Edward  VI.  As  iforfeiture 
was  a  consequence  of  attainder,  if  the  rebel 
was  killed  on  the  field,  executed  by  martial 
law,  or  died  before  judgment  was  pronounced, 
his  lands  were  not  forfeited.  In  Scotland 
conviction  for  treason  did  not  bring  with  it 
forfeiture  of  entailed  lands.  At  the  Union  it 
was  thought  necessary  to  make  the  law 
uniform  in  England  and  Scotland,  but  as  this 
met  with  much  opposition  from  the  Scots,  it 
was  enacted  (7  Anne)  that  though  for  the 


For 


(470) 


For 


present  forfeiture  should  follow  treason  in 
Sootlaad  as  in  England,  it  ahoold  cease  in 
both  countries  upon  the  death  of  the  then 
Pretender.  After  a  second  Act  immediately 
before  the  rebellion  of  '45  had  secured  the 
continuance  of  the  penalty,  the  whole  clause 
relating  to  the  ultimate  cessation  of  forfeiture 
was  abolished  b^  39  George  III.  (2)  Fok 
MuKDBR.  The  criminal  forfeited  to  the  crown 
only  the  proJUa  of  his  entailed  estates,  and  the 
possession  for  a  year  and  a  day  with  right  of 
"waste*'  of  lands  in  fee  simple.  After  this 
the  lands  were  escheated  to  the  lord.  Pos- 
session by  the  crown  for  a  year  and  a  day 
originally  followed  all  convictions  for  felony^ 
though  it  became  customary  to  ^y  a  compo- 
sition to  prevent  the  use  of  the  nght  of  entry. 
By  54  George  III.  forfeiture  for  a  year  and 
a  day  was  abolished  for  all  felonies  except 
treason  and  murder,  and  finally  the  Felony 
Act  of  1870  abolished  attainder  and  its  con- 
sequent forfeiture  altogether.  Forfeiture  of 
ffoods  4tnd  ehattcU  followed  conviction  for 
any  felony,  and  did  not  need,  as  in  the  case  of 
lands,  to  be  preceded  by  attainder.  This 
also  was  abolished  in  1870.  [W.  J.  A.] 

Fomuuiy  Andrew  {d,  1522).  A  Scottish 
ecclesiastic  and  statesman  of  the  early  part  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  He  became  Bi^op  of 
Moray,  was  ambassador  to  ratify  the  alliance 
of  Scotland  and  England  at  the  accession  of 
Henry  YIII.,  but  soon  after  attached  himself 
to  France,  was  made  Archbishop  of  Bourges, 
and  persuaded  James  lY.  to  begin  the  war  of 
1513  against  England.  In  1515  he  was 
made  Archbishop  of  St.  Andrews  at  the  re- 
quest of  Albany.  In  1517  he  became  one  of 
the  Council  of  Regency  in  Albany's  absence. 
Forman  was  able,  versatile,  and  magnificent. 
He  has  been  compared  to  Wolscy,  but  his 
want  of  fixed  principle  or  policy  make  the 
comparison  very  unjust  to  the  latter. 
Burton,  Hut.  of  SeoiXand, 

Tornhaaai  St.  Oonevioro,  Thb  Battlb 
OP  (1173),  was  one  of  the  victories  won  by 
Henry  II.  over  the  rebellious  barons  who 
allied  themselves  with  the  French  king.  Here 
Bobert  de  Beaumont  and  his  Flemish  mer- 
cenaries were  totally  defeated  by  the  Justiciar, 
Richard  de  Lucy.  Fomham  is  two  zniles 
from  Bury  St.  Edmunds. 

Forrosty  Ti^,,  was  an  Observant  Friar  and 
confessor  to  Catherine  of  Aragon,  a  strong  op- 
ponent of  her  divorce  and  of  the  royal  supre- 
macy, and  was  executed  in  1538,  being  hung 
in  chains  over  a  slow  fire,  so  that  his  *<  trea- 
son" and  heresy  should  both  receive  their' 
legal  punishment. 

Forstor,  Wm.  E.  (b.  1818,  d.  1886), 
was  educated  at  the  Friends'  School,  Totten- 
ham. In  1861  he  was  returned  to  Parliament 
in  the  Liberal  interest  for  Bradford,  and  in 
Lord  Russell*s  administration  he  was  Under- 
Secretar}' for  the  Colonies.    As  Vice- President 


of  the  Committee  of  Council  on  Education  he 
nused  the  Education  Bill  (1870)  through  th6 
Commons.  In  1880  he  became  Chief  Secre- 
tary for  Ireland,  but  reaigned  in  1882. 

Sir  Wemyss  Beid,  lAJt. 
Fort  Daquerae  was  the  most  celebrated 
of  the  ring  of  forts  built  by  the  French  about 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  to  con- 
nect Louisiana  with  Canada.  It  was  situated 
in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Ohio.  Against  it, 
in  1756,  General  Braddock  led  his  ill-fated 
expedition;  but  shortly  after,  the  English 
conquered  the  fort  and  renamed  it  FUtsiburff^ 
in  honour  of  the  great  War  Minister.  It  is 
now,  under  its  new  name,  the  great  seat  of 
the  American  iron  and  coal  trades. 

Bancroft,  Hist,  of  Amoric^ 

Fort  EriOf  on  Lake  Ontario,  was  be- 
sieged and  taken  by  the  British  troops,  under 
Sir  George  Drummond,  after  the  battle  of 
Lundy's  Lane,  in  1814. 

Fort  Goorge,  on  Lake  Ontario,  near 
Niagara,  was  the  scene  of  frequent  skirmishes 
during  the  American  War  of  1812 — 15.  In 
1813  it  was  taken  by  the  Americans  from 
General  Vincent,  and  was  a^in  invested  by 
General  Brown  in  the  following  year. 

Fort  St.  Ooorgo  was  the  old  name  for 
Madras  (q.v.)* 

Fort  Tevioty  five  miles  south  of  Perth, 
was  the  capital  of  the  old  Pictish  kingdom. 

Fort  William,  close  to  Inverlochy  in 
South  Inverness-shire,  commands  the  sea  entry 
to  the  Highlands,  and  was  built  in  1691  by 
General  Mackay.  It  was  sifccessfully  at- 
tacked by  the  Jacobites  in  1715  and  1745. 

Fort  William  was  the  original  English 
settlement  of  Calcutta  (q. v.),  founded  in  1698. 

Fortaaouey  Sir  John  (d,  after  1476), 
was  descended  &om  an  old  Devonshire  family, 
and  in  1442  was  made  Chief  Justice  of  the 
King's  Bench.  He  was  a  strong  partisan  of 
the  Lancastrian  cause,  and  in  tiie  first  Par- 
liament of  Edward  IV.  was  attainted  of  high 
treason.  He  fled  to  Scotland,  and  afterwanls 
to  France,  where  he  became  the  tutor  of  the 
young  Prince  Edward,  for  whose  instruction 
he  wrote  his  famous  work,  JDe  Lamdibut 
Legum  Anglia.  He  was  present  at  the  battle 
of  Tewkesbury,  and  in  1473  obtained  a  re- 
versal of  his  attainder  by  retracting  what  he 
had  written  against  Edward  IV. 's  title  to  the 
crown.  The  date  of  his  death  is  uncertain. 
His  book  is  of  much  interest,  from  its  picture 
of  a  constitutional  ideal  that  had  almost  been 
realised  in  the  preceding  generation. 
Stubbfl,  OoMt.  Hut.;  Foss,  Jud^M. 

Forteaeue,  Sir  John,  succeeded  Sir 
Walter  Mildmay  as  Chancellor  of  the  Ex- 
chequer in  1589,  having  won  the  regard  of 
Elintbeth  whilst  assisting  her  in  the  study  of 
Latin  and  Greek.  He  was  distinguished  lor 
moderation  and  integrity. 


(471  ) 


Fo« 


PortieSy  Ths,  was  a  name  ^ven  to  the 
Irish  forty-ahiUing  freeholders  in  the  early 
part  of  the  present  century.  The  Irish  election 
kw  had  never  been  altered,  and  in  old  days, 
when  the  landowners  could  depend  on  their 
tenantry,  it  had  been  a  favourite  practice 
with  them  to  increase  them,  in  order  to  have 
more  voters  under  their  control.  In  1826, 
however,  in  two  oases  they  followed  the 
priests  and  0*Connell,  and  threw  out 
two  landlords*  candidates.  In  1828  they  re- 
turned O'Connell  for  Clare.  In  1829  the 
Emancipation  Bill  was  accompanied  by  a 
measure  raising  the  franchise  to  £10,  and 
thus  sweeping  them  away.  O'Connell  was 
much  blamed  for  not  raising  his  voice  on 
their  behalf,  but  he  was  probably  afraid  to 
endanger  Emancipation. 

Fortrenn  "^vits  a  province  of  Celtic 
Scotland,  comprising  the  districts  of  Menteith 
and  Stratheme,  and  extending  from  the  Forth 
to  the  Tay.  After  the  re-establishment  of  the 
Pictish  power  by  the  victory  of  Nectansmere, 
the  name  Fortrenn  began  to  be  used  as 
synonymous  with  the  kingdom  of  the  Picts. 

Fow  Way  was  a  Roman  road,  probably 
running  from  Ilchester  to  Lincoln,  crossed 
by  the  Ermine  Street.  Another  road  in 
Dorsetshire  had  the  same  name.     [BoMAJf 

BOADS.] 

Guest,    Tkg    Four    Somoii    Way$    {OriginM 
CMica,  vol.  a). 

Foster,  Sm  John,  was  sent  in  1566,  in 
conjunction  with  the  Earl  of  Bedford, 
on  a  mission  to  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  on 
behalf  of  the  Earl  of  Murray.  In  the 
rebellion  of  the  northern  earls,  1669,  he  did 
good  service  on  the  royal  side,  and  in  the 
following  year  harried  Teviotdale.  In  1572 
he  was  charged,  as  Warden  of  the  Middle 
Marches,  with  the  duty  of  superintending 
the  execution  of  Thomas,  Earl  of  Northum- 
berland. In  1585  he  was  taken  prisoner  by 
Ker  of  Femiehurst,  the  Warden  of  the  Scotcn 
Marches,  near  £ic(»ui;on. 

Fosteratfe,  Thb  Custom  of.  The  Irish 
in  mediieval  times  were  remarkable  for 
their  affection  for  their  foster-children,  and 
GKnddus  Cunbrensis  goes  so  far  as  to  say 
^  That  the  Irish  loved  their  foster-children, 
and  were  cruel  to  their  own  relations.'' 
Fosterage  was  one  of  the  chief  means  by 
which  they  influenced  their  conquerors, 
and  the  Stetute  of  Kilkenny  in  1367, 
and  several  other  statutes,  were  passed  to 
prevent  this  form  of  de^^eracy.  Sir  J. 
Davis  says  of  it,  "  Yet  m  Ireland,  where 
they  put  away  all  their  children  to  fosterage, 
the  potent  and  rich  men  selling,  the  meaner 
sort  buying,  the  nursing  of  children,  and  the 
reason  is  because,  in  the  opinion  of  this 
people,  fosterage  hath  always  been  a  stronger 
alliance  than  blood,  and  the  foster-childiren 
do  love  and  are  beloved  of  their  foster-fathers 
and  sept  more  than  of  their  own  natural 


parents  and  kindred,  and  do  participate  their 
means  more  frankly,  and  do  adhere  to  them 
with  more  affection  and  constancy."  The 
Statute  of  Kilkenny,  already  alluded  to, 
had  made  fosterage  with  the  Irish  high 
treason,  but  the  custom  continued  till  Crom- 
well's tune. 

(Hxaldas  Cambranaii,  Expug,  Htb. ;  Davis, 
Dtioovtry;  Moore,  Hi^,  o/  Ir«land;  O'Curzy, 
MatKiun  and  CutUnna  of  the  Ancient  IrUK 

Fotheringay  Cairtle,  in  Northampton- 
shire, was  founded  after  the  Norman  Conquest 
by  Simon  de  Liz,  and  subsequently  rebuilt  b^ 
Ikimund  Langlev,  Duke  of  York.  In  1462  it 
was  the  scene  oi  the  birth  of  Hichard  III. ; 
after  the  discovery  of  Babington's  plot, 
Mary  Queen  of  Soots  was  oonnned,  tried, 
and  executed,  in  Fotheringay  Castle.  It  was 
entirely  demolished  by  order  of  James  L 
when  he  ascended  the  throne. 

TPCfUghr^Bf  Thb  Captu&b  of  (1449),  was 
made  by  a  body  of  English  troops  with  the  con* 
nivance  of  the  Dukes  of  Somerset  and  Suffolk 
in  flagrant  violation  of  the  truce  which  had 
been  made  between  England  and  France. 
Foug^res,  which  is  situated  in  Britanny,  close 
to  the  frontiers  of  Normandy  and  Maine,  was 
at  this  time  a  place  of  great  wealth,  and  by 
its  capture  the  English  obtained  enormous 
booty,  but  the  glaring  breach  of  faith  threw 
the  Duke  of  Bntanny  into  the  arms  of  France, 
and  hastened  the  expulsion  of  the  English 
from  Normandy,  which  was  completed  in  the 
next  year. 

J.  Qairdner,  Introdnction  to  Patton  Ldten, 

Foundlmg  Sospital,  The  (Dublin), 
had  large  private  funds  amounting  to  £16,000 
a  year ;  about  120  noblemen  and  gentlemen 
were  on  its  committee.  Yet  when  De  Blac- 
quiere,  in  1789,  moved  for  a  committee  of 
inquiry,  a  motion  which  Grattan  (q.v.)  re* 
sLBted  unsuccessfully,  the  most  terrible  mis- 
management was  exposed.  It  was  discovered 
that  out  of  2,180  children  sent  to  the  institu- 
tion in  one  year,  2,087  had  disappeared,  and 
that  each  child  cost  the  public  £120.  The 
oommittee  also  had  never  had  a  quorum, 
twenty-one  members,  except  when  a  place  was 
to  be  given  away. 

Four  XastarSy  The  Crboniclb  of  the, 
was  the  name  given  to  a  chronicle  written  by 
Michael  and  (^coirighe  O'Cleri^e,  Maurice 
and  Fearfeafa  Conry,  who  compiled  in  Irish, 
from  original  documents,  the  annals  of  Ireland 
from  2242  b.c.  to  a.d.  1616.  The  writers  are 
supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  This  chronicle  contains 
in  its  fullest  form  the  fabulous  and  legendary 
history  of  Ireland. 

Ths  ChrcnieU  of  ihs  "Four  JTocf^ra,  printed 
in  O'Conor,  fi«rum  Htbcmtoorttm  Soriptorct,  vol. 
iii.,  bM  been  tnnalatad  by  J.  O'Donoyan, 
1848. 

Fovnnignif  '^^  Battle  of  (1450),  was 
one  of  the  last  battles  of  the  Hunored  Years' 


(472) 


War,  and  was  fought  between  a  body  of 
English  troops  who  had  been  sent  into  France 
under  Sir  T.  Kyriel  to  reinforce  the  Duke  of 
Somerset,  and  the  French  under  Hichemont. 
The  English  were  defeated  with  great  slaugh- 
ter; between  three  and  four  thousand  were 
left  dead  on  the  field,  and  Kyriel  was  taken 
prisoner.  This  defeat  decided  the  fate  of 
Normandy,  which  was  reconquered  by  the 
French  in  the  course  of  the  same  year. 

F0Z9  Chablbs  Jambs  {b.  1749,  d,  1806], 
was  the  second  son  of  Henry  Fox,  afterwards 
Lord  Holland.  Educated  at  Eton  and  Oxford, 
he  afterwards  travelled  on  the  Continent,  and 
while  still  in  Italy,  he  was  returned  M.P.  for 
Midhurst,  as  a  supporter  of  Lord  North. 
His  success  was  immediate,  and  was  the  more 
readily  assured  since  he  took  the  side  of  the 
majority.  His  brilliant  and  reckless  support 
was  rewarded  by  his  appomtment  in  Feb., 
1770,  as  a  junior  Lord  of  the  Admiralty. 
This  position  he  retained  for  two  years,  and 
then,  after  attacking  Lord  North  with  much 
warmth  on  the  Chuinsh  Nullum  Tempus  Bill, 
in  Feb.,  1772,  he  resigned,  and  thus  felt  him- 
self at  liberty  to  oppose  the  Royal  IVIarriage 
Act.  He  was  again  taken  into  the  ministry 
as  a  Lord  of  the  Treasury ;  but  his  fiery 
spirit  was  too  independent  to  allow  him  to 
remain  long  in  any  subordinate  post.  He  in- 
stituted a  mutiny  in  the  government  ranks, 
which  resulted  in  Lord  North's  defeat. 
Henceforth,  his  great  social  influence  and 
greater  debating  powers  were  enlisted  on  the 
Whig  side.  He  openly  opposed  Lord  North's 
ministry,  especially  in  regard  to  their  Ameri- 
can poucy,  and  at  once  became  a  recognised 
leader  of  the  Whigs,  and  a  close  friend  of 
Burke,  whose  views  he  now  began  to  share. 
In  1779  he  made  a  most  violent  attack  upon 
Lord  Sandwich,  the  First  Lord  of  the  Ad- 
miralty, and  moved  that  he  might  be  excluded 
from  the  king's  councils.  He  had  now  come 
to  be  the  ackaowledged  leader  of  the  Opposi- 
tion in  tiie  House  of  Commons;  and  was 
selected  by  the  Radical  electors  of  West- 
minster as  their  champion  along  with  Admiral 
Rodney.  He  still  continued  to  attack  the 
ministry  with  the  fiercest  invectives,  and 
even  threatened  Lord  North  with  impeach- 
ment. In  1782  Lord  Rockingham  formed  a 
cabinet,  in  which  Fox  was  one  of  the  Secre- 
taries of  State.  With  Lord  Rockingham's 
death  in  July,  Fox*s  share  in  the  government 
came  to  an  end.  He  distrusted  Shelbume,  and 
would  not  serve  under  him.  Before  a  year 
was  passed,  Shelbume,  unable  to  withstand 
the  strictures  with  which  Fox  greeted  his 
peace  proposals,  resigned ;  and  Fox  became  the 
colleague  of  Lord  North,  as  Secretar}'-  of  State, 
under  the  nominal  lead  of  the  Duke  of  Port- 
land. An  alliance  so  tmnatural  could  not  last 
long,  and  the  government  was  defeated  on  Fox's 
India  Bill,  chiefly  through  the  king's  influence. 
After  the  dismissal  of  Uie  Coalition  ministry, 


Pitt  came  in  with  a  minority  to  back  him ;  but 
Fox  did  much  to  ruin  the  cause  of  his  party  by 
the  factious  and  violent  opposition  which  he 
offered  to  all  Pitt's  measures.  Pitt  soon  be- 
came firmly  established  in  his  position ;  but 
Fox  continued  to  harass  him  with  attacks  at 
even'  point.  He  opposed  his  India  Bill,  and 
tried  to  make  capitsl  out  of  Pitt's  measures  for 
the  relief  of  Ireland.  In  1786  he  obtained  a 
splendid  opportunity  of  displaying  his  elo- 
quence and  abilities  in  the  prosecution  of 
Warren  Hastings ;  but  in  this  great  trial  he 
seems  to  have  bieen  eclipsed  by  his  illustrious 
companions.  Two  years  later  he  warmly 
espoused  the  unconstitutional  position  desired 
by  the  Prince  of  Wales  on  the  question  of 
the  Regency  Bill,  but  he  was  baffled  by  the 
patient  resolution  of  Pitt.  In  1789  came  the 
news  of  the  destruction  of  the  Bastille.  Fox 
at  once  hailed  with  delight  what  he  deemed 
the  uprising  of  an  oppressed  people.  In  1791 
he  "paaaed  the  celebrated  label  Bill.  With 
greatly  diminished  following,  Fox  still  con- 
tinued to  watch  vrith  sympathy  and  en- 
thusiasm the  course  of  the  Revolution  in 
France,  and  furiously  opposed  the  notion  of 
war  with  that  country.  In  1795  he  employed 
his  most  vehement  eloquence  in  opposing  in 
vain  the  Sedition  and  Treason  Bills.  Seeing 
that  he  could  effect  nothing,  Fox  retired  in 
1797  into  domestic  privacy  at  St.  Anne's  Hill. 
In  1804,  on  the  resignation  of  Addington,  Pitt, 
well  aware  of  his  difficulties,  was  very  anxious 
to  form  a  cabinet  on  a  broad  basis»  where 
faction  might  be  sunk  in  patriotism.  With 
this  object  in  view  he  desired  the  co-operation 
of  Fox ;  but  the  king  would  not  hear  of  it. 
On  Jan.  26,  1806,  Pitt  died,  and  the  king 
at  length  overcame  his  prejudices  and  had 
recourse  to  the  Opposition,  out  of  which 
a  ministry  was  formed  with  Lord  Gren- 
viUe  as  IMme  ISiinister,  and  Fox  as  Foreign 
Secretary.  Fox  now  abandoned  his  pas- 
sionate longing  for  peace  with  France  belore 
the  necessity  of  saving  Europe ;  and  in  his 
efforts  to  achieve  this  object,  he  was  as 
resolute  as  Pitt.  But  Napoleon  took  ad- 
vantage of  his  still  strong  desire  for  peace  to 
carry  out  his  own  schemes  for  the  conquest  of 
Europe ;  and  the  fatal  indecision  of  -  the 
ministry  left  Prussia  unaided  to  oppose  Napo- 
leon's combinations,  and  to  be  defeated  at 
Jena.  Death,  however,  came  to  Fox  just  in 
time  to  save  him  from  witnessing  the  over- 
throw of  his  most  cherished  hopes.  While 
negotiations  were  still  pending  ^between 
Ihigland,  France,  and  Russia,  Fox  died  Sept 
13,  1806.  To  a  real  passion  for  liberty,  very 
imusual  with  eighteenth  century  Whigs,  Fox 
added  honesty,  manliness,  and  consummate 
eloquence.  His  sweet  disposition  e&ood  the 
memory  of  his  private  irregularities;  his 
general  straightforwardness  atoned  for  oocs^ 
sional  factiousness. 

Lord  BtuBell,  L«/«  0/  Fom  ;  Treveljan,  Ssrlv 
Ltft  ^  Fo»;  Stuihope,  Pitt;  Walpole,  Mm.  v 


(473) 


Qeorg9  XJI.'«  Btign;  Jewe,  ITtm.  iif  Bmgn  o/ 
Q^org^  III.;  Ham«r,  Hi»t,  ofSng.i  Adolphas, 
Hi^,ofBng,  [W.  R.  ST] 


:,  RicHAKD  {d,  1628),  Biflhop  of  Win- 
chester, was  bom  at  Grantiiam,  and,  by  the 
favour  of  Cardinal  Morton,  made  Bishop  of 
Exeter,  Durham,  and  Winchester,  in  succes- 
sion. He  was  a  prominent  minister  and  diplo- 
matist under  both  Henry  VII.  and  his  son, 
until  thrown  into  the  shade  by  Wolsey.  He 
was  also  zealous  for  the  "New  Learning,'* 
and  founder  of  Corpus  Christ!  College,  Oxford, 
and  several  schools. 


*  v«..  Sir  Stephen  {b,  1627,  d.  1716),  was 
of  humole  stock,  and  began  life  as  a  choir 
boy  at  Salisbury.  Thence  he  became  a 
member  of  Lord  Percy's  household,  and  took 
some  share  on  the  Cavalier  side  in  the  Great 
Rebellion.  Clarendon  persuaded  Charles  IT. 
when  in  exile  to  make  Fox  his  business 
manager — an  office  he  filled  with  great  dis- 
creetness. He  made  the  scanty  finances  of  the 
exile  adequate  to  support  him.  After  the 
Restoration  his  promotion  was  rapid.  He  was 
made  Paymaster,  Master  of  the  Horse,  and 
Lord  of  Uie  Treasury,  sitting  in  the  House  as 
member  for  Salisbury.  He  became  very  rich. 
Despite  his  gratitude  to  the  Stuarts,  his  name 
appeared  on  every  commission  of  William 
III.'s  Treasury,  be  took  a  large  part  in  the 
foundation  of  Chelsea  Hospital.  Of  his  two 
sons,  Stephen  became  Lord  Hchester,  and 
Henry  became  Lord  Holland  and  father  of 
C.  J.  Fox. 

Trerelyaii,  £arZy  Life  of  C.  J.  Fox. 


\^  John  {b.  1517,  d,  1587),  the  mar- 
tyrologist,  was  compelled  to  quit  England 
during  the  Marian  persecution,  but  on  the 
accession  of  Elizabeth  returned,  and  was 
made  a  canon  of  Salisbury.  A  ^end  of 
many  of  the  most  noted  men  of  the  age,  Foxe 
would  have  obtained  the  highest  dignities  of 
the  Church  had  he  renounced  his  C^vinistic 
views.  His  Aett  and  Monument$y  commonly 
known  as  the  Book  of  Martyn  (first  published 
in  1563)  is  a  vast  but  prejudiced  and  un- 
critical compilation  of  the  annals  of  martyr- 
dom, which,  though  containing  much  useful 
matter,  is  too  unsaie  a  guide  for  the  historian 
to  follow,  unless  substantiated  from  other 
sources. 


*  r  TMnrrrj  RELATIONS  WITH.  Long  bef orc 
France,  in  the  modem  sense,  was  constituted, 
EngUxiid  had  frequent  deiilings  with  the 
territory  now  known  by  that  name.  The  old 
English  monarchs  were  often  in  close  relations 
with  the  Carlovingian  Emperors.  [Empibb, 
Relations  with.]  Frendi  history  strictly 
begins  in  987,  when  Hugh  Capet,  Duke  of 
the  French,  assumed  the  crown  of  the  Caro- 
lings,  and,  Hke  Harold,  founded  a  monarchy, 
national  in  idea  but  feudal  in  reality.  The 
abandonment  of  the  Carlovingian  kings  by  the 


Norman  dukes  was  among  the  ohief  causes 
of  Hugh  CapeVs  success;  but  there  was  a 
natural  enmity  between  the  weak  suzerain 
and  the  mighty  vassal  that  transferred  itself 
to  England  when  William  of  Normandy  be- 
came English  king.  French  ideas,  manners, 
military  system,  architecture  even,  had 
already  come  into  England  with  Edward  the 
Confessor.  After  the  Conquest  the  governing 
classes  were  practically  Frenchmen.  But  the 
political  relations  with  the  French  monardhy, 
which  it  is  our  main  business  to  trace  here, 
were  necessarily  determined  by  William's 
hostility  to  the  Parisian  king.  The  subse- 
quent national  hostility  between  France  and 
England  sprang  much  more  largely  from  tiie 
uneasy  relations  of  the  early  Capetians  to 
their  over-powerful  vassals  than  from  English 
dislike  to  what  was  French.  William  I. 
fought  against  Philip  I.  for  the  possession  of 
the  Vexin,  and  met  his  death  during  the 
campaign.  In  1094,  Philip  vainly  helped 
Duke  Robert  against  William  II.,  and  again, 
in  1097,  fought  with  the  English  king  about 
the  Vexin.  Louis  VI.  was  a  more  iisdoubt- 
able  antagonist  than  the  weak  Philip.  Bat 
the  reunion,  of  England  and  Normandy  after 
1106  made  Louis'  efforts  to  weaken  Henry 
fruitless,  and  the  Treaty  of  Gisors  (1113) 
ended  the  war  for  a  time.  But  in  two  or 
three  years  the  war  was  renewed,  until  the 
English  victory  at  BrenneviUc  (1119),  and  the 
mediation  of  Calixtus  II.,  produced  another 
peace.  The  subsequent  efforts  of  Louis  were 
of  little  importance.  The  reign  of  Stephen 
suspended  foreign  relations ;  but  Henry  II., 
from  the  yery  fact  that  he  ruled  more  of 
France  than  the  French  king  himself,  was 
the  more  likely  to  be  his  unwilling  vassal. 
In  1159  Henry  was  involved  in  the  War  of 
Toulouse,  but  in  refusing  to  wage  open  war 
with  his  lord,  Louis  YII.,  showed  a  scruple 
that  was  not  experienced  by  Louis,  who  never 
lost  an  opportunity  of  attacking  Henry — 
e,g.^  in  1167 — 8,  during  the  Becket  quarrel; 
in  1173 — 4,  when  Louis  helped  the  younger 
Henr}'  to  revolt  against  his  father,  and  set 
on  foot  a  powerful  but  unsuccessful  coalition 
against  the  Angevin.  Later  in  the  reign,  when 
Louis  stirred  up  Richard  and  John  against 
their  father,  the  relations  of  England  and 
France  for  the  first  time  assumed  that 
aspect  of  lasting  hostility  that  influenced  all 
subsequent  history.  The  temporary  suspen- 
sion of  enmity  for  crusading  purposes — ^the 
joint  Crusade  of  Richard  I.  and  Philip 
Augustus  [Crusades^ — led  only  to  a  quarrel 
in  Palestine,  and  Philip's  premature  return 
to  arrange  attacks  on  ^lormandy.  John, 
Philip's  old  ally,  became  his  enemy  on  his 
accession  to  the  throne.  Philip's  conquest 
of  Normandy  in  1204,  his  aUiance  with 
Innocent  IlL  against  the  excommunicated 
English  king,  the  crowning  victory  of  Bou- 
vines  (July  27,  12 !4)  over  every  branch 
of  the  German  race,  sufficiently  indicate  the 


(474) 


relations  of  England  and  France  under  John. 
But  BO  little  national  opposition  was  there  as 
yet  that  the  revolted  barons,  enraged  at 
John's  repudiation  of  the  Great  Charter, 
invited  Philip's  son  Louis  to  avenge  their 
wrongs,  and  occupy  their  throne.  Nothing 
but  John's  opportune  death  and  the  wisdom 
of  Pembroke  could  have  saved  England  from 
at  least  a  temporary  union  with  France. 

Though  the  results  were  not  at  first  ap- 
parent, the  separation  of  England  and  Nor- 
mandy had  revolutionised  the  relations  of 
England  and  France.  The  countries  hence- 
fortii  pursued  a  separate  course.  The  feudal 
hostihty  became  national.  England  became 
conscious  of  national  identity.  Though 
French  still  in  manners  and  speecji,  the  barOns 
of  England  were  no  longer  French  in 
feeling.  Strengthened  by  the  annexations  of 
Philip  Augustus,  the  French  monarchy  was 
now  a  sufficient  basis  for  the  development 
of  French  national  sentiment.  One  thing 
alone  retarded  this  change  of  relation — the 
retention  of  Guienne  by  Henry  III.  and  his 
successor.  In  conse<^uence  of  this  there  was 
still  a  feudal  element  m  the  relations  of  Eng- 
land and  France.  Besides  being  Engli^ 
monarchs,  Henry  III.  and  even  Edward  I. 
were  also  feudal  potentates  in  the  separatist 
south.  In  both  aspects  they  were  equally 
hostile  to  the  Parisian  monarchs. 

Under  Henry  III. — ^in  whose  reign  a  new 
importation  of  French  manners,  and  the  great 
absorption  of  French  words  in  the  English 
tongue  occurred — ^the  struggle  for  Poitou,  lost 
in  about  1229  by  the  English  and  in  vain 
attacked  in  1242,  was  counterbalanced  by  the 
conscientious  moderation  of  Louis  IX.,  which 
led  to  his  selection  as  mediator  between  Henry 
and  the  barons  in  1264.  But  the  Mise  of 
Amiens  disg^ted  the  national  party,  and  led 
the  way  to  the  struggle  of  Edward  I.  and 
Philip  the  Fair;  while  the  rival  claims  of 
English  and  Angevin  claimants  to  the  Sicilian 
throne  had  added  previously  a  new  element 
of  difference.  Yet,  in  1286,  Edward  mediated 
between  France  and  Aragon,  though  luB 
award  was  repudiated.  In  1294  a  great  war 
began,  during  which  Edward  for  a  time  lost 
Gascon^,  and  in  which  Scotland,  then 
strugglmg  against  Edward  for  national  in- 
dependence, first  became  the  heieditory  ally 
of  France.  In  1297  the  war  ended,  and  in 
1299  Boniface  YIII.'s  mad  action  led  to 
the  definite  Treaty  of  Chartres.  Edward  II., 
though  married  to  the  sister  of  Charles  lY., 
fell  into  difficulties  with  that  monarch  in 
1324;  the  revolution  of  1327,  however,  put 
these  into  the  background. 

In  1328  the  old  line  of  French  kings  died 
out,  and  the  accession  of  Philip  of  Yalois 
was  contested  by  Edward  III.  as  the  son  of 
Isabella.  In  1337  French  help  to  Scotland 
led  Edward  to  prosecute  his  ckim  by  arms. 
So  began  the  Hundred  Teari  War  between 
France  and   England.     After   a   period  of 


brilliant  victories,  Edward  III.  forced  on  the 
French  the  Treaty  of  Bretigny  ri360),  but 
Charles  Y,  profiting  by  Edward's  aotase,  and 
the  minority  of  Bichardll.,  reconquered  all  he 
had  won  save  Calais.  The  marriage  of  Kichard 
II.  with  Isabella  of  France,  in  1397,  coincid- 
ing with  that  monarch's  arbitrary  stroke  for 
absolutism,  marks  a  curious  approximation 
between  the  two  countries,  durmg  the  pause 
between  the  acts  of  the  great  struggle.  It  led 
to  the  friend^p  of  the  Armagnacs  for  the 
deposed  Richard  which  was,  perhaps,  the  be- 
ginning of  that  Anglo-Burgundian  alliance 
that  fldone  made  possible  the  brilliant  suc- 
cesses of  Henry  Y.  Under  him  the  second 
heroic  period  of  the  Hundred  Years'  War  was 
fought,  and  the  Treaty  of  Troyos  (1420)  made 
Henry  son-in-law  and  successor  of  the  French 
monarch.  Edward  III.  had  the  assistance  of 
the  feudal  south,  but  Henry  Y.  was  the  ally  of 
the  monarchical  north  of  France,  a  different 
native  faction  contributing  to  each  king's 
success.  Thereafter  the  minority  of  Henry  YI. 
and  the  national  enthusiasm  engendered  by 
the  Maid  of  Orleans,  led  to  the  loss  not  of 
Paris  only  or  of  Normandy,  but  of  the  ancient 
possession  of  Guienne.  The  death  of  Talbot, 
in  1453,  ended  the  Hundred  Years'  War  and 
the  hopes  of  English  domination  in  France. 
Calais,  Edward  III.'s  great  prize,  alone  re- 
mained of  all  the  conquests. 

The  question  of  peace  or  war  with  France 
was  now  one  of  the  chief  points  of  dispute 
between  the  court  and  constitutional  parties. 
The  unpopularity  of  Suffolk,  and  the  popu- 
larity of  York,  were  largely  the  result  of  their 
adopting  a  statesmanlike  and  popular  view 
respectively.  But  the  alliance,  first  of  the 
Lancastrians,  then  of  Warwick,  with  France, 
forced  Edward  lY.,  however  unwillingly,  to 
the  Burgundian  alliance ;  and  though  Charles 
the  Bold's  abandonment  of  his  cause  led  to 
the  Treaty  of  Pecquigny  (1476)  and  friendship 
with  Louis  XL,  yet  before  Edward's  dea^ 
that  monarch  had  repudiated  the  English 
alliance.  In  vain  Bichard  III.  sought  the 
friendship  of  France.  Charles  YIII.,  no  less 
than  Francis  of  Britanny,  helped  Henry  of 
Ric;hmond  to  the  throne ;  though  Henry 
YII.'s  constant  Spanish  poli^,  l^e  war  6i 
the  Breton  succession,  and  the  French  support 
of  Warbeck,  despite  the  Treaty  of  Etaples 
(1492),  show  that  the  normal  hostility  of 
England  and  France  still  continued. 

With  Henry  YIII.  a  new  era  in  foreign 
relations  began.  Instead  of  the  long-standing 
traditional  policy  of  the  Middle  Ageft,  the 
policy  of  interests  begins  with  the  establish- 
ment of  the  political  system  of  Europe,  the 
doctrine  of  the  balance  of  power,  and  the 
growth  of  modem  diplomacy.  In  the  early 
part  of  his  reign,  Henry  was  eager  to  win 
new  Crecys  and  Agincourts  at  the  expense  of 
the  traditional  enemy.  But  besides  this,  a 
new  motive — the  desire  of  adjusting  the 
balance  in  Italy — ^led  Henry  to  join  the  War 


(475  ) 


of  the  Holy  League  against  France  (1{>11 — 
1614).  For  a  few  years  old  and  new  motives 
coincided  to  keep  Henry  true  to  his  traditional 
hostility,  and  the  first  war  of  Francis  I.  and 
Charles  V.  (1621—1629)  saw  Henr\' again  the 
enemy  of  France.  But  the  negotiations  of 
1520  clearly  show  that  Henry's  main  motive 
had  reference  to  the  political  exigencies  of  the 
moment,  rather  than  to  any  traditional  theory 
of  policy.  The  withdrawal  of  England  from 
the  war,  after  the  battle  of  Pa  via  (1625),  the 
moment  that  Charles  had  an  overwhelming 
advantage,  illustrates  Henry's  regard  for  the 
halance  of  power.  The  aUiance  wi&  France  in 
1626,  the  long  and  wearisome  negotiations  to 
enlist  FrEmce  on  the  side  of  Henry's  divorce, 
equally  indicate  the  new  state  of  thines. 
FVancis  played  Henry  false,  and  deseri'ed  the 
English  attack  in  1543,  which,  successful 
during  Henry *s  life,  led  to  disastrous  failure 
during  the  weak  rule  of  Somerset.  Northum- 
berland was  the  friend  of  France;  but  the 
accession  of  Mar)*,  with  the  consequent 
Spanish  alliance,  was  the  cause  of  a  fresh 
war  between  the  two  countries,  during  which 
France  gained  Calais.  The  Treaty  of  Cateau 
Cambresis  (1659)  ended  the  war,  but  the 
accession  of  Francis  II.,  the  husband  of  Mary 
of  Scotland,  and  tool  of  the  Guises,  and  the 
ambiguous  compromise  as  to  the  restoration  of 
Calais,  kept  alive  the  enmity.     ^ 

The  Treaty  of  Cateau  marked  the  beginning 
of  a  new  era.    Political  considerations  were 
subordinated  to  religious  ones;  and  during 
Elizabeth's  reign,  despite  her  personal  feel- 
ings, the  Huguenots  were  the  natural  allies, 
the    Catholic    League   the   natural  foes,  of 
the  English.    The  accession  of  Henry  IV. 
ended  the  active  period  of  Catholic  reaction, 
and   led,    for   the    first    time,   to  a  hearty 
national  alliance    of    France    and   England 
against  Spain.    For  the  next  half  century 
religious  hatred  of  Catholicism,  and  political 
fear  of  the  overweening  Spanish  monarchy, 
conthmed    to   produce    this    approximation 
between  the  old  rivals.     James  I.'s  Spanish 
policy    was    unpopular    and    unsuccessful 
In  1624  a  French  alliance  was  adopted,  and 
Charles  I.'s   marriage   with   Louis    XIII.'s 
sister,  though  it  did  not  prevent  the  war  of 
1627,  kept  the  two  nations  on   fair  terms 
during  the   whole  reign  of   that   monarch. 
Kichelieu's  underhanded  support  of  the  Scots 
rather  strengthened  than  weakened  this  posi- 
tion. The  vacillating  foreign  policy  of  the  first 
Stuarts  niade  it  impossible  for  fixed  relations, 
eitherfriendly  or  hostile,  to  be  established ;  and 
it  was  reserved  for  Cromwell  to  revive  the 
f<neign  policy  of  Elizabeth,  and,  in  league 
with  Mazarin,  to  humble  effectually  the  pride 
of  Spain.    But  Elizabethan  policy  was  now 
obsolete.    Cromwell's  friendship  with  France 
is  largely  responsible  for  the  aggressions  of 
Ix>uis  XIV.    Under  Clarendon,  who  closely 
followed  Cromwell  in  foreign  policy,  the  same 
pohcy  of  Frenchalliancebecameasourceof  that 


minister's  unpopularity.  The  Triple  Alliance 
(1667)  of  the  Cabal  was  the  beginning  of  the 
policy  of  combined  resistance  to  Louis  XIV.,  of 
which  ultimately  England  was  to  be  the  centee. 
But  Catholic  and  despotic  leanings,  love  of 
bribes,  and  fear  of  decided  action,  kept  Eng- 
land's general  influence  on  the  side  of  France, 
so  long  as  Charles  II.  and  James  II.  were  on  the 
throne.  Only  under  Danby,  when  the  Orange 
marriage  and  the  decided  action  of  1677  were 
effected,  did  England  in  any  Aigorous  way  set 
itself  against  French  aggressions.  The  great 
development  of  French  influence  on  literature, 
culture,  manners,  and  fashions  helped  to 
maintain  this  French  friendship.  But  with  the 
Revolution  of  1688,  the  prince  who  was  at 
the  centre  of  the  European  opposition  to  the 
universal  monarchy  of  Louis  XIV.  became 
King  of  England,  and  the  addition  of  the  whole 
weight  of  England  to  the  coalition  led  to  the 
ultimate  defeat  of  France.  The  war  of  1688 
— 1697  [Ryswick,  Trbaty  of]  prepared  the 
way  for  the  War  of  the  Spam^  Succession 
(1702—1713).  The  well-contested  defeats 
of  William,  and  the  crowning  victories  of 
Marlborough,  broke  up  the  power  of  France, 
even  when  the  connection  of  the  dethroned 
Stuarts  with  France,  and  the  doctrine  of 
laitfez'faire  in  European  politics,  kept  up  a 
French  party  in  the  country,  which  secured 
the  conclusion  of  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  (1713). 
This  Tory  alliance  with  France,  strangely 
enough,endured  for  twenty-five  years  of  Whig 
ministry.  The  Eegent,  Philip  of  Orleans, 
and  the  ministers  of  George  I.,  were,  from 
widely  different  reasons,  equally  anxious  for 
its  maintenance.  Philip  drove  away  the  Pre- 
tender from  France,  and,  in  1717,  the  Triple 
Alliuice  of  England,  HoUand,  and  France 
was  effected  to  n^aintain  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht 
against  the  efforts  of  the  reviving  monarchy' 
of  Spain.  The  peace  policy  of  Walpole  and 
Fleury  kept  this  state  of  things  alive.  It 
was  during  this  period  of  unity  that  the  close 
literary  and  philosophic  intercourse  between 
France  and  England,  which  was  to  make  the 
doctrines  of  Locke  and  Newton  the  common 
property  of  Europe,  was  effected.  But  the 
revival  of  Spain  was  not  very  reaL  AVhen 
prosperity  visited  France  anew,  her  ministers 
were  anxious  to  revive  the  schemes  of  Louis 
XrV.,  and,  besides  regard  for  the  political 
balance  of  Europe,  the  rivalr}'  of  England 
and  France  in  America  and  India,  the  efforts 
of  both  nations  at  colonial  expansion,  proved  a 
new  and  deep-seated  source  of  hostility.  Thus, 
in  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  (1740 
— 1748),  and  still  more  in  the  Seven"! ears' 
War  (1766^1763),  England  and  France  were 
again  involved  in  war.  The  glories  of  Pitt's 
great  ministry  led  to  the  vast  extension  of 
&e  Indian  and  colonial  empire  of  England, 
even  though  the  desire  of  George  III.^  to 
leave  foreign  politics  alone,  and  devote  him- 
self to  the  restoi-ation  of  the  ro5'al  power,  led 
to  the  premature  Peace  of  Paris  (1763).     For 


\ 


476  ) 


the  next  few  years  there  was  peace,  but 
little  cordiality,  between  France  and  England.  ■ 
At  last  peace  was  broken  by  the  French, 
who  openly  helped  the  revolted  colonists 
of  America  (1778).  A  fierce  war  was 
now  waged  between  that  year  and  1782, 
terminated  by  the  Peace  of  Versailles. 
During  the  next  few  years  Pitt  kept  on  good 
terms  with  a  nation  already  on  the  verge  of  a 
revolution ;  although  acts  like  his  intervention 
in  Holland  would,  in  more  fiery  times,  have 
led  France  into  war.  But  Pitt*s  famous  com- 
mercial treaty  with  France  (1786),  which 
revived  a  tnide  between  two  countries  fast 
drifting  into  commercial  as  well  as  political 
alienation,  is  the  chief  mark  of  his  French 
policy,  and  the  '*  Anglomania "  in  France  of 
the  period  antecedent  to  the  Revolution  was 
one  effect  of  the  increase  of  pacific  relations. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution  France 
and  England  were  on  better  terms  than  since 
the  days  of  Walpole.  That  event,  hailed  by 
all  bat  a  few  as  the  beginning  of  a  brighter 
state  of  things  in  France,  brought  the  nations 
still  nearer  together  in  sympathy.  But  it 
was  soon  seen  that  the  course  of  the  French 
Bevolution  was  very  different  to  what  had  been 
hoped  for.  Very  early  Burke  sounded  the  alarm, 
and  the  growing  ascendency  of  the  Jacobins 
soon  confirmed  his  prophecy.  Henceforth, 
sympathy  with  the  Revolution  was  attended 
with  social  ostracism,  and  remained  only  with 
the  few  staunch  Whigs  who  still  followed 
Fox  as  their  leader,  or  with  professed 
Radicals  and  agitators.  In  1703  the  great 
war  of  England  against  the  Revolution 
began,  and  continued  with  but  two  slight 
breaks  (the  few  months  after  the  Treaty  of 
Amiens,  and  the  few  months  of  Napoleon's 
captivity  in  Elba)  until  18*15.  It  became 
in  turns  a  war  of  reactionary  propaganda 
which  would  make  no  peace  with  a 
**  regicide  *'  Directory,  a  hopeless  struggle  for 
the  balance  of  power  in  Europe  against  the 
iigffressions  of  Napoleon,  and  finally  an  horoic 
defence  of  the  English  nation,  and  in  a  sense 
of  the  principle  of  nationality  generally, 
against  tiie  lord  of  all  Europe.  In  1815  the 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons  ended,  so  iax  as 
was  possible,  the  work  of  the  Revolution,  and 
a  common  attachment  to  some  at  least  of  the 
principles  of  the  Holy  Alliance  united  Tory 
England  with  the  men  of  the  Restoration. 
Since  1815  there  has  been  no  war  between 
France  and  England,  and  a  slow  but  growing 
cordiality  has  replaced  the  old  tradition  of 
international  hatried  handed  down  from  our 
grandfathers.  On  several  occasions  relations 
have  become  extremely  strained.  The  Spanish 
Marriage  project  of  Louis  Philippe,  the  ques- 
tion of  the  Liebanon,  the  ill-regulated  ambi- 
tion of  Napoleon  III.,  and  more  recently, 
the  Egyptian  difficulties,  have  produced  un- 

Sleasantnesses  that  at  an  earlier  period  would 
oubtless  have  ended  in  war.     But  Napoleon 
III.  finally  determined  on  the  English  alliance, 


and  the  common  Crimean  and  Chinese  War*, 
and  still  more,  Cobden's  famous  commercial 
treaty,  developed  more  friendly  feelings, 
which  it  may  be  hoped  are  to  become  per- 
manent. 

In  English,  Dean  Kitcbin'g  JBTutory  of  France 
gives  the  best  general  aooount  of  Yreacb. 
histonr.  The  oompendium  of  AC.  Th.  LavalUe, 
and  M.  Henri  Martin's  fuller  HUttnr^  d«  France, 
are  standard  French  authorities.  Panli's  Bn,g- 
lische  GtaehicMe  brings  well  oat  the  medisral 
relations  of  the  two  coontries.  Yon  Banke's 
works  are  the  fullest  for  the  international 
dealings  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  oen- 
turies,  especially  his  History  of  England  and 
FranM6»uG\0  Qwehichte,  [T.  F.  T.] 

FraaohijM.    [Elbctiok.] 

mraiicis.  John,  shot  at  Queen  Victoria 
(May  30,  1852),  for  which  he  was  condemned 
to  execution,  but  the  sentence  was  conmiuted 
to  penal  servitude  for  life.  The  absurdity  of 
inddcting  such  a  man  as  a  traitor  led  to  an 
Act  authorising  the  courts  to  deal  with  such 
cases  by  imprisonment  and  whipping. 

Francis,  Sir  Philip  {b.  1740,  d.  1818), 
entered  the  Indian  Civil  Service,  and  was 
sent,  in  1774,  to  Bengal,  as  a  member  of  the 
new  council  appointed  under  the  Act  of 
1773.  He  distmguished  himself  by  the 
violence  of  his  opposition  to  Warren  Hast- 
ings. Returning  to  England  in  1781,  he 
entered  Parliament  in  1784,  where  he  joined 
the  Opposition,  and  stimulated  Hastings's 
impeachment.  Many,  including  Lord  Mac- 
aulay,  have  regarded  him  as  the  author  of 
the  Lettera  of  Junius.    [Junius.] 

X'rank  Almoign  {libera  eleemotym^,  i^., 
free  alms),  was  the  name  of  a  peculiar  species 
of  clerical  tenure.  The  geneial  condition  of 
g^nts  of  land  in  frank  almoign  was,  that  the 
grantees  should  pray  or  say  mass  for  the 
grantor  and  his  kin ;  but  no  particular  service 
was  specified.  It  was  a  ''nobler''  tenure 
than  the  analogous  tenure  by  divine  service, 
in  which  the  service  was  fixed.  Frank  al- 
moign was  always  an  exceptional  tenure,  as 
the  great  btilk  of  Church  liuids  were  held  by 
ordinary  lay  tenure,  such  as  knight-service 
and  socage.  The  Act  of  12  Car.  II.  exempted 
this  tenure  from  abolition. 

FraaJc-pledge,  Frithborli,  or  (in  the 

North)  Tenmannetale,  was  an  association 
of  ten  men,  under  the  borhs^ealdoryfrith'-bofye- 
head,  or  capital  pledge,  who  were  to  be  standmg 
securities  for  each  other,  bound  to  produce 
any  one  of  their  number  if  called  upon  by  the 
law  to  do  so,  and,  if  he  is  unable,  liable  to 
pay  for  what  he  has  done  amiss  unless  they  can 
purge  themselves  from  all  complicity  in  the 
matter.  The  associations  were  called  Hihinge, 
and  every  man  was  obliged  to  be  a  member  of 
one  such  body.  The  frank- pl^ge  may  be 
regarded  as  a  sort  of  artificial  prolongation  of 
the  family  tie,  or,  as  based  on  the  principle  of 
the  law  of  Athelstan,  that  every  man  should 
haveasecurityforhim.  Thislawof  Athelstan*s, 


(477) 


Fr« 


re-enacted  with  additions  by  Edgar  and 
Canute,  resulted  in  the  frank-pledge,  which 
we  first  find  described  in  the  so-called  laws  of 
Edward  the  Confessor — and,  therefore,  to  have 
been  not  earlier  than  the  Conquest.  The  Vino 
of  Frank-pledge  was  an  important  item  of 
business  in  the  local  courts,  and  ultimately 
reverted  to'  the  court  leet.  In  later  views 
the  capital  pledge  and  other  representatives  of 
the  tithing  often  had  the  duty  of  representin^g^ 
their  township  in  the  shire  moot.  This 
brought  together  the  conceptions  of  township 
and  tithing,  and  in  this,  says  Dr.  Stubbs,  was 
the  chief  historical  importance  of  the  frank- 
pledge. 

Stnbbe,  Con$t.  Hiri.,  espedalW  1.,  §  ^.  with 
the  referenoes  there  giteaxi  Palnave,  SnglUh 
CcnvnonvwMh;  K.  Mftorer,  Krititme  U^>enmaiu, 

Frederick,  Protcb  op  Walbs  (3. 1707, 
d.  1751),  was  the  son  of  George  il.  and 
Caroline  of  Anspach.  Before  coming  to 
Kn gland,  he  quarrelled  with  his  father  be- 
cause his  intended  marriage  with  Princess 
Wilhelmina  of  Prussia  was  broken  ofE.  On 
his  arrival  in  England  he  joined  the  party 
that  was  in  opposition  to  Walpole,  taking 
Bolingbroke  as  his  political  adviser.  The 
Idea  of  a  Fatriot  King  was  written  by  that 
statesnuia  as  a  guide  for  the  prince  when 
he  should  ascend  the  throne.  In  1736  Frede- 
rick inairied  Augusta  of  Saxe-Coburg;  but 
tliis  did  not  tend  to  the  union  of  the  royal 
family.  He  demanded  (1736)  that  his  income 
should  be  fixed  by  Parliament.  The  king's 
overtures  were  rejected ;  and  after  an  animated 
debate,  the  ministers  were  victorious.  The 
prince  thereupon  hurried  his  wife  from 
Hampton  Court  to  the  empty  palace  of  St. 
James's,  when  she  was  on  the  point  of  giving 
birth  to  a  child.  For  this  the  prince  was 
peremptorily  ordered  by  Oeorge  to  leave  the 
court ;  Queen  Caroline  remained  implacable, 
refnsiii^  to  see  him  on  her  death-bed. 
Frederick  withdrew  to  Norfolk  House  in  St. 
James's  Square,  and  became  the  leader  of  the 
Opposition.  On  the  fall  of  Walpole  Frederick 
headed  the  Opposition  as  they  went  to  pay 
their  respects  at  court ;  but  his  reception  by 
the  king  was  merely  formal.  No  reconcilia- 
tion was  effected,  and  the  prince  continued  to 
oppose  the  ministry  and  court  until  his  ueath. 

Free  Chnrcli  of  Scotland,  Thb,  was 

formed  in  1843  by  the  "Disruption"  from 
the  Established  Church  of  a  large  body  of 
ministers  and  laymen.  The  Tory  government, 
at  the  end  of  Queen  Anne's  time,  passed 
(1712)  an  Act  restoring  patronage  in  Scot- 
land. It  was  extremely  unpopular  at  the 
time,  and  since  has  been  the  chronic  cause 
of  the  various  schisms  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland.  Yet  the  patronage  conferred  by 
the  Act  gave  only  a  recognised  right  to  the 
benefice  and  its  emoluments.  The  spiritual 
office  of  pastor  could  only  be  added  to  this 
by  the  "  call "  of  the  parishioners ;  but  this 
**  call "  was  freqilentiy  nominal,  and,  if-  but  a 


few  parishioners  would  make  it,  "a  forced 
settlement "  of  the  presentee  could  be  effected. 
The  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  saw 
the  acquisition  by  the  Evangelical  party 
of  a  majority  in  the  General  Assembly  over 
the  Moderates  or  Latitudinarians.  In  1834 
the  Assembly  passed  the  Veto  ZatOf  which  de- 
clared it  to  be  a  fundamental  article  of  the 
Church's  doctrine  that  no  minister  should  be 
intruded  into  a  parish  against  the  will  of  the 
people,  and  declared  that  a  majority  of  male 
heads  of  families,  full  members  of  the  Church, 
should  be  able  to  bar  an  obnoxious  presentee. 
This  was  an  attempt  to  make  the  call  a 
reality  in  all  cases.  Before  long  this  Act 
created  litigation  in  the  Court  of  Session, 
as  well  as  great  controversy  on  the  relation 
of  the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  powers.  At 
Auchterarder,  the  call  of  the  presentee  was 
signed  by  two  heads  of  families  only,  while 
the  great  majority  of  the  parish  expressed 
vehement  dissent.  Yet  the  Court  of  Session 
declared  the  presentment  legal  under  the 
Patronage  Act,  and  the  House  of  Lords,  on 
appeal,  confirmed  their  decision ;  while  at  the 
same  time  the  Scotch  judges  were  accused  of 
extending  their  jurisdiction  on  other  points 
into  spiritual  matters  cognisable  by  the 
Church  alone.  In  1842,  after  tedious  litiga- 
tion, the  Auchterarder  case  was  finally  de- 
cided. In  May,  1843,  at  the  time  of  the  meet- 
ing of  the  General  Assembly,  four  hundred 
and  twenty  ministers,  led  by  Dr.  Chalmers, 
the  most  famous  clergyman  of  his  day,  left 
the  Established  Church;  and,  leaving  the 
hall  of  the  Assembly,  met  in  another  room,  as 
the  first  General  Assembly  of  the  Free  Chuirch, 
with  Chalmers  as  Moderator.  The  bulk  of 
their  congregations  followed  them.  The  or- 
ganising power  of  Chalmers,  shown  from  the 
first  by  the  Sustentation  Fund  for  ministers' 
salaries,  and  the  scheme  for  the  education  of 
the  clergy  of  the  new  Church,  triumphed 
over  the  financial  and  social  difficulties  oi  the 
new  undertaking.  In  four  years  seven 
hundred  Free  churches  were  built.  The  Free 
Church  simply  reproduced  in  doctrine,  dis- 
cipline, and  organisation  the  Established 
Church;  save  that,  of  course,  the  right  of 
appointment  'to  benefices  was  strictly  con- 
fiined  to  the  congregation,  and  the  *'Eras- 
tian"  dependence  on  the  State  avoided; 
though,  as  a  theory,  the  "  voluntary  princi- 
ple "  was  repudiated  by  these  Hildebrands  of 
the  Reformed  Church. 

SubordinaU  Standards  of  the  Free  Church! 
HanoA,  Life  of  Chalmert ;  AfmdU  of  th$  DUrup- 
turn;  Faoll,  EngUtche  QeachiehU  teU  1815. 

[T.  F.  T.]. 

Free  Companies  is  the  name  given  to 
the  troops  of  private  adventurers  who,  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  organised  themselves  into  bands 
of  mercenary  soldiers,  and  let  out  their  ser- 
vices to  the  highest  bidder.  England  was, 
as  a  rule,  under  too  firm  a  gpovemment  to 
have  much  fear  of   these   companies;   but 


(478) 


under  Stephen  they  infested  the  country, 
and  again  during  the  anarchy  of  John's 
quarrel  with  his  barons,  and  the  minority  of 
Henry  III.  But  they  never  attained  the  defi- 
nite organisation  of  the  Free  Companies  of 
the  south  of  France,  and  still  less  of  the  Con- 
dottieri  of  Italy ;  though  man^  of  the  latter, 
as  for  example  the  famous  Sir  John  Hawk- 
wood,  were  Englishmen. 

FrdOllolcL  The  term  ''liberum  tene- 
mentum,"  "  free  tenement,"  appears  soon  after 
Domesday  in  the  sense  of  land  held  by  a  free- 
man by  a  free  tenure,  t.^.,  by  knight-service 
or  socage.  It  was  thus  opposed  to  base  or 
villein  tenure.  Freeholds  were  granted  or 
conveyed  by  the  process  of  feoffment,  i.e.y  an 
act  of  formal  deliver^'  of  possession  (livery  of 
seisin),  accompanied  by  words  describing  the 
nature  of  the  interest  conferred  and  the  ser- 
vices to  be  rendered  in  return.  But  in 
Bracton  {temp.  Henry  III.)  the  term  "free- 
hold "  had.  oome  to  have  also  a  special  sense, 
and  to  be  applied  to  what  had  previously  been 
only  one  cnaracteristic  of  freehold  tenure, 
namely,  a  right  over  land  for  a  period  without 
fixed  or  specified  termination.  Hence  arose 
the  term  "freehold  estate.''  "Estate"  in 
Enffhsh  law  means  the  interest  which  a 
holder  has  in  the  land,  and  especially  the 
"quantity  of  interest"  as  measured  by  ite 
duration.  Estates  are  divided  into  such  as  are 
freehold,  and  such  as  are  less  than  freehold, 
the  former  including  estates  of  inheritance  or 
for  life,  the  latter  estates  for  years  (or  leases), 
or  at  will. 

Dighj,   Hitt,  of  th»  Law   of  Real   Property; 
Stephen,  Commentaries 


k,  Mbs.,  was  a  name  assumed 
by  the  Duchess  of  Marlborough,  because,  as 
she  boasted,  it  was  peculiarly  suited  to  the 
frankness  and  boldness  of  her  character,  in 
her  correspondence  with  Princess  (afterwards 
Queen)  Anne,  who  also  took  that  of  Morley. 
Their  husbands  were  also  sometimes  styled 
Mr.  Freeman  and  Mr.  Morley. 

Free  Trade  Agitation.  [Cobn  Laws  ; 

CoBDEN ;  Pbbl.] 

Frenoh  Aevolutiony  War  op  thb,  is 
the  name  generally,  tiiough  not  very  accu- 
rately, given  to  the  series  of  great  wars  which 
arose  out  of  the  French  Revolution,  and 
lasted  with  two  short  intervals  of  peace  from 
1793  to  1815.  England  made  at  first  no  at- 
tempt to  interfere  in  the  internal  troubles  of 
France,  and  refused  to  take  part  in  the  first 
coalition  against  her.  In  the  spring  of  1 792 
Pitt  reduced  the  navy,  remitted  taxation,  and 
confidently  looked  forward  to  fifteen  years  of 
peace.  In  the  autumn  of  the  same  year  the 
position  of  affairs  was  entirely  different.  The 
French  had  expelled  their  invaders,  and 
proceeded  to  annex  Savoy,  and  to  conquer 
^Igium,  which  theythreatened  to  incorpo- 
rate with  France,    u^ie  Convention  offered 


the  aid  of  the  French  arms  to  all  people 
desirous  of  liberty,  and  French  ministers 
intrigued  with  the  disaffected  party  in  Eng- 
land and  Ireland.  Pitt  vigorously  protested 
against  the  annexation  of  Belgium  and  the 
opening  of  the  Scheldt,  called  out  the  militia, 
and  introduced  bills  to  subject  aliens  in  Eng- 
land to  strict  supervision,  and  to  prevent  the 
export  of  com  and  war  materials  to  France. 
The  French  government  refused  any  conces- 
sion on  the  two  questions  of  Belgium  and  the 
Scheldt,  and  protested  against  Pitt*s  precau- 
tionary measures.  In  the  midst  of  negotia- 
tions on  the  subject,  the  execution  of  Louis 
XVI.  took  place  (Jan.  21,  1793),  and  the 
government  at  once  ordered  the  French 
minister  to  leave  England.  Pitt  attempted 
to  continue  negotiations  in  spite  of  this,  but 
on  the  first  of  February  the  FVench  govern- 
ment declared  war.  England  sent  30,000 
men  to  the  Netherlands  under  the  command 
of  the  Duke  of  York.  The  Austrian  victory 
of  Neerwinden  (March  18)  had  forced  the 
Frendi  to  retreat,  and  the  allied  troops  spent 
the  summer  in  besieg^ing  the  frontier  for- 
tresses. In  November  the  Duke  of  York  laid 
siege  to  Dunkirk,  but  was  forced  to  raise 
it  again  with  the  loss  of  his  artillery.  An 
expedition  sent  to  the  Norman  coast  to 
assist  the  Vcnddans,  arrived  too  late,  and 
another  which  occupied  Toulon  in  August, 
was  forced  to  abandon  it  in  December.  Next 
year  the  allies  were  still  more  unfortunate. 
The  French  reconquered  Belgium,  and  during 
the  winter  the  Duke  of  York  was  driven  out 
of  Holland,  and  the  Prince  of  Orange  obliged 
to  fly  to  England.  Lord  Howe*s  great  victor)- 
of  June  1,  the  conquest  of  numerous  West 
Indian  ishmds,  and  the'  revolt  of  Corsica, 
were  a  partial  compensation  for  these  defeats. 
In  1796  the  coalition  broke  up  altogether. 
Prussia  made  the  Peace  of  Basel  (April  5),  and 
began  thereby  a  neutrality  which  lasted  for 
eleven  years.  Spain  made  peace  on  July  22, 
to  be  followed  a  year  later  by  an  offensive 
and  defensive  alliance  with  France,  and  a 
declaration  of  war  against  England  (Oct, 
1 796).  The  smaller  powers  mostly  followed  the 
example  of  these  two  nations,  and  the  burden 
of  the  war  henceforth  rested  on  England, 
Austria,  and  Sardinia.  The  year  1796  was 
marked  by  the  failure  of  two  English  expe- 
ditions, one  to  Quiberon,  the  other  to  the 
coast  of  La  Vend^.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
alliance  of  Holland  with  France  resulted  in.  * 
the  English  conquest  of  the  Cape  of  Gkxxl 
Hope  (Sept.  16).  The  Continental  war,  the 
next  year,  was  decisive;  Bonaparto*s  Italian 
campaign  more  than  counterbalanced  the  re- 
verses of  Moreau  and  Jourdan,  in  Germany. 
In  May  the  King  of  Sardinia  withdrew  from 
the  coalition.  In  March  England  made  an 
unsuccessful  peace  overture,  which  was  fol- 
lowed in  October  by  the  despatch  of  Lord 
Malmesbury  to  Paris,  to  negotiate  a  general 
peace.    England   offered   to  restore  all  its 


(47») 


colonial  oonquests,  and  demanded  a  similar 
xestoration  of  the  French  conquests.  Above 
all  it  refused  to  admit  the  annexation  of 
Belgium  to  France,  and  the  rupture  of  the 
negotiations  followed. 

The  year  1796  ended  -with  ah  abortive 
attempt  to  land  a  French  army  in  Ireland. 
The  year  1797  brought  the  danger  of  invasion 
nearer  still.  In  April  Austria  signed  the 
preliminaries  of  Leoben,  which  were,  in 
October,  converted  into  the  Treaty  of  Campo 
Formio.  England  was  left  to  carry  on  the 
war  alone,  and  that  in  a  very  unfavourable 
position.  The  Funds  had  sunk  to  little  more 
than  fifty,  and  in  February  cash  payments 
had  to  be  suspended,  whilst  in  May  and  June 
the  mutinies  of  the  fleet  made  Great  Britain 
for  some  weeks  defenceless.  The  French 
government  had  formed  the  design  of  uniting 
the  Spanish  and  Dutch  fleets  to  their  own 
fleet  at  Brest,  and  so  sweeping  the  l^glish 
fleet  from  the  Channel,  and  rendering  a  land- 
ing poesible.  But  the  two  victories  of  8t. 
Vincent  (Feb.  14)  and  Gamperdown  (Oct.  16) 
frustrated  this  i^an;  and  tnongh  Bonaparte 
made  some  preparations  for  an  invasion  of 
England,  he  preferred  the  less  perilous  expedi- 
tion to  Egypt  (May,  1 798).  A  month  alter  his 
landing.  Kelson,  by  the  victory  of  the  Nile, 
destroyed  his  fleet  and  cut  him  off  from  France 
(Aug.  1).  Benewed  acts  of  aggression  by 
the  Directory  in  Switzerland  and  Italy,  Bona- 
parte's absence,  and  Nelson's  victory,  made 
the  formation  of  a  new  coalition  poesible.    In 

1799  the  combined  armies  of  Austria  and 
Russia  drove  the  French  out  of  Italy;  but 
Qeneral  Massena  successfully  defeated  the 
Austro-Russuan  invasion  of  Switzerland,  aAd 
General  Bmne  repulsed  an  Anglo-Russian 
expedition  to  Holland.  Bonaparte's  return 
to  Fnmce  was  followed  by  the  overtiirow 
of  the  Directory  (Nov.  8,  1799),  and  an 
immediate  resumption  of  ihe  offensive.    In 

1800  Austria  was  attacked  both  in  Italy  and 
Germany,  and  the  victories  of  Marengo 
(June  14),  and  Hohenlinden  (Dec.  8),  were 
followed  by  the  Peace  of  LunlviUe  (Feb.  9, 
1801).  England  was  again  left  to  carry  on  the 
war  alone,  for  Russia  had  quitted  the  coalition, 
and  made  a  dispute  about  the  right  of  search  the 
foundation  of  a  maritime  league  (Dec,  1800), 
which  renewed  the  Armed  Neutrally  (q.v.)  of 
1780.  This  league  consisted  of  Denmark, 
Sweden,  and  Russia,  but  it  was  almost  im- 
mediately broken  up  by  the  battle  of  Copen- 
hagen (April  2,  1801)  and  the  death  of  the 
Emperor  of  Russia  (March  23).  Two  days 
before,  an  English  expedition  had  defeated 
the  French  at  Alexandria,  and  the  conquest 
of  Egypt,  with  surrender  of  24,000  French 
soldiers,  soon  followed.  Though  Bonaparte 
still  threatened  an  invasion  of  En^and,  and 
collected  troops  and  gunboats  at  Boulogne, 
the  English  supremacy  at  sea  rendered  it 
merely  a  threat.  Both  countries  were  ready 
to  come  to  terms.    The  negotiations  at  Paris, 


in  1796,  had  been  followed  by  similar  nego- 
tiations at  liUe  in  1797,  and  the  English 
government  had  declined  to  treat  in  answer 
to  Napoleon's  overture  in  Dec,  1800.  But 
this,  the  fourth  attempt  to  bring  about  an 
understanding,  was  more  fortunate,  and  the 
preliminaries  of  peace  were  signed  in  Oct., 
1801,  while  the  treaty  was  finally  ratified  on 
March  27,  1802.  By  the  Treaty  of  Amiens, 
England  surrendered  all  its  conquests  except 
Trmidad  and  C!eylon.  It  was  agreed  that 
Malta  should  be  restored  to  the  knights  of 
St.  John,  but  as  the  renewed  aggressions  of 
Napoleon  gradually  made  it  evident  that  it 
would  spciodily  be  seized  by  France,  the 
English  government  refused  to  surrender  the 
ishuid.  They  believed  that  Napoleon  meant 
to  make  Malta  the  stepping-stone  for  a  new 
attack  on  Egypt,  and  Egypt  the  starting-point 
for  an  attack  on  India.  War  was  declared 
on  May  18,  1803.  A  French  army  under 
Marshal  Mortier  easily  overran  Hanover. 
A  great  flotilla  and  army  were  assembled  by 
Napoleon  at  Boulogne  for  the  invasion  of 
England,  and  in  December,  1804,  the  rupture 
between  England  and  Spain  placed  an  addi- 
tional navy  at  his  disposal.  His  plan  for 
effecting  a  landing  was  based  on  the  union  of 
the  three  fleets  of  Toulon,  Rochefort,  and 
Brest,  with  the  Spanish  fleet,  in  order  to 
secure  the  command  of  the  Channel.  Mean- 
time, a  third  coalition  was  being  formed.  In 
April,  1806,  an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance 
between  England  and  Russia  took  place,  and 
the  league  was  completed  by  the  accession 
of  Austria  (August),  Sweden  (August),  and 
Naples.  The  naval  combination  fell  tlm>ugh, 
and  the  Toulon  fleet,  which  had  succeeded  in 
uniting  with  the  Spaniards,  was  destroyed 
with  them  at  Trafalgar  (Oct.  21,  1805) ;  but 
the  coalition  was  shattered  to  pieces  by  the 
capitulation  of  Ulm  (Oct.  19),  and  the  de- 
feat of  Austerlitz  (Dec  3),  followed  by  the 
Treaty  of  Presburg  (Dec.  26).  In  England 
the  Addington  ministry,  vdiichhad  commenced 
the  war,  had  been  superseded  in  May,  1804, 
by  the  return  of  Pitt  to  power. 

Pitt's  death  (Jan.  23, 1806)  led  to  the  forma* 
tion  of  a  ministry  under  Fox,  which  opened 
negotiations  with  Napoleon.  But  Napoleon's 
Ccuatinental  policy  rendered  peace  impossible. 
Just  as  the  Directory  had  surroundea  France 
with  subject  repubucs,  so  he  wished  to  sur- 
round himself  with  vassal  princes.  One 
brother  was  established  in  Holland,  and 
another  became  King  of  Naples,  and  the 
organisation  of  the  Confederation  of  the 
Rhine  founded  his  rule  in  Germany.  Russia's 
declaration  of  war  (Oct.  1,  1804)  was  an- 
swered by  the  victory  of  Jena  (Oct.  14),  and 
the  army  of  Russia,  after  the  doubtful  battle 
of  Eylau  (Feb.  8),  met  with  a  severe  defeat 
at  Friedland  (June  14). 

The  English  ministry  sent  expeditions  to 
Sicily  (July,  1806),  South  America  (Feb.— • 
July,  1807),  Egypt  (March,  1807),  and  the 


Fr« 


(480) 


Dardanelles  (Feb.,  1807),  but  these  useless 
diversions  gave  no  real  aid  to  the  common 
tarase.  The  Peace  of  Tilsit  (July,  1807)  put 
an  end  to  the  fourth  coalition,  and  enabled 
Naj^leon  to  turn  the  forces  of  the  Continent 
against  England.  By  the  Decrees  of  Berlin 
(Not.  21,  1806)  and  Milan  (Dec.  17,  1807)  he 
prohibited  all  direct  or  indirect  trade  with 
the  British  Isles.  The  secondary  states, 
which  still  remained  neutral  or  allied  with 
England,  were  to  be  forced  to  adopt  the  same 
system,  and  to  place  their  naval  forces  at  his 
cUsposal.  With  the  aid  of  Russia,  Sweden 
was  forced  to  adhere  to  the  Continental 
mtem,  and  a  combined  Spanish  and 
French  army  occupied  Portugal  (Nov.,  1807). 
Denmark,  after  an  English  expedition  had 
obliged  it  to  surrender  its  fleet  (Sept.,  1807), 
allied  itself  with  France.  But  for  the  success 
of  Napoleon's  schemes,  the  mere  alliance  with 
Spain  was  not  sufficient.  In  order  to  make 
use  of  the  vast  resources  and  great  colonies 
which  misgovemment  made  of  little  value, 
he  needed  the  complete  control  of  Spain,  and 
this  he  sought  to  secure  by  placing  his  brother 
Joseph  on  the  Spanish  throne  (June,  1808). 
With  the  insurrection  which  in  consequence 
broke  out  in  Spain,  begins  a  new  period  in 
the  history  of  the  wars  which  sprang  out  of 
the  Bevolution.  Hitherto  they  had  been  the 
wars  of  states;  henceforth  they  were  to  be 
the  wars  of  nations.  The  idea  of  nationality 
inspired  the  peoples  of  Europe,  and  became 
the  strongest  support  of  its  rulers  in  their 
resistance  to  France.  Austria,  fired  by  the 
example  of  Spain,  took  up  arms  again  (April, 
1809),  but  it  could  not  rouse  Germany  to  re- 
volt,  and  after  the  battles  of  Aspem  (May, 
22)  and  Wagram  (July  6)  was  obliged  to  sign 
a  ruinous  peace  at  Vienna  (Oct.  14,  1809). 
England  seized  the  opportunity  of  the  Spanish 
revolt.  In  the  summer  of  1808  an  £higlish 
corps  expelled  the  French  from  Portugal, 
whilst  another  advanced  to  take  part  in  the 
defence  of  Spain,  but  was  forced  to  retreat 
and  re-embark,  after  winning  a  battle  at 
Corunna  (Jan.  16, 1809).  The  English  govern- 
ment, however,  instead  of  concentrating  its 
strength  on  the  war  in  Spain,  wasted  40,000 
men  in  a  useless  expedition  to  Walcheren. 
But,  in  spite  of  inefficient  support,  Sir  Arthur 
Wellesley  was  able  to  recover  Portugal  (1809), 
and  to  maintain  himself  there,  in  1810  and 
1811,  against  repeated  attacks.  [Peninsular 
Wak.]  In  April,  1812,  war  began  between 
Napoleon  and  Russia,  and  in  the  same  month 
Ixttd  Wellington  captured  the  border  fortress 
of  Badajoz,  and  assumed  the  defensive  in 
Spain.  The  news  of  his  victory  at  Salamanca 
(July  22)  reached  the  French  head-quarters 
the  day  before  the  battle  of  Borodino  (Sept.  7), 
and  about  a  month  before  the  French  entered 
Moscow,  the  English  army  occupied  Aladrid 
(Aug.  12— Sept.  14,  1812).  Ijotd  Wellington 
raised  the  siege  of  Burgos  on  Oct.  18,  and 
on  the  19th,  Napoleon  quitted  Moscow.    Hie 


enthusiasm  of  the  €rennan  people  forced  their 
sovereigns  to  take  up  arms.  Russia  was  joined 
by  Prussia  (March  1,  1813),  Sweden  (Maich 
3),  and  Austria,  and  the  battle  of  Leipzig  (Oct. 
16- — 18)  freed  Germany,  as  that  of  Vittoria 
did  Spain  (June  20). 

Whilst  Wellington  crossed  the  Bidassoa  in 
September,  and  established  his  winter  quarters 
in  the  south  of  France,  the  allied  armies  began 
the  passage  of  the  Rhine  on  thelastday  of  1813. 
After  a  campaign  which  lasted  three  months, 
Paris  was  taken,  and  Napoleon  abdicated 
(April,  1814).  The  bxx>ther  of  Louis  XVI. 
was  called  to  the  French  throne,  and  Franoe 
reduced,  with  some  small  exceptions,  to  the 
limits  of  1792.  The  allied  sovereignj,  at 
the  Congress  of  Vienna,  were  still  disputing 
about  the  settlement  of  Europe,  when  Napoteon 
seized  the  opportunity  which  the  discontent 
of  the  nation  afforded,  and  re-entered  France 
(March  1, 1815).  The  four  great  powers  im- 
mediately re-f oimed  the  coaStion  against  him 
(March  25),  and  the  battle  of  Waterloo  (June 
18)  was  followed  by  his  second  abdication, 
and  his  exile  to  St.  Helena.  By  the  second 
Treaty  of  Paris  (Nov.  20),  Franoe  was  sen- 
tenced to  pay  indemnities  and  expenses 
amounting  to  more  than  60  millions,  to  a 
further  loss  of  territory,  and  to  a  five  years' 
occupation  of  her  border  fortresses. 

Europe  was  reorganised  b^  the  Treaties  of 
Vienna.  The  great  states  issued  from  the 
wars  of  the  Revolution  more  powerful  and 
more  compact.  The  republics  of  Poland, 
Venice,  and  GKmoa,  the  ecclesiastical  states 
and  most  of  the  smaller  principalities  of  Ger- 
many, had  been  absorbed  by  stronger  neigh- 
bours. But  the  sovereigns  and  statesmen 
who  arranged  the  rewards  and  compensations 
due  to  states,  disre^^arded  the  claims  of 
peoples.  The  Revolution  had  drawn  its  force 
and  its  proselytising  power  from  the  general 
desire  for  political  &«)dom ;  the  opposition  to 
the  Empire  had  been  inspired  by  the  desire 
for  an  independent  national  existence.  Neither 
of  these  feelings  was  satisfied  by  tiie  Vienna 
settlement,  and  so  it  was  not  permanent. 

During  the  same  period,  England  had 
grown  greater  outside  Europe.  In  the  West 
it  had  acquired  a  few  more  sugar  islands;  in 
the  East  it  had  excluded  French  influence 
from  India,  and  greatly  extended  its  own 
power  in  that  oountry.  It  had  also  acquired 
the  outposts  and  approaches  of  India,  Ceylon, 
the  Mauritius,  the  Cape,  and  Malta.  But 
these  accessions  of  territory  had  been  gained 
at  the  cost  of  cruahing  taxation,  and  by  the 
addition  of  more  than  600  TnillinTia  to  the 
national  debt. 

Alison,  Hiai,  of  SuroM;  Stanhope,  Life  of 
Pitt ;  liasseyj  Hut.  of  England  ;  James,  if  aval 
Htftory;  Napier,  PtninnXiaT  War;  OaaiOsraagh 
Ccrretpondwne^ ;  Stapleton,  J4ff  of  Camiiiig; 
Wellington  Dematchu ;  Von  S^bel,  HtMt.  of  Uu 
Fretich  Revolution  ;  Lonfrey,  W  of  Naj^deon ; 
Seeley,  Life  qf&ein, 

[C.  H.  F.] 


(481) 


nrendraught,  The  Bubkino  of  (1638), 
wsE  the  name  given  to  a  tragedy  by  which 
the  chie&  of  tiie  Gk>rdon  family  lost  their 
Jives.  A  reconciliation  had  taken  place  at 
Strathbogie  between  the  Gordons  and  their 
«nemiee,  the  Grichtons,  who  were  escorted 
home  by  Lord  Aboyne,  Robert  Gordon,  and 
others.  Pressed  to  remain  at  Frendiaught 
ior  the  night,  the  Gordons  were  burnt  to 
death  in  the  tower,  accidentally,  according  to 
the  Grichtons,  but  more  probably  the  tra^^y 
was  the  result  of  a  delib^te  plot. 


I,  SiH  Henry  Edward  Baktlb  {b. 
1815,  d,  1884),  entered  the  Indian  CivU 
Service  in  1834.  In  1847  he  became  British 
Resident  at  Sattara,  and  in  1S50  Chief  Com- 
miasioner  of  Scinde.  In  1862  he  was  appointed 
Governor  of  Bombay,  and  in  1867  he  returned 
to  England  and  was  made  a  membei*  of  the 
Indian  Council.  In  1872  he  was  sent  to  the 
East  Coast  of  Afrina  to  inquire  into  the  Slave 
Trade,  and  the  following  year  signed  a  treaty 
with  the  Sultan  of  Zanzibar  abolishing  the 
traffic.  From  1877  to  1880  he  was  Governor 
of  the  Cape  and  High  Commissioner  for  South 
Africa. 


»,  John  Hooxhax  {b,  1769,  d.  1841), 

«  literary  man  of  some  note,  was,  as  the  friend 

of  Canmng  (being  his  partner  in  the  AfUi" 

Jacohin)  sent  on  various  embassies  and  political 

affiurs  of  importance.    Besides  a  mission  to 

Lisbon,  he  was  twice  Spanish  minister  during 

the  critical  period  of  the  dealings  of  Fer- 

4]inand  VII.  and  Napoleon.    The  failure  of 

Sir   John    Moore   was,    in   public   opinion, 

largely  attributable  to  Frere's  advice ;  and  Mb 

recall  from  Spain  ended  his  public  life.    He 

spent  the  remainder  of  his  days  at  Malta. 

See  Mamoir  prefixed  to  the  edition  of  Frere's 
works  by  his  nephews. 

FrdSOObaldi,  The,  were  Florentine 
merchantfi  who  advanced  money  to  Edward 
I.  and  Edward  II.  on  the  security  of  the 
Customs,  which  they  were  allowed  to  collect. 
They  became  almost  as  unpopular  as  the  Jews 
had  been,  and  one  of  the  Ordinances  of  1311 
ordered  Iheir  banishment  from  the  country. 


I,  The,  were  members  of  orders 
founded  in  the  thirteenth  century  in  the 
Church,  for  the  purpose  of  preaching  among 
the  people.  Their  example  in  early  times 
was  powerful,  but  as  they  gained  wealth 
they  tended  to  sink  into  indolence.  In 
the  end  of  the  twelfth  century,  the  preachers 
of  the  Waldensians,  and  other  heretical 
sects,  set  forth  a  new  idea  of  the  religfious 
life,  as  concerned  with  activity  for  the 
good  of  others.  These  sects  were  repressed ; 
but  their  conceptions  were  fruitful,  and 
the  struggle  against  them,  convinced  some 
ardent  minds  of  the  need  of  active  preaching 
amongst  the  people.  Francis  of  Assisi, 
in  Italy,  began,  in  1207,  to  gather  round 
him  a  society  animated  by  the  principle  of 
fervent  love,  which  was  to  be  carried  out 
Hist.— 16 


by  entire  self-sacrifice.  His  order  rapidly 
spread,  was  provisionally  sanctioned  by  Pope 
Innocent  lit.,  in  1209,  and  was  established 
by  Honorius  III.,  in  1223.  It  was  called 
the  **  Ordo  Fratrum  Minorum ; "  with  it  was 
incorporated,  under  the  same  rule,  a  female 
order  of  St.  Clara,  the  sister  of  Francis ;  and 
a  third  order,  the  Tertiaries,  comprised  those 
who,  without  abandoning  their  secular  life, 
adopted  a  rule  of  penitence. 

Contemporary  with  Francis,  a  Spaniard, 
Dominic,  a  canon  of  Osma,  formed  a  society 
for  the  special  purpose  of  preaching  against 
heretics.  In  1216  this  order  of  the  Friar 
Preachen  was  established  by  Honorius  III., 
and  adopted  also  the  rule  of  evangelical 
poverty.  Later  came  the  order  of  Carmelites, 
so  called  because  they  were  originally  founded 
in  the  Holy  Land,  and  dwelt  in  the  seclusion 
of  Mount  CarmeL  They  had  their  rule  of 
rigorous  fasting,  silence,  and  solitude,  and 
were  transplanted  into  Europe  in  1238. 
Finally,  the  Eremites  of  St.  Augustine, 
established  in  1256,  took  their  rise  from  the 
union  of  many  cenobite  establidiments  in 
Italy.  All  these  orders  followed  the  ezamide 
of  the  Franciscans,  in  having  Tertiaries,  and 
in  renouncing  worldly  possessions.  They 
were  often  distingmshed  by  the  colours 
of  their  cloaks.  The  Carmelites  were  known 
as  the  White  Friars,  the  Dominicans  as 
the  Black  Friars,  and  the  Franeiscans  as 
the  Grey  Friars.  The  survival  of  these  names 
in  London  and  many  other  English  towns- 
testifies  to  the  extent  of  their  settlements. 
Th^  Dominicans  and  the  Franciscans  were 
by  far  the  most  important  of  these  orders, 
and  exercised  great  influence  on  the  social 
and  political  development  of  England.  The 
Dominicans  came  to  England  in  1221,  the 
Franciscans  in  1224. 

The  friars,  in  their  early  days,  did  a  great 
work  of  social  reform;  and  as  this  work 
grew  under  their  hands,  they  felt  the  need 
for  learning.  Consequently  the  mendicants 
beg^an  to  throng  to  the  universities,  and  it  was 
through  the  activity  of  the  Franciscans  that 
Oxford  became  famous  throughout  Europe. 
The  first  Franciscan  provincial  in  Englemd 
built  a  school  in  the  Fratry  at  Oxford,  and 
prevailed  on  Robert  Grosseteste,  afterwards 
Bishop  of  Lincoln,  to  lecture  there.  Grosse- 
teste founded  a  sdliool,  which  was  carried  on 
by  Adam  Marsh,  or  De  Marisco,  who  may 
be  reckoned  as  the  founder  of  that  great 
school  of  theology  which  ruled  the  thought 
of  Europe  till  the  Revival  of  Learning. 
Alexander  of  Hales,  John  Duns  Scotus,  and 
William  of  Ockham,  made  English  theology 
&mous;  and  the  F'ranciscan,  Roger  Bacon,' 
is  the  foromost  name  in  physical  science 
throughout  the  Middle  Ages. 

The  immediate  influence  of  the  rovival  of 
theology  under  the  friars  in  England  was 
greatly  felt  in  the  constitutional  struggles  of 
&e  reig^  of  Henry  III.    Bishop  Grosseteste 


(482) 


and  Adam  de  Marisco  were  the  chief  coun- 
eellors  of  Simon  de  Montfort.  The  teaching 
of  the  friars  gave  a  religious  basis  to  the  theory 
of  the  relations  between  king  and  people,  on 
which  the  struggle  was  founded.  They  set 
forth  the  Teq>onsibility  of  the  kin^  to  God, 
his  duty  to  rule  for  the  good  of  his  people, 
his  obligation  to  listen  to  the  advice  of  the 
community,  and  to  govern  according  to  its 
will.  The  Latin  poem  on  the  battle  of 
Lewes  ^Wright,  FolUical  Songa^  72,  &c.) 
sets  fortn  in  striking  language  the  political 
views  of  the  friars.  Moreover,  these  opinions 
were  not  confined  to  the  closet.  They  were 
spread  by  the  preaching  of  the  friars  amongst 
all  classes,  especially  in  the  towns.  The 
friars  wandered  from  place  to  place,  gathered 
a  crowd  around  them  in  the  open  air,  and  in 
homely  language,  with  rude  illustrations, 
poured  forth  a  discourse  in  which  the  con- 
dition of  current  affairs  was  used  as  a  motive 
for  amendment  of  life  and  as  a  call  to  repent- 
ance. The  friars  greatly  influenced  popular 
opinion,  and  secured  popular  support  to  the 
cause  of  the  barons  against  the  king.  The 
summons  of  representatives  of  towns  to  Parlia- 
ment by  Simon  de  Montfort,  in  1254,  was  a 
recognition  of  the  quickened  political  life 
which  was  largely  due  to  the  activity  of  the 
friars. 

As  the  importance  of  the  friars  increased, 
their  zeal  diminished.  Their  rule  of  strict 
poverty  was  gradually  modified,  till  there 
'arose  a  schism  in  the  Franciscan  order 
between  the  more  rigid  paity  of  the  Spiritual 
Franciscans  and  the  laxer  party,  which  was 
supported  by  Pope  John  XXII.  (1317).  In 
the  course  of  the  conflict  William  of  Ockham 
attacked  the  Pope,  and  proceeded  with  keen 
logic  to  examine  the  limitations  of  the  papal 
headship  over  the  Church.  The  democratic 
spirit  of  the  Franciscans  was  turned  even 
against  the  Papacy,  which  it  had  at  first 
laboured  to  exalt.  Moreover,  the  friars  raised 
against  themselves  the  hostility  of  the  other 
monastic  orders,  who  struggled  to  check  their 
growing  importance,  and  were  aided  by  the 
secular  clergy.  This  conflict  raged  chiefly 
in  the  universities,  where  the  friars  possessed 
themselves  of  the  professorial  chairs.  When 
this  battle  had  been  won  by  the  friars,  the 
struggle  continued  between  the  Dominicans 
and  Francisccms,  till  gradually  the  Domi- 
nicans took  a  sphere  of  their  own  apart  from 
the  Franciscans.  They  were  lef  fc  in  possession 
of  the  Inquisition,  and  gradually  lost  the 
character  of  a  mendicant  order.  The  Fran- 
ciscans were  then  left  to  work  amongst  the 
masses,  and  stax)ve  to  increase  their  in- 
fluence by  pious  frauds,  and  by  superstitious 
inducements,  that  they  might  lead  their 
penitents  to  bequeath  money  for  charitable 
purposeb. 

llie  opposition  to  the  mendicants  in  Eng- 
land was  begun  by  Richard  Fitz-Ralph, 
Bishop  of  Armagh  (1350),  who  attacked  their 


principle  that  mendicancy  was  practised  by 
Christ  and  the  Apostles,  and  also  pointed 
out  the  mischief  that  they  did  (DefenMriutn 
CurtUm-um,  in  Brown,  Fateietdfu  Iterum,  ii» 
466,  &c.).  They  over-rode  the  parish  priest^ 
invaded  his  parish,  heard  confessions,  and 
granted  absolution  on  easy  terms.  Ecclesias- 
tical discipline  was  subverted  that  the  men- 
dicants might  be  enriched.  Children  were 
enticed  from  their  homes  and  induced  to  join 
the  order.  So  great  was  the  influence  of  the 
mendicants  at  Oxford,  that  parents  were 
afraid  to  send  their  sons  there  lest  they 
should  be  entrapped  by  them.  From  this 
time  we  find  many  complaints  against  the 
mendicants.  They  worked  for  their  own 
interests,  and  were  despised  by  the  more 
reflecting  people.  The  Prologue  of  the 
Vision  of  Fiert  tk9  Fhwman  (about  1377) 
says : — 

**  I  fonde  there  Freris,  alle  the  foare  ordres, 
Preched  the  peple,  for  profit  of  hem-seWen, 

'   Gloeed  the  gospel,  as  hem  good  lyked, 
Forooveitiee  of  copia,  oonatrued  it  as  thei  wolde." 

The  picture  of  the  Friar  in  the  Prologue 
to  Chaucer's  Canterbury  TaUsy  shows  with 
humour  the  ordinary  character  of  the  friar. 
The  friars  were  attacked  by  Wyclif  in  1381, 
when  he  entered  upon  his  breach  with  the 
doctrinal  system  of  the  Church.  At  first  he 
had  more  s>nnpathy  with  them  than  with  the 
^' possessionati,"  the  monks  who  held  property. 
He  attacked  them  chiefly  because  tiiey  were 
the  staunchost  adherents  of  the  Papacy. 
The  friars  in  return  were  the  bitterest  oppo- 
nents of  the  Lollards.  During  the  fifteenth 
century,  the  friars  ceased  to  have  any  special 
influence  or  importance. 

Brewer,  tf  onum«nta  Fraiunsoana ;  Groooetcste, 
E^oUb  (ed.  Luard)  ;  Green,  Hutory  o/  ih» 
EnaXitik  People;  Milman,  Latin  CHrMtianity.  A 
full  acoonnt  of  the  friars  is  giren  by  Wadding, 
Annalee  Fratrum  Minorum;  and  Maimachins, 
Amudee  Ordinie  Prcedicatoruvn.  [M.  C] 

Fxieiidf  Sir  John  {d,  1696^,  was  a  Jacobite 
conspirator  in  the  reign  of  William  III.  He 
was  given  a  coloneFs  commission  by  James, 
and  enlisted  men  against  the  day  when  the 
French  should  appear  in  Kent  (1696),  but 
refused  to  take  any  share  in  the  in^mous 
Assassination  Plot  (q.v.),  although  he  kept 
the  secret.  On  the  discovery  of  the  con- 
spiracy, he  was  tried,  harshly  denied  thr 
assistance  of  counsel,  and,  refusing  to  betray 
his  confederates  to  a  committee  of  the  House 
of  Commons,  was  executed  on  April  3. 

Friends  of  Ireland,  The,  were  a  society 
founded  by  O'Connell  in  1830,  to  promote  the 
repeal  of  the  Union.  It  was  declared  illegal 
by  the  Irish  government;  but,  though  dis- 
solved, at  once  took  a  new  shape  as  the 
Society  of  Irish  Volunteers.  This  too  was, 
however,  dissolved,  in  accordance  with  the 
Coercion  Act  of  1833. 

Frilinn.  The  name  of  the  middle  dirision 
of  the  oloT  German  tribes,  corresponding  in 


(48a) 


Fue 


England  with  the  ceorls  (q.v.),  t.^.,  the  folly 
free  but  non-noble. 

Stabbs,  Omtl.  Bid. 


\y  The,  were  a  Low  German  tribe 
who  made  settlements  on  the  Firth  of  Forth, 
and  probably  in  other  parts  of  northern 
Britain.  Nenniua  calls  tne  Firth  of  Forth 
the  Frisian  Sea. 

Skene,  Cdtie  SecOamd,  toI.  i. 

Frith*  in  Anglo-Saxon  law,  answers  to  the 
later  phrase,  '*  the  king's  peace."  It  was  en- 
forced by  national  officers,  and  any  breach  of 
it  was  considered  a  contempt  of  the  king,  and 
punished  by  a  fine.  The  frith  was  a  personal, 
not  a  territorial,  peace. 

Stnbba,  Con$t.  HUt. ;  Kemble,  Sazoiw  in  Eng- 
land, 

Frith-gild  was  the  name  given  to  certain 
gilds  or  cluDs  established  during  or  before  the 
reign  of  King  Athelstan,  for  the  maintenance 
of  peace,  the  repression  of  theft,  the  tracing 
of  stolen  cattle,  and  the  indemnification  of 
the  parties  robbed,  by  means  of  a  common 
fund  raised  by  subscription  of  the  members. 
These  gilds  took  the  place  of  the  old  organisa- 
tion of  the  &mily,  as  is  shown  by  the  wer- 
gild being  in  certain  cases  paid  to  the  gild- 
brethren  instead  of,  as  in  earlier  times,  to  the 
family  of  the  murdered  man.  The  statutes  of 
these  gilds '  are  contained  in  the  Judieia 
Ciritatis  ZomUmia  set  forth  in  the  reign  of 
Athelstan,  imder  royal  authority,  by  the 
bishop  and  reeves  of  the  city.  [Gilds; 
Towns.] 

Thorpe,  Ano%0fii  Lmet;  Stabbe,  dmti,  Hi$t, 
nxid  Sdtd  CkarUrK 

FrobuheTy  Si&  Habtin  {d.  1694),  one 
of  the  great  navigators  of  the  Elizabethan 
period,  set  sail  in  1576  with  the  object  of  dis- 
covering the  North- West  Passage,  whilst  in 
1578  he  endeavoured,  though  inefi:ectually,  to 
found  a  settlement  north  of  Hudson's  Bsty. 
Seven  years  later  he  accompanied  Sir  Francis 
Drake  on  his  voj'age  to  the  West  Indies,  and 
in  1588  did  good  service  against  the  Spanish 
Armada.  He  was  killed  in  action  whilst  trying 
to  capture  the  fort  of  Crozon,  near  Brest,  on 
behalf  of  Henry  IV.  of  France,  from  the  com- 
bined Spanish  and  League  armies. 

Haklnvt,  Voyagm.  FrobiBher'g  own  scconnt 
of  his  TfcrM  Voyagen  to  /Ind  the  Nno  Pasi^tge  has 
been  edited  by  the  HakloTt  Sooiety. 


t,  Jean  {b.  1337,  <^.  1410),wasbom 
at  Valenciennes,  and  was  most  likely  the  son 
of  a  merchant.  From  his  childhood  he  was 
destined  for  the  church,  but  soon  distin^shed 
himself  by  poetry  which  secured  him  the 
patronage  of  John  of  Hainault,  father-in-law 
of  Edwud  in.  In  1301  he  went  to  England, 
and  was  recommended  to  the  favour  of  Queen 
Philippa.  The  queen  appointed  him  clerk 
of  her  chapel,  and  he  remamed  at  the  English 
court  and  in  the  service  of  English  pnnces 


several  years.    The  queen  died  in  1369,  and 
Froissart  returned  to  Flanders,  where  he  found 
new  nrotectors  in  Wenceelas,  Duke  of  Brabant, 
and  Kobert  of  Kamur.    The  Duke  of  Brabant 
appointed  him  cur^  of  Lestines,  near  Mens. 
Under  the  inspiration  of  Bobert  of  Kamur  he 
composed   the  first  book  of  his   Chronicles. 
After  the  death  of  Wenceslas,  Froissart  be- 
came the  chaplain  of  Guy  de  Chitillon,  Ck>unt 
of  Blois,  who  also  appointed  him  canon  of 
Chimay.    Guy  de  Chitillon  was  the  grandson 
of  John  of  Hainault,  his  &ther  had  fallen  at 
Crecy,  and  he  himself  oommanded  the  rear- 
guard of  the  French  army  at  the  battle  of 
Kosebecke.    Thus  Froissart  passed  from  the 
service  of  English  princes  and  English  par- 
tisans to  that  of  an  adherent  of  France.  He  ac- 
companied his  master  in  many  journeys  and  ex- 
peditions, during  which  he  collected  material 
for  his  ChronieUt.    He  made  his  last  visit  to 
England  in  1395.    The  last  part  of  his  life  is 
very  obscure,  and  though  his  death  is  generally 
dated  1410,  there  is  some  reason  for  believing 
that  he  lived  till  1419.  The  Chronicles  of  Frois- 
sart embrace  the  years  1326  to  1400.    They 
are  divided  into  four  books,  of  which  the  first 
and  most  important  stops  at  1378 ;  the  second 
finishes  at  1385 ;  the  third  at  1388,  and  the 
fourth  extends  from  1389  to   1400.    Of  the 
first  book  there  are  three  distinct  versions,  the 
first  written  between  1 360  and  1 380,  the  second 
between  1380  and  1383,  and  the  third  at  some 
period  after  the    year    1400.     The    earliest 
version,   written  when  Froissart  was  under 
ibiiglish  influence,  is  naturally  coloured  by 
partiality  for  the  English  cause.    In  the  last 
version,  written  after  the  death  of  Richard  II., 
his  tone  towards  England  is  severe  and  hostile. 
Moreover,  Froissart  bases   his  narrative  in 
the  early  version  on  the  earlier  Chronicle  of 
Jean  le  Bel.    But  in  the  later  versions  he  relies 
on  original  sources  of  information,  and  ex- 
pands his  record  of  events.    The  Chronicle  of 
Jean  le  Bel  ends  in  1361,  so  that  after  this  date, 
which  is  also  tiie  time  when  Froissart's  per- 
sonal knowledge  of  events  and  men  begins,  he 
is  entirely  an  original   chronicler.    As   an 
historian  ne  must  be  accepted  with  caution ; 
for  his  narrative  is    coloured  by  prejudice, 
and  his  statements  are  often  inaccurate. 

Froiflsart,  Cfcront^uM,  ed.  Kervyn  de  Letten- 
hove,  20  vow. ;  the  valuable  ed.  Simeon  Lnoe, 
5  vols.,  published  1869,  contains  only  tbe  period 
before  1960.  Aubertin,  fltstotre  d«  la  ^Mng^ 
et  LiUirat'wn  Fran^atM  au  Moyen-Agt.  The 
Chronicle*  baye  been  translated  into  iTnglish  by 
Lord  Bemera,  1525,  end  by  Kr.  Jobnes  in  1805. 

[C.  H.  F.] 

FrontintUii  Sextus  Julius,  was  sent  by 
Vespasian  into  Britain  in  a.d.  75,  where  he 
conauered  the  SUures ;  he  was  succeeded  by 
Agncola.  He  was  a  writer  on  military  and 
agricultural  subjects. 

Fuentes  D'OnorOf  The  Battle  of  (May 
6,  1 8 1 1 ) ,  wasf  ought  during  the  Peninsular  War 
between  the  English,  under  Wellington,  and 


Ful 


(4W) 


Qa« 


the  French,  under  Moaeena.  Maflsena  ad- 
Tanced,  with  46,000  men,  to  rdieve  AhAeida, 
which  Wellington  was  blockading.  Though 
in  command  of  hardly  moro  than  30,000  men, 
the  latter  resolved  to  fight  rather  than  give 
up  the  blockade.  Operations  extended  over 
two  days.  On  the  first,  the  approach  of  night 
prevented  anything  decisive ;  but  next  day, 
Masseoa,  newly  reinforced,  made  his  great 
attack.  After  a  hard-fought  day,  the  French 
slowly  withdrew  at  evening  out  of  gunshot ; 
but  there  was  no  retreat.  The  capture  of  Al- 
meida was  secured  by  this  check  on  Massena. 
Napier,  Penvuviar  War, 

Fulford,  Thb  Battlb  op  (1066),  between 
the  Earls  Edwin  and  Horcar  and  Harold  Har- 
drada  andTostig,  resulted  in  the  defeat  of  the 
English,  and  the  acceptance  by  the  men  of 
York  of  Harold  Hardrada  as  their  king. 
Fulford  is  on  the  Ouse,  about  a  mile  south  of 
York. 

Fuller,  Thomas  {b.  1608,  d,  1661),  was 
educated  at  Cambridge.  He  was  appointed  a 
prebendary  of  Salisbury,  and  in  1641  lec- 
turer at  the  Savoy.  In  the  Civil  War  he  was 
chaplain  to  Sir  Balph  Hopton,  and  assisted 
largely  in  the  defence  of  Basing  House 
against  the  Parliamentarians,  and  was  after- 
wards in  Exeter  during  the  siege  of  that  city. 
At  the  Restoration  he  was  appomted  chaplain 
to  the  king.  Fuller  was  tiie  author  of  The 
Church  HiBtory  of  Britain^  1656,  a  HUtory  of 
the  Worthies  ofEnglandy  1662,  and  other  works. 
His  historical  writings,  though  of  no  great 
authority,  have  always  been  popular  from  the 
humour  and  quaint  beauty  of  their  style. 

Fuller,  William,  was  an  informer,  who 
attempted,  in  1691 ,  to  revive  the  trade  of  Titus 
Oates  by  concocting  a  Jacobite  conspiracy ; 
but  no  one  listened  to  him,  and  he  was  put 
in  the  pillory.  He  tried  the  same  method  in 
1701,  with  even  worse  success.  When  the 
Tories  came  into  power,  he  was  sentenced  to 
be  flogged,  pilloried,  and  fined;  and  being 
imprisoned  in  de&ult  of  paying  the  latter, 
never  obtained  his  release. 

Furruckabad,  The  Battlb  of  (Nov.  14, 
1804),  resulted  in  a  rictory  for  the  English, 
under  Lord  Lake,  over  Holkar  with  a  great 
army  of  60,000  men.  The  English  casualties 
amounted  to  two  killed  and  twenty  wounded. 

ISnrd  was  the  national  miUtia  of  the  Early 
Engnsh.  On  every  free  man,  by  virtue  of 
his  allegiance,  military  service  was  imperative. 
Fyrd-bot  was  one  of  the  three  inseparable 
burdens  on  the  possession  of  ethel  or  boc'land. 
In  Tacitus'  time,  the  host  of  the  Germans  was 
simply  the  gathering  of  the  whole  nation  in 
aims.  It  continued  the  same  to  a  late  period. 
But  as  the  State  grew  in  extent,  the  difficulty 
of  collecting  the  whole/yrrf  together  became 
very  great ,  and,  practically,  this  was  hardly 
ever  done.  The  array  of  the  f3rrd  of  each 
shire  was  left  to  the  ealdorman,  and  the  f yrd 


of  the  ahire  was  the  shire-moot  in  arms. 
It  was  more  often  the  fyrd  of  one  or  two 
shires,  which  had  local  cohesion,  that  gained 
glory  by  stout  fighting,  than  the  larger  aggre- 
^tions  of  the  populiu'  army;  for  example, 
JBrihtnoth's  famous  fight  with  the  Danes  ;it 
Maldon.  But  the  cumbrous  nature  of  the 
f>Td  s}'stem  led  to  its  gradual  supersession, 
even  before  the  Conquest.  The  feudal  thegn- 
hood,  with  their  retainers,  the  mercenary 
husearlt  of  Canute — illustrate  the  earliest  de- 
velopments of  those  baronial  and  stipendiar}* 
forces  which  ultimately  were  to  make  the 
national  force  obsolete.  Tet  WUliam  I. 
called  out  the  f}Td  more  than  once,  and 
Ruf us  branded  as  nithingt  those  who  refused 
to  oome,  and  cheated  the  f\Td  out  of  their 
moneys  for  maintenance.  At  Northallerton, 
the  fyrd  of  the  northern  oounties  repelled  the 
Scottish  invasion;  and  it  was  the  national 
militia  that  saved  Henr}'  II.  from  the  feudal 
coalition  of  1173.  Henry's  Assize  of  Arms 
entirely  recognised  the  principle.  Under 
Henry  III.  and  Edward  I.,  the  fyrd  was 
rerived,  and  made  useful  by  the  Statutes  of 
Winchester,  and  the  system  of  Watch  and 
Ward.  The  growth  of  the  art  of  war  made 
such  expedients  obsolete  in  their  turn;  but 
the  militia  of  modem  times,  with  its  quasi- 
compulsory  service,  and  until  recently  the  potae 
eomitatu8y  which,  in  theory,  could  be  con- 
voked by  the  sheriff^  continue  the  principle 
at  the  root  of  the  f^Td  down  to  our  own  day. 

Stnbbc,    OofMf.    Kitit.;    Kemble,    Seunn*   i» 
JBnffland;  Hallam,  OoniiC.  Hut       [T.  F.  T.] 

Fyrdwita  was  the  penalty  for  n^lecting 
to  servo  in  the  fyrd  (q.v.). 


Oa,  the  old  English  form  of 'the  High 
Dutch  gauy  occurs,  though  rarely,  in  early 
constitutional  history.  Like  gau,  it  must 
correspond  to  the  pagu$.  Some  have  con- 
trasted the  natural  ga  with  the  artificial 
shire  or  division.  The  southern  counties  of 
England  are  of  the  ga  type— -of  very  ancient 
origin,  and  built  on  national  or  tribal  dis- 
tinctions. The  Mercian  shires  appear  mere 
administrative  "  departments"  of  later  date. 

Gaderi.  Thb,  were  an  ancient  British 
tribe  inhabiting  the  western  part  of  Northum- 
berland, jbhe  part  of  Cumberland  north  of 
the  Irthing,  the  western  part  of  Roxburgh- 
shire, the  county  of  Selkiric  with  Twecddale, 
a  great  part  of  Mid-Lothian,  and  nearly  all 
West-Lothian. 

Gael,  the  English  form  of  Gaidhel,  w 
used  in  two  senses.  (I)  As  the  name  of  the 
great  branch  of  the  Celtic  stock,  including 
Highlanders,  Irish,  Manx,  and,  probably,  the 
old  race  that  wrote  the  Oghams.    (2)  More 


Chif 


(486) 


Q9lL 


specially  it  is  confined  tu  the  Scotch  High- 
Uuiden.  Mr.  Rh^s  suggests  that  the  term 
Oael  shall  be  used  only  in  the  restricted 
sense,  while  the  archaic  form  Goidel,  by 
which  every  tribe  of  this  stock  has  known 
itself  as  far  back  as  we  can  trace,  be  used  for 
the  wider  term.  [Oslts;  Picts;  Scots; 
BarroNS.] 

Bt^s,  CaUe  BrOain. 

Ckifol-laad  (Graf ol— tribute)  was  folk- 
land,  let  ont  to  rent. 

Gaff6f  Sir  John,  was  appointed  one  of  the 
Councu  to  assist  the  executors  of  Henn'  VI II., 
1647,  during  the  minority  of  Edward  vl.,  and 
became  in  the  next  reign  a  valued  supporter 
of  Queen  Mar}',  for  whom  he  did  good  ser- 
vice during  Wyatt's  rebellion.  During  the 
imprisonment  of  the  Princess  Elizabeth  in 
the  Tower,  1664,  Gage  acted  as  her  gaoler. 

Oage,  Gknxral  Thomas  {b,  1721,  d.  1788), 
was  ^e  second  son  of  Viscount  Gage.  In 
1744  he  was  appointed  Governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts in  the  room  of  Hutchinson.  ^  He  did 
his  best  in  this  difficult  position  to  prevent  an 
actual  outbreak  of  hostilities,  and  instituted  a 
conciliatory  policy.  His  hand  was  forced, 
despite  his  efforts  to  maintain  peace.  The 
delegates  at  Philadelphia  set  his  authority  at 
defiance,  and,  when  Ghige  recalled  the  writs 
for  the  assembling  of  the  representatives,  met 
in  spite  of  him,  and  enrolled  the  *' minute 
men."  Still  Gage  refused  to  resort  to  coer- 
cion, though  he  fortified  Boston  Neck 
and  thus  commanded  the  town.  In  April, 
1776,  he  sent  a  body  of  troops  to  destroy  some 
stores  collected  at  Concord.  The  colonists 
opposed  the  troops,  and  the  first  blood  was 
shed  at  Lexington.  The  people  at  once  fiocked 
to  arms  in  numbers,  which  temfied  Gage  into 
inactivity ;  bnt  in  May  reinforcements  arrived 
under  Howe,  Buxvoyne,  and  Clinton,  and 
Gage  at  once  issued  a  proclamation  offering  a 
general  pardon,  and  declaring  martial  law  to 
prevail.  This,  however,  failed  to  attain  its 
object;  and  on  the  7th  June  Gage  took 
decisive  action  in  the  battle  of  Bunker 
Hill.  The  victory  was  not  followed  up,  and 
on  Washington's  arrival  the  British  were 
blockaded  in  Boston.  In  October  Gage  re- 
signed his  command  to  Sir  William  Howe, 
and  returned  to  England.  He  was  ver}*'  much 
blamed  by  the  government  for  not  taking 
active  measures  earlier. 

Bancroft,  Hitt.  of  AmtHea ;  Stanhope,  Hitt* 
of  England  ;  Cunningham,  Eminmi  EiiqXUihmxn, 

Gatfging  Acts*  A  name  popularly  as- 
ngneoto  tho  measures  of  reactionary  periods 
interfering  with  freedom  of  speech,  or  writing, 
or  public  meetings.  Such  were  the  Acts  of  1 795 
against  seditious  meetings,  and  one  of  the  Six 
Acts  of  1819  against  public  assemblies  and 
^eap  political  pamphlets.  The  name  has  also 
Men  applied  to  a  long  string  of  Irish  measures 
of  coercion. 


Oailn  (d,  1829),  a  Kaffir  chief,  was  re- 
garded by  the  British  government  as  the 
ruler  of  Ksffirland;  and  it  was  through  inter- 
ference on  his  behalf  by  »the  Gk)vemor  of  Cape 
Colony,  that  the  Kaffir  War  of  1818  was 
brought  on.  In  1822,  a  treacherous  attempt 
made  by  the  colonists  to  seise  this  chief 
almost  led  to  another  war. 

Gaimar,  Geoffrey  {Jl,  eirca  1160),  wrote 
in  French  a  poetical  Chronicle  of  Enf/land 
from  the  arrival  of  Cerdic  to  the  death  of 
Rufns.  There  is  an  edition  of  Gaimar  pub- 
lished by  the  Caxton  Society,  and  the  early 
portion  will  be  found  in  the  MonumetUa  Hif" 
torica  Britanniea. 

GaillMI,  The,  were  an  Anglian  tribe 
occupying  the  northern  part  of  Lincolnshire. 
From  them  the  name  of  Gainsborough  is 
derived. 

Qal|paC1Ui|  a  Caledonian  chief,  offered  a 
desperate  resistance  to  Agricola  on  his  famous 
expedition  into  the  north  of  modem  Scot- 
land (81). 

Tftoitus,  AgriGola, 

QalloWMT,  the  same  word  as  Galway, 
».«.,  land  of  tne  Gtael,  is  (1)  in  its  widest  sense 
equivalent  to  the  south-western  district  of 
Scotland,  but  (2)  is  more  generally  used  in  a 
narrower  sense  to  include  the  small  Goidelio 
settlement,  isolated  among  the  Brvthons  of 
Strathclyde,  or  Cumbria,  that  included  the 
modem  shires  of  Wigton  and  Kirkcudbright 
and  part  of  Dumfries.  A  range  of  hills  and 
moors  cut  Galloway  off  on  the  north  and 
partly  on  the  east,  while  the  sea  formed  its 
DoundaTT  on  the  south  and  west.  Some  have 
regarded  the  presence  of  this  intrusive 
Goidelic  colony  as  the  result  of  an  invasion 
from  Ireland,  similar  to  that  which  conquered 
Dalriada  (Argyleshire),  but  the  general  theory 
is  that  it  was  a  survival  of  the  earlier  brandii 
of  the  Celts,  forced  westward  by  the  in- 
vading Brvthons.  In  Roman  times  the  No- 
vantsd  held  this  region.  They  are,  probably^ 
the  same  as  the  later  "  Picts  of  GraUoway,'' 
though  what  was  their  precise  cTnnection 
with  the  Picrts  proper  it  is  hard  to  define. 
With  all  Cumbria,  Galloway  became,  in  the 
seventh  century,  dependent  on  the  Angles  of 
Northumbria ;  but  long  after  Strathclyde  had 
regained  its  freedom,  it  remained,  at  least 
nominally,  subject  to  the  decaying  state.  In 
Bede*s  time,  Ninian's  old  biahopric  of  Whit- 
hem  (Candida  Casa),  was  still  an  Englidi 
see,  till  a  long  bl^eak  in  the  line  of  bishops, 
after  796,  marks  the  revival  of  the  native 
race.  Thus  Gkdloway  preserved  its  separate 
identity  against  English,  Cambrian,  and 
Scot,  and  in  the  tw^fth  century  was  still 
**  terra  Piotorum,"  and  its  inhabitants  formed 
a  separate  division  in  the  Scottish  army  at 
the  Battle  of  the  Standard,  distinct  even 
from  the  **  Cumbrenses.'*  Their  restless 
vigour  was  equally  shown  in  their  constant 
reaistanoe    to    the    encroachmenta   of    th« 


Q9lL 


(486) 


Chim 


Norman  barons,  which  English  and  Scottish 
kings  equally  favoured.  On  the  whole  Gallo- 
way leant  on  England  to  avoid  the  nearer 
danger  from  Sc^Uand.  The  revived  see  of 
Whithem  depended  on  York  till  the  four- 
teenth century,  aud  Fergus,  l^nce  of  Gallo- 
way, sought  in  vain  by  a  marriage  connection 
with  Henry  I.,  to  avoid  his  country's  sub- 
jection to  Malcolm  Canmore.  In  1174  the 
captivity  of  William  the  Lion  led  to  the 
revolt  of  Uchtred  MacFergus.  Again,in  1 1 85, 
the  rising  of  another  son  of  Fergus,  Gilbert, 
was  suppressed,  and  Henry  IV.,  tired  of  the 
double  dealing  of  the  GaJlwegians,  handed 
them  over  to  Scotland.  Yet  Alan  of  Gallo- 
way acts  as  an  English  baron;  his  name 
appears  in  Magna  Charta,  and  his  daughters 
married  Norman  nobles.  This  last  step  com- 
pleted the  subjection  of  the  state.  On  Alan's 
death  his  sons-in-law  divided  the  land,  and 
with  the  help  of  Alexander*!!,  put  down  the 
last  native  rising.  The  acquisition  of  the 
throne  by  Baliol,  grandson  of  Alan,  through 
his  mother  Devorguilla,  perhaps,  facilitated 
its  absorption.  Yet,  even  in  Buchanan's  time, 
a  part  of  Gfdloway  used  its  Celtic  speech, 
though  it  must  very  soon  after  have  become 
extinct. 

Skene,  Celtic  ScoUandf  voL  I. ;  Stnbbs,  Conct. 
MM,,  ch.  i.,  \  153.  [T.  F.  T.] 

Gallowglass.  A  name  given  to  Irish 
mercenary  soldiers.  They  served  on  foot,  had 
defensive  armour,  and  carried  huge  axes. 

Galway,   Henri   de  Massub,   Earl  of 
{b.  1648,  d.  1721),  originally  bore  the  tiUe  of 
the  Marquis  de  Huvigny.  A  French  Protestant 
general,  he  was  sent  over  by  Louis  XIV.  to 
intrigue  with  the  Opposition  leaders,  Buck- 
ingham, Russell,  and  Holies  (1678).     On  the 
revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  he  followed 
his  father  into  England.    Soon  after  the  ac- 
cession of  William  III.,  he  was  placed  in 
command  of  a  regiment  of  Huguenot  cavalry, 
raised  by  the  enei^  of  his  father,  who  died 
in  1690.    He  served  in  Ireland,  and,  after  the 
departure  of  William,  became  major-general. 
During  the  siege  of  Limerick,  he  was  chosen 
to  hold  a  conference  with  Sarsfield.    For  his 
services  he  was  created  Baron  Portarlington, 
and  a  property  g^ven  him  from  the  forfeited 
Irish  lands.    In  1693  he  took  part  in  the 
abortive  expedition  from  St.  Helen's,  com- 
manded by  Moinhart  Schomberg.    He  was 
taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Landen  (1693), 
but  his  captors  allowed  him  to  escape.    He 
was  sent  to  Piedmont  as  English  envoy,  but 
could  not  prevent  the  Duke  of  Savoy  from 
desertinur  the  coalition  (1696).  He  was  created 
Earl  of  Galway  in  1697.     After  the  outbreak 
of  the  Succession  War,  he  was  sent  to  Por- 
tugal as  second  in  command,  on  the  recall  of 
Schomberg  (1704).    He  met  with  many  re- 
verses, and  on  his  return,  the  Tories,  urged 
on  by  the  angry  Peterborough,  instituted  a 
severe  examination  into  the  conduct  of  the 


war.  His  reply  was  complete,  and  his  conduct 
was  defend^  by  the  Duke  of  Marlborough. 
But  the  Commons  passed  a  resolution  that  he 
had  acted  contrary  to  the  honour  of  the  Im- 
perial crown  by  allowing  the  Portuguese 
regiments  to  take  precedence  of  the  English. 
Hie  rest  of  his  life  was  spent  in  retirement 
"It  would  seem,"  says  Mr.  Wyon,  "that 
Galway,  although  destitute  of  any  great 
natural  abilities  for  war,  was  as  consummate 
a  general  as  study  and  experience,  loined  with 
a  cx)nscientiou8  sense  of  responsibility  for  the 
safety  of  his  men,  can  make."  Yet  he  was 
always  on  the  losing  side. 

Maoaulaj,  Bitt.  of  Evg. ;  Ifahon,  War  of 
Succe$9ion  in  Spain;  Wyon,  Beign  nf  Q««0h 
Anne, 

Oalway   Election,  The,   1872,    was 

carried  by  the  influence  of  the  priests,  and 
more  especially  the  Archbishop  of  Tuam,  and 
Captain  Nolan  was  elected.  On  a  petition 
being  lodged  against  him,  and  the  seat  being 
claimed  for  Captain  IVench,  Mr.  Justice 
Keogh  went  down  to  try  the  case,  and 
declared  Captain  Nolan  to  have  forfeited  the 
scat  by  reason  of  intimidation  of  the  voters  by 
the  priests,  on  whose  conduct  the  judge 
reflected  in  very  strong  language.  Mr.  Butt 
brought  the  matter  before  the  House  of 
Commons,  but  Keogh  was  absolved  by  an 
overwhelming  majority. 

Gam,  Sir  David  (d,  1415),  a  Welsh  chief- 
tain, was  one  of  the  opponents  of  Owen 
Olyndwr,  whom  in  1402  he  attempted  to 
assassinate,  but  the  plot  being  discovered  he 
was  imprisoned,  and  not  released  till  HI 2. 
In  1415  he  nused  a  body  of  troops-  to  assist 
Henry  V.  in  his  French  expedition,  and 
fought  most  valiantly  in  the  battle  of  Agin- 
couit,  whore  he  was  mortally  wounded,  and 
received  the  honour  of  knighthood  as  he  was 
expiring  on  the  field. 

Gambifty  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  was 
visited  very  early  by  the  Portuguese  for  the 
purpose  of  obtaining  slaves,  and  formed  a 
settlement  until  1688.    In  1620  an  English 
factory  was  established  there.      For  many 
years   there    was    an    intermittent   contest 
l>etwoen  England  and  France  for  possession 
of   the    Gambia,   which    was   confirmed    to 
England  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  1815.    Since 
that  date  much  of  the  surrounding  territon* 
has  been  acquired  by  purchase  by  the  Briti^ 
government,  and  settlements  have  been  formed 
with  the  object  of  stamping  out  the  slave- 
trade,  and  of  establishing  commercial  rela- 
tions of  a  legitimate  nature.    In  1842  the 
government  of  Gambia  was  separated  from 
that  of  Sierra  Leone,  and  vested  m  a  governor, 
aided  by  executive  and  legislative  councils;  in 
1866  it  was,  however,  again  made  subordinate 
to  the  Gk>vernor  of  the  West  African  Settle- 
ments.   In  1888  it  once  more  became  a  separ- 
ate colony.    The  olirnate  is  very  unhealthy. 
B.  W.  Martin,  Britith  Colontet. 


G»m 


(  487) 


Qav 


Ckunib&er,  Jambs,  Barox  {b,  I166,d.  1833), 
"was  a  difltiiigiuBhed  admiral.  In  1 807  he  com- 
manded the  fleet  sent  against  Copenhagen, 
and  was  in  reward  created  a  baroa.  From 
1808  to  1811  he  commanded  the  Channel 
Fleet,  during  which  a  comt-martial  acquitted 
him  of  any  culpable  share  in  the  disaster  of 
Aix  roads. 

Game  Laws.  The  earliest  game  laws 
were  passed  in  the  same  period  as  the  laws 
concerning  vagrancy,  anci  were  due  to  the 
same  causes.  The  &«t  of  these,  that  of  1389, 
after  reciting  that  artificers  and  labourers 
keep  dogs  and  go  hunting  on  holy  days  in  the 
parks  and  warrens  of  lords  and  omers,  enacted' 
that  no  person  not  possessing  land  worth  408. 
a  year  should  keep  a  dog  for  hunting  or  use 
ferrets  or  nets  to  take  game,  under  pain  of 
a  year's  imprisonment.  In  1494  any  person 
taidng  pheasants  or  partridges  without  leave 
upon  another's  land  was  made  liable  to  a 
penalty  of  £10,  equivalent  to  £150  of  present 
money.  But  this  statute  can  never  have  been 
enforced,  for  an  Act  of  1681  imposed  a  fine  of 
20s.  for  every  pheasant  and  lOs.  for  every 
partridge  taken  in  the  night.  In  1604  all 
shooting  at  game  with  g^in  or  cross-bow  was 
absolutely  forbidden  (apparently  as  unsports- 
manlike) under  a  penalty  of  20s.  for  each  bird 
or  hare,  or  imprisonment  for  three  months  in 
default;  but  persons  qualified  by  birth  or 
estate  were  allowed  to  course,  and  also  to  net 
pheasants  and  partridges.  Five  years  later 
the  property  qualification  was  raised  ;  hawking 
was  forbidden  during  July  and  August,  ana 
pheasants  and  partridges  were  to  be  taken 
only  between  Michaelmas  and  Christmas — 
"  take  "  being  probably  soon  construed  to  in- 
clude shooting.  In  1670  owners  wore  allowed 
to  appoint  gamekeepers;  no  persons  save 
freeholders  of  £100  a  year,  09  years  lease- 
holders of  £loO,  or  heirs-apparent  of  a  squire 
and  others  of  higher  degree,  were  to  possess 
guns,  bows,  or  sporting  dogs,  and  game- 
keepers were  given  the  right  of  search.  All 
these  Acts  were  repealed  in  1832,  and  the  only 
earlier  statute  still  in  force  is  that  of  1828. 
This  Act  for  the  first  time  made  poaching  by 
ni^ht  a  crime,  instead  of  an  offence  followed 
merely  by  fine.  Taking,  or  trespassing  by 
night  with  intent  to  take,  game  or  rabbits 
was  to  be  punished  with  imprisonment  and 
hard  labour  not  exceeding  three  months  for  the 
first  offence ;  not  exceeding  six  months  for  the 
«econd ;  and  transportation  for  seven  years  or 
hard  labour  not  exceeding  two  years  for  the 
"third.  Resistance  with  any  weapon  could  be 
-punished  with  transportation  up  to  seven 
yean ;  and  if  a  party  of  three  or  more,  of 
whom  one  is  armed,  are  found  trespassing  by 
night  for  the  purpose  of  taking  game,  each  of 
them  may  be  stotenced  to  transportation  not 
exceeding  fourteen  years.  The  Act  of  1832 
abolished  all  qualifications  for  sporting,  aud 
also  the  earlier  prohibition  of  the  nle  of 


i^.ime,  und  imposed  new  penHltics  for  poach- 
ing by  dat/,  viz.,  a  hne  of  £2  for  trespassing 
in  pursuit  of  game,  and  of  £5  for  resistance 
or  refusal  to  g^vo  names.  Thus,  then,  before 
1832  the  light  to  kill  game  was  the  privilege 
of  a  class,  and  after  1832  became  an  incident 
of  ownership  or  jiossession  as  might  be 
arranged  between  landlord  and  tenant.  By 
the  Ground  Qame  Act  of  1880  the  occupier 
was  given  the  right  to  kill  hares  and  raboits 
concurrently  with  the  landlord,  and  was  for- 
bidden to  contract  himself  out  of  this  right. 

[Fo&BSTS.] 

Gamolin.  Bishop  of  St.  Andrews,  was 
Chancellor  of  Scotland  at  the  beginning  of 
the  reign  of  Alexander  III.  (1249) ;  of  this 
office  he  was  deprived  by  the  intrigues  of 
Henry  III.  The  English  party  subjected 
him  to  so  much  persecution  that  he  sought 
redress  at  Rome,  where  the  Pope  espoused  his 
cause,  and  ordered  the  excommunication  of 
Alan  Durward  and  the  other  regents. 

Gardiner,  Stephen  {b.  1483,  d,  1655), 
Bishop  of  Winchester,  was  a  celebrated  prelate 
and  statesman.  Of  his  parentage  nothing  is 
known  certainly,  but  he  was  bom  at  Bury 
St.  Edmunds  about  1483,  and  was  educated 
at  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge,  where  he  became 
Doctor  of  Laws  in  1521,  entering  into  holy 
orders  about  the  same  timo.  In  1525  he  was 
elected  to  the  mastership  of  his  college,  and  he 
became  Chancellor  of  the  University  in  1540. 
To  a  man  like  Gkmiiner  academical  (ustinctions 
were  far  from  being  all-sufficing.  He  took 
a  secretaryship  in  the  family  of  the  Duke  of 
Norfolk,  and  shortly  afterwimls  in  the  house- 
hold of  Cardinal  Wolsey.  In  this  latter 
employment  he'  speedily  obtained  the  confi- 
dence of  the  king,  as  well  as  of  his  more 
immediate  master,  a  success  which  was  soon 
followed  by  his  admission  into  the  Royal 
Council.  In  1528  he  was  sent  with  Bishop 
Fox  on  an  embassy  to  the  Pope,  to  negotiate 
the  question  as  to  the  king*s  divorce  from 
Catherine  of  Aragon,  and  his  first  prefer- 
ment in  the  Church,  that  of  the  archdea- 
conry  of  Norfolk,  was  the  reward  for  his 
tact  and  energy.  On  Wolsey  *s  disgrace 
Gardiner  was  attached  entirely  to  the  king's 
service  as  Secretary  of  State,  and  ha\'ing 
succeeded,  with  the  assistance  of  Bishop  Fox, 
in  persuading  the  University  of  Cambridge 
to  pronounce  formally  against  marriage  with 
a  brother's  widow,  in  1531,  he  was  appointed 
to  the  archdeaoonr}'  of  Leicester,  and  shortly 
after  to  the  bishopric  of  Winchester.  His 
book,  De  Vera  Obediential  upheld  the  ro^al 
supremacy.  For  the  rest  of  Henry's  reig^ 
Gardiner  was  among  the  foremost  of  the 
conservative  party  in  the  Council.  Powerful 
during  the  reactionary  years  1539 — 47,  he 
lost  ground  just  before  Henry's  death,  and 
the  king  withdrew  his  name  from  his  will,  of 
which  he  had  previously  been  appointed  one 
of  the  executors.    With  the  exception  of  a 


(488  ) 


OflJi 


few  months  in  the  early  part  of  the  year 
1548,  Gardiner  was  a  state  prisoner  through- 
out the  whole  of  the  reign  of  Edward  VI. 
Several  attempts  were  made  to  induce  him 
to  subscribe  to  terms  of  reconciliation  with 
the  party  then  in  power,  but  all  to  no  pur- 

Ct  and  on  February  14,  1551,  he  was 
udly  deprived  of  his  see  for  disobe- 
dience and  contempt  of  the  king*s  authority. 
With  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary,  in 
1553,  Crardiner's  fortunes  improved.  He 
once  again  exercised  his  episcopal  functions 
in  performing  the  obsequies  of  the  late  king, 
and  on  August  23,  1553,  he  was  made  Lonl 
Chancellor.  Throughout  the  whole  of  Mary's 
reign  Gardiner  acted  as  her  chief  adviser  in 
all  civil  matters,  and  his  influence  in  the 
affairs  of  the  Church  was  second  only  to  that 
of  Cardinal  Pole. 

Ghirdiner's  watchfulness  enabled  Mary  to 
be  beforehand  with  the  risings  that  took 
place  early  in  1564,  and  Wyatt's  revolt, 
being  thus  pushed  into  action  prematurely, 
was  suppressed  with  comparative  ease,  in 
spite  of  its  formidable  character.  In  his 
subsequent  dealings  with  the  presumed  sym- 
pathisers of  Wyatt,  however,  Gardiner's 
merciless  rigour  alienated  from  him  the 
support  of  &e  more  moderate  members  of 
Mary's  Council,  and  the  feeling  of  coldness 
towards  him,  thus  originated,  changed  at 
once  to  one  of  indignation  and  active  hos- 
tility when  he  proposed  that  the  Princess 
Elizabeth  should  be  also  sacrificed  for  her 
sister's  more  perfect  security.  Much  has 
been  written  for  and  against  Gardiner  in  the 
matter  of  his  treatment  of  the  Reformers. 
It  is,  however,  beyond  question  that  the 
cruel  measures  of  Mary's  reign  against  the 
Protestant  party  were  very  largely  of  his 
devising.  Gardiner  died  after  a  short  illness, 
which  seized  him  soon  after  opening  Par- 
liament, on  October  21,  1555,  and  which 
terminated  in  his  death,  on  November  12 
following,  at  Whitehall.  An  Anglican  under 
Henry,  Gardiner  became  a  Papist  under 
Mary,  after  Edward's  reign  had  demon- 
strated the  futility  of  Henry's  position.  In 
J)e  Vera  Obedimtia  he  had  attacked  the  Papal 
supremacy,  in  his  Falinodia  Lieti  Libri  he 
set  forth  his  change  of  opinion  upon  the 
matter. 

Fronde,  lELiat.  of  Eng. ;  Bioora-phia  Britanntca; 
Stryi>e,  AnnaXt;  Bomet,  Hut  of  the  Refor- 
mation, 

Gargrav6f  Sir  Thomas,  Speaker  of  the 
first  Parliament  of  Elizabeth,  *^  with  the 
Privy  Council  and  thirty  members  of  the 
House  of  Commons,"  was  deputed  to  recom- 
mend the  queen  to  seek  a  husband.  In  1570 
he  acted  as  crown  prosecutor  to  the  Council 
of  York  during  the  trial  of  those  who  had 
taken  part  in  the  Northern  HebelHon. 
Sir  Thomas,  who  was  a  member  of  the 
Council  of  the  North,  had  been  knighted  by 
Warwick  duidng  the  Scotch  War  of  1547. 


ap 


Qamet,  Henby  {b,  1555,  d.  1606),  became^ 
in  1575,  a  Jesuit,  and,  in  1586,  provincial  of 
the  order  in  England.  He  was  executed,  in 
1606,  for  complicity  in  the  Gunpowder  Plot. 

Qart^r,  The  Ordbb  of  the,  was  founded 
by  Edward  III.,  in  or  about  the  year  1349. 
It  is  the  highest  order  of  English  knighthood, 
and  consists  of  not  more  than  twenty-fiv& 
knights,  excepting  members  of  the  royal 
family  and  illustrious  foreigners,  who  are  not 
counted.  The  installations  of  liie  order  ar& 
held  in  St.  George's  Chapel,  Windsor,  wher& 
the  banners  of  Uie  several  knights  are  sub- 
pended.  The  badge  of  the  order  is  a  gold 
Inadallion,  representing  St.  George  and  the 
Dragon,  which  is  worn  suspended  by  a  blu& 
ribbon.  The  garter  is  of  dark-blue  velvet, 
and  is  worn  on  the  left  leg  below  the  knee. 

Gascoigne.  Sir  William  {d.  1419  ?),  waa 
^pointed  one  of  the  king's  sei'jeanta,  in  1397, 
and,  in  1400,  was  made  Chief  Justice  of  the 
King's  Bench.  In  1405  he  refused  to  pro- 
nounce sentence  of  death  on  Archbishop 
Scrope;  and  his  independence  was  still 
further  shown,  according  to  popular  tradition, 
by  his  committal  of  the  Prmce  of  Wales  to- 
prison  for  striking  him  upon  the  bench. 
Whether  this  story  be  true  or  not,  it  is  certain, 
that  one  of  Henry  V.'s  first  acts  was  to  remove 
Gascoigne  from  the  chief  justiceship.  This 
dismissal  might  be  otherwise  accounted  for,  afr 
Ghuicoigne  was  an  old  man,  long  in  office,  and 
a  country  gentleman'  of  large  property. 
Fo88,  Jvkdgn. 

OBMOony,  The  Duchy  op,  corresponded, 
I'oughly  speaking,  with  the  Koman  province  of 
Novem  Populania.  On  the  fall  of  the 
Empire  it  became  part  of  the  great  West 
Gothic  kingdom  stretching  from  the  Loire  to 
the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  but  seems  to  hav& 
become  more  or  less  independent  on  tho 
death  of  Clovis  (oil),  though  he  and  his  son» 
overthrew  the  rival  Teutomc  powers  in  GrauL 
Towards  the  end  of  this  centiiry  the  Basque 
tribes  swarmed  down  from  the  Pyrenean 
slopes  (587 ) .  These  invaders,  the  Wasoons  or 
Yascons,  have  given  the  district  its  present 
name,  and  appear  to  have  settled  northwards  of 
the  (Garonne.  In  602  they  recognised  them- 
selves as  being  tributary  to  the  Prankish  kings, 
and  received  a  duke  of  their  own,  Grenialis. 
About  the  year  636  Dagobert  conquered  them 
once  more,  though  his  successors  found  them 
always  setting  up  their  own  dukes,  whoso 
sway  reached  from  the  Garonne  to  the 
Pyrenees.  Charles  the  Great  gave  them  a 
new  ruler  in  the  person  of  Lupus  or  Loup, 
but  despite  this  they  seem  to  have  been  his- 
assailants  in  the  famous  battle  of  Ronccsvalles. 
A  few  years  later  Gascony  was  restored  to  tho 
son  of  Lupus.  It  was  not  tiU  872  that, 
according  to  M.  Guizot,  the  duchy  of  Gascony 
became  hereditary.    Some  hundred  and  fiftv 


OflJi 


(489) 


Owr 


years  later  {oirea  1036),  the  title  of  Duke  of 
Gafloony  paBscd  over  to  the  Dukes  of  Aqtd- 
taine,  and  from  this  time  its  history  must  be 
read  in  connection  with  the  last-mentioned 
•country.  Soon  after  the  marriage  of  Eleanor, 
daughter  of  William  X.,  Duke  of  Aquitaine, 
to  Prince  Henry  (1162),  it  became  part  of  the 
English  poasesstona  in  France.  After  the 
loss  of  Normandy,  Anjou,  Maine,  and  Tou- 
raine,  it  still  remained  an  English  depen- 
dency, but  daily  became  less  flmdy  attached 
to  the  Engliw  crown.  Moreover,  it  was 
divided  against  itself,  its  g^reat  nobles  as  a 
rule  adhering  to  French,  and  its  great  cities 
to  English,  interests.  By  the  Peace  of 
Bretigny  (1360),  it  was  handed  over  to 
Edward  together  with  Aquitainc,  without  any 
reservation  of  homage  to  the  French  king ; 
and  Edward  in  return  for  this  renounced  ioB 
claims  on  the  crown  of  France.  A  century 
later  (1453)  it  was  finally  reunited  to  the 
French  kingdom. 

GascojnOy  General,  Thb  Motion  of 
<1831).  On  April  12,  after  Lord  J.  Russell  had 
stated  the  modifications  which  ministers  pro- 
posed to  introduce  into  the  Reform  Bill,  General 
Gascoyne  moved  that  '^the  total  number  of 
members  returned  to  Parliament  for  England 
and  Wales  ought  not  to  be  diminiBned.** 
This  motion  was  carried  by  299  to  291,  though 
it  was  quite  eWdent  that  it  was  merely  in- 
tended to  embarrass  the  ministry. 

Gaspoa  Schooner,  The,  commanded 
by  Lieutenant  Duddington,  made  itself  con- 
spicuous by  its  activity  against  smuggling. 
It  had  more  than  once  attacked  the  Newport^ 
a  Providence  packet.  So  on  one  occasion 
when  it  was  driven  aoddentallv  ashore,  the 
citizens  of  Providence  captured,  plundered, 
and  burnt  it  (1773). 

GateSy  8i&  John  {d,  Aug.  22,  1563),  one 
of  the  strongest  partisans  of  Northumberland, 
was  condemned  and  executed  for  his  share  in 
the  conapinbcy  to  place  Lady  Jane  Greyon  the 
throne.  His  fellow  conspirator,  Sir  Thomas 
Palmer,  suffered  execution  at  the  same  time. 

Oauden.  John  (&.  1605,  d,  1662),  was  in 
early  life  oi  Puritim  tendencies,  and  sat  in 
the  Westminster  Assembly,  but  was  expelled 
from  that  body.  His  zeal  for  Charles  I.  led 
to  his  publishing  £ikon  Batilike^  a  work  of 
which  he  is  generally  reputed  to  be,  at  any 
rate  very  largely,  the  author.  At  the  Res- 
toration he  was  made  Bishop  of  Exeter,  and, 
in  1662,  he  was  translated  to  Worcester. 
He  was  much  disgusted  at  the  richer  see  of 
Winchester  being  refused  him.  Clarendon 
describes  him  as  covetous,  shifty,  and  self- 
aeeking. 

Ganxity  Elizabeth  (d.  1685),  was  burned 
to  death  in  London  for  assisting^  Burton,  one 
of  the  Rye  House  conspirators,  to  oscape  after 
the  defeat  of  Monmouth  at  Sedgemoor. 

HWT.-16* 


Gaunt.  John  of.  [Lancabtbr,  John, 
Duke  of.J 

GaveDdnd  (A.-S.  GafoT)  has  been  defined 
b^  Mr.  Elton  as  "  the  tenure  of  socage  accor- 
ding to  the  customs  of  Kent,  and  not  merely 
a  peculiar  mode  of  descent  known  upon  free- 
hold and  copyhold  alike  in  several  counties." 
Before  the  Conquest,  the  tenants  on  anotiier 
man's  land  held  their  estates  for  payment  of 
rent  which  was  generally  discluurged  by 
labour  and  in  kind  rather  than  by  money. 
Lawyers  are  pretty  generally  agreed  that 
the  Kentish  estates  held  by  this  tenure 
represent  the  socage  tenure  which  before  the 
Conquest  was  common  to  the  country  at 
large,  but  has  only  in  this  single  county 
succeeded  in  holding  its  own  against  the 
changes  introduced  by  the  growth  of  the  feudal 
system.  The  chief  customs  incidental  to 
gavelkind  are :  that,  on  the  death  of  a  land- 
owner, his  landed  property  is  to  be  divided 
amongst  all  his  sons,  and  does  not  pass  in 
entirety  to  the  eldest-bom;  that  a  tenant 
can  abenate  his  land  at  the  age  of  fifteen ; 
and  that  lands  do  not  escheat  on  attainder  for 
felony,  &c.  All  lands  lying  in  Kent  are 
reckoned  to  be  held  by  this  tenure  unless  it 
oui  be  proved  otherwise,  and  it  is  said  that 
during  the  reign  of  Henry  YI.  there  were 
not  more  than  thirty  or  forty  estates  that  did 
not  come  under  this  heading. 

Elton.  Tenum  tn  JCent.  [T.  A.  A.] 

GaTOSton^  Piers  {d.  1312),  was  the  son 
of  a  Gascon  loii^ht  who  had  been  a  servant 
of  Edward  I.  Piers  was  selected  by  the  king 
as  the  comrade  of  Prince  Edward,  and  speedily 
acquired  a  great  influence  over  the  weak  mind 
of  the  young  prince.  The  king,  seeing  the 
danger  of  this,  had  banished  Gaveston,  in 
February,  1307,  and  on  his  death-bed  com- 
manded his  son  never  to  recall  him.  But 
Edward  II.  was  no  sooner  king  than  Graveston 
returned,  and  was  made  Earl  of  Comw^. 
He  at  once  became  the  chief  man  in 
the  kingdom,  was  appointed  Custos  of  the 
Realm  during  the  king*s  absence,  and  many 
valuable  possessions  and  wardships  were 
heaped  upon  him.  He  was  an  accomplished 
knight,  of  great  bravery  and  ambition,  but 
insment  and  avaricious,  and  his  head  was 
completely  turned  by  the  favours  lavished 
upon  him.  He  indulged  in  coarse  satire 
against  the  nobles,  and  suixounded  himself 
with  a  train  of  retainers,  many  of  whom  were 
notorious  robbers  and  homicides.  In  May, 
1308,  Edward  was  compelled  to  banish  him ; 
but  his  exile  was  converted  into  a  new  dignity 
by  his  being  made  viceroy  of  Ireland.  In 
this  capacity  he  showed  some  courage  and 
skill,  but  the  king  could  not  live  without 
him,  and  he  returned  to  England,  in  1309. 
Banished  again  in  1311,  he  was  recalled  in 
January,  1312,  when  the  barons  determined 
to  destroy  him.  He  was  besieged  in  Scar- 
borough Castle,  and  suiTendered  on  promise 


Gas 


(  490  ) 


Qm 


of  hiB  life.     But  he  was  seized  by  the  Earl  of 

Warwick,  and,  on  June  19,  13*12,  beheaded 

on  Bladdow  Hill. 

Paoli,  EngU$ch9   Qfchichte;   Stnbbs,   Conit. 
Hi»t, ;  Pearaoo,  Ui$t.  of  Eng, 

ChwettOy  Tkb  LondoNi  i0  said  to  be  the 
oldest  English  newspaper,  and  the  official 
channel  of  all  public  announcements.  A 
Gruette  was  first  published  in  1642,  but  the 
first  of  the  existing  aeries  was  issued  at  Ox- 
ford, Nov.  7,  1665,  whither  the  court  had 
gone  to  escape  the  Great  Plague.  On  Feb.  5, 
1666,  the  London  series  began.  Until  after 
the  Revolution,  its  meagre  two  pages,  pub- 
lished twice  a  week,  formed  the  omy  news- 
paper. 

Mftoanlay,  HitL  of  England. 

G6dd6Sf  Jenky,  was  a  woman  who  is  said 
to  have  thrown  a  stool  at  the  head  of  the  Bishop 
of  Edinburgh,  on  the  occasion  of  the  riot  in 
St.  Gileses  Church,  when  Laud*s  Liturgy  was 
first  read  in  Scotltmd,  Easter,  1637. 

Geddington,  Tub  Council  op  (1188), 
was  the  assembly  which  enacted  the  Saladin 
Tithe,  the  first  tax  on  movables. 

QeesOy  Thb  Wild,  was  the  name  given  to 
Young  Irishmen  who  were  recruited  for  the 
Irish  Brigade  in  the  French  service,  largely 
from  Keriy.  In  1721,  as  many  as  20,000  are 
said  to  have  left  the  country.  Li  1730 
and  1741,  French  officers  were  allowed 
to  recruit  in  Ireland  bv  the  government. 
The  time  when  the  Wild  G^se  were  most 
numerous,  however,  was  the  Spanish  War 
(1739—1748). 

Otltf  Thb  Battlb  of  the  (or  Chelt),  was 
fought  in  North  Cumberland,  Feb.,  1570,  be- 
tween the  royal  troops  under  Lord  Hunsdon, 
and  the  rebels  and  borderers  under  Leonard 
Dacre.  In  spite  of  the  desperate  bravery 
of  the  insurgents,  they  were  completely  de- 
feated. 

General  Warrants,  for  the  apprehen- 
sion of  all  persons  suspected  without  naming 
any  one  in  particular,  were  frequently  issued 
for  offences  against  the  government  by  the 
Star  Chamber  and  under  the  Stuarts,  as  well 
as  during  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  In  the  case  of  Wilkes  and  No.  45 
of  the  Xorth  Briton,  a  general  warrant 
was  issued  by  Lord  Halifax,  under  which 
forty-nine  persons  were  arrested.  Wilkes, 
on  the  ground  that  the  warrant  was  illegal, 
brought  an  action  against  the  Under  Secre- 
tary of  State  and  obtained  £1,000  damages. 
In  1765  general  warrants  were  pronounced 
illegal  by  Lord  Mans6eid  and  the  judg^  of 
the  King^s  Bench,  on  the  ground  that  no  de- 
gree of  antiquity  can  give  sanction  to  a  usage 
bad  in  itself,  and  that  **  general  warrants  an) 
no  warranto  at  all  because  they  name  no  one.*' 
This  opinion  was  confirmed  by  the  House  of 
Commons  in  1766. 


Geneva  Convention,  The,  settled  a 

serious  disagreement  between  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States  of  America.  During 
the  dvil  war  between  the  Northern  and 
Southern  States  of  America,  a  ship  called 
No.  290  was  built  at  Liverpool  to  act  as 
a  privateer  in  the  service  of  the  Southern 
States.  Before  6he  was  completed  her  des- 
tination and  purpose  were  made  known 
to  the  English  government,  but  owing  to 
difficulties  in  the  law  and  the  iUness  of  a  law- 
officer  of  the  crown,  the  orders  given  to 
arrest  her  did  not  arrive  at  Liverpool  until 
after  she  had  left  that  port  on  the  pretence 
of  a  trial  trip.  She  left  the  Mersey  on  July 
29,  1862;  proceeded  to  the  island  of  Ter- 
ceira;  took  in  equipment  and  armament; 
and  began  to  act  against  the  Northern  ship- 
ping, assuming  the  name  of  Alabama.  On 
June  19,  1864,  the  Alabanta  was  sunk  off 
Cherbourg,  in  an  engagement  with  the 
Federal  war  steamer  Kearaage.  After  the 
conclusion  of  the  war,  claims  for  compensa- 
tion for  the  damage  done  by  the  Alabama  and 
other  cruisers  were  made  against  the  British 
government.  After  many  attempts  at  settle- 
ment had  failed,  it  was  arranged,  in  February^ 
1871,  that  a  joint  commission  should  meet  at 
Washington  to  settle  the  Alabama  claims 
and  other  outstanding  differences  between 
the  United  States  and  Great  Britain.  On 
May  8  the  high  joint  commissioners  signed 
the  Treaty  of  Washington,  which  established 
a  board  of  arbitration  for  considering  the 
Alabama  and  similar  claims,  "which  are  to 
be  recognised  as  national,  and  are  to  be 
settled  on  the  principle  of  responsibility  for 
depredations  vmere  the  government  had  not 
exercised  the  utmost  possible  diligence  and 
caution  to  prevent  the  fitting-out  of  priva- 
teers." After  the  signature  of  the  treaty  a 
question  arose  between  the  two  governments 
as  to  what  classes  of  claims  should  be  sub- 
mitted for  arbitration.  The  British  govern- 
ment was  willing  to  compensate  all  private 
individuals  for  any  loss  they  might  have 
suffered  by  the  action  of  the  cruisers.  The 
American  government  demanded,  in  addition 
to  this,  the  costs  of  pursuing  the  privateers, 
the  losses  incurred  by  higher  premiums  for 
insurance,  and  by  the  prolongation  of  the 
war.  After  a  correspondence,  the  Americans 
declared  that  they  could  not  withdraw  from 
the  case  which  they  had  submitted,  and  they 
left  the  responsibility  of  abrogating  the 
treaty  to  England.  The  tribunal  of  arbi- 
tration met  at  Geneva  in  December,  1871. 
It  consisted  of  Sir  Alexander  Cockbum, 
who  was  nominated  by  England,  Mr.  C.  F. 
Adams,  by  America,  Count  F.  Sclopi(«,  by 
Italy,  ^L  Jacob  Staempfli,  by  Switzer- 
lana,  and  the  Viscount  d*Itajuba,  by  Brazil. 
Lord  Tentorden  and  ^Ir.  Bancroft  Davis 
were  appointed  the  asrents  respectively  of 
Engbma  and  America.  The  case  and  counter- 
case  were  presented  on  April  15,  1872,  and 


Geo 


(491) 


0#o 


tiie  final  decision  was  given  on  September  14 
o!f  the  same  year.  In  the  meantime  the 
tribunal  had  determined  that  the  indirect 
claims  did  not  constitute  a  valid  ground  for 
compensation,  and  should  not  come  within 
the  purview  of  the  tribunal.  This  decision 
was  accepted  by  the  American  government. 
The  tribunal  of  arbitration  found  unani- 
mously that  Great  Britain  was  Uable  for  the 
acts  committed  by  the  Alabama^  **  having 
failed  by  omission  to  fulfil  the  duties  pre- 
scribed by  the  first  and  third  of  the  rules 
established  by  the  sixth  article  of  the  Treaty 
of  Washington.*'  With  regard  to  the  OrtiOy 
afterwards  called  the  Florida,  all  but  Sir 
Alexander  Cockbuzn  found  that  Great  Britain 
was  liable  for  the  acts  committed  by  that 
veseeL  Three  of  the  arbitrators  found  against 
Great  Britain  in  the  case  of  the  Shenandoah, 
on  account  of  the  negligence  shown  by  the 
authorities  at  Melbourne  in  permitting  the 
clandestine  enlistment  of  men  within  that 
port  With  regard  to  the  tenders,  the  tri- 
bunal unanimottsly  found  *'  that  such  tenders 
or  auxiliary  vessels  being  properly  regarded 
as  accessories,  must  necessarily  follow  the  lot 
of  their  principals,  and  be  submitted  to  the 
same  decision  which  applies  to  them  respec- 
tively." With  regard  to  the  other  vessels 
mentioned  in  the  claims,  the  tribunal  decided 
that  portly  Great  Britain  was  not  responsible, 
and  that  partly  they  were  excluded  from  con- 
sideration for  want  of  evidence.  They  re- 
jected the  claims  for  expenditure  incurred  in 
the  pursuit  and  capture  of  the  cruisers,  and 
they  fixed  the  sum  to  be  paid  by  Great  Britain 
at  16,500,000  dollars  in  gold,  amounting  to 
£3,229,166  13s.  4d.  sterling.  [0.  B.] 

Q^oOttryf  Archbishop  of  York  (b.  1158  F 
d.  1213),  was  a  natural  son  of  Henry  II.  by  the 
Fair  Rosamond.  In  1173  the  kin^  procured 
his  election  to  the  bishopric  of  liincoln,  and 
in  1191  he  was  made  Archbiahop  of  York.  In 
1174  he  aided  his  father  against  his  rebellious 
brothei:*,  and  seems  to  have  been  appointed 
Chancellor  about  this  time,  an  office  he  con- 
tinued to  hold  till  his  father*s  death.  He  dis- 
tinguished himself  greatly  in  the  war  against 
France  (1187 — 89),  and  was  the  only  one  of 
Henry  II.*s  children  who  was  present  at  his 
doath-bed.  During  Richard  I.*s  absence  from 
England,  he  quarrelled  with  Longchamp 
(q.v.),  and  the  violent  conduct  of  the  latter  on 
this  occasion  was  one  of  the  causes  of  his 
dismiwal  from  office.  His  opposition  to  John's 
oppressive  taxation  caused  his  banishment  in 
1207,  and  he  remained  in  exile  till  his  death. 
*'  The  affectionate  duty  which  he  showed  to 
his  father,"  says  Mr.  Foss,  ''must  incline  us 
to  a  favourable  interpretation  of  his  conduct  in 
the  two  succeeding  reigns,  and  induce  us  to 
attribute  his  misfortunes  to  the  irritability  of 
Richard  and  the  overbearing  tyranny  of  John, 
each  of  whom  his  independence  of  character 
and  his  strict  sense  of  j  ustice  would,  though 


in  a  different  manner,  excite.  .  .  He  must 
ever  hold  in  history  the  character  of  a  valiant 
soldier,  an  able  commander,  a  wise  counsellor, 
and  an  excellent  son.** 

Geattr^  of  A^Jon  (^.  1114,  d.  1151), 

the  father  of  Henry  il.,  was  the  eon  of  Fulk 
y.  of  Anjou.  On  the  death  of  the  Emperor 
Henry  Y.,  Henry  I.  determined  to  marry  his 
daughter  Maud  to  Geoffrey,  the  heir  of 
Anjou.  The  match  was,  from  one  point  of 
view,  a  wise  one,  as  it  put  an  end  to  the 
series  of  wars  between  Normandy  and  Anjou 
which  had  raged  for  so  long,  but  the  Angevin 
match  was  unpopular  with  the  Norman  nobles 
and  prevented  Maud's  being  recognised  as 
queen.  During  the  civil  wtirs  between 
Stephen  and  the  Empress  Maud,  Geoffrey  was 
principally  occupiea  with  endeavouring  to 
enforce  her  claims  to  Normandy. 

Owdbfmy  of  Britumy  (^*   n^B,  d. 

1186),  a  son  of  Henry  II.  and  Eleanor,  was 
married  when  a  child  to  Constance,  daughter 
and  heiress  of  Conan,  Duke  of  Britanny. 
In  1173  he  joined  his  elder  brother  Heory 
in  rebellion  against  his  father,  and  put  him- 
self forward  as  the  champion  of  Breton 
independence.  The  conspiracy  was  defeated, 
and  Henrv  forgave  his  sons.  In  1180 
Gkoffrey  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
Poitevins  who  were  in  rebellion  against 
Richard ;  defeated  in  this  attempt  he  retired 
to  the  court  of  Philip  Augustus,  where  he 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life.  He  met 
with  his  death  in  a  tournament  at  Paris, 
where  he  was  accidentally  thrown  from  his 
horse  and  trampled  to  death.  By  his  in.'ur- 
riage  with  Constance  he  had  two  children, 
Arthur  and  Eleanor. 
Lyttelton,  Htmry  II. 

Oeofbray  ofMonmonth(d.  ehea  1154) 

was  a  writer  of  the  twelfth  century,  of  whose 
personal  history'  scarcely  anything  is  known, 
tike  Giraldus  Cambrensis,  ho  sprang  from 
the  Norman  settlers  in  Wales.  He  was 
Archdeacon  of  Monmouth,  and  was  taken 
under  the  protection  of  Robert,  Earl  of 
Gloucester  and  Lord  of  Glamorgan,  to  whom 
he  dedicated  his  HUtoria  BHtomtm.  He  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  St.  Asaph  in  1152,  and 
died  about  1154.  Of  the  origin  of  his  famous 
HUtory  (first  published  in  1128)  Geoffrey  as- 
serts "  that  his  friend  Walter,  Archdeacon  of 
Oxford,  brought  with  him  into  England  from 
Britanny  an  ancient  book  in  the  Breton 
tongue,  containing  the  history  of  this  coun- 
try from  the  arrival  of  Brutus  the  Trojan 
to  the  year  689.**  Geoffrey's  work  was  soon 
translated  into  French,  English,  and  Welsh, 
and  gradually  became  the  g^reat  fountnin- 
head  of  romance,  out  of  which  the  poets  of 
successive  generations  have  drawn  a  flood 
of  fiction,  that  has  left  an  indelible  impress 
upon  our  subsequent  literature.  This  work 
has  been  edited  by  Dr.  Giles,  and  a  truns- 


Geo 


r  492  ) 


0#o 


lation  is  to  be  found  in  Bohn*s  Antiquarian 
Library. 

OeofRrey  of  Vantes,  £a&l  of  Maktel 

(d.  1158),  waa  the  eon  of  Geofifrey  of  Anjou 
and  the  Empress  Maud.  On  the  accession  of 
his  brother,  Henry  II.,  to  the  English  throne, 
he  claimed  the  county  of  Anjou,  but  he  was 
compelled  to  submit  to  Henry  in  1156,  and  to 
relinquish  his  claims  on  the  promise  of  re* 
ceiving  an  annual  pension. 

George  of  Denmark,  Princb  [b.  1653, 

d.  1708],  was  the  second  son  of  Frederick  III.  of 
Denmark  and  8ophia  of  Lttneburg.  On  July 
28,  1683,  he  married  Princess  Anne,  daughter 
of  James  II.  It  was  hinted  to  him  that  the 
claim  of  his  wife  and  himself  to  the  throne 
might  be  preferred  by  James  to  that  of  Wil- 
liam  and  Mary  if  they  became  converts  to 
Catholicism  ;  and  George  seems  to  have  been 
attracted  bv  the  idea.  The  marriage  was  per- 
haps intended  as  a  blind  to  the  ESagUsh  Pro- 
testants. When  William  of  Orange  landed 
in  England,  George  deserted  James  at  An- 
dorer.  As  man  after  man  joined  the  invader. 
Prince  George  uttered  his  usual  exclamation, 
*'  Est-il  possible ':' "  **  What,"  said  the  king, 
when  he  heard  that  his  son-in-law,  influcncea 
by  Lord  Churchill,  had  followed  their  ex- 
ample, '*  is  *  Est-il  possible  *  gone  too  ?  After 
all,  a  good  trooper  would  have  been  a  greater 
loss."  Soon  after  the  accession  of  William 
III.,  he  was  created  Duke  of  Cumberland. 
Ho  offered  to  accompany  William  to  Ireland, 
but  the  offer  was  declined.  When  Queen 
Anne  ascended  the  throne,  he  at  onceacoepted 
the  position  of  "  his  wife's  subject."  He  was 
created  Ix)rd  High  Admiral,  but  a  commission 
was  appointed  to  perform  his  duties.  His 
request  to  be  placed  in  command  of  the  Dutch 
army  was  disregarded  in  favour  of  Karl- 
borough.  In  1702  he  was  compelled  to  vote 
for  thu  Bill  against  Occasional  Conformity, 
although  himself  a  notorious  example  of  it. 
In  1707  an  attack  was  directed  against  the 
naval  administration.  The  object  of  censure, 
was,  however,  not  so  much  the  Prince  as  Ad- 
miral Churchill,  the  brother  of  Marlborough. 
Towards  the  end  of  his  life  the  Tories  used 
him  as  an  instrument  to  push  their  interests 
with  the  queen.  As  he  lay  on  his  death-bed, 
the  Whigs,  in  order  to  procure  the  admission 
of  Somers  to  office,  threatened  again  to 
assault  the  management  of  the  navy.  George 
was  an  exceedingly  incompetent  man.  "  I 
have  tried  him  drmik,"  said  Charles  II.,  '*  and 
I  have  tiied  him  sober,  and  there  is  nothing 
in  him."  He  was  a  good  husband,  and  Anno 
was  much  attached  to  him. 

Macaulay,  Hiat.  qf  Eng.;  Bar  net.  Hist,  of 
His  Chen  Time;  Stanhope,  Reign  of  Queen  Anne; 
Wjoii,  Reign  of  Queen  Anne. 

Oeorge  I.  {b.  :&Iay  28,  1660,  «. 
August  1,  1714,  d,  June  10,  1727)  was 
the  first  sovereign  of  the  present  Hanoverian 


dvnasty.  Prince  George  Louis  was  the  son 
of  Ernest  Augustus  of  Hanover,  and  Sophia, 
daughter  of  Frederick  Y.,  Elector  Palatine, 
and  granddaughter  of  J%mes  I.  of  England. 
During  his  fa&er*s  lifetime  he  served  in  the 
Imperial  anny  against  the  Turks,  at  the  siege 
of  Vienna,  and  on  the  Danube,  in  Italy,  and  on 
the  Rhine.  In  1681  he  visited  England,  and 
in  the  foUowinff  year  his  marriage  with 
his  cousin,  Sophia  Dorothea  of  Zell,  united 
the  two  branches  of  the  house  of  Liineburg. 
The  unfortunate  princess  was  divorced  and 
imprisoned,  in  1694,  in  the  castle  of  Ahlden, 
for  the  remainder  of  her  life,  for  an  intrigue 
with  Count  KOnigsmark.  (George  succeeded 
his  father  aa  Elector  of  Hanover  in  1698.  He 
led  some  auxiliaries  to  the  aid  of  Frederick 
III.  of  Denmark  (1700).  In  1702  he  joined 
the  grand  alliance  against  France.  In  1707, 
at  Marlborough's  request,  he  was  appointed 
commander  of  the  Imperial  foroes.  He  was, 
however,  much  offended  at  the  suggestion 
that  he  should  divide  his  forces  with  Prinoe 
Eugene.  When  at  length  he  took  the  field, 
he  ^Euled  to  reduce  the  towns  of  Franche 
Comte.  Shortly  afterwards  he  became  recon- 
ciled to  Marlborough.  In  1710  he  reogned 
his  command.  He  drew  up  a  memorial  to 
the  queen,  protesting  against  the  terms  of 
the  Peace  of  Utrecht.  After  the  Tories  gained 
the  upper  hand,  he  was  in  constant  communi- 
cation with  the  Whig  Opposition,  but  does 
not  seem  to  have  taken  any  serious  steps 
towards  securing  the  succession.  He  opposed 
sending  a  writ  to  his  son,  the  Electoral  prince, 
as  Duke  of  Cambridge;  and  answered  the 
queen's  angry  letter  in  submissive  terms.  In 
May,  1714,  he  joined  in  the  Treaty  of  Has- 
tadt.  On  the  death  of  tiie  queen,  he  was 
proclaimed  King  of  England,  but  did  not 
arrive  in  this  country  untU  late  in  September, 
and  was  not  crowned  until  Oct.  31.  He  at  once 
nominated  an  entirely  Whig  ministry'.  His 
accession  was  on  the  whole  popular,  although 
riots  broke  out  in  several  of  the  large  towns. 
The  following  year  witnessed  the  outbreak  of 
the  Jacobite  rebellion.  The  government  at 
once  took  vigorous  measures  for  its  suppres- 
sion by  suspending  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act, 
summoning  troops  from  Hanover,  and  airest- 
ing  the  more  active  Jacobites.  Ormondes 
attempts  to  land  on  the  English  coast  were  a 
failure.  The  insurrection  in  Scotland  for  a 
brief  period  assumed  a  formidable  aspect. 
The  EngUsh  revoltera  were  utterly  defeated 
at  Preston,  and  shortly  before.  Mar  had  suf- 
fered a  reverse  at  Sheriffmuir.  The  arrival 
of  the  Pretender  &iled  to  restore  confidence 
to  the  Jacobite  troops,  and,  with  his  flight, 
the  insurrection  may  be  said  to  have  termi- 
nated: The  chief  events  of  the  next  year 
were  the  punishment  of  the  rebels,  and 
the  passing  of  the  Septennial  Act.  Imme- 
diately afterwards  Georp^e,  much  against 
the  wish  of  his  ministers,  insisted  on  going  to 
Hanover,  accompanied  by  Stanhope.    He  was 


Geo 


(493  ) 


Om 


with  difficulty  iiiduc«Hl  to  allow  his  eldest  son 
to  act  as  "  Gaardiau  of  the  Uealm  and  Lieu- 
tenant "  in  his  absence.  Negotiations  for  the 
Triple  Alliance  were  at  once  set  on  foot. 
Greorge  insisted  on  an  English  fleet  being  sent 
to  the  Baltic  in  order  to  oppose  the  designs  of 
Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  against  Bremen  and 
Verden,  and  was  anxious  to  declare  war  against 
Russia.  Shortly  afterwards  Townshend,  who 
had  discountenanced  George's  European  policy, 
was  dismissed  from  office,  and  was  followed  by 
Walpole.  In  June,  1717,  the  Triple  Alliance 
between  Eugland,  France,  and  Holland  was 
concluded.  For  a  brief  period  England  was 
seriously  menaced  by  the  schemes  of  Charles 
XII.  and  Alberoni,  in  conjunction  with  the 
malcontents  in  France,  in  favour  of  a  Stuart 
restoration.  These  were  thwarted  by  the  death 
of  Charles  in  the  next  year.  Alberoni  aimed 
at  the  destruction  of  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht, 
and  directed  his  efforts  against  the  Austrians 
in  Italy.  Admiral  Byng  was  therefore  sent 
to  the  Mediterranean,  and  Austria  joining 
the  Triple  Alliance,  which  thereupon  became 
a  Quadruple  Alliance,  the  Spanish  fleet  was 
destroyed  off  Cspe  Passaro,  and  Alberoni  fell. 
An  abortive  expedition,  fitted  out  in  favour  of 
the  Pretender,  to  the  Highlands,  was  one  of 
his  last  efforts.  Sweden  and  Denmark  were 
compelled  t<i  desist  from  hostilities,  and,  in 
1720,  Stanhope  had  secured  the  peace  of 
Europe.  Meanwhile,  at  home,  the  impeach- 
ment of  Oxford  was  a  complete  failure.  The 
Schism  Act  was  repealed:  but  the  Peerage 
Bill,  a  Whig  measure,  was  rejected  through 
the  influence  of  Walpole,  now  leader  of  the 
Opposition  (Dec.,  1719).  The  year  1720 
witnessed  the  terrible  downfall  of  the  South 
Sea  Scheme.  The  directors  were  punished; 
Sunderland  was  forced  to  resign,  and  the 
death  of  Stanhope  loft  Wjilpole  without  a 
rival.  For  a  brief  period  the  hopes  of  the 
Jacobites  revived  ;  but  information  of  Bishop 
Atterbury's  plot  was  given  to  the  English 
government  by  the  French  minister,  Dubois. 
The  Habeas  Corpus  Act  was  suspended  for  a 
year,  sums  were  granted  for  an  increase  of  the 
army,  a  tax  of  £100,000  was  collected  from 
the  Non* jurors,  and  Atterbury  was  forced  to 
leave  the  kingdom.  Soon  siterwards  Wal- 
pole*B  jealousy  caused  a  quarrel  to  break  out 
between  himself  and  Carteret;  the  latter 
withdrew  to  the  Lord-Lieutenancy  of  Ire- 
land (1724).  Then  the  country  was  wildly 
excited  by  the  government  patent  granted 
to  Wood,  giving  him  power  to  coin  far- 
things and  halfpence  to  the  amount  of 
£108,000.  Walpole  was  obliged  to  with- 
dxBW  the  obnoxious  patent.  Qreat  excitement 
was  also  caused  in  Scotland  by  the  malt-tax 
being  changed  into  a  charge  of  threepence 
upon  every  barrel  of  ale.  The  remainder  of 
the  reign  offers  little  interest  in  homo  affairs. 
Abroad,  Walpole  was  thwarted  by  the  in- 
triguesof  theSpaniBhminister,Baron  Ripperda. 
The  latter  wished  to  upset  the  arrangements 


of  the  Congress  of  Cambrai,  for  the  mninte- 
nance  of  the  Quadruple  Alliance,  and  tc  revixT 
the  old  connection  between  Spain  and  Austria. 
Accordingly,  in  August,  1625,  the  Treaty  of 
Vienna  was  concluded  between  Austria  and 
Spain,  with  a  secret  treaty  arranging  marriages 
between  the  two  houses,  the  restoration  of 
the  Stuarts,  and  the  surrender  of  Gibraltar 
and  Minorca.  The  Jacobites  were  very  active 
in  these  intrigues  with  the  Spanish  court.  In 
opposition  to  these  designs  the  Treaty  of 
Hanover  was  signed  by  England,  France, 
and  Prussia.  Kipperda  fell,  but  his  policy 
was  still  continued.  There  was  great  ex- 
citement in  England,  and  a  squadron  was 
despatched  to  blockade  Porto  Bello.  Austria, 
influenced  by  the  policy  of  Prussia,  deter- 
mined to  withdraw  from  her  unpleasant 
position,  and  preliminaries  of  peace  were 
signed  at  Paris  (May,  1727).  At  home,  the 
Opposition  was  vehement  in  its  attacks  on 
Walpole,  and  urged  the  full  restoration  of 
Bolingbroke.  Their  intrigues  were  cut  short 
by  the  death  of  George  at  Osnabriick,  on 
June  9,  on  his  way  back  from  Hanover. 
Mr.  Thackeray *s  lively  sketch  of  George  I.*s 
character  is  perhaps  a  bettor  oKtimate  than 
that  of  some  more  pretentious  writers. 
**  George  was  not  a  lofty  monarch  certainly ; 
he  was  not  a  patron  of  the  fine  arts,  but  ho 
was  not  a  hypocrite,  he  was  not  revenge- 
ful, he  was  not  extravagant  Though  a 
despot  in  Hanover,  he  was  a  moderate  ruler 
in  England.  His  aim  was  to  leave  it  to  itself 
as  much  as  possible,  and  to  live  out  of  it  as 
much  as  he  could.  His  heart  was  in  Han- 
over. .  .  He  was  more  than  fifty  years  of 
age  when  he  came  amongst  us ;  we  took  him 
because  he  served  our  turn ;  we  laughed  at 
his  tmcouth  German  ways,  and  sneered  at 
him.  Ho  took  our  loyalty  for  what  it  was 
worth  ;  laid  hands  on  what  money  he  could ; 
kept  us  assuredly  from  Popery  and  wooden 
shoes.  C)'nical  and  selfish  as  he  was,  he  was 
better  than  a  king  out  of  St.  Germains,  with 
the  French  king's  orders  in  his  pocket,  and  a 
swarm  of  Jesuits  in  his  train.'* 

Stanbope,  Hut.  V  England ;  Leckv,  Hid,  <^ 
England;  Hallain,  Cwal.  Ht«t. ;  The  Stuart 
Paper*;  Coxe,  WalpoU;  Boyer,  PoUtioal  StaU 
(HfGfai  Britain.  rp   g^  p j 

Qeorge  H.  (&.  Oct.  30,  1683,  «.  June  11, 
1727,  d.  Oct.  25,  1760),  was  the  son  of  George 
Louis,  Elector  of  Hanover,  afterwards  George 
I.  of  England,  and  the  unfortunate  Sophia  of 
Zell.  In  1706  he  Became  a  peer  of  England, 
with  the  title  of  Duke  of  Cambridge.  He  had 
married  Caroline  of  Anspach.  In  spite  of  his 
laxity  of  morals,  he  was  much  attached  to  his 
wife,  and  strongly  influenced  by  her.  He  greatly 
distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Ouden- 
arde  (1708).  Towards  the  end  of  1713,  the 
Whig  leaders  proposed  that  his  writ  as  Duke 
of  Cambridge  should  be  asked  for  in  order  that 
he  might  be  present  to  thwart  the  designs  of 
the   ministry    in  favour  of  the  Pretender. 


Geo 


(494) 


O«o 


Anne  was  greatly  offended,  and  although  the 
writ  was  iflsued,  the  measure  was  given  up. 
In  1714  he  accompanied  his  father  to  Eng- 
land, and  became  Prince  of  Wales.  In  1716 
the  smouldeiing  quarrel  between  the  king 
and  his  son  broke  out  into  flame.  The  prince 
insulted  the  Duke  of  Newcastle,  who  was 
present  as  proxy  for  the  king  at  the  christen- 
ing of  the  prince's  eldest  son.  George  was 
expelled  from  St  Jameses,  and  his  children 
taken  under  charge  of  the  king.  He  became 
popular  with  the  nation,  and  openly  raised 
the  standard  of  opposition  to  the  court  and 
ministr}'.  It  was  impossible,  however,  to 
ignore  his  claims  to  the  regency  during  his 
father's  absence  from  England.  In  1719 
Stanhope  and  Sunderland  introduced  the 
Peerage  Bill  as  a  blow  at  his  power  when 
he  should  ascend  the  throne.  But  the 
measure  was  thrown  out  by  a  large  majority 
in  the  Commons.  A  foimal  reconciliation 
was  effected  by  AValpoIe  between  the  prince 
and  the  king  in  1720.  In  June,  1727,  on  the 
death  of  his  father,  George  ascended  the 
English  throne.  His  reign  may  be  roughly 
divided  into  two  parts :  (1)  the  peace  period  to 
the  fall  of  Walpole  in  1 742,  and  (2)  the  war 
period  to  the  death  of  the  king  in  1760.  For 
a  little  while  it  seemed  as  if  Walpole  had 
fallen.  Sir  Spencer  Compton  was  directed  to 
form  a  ministry ;  but  Walpole  explained  his 
views  on  foreign  policy  to  the  king :  he  was 
supported  by  the  influence  of  the  queen,  and 
wisely  offered  to.  increase  .the  Civil  List. 
Accordingly,  Walpole  continued  Prime  I^Iinis- 
ter,  opposed  by  the  Whig  malcontents  whom 
his  love  of  power  had  caused  to  desert 
him,  and  supported  by  a  bought  majority. 
The  difficulties  with  Spain  were  settled  in 
Nov.,  1729,  by  the  Treaty  of  Seville,  a 
defensive  alliance  between  England,  Spain, 
France,  and  eventually  Holland.  English 
trade  with  South  America  was  thus  restored, 
and  the  Asiento  confirmed  to  the  South  Sea 
Company.  The  Emperor,  finding  himself 
deserted,  joined  with  England,  Holland,  and 
Spain,  in  the  second  Treaty  of  Vienna 
(Slarch,  1731),  which  practically  confirmed 
the  Treaty  of  Seville.  In  this  year,  Wal- 
pole, by  compelling  Townshend,  as  leader  of 
the  Upper  House,  to  reject  the  Pension  Bill, 
caused  him  to  retire  from  the  ministry. 
For  two  years  Walpole  devoted  himself  to 
reforms  at  home.  In  1733  his  excise  on 
salt  was  followed  up  by  a  proposal  for 
a  tax  on  wine  and  tobabco,  and  a  system 
of  warehousing  to  prevent  frauds  on  the 
Customs.  Such  whs  tiie  unpopularity  of  the 
measure  that  the  minister  was  compelled  to 
withdraw  it.  Walpole  kept  aloof  from  the 
war  which  broke  out  in  the  following  year 
between  the  Empire,  and  France  and  Spain. 
Through  the  mediation  of  France  and  Eng- 
land, the  Definitive  Peace  of  Vienna  was 
eventually  signed  in  the  year  1738.  The  elec- 
tions of  1736  were  stubbornly  contested,  but 


Walpole  retained  his  majority.  Bolingbroke 
retired  to  France,  and  the  Prince  of  Wales 
assumed  the  leadership  of  the  Opposition.  In 
1736  Edinburgh  was  agitated  by  the  Porteous 
riots.  In  1737  a  public  quarrel  broke  out 
between  George  and  his  son  on  the  sub- 
ject  of  the  princess  jointure.  The  ministr>' 
was  victorious,  but  the  Opposition  rallied 
round  the  prince  at  Norfolk  House.  Shoirtly 
afterwards  the  death  of  the  queen  deprived 
George  of  a  faithful  wife,  and  Walpole  of  a 
true  friend.  The  latter  retained,  however, 
his  influence  over  George.  The  Opposition 
attacked  his  peace  policy,  the  story  of 
**  Jenkins's  ear "  was  brought  up  against 
him,  and  the  king  was  eager  for  war  with 
Spain.  Failing  to  carry  their  motion  against 
AValpole's  convention  with  that  country,  the 
Opposition  seceded  from  the  House.  Wal- 
pole was,  however,  forced  to  declare  war 
(October,  1739),  rather  than  resign,  and  at 
once  the  Jacobite  hopes  revived.  The  expe- 
ditions to  Spain  were  not  successfuL  In  1742 
the  elections  gave  the  government  but  a 
small  majority,  and,  being  defeated  on  the 
Chippenham  Election  Petition,  Walpole  re- 
signed. A  new  ministry,  in  which  several 
of  Walpole's  supporters  had  places,  was 
formed  under  Wilmington,  formerly  Sir  Spen- 
cer Compton.  On  the  death  of  Wilmington, 
in  the  following  year,  Henry  Pelham  de- 
feated Lord  Bath,  the  rival  candidate  for  the 
Premiership.  Europe  was  now  menaced  by 
the  question  of  the  Austrian  Succession  (q.v.). 
Sub^dies  were  promptly  voted  to  Maria 
Theresa,  and  an  army  of  30,000  English  and 
Hanoverians  sent  to  the  Low  Countries.  The 
English  fleet  foi'ced  the  Neapolitan  king  to 
assume  neutrality.  The  battle  of  Dettingen 
(July,  1743),  the  last  battle  in  which  an  £^- 
lish  king  took  part,  and  in  which  George  dis- 
tinguished himself,  resulted  in  a  defeat  of  the 
French,  after  ineffectual  negotiations  for 
peace.  England  joined  Holland,  Austria, 
Saxony,  and  Sardinia  in  the  Treaty  of 
Worms,  Sept.,  1743,  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  Pragmatic  Sanction.  A  counter-league, 
known  as  that  of  Frankfort,  with  Franco  at 
its  head,  was  soon  formed.  The  French  now 
prepared  an  expedition  under  Marshal  Sfuce 
to  invade  England,  and  restore  the  Stuarts, 
but  a  violent  storm  prevented  the  transports 
from  sailing.  There  was  now  a  change  of 
ministry;  Carteret  being  driven  from  office, 
and  the  Pelham  administration  established 
on  a  "  broad  bottom."  ITie  s^-stem  of  Ger- 
man  subsidies  was  largely  carried  on.  The 
campaign  in  the  Netherlands  of  1745  termi- 
nated in  the  defeat  of  Fontenoy.  The  same 
year  was  rendered  memorable  in  English 
annals  by  the  invasion  of  Prince  Charles 
Edward.  [Jacobites.]  He  defeated  Cope  at 
Prestonpans  in  September,  and'  marched 
-as  far  as  Derby,  to  the  great  alarm  of  the 
government.  He  then  retreated  into  Soot- 
land,  and  won  the  battle  of  Falkirk  near  by 


Om 


(  495  ) 


Geo 


Stirling,  but  his  army  was  cut  to  pieces  at 
OaUoden,  in  April,  1746,  and  he  escaped  with 
difficulty  to  the  Continent.  In  the  midst  of 
this  crisis  the  Pelhams,  failing  to  procure 
the  admission  of  Pitt  to  office,  had  resided ; 
but,  on  Grenville*s  failing  to  form  a  ministry, 
they  returned  to  power,  having  gained  their 
point.  Abroad,  the  Duke  of  Cumberland's 
campaign  in  the  Netherlands  was  not  success- 
ful. At  leng^  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 
(q.v.)  brought  the  struggle  to  a  close,  the 
terms  being  a  mutual  restoration  of  con- 
quests (1748).  Pelham  thereupon  introduced 
an  important  financial  measure,  proposing  to 
reduce  the  interest  on  the  national  debt  to 
three  per  cent.  This  was  followed  up  by  the 
Keform  of  the  Calendar  in  1761,  and  two 
years  later  by  Hardwicke's  ^larriage  Act.  A 
Bill  for  the  ^Naturalisation  of  Jews  was  car- 
ried, but  popular  sentiment  ne(!e88itated  its 
repesd.  The  Wesleyans  became  numerous, 
and  exercised  a  reviving  influence  on  religion. 
In  1754,  on  the  death  of  Pelham,  the  incom- 
petent Newcastle  assumed  the  government. 
^*Now  I  shall  have  no  more  peace,"  said 
Oeorge  II.  A  new  war  was  breaking  out  with 
France  in  India  and  America,  and  the  Seven 
Years'  War  was  on  the  verge  of  beginning.  In 
1756  war  began.  Minorca  was  captured  by  the 
French  owing  to  the  weak  conduct  of  Admiral 
Byng,  and  Newcastle,  deserted  by  Fox,  was 
■obliged  to  resign.  Pitt  failed  to  form  a 
durable  ministry,  until,  by  a  coalition  with 
Newcastle,  the  ministry  was  constituted 
which  so  gloinously  carried  on  the  war.  Vigo- 
rous measures  were  at  once  set  on  foot  on  the 
Continent.  Austria,  France,  and  Kussia 
fought  against  England  and  Prussia.  The 
traditional  policy  of  England  was  truly 
upset.  [Seven  Years'  War.]  A  long  scries 
of  expeditions  kept  up  the  fame  of  the 
British  arms.  The  attack  on  Rochefort  was 
unsuccessful,  nor  was  the  enterprise  against 
Louisbourg,  in  America,  attended  with  better 
results.  li^nally,  the  Duke  of  Cumberland, 
beaten  at  Hastenbeck,  and  surrounded  by  the 
French  at  Kloster-Seven,  was  compelled  to 
capitulate.  In  India,  however,  CUve  had 
gained  the  great  victory  of  Plassey.  In  1758, 
Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  was  appointed 
oommander  in  the  place  of  Cumberland. 
After  his  victory  at  Crefeld,  a  large  body  of 
troops  was  sent  to  assist  him.  The  expeditions 
against  Cherbourg  and  St  Malo  were  pro- 
ductive of  little  result.  'In  America  the 
English  took  Louisbourg,  Fort  Duquesne,  and 
Ticonderoga.  The  year  1759  was  one  of  the 
most  glorious  iu  our  history.  In  January, 
Goree,  in  Africa,  was  captured;  in  June, 
•^uadlaloupe.  In  August  Ferdinand  of  Bruns- 
wick gained  a  great  Wctorj'  at  Minden,  and 
«aved  Hanover ;  in  September  Admiral  Bos- 
cawen  defeated  the  French  off  Lagos ;  in 
October,  Wolfe  beat  them  at  Quebec  ;  in 
November,  Hawke  defeated  Conflans  off 
^niberon.     In  India  the  siege  of  3fadrH8  was 


raised,  and  Coote  took  Wandewash.  The 
great  victories  of  Frederick,  in  the  following 
year,  may  be  said  to  have  concluded  the  war. 
At  the  moment  of  prosperity,  George  died 
suddenly  on  October  26,  1760.  Lord  Stan- 
hope's estimate  o^  his  character  is  that 
*'  he  had  scarcely  one  kingly  quality,  except 
personal  courage  and  justice.  Avarice,  the 
most  unprincely  of  all  passions,  sat  unshrined 
in  the  inmost  recesses  of  his  bosom  .... 
Business  he  understood,  and  transacted  with 
pleasure.  Like  his  father,  he  was  far  too  Hano- 
verian in  his  politics,  nor  wholly  free  from 
the  influence  of  his  mistresses.  But  his  reign 
of  thirty -one  years  deserves  this  praise,  that 
it  never  once  invaded  the  rights  of  the  nation, 
nor  harshly  enforced  the  prerogatives  of  the 
crown ;  that  its  last  period  was  illumined  by 
the  glories  of  Wolfe  and  of 'Chatham:  and 
that  il  left  the  dynasty  secure,  the  constitu- 
tion unimpaired,  and  the  people  prosperous." 

Stanhope,  Hitt.  of  England;  Lecky,  Hi&t.  of 
England;  Maoaolaj,  Eaaaya;  Hervey,  Mein&in 
cf  the  Beiyn  of  Gwrg*  IL;  Dodmgton,  Diary; 
Uonuse  Watpole,  Memoir*;  Waldograve,  M^ 
rnoir*;  Southey,  Life  qf  WeeUy.       |-g^  j^  L  ] 

George  IZZ.  {b.  June  4,  1738,  #.  Oct. 
25,  1760,  d.  Jan.  20,  1820)  was  the  son  of 
Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales,  and  the  grand- 
son of  George  II.  His  father  died  in  1751, 
leaving  him  to  the  care  of  his  clever  mother, 
a  princess  of  Saxe-Grotha,  and  of  Lord  Bute, 
by  whom  he  was  brought  up  in  the  Anti- 
Whig  principles  set  forth  in  Bolingbroke*s 
Idea  of  Fairwt  King,  After  a  love  affair  with 
Ladv  Sarah  Lennox,  which  was  nipped  in 
the  Dud,  George  married,  in  1761,  the  Prin- 
cess Charlotte  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz.  Im- 
mediately upon  his  accession,  the  king  set 
himself  to  break  the  power  of  the  Whig 
houses.  By  the  aid  of  the  "  king^s  friends," 
Pitt  was  driven  from  power  (1761),  and  his 
policy  reversed  by  the  Peace  of  Paris  (1763). 
The  incompetence  of  Lord  Bute,  however, 
postponed  the  triumph  of  Tor^-ism,  and 
George  was  forced  to  submit  to  the  obnoxious 
administrations  of  (xcorge  Grrenxnlle  (1763), 
and  of  Rockingham  (1766J.  At  length  Pitt, 
now  Earl  of  Chatham,  who  had  broken  with  the 
Whigs,  consented  to  come  to  the  king's  rescue, 
but  a  nervous  disorder  soon  forced  him 
to  retire,  and  the  administration  was  con- 
tinued bv  the  Duke  of  Grafton,  the  king  all 
the  while  steadily  pursuing  his  policy  of 
breaking  up  party  ties,  and  so  making  su- 
preme the  influence,  of  the  crown.  The  per- 
secution of  Wilkes  was  made  a  personal 
question;  but  the  king  was  as  yet  popular, 
and  the  unconstitutional  conduct  of  the 
government  excited  little  indignation  outside 
London  and  Middlesex.  At  last,  in  1770,  ten 
years  after  his  accession,  Greorge  found  him- 
self in  a  position  to  appoint  Lord  North 
Prime  Minister,  and  for  twelve  years  personal 
government  obtained  in  England,  the  Premier 
being  nothing  more  than  a  passive  instrument 


0#o 


(  406  ) 


0«o 


in  the  hands  of  his  sovereign.  They  were 
years  of  disaster  and  disgrace.  At  home  the 
royal  influence  was  used  unscrupulously  to 
further  particular  measures  and  to  browbeat 
the  Opposition,  appointments  in  the  army 
were  tampered  with,  and  the  business  in  Par- 
liament controlled.  Abroad,  the  policy  of 
coercing  the  American  colonies,  continued  in 
accordance  with  the  express  wish  of  the  king, 
was  at  first  extremely  popular  in  England, 
nor  did  opinions  begin  to  change  until  the 
declaration  of  war  had  been  followed  by  Bur- 
dyne's  surrender  at  Saratoga,  and  by  the 
intervention  of  France  in  the  struggle  (1778). 
Then  North  wished  to  resign  in  favour  of 
Lord  Chatham,  but  George  declined  to  "  pos- 
sess the  crown  under  shackles ;"  and  by  the 
death  of  the  groat  statesman  in  the  following 
year,  he  was  left  free  to  carry  on  the  "  king's 
war,"  in  spite  of  the  misgivings  of  the  Prime 
Minister,  and  the  numerous  resignations  of 
his  colleagues.  The  storm  was,  however, 
gathering  to  a  head;  disaster  followed  dis- 
aster in  America ;  at  home  the  sullen  discon- 
tent of  the  masses  foimd  expression  in  the 
dangerous  (Gordon  Hiots ;  there  was  a  strong 
demand  fdt  economical  reform ;  Mr.  Dunning 
moved  his  famous  resolutions  against  the 
increasing  influence  of  the  crown.  George 
attempted  to  stave  off  the  inevitable  by  nego- 
tiating through  Lord  Thurlow  with  the  OpfK)- 
sition,  but  he  was  checkmated  by  the  sur- 
render of  Comwallis  at  Yorkto^n,  and  North 
resigned  in  March,  1782.  Once  more  the 
king  was  placed  under  the  hateful  thraldom 
of  the  Whigs.  During  Rockingham's  brief 
second  ministry,  he  was  forced  to  consent  to 
the  acknowledgment  of  American  indepen- 
dence, and  though  he  found  Lord  Shelbume 
more  pliable,  the  powerful  coalition  of  Fox 
and  North,  formea  in  1783,  came  into  office 
with  the  express  determination  to  break  the 
royal  authority.  George  resolved  to  appeal 
to  the  country  against  the  government.  By 
a  most  unconstitutional  use  of  his  personal 
influence  in  the  House  of  Lords,  he  procured 
the  rejection  of  Fox's  East  India  Bill,  minis- 
ters were  dismissed,  and  after  Pitt,  the  new 
Prime  Minister,  had  roused  the  enthusiasm  of 
the  nation  by  his  gallant  struggle  against  the 
majority  in  the  Commons,  Parliament  was 
dissolved  in  1784,  and  the  elections  resulted 
in  the  complete  victory  of  the  crown  over  the 
Whig  oligarchy.  For  the  second  time  in  the 
reig^  the  king  had  been  able  to  override 
the  House  of  Commons,  and  he  again  found 
himself  in  possession  of  a  long  lease  of  power 
checked  only  by  the  fact  that  his  minister 
was  not  a  mere  servant  like  Lord  North.  A 
period  of  considerable  material  progress  fol- 
lowed, during  which  Pitt's  excellent  adminis- 
tration gained  for  the  crown  much  popularity, 
unchecked  by  the  king's  well-known  dislike 
to  parliamentary  reform.  It  was,  however, 
a  time,  of  much  misery  to  the  king,  who  was 
distressed  by  the  irregularities  of  his  sons, 


and  who  in  1789  became  afflicted  with  that 
mental  aberration  of  which  symptoms  had 
appeared  soon  after  his  accession.  At  first 
he  was  made  considerably  worse  by  the  in- 
capacity of  the  court  doctors,  but  under  the 
skilful  treatment  of  Dr.  Willis  he  rapidly 
recovered,  and  on  April  23  personally  at- 
tended the  Thanksgiving  Service  at  St.  Paul's. 
His  popularity,  which  was  i>artly  due  no 
doubt  to  the  distrust  -with  which  the  heir 
apparent  was  regarded,  was  at  its  height 
when  the  outburst  of  the  French  Revolution 
friffhtened  even  the  greater  part  of  the  Whig 
malcontents,  as  well  as  the  mercantile  and 
propertied  classes,  into  lending  their  support 
to  the  throne.  It  was  with  the  approval  of  the 
upper  classes  that  the  king  and  his  minister 
entered  upon  that  coarse  of  repression  of 
opinion  which  tended,  more  than  anything 
else,  to  make  the  lower  orders  espouse  the 
new  gospel  of  democracy.  It  is  unnecessary 
to  descrioe  in  detail  Pitt's  splendid  efforts  to 
keep  together  the  European  coalition,  which 
opposed  such  a  wavering  front  to  the  deter- 
mined progress  of  the  French  arms.  The 
burdens  imposed  upon  the  nation,  added  to 
the  sufferings  produced  by  bad  harvests  and 
depression  of  trade,  rapidly  made  the  war 
very  unpopular,  and  with  it  the  king,  who 
was  assaulted  by  the  mob  when  he  went  to 
open  Parliament  for  the  autumn  session  of 
1795.  Nevertheless,  the  struggle  continued, 
though  Napoleon  had  appeared,  and  though 
the  victories  won  bv  English  seamen  could 
not  atone  for  the  defeats  experienced  by  Con- 
tinental generals.  In  1800  a  lunatic  named 
Hatfield  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
shoot  the  king.  Once  more  England's  weak- 
ness was  Ireland's  opportunity,  and  Pitt 
wished  to  stave  off  rebellion  by  emandpating 
the  Catholics.  The  king  refused  to  agree  to 
such  a  measure,  uUoging  that  it  would  be  a 
violation  of  the  coronation  oath,  and  finding 
the  minister  determined,  he  was  forced  to 
accept  his  resig^iation  (March,  1801).  The 
shock  to  George  was  so  great  that  it  orouffht 
on  a  fresh  attack  of  insanity,  from  which 
however,  he  soon  recovered.  Pitt's  sue- 
cossor  was  Adding^ton,  who  was  a  second 
North  in  point  of  subservience ;  he  was  en- 
abled to  conclude  the  short-lived  Peace  of 
Amiens  in  March,  1802,  but  few  believed  it 
to  be  real,  least  of  all  the  king.  War  was 
again  declared  in  May,  1803,  and  it  was 
while  he  was  urging  forward  with  the  utmost 
zeal  the  preparations  that  were  being  made 
to  resist  the  French  invader,  that  the  king 
became  once  more  a  prey  to  madness.  He 
rallied  to  discover  that  both  the  people  and 
Parliament  were  weary  of  the  incapacity  of 
Addington,  and  clamouring  for  the  return  ^f 
Pitt  to  power.  Negotiations  were  opened;  Pitt 
wished  to  form  a  ministry  on  a  broad  basis,  but 
the  king  declined  to  admit  Fox,  whom  he 
personally  disliked,  and  a  government  waa- 
at  length'created  of  a  completely  Tory  colour 


0«o 


(497) 


Geo 


It  carried  on  the  straggle  against  Napoleon 
veilh  indifferent  success  until  18U6,  when 
I^tt  died,  the  news  of  the  viclor>'  of  Trafalgar 
being  insufficient  to  rescue  him  from  the 
dejection  caused  by  the  defeat  of  Austerlitz. 
Again  the  king  was  forced  to  have  recourse 
to  the  Opposition,  and,  sorely  against  his  will, 
was  compelled  to  accept  Fox  and  Grenville 
as  leaders  of  a  wide  *' Ministry  of  AU  the 
Talents.'* 

Grenville,  weakened  by  the  death  of  Fox, 
attempted  to  bring  forward  the  Catholic 
claims  again,  in  the  form  of  a  small  measure 
for  the  relief  of  officers  in  the  army  and  navy. 
It  was  about  to  become  law,  when  the  king, 
alarmed  by  the  resignation  of  Lord  Sidmouth 
(Addington),  and  encouraged  by  the  promise 
of  the  Duke  of  Portland  to  form  a  govern- 
ment suitable  to  his  wishes,  called  upon  the 
ministers  to  drop  the  bill.  They  obeyed,  but 
at  the  same  time  drew  up  a  minute  reserving 
their  right  to  revive  the  question.  This 
George  desired  them  to  withdraw,  and  to  give 
him  a  written  engagement  that  they  would 
never  offer  him  any  advice  upon  the  subject 
of  Catholic  concession.  With  great  propnety 
they  declined  to  ^ve  any  such  pledge ;  they 
were  promptlv  dismissea  and  replaced  by  a 
ministry  nommallv  led  by  the  Duke  of  Port- 
land, and  really  by  Mr.  Spencer  Perceval. 
A  dissolution  resulted  onco  more  in  the 
national  ratification  of  the  sovereign's  uncon- 
stitutional action  (1807).  This  was  the  king's 
final  triumph.  The  ministry,  of  which  Spencer 
Perceval  became  the  head  in  1809,  was  sup- 
ported by  too  large  a  majority  to  be  over- 
thrown by  any  amount  of  blundering  in  its 
dealings  with  America,  and  gained  some 
credit  from  the  accidental  discovery  of  the 
talents  of  Wellington  in  Spain.  In  1811 
the  reign  came,  to  all  intents  and  purposes, 
to  an  end.  The  health  of  George  III.,  which 
had  been  gravely  affected  by  the  failure  of 
the  Duke  of  York  in  the  Walcheren  expedi- 
tion, broke  down  after  the  death  of  the 
Princess  Amelia,  and  he  became  hopelessly 
insane.  For  nine  more  years  he  lingered  on 
mad,  blind,  and  melancholy,  but  the  glories  of 
the  Peninsular  War  and  of  Waterloo,  as  well  as 
the  social  misery  that  followed  the  downfall 
of  Napoleon,  have  little  to  do  with  a  king 
who,  if  in  full  mental  vigour,  would  certainly 
have  identified  himself  with  the  praise,  and 
would  not  have  shrunk  from  his  share  of  the 
blamei 

It  is  impoflslble  to  give  an  exhaustive  list  of 
the  anthoritiefl  for  tms  Important  reign.  The 
general  histories  are  those  of  Lord  Stanhope  (to 
17IB),  of  Mr.  Lecky,  of  ICossey  (1745—1802).  and 
of  Harriet  Martinean  (from  ISiOO).  For  oonstita- 
tional  hiatory,  see  May's  ConMt.  Hi$t.  There  are 
many  good  biographies  of  great  statesmen,  «.g., 
Pittt  by  Lord  Stanhope,  Tomline,  and  Lord  Kose- 
bery;  CAathcm,  by  Thackeray;  £>htfIbum«,byLord 
£.  Fitxmanrice ;  Fox,  by  Earl  Boaaell ;  The  Early 
Hid.  tifFox,  by  Mr.  O.  O.  Trerelyan;  Ptreeval, 
bj  Mr.  Bpencet  Walpole ;  Burke,  by  Mr.  John 
Morler;  Canning,  by  Bell  and  Stapleton.  Of 
memoirs,  oorrespondmoe,  Ac.,  the  most  im- 


portant are  those  of  Horoos  WalpoU  and  JZocfe. 
vngham;  the  Or«nvtIl«  Papr r«  ;  the^acUoMd  Cor- 
rMpondencc  ;  Buckingham's  Jfcmein  o/ tli«  Court 
ana  CaimuU  o/  tieorge  III, ;  .Tesse,  Memaira  qf  the 
Li/0  and  Beign  of  George  III.  ;  Mahnesbury's 
Onreepondence  ;  the  ComwalUs  CorrMpondmee  ; 
Corretpondenee  betvoeen  the  King  and  North  (pub. 
1867).  See  also  the  LtUere  of  Juniue ;  Burke, 
WoHce;  Brougham,  Hidorical  Sketch ;  The  An- 
nual Begitter;  Cobbett's  ParUamentary  Hut 

[L.  C.  8.] 

C^eorge  lY.  (6*  Aug.  12,  1762;  «.  Jan. 
29,  1820;  d,  Jan.  26,  1880)  was  bom 
upon  the  forty-seventh  anniversary  of  the 
accession  of  the  house  of  Brunswick.  The 
education  which  his  parents  gave  him  was  of 
so  strict  and  dull  a  kind  that  it  would  have 
caused  any  boy  of  spirit  to  revolt.  The 
coldness  and  tedium  of  his  father's  court 
developed  quickly  the  worst  side  of  the 
prince  s  character.  At  twenty  he  fell  des- 
perately in  love  with  a  Mrs.  Fitz-Herbert, 
whom  he  privately  mamed,  a  marriage  void  by 
reason  of  the  RoAtil  Marriage  Act ;  if  it  had 
not  been,  it  would  have  cost  George  the  throne, 
as  Mrs.  Fitz-Herbert  was  a  Roman  Catholic. 
On  his  attaining  twenty-one  his  father  had 
settled  on  him  £50,000  a  year ;  the  revenues 
of  the  Duchy  of  Cornwall  amounted  to 
£12,000;  and  Parliament  voted  him  £30,000 
to  start  with,  and  the  same  amount  to  pay  off 
his  debts.  Within  a  year  his  debts  amounted 
to  £160,000.  The  king  added  £10,000  to  his 
allowance,  which  only  served  to  encourage 
his  reckless  extravagance.  In  the  hope  that 
it  might  come  into  power  and  so  help  him, 
he  aUied  himself  closely  with  the  Whig 
party,  which  his  father  hated.  The  action 
of  Fox  in  1788  with  regard  to  the  Regency 
Bill  raised  his  hopes  of  improving  his 
position ;  but  they  were  disappointed  by  the 
king*s  recovery.  The  Whigs  were  evidently 
a  broken  reed  to  lean  upon;  and  Pitt  with 
inexorable  coldness  refused  to  help  him  in 
any  way.  The  prince  was  thus  thrown  back 
on  his  father;  and  the  king  insisted  on  his 
marriage.  He  was  engaged  in  countless 
intrigues;  and  to  settle  down  into  wedlock 
was  utterly  distasteful  to  him.  Yet  it  was 
his  only  chance  of  clearing  himself  from  his 
embarrassments;  and  in  1796  Parliament 
undertook  to  discharge  his  debts,  which 
amounted  to  £650,000,  on  his  marriage  with 
Princess  Caroline  of  Brunswick,  whom  George 
III.  had  selected  as  an  eligible  wife  for  his 
son.  The  prince  was  drunk  when  he  married 
her,  and  before  nine  months  passed  by,  had 
openly  separated  from  her,  to  return  to  his 
old  habits  of  vice  and  profligacy.  The  prince 
continued  to  affect  an  attachment  to  the 
Whigs  and  their  political  principles,  and  in 
the  meantime  lived  the  life  of  a  reckless 
debauchee,  day  by  day  disgusting  his  friends 
by  his  faithlessness,  and  alienating  the  people's 
affections  by  the  unconcealed  profligacy  of  his 
life.  In  1803  Addington*s  government  had 
the  boldness  to  procure  an  addition  of  £60,000 


Gm 


(498) 


Ow 


to  bis  income.    In  1811   he  found  himself 
compelled  to   accept  the  regency  on  terms 
which  he  did  his  best  to  have  modified.    But 
his  conduct  had  disgusted  his  best  friendsi  the 
Whigs,  who  now  began  to  see  him  in  his 
true  colours.   Finding  that  nothing  was  to  be 
got  from  them,  he  deserted  them  in  a  moment, 
accepted  the  regency  on  the  terms  proposed, 
and   retained  Perceval    as  Prime  Minister. 
His  heartless  conduct  to  his  daughter,  the 
Princess  Charlotte,  increased  his  unpopularity. 
He  kept  her  in  absolute  bondage  till  long 
after  the  period  when  most  girls  are  thought 
fit  to  enjoy  the  gaieties  of  life ;  and,  when  she 
refused  to  accept  the  Prince  of  Orange,  whom 
the  Begent  had,  for  his  own  selfish  reasons, 
chosen  as  a  husband  for  her,  she  was  again 
relegated  to  the  same  course  of  treatment. 
But   the   people   devoted   all    the    loyalty 
which  they  were  prepared  to  give  to  any 
decent  monarch,  to  the  piinccss,  and  were 
overwhelmed    with    grief    when    she    died, 
shortly    after    her    marriage    with    Prince 
Leopold  of  Coburg.    In  1817  the  feeling  of 
the  people  made  itself  felt  by  publicly  insult- 
ing the  Begent  on  his  way  back  from  opening 
Parliamenc.     The  result  of  the  outrage  at 
the  time  was  merely  the  adoption  by  the 
ministry  of  repressive  measures,  and  an  even 
bitterer  hatred  of   the  Regent  among  the 
people,  which  was  destined  to  be  brought  to  a 
head  soon  after  his  father's  death,  when  he 
acceded  to  the  throne,  by  his  prosecution  of 
the  queen  (1820).     George  was  anxious  to 
obtain  a  divorce  from  his  wife.    He  had  set 
spies  to  watch  her,  and  they  had  got  up  a 
case  against  her.     Whether  the  queen  was 
g^lty  or  not  the  nation  cared  little ;  their 
feeling  was  that  they  would  never  tolerate 
the  king's  divorce  from  a  woman  who,  if  she 
had  slipped,  had  been  driven  into  error  by  his 
own  brutality.    The  ministry  was  compelled 
to  abandon  the  case,  and  the  queen's  death 
ended  the  matter.   W ithout  his  father's  virtues 
George  IV.  had  as  narrow-minded  a  horror 
of  change  as  the  old  king  himself.    Fortu- 
nately for  the  country  he  had  not  the  moral 
strength,  or  even  the  obstinate  courage,  which 
had  enabled  George  III.  always  to  gain  his 
point.  In  deference  to  the  king's  conscientious 
scruples  Pitt  had  consented    to  waive  the 
Catholic  question.  The  notion  of  conscientious 
scruples  influencing  George  IV.  was  nothing 
short  of  ludicrous.     He  too,  however,  refused 
to  submit,  whereupon  Peel  and  the  Duke  of 
Wellington  offered  their  resignations.    They 
were  accepted,  but  before  the  next  day  the 
king  had  reflected  that  it  was  impossible  for 
him  to  form  another  ministry',  and  that  his 
father's  old  threat  of  retiring  to  Hanover 
would  be  only  too  gladly  received  by  the 
nation :   he  surrendered  and  wrote  to  them 
a  note  begging  them  to  remain  in  office,  and 
allowing  them  to  have  their  own  way.    Little 
more  than  a  year  after  this  event  he  died, 
*'the  victim  to  a  complication  of  diseases, 


which  had  made  his  later  years  miserable.*' 
Mr.  Walpole  has  shortly  summed  up  the 
character  of  George  IV, :  "  He  was  a  bad  son, 
a  bad  husband,  a  bad  father,  a  bad  subject, 
a  bad  monarch,  and  a  bad  friend."  The  only 
merit  which  the  historian  can  attribute  to 
him  is  faint  praise  of  the  most  damning  kind ; 
it  is  that  his  vices,  his  unpopularity,  and  his 
weakness  did  more  to  advance  the  cause  of 
reform  than  all  the  pict}',  religion,  and  con- 
scientiousness of  his  father. 

Lord  MalmMbnry,  Mem&irB ;  G.  Boee,  Diary ; 
Ths  Londonderry  Corre9poi»dtHro ;  Fitzgerald's 
Lif«  of  Qeorif9  IV.;  Lord  Colchester,  JMary; 
Buke  of  Buckingham,  Mrnn,  of  the  Court  of  w 


Walix>le'8  England  fvoia  1816;  Alison,  Hid,  of 
^^^OP'-  [W.  R.  S.] 

Georgia.    [Colonixs,  Ambiucak.] 

Oerbevoiy  The  Battlb  of  (1080),  was 
fought  between  William  the  Conqueror  and  his 
eldest  son  Bobert,  who,  aided  by  the  French 
king,  sought  to  establish  himself  as  Duke  of 
Normandy.  The  action  was  a  slight  one,  and 
Robert  having  unhorsed  and  wounded  his 
father,  expressed  penitence  for  his  rebellion, 
and  a  reconciliation  was 'effected. 

QennaiLBtowiif  The  Battle  of  (Oct.  4, 
1777),  fought  between  Washington  and  Lord 
Howe  at  Germanstown,  on  Uie  Schuylkill 
River,  north  of  Philadelphia.  The  English 
held  Germanstown  to  protect  Philadelphia, 
which  they  had  recently  occupied.  Washing- 
ton attacked  them  with  great  success  at  the 
first  outset,  but  a  panic  seized  his  raw  and 
diHorganised  army,  and  they  fled,  leaving  the 
English  in  possession  of  the  town. 
Bancroft ;  Qordoa. 

GermaailUL  St.  {d.  448),  was  Bishop 
of  Auxerrc,  and  is  said  to  have  been  invited 
over  to  Britain  to  combat  Pelagianism.  This 
he  successfully  did,  and  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity those  British  tribes  which  still  re- 
mained heathen.  Encouraged  by  him  the 
Britons  won  a  bloodless  victory  over  the  com- 
bined Picts  and  iSaxons  known  as  the  Alleluia 
Victory  (q.v.).  The  best  date  for  his  visit  to 
Britain  is  a.d.  429.  The  dedication  of 
several  churches  in  Wales  and  Cornwall  to  him 
attests  the  memory  of  his  visit. 

Bode,  Hift.  Eeclu.,  i.,  ch.  zx. ;  Gonstaatiiu, 
S.  Oermani  Vita. 

Gertmydenbargy  The  Confbkkncb 
at  (1710),  was  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to 
bring  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  to  a 
close.  The  seat  of  the  negotiations,  which 
were  begun  on  the  side  of  France,  was 
moved  from  the  Hague  to  Gertmydenberg, 
a  village  at  the  mouth  of  the  Waal.  The 
Dutch  demanded  that  the  terms  of  the  pre- 
vious year,  viz.,  the  resignation  of  the  whole 
of  the  Spanish  succession  and  the  restoration 
of  Newfoundland  to  England,  should  be 
enforced,  with  the  terrible    condition   that 


Oer 


(  409  ) 


Gib 


Louis  should  assist  in  ejecting  his  grandson 
from  Spain.  This  the  I^rench  king  declined, 
although  he  olfered  a  monthly  subsidy 
towards  defraying  the  expenses  of  the  allies. 
Although  this  point  was  waived,  the  oppo- 
sition of  Austria  and  Savoy  to  these  terms  of 
peace  necessitated  the  continuation  of  the 
war.     [Spanish  Succession,  War  of  thb.] 

Stanbope,  Reign  of  <jtt«<n  Anne  ;  Wjon,  jBUiqn 
of  QiMen  Anne, 

Oerrase  of  Caaterbnzy  was  a  monk 

of  Christ  Church,  who  wrote  a  Chronicle  of 
the  Kings  of  England,  1122—1200,  and  a 
history  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury 
down  to  Hubert  Walter  (120a).  Gervase  is 
a  laborious  and  trustworthy  writer. 

Gexyase  of  Tillrary,  an  historian  of 

the  thirteenth  centuiy,  whose  career  as  a 
wandering  scholar  is  very  interesting,  was 
for  some  time  in  the  service  of  Otto  IV.,  and 
was  made  ISIarshal  of  the  Kingdom  of  Aries 
by  him,.  Bale  gives  a  long  catalogue  of  his 
writings,  but  the  only  one  published  and  of 
importance  is  Le  Otiie  Lnperiaiibus. 

GesitlL  (companion)  was  the  old  English 
word  for  the  Latin  eotnes,  Tacitus  gives  us 
a  description  of  the  primitive  eomitatua  of  the 
old  German  king.  The  comiUt  were  his  per- 
gonal dependents,  fighting  his  battles,  living 
in  his  house,  and  whofiy  occupied  in  his 
service.  The  position  was  coveted  by  the 
most  noble  3'outh  of  Germany.  As  the 
comitattts  reappears  in  England,  the  increased 
dignity  of  the  king  has  immeasurably  in- 
creased the  distance  between  him  and  his 
companions  in  arms.  He  now  gives  dignity 
and  importance  to  his  followers.  The  gesith 
becomes  the  thegn ;  the  companion  the  ser- 
vant. The  royal  gesiths  are  strongly  marked 
out  from  the  gesiths  of  the  ealdorman  or 
bishop,  who  are  merely  his  retainers  or  wards. 
Ultimately  large  grants  of  folkland  reward 
the  services  of  the  faithful  thegn.  [Theqn.] 
A  new  nobilit}"  of  service  ultimately  develops 
from  the  eomitatus.  Extinct  on  the  Continent, 
the  eomitatuM  becomes  in  England  a  chief 
source  of  feudalism.  The  huwarls  ot  Canute 
reproduce  the  earlier  gesiths  of  the  heptarchic 
kings.  The  geeitActtfulMan  was  a  man  in 
the  rank  of  a  gesith,  and  ennobled  by  his 
service. 

Gloataxy  to  Schmfd's  Oeeette;  Tacitus,  Qer- 
mania ;  Btubbs,  Conet,  Hiat. ;  Kemble,  Saxone  im 
Bnglmid, 

Oosta  Stophani  is  the  work  of  an  un- 
known author,  and  embraces  the  period  from 
1135  to  1180.  It  is  evidently  the  work  of  a 
contemporary,  and  is  very  interesting  for  the 
picture  it  affords  of  the  anarchy  of  Stephen's 
reign. 

Gluliais,  The,  are  inhabitants  of  the 
province  l^nng  to  the  north-east  of  Candahar. 
They  are  a  fine  muscular  race,  expert  in  the 
^ue  of  the  musket,  sword,  and  knife,  and 


characterised  by  an  intense  ferocity  of  dis- 
position, the  result  of  centuries  of  rapine  and 
petty  warfare.  They  have  been  the  most 
resolute  opponents  of  every  invader,  and 
have  never  submitted  to  the  rulers  of  Cabul 
or  Candahar,  but  have  continued  with  per- 
fect impunity  their  hereditar}"  profession  of 
levying  black-mail  on  all  who  traverse  their 
mountains. 

Malleson,  Afghanidan. 

Qlllixili,  Thb  Sibgb  of  (Jan.  21,  1839). 
This  great  fortress  vras  strong  by  nature  and 
by  art,  surrounded  by  a  wall  sixty  or  seventy 
feet  high  and  a  wet  ditch.  During  the  English 
invasion  of  Afghanistan  it  was  garrisoned 
by  3,000  men  commanded  by  Hyder  Khan, 
the  son  of  Dost  Mahomed.  The  English 
battering  train  had  been  left  behind,  and  it 
was  impossible  to  break  the  walls  with  the 
few  six-  and  nine-poundeiB  which  had  accom- 
panied them.  A  nephew  of  Dost  Mahomed, 
however,  for  a  large  oribe,  turned  traitor  and 
gave  an  accurate  description  of  the  condition 
and  character  of  the  defences.  It  was  deter- 
mined to  blow  up  the  gate,  abd  then  rush 
into  the  fortress.  Nine  hundred  pounds  of 
powder,  packed  in  bags,  were  conveyed  under 
cover  of  darkness  to  t)ie  gate  and  successfully 
exploded.  The  massive  gate  was  shivered, 
and  masses  of  masonxy  flew  in  all  directions. 
Colonel  Dennie  of  the  13th  Light  Infantr}' 
rushed  in  with  the  storming  party  over  the 
debris,  and  drove  back  the  enemy  who  were 
hastily  assembling  behind  the  breach,  and  a 
mortal  struggle  ensued  which  lasted  some 
hours.  At  dawn  of  day,  however,  the  British 
ensign  floated  over  the  citadel  of  Ghuzni, 
which  was  thus  won  with  a  loss  of  180  killed 
and  wounded,  of  whom  eighteen  were  officers. 
[Afghan  Waks.] 

Ann,  Reg. ;  Kaje,  Affgh<m  War, 

Gibbot  Rnttfli  ^as  a  camp  of  the  Irish 
rebels  in  1798,  on  the  Curragh  or  racecourse 
near  that  place.  Sir  James  Duff  advanced 
on  it  from  Limerick,  and  the  garrison 
offered  to  surrender,  biit  by  some  accident  a 
gun  was  discharged,  and  the  troops,  fearinff 
treacher}%  charged  with  the  bayonet,  and 
kiUed  350  of  the  rebels  (May  26,  1798). 

QitealtaTf  &  promontory  at  the  entrance 
to  the  Mediterranean,  is  situated  in  the 
Spanish  province  of  Andalusia.  The  natural 
strength  of  the  position — it  is,  in  fact,  the 
key  of  the  Mediterranean — attracted  attention 
at  a  very  early  date.  From  712  to  the 
beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  it  was 
in  the  hands  of  the  Saracens,  by  whom  it 
was  again  retaken  from  the  Spaniards,  in  1333. 
In  1410  the  rock  was  taken  by  the  Moorish 
King  of  Granada,  and  in  1462  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Spaniards,  by  whom  it  was 
formally  annexed,  1602.  In  1704  a  com- 
bined English  and  Dutch  fleet,  under  Sir 
George  Kooke,  compelled  the  governor,  the 


CHf 


(  600  ) 


CHI 


Marquis  defialines,  to  surrender,  and  Gibraltar 
has  ever  since  remained  in  the  possession  of 
the  English,  sustaining  a  well-conducted 
siege  in  1705.  In  1713  it  was  fonnally  ceded 
to  Great  Britain  by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht. 
Many  attempts  have  been  made  by  the 
Spaniards  to  recover  so  important  a  position. 
In  1718  Stanhope  was  almost  induced  to 
surrender  what  he  regarded  as  of  little  value 
and  an  insuperable  obstacle  to  peace  with 
Spain.  In  1720  a  projected  attack,  under 
the  ^larquis  of  Leda,  came  to  nothing,  and 
in  1727  the  Count  de  U  Torres  and  20,000 
men  also  failed  to  take  the  rock.  In  1757 
Pitt  was  willing  to  surrender  the  rock  if  the 
Spaniards  would  help  in  the  recapture  of 
Minorca  from  the  trench;  but  they  per- 
severed in  neutrality,  and  in  1761  joined  the 
Family  Compact  largely  in  consequence  of 
the  desire  to  win  it  back.  The  most  famous 
siege  of  Gibraltar  was  one  lasting  from  1779 
to  1783,  by  a  combined  force  of  Spaniards 
and  French,  which  was  successfully  with- 
stood by  the  English  under  General  Elliot, 
afterwards  Lord  Heathfield;  a  siege  almost  un- 
paralleled in  the  annals  of  ancient  or  modem 
warfare.  The  English  were  more  than  once 
reinforced  or  revictualled  by  sea;  but  the 
investment  continued,  and  a  very  severe 
bombardment  and  powerful  floating  batteries 
were  tried  in  vain  against  it.  The  possession 
of  Gibraltar  gives  England  a  commanding 
attitude  at  l]he  Atlantic  entrance  of  the 
Mediterranean,  which  enables  it  to  dispense 
with  the  continued  presence  of  a  large  mari- 
time force  on  that  sea.  The  administration 
is  in  the  hands  of  a  military  governor.  As 
u  *'free  port"  Gibraltar  is  the  seat  of  ex- 
tensive smuggling. 

Marfdn,  BritUh  CoZ<mt*«c ;  Brinkwater,  6iefi«  of 
Gibraltar;  Fresoott,  Ferdinand  and  Isabella; 
Stanhope,  Beign  of  Queen  Anne. 

Gilfard,  William  (d,  1129),  /as  Chan- 
cellor  under  William  I.,  William  II.,  and 
Henry  I.,  and  held  the  ofSce  no  less  than 
five  times.  During  Henry's  quarrel  with 
Anselm  he  was  nominated  to  the  see  of  Win- 
chester, but  refusing  to  be  consecrated  except 
by  the  archbishop,  he  was  deprived  of  lus 
office  and  banished  (1103).  The  dispute 
between  Anselm  and  the  king  having  at 
length  been  settled,  Giffard  was  consecrated 
in  1107.  He  introduced  the  Cisfercians  into 
England,  and  was  in  many  ways  a  great 
benefactor  to  the  Church. 

Gilford,  Gilbert  {d.  1590),  a  Jesuit,  during 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  **  dexterous,  subtle, 
and  many-tongpied,"  was  induced  to  turn 
traitor  to  his  friends  by  Walsinghain^s  bribes. 
The  treasonable  correspondence  of  the  Queen 
of  Scots  passed  through  his  hands  for  de- 
livery, and  copies  were  taken  by  him,  and  sent 
at  once  to  Walsingham.  B}-  this  means  the 
Babington  conspiracy  was  discovered,  and  the 
details  of  every  Catholic  plot  made  known  to 


the  ministers  almost  as  soon  as  conceived.  He 
went  to  Paris  after  the  arrest  of  the  Babington 
conspirators,  and  died  there. 

Gilbert,  Sm  Humphrey  {b,  1539,  d.  1583)^ 
a  half-brother  of  Sir  Walter  Kaleigh  and 
nephew  of  Catherine  Ashley,  by  whom  he  was 
introduced  to  the  notice  of  Queen  Elizabeth, 
first  distinguished  himself  as  a  soldier  in  the 
expedition  to  Ha^Te,  1563,  and,  subsequently, 
was  made  Governor  of  Munster.  In  the  Parlia- 
ment of  1571  Sir  Humplurey,  as  member  for 
Plymouth,  supported  the  royal  prerogative 
against  the  attacks  of  the  Wentworths ;  four 
years  later  he  published  his  discourse  to  prove 
a  passage  by  the  North- West  to  Cathaia  and 
the  East  Indies.  In  1578,  having  obtained 
from  Elizabeth  a  patent  empowerinff  him  to 
take  possession  of  any  unappropriated  lands  he 
might  discover,  he  sailed  to  North  America, 
but  returned  without  accomplishing  anything. 
In  1583  he  again  set  out  on  a  voyage  of 
discovery,  and  took  possession  of  Newfound- 
land, but  whilst  on  his  return  was  lost  with 
all  his  crew.  He  has  been  described  as  "  the 
worthiest  man  of  that  age." 

HaUojt;  Livn  of  BoMgh;  Wood,  AthnuB 
Oxonientet,  ed.  Bliss. 

Gilbert,  Lord  of  Galloway  [d.  1185),  was 
the  son  of  Fergus.  On  tiie  capture  of 
William  the  Lion  at  Alnwick  (1174),  he  at 
once  raised  the  standard  of  revolt  in  Galloway, 
in  conjunction  with  Uchtred,  his  brother, 
whom  he  subsequentl}'  murdered.  On 
William's  release,  a  sort  of  reconciliation 
was  effected,  though,  in  1184,  we  find 
Gilbert  harrying  the  Lothians. 

GildM  {b,  516  ?  d.  570  F)  is  said  to  have 
been  bom  in  the  year  of  the  battle  of  Mount 
Badon,  and  to  have  become  an  eodesiaatic 
In  550  he  retired  to  Armorica,  but  is  said  to- 
have  returned  to  Britain,  and  to  have  spent 
the  latter  years  of  his  life  at  Glastonbury. 
He  wrote  a  work  entitled  De  JBxeidio  Bi-itnn-^ 
nuBy  which  is  our  sole  contemporary  authority 
for  the  Saxon  conquest  of  Britain.  The  period 
that  it  embraces  extends  from  the  Roman 
conquest  to  the  year  560,  but  it  is  only  for 
the  latter  part  that  the  work  is  of  any 
original  value.  It  is  rather  a  piece  of  wild 
and  exaggerated  declamation  enforced  by 
historical  examples  than  a  real  history.  It 
contains  few  facts,  and  those  obsciu^v  or 
rhetorically  put.  Gildas  has  been  published 
by  the  English  Historical  Society,  and  in 
the  Monumenta  Hintorica  BrUannica,  A  trans- 
lation of  his  work  will  be  found  in  Bohn's 
Antiquarian  Library, 

Gillespie,  George  (b,  1613,  d.  1648),  a 
prominent  minister  in  Scotland,  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  opposition  to  Charles  I.  and 
Episcopalianism,  was  appointed  one  of  the 
four  representatives  of  the  Scotch  Church  at 
the  Westminster  Assembly,  in  which  he  took 
a  very  prominent  part.     He  was  Moderator 


cm 


(601  ) 


Gir 


of  the  GreDeral  Awembly  in  the  year  of  his 
death.  His  vigorous  writings  all  upheld  strong 
Fresbyterianism. 

Gilpin,  Bbbkard  {b,  1517,  d.  1583),  rector 
of  Houghton-le-Spring,  was  descended  from 
a  good  Westmoreland  family,  and  educated 
at  Oxford.  In  early  life  of  conservative 
religious  views,  he  yet  accepted  the  change 
of  Edward  VI.,  and  preached  before  that 
monarch.  But  he  leit  England  for  some 
time  for  theological  study  on  the  Continent, 
and  returning,  was  made  by  his  uncle  Tun- 
stall — ^restored  to  his  bishopric  of  Durham  by 
Mary — ^rector  of  Houghton-le-Spring.  Ar- 
rested on  a  charge  of  heresy,  the  opportune 
death  of  Mar^'  left  him  in  safety.  He  refused 
Elizabeth's  offer  of  the  biriiopric  of  Carlisle, 
and  laboured  at  Houghton  till  his  death. 
His  piety,  zeal,  hospitality,  and  liberality 
made  him  a  model  parish  priest,  and  a  bright 
exiimple  of  practical  religion  amidst  the  arid 
controversies  of  a  period  of  revolution. 

Carleton,    Life   of  Gilpin,   in   Wordsworth's 
BcdenaatieaX  Biography. 

Qilroyy  son  of  Gillemartin,  aided  Thomas, 
natural  son  of  Alan  of  GiJloway,  to  make  an 
Attempt  to  seize  Galloway  (1233).  Defeated 
with  great  loss  by  Macintagart,  Earl  of  Boss, 
Gilroy  and  Thomas  made  a  second  attempt  in 
the  following  year.  Overwhelmed  by  num- 
bers, however,  they  laid  down  their  arms,  and 
after  a  brief  imprisonment  recovered  their 
liberty. 

Gin  Act.  The  (1736),  was  proposed  by 
Sir  Joseph  Jekyll,  in  order  to  check  the 
drunkenness  of  the  lower  orders.  Ho  ad- 
vocated a  prohibitive  duty  of  208.  on  every 
jpdlon  sold  by  retail,  and  £50  yearly  for  a 
licence  to  every  retailer.  The  measure  was 
disliked  by  W'alpole,  who  inserted  a  clause 
that  £70,000  should  be  granted  to  the  king 
to  compensate  him  for  the  consequent  diminu- 
tion of  tiie  Civil  List.  The  Act  was  repealed 
in  1743,  it  being  found  that,  though  no 
licence  was  obtained  and  no  duty  paid,  gin 
was  publicly  sold  in  the  streets ;  and  a  new 
biU  was  passed,  by  which  '^a  small  duty 
per  gallon  was  laid  on  spirits  at  the  still 
head,  and  the  price  of  licenc^it  reduced  to 
208." 

Ginkell.    [Athloxe.] 

Gipsies  in  England.  The  gipsies 
-first  appeared  in  England  in  1514,  and  in 
Scotland  rather  earlier.  In  1531  an  Act 
banished  them  from  England,  and  in  1541 
from  Scotland,  under  pain  of  death.  Henry 
VIII.,  as  a  milder  measure,  shipped  some 
gipsies  to  Norway.  A  statute  of  1562  made 
even  intercourse  with  gipsies  felony  ;  and,  in 
1592,  five  men  were  hung  at  Durham  **for 
being  Egyptians.*'  Not  till  1783  was  the 
Act  of  1592  repealed.  In  Scotland,  there  are 
casoe  of  executions  of  gipsies,  for  no  other 


crime  than  their  origin,  in  1611  and  1636. 
But  the  treatment  of  Uiose  unlucky  wanderers 
was  mild  in  England  as  compared  with  the 
Continent. 

Bneydopadia  Britaimiea,  art.  *'  Oipoiefl." 

Oiraldns  Camlirensis  {b.  1 147,  d.  1220) 

was  the  literary  name  of  Gerald  de  Barry,  the 
most  famous  writer  and  literary  adventurer  of 
his  age.  Closely  connected  with  the  Norman 
families  who  had  conquered  South  Wales,  the 
nephew  of  the  conquerors  of  Ireland,  and  the 
granddaughter  of  Nesta,  the  "  Helen  of 
Wales,*'  Giraldus  was  bom  at  his  father's 
castle  of  Manorbier,  near  Tenby.  A  younger 
son,  he  was  destined  for  the  Church,  and  was 
educated  at  St.  David's  under  the  eye  of  his 
uncle  the  bishop.  After  a  brilliant  career  at 
the  rising  university  of  Paris,  Giraldus  be- 
came Archdeacon  of  Brecon  in  1172.  He 
plunged  with  characteristic  ardour  into  a 
long  series  of  quarrels  with  his  flock;  he 
reformed  the  irregular  payment  of  tithes: 
informed  against  the  married  clei^y,  and  in 
1176  persuaded  the  chapter  of  St.  David's 
to  make  him  his  uncle's  successor  to  that  see. 
The  disfavour  of  Henry  II.  annulled  the 
election,  and  Gerald  in  disgust  went  back  to  his 
studies  at  Paris ;  but,  for  the  rest  of  his  life, 
to  become  Bishop  of  St.  David's  was  the  steady 
object  of  his  ambition,  though  his  efforts  to 
obtain  that  end  were  uniformly  fruitless. 
Appointed  administrator  of  the  see  by  the 
archbishop  in  1184,  he  was  sent  to  Ireland  a<» 
chaplain  to  John,  son  of  Henry  II.,  and,  after 
rejecting  Irish  bishoprics,  and  writing  his 
Topography  of  Ireland,  returned  in  1188  to 
accompany  and  chronicle  Archbishop  Bald- 
win's crusading  itinerary  of  Wales.  He 
kept  about  the  court  till  1192,  was  again 
elected  to  St.  David's,  and  defeated  after 
five  years  of  litigation  in  1203,  and  spent  the 
last  seventeen  years  of  his  life  in  the  retire- 
ment of  mortified  ambition.  As  illustrating 
the  life  of  a  Norman  settler  in  Wales,  a 
scholar,  an  ecclesiastic,  and  a  courtier,  Gerald's 
career  is  of  extreme  interest,  and  his  own 
copious  acoounte  of  his  doings  ^ve  us  ample 
if  untrustworthy  materials  for  its  study.  As 
the  historian  of  the  Conquest  of  Ireland, 
and  the  compiler  of  the  Itinerary  of  Wales, 
he  has  g^ven  us  a  more  vivid  idea  of  these 
countries  than  any  other  mediteval  writer. 
But  Gerald,  though  clever  and  quick-sighted, 
was  quite  unscrupulous,  both  in  his  literary 
and  clerical  careers. 

The  works  of  Giraldus  Cambrensis  are  printed 
in  the  Bolls  Series  (7  vols.),  with  introductions 
by  J.  S.  Brewer.  There  are  lives  of  Gerald  in 
Jones  and  Freeman's  Htatorj/  of  St.  David's ;  in 
vol.  i.  of  Brewer's  edition  of  his  works :  and  by 
Sir  B.  C.  Hoare,  who  has  translated  the  Jttne- 
rarium  Cambi-ia.  rm   p  ip -i 

Qirig  (d.  896),  the  son  of  Dungal,  whs 
associated  with  Eocha,  son  of  Run,  in  the 
government  of  the  Pictish  kingdom  (878— 
88&),  and  afterwards  with  Donald,  tiU  896. 


aim 


(  502  ) 


CHa 


He  is  the  hero  of  many  stories,  which  rest, 
however,  for  the  most  part  on  slight  authority. 
He  is  said  to  have  freed  his  couutry  from  the 
Danish  yoke,  to  have  over-run  Lothian,  and 
to  have  subjugated  Ireland ;  while,  in  con- 
sideration of  certain  privileges  conferred  on 
the  monks  of  St.  Andrews,  he  has  been  called 
"  the  Liberator  of  the  Scottish  Church." 
Skene,  CeUic  Scotland. 

Qisors,  Thb  Tbbaty  of  (1113),  between 
Henry  I.  and  Louis  VI.  of  France,  by  which 
Louis  resigned  his  claims  of  overlordship 
over  Britanny,  Belesme,  and  JMaine,  and 
practically  gave  up  William  Clito. 

GiustiniailL  A  noble  Venetian  family-, 
one  of  whom  was  Venetian  ambassador  in 
the  early  part  of  Henry  VIII.*8  reign,  and 
from  whose  despatches,  as  usual  with  his  | 
class,  much  is  to  be  learnt  of  the  history  of 
that  time. 

Gladstone,  William  Ewart  {b.  1809), 
the  son  of  Sir  J.  Gladstone,  a  Liverpool 
merchant,  was  bom  in  that  city,  and  odu- 
eatod  at  Eton,  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
where  he  took  a  double  first  and  a  senior 
studentship.  He  entered  Parliament  in  1832 
as  member  for  Newark,  in  the  Tory  and 
High  Cliurch  interest.  He  soon  aistin- 
g^ished  himself  as  an  orator.  In  1835 
Peel  made  him  a  Junior  Lord  of  the 
Treasury.  In  1841  he  became  Vice-Presid- 
ent of  the  Board  of  Trade  and  Master  of 
the  Mint,  sn  office  which  he  sfterwards 
exchanged  for  the  Colonial  Secretaryship. 
Kejected  by  Newark  for  his  adhesion  to 
Free  Trade,  he  was  returned  for  Oxford 
University.  Peel's  ministry  soon  fell,  and 
Mr.  Gladstone,  like  all  the  other  l\>elites, 
atoned  for  his  fidelity  to  his  leader  by 
exclusion  from  office  for  several  years. 
They  (the  Peelites)  could  hold  office  neither 
under  Whigs  nov  Tories.  He  utilised  his 
leisure  in  literary  activity  and  in  the  study 
of  the  Italian  Question.  In  1852  the  hybrid 
ministry  of  Lorn  Aberdeen  came  into  power, 
and  Mr.  Gladstone  was  made  Chancellor  of 
the  Exchequer.  Driven  into  resi^ution  by 
Mr.  Boebuck's  motion,  and  the  dii^atiters  of 
the  Crimean  War,  he  accepted  from  I^rd 
Derby,  in  1858,  the  post  of  Lord  Com- 
missioner to  the  Ionian  Islands,  and  rtKrom- 
mended  their  union  with  Greece,  which  was 
eficcted.  In  1859  he  was  again  Chancellor 
of  the  Exchequer  under  Lord  Palmerston. 
A  series  of  famous  budgets  established  Ids 
reputation  as  a  financier.  His  now  avowed 
Liberalism  led  to  his  rejection  at  Oxford  in 
1865,  and  he  was  returned  for  South-west 
Lancashire.  The  death  of  Lord  Palmerston 
was  the  beginning  of  more  stirring  times. 
Mr.  Gladstone  now  became  leader  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  and  introduced  the 
Keform  Bill  of  1866,  which  led  to  the  defeat 
of  the  government;    but  the  Irish  Church 


agitation  soon  brought  them  back  into  office. 
In  December,  1868,  he  became  Premier  of 
the  ministry  which  disestablii^ed  the  Iriidi 
Church,  passed  the  first  Land  Act,  reformed 
the  army,  and  abolished  religious  tests  in 
the  Universities.  Kesigning  in  1874,  Mr. 
Gladstone  was  out  of  office  until  1880.  With- 
drawing for  a  time  from  the  leader^p  of  his 
party,  he  displayed  ^eat  literary  activity  in 
manv  directions.  His  second  administration 
was  largely  occupied  with  Irish  afBurs.  But 
in  1884  he  passed  his  Franchise  Bill,  in  the 
next  year  the  Redistribution  BilL  In  1885 
the  Government  were  defeated  upon  their 
Inland  Revenue  Bill,  and  resigned.  In  1886 
Mr.  Gladstone  returned  to  power  and  brought 
in  a  Bill  for  creating  a  separate  Irish  Parlia- 
ment and  Executive.  The  result  of  this 
was  the  fall  of  the  Government,  and  a  large 
secession  from  the  Liberal  party.  His 
fourth  administration,  formed  in  1892, 
passed  a  Home  Rule  Bill  through  the 
Commons.  In  1895  he  withdrew  from 
public  life,  and  was  succeeded  as  Premier 
by  Lord  Rosebery. 

OlMUOrma  Treaty,  The.  Charles  I., 
in  1644,  unable  to  turn  the  Cessation  to  the 
advantage  he  had  expected,  and  Ormonde 
being  unwilling  to  grant  more  to  the 
Catholics,  sent  Lord  Herbert,  son  of  the 
Marquis  of  Worcester,  to  Ireliind,  creating 
him  at  the  same  time  Earl  of  Glamorgan. 
He  was  entrusted  with  a  commission  smled 
with  the  king*8  pri^iite  signet,  dated  March 
12th,  1644,  at  Oxford,  authorising  him  to 
grant  all  the  Catholics  might  demand,  if  thev 
would  send  over  10,000  men  to  his  aid. 
Glamorgan  arrived  nt  Kilkenny  in  1645,  and 
concluded  a  public  and  a  secret  treaty  with 
the  Catholics.  By  the  first  the  demands  that 
a  Catholic  deputation  had  made  at  Oxford  in 
1644  were  granted.  These  were:  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  Catholic  disabilities  of  Po)'ning8' 
Law,  a  general  4unnesty,  and  a  period  of 
limitation  for  all  inquiries  into  the  titles  of 
land.  The  secret  treaty  granted-  to  the 
Catholics  the  public  exercise  of  their  religion 
in  all  churches  not  actually  in  possession  of 
the  State  Church;  in  return,  10,000  men 
under  Glamorgan  were  to  join  the  king  in 
England,  and  two -thirds  of  the  church 
revenues  were  to  be  set  aside  to  provide  for 
their  pay.  This  secret  treaty  was  discovered 
among  the  papera  of  the  Catholic  Archbishop 
of  Tuam,  on  his  repulse  from  before  Sligo.  * 
After  this  discover^',  January  29,  1646,  tho 
king  sent  a  message  to  the  two  Houses, 
denying  that  Glamorgan  had  any  such 
powers;  he  wrote  to  Ormonde  in  the  same 
strain.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  however, 
that  Glamorgan  only  fulfilled  the  king's 
instructions.  0 

Clarendon,   Hint,   of   Vie   RtMUon;    Banks* 
Hi$t.  ofEng.;  Hallain,  Con^t.  Ui»L 

OlaiLvill,  Ranulf  de,  a  famous  judgOr 


aiA 


(  603  ) 


aie 


stateonan,  and  administrator  of  Henry  II.'s 
reign.  In  1174  he  did  more  than  anyone 
else  to  save  the  north  from  the  revolt  of 
feudal  harons  and  the  Scottish  invasion.  He 
succeeded  Richard  de  Lucy  as  Jasticiur  in 
1180,  and  continued  in  office  till  Henry's 
death.  Kichard  I.  displaced  him  from  office 
and  kept  him  in  prison  until  he  had  paid  the 
enormous  fine  of  £15,000.  This  was  the  end 
of  his  career.  As  an  author,  GlanviU's 
treatise  l>e  Legibu*  et  Contuetudinibut  Anglim 
seems  to  have  been  composed  about  1181.  It 
is  of  great  importance  as  the  earliest  treatise 
on  Ehiglish  law,  and  throws  much  light  on 
many  reforms  of  Henry  11.,  of  which  other- 
wise we  should  know  Very  little.  It  has 
been  printed  more  than  once,  and  critical 
extracts  are  to  be  found  in  Stubbs's  iSeleet 
CharterM. 

Glasgow  owes  its  origin  to  the  establish- 
ment of  a  church  by  Kentigem,  the  apostle 
of  Strathclyde  in  the  sixth  century,  which 
became  the  seat  of  a  bishopric.  The  town 
which  grew  up  round  the  see  was  in  the 
domain  of  the  bishop.  In  1450  Bishop 
Tumbull  founded  the  university.  In  1491 
the  see  was  made  an  archbishopric.  Alone 
of  the  Scotch  cathedrals  the  church  survived 
the  Information.  In  1638  a  famous  General 
Assembly  at  Glasgow  accepted  the  Covenant. 
The  Treaty  of  Union  first  gave  Glasgow  im- 
portance as  a  port,  by  opening  to  Scotland 
the  colonial  trade.  Since  then  tlie  city  has 
rapidly  increased.  It  rivalled  Bristol  in  the 
tobacco  trade,  and,  when  that  was  diverted  by 
the  American  War  of  Independence,  Glasgow 
industry  took  new  channels.  At  last  Glas- 
gow became  the  great  manufacturing  centre 
of  Scotland,  while  the  improvement  of  the 
Clyde  made  it  the  first  port. 

GlaSsiteSy  The,  were  members  of  a 
Scotch  sectarian  body,  that  originated 
about  1730,  when  its  leader,  John  Glasis,  was 
driven  from  his  parish  by  the  General  As- 
sembly for  a  heresy  on  the  idngdom  of  Christ. 
Glass  taught  the  **  voluntary  principle ''  for 
the  first  time  in  Scotland,  and  his  system  of 
church  government  was  practically  congre- 
gational. Robert  Sandeman,  one  of  Glaias's 
followers,  gave  another  name  to  the  sect  and 
distinguished  it  by  his  doctrine  of  faith  as 
'<  bare  belief  of  the  bare  truth."  The  public 
worship  of  this  small  sect  is  of  a  peculiar 
character. 

Glastonbiiry  Abbey  »  perhaps  the 
only  religious  foundation  m  England  which 
has  kept  up  its  existence  from  Roman  times. 
Dismissing  the  fable  of  its  foundation  by 
Joseph  of  Arimathsea,  we  have  sufficient 
evidence  that  it  existed  long  before  Ina's 
conquest  of  that  region  brought  it  under 
English  sway ;  it  was  famed  as  the  burying- 
place  of  Arthur,  and  wns  much  frequented 
by  Irish  pilgrims  as  the  tomb  of  St.  Patrick. 


After  Ina's  second  foundation,  Dunstan*8 
famous  reformation  and  introduction  of  the 
Benedictine  rule  is  the  next  great  event  in 
the  history  of  the  abbey.  The  church  was 
rebuilt  by  Dunstan,  Herlewin,  and  Henry  II. 
At  the  end  of  the  twelfth  .century  there  was 
a  long  struggle  between  the  Bishop  of  Bath 
and  the  monks,  who  eventually  succeeded  in 
securing  the  independence  of  their  abbey.  It 
became  very  rich.  Its  last  abbot,  Wliiting, 
was  hung  by  Henr>'  VIII.  on  the  top  of 
Glastonbury  Tor. 

William  of  Malmesborr,  DtAntiquitatibM  Glaa- 


tonen$iB  ScelmiWf  gives  the  legend  of  iU  origin. 
PnHmding§  qf  Sonunet  Arekaul    ■    -    -    - 
'Warner,  Miator}/  of  QUulonbuTy. 


Olencain&y  Albxandbr  Cunxxnghax, 
Eaul  of,  taken  prisoner  at  Solway  Moss, 
was  one  of  the  *'  Assured  Lords,"  but, 
with  the  others,  he  threw  over  Henry 
VIII.  in  1544.  He  joined  the  Protestant 
alliance  against  Queen  Mary  for  a  time,  but 
was  shortly  afterwards  received  back  into 
the  royal  favour.  In  1567  he  was  named 
one  of  the  Council  of  Regency. 

Olencaim^  William  Cuknxnoham,  Eari. 
OF,  received,  m  1653,  a  commission  from 
Charles  II.  to  raise  troops  in  his  cause  in 
Scotland.  After  having  collected  a  force  of 
Highlanders,  Glencaim  was  replaced  by 
General  Middleton,  who,  however,  shortly 
afterwards  quitted  Scotland,  giving  place  to 
the  original  leader. 

OlenooeiL  '^^^  Massacbb  of  (Feb.  13« 

1692),  has  left  a  dark  stain  on  the  reign  of 
William  III.  The  civil  war  continued  to 
smoulder  in  the  Highlands  for  several  years 
after  the  death  of  Dundee.  The  management 
of  affairs  in  Scotland  was  at  this  time  in  the 
hands  of  the  Dalrymples,  and  Viscount  Stair, 
their  head,  was  President  of  the  Court  of  Ses- 
sion, while  the  younger,  the  Master  of  Stair, 
was  Secretary  for  Scotland.  A  proclamation 
was  issued  pronueing  pardon  to  aU  who 
before  Dec.  31,  1691,  should  swear  to  live 
peaceably  under  the  existing  government. 
Maclan  of  Glencoe,  who  dwelt  at  the  mouth 
of  a  ravine  near  the  south  shore  of  Loch- 
leven,  deemed  it  a  point  of  honour  to  take 
the  oath  as  late  as  possible.  On  the  appointed 
day  he  went  to  Fort  William,  but,  finding  no 
magistrate  there,  he  had  to  go  to  Inverary, 
which  he  did  not  reach  imtil  Jan.  6th.  This 
delay  gave  his  enemies,  the  Campbells,  a 
pretext  for  destroying  him.  Argyle  and 
Breadalbane  plotted  with  the  Master  of  Stair. 
William  was  not  informed  that  Maclan  had 
taken  the  oath  at  all.  An  order  was  laid 
before  him  for  the  commander-in-chief,  in 
which  were  the  words,  **  It  will  be  proper  for 
the  vindication  of  public  justice  to  extirpate 
that  set  of  thieves."  The  excuse  usually  ad- 
vanced for  William,  that  he  signed  the  order 
without  reading  it,  is  probably  true,  but  it  is 
at  best  a  lame  one.    The  order  was  remorse- 


aie 


(604) 


aio 


lessly  executed.  A  band  of  soldiers  was 
sent  to  the  glen,  where  they  were  hospitably 
received  by  the  Macdonalds.  At  last,  on  a 
given  day,  the  passes  having  been  stopped  by 
previous  arrangement,  the  soldiers  felt  upon 
their  entertainers.  A  failure  in  the  plan  led 
to  the  escai)e  of  many.  But  the  houses  were 
destroyed,  the  cattle  stolon,  thirty-eight  men 
IdUed  on  the  spot,  and  others  perished  of  want 
or  cold  on  the  mountains. 

Maoftolaor,  Hut.  nf  EngXiuiUL 

OlandowdTy  Owen,  or  Glyndwr  ;  more 

accurately,  Glyndyprdwy  -.  called  in  his  own 

time  OwAiN  ap  Gruffydd  (A.  1364,  d.  Hlo!"), 

was  reputed  a  descendant  of  Llewelyn,  the 

last  native  prince  of  Wales.     He  inherited 

considerable  estates  in  Merioneth,  and,  coming 

to  London,  entered  one  of  the  Inns  of  Court, 

and  subsequently  became  squire  to  Richard  II., 

by  whom  he  waJs  knighted  in  1387.    In  1399 

ho  was  captured    with    the    king  at  Flint 

Castle,  but  permitted  to  retire  to  his  own 

eKtates.     Lord  Grey  of  Ruthin,  one  of  the 

lords  marchers,  secured  some  of  his  lands, 

and  Owen^s  appeal  to  the  Parliament  was 

disregarded,  and  Lord  Grey  received  grants 

of  other  possessions  bolonginff  to  him.     In 

1400  Owen  took  up  arms,  and,  assuming  the 

title  of  Prince  of  Wales,  burnt  the  to^'n  of 

Ruthin,    and,    bursting    into    the   marches, 

destroyed    Oswestry   and    captured    several 

forts.  The  Welsh  repaired  to  him  in  thousands, 

and  the  strong  Edwardian  castles  of  Conway, 

Ruthin,   and  Hawarden  soon  fell   into  lus 

hands.    He  repulsed  three  formidable  armies 

led  against  him  by  Henry  IV.  in  person,  and 

in  1 402  was  crowned  at  Machynlleth.    Among 

the  prisoners  taken  by  him  was  Sir  Edmund 

Mortimer,  uncle  of  the  yoang  Earl  of  March, 

which  led  him  to  enter  into  a  treaty  with  the 

Mortimers  and  Percics  having  for  its  object 

the  overthrow  of  Henry.    This  alliance  was 

dissolved  by  the  battle  of  Shrewsbury',  but 

Glondower  continued  the  contest ;  and  ofiScial 

recoi-d  remains  of  many  acts  that  prove  the 

reality  of  his  power  in  Wales.    He  displaced 

the    Bishop    of    Bangor,    and   appointed   a 

partisan  of  his  own;  and  the  Bishop  of  St. 

Asaph  WAS  his   ambassador  to  the  French 

king,  with  whom  he  made  a  treaty  in  1404. 

Receiving  aid  from  France  and  Scotland,  he 

captured  many  English  towns  and  castles,  and 

at  one  time  penetrated  with  his  forces  as  far  as 

Worcester.     In  perpetual  inroads  he  harried 

all  the  marches  in  a  most  merciless  way. 

Twice  Henry  had  some  success  against  him, 

but  was  unable  to  effect  his  subjugation ;  and 

several  ^^ears  after,  when  about  to  embark  on 

his  expedition  against  France,  he  endeavoured 

to    enter   into  an    arrangement  with    him, 

offering  him  free  pardon  twice.     But  Owen 

never  submitted,  and  probably  died   about 

this  time,  though  there  is  nothing  certain 

known  as  to  the  date  or  place  of  his  death. 

Broaghom,   HoitM   of  Lancofter;  Williains, 
Hitt.  of  WaiM. 


Qlmkitlftt  Charlbs  Grant,  Lord  (b, 
1780,  d,  1866),  was  the  eldest  son  of  Mr. 
Charles  Grant,  for  many  years  M.P.  for 
Inveniess-shire.  He  was  educated  at  Mag- 
diilen  College,  Oxford,  and  entered  Parlia- 
ment as  member  for  Montrose,  1807.  Hi* 
represented  Montrose  from  1807  to  1818,  and 
Inverness-shire  from  that  date  till  1835. 
1<>om  1819  to  1822  he  was  Chief  Secretar>' 
for  Ireland ;  from  1823  to  1827  Vice-Presi- 
dent, and  from  1827  to  1828  President,  of  the 
Board  of  Trade.  From  1830  to  1834  he  was 
President  of  the  Board  of  Control,  and  from  1 834 
to  1839  Secretary  to  the  Colonies.  But  the 
Canadian  Rebellion  of  1888  was  fatal  to  his 
reputation,  and  resulted  in  his  resignation. 
Lord  Glenelg  approved  of  Lord  Durham*s 
famous  ordinance,  the  gist  of  which  was 
that  those  of  the  rebels  who  had  acknow- 
lodged  their  guilt  and  submitted  to  the 
Queen's  pleasure  were  to  be  sent  off  to 
Bermuda,  but  under  constraint,  and  punished 
with  death  if  they  returned.  The  ordinance 
was  disallowed:  Lord  Durham  was  recalled, 
and  Lord  Glenelg,  as  having  approved  of  his 
conduct,  resigned.  From  this  time  he  retired 
from  public  life.  He  was  the  last  of  the 
Canningites. 
Ann.  Stg. 

Qrl&nfrJixn,^  Thb  Battlb  of  (1604^,  was 
fought  in  Dumbartonshire,  and  resulted  in  a 
defeat  of  the  Earl  of  Argyle  and  the  king's 
forces  at  the  hands  of  me  Macgregors  and 
other  clans. 

Glenlivet,  The  Battle  op  (October  4, 
1694),  was  fought  near  Aberdeen,  between 
the  forces  of  James  VI.,  commanded  by  the 
Earl  of  Argyle,  and  the  rebellious  Earls  of 
Huntly  and  Errol.  The  rebels  were  inferior 
in  numbers,  but  were  well  armed  and  well 
led,  and  completely  defeated  Argyle's  troopn, 
losing  only  one  man  of  note,  Gordon  of 
Auchendoun,  one  of  the  subscribers  of  the 
Spanish  Blanks,  (q.v.). 

Glen  ICalnre,  The  Battle  op  (1580), 
was  fought  in  the  Wicklow  Mountains.  Lord 
Grey  de  Wilton  here  suffered  a  severe  re- 
pulse from  the  Irish  septs.  Sir  Peter  Carcw, 
a  distinguished  officer,  was  among  the  slain. 

Glenmarreston,  The  Battle  of  (Mu- 
reston  Water,  flowing  from  the  Pentbind 
Hills),  was  fought  in  638.  Donald  Brec,  King 
of  Dalriada,  was  defeated  by  the  Angles. 

Gloucester  was  an  old  Roman  station, 
deriving  its  name  from  the  British  camp, 
Caer  Gloui.  It  quickly  became  a  town 
of  the  English,  for  Bede  speaks  of  it  as  a 
noble  city.  In  679  a  monastery  was  founded 
here,  reduced  in  1022  by  Bishop  Wulfstan  to 
the  Benedictine  rule.  It  was  a  frequent  peat 
of  Courts  and  Gemots.  In  1541  it  was 
erected  into  a  bishopric  by  Henry  VIII. ;  and 
as  such  was  united  in  the  present  century 
with  the  see  of  Bristol  (1836). 


Olo 


(  606  ) 


Olo 


Olonoester,  Febraob  of.  Robert,  a 
natural  son  of  Hexiry  I.,  wua  created  £arl  of 
Gloacester,  1109,  on  lua  marriage  with  Mabel, 
daughter  and  heirees  of  Kobert  Fitz-Hamon, 
lord  of  Glouoester.  His  son  William,  who 
died  1183,  transmitted  the  title  to  his  three 
daughters :  first,  through  the  ^roungest,  Ha- 
wise  (or  Isabel),  to  her  sucoeesive  husbands, 
John,  afterwards  King  of  England,  and 
Geof^y  MandeviUe,  Earl  of  Essex ;  then  to 
the  issue  of  her  eldest  sister,  Mabel,  who 
married  the  Count  of  Evreux ;  and  finally  to 
the  second  siater,  Amida,  who  manied  Gil- 
bert de  Clare,  Earl  of  Hereford.  Three  gene- 
rations of  the  De  Clares  were  Earls  of  Glou- 
cester, until  the  widow  of  the  last,  Johanna, 
daughter  of  Edwud  I.,  communicated  the 
honour,  during  her  Hfetime,  to  her  second 
husband,  Kalph  de  Monthermer.  On  his 
death,  in  1307,  the  earldom  descended  to  her 
son,  Gilbert  de  Clare,  killdd  at  Bannookbum, 
whose  second  sister,  Margaret,  married  Hugh 
of  Audley,  created  Earl  of  Glouoester  in  1337. 
At  the  l&tter's  death,  ten  years  later,  the  title 
WRs  preaomed  to  be  extinct :  it  was,  however, 
reyi^  in  1397,  in  favour  of  Thomas,  Lord 
Despenoer,  son  of  the  eldest  sister  of  the 
before-named  Margaret.  Thomas  was,  how- 
ever degraded  in  1399,  when  hia  honours 
became  rorfeit.  In  the  meanwhile,  1385,  a 
dukedom  of  Gloucester  had  been  created  for 
Thomas  of  Woodstock,  sixth  son  of  Edward 
in.,  who  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Hum- 
phrey. The  latter  died  childless  in  1399. 
Afterwards  three  several  princes  of  the  blood 
were  ci'eated  dukes  by  this  title,  none  of  whom 
left  issue;  namely  (1)  Humphrey,  son  of 
Henry  IV.,  murdered  in  1446 ;  (2)  Bichard, 
brothei  of  Edward  IV.,  and  afterwards 
king,  and  (3)  Henry,  youngest  son  of 
Charles  I.  There  was  a  plan  in  1717 — 18  of 
reviving  the  dukedom  in  favour  of  Qeovge  L's 
grandson,  Frederick,  afterwards  Prince  of 
Wales ;  but  this  never  took  effect.  Frederick's 
younger  son,  William  Henry,  however,  was 
creatoi  Duke  of  Glouoester  and  Edinburgh, 
in  1764,  and  the  peerage  lasted  until  the  death, 
without  issue,  of  this  prince's  son,  William 
Frederick,  in  1834. 

Nicolas,  Bittaric  Petrag*;   Clark,  Th*   Land 
of  Morgan  in  ArehaoHogieaX  Journal, 

OiUmeetft&r.  Borert,  Earl  of  (d,  1147), 
natural  son  of  Henry  I.,  was  the  great  sup- 
porter of  the  claims  of  his  half-sister  Matilda 
^gainst  Stephen.  He  married  the  heiress  of 
fitz-Hamon,  and  so  added  the  lordship  of 
Glamorgan  to  the  earldom  of  Gloucester. 

Glouoester,  Gilbert  db  Clarb,  Earl 
or  (b.  1243),  son  of  F^arl  Richard,  threw 
himself  into  the  i)arty  of  Leicester,  after 
his  father*s  death  in  1262,  but  soon  held 
aloof ;  and  though  fighting  with  Montfort  at 
Lewes,  quarrelled  with  the  king  in  the  course  of 
1265,  joined  Prince  Edward,  and  won  the 
battle  of  Evesham.    He  kept  on  good  terms 


with  Edward,  whose  daughter  Johanna  he 
married  in  1290.  His  ordinary  capacity, 
however,  rendered  him  unfit  for  the  great 
position  he  aspired  to  occupy. 

Glouoester,  Richard  db  Clare,  Eari* 
OF  {d,  1262),  the  leader  of  the  baronial  party 
under  Henry  III.,  acted  at  first  in  conjunction 
with,  but  afterwards  in  opposition  to,  Simon 
de  Montfort.  Like  the  more  aristocratic 
party  of  the  baronage,  he  neither  understood 
nor  sympathised  with  Montfort's  far-reaching 
aims,  and  never  quite  forgave  his  foreign 
origin. 

Glouoester,  Gilbert  db  Clare,  Eari* 
OF  {d,  1314),  son  of  Earl  Gilbert  and  Johanna, 
the  daughter  of  Edward  I.  He  took  the  side 
of  Graveston,  his  brother-in-law,  was  one  of 
the  Lords  Ordainers,  being  elected  by  co- 
optation  from  the  royalist  side,  and  endea- 
voured more  than  once  to  prevent  civil  war. 
He  was  slain  at  Baimockbum.  He  was  th» 
last  of  his  line,  and  his  estates  fell  to  his 
three  sisters,  whose  husbands'  rivalries  take 
up  a  great  place  in'^he  history  of  Edward 
Il.*8  reign. 

Glouoester,  Thomas  of  Woodstock, 
DuKB  of  {b.  1356,  d,  1397),  was  the  youngest 
son  of  Edward  IIL  He  served  in  the  French 
wars,  and  on  his  return  to  England  in  1381 
took  a  leading  part  in  the  a&iirs  of  state. 
The  unpopuliuity  of  John  of  Graunt,  caused 
by  his  abandoning  the  traditional  policy  of 
the  house  of  Lancaster  in  favour  of  a  court 
licy,  and  his  subsequent  absence  from 
•ngland  during  his  fruitless  expeditions  to 
Spain,  made  Gloucester  the  natural  leader  of 
the  constitutional  opposition.  His  chief  aim 
seems  to  have  been  his  own  aggrandisement, 
though  the  misgovemment  and  extravagance 
of  the  king  gave  him  sujfficient  excuse  for  in- 
terfering. The  heavy  taxation  demanded  for 
the  expenses  of  the  French  war  gave  Glouces- 
ter the  opportunity  he  desired,  and  in  1386  he 
threatened  the  kin^  with  deposition  unless  he 
consented  to  the  impeachment  of  his  chief 
minister,  De  la  Pole,  and  the  appointment 
of  a  commission  of  regency.  Bichard  con- 
sented for  the  time,  but  attempted,  directly 
Parliament  was  dissolved,  to  raise  a  f oi-ce  and 
assert  his  independence.  But  Gloucester  was 
superior  in  strength,  and  the  king's  friends 
were  either  executed  or  obliged  to  seek  safety 
in  flight.  Gloucester  was  the  leading  spirit 
in  the  Merciless  Parliament,  and  practi- 
cally ruled  the  kingdom  till  1389,  when 
Richard  dedared  himself  of  age  to  manage 
his  own  affairs,  and  assumed  the  government 
himself.  By  John  of  Graunt*s  influence  a  re- 
conciliation was  effected  between  Gloucester 
and  the  king,  and  matters  went  on  smoothly 
enough — though  Gloucester  held  somewhat 
aloof  from  the  court — till  1397,  when  Richard 
suspected,  it  is  impossible  to  say  whether 
justly  or  not,  that  Gloucester  was  plotting 


f. 


aio 


(  606  ) 


aiy 


against  him.  The  duke  was  arrested  and  im- 
prisoned at  CSalaia,  where  he  died,  heing  pro- 
EMibly  murdered  by  the  king's  orders.  It  is 
said  that  before  his  death  he  confessed  that 
he  had  been  conspiring  against  the  king. 

Stubbs,  CoHst.  Eitt. ;   Wallon,  Riehard  II. ; 
Paali,  EngUtehe  Qeachiehte. 

Gloucester,  Humphrby,  Bvkb  of  {b. 
1391,  d.  1447),  was  the  fourth  son  of  Henry 
IV.  He  was  created  Duke  of  Gloucester  in 
1414,  and  took  part  in  the  French  wars  of 
Henry  V.'s  reign,  being  wounded  in  the 
battle  of  Agincourt.  On  his  death-bed  Heni^ 
appointed  him  regent  of  England  during  his 
son's  minority,  but  Parliament  refused  to 
allow  this,  and  a  council  of  regency  was  a^ 
pointed  with  Bedford  as  Protector,  and  in  his 
absence  from  England,  Gloucester.  By  hisreck- 
less  folly  in  marrying  Jacqueline  of  Hainault, 
and  prosecuting  her  claims  in  Hainault  and 
Zealand,  Gloucester  did  much  to  alienate  the 
Duke  of  Burgundy  from  the  English,  while 
his  attempts  to  gain  a  foreign  principality  for 
himself  were  fruitless,  iin  1425,  Gloucester's 
quarrel  with  Beaufort  commenced,  which  con- 
tinued with  tempoi-ary  reconciliation  during 
the  whole  of  his  lifetime.  The  bright  spot  in 
Gloucester's  character  was  his  affection  for 
his  brother  Bedford,  who  was  frequently  able 
to  restrain  his  folly  and  recklessness.  After 
Bedford's  death,  his  opposition  to  Beaufort 
became  more  and  more  violent,  Gloucester 
representing  the  war  party,  popular  in  Par- 
liiunent  and  the  nation,  while  Beaufort  was 
the  leader  of  the  peace  party,  which  was 
strongly  represented  in  the  Council.  It  was 
the  old  struggle  of  the  court  and  constitutional 
parties  in  another  form.  The  trial  and 
conviction  of  Eleanor  Cobham,  his  second 
wife,  was  a  groat  blow  to  Gloucester's  in- 
fluence, and  this  was  still  further  injured 
when,  in  1442,  Henry  VI.  came  of  age,  and 
the  protectorate  was  at  an  end.  Suffolk  sup- 
planted Gloucester  as  the  chief  adviser  of  the 
crown,  and  in  1447  Gloucester  was  accused  of 
treason.  The  merits  of  the  case  it  is  impos- 
sible to  decide  upon  ,  it  is  not  improbable  that 
Gloucester  may  have  entertained  the  idea  of 
making  himself  king,  but  on  this  point  there 
is  no  evidence.  At  all  events,  Gloucester  was 
suddenly  arrested  on  Feb.  18,  1457,  at  Bury 
St.  Edmund's,  and  placed  under  arrest,  ana 
five  days  after  was  found  dead  in  his  bed.  It 
is  impossible  to  decide  on  the  cause  of  his 
death ;  it  may  have  arisen  from  chagrin,  or 
have  been  the  work  of  some  person  who  hoped 
thereby  to  ingratiate  himself  with  the  court 
party,  or  it  may  fas  popular  legend  asserted), 
have  been  caused  by  the  orders  of  the  Duke 
of  Suffolk.  It  is  certain  that  there  is  nothing 
to  connect  it  with  Cardinal  Beaufort,  ana 
there  is  a  strong  reason  for  believing  that  it 
arose  from  natural  causes.  As  a  patron  of 
learning,  and  a  benefactor  to  the  University 
of  Oxford,  Gloucester  deserves  high  praise, 


but  his  public  and  private  career  alike  are 
stained  with  grievous  errors,  and  his  in- 
fluence on  English  politics  was  only  mischie- 
vous. Still,  he  was  popular  with  the  literaiy 
men  for  his  patronage  of  learning,  and  with  the 
people  for  his  advocacy  of  a  spirited  foreign 
policy.  From  these  causes  he  was  known  as 
the  "  good  Duke  Humphrey." 

Stubbs,  Cofut  flutor;^;  Brougham,  Houm  of 
LeoMatUr, 

Oloucester,  Hbnry,  Duke  op  (b.  1639, 
d,  1 660) ,  was  the  youngest  son  of  Charles  I.  and 
Queen  Henrietta  Maria.  From  the  place  of  his 
birth  he  is  often  known  as  Henry  of  Oatlands. 
'  Charles,  just  before  his  execution,  had  an 
interview  with  his  young  son,  in  which  he 
made  him  promise  not  to  accept  the  crown 
from  Parliiunent  to  the  detriment  of  his  elder 
brothers.  After  his  father*s  death  he  re- 
mained in  the  charge  of  Parliament  tiU  1652, 
when  he  was  permitted  to  join  his  mother  in 
Fiance,  Cromwell  being  anxious  to  get  rid  of 
one  whom  many  were  anxious  to  proclaim 
king.  The  queen  exhausted  all  entreaties 
and  threats  to  induce  him  to  become  a 
Bomanist,  but  he  remained  staunch  to  his 
religion ;  and  in  1654  left  her  and  joined 
CSiarles  at  Cologne.  In  1658  he  fought  in 
the  Spanish  army,  and  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  battle  of  Dunkirk.  On  the  Resto- 
ration he  returned  to  £Ingland«  but  died  of 
small-pox  very  shortly  afterwards. 

Glonoeeter,  William,  Dukb  of  {b,  July 
24,  1689,  d.  July  30,  1700),  was  the  son  of 
I^^rince  G^rge  of  Denmark  and  Princess 
(afterwards  Queen)  Anne.  He  was  informally 
created  duke  soon  after  his  birth.  The  un- 
timely death  of  the  young  prince — a  boy  of 
great  promise — was  received  with  sorrow  by 
the  nation.  It  necessitated  the  passing  of 
the  Act  of  Settlement. 

Olouceeter,  Elbanor  Bohfx,  Duchess 
OP  {d.  1399),  was  the  daughter  and  co-heiress 
of  Humphrey,  Earl  of  Northampton,  Here- 
ford, and  Essex.  She  was  married  to  Thomas 
of  Woodstock,  Duke  of  Gloucester,  after 
whose  death,  in  1397,  she  retired  to  the 
abbey  of  Barking. 

ClIoiLoeetery  Robert  of,  is  known  as  the 
writer  of  a  Chronicle  in  English  verse  more 
interesting  from  a  literary  than  an  historical 
point  of  view.  It  extends  from  the  earliest 
times  to  the  year  1270,  and  is  mostly  a  com- 
pilation from  well-known  sources,  though  it 
contains  original  notices  here  and  there.  It 
was  printed  by  Heame. 

Olqnuie,  John  {b,  1602,  d,  1666),  eldest 
son  01  Sir  William  Glynne,  of  Oamarvon* 
shire,  was  educated  at  Westminster  School 
and  at  Oxford,  attained  great  reputation 
as  a  lawyer,  and  represented  Westminster  in 
the  Long  Parliament.  He  was  a  strong 
I^sbyterian,  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
attack  on  tho  bishops,  helped  to  draw  up  the 


Ood 


(607  ) 


God 


charge  agaiiut  Laud,  and  to  conduct  the 
trial  of  Strafford.  la  June,  1647,  he  was  one 
of  the  members  whose  punishment  was  de- 
manded by  tho  army,  and  was  expelled  from 
Parliament  till  tho  summer  of  1648,  when  he 
was  restored,  only  to  be  expelled  again  by 
Pride's  Purge.  He  sat  in  both  of  Crom well's 
Parliaments,  presided  at  Penruddocke's  trial 
(1655),  and  supported  the  offer  of  the  crown 
to  the  Protector.  In  July,  1656,  he  became 
Chief  Justice,  and  held  the  post  till  the  fall 
of  Richard  Cromwell,  when  he  resigned.  He 
assisted  in  promoting  the  Restoration,  and  on 
the  return  of  Charles  II.  was  made  king's 
Serjeant  and  knighted.  He  was  employed  in 
the  prosecution  of  the  regicides,  and  took  part 
in  Vane's  trial.  Public  opinion  condemned 
him  as  a  renegade,  and  rejoiced  in  an  accident 
which  befell  him  on  this  day  of  the  coronation. 
*'  Serjeant  Glynne's  horse,"  says  Pepys,  "  fell 
upon  him  yesterday,  and  is  like  to  kill  him, 
which  people  do  please  themselves  to  see  how 
just  God  is  to  punish  the  rogue  at  such  a 
time  as  this."  He  died  on  Nov.  15,  1666, 
continuing  to  practice  his  profession  till  his 
death. 

Fobs,  Judge$, 

Oodfirey»  Sir  Edmvndburt  {d.  1681), 
was  a  London  magistrate,  before  whom  Titus 
Oates  made  a  deposition  concerning  the 
Popish  Plot.  Some  three  weeks  after  this 
deposition  was  made,  Godfrey  was  found  dead 
in  a  ditch  near  Primrose  Hill,  with  his  own 
sword  run  through  his  body,  a  livid  creaso 
round  his  neck,  and  his  pockets  unrifled.'  It 
was  at  once  assumed  that  he  had  been  mur- 
dered by  Koman  Catholics,  and  Lord  Mac- 
aulay  considers  it  most  probable  that  he  was 
i^Uy  murdered  by  some  hot-headed  Romanist. 
Three  of  the  queen's  servants  were  tried  for 
the  murder,  and  executed.  The  Popish  Plot 
agitation  really  began  in  the  excitement 
which  Godfrey's  murder  caused. 

Godfrey    (Guthrbd)    Vao William 

{d.  1212^,  was  the  son  of  Donald  Bane 
^lacWilliam,  and,  like  his  father,  attempted, 
in  1211,  to  wrest  the  Scottish  crown  from 
William  the  Lion.  The  royal  troops  unAer 
the  Earls  of  Athole  and  Fife  achieved  various 
successes,  but  the  rebellion  was  not  crushed 
until  Gkxlfrey  was  betrayed  into  the  hands  of 
the  Earl  of  Buchan  and  beheaded  at  Kincar- 
dine (1212). 

CkxUllplliiiy  Sydnbt,  Lord,  afterwards 
Eabl  {b.  1640,  d.  1712),  was  educated  as  a 

ne  at  Whitehall  At  the  Restoration  he 
been  made  Groom  of  the  Bedchamber  by 
Charles  II.  In  1664  he  bec8me  First  Com- 
missioner of  the  Treasury.  In  1678  he  was 
sent  as  envoy  to  Holland,  and  on  his  return 
was  sworn  of  the  Privy  Council.  In  1679  he 
was  placed  on  the  Treasury  Commission.  In 
1680  he  supported  the  Exclusion  Bill,  and 
persuaded  Charles  to  dismiss  the  Duke  of 
xork  to  Scotland   before    Parliament  met. 


He  became  Secretary  of  State  in.  1684,  and 
in   the   same    year,   on  the  resignation   of 
Rochester,  he  took  his  place  on  the  Commission 
of  the  lVc»sury.     On  the  accession  of  James, 
ho  was  removed  from  the  'iVeasury,  and  made 
Chamberlain  to  the  queen.    In  his  official 
capacity  he  did  not  scruple  to  conform  to 
lioman  Catholic  observances.    In  1 687,  on  the 
fall  of  th^  Hydes,  he  was  again  placed  on 
the  Treasury  Commission.    He  was  sent  as  a 
commissioner  to  treat  with  William.     On  the 
accession  of  William  and  Mary,  the  Treasury 
business  was  placed  in  his  hands.    In  1690  he 
resigned,  but  was  recalled  as  First  Commi;?- 
siuner  against  the  will  of  Carmarthen.   He  had 
a  largo  share  of  William's  confidence,  but, 
influenced  by  Marlborough,  he  intrigued  with 
the    Jacobites,    especially    with    Middleton, 
James'a  Secretary  of  State.    He  was  impli- 
cated in  the  confession  of  Sir  John  Fenwick  ; 
but  William,  with  great  magnanimity,  ignored 
the  charges  brought  against  him.    But  the 
Whigs  resolved  to  drive  him  from  office,  and 
were  successful.    In  1700  he  was  recalled  to 
the  king's  councils;  but  in  the  fall  of  his 
party,  in  the  last  year  of  William's  reign,  he 
was  again  dismissed.    On  the  accession  of 
Anne  he  was  made  Lord  Treasurer,  through 
the  influence  of  Marlborough,  whose  daughter 
had    married   Godolphin's    eldest   son.      In 
1708,  Godolphin,  seeing  that  his  attempt  at  a 
composite  ministry  was  a  failure,  determined 
to  join  the  Whigs.    He  was  compelled  to  dis- 
miss Harley  and  the  moderate  Tories.     For 
the  rest  of  his  administration  Godolphin  was 
under  the  rule  of  the  Whig  Junto.    In  1710, 
Godolphin  agreed  to  Sunderland's  advice,  and 
impeached  Sacheverell.  The  popular  outcry 
proved  that  the  queen  and  the  Tories  might 
venture  to  upset   the    ministry.      Without 
consulting  him,  Shrewsbury  was  made  Lord 
Chamberlain.    Godolphin  swallowed  the  in* 
suit;    but  the  dismissal  of  Sunderland  was 
shortly  followed  by  his  own.    During  the  tu- 
mult that  followed  Sacheverell's  trial,  both  he 
and  Marlborough  intrigued  with  the  Jacobite 
court  at  St.  Germains.    His  character  is  thus 
described  by  Macaulay : — '*He  was  laborious, 
clear-headed,  and  profoundly  versed  in  the 
details  of  finance.    Every  government,  there- 
fore, found  him  a  useful  servant ;  and  there 
was  nothing  in  his  opinions  or  in  his  character 
which  could  prevent  him  from  serving  any 
government." 

Bank  A,  Higt,  of  Bnghmd;  Hacaulay,  Htst.  <^ 
Eng.  I  Stanhope,  Beign  (tf  QiMen  Ann»t  and  Ht«(. 
of  England;  Coze,  Marlb&rongK 

Godwin  (Godwins),  Eabl  {b.  eirea  990, 
d.  1052),  was,  according  to  the  most  pro- 
bable  account,  the  son  of  Wulfnoth,  the  South 
Saxon  who  was  outlawed  in  1009.  Of  his 
early  life  nothing  certain  is  known,  but  in 
1018  we  find  him  created  an  earl  by  Canute, 
and  shortly  after  marrying  the  king's  niece 
Gytha.  In  1020  he  was  made  Earl  of  the 
West  Saxons,  probably  as  a  reward  for  hiB 


Oof 


(  608  ) 


G>oo 


services  in  the  northern  wars  of  Canute.    On 
the  death  of  that  king  he  espoused  the  cause 
of  Hardicanute,  and  on  the  Utter  obtaining 
Wessex    Godwin   became  one  of  the  chief 
adyisers  of  Emma,  who  acted  as  regent.    It 
was  at  this  time  that  Alfred  the  son  of  Ethel- 
red  came  to  England,  and  was  murdered  by 
Harold.    It  seems  impossible  in  the  face  of 
the    eyidenoe    of    contemporary   writers   to 
doubt  that  Gk)dwin  betrayed  the  young  Eth^- 
ing  to  Harold,  though  the  accusation  of  com« 
plicity  in  Alfred's  death,  which  was  brought 
against    Godwin    in    1040,  resulted   in   the 
acquittal  of  the  earl,  and  Godwin  continued 
in  power.    On  the  death  of  Hardicanute  in 
1042    Gk>dwin   was    foremost   in    procuring 
the  election  of  E<lward  the  Cronfessor  to  the 
throne,  and  during  the  early  part  of  the  reign 
of  that  prince  ho  exercised  the  chief  power  in 
the  kingdom.    His  daughter  was  married  to 
the  king,  and  his  sons  promoted  to  earldoms. 
During    this    period   (1043 — 1051)  we    find 
Godwin  leading  the  national  English  party, 
and  strenuously  opposing  that  introduction 
of  foreigners  which  was  the  great  weakness 
of  Edward's  reign.    But  the  Normans  were 
too  strong  for  him;    **the  appointment  of 
Kobert  of  Jumi^ges  to  the  archbishopric  of 
Canterbury  marks  the  decline  of  Godwin's 
power ;  the  foreign  influence  was  now  at  its 
height,  and  the  !^glish  earl  was  to  feel  the 
strength  of  it."     The  refusal  of  Godwin  to 
punish  the  burgesses  of  Dover  for  the  riot 
occasioned  by  the  insolence  of  the  followers  of 
Eustace  of  Boulogne  led  to  the  outlawry  of 
Godwin  and  his  family   (1051).    The  next 
year  the  tide   turned;    the  feeling  of  the 
nation  showed  itself  in  favour  of  Godwin. 
He  came  back  from  his  shelter  in  Flanders  at 
the  head  of  a  fleet.    In  most  parts  of  England 
he  was  welcomed ;  he  sailed  up  the  Thames 
to  London ;  the  army  gathered  by  the  kinf? 
refused  to  fight  against  him ;  and  he  and  his 
family  were  restored  to  all  their  offices  and 
possessions.      The   next   year   Gk>dwin  was 
smitten  with  a  fit  at  the  king's  table,  and 
died  April  15,  1053.    Mr.  Freeman  regards 
Godwin  as  the  representative  of  all  English 
feeling,  as  the  leader  of  every  national  move- 
ment, and  as  enjoying  in  consequence  an 
extreme  popularity.     But  he  was  also  a  wise 
and  wary  stntesman,  able  to  practise  the  baser 
as  well  as  the  nobler  ai*ts  of  statesmanship. 
His  vast  wealth    suggests    a  covetous  dis- 
position.     He   promoted   his    sons  without 
much  care  for  their  deserts.    But  as  a  strong 
man  and  a  vigorous  ruler  he  was  of  the  type 
of  which  England  had  at  that  time  the  gi^atest 
need. 

Freeman,  Notman  Conquut. 

Goffa  (or  Ch>llA;lL))  William,  was  son- 
in-law  to  Colonel  Whalley,  and  consequently 
connected  with  Cromwell,  to  whom  he  was 
strongly  attached.  He  fought  in  the  Par- 
liamentary army,  was  one  of  the  members 


of  the  High  Court  of  Justice,  and  signed 
the  warrant  for  Charles  I.'s  execution.  He 
accompanied  Cromwell  to  Scotland  in  ICdl, 
assisted  in  Pride's  Purge,  and  in  clearing 
out  the  Barbones  Parliament.  He  was  one  uf 
the  major-generals  appointed  in  1656,  and 
one  of  the  members  of  CromwelI*s  House  of 
Lords.  He  was  one  of  the  few  ofiElcers  ia 
favour  of  Cromwell's  assuming  the  title  of 
king,  and  attached  himself  subsequently  to 
Richard  Cromwell.  On  the  Restoration  h» 
fled  with  Whalley  to  America,  where  he 
remained  during  the  rest  of  his  life. 

Oolab  Binglx,  originally  a  running  foot- 
man, attractea  uie  attention  of  Runjoet 
Singh  and  rose  to  favour.  He  was  givea 
the  territory  of  Juminoo,  lying  between 
Lahore  and  Cashmere.  As  a  Rajpoot,  he 
was  detested  by  the  Sikhs.  On  the  death  of 
Runjeet  Singh,  1839,  ho  aimed  at  becoming 
supreme  in  Cashmere,  and  even  engaged 
in  a  war  with  Thibet.  At  the  end  of  the 
first  Sikh  war  the  principality  of  Cash- 
mere was  sold  to  him  by  the  English. 
(1840).  A  formidable  opposition  was  or- 
ganised against  him  by  one  imaiii-ud-deen, 
which  was  with  difiiculty  suppressed  by 
Major  Henry  Lawrence,  Resident  at  Lahore. 
"Tlie  arrangement,'*  says  Mr.  Cunningham^ 
"was  a  dexterous  one,  if  reference  be  had 
only  to  the  policy  of  i^educing  the  power  of 
the  Sikhs ;  but  the  transaction  seems  hardly 
worthy  of  the  British  name  and  greatness. 
Cunningham,  Hitt.  ofSiklu, 

Gold  Coast  Colony.    [West  Africa.] 

QoodmaAy  Cardbll,  was  a  Jacobite  ad- 
venturer in  the  reign  of  William  III.  He  had 
been  an  actor,  a  paramour  of  the  Duchess  of 
Cleveland,  two  of  whose  children  he  had  at- 
tempted to  poison,  and  a  forger  of  bank  notes. 
In  1695  he  was  confined  to  gaol  for  raising  a 
Jacobite  riot  in  London,  in  conjunction  with. 
Porter.  He  was  one  of  the  conspirators  in 
the  Assassination  Plot,  and  as  his  evidence- 
could  procure  the  conviction  of  Sir  John 
Fenwick,  efforts  were  made  to  get  him  out  of 
the  country.  An  adventurer  named  O'Brien 
met  him  in  a  tavern  in  Drury  Lane,  and 
persuaded  him  to  go  abroad  by  offerins^  him 
an  annuity  of  £500.  This  he  accepted,  and 
arrived  safely  at  St.  Germains. 

Good  Parliament,  The  (1376),  gained 
its  title  from  the  beneficent  measures  it 
passed  and  its  bold  attitude  in  reforming 
abuses.  Edward  III.,  old  before  his  time, 
was  entirely  under  the  influence  of  a  worth- 
less woman,  Alice  Perrers,  through  whosa 
means  John  of  Gaunt  contrived  to  appro- 
priate to  himself  the  whole  of  the  royal 
authority,  and  to  appoint  his  own  crea- 
tures to  all  the  grreat  offices  of  state.  The 
Parliament  which  met  in  1376,  after  an  in- 
terval of  three  years,  determined  to  do  away 
with  this  state  of  things,  and  in  this  resolu- 
tion  they  were   strongly  supported  by  the 


G>oo 


(  600  ) 


Ctoo 


Black  Prince.  Peter  de  la  Mare  was  choeen 
Speaker,  and  he  at  once  demiinded  that  the 
national  accounts  should  be  audited,  and  that 
trustworthy  counsellors  and  ministers  should 
be  appointed.  The  Commons  next  proceeded 
to  accuse  certain  persons— of  whom  the  chief 
were  Lord  Latimer  and  Richard  Lyona— ol 
malversation  and  fraud,  and  they  were  oon- 
cLemned  to  imprisonment  and  forfeitore. 
This  is  the  first  instance  of  impeachment. 
Alice  Perrers  was  next  attackod,  and  it 
was  ordered  that  henceforward  no  woman 
should  interfere  in  the  administration  of 
justice,  on  pain  of  forfeiture.  The  Black 
Prince  having  died  in  tJie  meantime,  the 
Parliament  demanded  that  his  son  Kichard 
should  be  brought  before  them,  that  they 
might  see  the  heir  to  the  throne.  This, 
which  was  intended  to  checkmate  John  of 
Gaunt,  who  was  supposed  to  be  aspiring  to 
the  throne,  was  forthwith  done.  The  Commons 
also  proposed  that  an  administrative  council 
should  be  appointed,  some  of  whom  were 
always  to  be  id  attendance  on  the  king ;  this, 
with  certain  modifications,  was  agreed  to. 
But  besides  these  acts,  they  presented  to  the 
king  no  less  than  a  hundred  and  forty  peti- 
tions on  various  subjects,  of  which  the  most 
important  were  that  ^Parliaments  might  be  held 
annually ;  that  the  knights  of  the  shire  should 
be  freely  elected,  not  merely  nominated  by  the 
sheriff;  the  sherifb  should  be  elected,  and 
not  appointed  at  the  Exchequer;  the  law 
courts  should  be  .reformed ;  the  abuse  of 
Papal  provisions,  &c,  should  be  removed. 
The  work  of  the  Good  Parliament  could 
be  carried  out  only  under  the  leadership 
of  some  powerful  personage,  such  as  the 
Black  Prince.  Now^that  he  was  dead,  the 
power  passed  once  more  into  the  hands 
of  John  of  Ghiunt,  who  immediately  undid 
the  work  of  the  Parliament.  Not  one 
of  the  jietitions  became  a  statute.  Alice 
Perrers  regained  her  place  and  influence  at 
court,  Lyons  and  other  offenders  were  par- 
doned, Peter  de  la  Mare  was  sent  to  prison, 
and  the  new  members  .of  the  Council  were 
dismissed.  But  though  the  work  of  the 
Good  Parliament  was  for  the  time  rendered 
nugatory,  the  year  1376  forms,  nevertheless, 
an  important  epoch  in  the  history  of  Parlia- 
ment. The  responsibility  of  ministers,  the 
Tights  of  impeachment  and  of  inquiry  into 
grievances  and  abuses,  were  established,  and 
were  destined  to  receive  extension  and  con- 
firmation in  the  next  reign. 

Stabbs,  Coiue.  Hitt. ;  Longman,  Edvford  III, 

Ooodrich,  Thomas,  Lord  Chancellor  of 
England  {d,  1564),  made  Bishop  of  Ely  by 
Henry  VIII.,  was  a  staunch  supporter  of  the 
Reformation.  In  December,  1551,  he  suc- 
ceeded Sir  Richard  Rich  as  Lord  Chan- 
cellor, and  in  that  capacity  was  induced,  after 
much  solicitation,  to  set  the  Great  Seal  to  the 
patent  altering  the  succession  in  favour  of 
Lady  Jane  Grey.     He  continued  to  support 


Northumberland  until  he  saw  that  the 
cause  was  lost,  when  he  at  once  resigned  his 
office  and  retired  to  his  diocese,  where,  says 
Lord  Campbell,  **  partly  from  his  sacred 
character  and  partly  from  his  real  insignifi- 
cance, he  was  not  molested." 

Oampbell,   Iaom  <^  th«   CHan«eHort;    Foss, 
Jvdgw  of  JSn^loncL 

OoorUia  War  (1814  —  1816).  The 
Goorkhas  had  encroached  continually  on  the 
British  frontier,  and  at  last  laid  claim  to 
two  districts,  Bootwul  and  Sheoraj,  which 
they  had  seized,  though  they  had  been 
ceded  to  Lord  Wellesley  in  the  year  1801 
by  the  Nabob.  Lord  Minto  remonstrated 
with  them,  and  on  their  refusal  to  retire, 
Lord  Hastings,  his  successor,  ordered  their 
expulsion.  Money  was  obtained  from  the 
Vizier,  and  four'  armies  were  prepared, 
comprising  30,000  men,  with  60  guns. 
The  Goorkhas  were  divided  into  three ;  one- 
third,  under  Umur  Singh,  guarded  the  for- 
tresses  on  the  Sutlej ;  two  thousand  were 
distributed  between  the  Jumna  and  Kalee; 
the  rest  protected  the  capital.  The  English 
at  first  met  with  nothing  but  disaster. 
Kalunga  was  taken  with  great  loss,  and 
the  Dhoon  valley  occupied,  but  the  fortress 
of  Jyetuk  stopped  the  advance  of  the  division 
altogether.  The  divisions  of  Generals  Wood 
and  Marley  failed  entirely,  the  one  to  capture 
Jeetgurh,  the  other  to  reach  the  capital. 
These  disasters  were  somewhat  retrieved  by 
the  brilliant  success  of  General  Ochterlony, 
who  was  entrusted  with  the  difficult  task  of 
dislodging  ITmur  Singh  from  the  forts  on  the 
Upper  Sutlej.  After  an  extremelv  arduous 
campaign  he  succeeded  in  confining  Umur 
Singh  to  the  fortress  of  Malown,  and  in 
finally  compelling  him  to  make  terms,  which 
included  the  surrender  of  the  fortress  of 
Malown  and  all  conquests  west  of  the 
Kalee.  This  was  facilitated  by  the  opera- 
tions of  Colonels  Gardner  and  Nicolls, 
who,  with  a  body  of  irreg^ular  horse  and 
2,000  regulars,  had  cleared  the  province  of 
Kumaon,  and  captured  its  capital,  Altnorah, 
thus  isolating  Umur  Singh  from  Nepaul 
and  Khatmandu.  The  discomfiture  of  their 
ablest  general  and  loss  of  their  most 
valuable  conquests,  induced  the  Ncpaulese 
government  to  sue  for  peace.  The  condi- 
tions proposed  by  Lord  Hastings  were  that 
they  should  resign  all  claims  on  the  hill  rajahs 
west  of  the  Kalee,  cede  the  Terrai,  restore 
the  territory  of  Sikkim,  and  receive  a  British 
Resident.  The  treaty  was  agreed  to  on 
December  2,  1816,  but  the  influence  of  Umur 
Singh  and  the  other  chiefs  induced  the 
Goorkha  government  to  break  it,  and  it  re- 
quired another  campaign  under  Sir  David 
Ochterlony,  and  a  complete  rout  at  Muk- 
wanpore,  before  peace  was  finally  concluded, 
]\Iarch  2,  1816. 

Malcolm,  P'^lit.  HM.  of  India;  Wilson,  Hut 
of  India;  ThornCOB,  British  Empir§  ia  India. 


Oor 


(610) 


Oor 


Oordon,  ChM.  Geo.  (b.  28th  Jan.,  1833, 
d.  26th  Jan.,  1886),  received  his  oommieidon  iu 
the  Royal  Engineers  in  1862,  and  saw  service 
in  the  Crimea.  In  1862,  as  commander  of  the 
]^ver- Victorious  Army,  he  suppressed  the  for- 
midable Tai-ping  rebellion  in  China.  In  1874 
he  was  appointed  governor  of  the  tribes  in  the 
Soudan  by  the  Kh^veof  Egypt,  andsignaUsed 
his  two  years  of  office  by  puttingdown  Uie  slave 
trade,  an  object  to  which  he  again  addressed 
himself  when,  in  1877,  he  became  Gk)vemor- 
Gren^ral  of  the  Soudan  and  the  Equatorial  Pro- 
vinces. In  1882  he  was  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Cape  forces;  and  in  1884  was 
sent  to  Khartoum  to  bring  away  from  the 
Soudan  several  garrisons  that  were  hemmed  in 
by  the  followers  of  the  Mahdi.  He  was,  how- 
ever, himself  shot  in  the  city  of  Khartoum, 
and  the  avant  couriers  of  the  relief  expedition 
arrived  only  to  find  that  the  city  had  fallen, 
and  that  its  heroic  defender  was  slain.  (Gor- 
don's saintliness  and  fearlessness  and  strange 
influence  over  men  make  him  one  of  the  most 
striking  figures  in  modem  history. 

Gordon,  The  Family  of.  The  origin  of 
this  great  Scottish  house  is  extremely  obscure. 
The  first  prominent  bearer  of  the  name  was 
Sir  Adam  Gordon,  Justiciar  of  Lothian  under 
Edward  I.  (1306).  His  adhesion  to  Bruce 
gave  him  estates  in  the  north  that  transferred 
the  chief  seat  of  the  house  from  the  Merse 
to  Deeside  and  the  Spey  valley.  The  direct 
male  line  died  out  in  1402 ;  but  from  his  female 
and  illegitimate  descendants  a  large  circle  of 
Gordons  sprang  up.  His  grandson  was  made 
Earl  of  Huntly  (1446),  a  peerage  which,  ele- 
vated to  a  marquisate  in  1699,  and  a  dukedom 
(of  Gordon)  in  1684,  became  extinct  in  1836. 
But  the  title  of  Marquis  of  Huntly  passed  to 
another  branch  of  the  family,  who  had  acquired 
the  title  of  Viscount  Melgund  and  Abo^nie  in 
the  year  1627,  and  Earl  of  Aboyne  in  1660. 
Other  peerages  in  the  family  were — ^the  earl- 
dom of  Sutherland  (1612),  the  barony  of  Loch- 
invar  and  viscounty  of  Kenmure  (1633) — in 
abej'ance  since  1847 — and  the  earldom  of  Aber- 
deen (1682),  belonging  to  a  collateral  branch 
traceable  from  the  fifteenth  century. 

Gordon,    QmeaXoffical  Hist,  of  the  Hqvm  qf 
Gordon, 

Gordon,  Ladt  Catherinb,  was  a  daughter 
of  the  Earl  of  Huntl}-,  and,  on  her  mother's 
side,  a  cousin  of  James  IV.,  by  whom  she  was 
married  to  Perkin  Warbeck.  Taken  prisoner 
by  Henry  VII. ,  with  her  husband,  she  became 
an  attendant  to  his  queen,  and  afterwards 
married  Sir  M.  Cradock. 

Gordon,  Sir  John  {d.  1662),  was  the  fourth 
son  of  the  fourth  Earl  of  Huntly.  He  was  one  of 
the  numerous  suitors  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots, 
whose  favour,  however,  he  lost  on  the  0(;ca8ion 
of  a  brawl  in  the  streets  of  Edinburgh.  He 
was  beheaded  at  Aberdeen  for  treason  in 
1662. 


Gordon  Uots,  The  (June,  1780),  were 
the  most  formidable  popular  rising  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  In  1778  a  bill,  brought 
in  by  Sir  Qeoftge  Savile  and  Dunning,  for  the 
relaxation  of  some  of  the  harsher  penal  laws 
against  Catholics,  passed  almost  unanimously 
through  both  Houses.  Protestant  aasociations 
were  formed  in  Scotland ;  a  leader  was  found 
in  Lord  George  Grordon,  a  son  of  the  Duke  of 
(Gordon,  a  silly  young  man  of  twenty-eight 
years  of  age;  and  the  agitation  spread  to 
England.  On  June  2nd,  1779,  a  body  of  60,000 
persooB  met  in  St.  George*s  Fields  to  petition 
for  the  repeal  of  the  Catholic  lieliof  Act.  The 
mob  forced  their  way  into  the  lobby  of  the 
House,  and,  continually  encouraged  by  Lord 
George  Gordon,  prevented  the  conduct  of 
business.  The  House  adjourned  till  Tues- 
day the  6th.  The  mob  dispersed ;  but 
only  to  begin  their  work  of  destruction  by 
demolishing  the  chapels  of  the  Sardinian  and 
Bavarian  ministers.  In  the  evening  of  the 
next  day  the  mob  renewed  their  ravages  in 
Moorfields.  On  Sunday,  the  4th,  they  pro- 
ceeded to  worse  extremities.  The  next  day  the 
mob  attacked  the  house  of  Sir  George  Savile, 
which  was  carried  and  pillaged.  The  alarm 
spread.  Burke  had  to  leave  his  own  house  and 
take  refuge  with  General  Burgoyne ;  and  Lord 
George  Gordon  himself  saw  that  the  riots  were^ 
proceeding  too  violently,  and  disavowed  his 
old  friends.  On  the  6th  the  Houses  met  after 
their  adjournment.  A  motion  was  passed  that 
the  petitions  should  be  considered  **  as  soon  ha 
the  tumults  subside  which  are  now  subsisting.'* 
On  the  very  same  evening,  one  detachment  of 
the  rioters  broke  open  Newgate  and  released 
the  prisoners ;  others  were  meanwhile  releas- 
ing, in  the  same  violent  wa^,  the  malefactors 
at  ClerkenwelL  Towards  midnight  the  rioters 
burnt  Lord  Mansfield's  house  in  Bloomsbur^' 
Square,  with  its  priceless  library,  the  occupants 
burely  escaping.  The  magistrates  did  not  ven- 
ture to  read  the  Riot  Act:  and  the  Guards 
would  not  act  until  this  formality  had  been 
gone  through.  On  the  7th  the  king  called  a 
Council,  and  showed,  as  usual,  that  where 
courage  was  required  he  would  not  be  wanting. 
The  cabinet  wavered  on  the  right  of  the  troops 
to  interfere  until  the  Riot  Act  had  been  read ; 
but  the  Attorney-General,  Wedderbum,  dis- 
posed of  this  difficulty,  and  the  king  insisted 
on  prompt  action.  A  proclamation  was  issued, 
warning  all  householders  to  close  their  houses 
and  keep  within  doors ;  and  orders  were  given 
to  the  military  to  act  without  waiting  for 
directions  from  the  civil  magistrates.  Sol* 
diers  everywhere  drove  the  rioters  before 
them  ;  but  in  some  cases  it  was  necessaiy  to 
resort  to  the  use  of  musketry.  The  returns 
sent  in  show  that  200  persons  were  shot  dead, 
while  250  more  were  lying  wounded  in  the 
hospitals,  8nd  still  more  were  no  doubt  carried 
away  and  concealed  by  their  friends.  On 
Thursday  morning  the  plunder  and  confla- 
grations  wei-e   completely  at  an  end.    One 


Oor 


(611  ) 


Oow 


hundred  and  thirty-five  of  the  rioters  were 
arrested;  twenty-one  were  executed.  Lord 
Qeorge  Grordon  subeequently  became  a  con- 
vert to  Judaism,  and  died  in  Newgate  in 
1793,  having  been  convicted  for  libel  in 
1787. 

Stanhope,  Hiat,,  vii.  js.  61 :  Ann.  R9g.^  1780,  pp. 
190^  «t  Mg.;  Bnrkei  ii|putolary  GorrMp<md«nM, 
ii.  350^  «t  MQ. ;  Plain  and  SwocincC  HarraUw  t^ 
WUliam  Vmemt,  1780.  r^".  R.  S.] 

Oorg— y  Snt  Ferdinando,  was  one  of 
the  supporters  of  Essex  in  his  rebellion  of 
1601.  He  saved  his  life  by  releasing  the 
ministers  whom  the  earl  had  taken  prisoner, 
and  by  appearing  as  a  witness  at  the  triaL 
He  was  subsequently,  in  1606,  associated 
with  Sir  John  Popham  in  a  scheme  for 
establishing  a  colony  in  North  America,  for 
which  a  patent  had  been  obtained  from 
James  I. 

Qorhkgm  Georob,  JjOkd,  afterwards  Earl 
of  Norwich,  a  Royalist  partisan  who  be- 
trayed the  Army  riot  to  Fym,  but  who 
got  command  of  Portsmouth,  which  he  held 
valiantly  for  Charles  I.  Afterwards  he  com- 
manded the  Royalist  army  in  the  south-west, 
and  attempted  to  capture  Taunton.  He 
joined  the  second  Civil  War,  and  on  the 
capture  of  Colchester  was  tried  and  found 
guilty  by  resolution  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, but  saved  from  execution  by  the 
casting  vole  of  the  Speaker.  He  was  a  man 
of  rough  jovial  life,  brave,  but  not  of  high 
charactei'. 

Clarendon,  Hi$t,  ofth»IU^, 

Gondpredy  or  compatemity,  is  a  wid»- 
bpread  custom  amongst  the  Irish.  The  ex- 
tremely strong  feelings  of  attachment  arising 
from  it  were  among  the  most  powerful 
agents  in  completely  denationalising  the  Nor- 
man invaders.  Sir  J.  Davis  8a}*s  of  it^  **  yet 
there  was  no  nation  under  tiie  sun  ever 
made  so  great  an  account  of  it  [gorsipred] 
as  the  Irish."  The  Statute  of  Kilkenn;^, 
1367,  made  it  high  treason  to  enter  into  tms 
relation  of  godfather  with  natives,  but  ex- 
emptions were  very  often  granted. 

DaTis,  Pifoovcry  ;  Txoade,  EngUth  in  Ireland. 

Oongh,  Hugh,  Viscount  {b,  1779,  d. 
1869),  entered  the  army,  and  distinguished 
himself  on  many  occasions  during  the  Pen- 
insular War.  In  1837  he  commanded  the 
Eng^lish  army  in  the  Chinese  War,  and 
achieved  the  capture  of  Canton.  For  his  ser- 
vices he  was  created  a  baronet.  In  1843  he 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief  in  India. 
He  conmianded  during  the  first  Sikh  War, 
and  for  his  services  was  created  Baron  Gough. 
He  also  commanded  during  the  second  Sikh 
War,  and  his  crowning  victory  of  Guzerat 
was  rewarded  with  a  viscounty.  In  1862  he 
became  field-marshal. 

Oonllram,  Hexrt  {b.  1784,  d.  1856), 
^as  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 


In  1807  he  was  elected  member  for  Horsham; 
in  1810  he  was  made  Under-Secretary  of 
State  for  the  Home  Department  under  the 
Duke  of  Portland's  ministry,  and  held  that 
office  during  the  administration  of  PercevaL 
At  the  general  election  of  1812  he  was 
elected  for  St.  Germans.  In  Aug.,  1812,  he 
was  appointed  Under-Secretary  of  State  for 
the  Colonies,  an  office  which  he  held  up  till 
1821.  He  accepted  the  post  of  Chief  Secre- 
tary for  Ireland  in  Dec.,  1821,  and  held  that 
office  until  March,  1828,  when  the  Duke  of 
Wellington  made  him  Chancellor  of  the  Ex- 
chequer and  a  member  of  the  cabinet.  He 
went  out  of  office  in  1830,  was  elected  member 
for  Oxford  University  in  1831,  and  in  Decem- 
ber, 1834,  was  appointed  Home  Secretary  by 
Peel.  In  1 839  he  was  proposed  as  Speaker  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  but  the  Whigs  carried. 
Mr.  Shaw  Lefevre.  In  1841  he  was  again 
Qumcellor  of  the  Exchequer.  In  this  office 
he  most  ably  seconded  his  great  chief  in  the 
social  and  commercial  reforms  which  have 
rendered  famous  the  later  yean  of  that 
statesman's  life.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
successful  Chancellon  of  the  Exchequer  ever 
known.  He  retired  with  Sir  R.  Peel  in  1848, 
and  from  that  time  took  no  very  active  part 
in  politics. 

Qourdoili  Bbrtrakd  db  {d,  1199),  is  gene- 
rally supposed  to  have  been  the  name  of 
the  archer  whose  arrow  mortally  wounded 
Richard  I.  before  the  castle  of  Chaluz. 
Richard  ordered  him  to  be  released,  but  after 
his  death  his  followers  flayed  the  unhappy 
man  alive. 

Gowrie^  William,  Eabl  of  ^Lord  Ruth- 
ven),  d.  1684,  was  the  leader  m  the  Raid 
of  Kuthven,  for  which  act  of  violence  he 
obtained  an  indenmity,  1582.  On  the  defeat 
of  his  party,  1583,  he  was  induced  by  false 
promises  of  pardon  to  write  a  letter  to  the 
King  confessing  his  guilt.  On  this  evidence 
he  was  condemned  and  executed  at  Stirling, 
May,  1584. 

Gowrief  The  Earl  of,  the  son  of  the 
preceding,  joined  with  his  brother  in  the 
Gowrie  Conspiracy,  1600,  to  kidnap  King 
James  YI.;  in  the  struggle  which  ensued 
he  was  killed  by  Sir  Thomas  Enkine,  a 
retainer  of  the  king.  He  was  Provost  of 
Perth,  and  very  popular  with  the  citizens, 
who  threatened  to  make  the  '*  king's  green 
coat  pay  for  their  provost." 

Oowrie  Conspiracy,  The  (1600),  is  a 
name  given  to  a  somownat  mysterious  affair 
which  happened  during  the  reign  of  James 
YI.  of  Scotland.  On  August  5,  1600,  while 
the  king  was  hunting  in  Falkland  Park  in 
Fifeshire  he  was  met  by  Alexander  Ruthven 
(brother  of  the  Earl  of  Gowrie)  who  invited 
him  to  Gowrie  House  near  Perth,  sa^nng  that 
he  had  caught  a  Jesuit  with  a  large  sum  of 
money  in  his  possession.      James  being  in 


(6H) 


need  of  money  accepted  the  invitation,  and 
after  dinner  went  with  Alexander  KuUiTen 
alone,  to  interrogate  the  captive.  Iniitead  of 
a  prifloner,  however,  he  found  an  armed  re- 
tainer of  the  earl,  named  Hecderwrn ;  Bnthven 
at  once  told  the  king  he  waa  a  priaoner,  re- 
minding him  of  his  father^s  (Lord  Gowrie) 
execntion  in  I58i.  James,  however,  managea 
to  niiae  an  alarm  in  spite  of  Bothven^s  efforts 
to  stab  him,  and  his  attendants  hastened  to  his 
assistance.  Sir  John  Kamsay ,  his  page,  forced 
his  way  up  a  stair  to  the  tnxiet  where  the 
struggle  waa  going  on,  and  stabbed  lUithvien 
twice ;  the  conspirator,  and  his  brother.  Lord 
Gowrie,  being  snbseqnentlv  despatched  by  Sir 
Thomas  Erskine  and  Sir  H  ugh  Herriea.  The 
long  had  considerable  difficulty  in  escaping 
from  Gowrie  House,  as  the  citizens  of  Perth, 
with  whom  Gowrie  was  very  popular,  wished 
to  put  him  to  death.  It  was  said  at  the  time 
by  the  king's  enemies  that  the  whole  a£Eair 
bad  been  arranged  by  James,  who  wished  to 
get  rid  of  the  Bnttivena,  but  sufaaequent 
evidence  proved  that  there  had  been  a  con- 
apiiacy  between  Lord  Gowrie,  his  brother  and 
Bobert  Lofnn,  to  seize  or  IdU  the  king.  It  is 
aaid  that  Elizabeth  was  privy  to  the  schema. 
Burton,  Htftory  ^SeoOoad. 


I,   The  Act  of   (May  20,   1690), 

was  issued  by  William  IIL,  and  as  snofa  waa 
received  with  peculiar  maiks  of  respect,  and 
read  only  once  in  the  Lords  and  onoe  in  the 
Commons.  It  excepted  from  ita  operatioiiB 
the  survivors  of  the  High  Court  cif  Justice 
which  had  sat  on  Chartos  I.,  and  his  two 
nameless  executioners.  '*Witb  these  exoep- 
tions,  all  political  offences  committed  before 
the  day  on  which  the  royal  signature  was 
affixed  to  the  Act,  were  covered  in  general 
oblivion.*'  This  Act  was  opposed  by  the  more 
violent  Whigs  because,  they  said,  it  had  com- 
pletely refuted  his  declaration ;  but  it  is,  as 
Ifacaulay  remarks,  *'  one  of  his  noblest  and 
purest  titles  to  renown." 

StdtvlM  of  the  Realm ;  Bomet,  Hist,  o/fltt  Oum 
Time;  ICacaulaj,  Hist,  of  E%g, 


I,  Thb.  In  1628,  the  government 
of  Ireland  being  greatly  embarrassed  by  James 
I.'s  prodigality,  an  arrangement  was  con- 
cluded, by  which,  in  return  for  the  Volun- 
tary Aids,  Lord  Falkland,  as  Lord  Deputy, 
granted,  in  the  king's  name,  some  fifty-one 
**  graces  *'  or  concesnions.  The  most  impor- 
tant were:  (1)  Recusants  to  be  allowed  to 
practice  in  courts  of  law,  and  to  sue  for 
livery  of  their  lands  in  the  Court  of  Wards, 
on  taking  the  oath  of  allegiance  only ;  (2i 
the  claims  of  the  crown  to  ^d  to  be  Umitea 
by  a  prescription  of  sixty  years ;  (3)  inhabi- 
tants of  Connaught  to  be  permitted  to  make 
a  new  enrolment  of  their  title-deeds;  (4)  a 
Parliament  to  be  held  at  once  to  confirm 
these  *' graces."  A  Parliament  was  indeed 
held,  bat  being  called  by  Lord  Falkland  in 
defiance  of  Poynings'  Law,  its  acts  were  con- 


sidered null  and  void  bv  the 
In  1634  Stnffoid,  fUkland's 
promised,  if  Pluliament  voted  a  subady  in  its 
first  session,  to  hold  a  second  one  for  consider- 
ing the"  gracea"  He  broke  his  promise  and 
declared  that  the  most  important  could  not  be 
conoeded.  When  the  system  of  "  Thorougfa  " 
broke  down  in  EnghuMi,  a  deputation  went 
over  to  England  and  got  all  its  requests 
granted  by  CSiarles  I.,  1641,  but  of  course  the 
Parliament  was  not  bound  by  the  king's 
action. 

ftm/ori  PlqMTt;  Qwdiiiar,  Hut  ^Mmg.,  f«DS 

Gvaiftoa,  Arousrus  Hbxrt,  3ed  Dukb 
OF  (6.  1735,  d,  1811),  son  of  the  second  duke, 
after  being  educated  at  Westminster  and 
Peterhouse,  Cambridge,  succeeded  his  father 
at  the  age  of  22.  He  attached  himself  to  the 
Whigs,  and  was  one  of  the  three  peers  who, 
for  their  independence  in  censuring  Bute's 
peace  with  France  in  1763,  were  dismissed 
from  their  lord- lieutenancies.  When  the 
Marquis  of  Bockingham  came  into  office 
in  1765,  the  duke  was  appointed  one  of  the 
Secretaries  of  State,  but  resigned  in  the 
followii^May,  having  become  a  disciple  of 
Pitt  When  the  ministry  resigned  a  few 
months  later,  the  duke  was  appointed  First 
Lord  of  the  Treasun-,  while  Pitt  nominally 
received  for  himself  the  Privy  Seal  only,  birt 
was  in  fact  Prime  Minister.  The  duke  did, 
however,  become  really  Premier,  .when 
Chatham  fell  ill  and  retired  from  active  busi- 
ness; and  so  he  continued  until  January, 
1770,  when  he  retired  and  made  way  for 
Lord  North,  after  being  outvoted  in  hia  own 
cabinet.  On  the  retirement  of  Lord  Wey- 
mouth, and  the  death  of  Lord  Halifax,  tha 
duke  "  was  induced  to  accept  the  Privy  Seal, 
but,  with  a  kind  of  proud  humiUty,  refused  a 
seat  in  the  cabinet  of  Lord  Noith ; "  but  in 
October,  1775,  as  he  could  not  convince  his 
colleagues  of  the  need  of  conciliating  America, 
he  resigned.  He  then  joined  his  old  leader.  Lord 
Chathfun,  in  his  protests  against  the  policy  of 
the  government  in  America.  The  duke  re- 
mained in  opposition  during  the  remainder  of 
Lord  North's  tenure  of  office.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Privy  Seal  when  Lord  Rockingham 
took  office  in  1782.  On  the  succession  of 
Shelbume  to  the  premiership,  he  did  not  re- 
sign, but  distrusted  the  new  Premier,  and 
remained  as  a  continual  thorn  in  his  side.  Soon 
after  this  he  retired  from  politics  to  the  quiet 
enjoyment  of  field  sports,  which  had  always 
occupied  most  of  his  thoughts.  The  Duke  of 
Grafton  is  best  known  to  posterity  from  the 
striking  though  exaggerate  picture  drawn  of 
him  by  the  powerful  pen  of  **  Junius,"  whoso 
chief  victim  he  was.  A  man  of  promise  and 
ability,  endowed  with  fortune  and  high 
position,  upright  and  disinterested  in  his 
public  conduct,  the  Duke  of  Grafton  wis  yet 
a  failure.  He  was  wnntinc:  in  application, 
and  was  both  vacillating  and  obstinate.     The 


Gsa 


(613) 


Ora 


conspicaouB  manner,  too,  in  which  he  paraded 

his  personal  immonility  gave  offence  even  to 

his  lax  age. 

Qiafton,  ir«moini;  Chatham  Corrmpond^nee ; 
Stanhope,  Hist,  of  Eng. ;  Jesse,  Mm,  of  Q0O, 
III. ;  JuuiuB,  Letten, 

Qraham,  Sib  Jambs  Geobos  Robebt  {b. 
1792,  d.  1861),  was  the  son  of  Sir  James 
Graham,  of  Netherby ;  entered  Parliament 
in  1818.  *In  1824  he  succeeded  to  the 
baronetcy,  and  being  returned  in  1826  for 
Carlisle,  soon  became  prominent  on  the 
Whig  side.  On  the  formation  of  Earl  Grey's 
ministry,  he  was  made  First  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty.  In  1834  he  retired  from  Lord 
Grey's  cabinet  owing  to  the  dissensions  in  it 
about  the  Irish  Church  question,  and  with  a 
small  party  of  friends  formed  an  intermediate 
party  known  by  the  sportive  title  of  the 
"  Derby  Dilly  "  (q.v.).  In  1841  he  accepted 
office  under  Sir  Kobert  Peel,  as  Home 
Secretary.  He  was  exposed  to  an  attack  of 
extraordinary  bitterness  in  consequence  of 
his  ordering  the  correspondence  of  Mazzini  to 
be  opened  at  the  Post  Office.  The  manner 
in  'vAiich  he  dealt  with  the  question  of  the 
Scotch  Church,  and  at  the  crisis  of  the  Dis- 
ruption, produced  a  most  exasperated  feeling 
against  lum  in  Scotland.  He  supported  Peel 
during  the  crisis  produced  by  the  repeal  of 
the  Com  Laws;  and  in  1852  he  was  once 
more  appointed,  by  Lord  Aberdeen,  First 
Lord  or  the  Admiralty.  Sir  James  in- 
curred in  this  more  impopularity  than  in 
any  former  tenure  of  office.  He  under- 
rated both  the  charges  and  responsibilities  of 
the  war.  He  was  one  of  those  who  advocated 
those  half  measures  which  both  precipitated 
the  contest,  and  afterwards  increased  its 
magnitude.  The  dismissal  of  Sir  Charles 
Napier  greatly  damaged  the  reputation  of  the 
First  Lord.  Sir  James  in  consequence  re- 
signed his  office,  and  then  led  a  small  party, 
the  remnant  of  the  Peelites. 

AnuHol  Register. 


L,  John  op  Clatebhouse,  Vis- 
count Dundee  {d.  1689),  was  the  captain  in 
a  troop  of  horse  employed  in  coercing  the 
Covenanters  and  Cameronians  in  the  latter 
part  of  Charles  II.' s  reign,  and  that  of  his 
successor.  His  cruelty  made  him  specially 
hateful  to  the  rebels.  He  was  defeated  by  the 
Cameronians  at  Drumclog  (June,  1679),  but 
subsequently  had  a  large  share  in  Monmouth's 
victory  over  them  at  Bothwell  Bridge,  a  few 
days  later.  In  1688  he  was  made  a  peer. 
Claverhouse  was  at  the  head  of  the  opposi- 
tion to  William  III.*s  accession  in  Scot- 
land, and  after  vainly  trying  to  interrupt  the 
work  of  the  Convention  of  Estates,  he  retired 
to  the  Highlands  and  raised  a  body  of  troops 
ttiere  for  King  James.  On  June  17,  1689,  he 
defeated  Mackay,  who  advanced  against  him, 
at  the  pass  of  Killiecrankie,  but  was  himself 
killed  in  the  battle. 
H18T.-17 


Graluuil,  Sib  Robebt,  was  the  uncle  of 
Malise  Graham,  Earl  of  Strathern,  and  the 
chief  conspirator  against  James  I.  On  Feb. 
20,  1436,  he  led  a  band  of  300  men  to  the 
abbey  of  Black  Friars,  at  Perth,  where  the 
king  was  residing,  and  slew  him  with  his 
own  hand,  only  sparing  the  queen  from  the 
necessi^'  of  escaping  without  loss  of  time. 
The  indugnation  aroused  by  this  crime  was  so 
great,  that  all  the  conspirators  were  speedily 
brought  to  justice.  Sir  Kobert  Graham  being 
tortured  to  death  at  Stirling,  justif}'ing  his 
conduct  to  the  end,  and  declaring  himself  the 
liberator  of  his  country. 

Burton,  Hist,  of  Scotland. 

Gruninoiit,  Philibebt,  Comtbde  {b.  1621, 
d.  1707),  a  French  noble,  was  for  a  long  time 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  and  characteristic 
members  of  the  court  of  Charles  IL,  and  his 
memoirs^  which  have  been  written  by  his 
brother-in-law,  Anthony  Hamilton,  give  a 
lively  picture  of  the  licence  allowed  by  that 
monarch  amongst  his  courtiers.  [Hamilton]. 

Granby,  John  Mannrbs,  Mabqvis  of 
b.  1721,  a,  1773),  British  general,  was  the 
eldest  son  of  the  third  Duke  of  Rutland. 
In  1759  he  went  to  Germany  as  second  in 
command  to  Lord  George  Sackville.  After 
the  battle  of  Minden,  f  or  nis  conduct  in  which 
he  was  thanked,  to  the  disparagement  of 
Sackville,  he  was  made  commander-in-chief, 
and  greatly  distinguished  himself.  In  1763 
he  was  made  Master  of  the  Ordnance.  His 
great  popularity  mav  be  judged  from  the 
large  number  of  puoUc-houses  still  named 
after  him ;  but  he  was  quite  a  commonplace, 
though  respectable,  generaL 

Grand  Allianca.    [See  Appendix.] 

Grantham,  The  Fight  of  (March,  1643), 
was  the  result  of  an  invasion  of  Lincolnshire 
by  a  Eoyalist  force  under  Charles  Cavendish. 
They  took  Grantham,  a  garrison  of  the 
Association,  with  300  prisoners,  arms  and 
ammunition. 

Clarondon,  Hut.  of  the  R^bMion. 

GranTillOy  Gbobob  Le^-eson  Gowbb, 
Eabl  {b.  1815,  d.  1891),  was  first  elected 
M.P.  in  1836.  In  1840  he  became  Under- 
Secretary  for  Foreign  AfEairs.  He  acted 
on  Liberal  principles,  and  was  a  consis- 
tent supporter  of  Free  Trade.  In  1846  he 
succeeded  to  the  peerage.  In  1848  he  was 
appointed  Vice-President  of  the  Board  of 
Tmde;  in  1851  obtained  a  seat  in  the 
cabinet,  and  in  December  of  that  year  suc- 
ceeded Lord  Palmerstonas  Foreign  Secretary, 
retiring  with  the  Russell  ministry  in  1852. 
He  was  appointed  President  of  the  Council  in 
1853,  and  in  1855  undertook  the  leadership  of 
the  House  of  Lords.  He  was  re-appointed 
President  of  the  Council  in  1859  in  Lord 
Palmerston's  second  ministry.  In  Decem- 
ber, 1868,  he  accepted  office  under  Mr. 
Gladstone   as    Colonial    Secretary,  and    re- 


Ora 


(614) 


Ora 


tained  that  position  till  July,  1870,  when  he 
succeeded  the  Earl  of  Clarendon  aa  Secretary 
for  Foreign  Affairs,  which  position  he  occu- 
pied till  1874.  He  became  Foreign  Secretary 
again  on  the  accession  of  the  Liberal  party  to 
power  in  1880,  and  Colonial  Secretary  in  1886. 

Granvilley  John  Cakteket  {b.  1690,  d. 
1763),  the  eldest  son  of  George,  Lord  Carteret, 
«arly  distinguished  himself  in  the  House  of 
Lords  by  his  defence  of  Whig  doctrines  and 
the  Revolution  settlement.  In  1719  he  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  Sweden.  In  1721  he 
was  made  Secretary  of  State,  and  in  1724  Lord- 
Lieuteoant  of  Ireland,  which  office  he  filled 
with  great  success.  In  1730  he  returned  and 
became  one  of  the  most  formidable  opponents 
of  Walpole.  On  the  fall  of  that  minister  he 
became  Secretary  of  State  (Feb.,  1742).  He, 
however,  resigned  office  in  1744  (Nov.  23). 
He  unsuccessfully  attempted  to  form  a 
ministry  in  company  with  Lord  Bath  in 
1746.  He  succeeded  to  the  earldom  of  Gran- 
ville in  1744,  and  was  appointed  President  of 
the  Council  in  1751.  Granville  was  a  man  of 
brilliant  genius,  and  an  accomplished  scholar ; 
but  ho  was  somewhat  deficient  in  steadiness 
of  purpose  and  judgment. 

Orattaxiy  Hbnbt  {b.  1750,  d.  1820),  was 
bom  in  Dublin,  and  educated  at  Trinity 
College.  In  1772  he  was  called  to  the  Irish 
jar;  but  practice  did  not  flow  in,  and,  in 
1775,  he  was  raised  to  a  more  congenfiil 
sphere  by  his  return  to  Parliament  for 
Charlemont.  He  at  once  joined  the  Opposi- 
tion, and  acquired  almost  unprecedented 
popularity  by  drawing  up  the  Irish  Declara- 
tion of  Rights.  He  was  the  leading  orator 
of  the  party  whose  success  secured  the  repeal, 
of  Poynings*  Act  and  the  legislative  inde- 
pendence of  Ireland.  In  1 785  it  was  proposed 
that ''  the  Irish  legislature  should  from  time  to 
time  adopt  all  such  Acts  of  the  British  Par- 
liament as  related  to  commerce."  The  popu- 
larity of  Flood  for  a  time  had  almost  eclipsed 
Grattan's,  but  his  successful  opposition  to 
this  measure  quite  restored  him  to  extreme 
popularity.  In  1790  he  was  elected  to  repre- 
sent the  city  of  Dublin.  During  the  unhappy 
period  between  1790  and  1800,  Grattan 
urged  the  government  to  adopt  a  conciliatory 
poUcy,  and  he  was  strongly  in  favour  of 
granting  the  claims  of  the  Catholics.  On 
the  question  of  the  Union,  he  held  consistently 
to  Ms  old  wish  to  see  Ireland  independent, 
and  consequently  did  his  utmost  to  prevent 
the  passing  of  that  measure.  It  was  of  no 
avail ;  and,  in  1805,  he  was  returned  to  the 
British  Parliament  as  M.P.  for  Malto'n,  and 
he  afterwards  represented  his  old  constituents 
of  Dublin.  His  oratory  was  as  brilliant  as 
ever,  but  his  views  had  become  more  mode- 
rate; and  he  did  not  escape  the  suspicion  of 
having  abandoned  his  old  patriotism  under 
the  influence  of  flattery  from  high  quarters. 
The  suspicion  was  groundless.     His  old  ideal 


of  an  independent  Ireland  had  been  swept 
away  by  the  Union,  in  spite  of  his  strenuous 
resistance;  but  the  pohcy  which  held  the 
next  place  in  his  heart — Catholic  Emancipa- 
tion— seems  to  have  become  a  more  and  more 
engrossing  passion,  and  he  never  ceased 
during  the  time  when  ho  sat  in  the  English 
Parlisunent  to  advocate  that  measure.  In  May, 
1820,  he  died  in  London.  *' Mr.  Grattan V'  said 
Sir  James  Mackintosh,  in  proposing  a  public 
funeral,  *'  was  a  case  without  alloy;  the  purity 
of  his  life  was  the  brightness  of  his  glory. 
He  was  as  eminent  in  his  observance  of  all 
the  duties  of  private  life  as  he  was  heroic  in 
the  discharge  of  his  public  ones.'* 

Gntttan's  Lift,  by  his  son  i  Plowden,  Higtory  of 
Ireland;  Fronde,  Englith  xn  Irtland;  Cmming- 
ham,  Eminent  Englishmen ;  May,  Corut.  Hist. 

GravelineSy  The  Battle  of  (1558),  re- 
sulted in  a  victory  for  Count  Egmont  and  the 
Imperial  forces  over  the  French.  The  Eng- 
lish navy,  under  Lord  Clinton,  had  some  sharo 
in  it,  and  thus  wiped  out  in  some  degree  the 
disgrace  of  the  loss  of  Calais. 

Graves,  Admiral  Lord  {b.  1725,  d,  1802), 
served  successively  as  Governor  of  New- 
foundland and  rear-admiral  in  command  of 
the  American  station  (1780).  He  brought 
De  Grasse  to  a  partial  engagement  in  Septem- 
ber, 1781.  In  the  naval  engagement  off 
Ushant  (June  1,  1794)  he  was  second  in  com- 
mand to  Lord  Howe,  and  was  rewarded  with 
an  Irish  peerage  and  a  pension. 

Allen,  Naval  BoUIm;  James,  If  aval  Htct. 

Qray,  Patrick  (the  Master  of  Gray),  was 
educated  in  France,  whence  he  returned  to 
Scotland  (1585),  and  speedily  became  a 
favourite  of  James  YI.  He  was  sent  on  a 
mission  to  Elizabeth,  to  whom  he  is  said  to 
have  revealed  many  of  the  secrets  of  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots;  and  while  at  the  English 
court  concerted  measures  for  the  ruin  of 
Arran,  which  he  accomplished  on  his  re- 
turn to  Scotland  (1685).  In  the  following 
year  he  was  sent,  in  company  with  Sir  Robert 
Melville,  to' intercede  for  Queen  Mary,  whoso 
cause,  however,  he  is  not  likely  to  have  aided 
by  the  private  intimation  which  he  is  said  to 
have  given  to  Elizabeth  that  James  was,  in 
reality,  in  no  way  averse  to  his  mother's 
execution. 

Gray,  or  Grey,  Johk  db  (rf.  1214),  was 

one  of  King  John^s  ministers.  In  1200  the 
king  gave  him  the  bishopric  of  Norwich,  and 
in  1205  John  caused  him  to  be  elected  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.  But  the  Pope  refused 
to  confirm  the  election,  and  appointed  Stephen 
Langton  in  his  stead.  In  1210  he  was 
appointed  Lord  Deputy  of  Ireland,  an  office 
which  he  held  tiU  1213.  In  1214  he  was 
sent  to  Rome  on  an  embassv  to  the  Pope,  and 
while  returning  to  England  died  at  Poictiers. 

Oray»  or  Grey,  Walter  de  (rf.  1255J, 
was   the   nephew  of   John  de  Grey.      He 


Care 


{  616) 


Ghre 


was  Chancellor  from  1205  to  1213,  in  which 
latter  year,  while  on  a  mission  to  Flanders, 
he  was  superseded  by  Peter  des  Rociies,  but 
reinstated  in  1214.  During  John's  struggle 
with  the  barons,  he  supported  the  king,  who 
rewarded  him  with  the  archbishopric  of 
York.  He  devoted  himself  to  the  adminis- 
tration of  his  see,  and  we  only  meet  with  him 
once  more,  in  1242,  when  he  was  appointed 
regent  during  Henry  III.'s  absence  in 
France. 

Great  Britain,  a  name  originally  applied 
to  the  whole  isknd  of  Britain,  to  distinguish 
it  from  Britannia  Minor,  or  Britanny,  and 
often  used  in  poetry  or  exalted  prose,  but 
never  for  official  purposes  until  after  the 
accession  of  James  I.  The  Lords  of  the 
Congregation,  in  1559,  had  suggested  the 
union  of  the  two  kingdoms  under  this  name, 
and  now  James  was  to  realise  their  aspiration. 
James's  assumption  of  the  title  of  ICing  of 
Great  Britain  meant  that  he  claimed,  Uke  the 
Old- English  monarchs,  to  be  lord  of  the 
whole  island,  and  not  merely  king  of  both 
halves  separately.  Much  opposition  was 
made  to  this  title  in  Parliament,  and  the 
judges  declared  it  illegal.  But  in  1604  James 
definitely  styled  himself  King  of  Great 
Britain  on  his  coins.  [United  Kingdom.] 
SpeddineTf  Life  of  Bojcon. 

Great  Charter.    [Magna  Cabta.] 

Great  Sebellion.    [Rebellion.] 

Greece*  Relations  with.  The  Greek 
insurrection  began  in  1821,  and,  after  a  long 
struggle,  it  seemed  impossible  for  the  insur- 
gent to  win  their  independence.  A  wave  of 
Hellenic  enthusiasm  ran  through  England. 
Volunteers  from  all  parts  of  England  joined 
the  Greek  cause.  In  1824  Byron  perished  at 
MisBolonghi.  In  1826  Lord  Cochrane  was 
made  admiral,  and  Sir  Richard  Church 
general,  of  the  Greek  forces ;  but  in  1827 
the  Turks  reconquered  Athens  despite  their 
efforts.  Canning  had  reclaimed  England 
from  the  policy  of  the  Holy  Alliance,  and 
the  battle  of  Navarino,  though  brought 
about  by  accident,  was  not  necessarily  op- 
posed to  his  policy.  But  the  Wellington 
ministry  repudiated  the  action,  and  left  it  to 
the  Russian  invasion  of  1829  to  practically 
win  Greek  independence.  As  one  of  the  pro- 
tecting powers  England  found  Greece  a  king 
and  continued  to  watch  over  its  interests,  but 
forced  on  it,  in  1832,  the  narrow  boundaries  into 
which,  until  recently,  it  was  confined.  The 
Pacifico  and  Finlay  affairs  for  a  time  led  to 
strained  relations;  yet,  in  1862  Prince  Alfred 
was  elected  king  on  the  expulsion  of  Otto, 
but  the  self-denying  bond  of  the  protecting 
fpowers  made  it  impossible  for  him  to  assume 
the  throne,  and  England  recommended  Prince 
William  of  Holstein,  who  became  Greorge  I.  In 
1863  England  handed  over  the  Ionian  Islands 
to  the  Hellenic  kingdom ;  and  more  recently 


has  secured  the  extension  of  its  boundary  at 

the  expense  of  Turkey.    [For  earlier  dealings 

see  Turkey,  Relations  with.^ 

Finlay,  Riat.  of  Qneee;  Oerriniis,  Qwihickts 
flUs  Neunuhnttn  JdhrhundtrtB ;  L.  Sargeant,  New 
Or«o..  |.^  p  ^^ 

Green,  Sm  Henrt  {d,  1399),  was  the  son 
of  a  Chief  Justice  of  the  King's  Bench,  and 
was  one  of  Richard  II.  *s  ministers  in  the  lat- 
ter years  of  his  reign.  He  seems  to  have  been 
extremely  unpopular  on  account  of  his  extor- 
tion of  money  Dy  illegal  means,  and  on  the 
landing  of  Bolingbroke  was  seized  and  sum- 
marily put  to  death. 

Green  Cloth,  The  Board  of.  a  Board 
attached  to  the  royal  household,  presided  over 
by  the  Lord  Steward.  It  had  power  to  punish 
offenders  within  the  precincts  of  the  palace, 
and  issued  the  warrants  which  were  necessazy 
before  a  servant  of  the  household  could  be 
arrested  for  debt. 

Greenwich  was  the  seat  of  a  royal 
jKilace  much  occupied  by  the  Tudor  princes, 
and  pulled  down  after  the  Restoration.  The 
site  was  assigned  by  William  III.  for,  the 
great  hospital  for  retired  seamen  he  there 
founded.  Since  1869  the  building  has  heen 
devoted  to  the  Royal  Naval  College. 

Greenwood,  John  (d.  1592),  a  pro- 
minent Btmrowist,  was  examined  before  the 
Court  of  High  Commission  in  1687  on  a 
charge  of  promulgating  seditious  and  schism- 
atical  opinions,  and  was  imprisoned.  In  the 
following  year  he  was  again  committed  to  the 
Fleet,  and  in  1592  was  executed,  at  the  same 
time  as  Henry  Barrow. 

Gregg,  William  {d.  1708],  was  clerk  in 
the  office  of  Harley,  Queen  Anne^s  Secretary 
of  State.  He  was  first  employed  by  that 
minister  as  a  spy  in  Scotland  and  elsewhere. 
In  the  course  of  the  years  1707  and  1708  he 
was  engaged  in  a  treasonable  correspondence 
with  M.  de  Chamillart,  the  French  Secretary 
of  State.  He  slipped  his  letters  into  those  of 
Marshal  Tallard,  whose  correspondence,  since 
he  was  prisoner  of  war,  passed  through  Har- 
ley*s  ofiice.  One  of  these  packets  was  opened 
on  suspicion  in  Holland.  Gregg  was  tried  at 
the  Old  Bailey,  pleaded  guilty,  and  was  sen- 
tenced to  death.  The  House  of  Lords,  bitterly 
opposed  to  Harley,  entered  on  a  searching 
investigation  of  the  case,  with  the  object  of 
establishing  the  minister's  complicity.  Gregg 
was  told  that  if  he  would  malce  a  full  con- 
fession, he  might  hope  for  the  intercession  of 
the  House.  He  refused  to  retract  his  first 
statement,  and  was  hanged  at  Tybuiii  on 
April  28. 

Grenada^  one  of  the  Windward  Islands, 
was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1478,  but 
colonised  in  1650  by  the  French  Governor  of 
Martinique;  and,  in  1674,  on  the  collapse  of 
the  French  West  India  Company,  lapsed  to 


Ore 


(616) 


Ore 


the  French  crown.    ITie  French  retained  it 

until  the  Treaty  of  Paris  (1763),  when  it  was 

made  over  to  England.    Li   1779  Grenada 

was  retaken  by  the  French,  but  was  restored 

by  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  (1783).    In  1796 

there  was  a  negro  insurrection,  caused  mainly 

by  the  intrigues  of  the  French  planters,  the 

effects  of  which  retarded  for  many  years  the 

progress  of  the  island.    The  goYemment  is 

vested  in   a   governor  (who  also  exercises 

jurisdiction  over  the  rest  of  the  Windward 

islands)  and   a   legislative   council.     Each 

town    has    an     elective    Board    for    local 

af^drs.    The  chief  exports  are  sugar,  cocoa, 

and  cotton. 

B.  M.  Martin,  Britiah  CoUmMt ;  B.  Edwards, 
Wett  Indus. 

Orenville,  Sm  Bbvil  {b.  1696,  d,  1643), 
a  grandson  of  Sir  Richard  Grenville,  a  gallant 
officer  who  joined  the  Eoyalist  army  in  1642, 
defeated  the  Parliamentary  forces  at  Stratton, 
and  was  slain  at  the  battle  of  Lansdown  (July 
6,  1643).  Clarendon  says  that  the  Eoyalist 
successes  in  Cornwall  were  almost  entirely 
due  to  his  energy ;  and  speaks  warmly  of  his 
bright  courage  and  gentle  disposition. 
ClAzendoD,  Hist  cf  fhe  Rebellion. 

Grenville,  Geokob  {b.  1712,  d,  1770), 
was  the  son  of  Richard  Grenville,  of  Wotton, 
by  Hester,  Countess  Temple.  In  1741  he  was 
elected  M.P.  for  Buckingham,  which  town 
he  continued  to  represent  until  his  death. 
In  1744  he  was  appointed  a  Junior  Lord  of 
the  Admiralty,  in  Henry  Pelham's  govern- 
ment. In  1747  he  was  promoted  to  the  same 
office  in  the  Treasury;  and  on  Newcastle 
becoming  Prime  Minister  in  1764  he  became 
Treasurer  of  the  Navy.  In  1762,  when  Lord 
Bute  became  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury, 
Grenville  was  made  Secretary  of  State  in  lus 
place,  and  leader  of  the  House  of  Commons. 
On  Bute^s  resignation  in  the  following  April, 
Grenville  became  at  once  Prime  Minister  and 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  on  the  nomina- 
tion of  Bute,  who  expected  to  find  him  a  very 
willing  tool;  but  he  soon  discovered  his  mistake. 
Gren^le,  who  feared  the  king  as  little  as  he 
did  the  people,  complained  bitterly  of  Bute's 
secret  influence,  and  at  once  became  odious 
to  the  king  in  consequence.  The  death 
of  Lord  Egremont,  Secretary  of  State,  in 
August,  gave  George  an  excuse  for  changing 
his  ministry;  and  he  accordingly,  through 
Bute's  means,  opened  negotiations  with  Pitt. 
These,  however,  failed;  and  he  was  again 
obliged  to  fall  back  upon  Grenville,  who 
strengthened  his  position  by  enlisting  the  Bed- 
ford faction  on  his  side.  But  the  new  acces- 
sion of  strength  did  not  save  the  ministry. 
The  issue  of  general  warrants,  and  the 
struggle  with  Wilkes,  cost  the  ministry 
£100,000,  and  lost  them  any  share  of  popu- 
larity they  ever  possessed.  This  measure  was 
soon  followed  by  the  Stamp  Act.  In  July, 
1766,  the  king,  seeing  his  way  to  form  a 


new  ministry,  summarily  dismissed  Grenville 
and  the  Duke  of  Bedford.  In  1769  Grenville 
became  reconciled  to  his  brother-in-law,  Lord 
Chatham,  and  took  an  eager  part  in  the  debates 
on  the  expulsion  of  Wilkes.  In  1770  he 
carried  his  Bill  on  Controverted  Elections,  by 
which  he  transferred  th«  trial  of  election  peti- 
tions from  the  House  at  larg^  to  a  Select 
Committee  of  the  House.  [Elections.]  For 
some  time  past  his  health  had  been  declining, 
and  in  the  autumn  of  1770— only  a  few 
months  after  passing  his  Election  Bill — ^he 
died.  *^He  took  public  business,*'  Burke 
said  of  him  in  the  House  of  Commons,  **  not 
as  a  duty  he  was  to  fulfil,  but  as  a  pleasure  he 
was  to  enjoy ;  he  seemed  to  have  no  delight 
out  of  the  House,  except  in  such  things  as 
some  wa^  related  to  the  things  that  were  to 
be  done  in  it.  If  he  was  ambitious,  I  will  say 
this  for  him,  his  ambition  was  of  a  noble  and 
generous  strain." 

Jesse,  Mem.  of  the  Beign  of  Qeorge  in. ;  Wal- 
pole,  Utm,  of  th«  Reign  c/  George  III. ;  Albe- 
marle, Rockingham  and  hie  Contemporaries; 
Hacanlay,  seoond  Essay  on  Chatham  ;  Qrenville, 
Correspondence;  Massey,  Hist. ;  Stanhope,  HisL 

[w.  eTs.] 

Oxenville,  Sm  Richard  {b.  1640,  d.  1697}, 
one  of  the  renowned  sailors  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth's reign,  was  sent  out  to  the  West  Indies, 
1686,  to  inflict  what  damage  he  could  on 
Sjpanish  commerce.  In  1687  he  was  a  member 
of  the  Council  of  War,  which  was  charg^ 
with  the  duty  of  making  preparations  to 
withstand  the  attack  of  the  Armaida ;  and  did 
good  service  for  his  country  against  the 
Spaniards.  In  1697  he  took  part  in  an 
expedition  imder  Ijord  Thomas  Howard,  which 
sailed  for  the  Azores  to  intercept  the  Spanish 
treasure  ships  on  their  return  from  South 
America ;  the  design  of  the  English  was  dis- 
covered by  Spain,  and  fifty-three  ships  of 
war  were  sent  out  as  a  convoy ;  a  fuioos 
engagement  took  place,  in  which  Sir  Richard, 
after  performing  prodigies  of  valour,  was 
killed;  his  memory  being  subsequently  de- 
fended from  any  blame  for  the  f^ure  of  the 
expedition  by  his  friend  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  : 
**From  the  greatness  of  his  spirit,"  says 
Raleigh,  "  he  utterly  refused  to  turn  from  the 
enemy,  protesting  he  would  rather  die  than 
be  guilty  of  such  dishonour  to  himself,  his 
countrj',  and  her  Majesty's  ship." 
Tytler,  Life  ofBaUigh. 

Grenville,  William  Wyndham,  Lord 
(*.  1769,  d.  1834),  third  son  of  George  Gren- 
ville, was  educated  at  Eton  and  Christ  Church. 
In  1782  he  was  elected  M.P.  for  Buckingham, 
and  in  the  following  year  accompani^  his 
brother.  Earl  Temple,  to  Ireland,  as  private 
secretary.  In  Dec.,  1784,  he  succeeded  Burke 
as  Pa}'master-Greneral,  and  began  to  give  his 
cousin  Pitt  most  valuable  assistance  at  a  time 
when  he  most  needed  it.  In  1789  he  was 
elected  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons  on 
the  death  of  Cornwall,  but  he  only  held  the 


Gre 


(617) 


Ore 


chair  for  four  months,  being  then  made  Home 
Secretary,  an  office  that  afforded  him  more 
active  employment.  In  1790  he  was  raised 
to  the  Upper  Hoase,  and  in  the  following 
year  went  to  preside  over  the  Foreign  Office, 
where  he  remained  for  ten  years  till  Pitt's 
resignation.  AsForeign  Minister  hethoroughly 
carried  out  Pitt's  policy,  and  rejected  all  peace 
with  the  revolutionary  government.  He  was 
the  mover  in  the  House  of  Liords  of  the 
Treason  Bill  in  1 795.  He  was  even  a  stronirer 
supporter  of  the  Catholic  claims  than  Pitt, 
and  during  Pitt's  last  ministry  Lord  Grenville 
remained  in  opposition  on  this  ground.  On 
his  death  he  combined  with  Fox  to  form  the 
administration  of  "  All  the  Talentfi."  That 
ministry,  however,  was  but  short-lived ;  and, 
on  being  dismissed  Lord  Grenville  remained 
in  opposition  during  the  continuance  of  the 
war.  The  close  of  his  life  was  spent  in 
literary  retirement,  when  he  did  much  valu- 
able work,  the  result  of  which  has  been  to 
throw  much  new  light  on  the  inner  workings 
and  party  intrigues  of  the  early  years  of  the 
reign  of  George  III.  He  lived  on  at  Drop- 
more  in  Buckinghamshire  till  1834,  where  he 
died  on  Jan.  12.  Twice  had  overtures  been 
made  to  him  to  taka  office  again — in  1809 
and  in  1812.  But  Catholic  Emancipation 
must  be  an  essential  element  in  any  Une  of 
policy  which  Grenville  would  support.  With 
that  high  sense  of  honour  and  integrity 
which  always  distinguished  him  and  Lord 
Grey,  they  both  excluded  themselves  from 
office  for  twenty  years.  As  a  Foreign  Minister 
Grenville  must  i-ank  above  Pitt.  His  oratori- 
cal powers  were  at  times  the  wonder  of  the 
House  of  Lords;  but,  like  Fox,  he  was  too 
liberal-minded  not  to  have  the  misfortune  to 
be  generally  in  opposition. 

Pellew,  Sidmouih;  CourU  and  CdbiiutB  of  the 
Regency ;  Grey's  Life  and  Opinitme ;  Lord  Col- 
chetter's  Diary  ;  tirenviUe  Papen. 

[W.  K.  8.] 

Gresham,  Sik  Thomas  {b,  1519,  d.  1579), 
a  famous  merohant,  the  son  of  Sir  Kichard 
Gresham,  Lord  Mayor  of  London,  who  died 
1 548,  first  attained  fame  as  a  financier  by  nego- 
dating  certain  loans  for  Edward  VI.  in  1551. 
He  was  subsequently  employed  on  several 
occasions  by  Elizabeth,  who  found  him  ex- 
ceedingly useful  in  obtaining  money  from 
foreign  merchants ;  and  also  in  raising  loans 
from  merchants  in  England.  In  1566  he 
founded  the  Royal  Exchange,  which  was 
opened  by  the  queen  in  person,  1570. 

Ward's  lAvn;  Cnnningham,  Eminent  Bnglieh- 
men, 

Greville.  Charles  C.  F.  {b.  1794,  d, 
18()o),  was  Clerk  to  the  Council  from  1821  to 
1860.  He  compiled  a  JoufJtaif  which  is  of 
considerable  value  as  material  for  the  history 
of  the  courts  and  cabinets  of  George  IV., 
William  IV.,  and  Queen  Victoria. 

Grayy  Ladt  Cathbrixb  (d.  1567),  was 
daughter    of    the    Marquis  of    Dorset,   and 


younger  sister  of  Lady  Jane  Grey  (q.v.),  after 
whose  deat^  she  represented  the  house  of 
Suffolk,  which  by  Henry  VIII.'s  will  was  to 
succeed  Elizabetn  to  the  throne.  After  the 
accession  of  Elizabeth,  Philip  of  Spain  endea- 
voured to  set  her  claims  in  opposition  to  the 
queen,  but  was  unable  to  get  her  into  his 
hands.  In  1561  she  was  sent  to  the  Tower 
ostensibly  for  having  contracted  a  secret 
marriage  with  Lord  Hertford,  but  in  reality 
for  fear  she  should  prove  a  dangerous  rival 
to  Elizabeth.  In  1563  Lady  Catherine's 
claims  were  seriously  discussed  in  Parlia- 
ment, and  in  the  next  year  John  Hales,  the 
Clerk  of  the  Hanaper,  published  an  elaborate 
argument  in  her  mvour.  She  died  in  Jan., 
1567,  her  death  being  accelerated  by  the 
harsh  treatment  of  Elizabeth,  and  '*  having 
been,"  as  Mr.  Froude  says,  **the  object  of 
the  political  schemes  of  all  parties  in  turn 
who  noped  to  make  use  of  her."  Lady  Hert- 
ford's marriage,  which  was  declared  nuU  by 
Elizabeth's  commissioners,  was  in  the  reign  of 
James  I.  pronounced  valid  by  a  jury. 

Lingard,  HM.  ofJBng,;  Fronde,  Hiet  ofEng,: 
Hallam,  CotmL  Rttt. 

QTBJm  Charlbs,  Eakl  {b,  1764,  d.  1845), 
son  of  the  first  E^l  Grey,  was  educated  at 
Eton,  and  King's  College,  Cambridge.  He 
was  returned  to  Parliament  for  the  county  of 
Northumberland  in  1786,  and  joined  the 
Whig  Opposition  under  Charles  James  Fox. 
He  displayed  such  ability  in  his  first  speech 
that  he  was  from  that  time  a  prominent  leader 
of  the  part>%  and  as  such  was  chosen  one 
of  the  managers  of  the  impeachment  of 
Warren  Hastings.  In  1792  he  became  a 
member  of  the  great  society,  "  the  Friends 
of  the  People,"  the  avowed  object  of  which 
was  to  obtain  a  reform  in  the  system  of 
Parliamentary  representation.  In  1795  he 
opposed  the  liquidation  of  the  Prince  of 
Wales's  debts.  In  the  same  year  he  unsuc- 
cessfully moved  the  impeachment  of  Pitt.  In 
1797  he  brought  forward  a  plan  of  reform, 
which  was  rejected  by  149  votes.  He  re- 
mained one  of  Mr.  Pitt's  bitterest  opponents 
till  his  death.  On  the  accession  of  Mr.  Fox  to 
power,  1806,  Mr.  Grey,  now  Lord  Ho  wick,  was 
appointed  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty.  On 
the  death  of  Fox  he  became  leader  of  the  House 
of  Commons  and  Foreign  Secretary.  The 
Catholic  Relief  question,  however,  overthrew 
the  ministry.  In  1 807  he  succeeded  his  father 
as  Earl  Grey.  In  1810,  when  the  Duke  of 
Portland  resigned,  negotiations  were  opened 
with  Lords  Grey  and  Grenville,  who, 
however,  refused  to  unite  with  the  proposed 
ministry.  In  1812  a  similar  attempt  &iled. 
In  1827  Earl  Grey  declined  to  support  Mr. 
Canning.  The  sudden  termination  of  the 
Wellington  ministry  in  1830  brought  him 
from  his  retirement  as  the  only  man  capable 
of  dealing  with  the  difiicult  question  of 
Parliamentary  Reform.     In  accepting  office 


Ore 


(  518  ) 


..Ore 


he  stipulated  that  the  reform  of  Parliament 
ehould  be  made  a  cabinet  question.  The 
support  of  the  great  majority  of  the  nation 
greatly  ^cilitated  the  task  which  Earl  Grey 
had  undertaken,  and  enabled  him  to  con- 
struct his  ministry  without  much  difficulty, 
the  most  serious  impediment  being  created 
by  the  position  of  ^Ir.  Brougham,  which  was 
got  over  by  making  him  Lord  Chancellor. 
A  Reform  Bill  was  introduced  by  Lord  John 
KuBsell  on  April  12,  after  a  long  discussion, 
General  Ga8co}iie  successfully  carried  his 
motion  against  the  government,  and  a  disso- 
lution became  necessary,  to  which  the  king 
at  last  consented.  The  danger,  however, 
became  pressing,  as  Lord  Whamcliffe  had 
threatened  to  move  an  address  in  the  Lords, 
praying  the  king  not  to  dissolve.  The  House 
was  dissolved  the  very  day  Lord  Whamcliffe*s 
threatened  address  was  to  have  come  on. 
The  election  of  1831  sent  back  a  large  re* 
forming  majority  to  Parliament,  and  on  June 
24,  Lord  John  Russell  again  introduced  the 
bill.  The  struggle  from  this  time  lay  in  the 
Lords.  On  April  9,  1832,  Earl  Grey  moved 
that  the  third  Reform  Bill  be  now  read  a 
second  time.  The  second  reading  was  carried 
by  the  aid  of  Lord  Whamcliffe  and  the 
TVimmers.  Lord  Lyndhurst  now  moved 
in  committee  that  the  consideration  of  the 
disfranchising  clauses  should  be  postponed 
until  the  enfranchising  clauses  had  been 
considered.  This  motion  was  carried  against 
the  government  in  spite  of  Earl  Grey^s 
warning  to  the  House  that  he  should  con- 
sider its  sucoess  &tal  to  his  measure,  and  he 
resigned.  May  9.  The  state  of  the  country 
became  terrible.  Sir  Robert  Peel  declined 
office.  The  Duke  of  Wellington  found  it 
impossible  to  construct  a  government.  It  be- 
came necessary  to  recall  Earl  Grey,  and  Earl 
Grey  obeyed  the  summons.  But  before  he 
left  the  presence  of  the  king  he  had  obtained 
from  him  a  written  promise  that  he  would 
**  create  such  a  number  of  peers  as  will  be 
sufficient  to  pass  the  Reform  Bill.'*  The 
bill  was  eventually  carried  by  the  personal 
influence  of  the  king,  though  violent  alterca- 
tions and  recriminations  occurred  on  the 
subject  in  the  House  of  Lords.  The  Re- 
formed Parliament  gave  the  Whigs  an  over- 
whelming majority.  The  first  business  was 
to  consider  the  state  of  L^land,  and  it  was 
found  necessary  to  pass  a  Coercion  Bill.  In 
1834  the  Duke  of  Richmond,  the  Earl  of 
Ripon,  I^Ir.  Stanley,  and  Sir  James  Graham 
resigned.  This  somewhat  shook  the  minis- 
try,  and  in  order  to  avoid  any  further  seces- 
sions, an  Irish  Church  Conmiission  was  hastily 
appointed  to  procure  evidence.  Mr.  Littleton's 
Tithe  Bin  (Irish)  gave  another  shock  to  the 
ministry',  and  the  motion  of  O'Connell 
and  Mr.  Littleton  on  the  Coercion  Bill, 
which  produced  the  resignation  of  the 
Premier  and  Lord  Althorp,  ended  Lord  Grey's 
political    career.     He    resigned  to  save  the 


rest  of  his  ministry'.     From  this  time  he  took 
little  part  in  public  affairs. 

Walpolo,   HUt.  of  finiT.;  Martinean,  Thtr'y 
Jrara'  P«ac« ;  Annval  Region:  fB   S  1 

Qr«7,  Sir  George  {b.  1792,  d.  1883),  was 
the  son  of  Sir  George  Grey,  and  nephew  of 
Earl  Grey.  In  1 834  he  acted  for  a  few  months 
as  Under-Secretary  for  the  Colonies.  He 
returned  to  the  same  post  on  the  accession  of 
Lord  Melbourne  in  1835,  and  continued  to  hold 
it  till  1839,  when  he  became  Judge- Advocate, 
and  afterwards  Chancellor  of  the  Duchv.  On 
the  formation  of  Lord  John  RusseU  s  first 
administration  in  1846,  he  was  appointed 
Home  Secretar>'.  In  this  capacity  he  showed 
himself  a  splendid  administrator  during  the 
commotions  of  1848.  In  1854  he  accepted  the 
Colonial  Office  under  Lord  Aberdeen.  In  1855 
he  returned  to  the  Home  Office  under  Lord 
Palmerston's first  administration;  wasappoint- 
ed  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster  on 
Lord  Palmerston's  return  to  office  in  1859 ; 
became  Home  Secretary  again  in  1861,  and 
retired  with  his  colleagues  in  1866. 

Qrey,  Sir  George,  K.C.B.  {b.  1812),  was 
bom  at  Lisbon,  educated  at  Sandhurst,  and 
for  some  time  held  a  commission  in  the  83rd 
Regiment.  After  conducting  explorations  in 
Western  Australia,  he  was  appointed  Governor 
of  South  Australia  in  1841,  of  New  Zealand 
in  1845,  of  Cape  Colony  in  1854,  and  again  of 
New  Zealand  in  1861.  Remaining  in  New 
Zealand  after  the  expiration  of  his  term  of 
office,  he  entered  Parliament,  and  has  more 
than  once  been  Prime  Minister  of  the  colony. 

Qrey,  Lady  Jane  {b,  1537,  d.  1654),  was 
the  daughter  of  Henry  Grey,  Marquis  of 
Dorset,  and  Frances  Brandon,  daughter  of 
the  Duke  of  Suffolk.  On  the  approaching 
death  of  Edward  VI.  becoming  apparent  in 
1553,  the  Duke  of  NorthumberUnd  conceived 
the  idea  of  aggrandising  his  own  family 
by  obtaining  the  crown  for  Lady  Jane,  and 
marrying  her  to  his  son  Lord  Guilford 
Dudley.  Accordingly,  he  induced  Edward  VI. 
to  alter  the  succession  in  her  favour.  On 
the  young  king^s  death  Lady  Jane  was  in- 
formed by  the  duke  that  she  was  queen,  and 
was  proclaimed  by  him  in  various  parts  of  the 
country,  but  the  people  refused  to  recognise 
the  usurpation.  After  a  brief  reign  of  eleven 
days,  the  crown  was  transferred  to  Mary,  and 
Lady  Jane  and  her  husband  were  sent  to  the 
Tower,  and  subsequently  condemned  to  death. 
They  were  kept  in  captivity  for  some  time, 
and  were  not  executed  until  after  Wyatt's 
rebellion  in  1554.  Lady  Jane  Grey,  whose 
education  had  been  entrusted  to  Aylmer  and 
Roger  Ascham,  was  as  accomplished  as  she 
was  beautiful,  and  was  a,  fluent  scholar  in 
Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin.  "She  has  left 
us,"  in  Froude's  words,  "  a  portrait  of  herself 
drawn  by  her  own  hand,  a  portrait  of  piety, 
purity,  and  free  noble  innocence  uncoloured* 


Ore 


(619  ) 


Qri 


even  to  a  fault,  with  the  emotional  weaknesses 

of  humanity.*' 

Nioolafl,  Lady  Jom  Qrey ;  lAngtadtHid.  ofRng.; 
Sharon  Turner.  Hitt.  of  Sng,  ;  Fzvnde,  Kiat.  of 
Bng. ;  Tytler,  Uiat.  of  Eng,  under  Ed.  YL  and 
Hary. 

Grey,  Lobd,  of  Groby,  was  the  chief 
of  the  Anabaptists  during  the  period  of  the 
Great  Rebellion.  He  took  an  active  part  in 
Pride's  Purge  (q.v.). 

Grey^  Sir  John,  of  Groby  (d.  1455),  a 
Lancastrian  leader  who  fell  in  the  first  battle 
of  St.  Albans,  was  the  first  husband  of 
Elizabeth  WoodviUe,  afterwards  wife  of 
Edward  IV. 

Gray,  Lokd  Leonaad  {d.  1541),  was  the 
second  son  of  Thomas,  first  Marquis  of  Dorset. 
He  was  sent  over  to  Ireland,  in  1535, 
to  assist  Skeffington.  On  Skeffington's  death 
he  became  Lord  Deputy,  1536.  Together 
with  Lord  James  Butler,  he  destroyed  O'Brien's 
Bridge  over  the  Shannon,  long  an  object  of 
alarm  to  the  English,  and  he  induced  the 
0  Connor  to  come  to  terms.  His  sister,  Lady 
Elizabeth  Grey,  was  the  second  wife  of 
Gerald,  ninth  Earl  of  Kildare,  and  it  now 
became  his  duty  to  try  and  capture  his 
own  nephew,  that  nobleman's  heir,  an  object 
which  ne  did  not  succeed  in  effecting.  In 
1538,  he  attacked  the  Island  Scots.  He  was, 
however,  compelled  to  retreat,  in  spite  of 
Ormonde's  help,  before  the  combined  forces  of 
Desmond  and  the  O^Briens.  Lord  Leonard 
was  a  staunch  Catholic,  and  this,  together  with 
the  favour  he  showed  the  Geraldines  and  the 
natives,  made  him  hated  by  Ormonde.  Soon 
after  his  recall,  at  his  own  request  in  1540, 
he  was  accused  of  a  treasonable  understand- 
ing with  his  kinsmen,  the  Fitzgeralds,  and 
executed  in  1541.  Most  probably  he  was 
innocent. 

Froade,  Hift.  of  Eng, ;  Brewer,  IntrodncHona  to 
the  Letters  and  Papers  of  Henry  VIIVs  Beign, 

Grey,  Si&  Patrick,  was  Captain  of  the 
Guard  to  James  II.  Having  a  bitter  feud 
with  the  Earl  of  Douglas,  on  account  of  the 
murder  of  his  nephew  in  Douglas  Castle,  he 
gave  the  earl  his  death-wound,  after  he  had 
been  stabbed  by  the  king,  in  Stirling  Castle 
(1452). 

Gr^,  Lord  Bichard  {d.  1483),  was  the 
second  son  of  Sir  John  Grey,  by  Elizabeth 
WoodviUe,  and  consequently  half-brother  of 
King  Edward  V.  In  1483  he  was  seized, 
together  with  his  uncle,  Earl  Bivers,  at 
Northampton  by  Richard,  Duke  of  Gloucester, 
and  eventually  put  to  death  at  Pontefract. 

Grw,  Sir  Thomas  {d.  1415),  was  a  knight 
of  Northumberland  who,  in  1415,  joined  the 
conspiracy  of  the  Earl  of  Qunbridge  to  place 
the  Earl  of  March  on  the  throne.  He  was 
seized,  and  having  confessed  his  guilt,  was 
immediately  executed. 

Grey,   Lord  Thomas   (d.  1554),  brother 


of  the  Duke  of  Suffolk,  joined  in  the  rebel- 
lion in  the  midland  counties  (1554)  organised 
by  the  duke  in  conjunction  with  that  of 
Sir  Thomas  Wyatt  in  Kent.  After  the 
defeat  of  Suffolk's  forces  by  Lord  Hunting- 
don at  Coventry,  Thomas  Grey  escaped  to 
Wales,  but  was  taken  prisoner,  and  executed 
(February,  1554).  He  was  a  man  of  ambition 
and  daring,  and  his  unbounded  influence  over 
his  brother,  the  duke,  was  believed  to  have 
drawn  the  latter  into  this  enterprise. 
Stowe;  Lingard;  Froude. 

Gr^  de  Wilton,  Arthur,  Earl 
{d.  1593),  was  the  son  of  a  celebrated 
commander  of  Henry  VIII.'s  time.  He  was 
Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland  in  1580.  In  that 
year  he  suffered  a  severe  repulse  in  Glen 
Malure  from  the  Wicklow  septs.  It  was  to 
him,  however,  that  the  suppression  of  Des- 
mond's rebellion  was  largely  due,  and  he 
was  in  conmiand  of  the  troops  at  Smerwick 
(q.v.).  As  a  stem  Puritan,  he  made  himself 
unpopular  by  his  severity,  and  was  re-called 
in  1584.  He  was  one  oi  the  commissioners 
who  passed  judgment  on  Mary  Queen  of 
Scots,  and  was  created  a  Ejiight  of  the  Gkirter. 
Froade ;  State  Papers ;  Burke,  BxUnet  Peerages. 

Grey  de  Wilton,  William,  Earl  {d. 
1563),  was  Governor  of  Berwick  in  the  reign 
of  Edward  YI.,  and  in  that  capacity  distin- 
guished himself  by  several  raids  across  the 
border,  dn  one  of  which  (1548)  he  took  and 
fortified  Haddington.  During  the  rebellion 
in  the  west  of  England  (1549)  he  did  much  to 
repress  the  insurrection.  In  1551  he  was 
sent  to  the  Tower  by  order  of  Warwick,  who 
mistrusted  him  as  a  friend  of  Somerset, 
though  a  year  or  two  afterwards  he  is  found 
slightly  implicated  in  the  conspiracy  to  place 
Lady  Jane  Grey  on  the  throne.  Made 
Grovemor  of  Guisncs  by  Mary,  he  kept  a 
close  watch  upon  the  French,  and  had  his 
advice  been  listened  to,  Calais  would  have 
been  saved.  The  fall  of  Calais  was  quickly 
followed  by  that  of  Guisnes,  which  Grey 
found  himself  compelled  to  surrender.  On 
his  return  to  England  he  was  sent  to  the 
north,  where  he,  after  a  lengthy  siege,  made 
an  assault  upon  Leith,  which,  however,  en- 
tirely failed. 

Gnaurboiiey  Sir  Harbottle  {b.  1594, 
d.  1685),  a  strong  Presbyterian,  represented 
Colchester  in  the  Long  Parliament  Ho  was 
one  of  the  members  excluded  by  Pride*8 
Purge.  On  the  king's  execution  he  left 
England,  and  remained  abroad  for  several 
years.  In  1656  he  was  elected  M.P.  for 
Essex,  but  was  excluded  from  the  House. 
In  April,  1660,  he  was  elected  Speaker  of  the 
Convention  Parliament.  He  was  also  one  of 
the  commissioners  sent  to  Charles  at  Breda. 
For  his  services  at  the  Restoration,  he  was, 
in  November,  1660,  created  Master  of  the 
Rolls.    During  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  he 


(  520  ) 


Glut 


distinguished  himself  by  asserting  the  right  of 
the  Commons  to  choose  their  own  Speaker 
(1679)  and  by  his  hostility  to  the  Catholics. 
Fobs,  Jvtdgea  of  England, 

Grindal,  Edsiund  (&.  1519,  d,  1583), 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  bom  near  St. 
Bees  and  educated  at  Cambridge.  He  was 
made  Canon  of  Westminster  in  1552,  and 
Chaplain  to  Edward  VI.,  at  whose  death  he 
was  obliged  to  take  refuge  on  the  Continent. 
On  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  he  returned  to 
England  a  strong  Puritan,  and  greatly  in- 
fluenced by  Geneva ;  he  waived  his  ob- 
jections to  vestments  so  far  as  to  accept  the 
see  of  London  on  the  deprivation  of  Bonner 
in  1562.  Grindftl,  who  had  taken  an  active 
part  in  the  Theological  Controversy  at  West- 
minster, 1559)  was  a  sound  theologian  and 
noted  preacher ;  but  he  constantly  incurred 
the  queen's  displeasure  for  his  mildness  in 
enforcing  the  Act  of  Uniformity;  yet  in  1670 
lie  was  made  Archbishop  of  York,  and  on  the 
death  of  Archbishop  Parker,  1573,  was  trans- 
lated to  Canterbury'.  His  administration  was 
not  very  successful  in  some  ways ;  his  Puri- 
tan sympathy  made  him  refuse  to  put  down 
the  **  prophesyings "  of  that  party,  and  he 
was,  in  consequence,  sequestered  from  the 
exercise  of  his  jurisdiction  for  five  years, 
being  only  restored  in  1582,  a  year  before  his 
death,  though  he  never  regained  the  favour 
of  the  queen,  who  treated  him  with  great  and 
unmerited  harshness.  As  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  Grindal  made  no  mark.  His 
difference  of  opinion  with  the  queen  made  it 
impossible  for  them  to  work  in  harmony,  yet 
he  was  a  man  of  profound  learning,  deep 
piety,  and  some  moderation;  mild,  affable, 
and  generous,  and  much  admired  by  his  own 
party. 

Hook,    Lives  of  the  Arehhishope;   Mosheim, 
Eeclee.  Hiat. ;  Strype,  Life  of  Qrindal, 

Griq^iialaAd  West  is  separated  from 
Cape  Colony  by  the  Orange  River.  After 
the  discovery  of  diamonds  there  in  1867 
the  district  was  made  a  British  colony, 
and  in  1877  was  made  a  province  of  Cape 
Colony,  of  which  it  now  constitutes  four  out 
of  seventy  divisions.  The  characteristic 
feature  of  the  country  is  undulating  grassy 
plains,  well  adapted  to  sheep  farming. 

Qritllf  in  Anglo-Saxon  law,  is  a  word 
of  narrower  meaning  than  "frith,"  with 
which  it  is  often  coupled.  It  signifies  a 
special  or  localised  peace  or  protection,  par- 
ticularly that  granted  by  the  king  or  a  high 
official.  While  ** frith"  was  primarily  per- 
sonal, the  peace  of  an  individual,  the  **  grith," 
was  territorial,  the  peace  of  a  district. 

Grossetastey  Kobbrt  {b,  ii75,  d.  1253), 

Bishop  of  Lincoln,  one  of  the  most  eminent 
of  medineval  ecclesiastics  and  schoolmen,  was 
bom  at  Stradbrooke,  in  Suffolk,  of  poor  parents. 
He  studied  at  Oxford  and  Paris,  where  he 
gained  a  very  great  reputation  as  a  student 


and  teacher.  He  became  *'  rector  scholarum  " 
at  Paris,  and  first  rector  of  the  Franciscans 
at  Oxford.  He  received  various  preferments, 
but  in  1232  resigned  all  but  one  in  order  to  con- 
tinue at  Oxford.  In  1 235  his  election  as  Bishop 
of  Lincoln  gave  him  both  a  wider  sphere  of 
work  and  a  special  relation  to  his  university. 
As  administrator  of  his  hug^  diocese  he  was 
both  active  and  successful.  A  long  struggle 
with  his  chapter  was  only  ended  by  the  per- 
sonal intervention  of  the  Pope,  Innocent  IV., 
who,  at  the  Council  of  Lyons  practically 
decided  in  the  bishop's  favour.  His  drastic 
visitation  of  the  monasteries  of  his  see,  though 
hampered  by  the  disfavour  shown  to  him  at 
Rome,  where  the  gold  of  the  monks  was  all- 
powerful,  was  resolutely  carried  through.  A 
sturdy  champion  of  liberty,  he  prevailed  in 
1244  in  preventing  the  grant  of  a  royal 
subsidy,  and  kept  together  the  opposition, 
when  likely  to  be  broken  up  by  the  king^s 
intrigues ;  and  he  ensured  the  reading  of  uie 
sentence  of  excommunication  against  violators 
of  the  Great  Charter  in  every  parish  of  his 
diocese.  A  similar  spirit  actuated  the  refusal 
in  1251  to  admit  foreigners  ignorant  of 
English  into  rich  preferment  in  his  diocese, 
and  led  to  a  papal  suspension,  which,  how- 
ever, was  of  short  duration.  In  1252  he 
prevented  the  collection  of  a  tenth  imposed 
upon  the  clergy  by  the  Pope  for  Henry  III.'s 
necessities.  In  1253  he  refused  to  induct  the 
Pope's  own  nephew  into  a  prebend  at  Lincoln. 
His  celebrated  letter  of  refusal,  while  accept- 
ing the  ultramontane  position,  was  thoroughly 
decided  in  its  tone.  After  his  death  miracles 
were  reported  at  his  tomb,  but  the  effort  to 
obtain  canonisation  for  so  bad  a  papalist 
failed.  Grosseteste  had  a  wide  acquaintance, 
over  which  he  exercised  great  influence. 
The  spiritual  adviser  of  Adam  de  Marisoo, 
the  intimate  friend  of  Simon  de  Montfort, 
and  the  tutor  to  his  sons,  he  was  yet  the 
friend  of  the  queen  and  even  of  the  king. 
The  sturdy  practical  temper  illiistrated  by 
all  his  life's  acts  was  combined  with  vast 
knowledge,  great  dialectical  and  metaphysical 
subtlety,  activity  in  preaching  and  teaching, 
and  real  spiritual  feeling;  his  leisure,  too, 
was  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  French  love 

poetry. 

Ferrr,  Life  of  Chroseetetie;  QroeeetetWe  Letten 
in  Bolls  Smes,  edited,  with  valuable  introdnc- 
tion,  by  Mr.  Luard;  Matthew  Paris,  HisUtria 
Major.  p.   p   rp  -j 

Gnadaloupei  The  Island  of,  is  a  French 
possession  in  tne  Antilles.  Settled  in  1635 
by  the  French,  it  resisted  English  attacks  in 
1691  and  1703,  but  was  captured  in  1759,  and 
restored  in  1763,  and  again  in  1794  it  became 
English.  Restored  in  1803  by  the  Peace  of 
Amiens,  it  was  re-conquered  in  1810,  sur- 
rendered to  Sweden  in  1813,  restored  to 
France  in  1814.  In  1816  the  British  finally 
withdrew. 

Safbunal,  Lea  Cdoniee  Framjn 


Gua 


(621) 


Onn 


ChiadeTf  Ralph,  was  of  Noimaa  or  Breton 
origin,  but  was  bom  in  England.  He  was 
made  Earl  of  Norfolk  b^  William  L,  bat  in 
1075,  chiefly  being  irritated  at  the  king's 
refunng  to  allow  his  marriage  with  Sie 
sister  of  the  Earl  of  Hereford,  he  organised  a 
conspiracy,  which  had  for  its  object  the 
deposition  of  William,  and  the  restoration  of 
the  earls  to  the  power  they  had  enjoyed 
imder  Edward  the  Confessor.  The  plot  was 
betrayed,  and  Balph  fled  to  Britanny.  Even- 
tually, he  joined  the  first  Crusade,  and  died  in 
Palestine. 

Gnalo  was  appointed  Papal  legate  in 
England  in  the  year  1216.  He  strongly  sup- 
ported King  John  against  Louis  of  France, 
and  on  John's  death  was  instrumental  in 
obtaining  tlve  recognition  of  the  young  King 
Henry.  Mr.  Luard  says  that  **  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  Plantagenet  line,  and  the  defeat  of 
Louis,  were  entirely  due  to  the  influence  of 
Rome/'  He  was  replaced  in  1218  by  Pandulf . 

Quiaina  is  an  extensive  country  in  the 
north-east  of  South  America.  In  1595  Raleigh 
ascended  its  great  river,  the  Orinoco.  In 
1580  the  Dutch  planted  a  colony,  and  in  1652 
the  English  settled  at  Paramaribo.  The 
English  settlement  did  not  succeed,  and  the 
land  remained  with  the  Dutch.  In  1781 
Rodney  topk  possession  of  it,  but  in  1784  it 
was  restored.  Again  in  1796  the  English  cap- 
tured Guiana,  and  in  1803  a  cession,  confirmed 
in  1814,  was  made  to  England  of  the  portion 
now  called  British  Guiana. 

Dalton,  Si9t.  of  Britith  Guiana  ;  B.  M.  Martin, 
BritUh  CoUmiM. 

GuieowAT,  or  Oaekwar,  is  the  title  of 
the  sovereign  of  the  Mahratta  State  of  Baroda. 
[Makkattas.] 

Chlild£ord  Conrt-lioiuie,  The  Battle 
OF  (Mux^  15,  1781),  during  the  closing 
period  of  the  American  War  of  Independence, 
was  almost  the  only  gleam  of  success  that 
shone  on  Comwallis's  fatal  advance  into  the 
North.  At  the  beginning  of  the  year  he 
entered  North  CaroUna.  Greene,  with  much 
prudence,  refused  to  attack  him,  and  retreated 
before  him.  On  February  20,  Comwallis, 
halting  at  Hillsborough,  invited  all  loyalists  to 
join  bim ;  but  a  small  detachment  of  them  on 
their  way  to  take  advantage  of  the  proclama- 
tion "were  cut  to  pieces  by  the  Americans,  and 
the  rest  took  fright.  Again  Comwallis 
advanced,  and  Greene  at  length  determined 
to  g^ve  him  battle.  On  some  strong  ground 
near  Guildford  Court-house,  Comwallis  at- 
tacked, and  the  regulars  were  as  usual  irre- 
sistible. They  carried  Greeners  position  de- 
spite inferiority  in  numbers  and  position.  In 
results,  however,  the  victory  was  signally 
deficient,  for  Comwallis,  too  weak  to  advance, 
and  receiving  no  reinforcements,  had  to  fall 

HIUT.-17* 


back  on  Wilmington.    [Ambsican  Indepen- 
dence, Wa&  of.J 

Bameroft,  Hut.  of  Avmt.  Rev.,  iv.,  o.  23 ;  Staa* 
hope,  Hi$t  of  E%g.,  c.  64. 

Quiscardf  Antoine,  Mabuuis  db  (b, 
1658,  d.  1711),  was  a  French  adventurer  of 
good  family.  For  some  unknown  offence  he 
was  expelled  from  France,  and  came  to 
England  after  a  variety  of  adventures. 
Goaolphin  made  him  colonel  of  a  regiment 
of  French  refuges;  and  he  became  a  com- 
panion of  St.  John  in  his  wild  oigies.  In  the 
year  1706  he  proposed  a  descent  on  the  coast 
of  Languedoc,  and  twelve  regiments  were 
placed  in  readiness,  but  the  expedition  never 
sailed,  probably  because  Godolphin-  thought 
his  schemes  too  visionary.  Guiscard  was 
discharged  with  a  pension  of  £500  a  year. 
He  almost  immediately  began  a  treacherous 
correspondence  with  the  French  court.  On 
its  detection  he  was  brought  before  the  Privy 
Council.  Finding  that  *  everything  was 
known,  and  wishi^  for  a  better  death  than 
hanging,  he  stabbed  Harley  twice  with  a 
penknife  he  had  secreted.  l!he  wounds  were 
slight.  Guiscard  was  soon  overpowered,  and 
died  in  Newgate  from  injuries  received  in 
the  struggle.  To  the  last  he  denied  that  the 
attack  was  premeditated. 

Gunpowder  Plot,  The,  is  the  name 
usually  given  to  the  great  Roman  Catholic 
conspiracy  of  James  I.'s  reign.  The  Catho- 
lics were  deeply  disappointed  at  finding  that 
the  king  haa  no  intention  of  remitting  the 
severe  laws  against  recusancy.  In  their  re- 
sentment a  plot  was  formed  by  several  Boman 
Catholic  gentlemen.  It  was  probably  origi- 
nated by  Robert  Catesby,  who  was  joined  by 
Thomas  Winter  and  John  Wright  in  the 
spring  of  1604 ;  and  later  by  Thomas  Percy, 
Robert  Winter,  Sir  Everard  Digby,  Rook- 
wood,  Tresham,  the  Jesuit  Garnet,  and  Guy 
Fawkes,  an  Englishman,  who  had  long  served 
as  a  soldier  of  fortune  in  Flanders,  and  was 
closely  connected  with  the  English  Jesuits. 
The  plot  was  matured  in  the  summer  of  1605. 
It  was  arranged  that  Fawkes  was  to  secrete 
some  barrels  of  gunpowder  in  cellars  adjacent 
to  the  Houses  of  Parliament.  After  the  ex- 
plosion, which  was  to  take  place  when  the 
Aing  and  Prince  of  Wales  were  present,  the 
young  prince  Charles  and  the  princess  Eliza- 
beth were  to  be  seized  and  a  rising  attempted 
in  the  midland  counties.  After  the  proroga- 
tion Parliament  was  to  meet  on  November  5, 
1605,  and  this  was  the  day  on  which  'the 
enterprise  was  to  be  carried  out.  Several  of 
the  conspirators  were,  however,  anxious  to 
save  the  Catholic  members  of  the  House  of 
Lords.  A  letter  was  received  by  Lord  Mont- 
eagle  from  one  of  the  conspirators  (probably 
Tresham)  warning  him  not  to  be  present  at 
the  opening  of  Parliament.  The  letter  was 
shown  to  Cecil.  Orders  were  given  to  search 
the  vaults  on  November  4,  and  Fawkes  was 
arrested.    Most  of  the  other  conspirators  had 


(  ^22  ) 


Gyt 


taken  the  alarm  and  already  fled  to  Don- 
church,  where  Sir  £verard  Digby  had  col- 
lected a  large  number  of  Catholic  gentlemen. 
The^  dispersed  in  rarious  directions.  The 
leading  conspirators  attempted  to  make  a 
stand  at  Holbeach.  Several  of  them  were 
wounded  by  an  accidental  explosion.  Gatesby, 
Percy,  and  the  Wrights  were  killed  in  the 
course  of  the  flight;  most  of  the  other 
leaders  were  captured.  They  were  tried, 
and  executed  in  January  and  February,  1606. 
The  trial  of  the  Jesuit  Gramet  lasted 
longest.  He  was  executed  May  3,  1606, 
denying  on  the  scaffold  that  he  had  any 
positive  information  of  the  plot. 

S.  B.  Gardiner,  Hut.  of  Eng.,  chap.  viL 

Guthmm.  or  Gutlionn.  (Mod.  Dan., 
G&rm),  wasabanish  chief  who  became  King 
of  East  England.  We  flrst  hear  of  this 
kinf  as  starting  from  Repton  in  875  with 
hall  the  "gre^t  host,"  when  Halfdane 
went  another  way  with  the  other  half  to 
colonise  Northumberland.  With  two  of 
his  fellow  kings,  he  attacked  Wcssex 
by  land  and  sea,  forcing  Alfred  to  take 
refuge  in  Athelney  in  878.  He  then  raised  a 
great  fort  at  Chippenham,  but  was  besieged 
there  by  the  English  king,  and  forced  by  block- 
ade to  accept  terms  of  peace.  This  treaty  is 
still  in  existence.  Guthrum  was  baptised,  with 
thirty  of  his  chief  men,  and  in  880  he  settled 
with  his  host  in  East  England,  vacant  by  the 
death  of  Hubba,  who,  with  his  host,  was  slain 
in  Devonahire,  878.  Guthrum  seems  to  have 
done  his  best  to  keep  the  peace,  though  his  fol- 
lowers were  not  alWays  obedient,  and  it  is  not 
till  after  his  death  in  890  that  the  East  English 
Danes  became  a  danger  to  Alfred.  Gnthmm's 
baptismal  name  was  Athelstan,  which  alone 
appears  on  his  coins.  The  theoxy,  however, 
that  he,  not  the  English  king,  was  the  foster- 
iither  of  Hacon  the  Good,  reposes  on  a  false 
chronology  and  is  quite  unnecessary.  Guth- 
rum was  succeeded  by  Eohric,  or  Torick,  who 
was  probably  his  son.     [Alfred.] 

Quthmm  ZZ.«  King  of  East  England,  was 
the  son  of  Torick,  whom  he  succeeded  906.  He 
made  peace  with  King  Edward,  the  terms  of 
which  were  still  preserved  in  907.  It  was 
against  him  that  Edward's  policy  of  building 
a  line  of  forts  across  the  Midlands  was 
chiefly  directed,  a  policy  which  led  to  the 
submission  succesaively  of  the  Danes  of  Hert- 
ford (916j,  of  Bedford,  under  Earl  Turketil 
(918),  ana  finally  to  the  campaign  of  921,  in 
wKidi  Edward  defeated  and  slew  Guthrum 
(for  we  take  him  to  be  "  the  king  '*  of  the 
chronicle)  with  his  son  and  brother,  at  Temps- 
ford,  llieir  death,  and  the  submission  of 
Earl  Thuifrith  of  Northampton,  the  Danes  of 
Huntingdon,  the  ^  host  of  Cambridge,"  and 
the  East  Anglian  Danes,  in  the  same  year, 
brought  to  an  end  the  Danish  rule  in  East 
KngSnd. 

,  Thb  Battlb  of  ^Feb.  22, 1849), 


was  fought  between  the  English  and  Sikhs 
during  the  second  Sikh  War.  The  army  of 
Shore  Sing»  estimated  at  50,000  men  with 
sixty  pieces  of  cannon,  was  drawn  up  in  front 
of  the  walled  town  of  Guzerat,  supported  on 
the  left  by  a  streamlet  flowing  into  the  Chenab, 
on  the  right  by  two  villages  tilled  with  troops. 
The  commander-in-chief,  Lord  Gough,  by 
the  advice  of  Major  George  Lawrence,  deter- 
mined to  begin  the  battle  with  artillery.  The 
fire  of  eighty-four  cannon  rained  on  them 
steadily  for  two  hours  and  a  half.  The  whole 
Sikh  line  broke  and  fled ;  the  English  cavalry 
were  let  loose  on  them,  and  pursued  them  for 
fifteen  miles,  till  the  army  of  Shere  Sing  was 
a  mere  wreck. 

Owalior  is  a  protected  state  of  Central 
India,  which  includes  most  of  Malwa.  The 
capital  of  the  same  name  is  situated  on  a 
rocky  hill,  rising  sheer  from  the  level  plain. 
It  is  ruled  by  the  line  of  Mahratta  princes 
called  Scindiah.  The  fortress  of  Gwalior 
was  taken  by  Major  Popham  in  1780,  and 
restored  to  its  former  ruler,  the  Bajah  of 
Grohad,  but  in  1784  was  recovered  by  Scindiah, 
In  Feb.,  1804,  it  was  again  taken  by  the 
English,  under  Sir  H.  White,  but  was  restored 
to  Scindiah  the  next  year.  In  1843,  on  the 
death  of  the  reigning  Scindiah,  without  heirs, 
the  dissensions  at  Gwalior  led  to  an  expedition 
to  restore  order  there.  The  English  defeated 
the  Gwalior  army  at  ^laharajpore.  A  treaty 
was  concluded,  by  which  Uie  fortaress  of 
Gwalior  was  ceded  to  England  and  the  native 
army  reduced  to  9,000  men  (1844).  In  1857, 
it  was  a  seat  of  the  Mutiny,  but  Scindiah  re- 
mained unswervingly  faithfiil. 

Grant  Daif,  HitL  of  tiU  MakraHoa. 

Gwynedd,  the  old  name  for  North  Wales, 
was  a  district  roughly  oorreqKmding  to  the 
domains  of  the  *'  Princes  of  Wales  **  who 
reigned  at  Aberffraw.     [Wales.] 

QwyiUI,  Elranor  {b.  cirta  1640,  4.  16S7), 
was  of  humble  origin,  and  was  early  in  life  an 
orange  gurl  at  a  tiieatre.  She  subsequently 
became  an  actress  and  mistress  to  Lord  Buck- 
hurst,  and  eventually  one  of  Charles  II.'s 
mistresses,  besides  bemg  appointed  one  of  the 
Ladies  of  the  Bedchamber  to  the  Queen.  By 
Charles  II.  she  had  two  sons,  one  of  whom 
died  very  young,  the  other  was  Charles  Beau- 
derk,  who  was  created  Duke  of  St.  Albans. 
Her  personal  beauty  was  very  great,  while 
her  generosity  and  kindliness  made  her  more 
popular  than  most  of  the  king'^s  favourites. 

Gyrth  {d.  1066)  was  the  fourth  son  of  Eail 
Godwin.  He  shared  in  his  father's  banish- 
ment and  return,  and  in  1057  he  reoeiTed  an 
earldom  which  seems  to  have  included  Xor* 
folk,  Suffolk,  Cambridgeshire,  and  Oxford- 
ahire.  He  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Hastings, 
where  he  was  killed,  it  is  said,  by  William^s 
own  hand. 

Gythft  was  the  sister  ci  UU  and  niece  ol 


Kab 


(  62a ) 


Canute.  She  married  Earl  Godwin,  and  was 
banished  with  him  in  1061.  After  the  battle 
of  Hastings,  she  begged  the  body  of  Harold 
to  inter  it  at  Waltham,  but  this  was  refused 
by  William,  though  she  is  said  to  have  offered 
hun  Harold's  weight  in  gold.  In  1067  she 
took  refuge  in  the  Flatholm,  and  went  thence 
to  St.  Ouen,  where  she  remained  till  her 
death. 


KabeaJl  Corpus,  The  Writ  of,  is 
a  writ  issuing  ^om  one  of  the  superior 
courts,  commanding  the  body  of  a  pri- 
soner to  be  brought  before  it.  It  rests 
upon  the  famous  29th  section  of  Magna 
Charta:  "No  freeman  shall  be  taken  and 
imprisoned  unless  by  the  lawful  judgment  of 
his  peers  or  by  the  law  of  the  land." '^Arbi- 
trary imprisonment,  though  thus  provided 
against,  was,  however,  not  unfrequently  prac- 
tSed  by  the  king's  Privy  Council,  and,  in 
13o2,  a  statute  was  passed  to  prevent  this  abuse 
of  the  liberty  of  the  subject,  which  was  twice, 
re-enacted  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IIlJ 
Under  the  Tudors,  prisoners,  when  committed 
by  the  council  generally,  or  even  by  the 
special  command  of  the  king,  were  admitted 
to  bail  on  their  habeas  corpus,  but  there  were 
frequ^t  delays  in  obtaining  the  writ.  The 
question  whether  a  prisoner  could  be  detained 
by  special  command  of  the  king,  signified  by 
a  warrant  of  the  Privy  Council,  without 
showing  cause  of  imprisonment,  was  argued 
out  in  Darnell's  case,  when  the  judxes,  relying 
upon  an  obscure  declaration  of  their  prede- 
cesson  in  the  34  th  of  Elizabeth,  decided  for  the 
crown.  The  HouBe  of  Commons  retorted  by 
protesting  in  the  Petition  of  Right  against 
the  illeg^  imprisonment  of  the  subject  with- 
out cause. 

The  arbitrary  arrest  of  Sir  John  Eliot  and 
the  other  members  on  the  dissolution  of  1629 
was  an  attempt  to  evade  the  Petition  of  Kight, 
and  was  met  by  the  provision  in  the  Act 
which  abolished  the  Star  Chamber,  that  any 
person  committed  by  the  council  or  the  king's 
special  command  was  to  have  a  writ  of  habeas 
corpus  granted  him,  on  application  to  the 
judges  of  the  King's  Bench  or  Common  Pleas, 
without  any  delay  or  pretence  whatever. 
Kevertheless,  Lord  Clarendon's  arbitrary  cus- 
tom of  imprisoning  offenders  in  distant  places 
revived  the  grievance,  and  the  Commons, 
under  Charles  II.,  carried  several  bills  to 
prevent  the  refusal  of  the  writ  of  habeas 
corpus,  but  they  were  thrown  out  in  the 
Lords.  In  1676  Jenkes's  case  called  fresh 
attention  to  the  injustice  of  protracted  im- 
prisonment. 

At  last,  in  1679,  the  :^mouB  Habeas  Corpus 
Act  was  passed.  It  enacted  that  any  judge 
must  grant  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  when 


applied  for,  under  penalty  of  a  fine  of  £500  ; 
'  that  the  delay  in  executing  it  must  not  exceed 
twenty  daA's;    that    any    officer    or    keeper 
neglecting  to  deliver  a  copy  of  the  warrant 
of  commitment,  or  shifting  the  prisoner  with- 
out cause  to  another  custody,  shall  be  fined 
£100  on  the  first   offence,  and  £200,  with 
dismissal,  for  the  second ;  that  no  person  once 
delivered  by  habeas  corpus  shall  be  re-com- 
mitted for  the  same  offence ;  that  every  person 
committed  for  treason  or  felony  is  to  be  tried 
at  the  next  assizes,  unless  the  crown  witnesses 
cannot  be  produced  at  that  time ;  and  that,  if 
not  indicted  at  the  second  assizes  or  sessions,  he 
may  be  discharged ;  and  that^o  one  may  be 
imprisoned  out  of  EnglandXThe  defects  in 
this  great  Act  have  since  necn  remedied  by 
the  Bill  of  Rights,  which  declares  that  excessive 
bail  nnay  not  be  required ;  and  by  the  Act  of 
1 767  "  K)r  securing  more  effectually  the  liberty 
of  the  subject,"  which  extended  Uie  remedies 
of  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  to  non-criminal 
charges,  and  empowered  the  judges  to  examine 
the  tmiL.  of  the  facts  set  forth  in  the  return. 
By  an  Act  of   1862,  based  on  the  fugitive 
slave  Anderson's  case,  it  was  provided  that  no 
writ  of  habeas  corpus  could  issue  from  an 
English  court  into  any  colony  where  local 
courte  exist  having  authority  to  grant  and 
issue  the  said  writ.    The  Habeas  Corpus  Act 
was  extended  to  Ireland  in  1782  ;  in  Scotland 
the  liberty  of  the  subject  is  guarded  by  the 
WrongouB  Imprisonment  Act  of  1701. 

In  times  of  political  and  social  disturbance 
the  Habeas  Corpus  Act  has  now  and  again 
been  suspended.  It  was  suspended  nine  times 
between  the  Revolution  and  1745;  again 
during  the  troubles  which  followe«i  the  French 
Revolution  (1794—1800),  after  which  an  Act 
of  Indemnity  was  passed ;  as  again  after  the 
Suspension  Act  of  1817.  In  Ireland  it  has 
been  suspended  no  less  than  six  times  since 
the  Union ;  but  since  1848  the  government, 
in  times  of  disaffection,  have  had  recourse  to 
Coercion  Acts. 

For  Darnell's  cue  and  the  Act,  see  HaHam. 
Coturf.  Higt.,  cha.  7  and  18;  State  Trial*,  and 
atat.  SI  Car.  II.,  c.  2.  For  Suapenaion  Acta,  ^tj, 
Conit.  Hut.,  chap.  3d.  See  alao  56  Oeo.  III., 
c.  100,  and  85  andae  Vict.,  c.  20.     [L.  C.  S.] 

Habeas  Corpiui  Act,  Thb,  in  Ireland, 
was  not  passed  till  1782,  when  an  Act  re- 
sembling that  in  England  was  carried  through 
the  Irish  Parliament.  It  was  suspended  in 
1796,  in  1800,  1802  to  1805,  1807  to  1810, 
1814,  1822  to  1824,  1866  to  1869,  and  par- 
tially  by  the  Westmeath  Act,  1871,  and  other 
Coercion  Acts. 

Hacketty  William  {d.  1591>,  was  a 
fanatic  who,  with  two  companions  named  Cop- 
penger  and  Arthington,  endeavoured  to  pro- 
cure a  following  in  London  by  predicting  the 
immediate  end  of  the  world.  Hieir  divine 
mission  failed,  however,  to  save  them  from 
being  convicted  as  traitors.      Arthington  waft 


(624) 


Hal 


pardoned.  This  fanaticism  caused  the  per- 
secution of  the  Puritans  to  be  redoubled ;  *'  it 
was  pretended,"  says  Dr.  Lingard,  "  that  if 
a  rising  had  been  effected,  men  of  greater 
weight  would  have  placed  themselves  at  the 
head  of  the  insurgents,  and  have  required 
from  the  queen  the  abolition  of  the  prelacy." 

Hackston.  of  Rathillbt  (d.  1680), 
was  one  of  the  murderers  of  Archbishop 
Sharp.'  After  the  crime  Hackston'  escaped 
into  Stirlin^^ire  by  giving  out  that  he  and 
his  companions  were  troopers  in  pursuit  of 
the  murderers.  He  afterwards  fought  at 
Drumclog  and  Both  well  Bridge,  on  the  side 
of  the  Covenanters.  He  was  captured  at 
Airds  Moss  (1680),  and  soon  afterwards 
estecuted  at  Edinburgh. 

Haddington,  seventeen  miles  east  of 
Edinburgh,  was  burnt  by  John  in  1216,  and 
again  by  Edward  III.  in  1355.  In  1547 
it  was  taken  bv  the  English  shortly  after  the 
battle  of  Pinlcie;  but  was  recaptured  by 
the  Scotch  in  the  following  year.  It  was 
here  that  the  Estates  of  the  Bealm  met  to  dis- 
cuss the  marriage  of  their  young  Queen  Mar}- 
with  the  Dauphin  (1548).  Some  years  later 
the  abbey  was  conferred  on  BothwelL  In 
1715  it  was  occupied  by  the  Jacobites.  Had- 
dington was  one  of  the  earliest  of  the  Royal 
Burghs  of  Scotland. 

Haddon,  Walter  {b.  1516,  <t  1572),  has 
been  called  one  of  the  brightest  lay  ornaments 
of  the  Reformation.  He  became  Master  of 
Trinity  College,  Oxford,  and  in  1552  x^resi- 
dent  of  lyiagdalen  College.  During  the  reign 
of  Mary  he  withdrew  into  private  life,  and  so 
managed  to  escape  persecution.  On  the  ac- 
cession of  Elizabeth  he  was  made  Master 
of  Requests.  In  1565  he  was  sent  to 
Bruges  for  the  purpose  of  concluding  a  com- 
mercial treaty  between  England  and  the 
Netherlands.  His  knowledge  of  law  was 
^reat,  and  he  had  a  principal  share  in  draw- 
ing up  the  Reformatio  Legum  Hcclesiasticarutn, 


L,  Emperor  of  Rome  (117—138), 
visited  Britain  in  the  year  120.  We  have  no 
account  of  his  proceedings,  but  it  appears 
that  he  restored  the  southern  part  of  the  island 
to  order,  and  drove  back  the  Caledonians. 
The  wall  from  the  Solway  to  the  Tjnie  was 
built  by  his  orders.    [Romans  in  Bhttain.] 

Hadwisi^  or  Hawisa,  wife  of  King 
John,  was  the  granddaughter  of  Robert, 
Earl  of  Gloucester,  natural  son  of  Henry  I. 
Her  marriage  with  King  John  in  1189  gave 
him  A  share  of  the  great  Gloucester  earldom  of 
which  she  was  co-heir,  but  in  1200  she  was 
divorced  on  the  pretext  of  affinity.  She  sub- 
sequently married  Geoflfrey  Fitz-Peter,  and  on 
his  death  Hubert  de  Burgh. 

Hailes,  Lo&d  (d-  1726,  d.  1792),  was  the 
judicial  title  of  Sir  David  Dalrymple,  one  of 
the  Lords  Commidsioncrs  of  Justiciar}'.  Ho 
was  the  author  of  Annals  of  Scotland. 


Hale,  Sir  Maithbw  (6.  1609,  d,  1676|, 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1636.  He  took 
the  side  of  the  king  in  his  strug^  with 
the  Parliament,  and  defended  the  Duke  of 
Hamilton  and  other  Royahsts  in  1649.  Later 
on  he  subscribed  the  engagement  to  be 
faithful  to  the  Commonwealth,  and  in  1654 
was  made  a  judge  of  the  Common  Pleas, 
in  which  capacity  he  showed  gn^eat  fear- 
lessness and  impartiality,  refusing  to  assist 
in  the  trial  of  Penruddock  in  1655,  and  on 
one  occasion  dismissing  a  jury  wliich  had 
been  illegally  returned  at  Cromwell's  bidding. 
On  the  death  of  Oliver  Cromwell  he  resigned 
his  office,  but  in  1660  was  made  by  Charles 
II.  Chief  Baron  of  the  Exchequer,  and  in 
1671  was  promoted  to  the  Chief  Justiceship 
of  the  King*s  Bench.  In  private  and  public 
life  alike,  he  was  distinguished  by  his  candour, 
kindly  disposition,  and  piety ;  his  habits  and 
tastes  were  most  simple,  and  to  the  end  of  his 
life  he  was  an  earnest  student  of  theology  and 
law.  Heneage  Finch,  Earl  of  Nottingham, 
speaks  of  him  as  **  a  Chief  Justice  of  so  inde- 
fatigable an  industry,  so  invincible  a  patience, 
so  exemplary  an  integ^ty,  and  so  magnani- 
mous a  contempt  of  unholy  things,  without 
which  no  man  can  be  truly  gpreat ;  and  to  all 
this,  a  man  that  was  so  absolutely  a  master  of 
the  science  of  the  law,  aibd  even  of  the  most 
abstruse  and  hidden  parts  of  it,  that  one  may 
truly  say  of  his  knowledge  of  the  law,  what 
St.  Austin  said  of  St.  Jerome's  knowledge 
of  divinity, '  Quod  Hieronymus  nescivit,  nul- 
lus  mortaiium  unquam  scivit.*  " 

Hale'8  Case  (June,  1686).  Sir  Edward 
Hale,  a  convert  to  Roman  Catholicism,  was,  in 
1686,  appointed  by  James  II.  colonel  of  a  regi- 
ment, and  Governor  of  Dover  Castle,  though  he 
had  not  qualified  himself  for  these  posts  accord- 
ing to  the  terms  of  the  Test  Act.  A  collusive 
action  was  brought  against  him  by  a  servant, 
whereupon  Hale  pleaded  a  dispensation  from 
the  king.  Eleven  out  of  the  twelve  judges 
decided  in  his  favour,  and  agreed  that  the 
king  had  power  by  his  prerogative  to  dispense 
with  penal  laws,  and  for  reasons  of  which  he 
was  sole  judge.  Subsequently  Hale  was 
made  Lieutenant  of  the  Tower,  and  followed 
James  II.  in  his  flight,  but  was  captured  and 
imprisoned. 

Halfdaaa  (d.  910),  a  Danish  leader,  ic 
mentioned  in  tiic  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  as 
one  of  the  two  kings  leading  the  Danish  army 
at  the  battie  of  Ashdown  (781).  Four  years 
later  he  went  with  part  of  the  host  into 
Northumbria,  subdued  the  land,  and  harried 
the  Picts  and  the  Strathclyde  Welsh.  Next 
year  (876)  he  divided  the  south  part  of  North- 
umbria among  his  followers,  who  settled  dov.-n 
in  their  new  abodes  as  peaceful  inhabitants. 
Many  years  later  Halidane^s  name  again 
occurs  in  the  Chronicle  as  being  engaged  in 
an  expedition  that  ravaged  England  as  far 
south  as  Tettenhall.    On  its  return  it  was 


(636) 


OTertaken  by  Edward  the  Elder,  and  pat  to 
rout.  Sevend  of  the  Danish  leaders  were 
slain  in  this  engagement,  and  amongst  them 
King  Halfdane.    [DAyBs.] 

Kalidon  Kill,  The  Battlb  op  (July 
19,  1333),  -was  fought  between  the  English 
troops,  led  by  Edward  III.  in  person,  and  the 
i^tch  under  Douglas.  The  English  were 
posted  on  a  hiU,  and  their  position  was  ren- 
dered more  secure  by  the  marshy  g^und 
before  them.  When  the  Soots  advanced  to 
the  attack,  their  troops  floundered  in  this 
morass,  and,  being  open  to  the  English 
archers,  were  reduced  to  a  mere  fragment  ere 
they  reached  the  enemy's  ranks.  Disorganised 
and  hopeless,  they  were  then  slaughtered  by 
the  English  men-at-arms. 


:,  Charles  Wood,  Ist  Viscount 
{b,  1800,  d.  1884),  was  educated  at  Oriel 
College,  Oxford,  and  succeeded  his  father  as 
third  baronet  in  1826.  In  the  same  year  he 
had  been  returned  to  the  House  of  Commons 
as  member  for  Ghreat  Grimsby,  and  afterwards 
tsat  for  Wareham,  Halifax,  and  Bipon.  In 
1832  he  was  appointed  Secretary  to  the 
Treasury;  in  1835  Secretary  to  the  Admi- 
ralty. In  1846  he  took  office  under  Lord 
Russell  as  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer, 
which  office  he  held  tiU  1862.  He  entered 
the  Aberdeen  cabinet  in  1862  as  President  of 
the  Board  of  Control ;  became  First  Lord  of 
the  Admiralty  in  Lord  Palmerston's  first  ad- 
ministration, from  1866  to  1868.  In  Lord 
Palmerston's  second  administration  he  became 
Secretary  of  State  for  India,  and  President  of 
the  Indian  Council  from  1869  to  1866.  In 
1866  he  was  created  Viscount  Halifax,  and 
took  office  under  Mr.  Oladstone  in  1870  as 
Lord  Privy  Seal. 


:,  Charles  Montague,  Earl  of 
(b.  1661,  d*.  1716),  was  educated  at  Westmin- 
ster and  Cambridge.  In  1687  he  gained 
himself  a  wide  reputation  by  the  happy 
parody  of  the  Tmcn  and  Country  Mouse,  written 
m  conjunction  with  his  friend  Prior.  In 
1688  he  entered  Parliament  for  Maldon,  and 
was  a  member  of  the  Convention  which  offered 
the  crown  of  EIngland  to  William  and  Mary.  The 
new  king  soon  granted  him  a  pension  of  £600 
a  year;  and  in  1691  he  was  appointed  chair- 
man of  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, and  one  of  the  commissioners  of  the 
Treasury.  He  bore  a  prominent  part  in  the 
debates  for  regulating  the  trials  for  treason. 
He  took  up  Paterson's  scheme  for  establishing 
a  national  bank,  and  hence  may  be  regarded 
as  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Bank  of  Eng- 
land (1694).  In  the  same  year  he  was  ap- 
pointed Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  and  in 
the  next  was  actively  concerned  in  the 
measures  taken  to  restore  the  currency.  It 
was  at  his  suggestion  that  a  window-tax  was 
levied  for  the  purposes  of  meeting  the  ex- 
penses incidentsJ  to  the  new  coinage.  In  1697 


he  was  appointed  First  Lord  of  the  Tre%8UTy« 
and  in  the  next  two  years  was  one  of  the 
members  of  the  regency  during  the  king's 
abeenoe.  About  the  same  time  he  was  attacked 
in  Parliament,  but  was  acquitted  on  all  points, 
and  even  received  the  thanks  of  the  House  for 
his  services.  He  now  proposed  to  reorganise 
the  East  India  Company,  by  combining  the 
new  and  the  old  companies  (1698).  "The 
success  of  this  scheme,  says  Lord  Macaulay, 
*'  marks  the  time  when  the  fortunes  of  Mon« 
tague  reached  the  meridian*  "  After  this 
time  he  began  to  lose  his  popularity ;  public 
feeling'  was  against  him,  and  even  the 
men  of  letters,  despite  his  patronage  of  the 
greatest  literary  characters  of  his  day,  were 
unsparing  in  abuse.  Stung  by  this  treatment 
he  resigned  the  Chancellorship  of  the  Exche* 
quer,  and  fell  back  upon  a  very  lucrative 
sinecure  (the  auditorship  of  the  Exchequer) 
that  his  brother  had  been  nursing  for  him 
since  the  previous  year.  In  1701  he  was 
called  to  the  Upper  House  by  the  title  of 
Lord  Halibuc;  and  the  same  year  was  im- 
peached, though  without  success.  In  1714  he 
was  made  Earl  of  Halifax,  and  died  the  next 
year.  Halifax's  character  was  most  merci- 
lessly assailed  by  the  writers  of  his  time ;  and 
even  Pope,  who  was  but  a  boy  when  Mon- 
tague retired  from  the  House  of  Commons, 
has  attacked  him  in  some  of  his  bitterest  and 
most  pungent  verses.  Halifax  is  said  to  have 
been  the  Bufo  of  the  Epistle  to  Arbuthnot, 
where  even  his  patronage  of  men  of  letters  is 
turned  into  scorn,  and  the  whole  charge 
summed  up  with  the  couplet  accusing  him  of 
neglecting  Dryden  when  alive — 

**  But  stUl  the  neat  have  kindness  in  reserve  :— 
He  helped  to  bury  whom  he  helped  to  starve." 


George  Saville,  Marquis  of 
{b.  eirea  1630,  d.  1696),  was  a  member  of  an 
old  Yorkshire  family  which  had  been  con- 
spicuous for  its  loyalty  during  the  Rebellion 
period.  After  the  Bestoration,  he  was  raised 
to  the  peeragCL  for  the  assistance  he  had 
rendered  in  bringing  about  that  event.  He 
was  created  a  marquis  in  1682  and  made 
Lord  Pri^'y  SeaL  He  opposed  the  Exclusion 
Bill  in  1680,  though  he  was  suspected  of 
intriguing  in  favour  of  the  Duke  of  Mon- 
mouUi.  At  the  accession  of  James  II.  he 
became  President  of  the  Council;  but  he 
showed  himself  altogether  averse  to  the 
Romanising  measures  of  the  king,  and  most 
strenuously  opposed  the  repeal  of  Qie  Test  Act. 
For  this  he  was  dismissed  from  his  offices,  Octo- 
ber, 1686.  He  gave  his  adhesion  to  the  Prince 
of  Orange  in  December,  1688,  and  bfcame 
Speaker  of  the  House  of  Lords  in  the  Con- 
vention Parliament,  1689,  and  Lord  Privy 
Seal  in  February  of  this  year.  He,  however, 
subsequently  joined  the  Opposition  and  re- 
signed in  October,  1689.  He  offered  a  violent 
opposition  to  the  censorship  of  the  press  in 
1692.     The  marquis  refused  to  join  himself 


(  026  ) 


absolutely    to  either  party,  and,  in  a  tract 

called  the   Character  of  a  Trifmner^  defended 

his  position   as  one  who  "  trims  "  from  one 

side  to  the   other  as  the  national    interest 

requires.  . 

Iboaulay,  Hist,  nf  Sng,;  Bomat,  UUt,  o/Eia 
Own  Time. 

Halifax,  Gbokob  Montaovb  Dunk,  5th 
Earjl  of  {d.  1771))  succeeded  to  the  title 
while  still  a  boy.  In  1761  he  was  appointed 
Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and  a  little  later 
became  one  of  Bute's  Secretaries  of  State. 
When  the  last-mentioned  nobleman  went  out 
in  March,  1763,  Lord  Halifax  combined  with 
Lord  Egremont  and  George  Grenville  to  form 
the  administration  popularly  known  as  the 
Triumvirate.  It  was  in  the  joint  names  of 
Lords  Halifax  and  Eg^mont  that  the  general 

E arrant  was  made  out  for  the  arrest  of  Wilkes, 
ord  Halifax  has  also  been  charged  with  the 
authorship  of  the  most  fatal  measure  of  this 
unfortunate  administration,  viz.,  the  Stamp 
Act ;  but  though  he  was  a  warm  advocate  of 
the  bill,  as  his  office  compelled  him  to  be, 
there  seems  no  evidence  that  he  was  the 
actual  author  of  it.  In  1765  he  was  a  party 
with  Lord  Sandwich  to  the  fraud  which  was 
practised  on  the  king  in  order  to  make  him 
agree  to  the  omission  of  his  mother's  name 
from  the  council  of  regency;  and  the  king 
seems  to  have  felt  more  deeply  injured  by 
him  than  by  Lord  Sandwich.  Nor  did  hiis 
conduct  in  this  matter  give  satisfaction  to  his 
colleagues;  and  during  the  last  few  months 
of  the  Grenville  admmistration,  complaints 
against  Halifax  seem  to  have  been  rife.  The 
Grenville  administration  fell  in  1765.  When 
Lord  North  came  into  power  (1770)  he  was 
appointed  Secretary  of  State,  but  died  the 
following  year. 

GrenvilU  Paper*;   Lord   Stanhope,   HmC.    of 
Eng, ;  Jesse,  Memoire  of  George  HI, 

Sally  Arthur,  member  for  Grantham, 
who  had  been  previously  arraigned  at  the  bar 
of  the  House  of  Commons  "  for  sundry  lewd 
speeches,"  was  (in  1581)  expelled  from  the 
House,  fined,  and  imprisoned*  in  the  Tower, 
for  having  published  a  book  **not  only  re- 
proaching some  particular  good  members  of 
the  House,  but  also  very  much  slanderous 
and  derogatory  to  its  general  authority, 
power,  and  stote,  and  prejudicial  to  the 
validity  of  its  proceedings  in  making  and  es- 
tablishing of  laws."  Hall  had  previously  in- 
curred the  anger  of  the  House,  which  sus- 
pected him  of  having  connived  at  the  fraud  of 
his  servant,  Smalley  (q.v.),  whom  they  had  sent 
their  sergeant-at-arms  to  deliver  from  gaol  in 
1575.  When  Hall's  book  was  condemned,  its 
author  made  his  submission,  but  was  not 
liberated  till  the  dissolution  of  Parliament. 
Notwithstanding  his  misfortunes  on  this 
occasion,  he  seems  to  have  sat  in  later  Parlia- 
ments. Hall's  Case  is  the  chief  precedent  for 
the  power  of  expulsion  which  the  House  of 
Commons  has  always  retained. 


Hall.  Kdward  (d.  1547),  the  son  of  a 
Shropshire  gentleman,  was  educated  at  Eton, 
Cambridge,  and  Oxford.  He  entei'ed  Gray's 
Inn,  was  called  to  the  bar,  and  in  process  of 
time  became  under-sheriff  for  the  City  of 
London  and  one  of  the  judges  of  the  Sheriffs' 
Court.  He  died  in  1547,  leaving  behind  him 
a  HUtory  of  the  Union  of  the  two  Xoble  and 
JUmtt^M  Families  of  Lancaster  and  Torky 
which  was  printed  in  1548.  This  work,  which 
the  author  dedicated  to  Edward  VI.,  begins 
with  the  duel  between  the  Duke  of  Norfolk 
and  Henry  of  Derby  (afterwards  Henry  IV.), 
and  goes  down  to  the  death  of  Henry  VII. 
Hall  may  be  regarded  as  a  contemporary 
authority  for  events  that  took  place  during 
the  reign  of  the  last-mentioned  king.  For 
earlier  reigns  his  narrative  "  is  carefully  com* 
piled  from  the  best  available  authorities, 
whether  they  wrote  in  Latin,  French,  or 
English."  A  list  of  these  authorities  is  pi*c- 
fix^  to  the  work,  which  was  first  printed  by 
Richard  Grafton  in  1548. 

Hall,  JosBPH  (6.  1574,  d.  1656),  Biahop  of 
Norwich,  was  one  of  the  deputies  sent  to  re- 
present the  established  religion  of  England  at 
the  Synod  of  Dort  (1619).  In  1627  he  was 
made  Bishop  of  Exeter,  and  Bishop  of  Norwich 
in  1641,  in  which  year  he  joined  eleven  of  his 
fellow-bishops  in  protesting  against  all  laws 
passed  in  their  absence  from  the  House  of 
Lords.  For  this  offence  he  was  cast  into 
prison.  He  died  at  Higham,  near  Norwich, 
in  1656.  Hall's  chief  poetical  works  are  two 
books  entitled  respectively  Toothieae  Satires 
and  Biting  Satires^  both  of  which  are  of  some 
-value  as  presenting  a  picture  of  the  manners 
of  his  time.  He  was  also  the  author  of  a 
work  entitled  Hard  Measure,  which  g^ves  an 
account  of  the  treatment  he  met  with  at  the 
hands  of  the  Puritan  party. 

Hallam,  Hbnrt  {b,  mi,d.  1859),  was 
educated  at  Eton  and  Oxford,  whence  he  pro- 
ceeded to  the  Inner  Temple.  He  was  one  of 
the  early  contributors  to  the  £dinburffh  Me- 
vietCj  and  a  consistent  Whig  in  politics.  In 
1818  his  first  literary  venture  on  a  large  scale 
made  its  appearance — ^the  View  of  the  State  of 
Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages.  This  work, 
which  at  once  established  the  reputation  of 
its  author,  is  of  value  to  the  student  of 
English  history  chiefly  for  the  sketch  of  our 
political  and  constitutional  history  down  to 
the  accession  of  the  Tudor  dynasty.  Despite 
the  f&d  that  the  same  ground,  was  sub- 
sequently  covered  by  the  brilliant  ingenuitv 
of  Sir  !^rancis  Palgrave  and  the  great  work 
of  Dr.  Stubbs,  no  student  of  our  early  history 
can  afford  to  neglect  the  pages  of  these 
volumes.  Mr.  Hallam's  second  achievement 
was  the  publication  of  The  Constitutumal  His- 
tory of  England  frotn  the  Accession  of  Henry  VIL 
to  the  death  of  Oeorge  II.  This  work  is  still 
the  leading  authority  on  the  period  over 
which  it  extends;   and  like   all  the  othec 


(527) 


writingB  of  its  author,  is  remarkable  for  its 
accuracy  and  impartiality.  In  1837 — 38  Mr. 
Hallam's  third  work  of  importance  made  its 
appearance,  TA#  ItUroduetioti  to  the  Literature 
of  .  Europe  in  the  Fifteenth^  Sixteenth,  and 
Seventeenth  Centuriee, 

Kallam,  Hohbrt  {d,  1417),  held  the 
archdeaconry  of  Canterbury,  and  was  nomi- 
nated by  the  Pope  to  the  archbishopric  of 
York.  Henry  IV.,  however,  refused  his 
sanction  to  the  appointment,  and  Hallam  had 
to  content  himself  with  the  bishopric  of 
Salisbury.  In  1411  he  was  nominated  a 
cardinaL  Six  ^ears  later  he  took  a  very 
prominent  part  in  the  Council  of  Constance. 
He  died  at  Constance  in  1417. 

SamiltOli,  originally  called  Cadzow  or 
Gadyow,  derives  its  name  from  Sir  Walter  de 
Hamilton,  or  Hambelton,  of  Leicester.  It 
was  made  a  royal  burgh  by  Queen  Mary  in 
the  sixteenth  centur\'.  Hamilton  Castle  is 
noted  in  history  as  the  place  in  which  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots  took  refuge  on  her  escape  from 
Lochleven  (1568),  and  where  her  supporters 
mustered  round  her.  It  was  the  chief  seat  of 
the  Hamiltons,  and  was  taken  by  the  Regent 
Murray  later  in  the  same  year. 

Samiltoiiy  Family  of,  is  descended  from 
Sir  Gilbert  de  Hamilton,  who  lived  in  the 
reign  of  Alexander  II.  of  Scotland.  His  son. 
Sir  Walter  Hamilton,  received  the  lordship  of 
Cadzow  from  Robert  Bruce.  Sir  James  Hamil- 
ton,  sixth  Lord  of  Cadzow,  was  created  a  peer 
of  Scotland,  with  the  title  of  Lord  Hamilton, 
in  1445.  His  son  James  was  created  Earl  of 
Arran  in  Aug.,  1503.  James,  second  earl,  was 
declared  heir  presumptive  to  the  crown  in 
1643,  and  in  1648  was  created  by  Henry  II. 
Buke  of  Chatelherault  in  France.  John,  his 
second  son,  was,  in  1591,  created  Marquis  of 
Hamilton.  James,  grandson  of  this  peer,  was 
created  Duke  of  Hamilton,  1643.  On  the 
attainder  of  William,  the  second  duko,  in  the 
Civil  War,  his  honours  were  forfeited;  but  in 
1660  his  widow  obtained,  by  petition,  for  her 
husband,  Lord  William  Douglas,  the  title  of 
Duke  of  Hamilton.  The  title  has  since 
remained  with  his  descendants.  The  holders 
of  the  dukedom  of  Abercom  are  descended 
from  Claud,  fourth  son  of  the  Duke  of 
Chatelherault. 

Hamilton,  Anthony,  Count  (b.  1641, 
d,  1720),  was  the  son  of  Sir  George  Hamilton 
and  nephew  of  the  second  Earl  of  Abercorn 
on  his  father*s  side,  while  on  his  mother's 
he  was  nephew  of  the  Duke  of  Ormonde. 
He  was  born  in  Ireland,  and  was  educated 
in  France.  On  the  Restoration  he  re- 
turned to  England,  and  was  a  conspicuous 
member  of  the  court  of  Charles  II.  Under 
James  II.  Hamilton  was  given  the  command 
of  an  infantr}'  regiment  in  Ireland,  and  the 

S>vemment  of  Limerick.    At  the  battle  of 
ewtown  Butler  (1689J  he  was  wounded  and 


defeated,  and  was  also  present  next  year  at 
the  battle  of  the  Boj'ne;  but  shortly  after- 
wards followed  the  dethroned  king  into  exile, 
entering  the  French  service  later  on.  It  was 
at  Sceaux,  the  seat  of  the  Duchess  of  Maine, 
that  he  wrote  his  Memoire  of  Grammouty  which 
were  fiist  printed  anonymously  in  French  in 
Holland,  in  the  year  1713.  An  English 
translation  was  issued  in  the  following  year. 
This  work  contains  much  information  on 
court  politics  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 
Count  Hamilton  was  also  the  author  of 
certain  Contes^  or  Stories,  which  are  highly 
praised  by  Voltaire. 

Hamilton,  Lady  Ekma  {h,  1763,  d. 
1815),  was  the  daughter  of  a  Welsh  servant- 
girl.  She  seems  to  have  lost  her  character 
in  early  years.  After  various  adventures  she 
was  married  to  Sir  William  Hamilton,  the 
English  ambassador  at  Naples  (1791).  At 
this  court  she  soon  became  very  intimate 
with  the  queen,  Marie  Caroline,  and  did  not 
hesitate  to  use  this  intimacy  for  the  purpose 
of  unravelling  state  secrets  which  she  claimed 
to  be  of  importance  to  Q-reat  Britain.  In 
1793  she  made  the  acquaintance  of  Nelson, 
whose  mistress  she  soon  became.  It  was 
under  her  influence  that  he  ordered  the  exe- 
cution of  Admiral  Carraccioli.  In  1800  she 
returned  to  England  with  Nelson.  Lady 
Hamilton  survived  Nelson  ten  years,  and 
died  in  mean  circumstances  in  Calais  (1815). 
Before  her  death  she  published  two  volumes 
containing  her  correspondence  with  Nelson. 
Her  memoirs  were  published  at  London  in 
the  same  year. 

Kamilton.  Sn  Jambs  {d.  1540),  was  a 
natural  son  of  James,  first  Earl  of  Arran. 
He  was  a  favourite  of  James  V.  of  Scotland, 
superintended  the  erection  or  the  improve- 
ment of  many  royal  palaces  and  castles,  e.g.y 
Falkland,  Linlithgow,  Edinburgh,  and  Stir* 
ling.  In  later  years  he  was  made  a  judge  in 
heresy,  and  in  this  capacity  showed  himself 
very  severe  towards  the  Reformers.  At  last, 
being  accused  of  treason  and  embezzlement, 
he  was  found  guilty  and  executed* 

Kamilton,  John  [d,  1571),  Archbishop  of 
St.  Andrews,  was  the  natural  brother  of  the 
Earl  of  Arran,  the  Regent  of  Scotland  in 
1543,  and  is  said  by  the  Scotch  historians  to 
have  **  ruled  all  at  court,"  and  to  have  been 
French  at  heart.  He  was  also  very  friendly 
with  Cardinal  Beaton.  He  was  appointed 
Privy  Seal  and  Treasurer  (1543),  and  was 
strongly  opposed  to  the  Duke  of  Somerset's 
plan  of  marrying  Edward  and  Mary  (1547). 
By  this  time  Hamilton  was  Archbishop  of 
St.  Andrews,  to  which  office  he  had  succeeded 
on  the  assassination  of  Cardinal  Beaton.  He 
was  a  strenuous  opponent  of  the  Reformed 
doctrines,  and  in  1558  condemned  Walter 
Mill  to  be  burnt  for  heresy.  He  baptised 
James  YI.  in  1566,  and  about  the  same  time 


(528  ) 


signed  a  bond  in  fayour  of  Bothwell.  He 
was  a  member  of  Mary's  Privy  Ck>uncil,  and 
continued  faithful  to  her  cause,  though  in 
1563  he  was  impanelled  for  sajring  mass, 
and  committed  to  ward  by  her  orders. 
Hamilton,  though  an  archbishop,  lived  in 
open  adultery,  and  had  to  obtain  several  Acts 
of  Parliament  for  the  legitimisation  of  his 
bastard  diildren.  He  was  a  party  to  Dam- 
ley's  murder;  and  it  was  he  who  in  1567 
divorced  Bothwell  from  his  wife,  and  so 
enabled  him  to  marry  the  queen.  He  was 
hanged  at  Stirling  in*  April,  1571,  shortly 
after  the  fall  of  Dumbarton  Castle,  in  which 
he  had  taken  refuge. 

Xamilton.  Jambs,  of  Bothwellhauoh, 
had  fought  for  Queen  Mary  at  Lang- 
side,  and  forfeited  his  estate  in  consequence 
of  espousing  the  royal  side.  On  Feb. 
23,  1570,  he  shot  the  Regent  Murray  from 
the  balcony  of  a  house  in  Linlithp^w, 
belonging  to  Archbishop  Hamilton.  Within 
a  few  days  he  escaped  to  France,  where  he 
lived  for  some  time  in  receipt  of  a  pension 
from  Queen  Mary.  In  1572  his  name  was 
excepted  from  the  benefit  of  the  truce  between 
the  members  of  the  king's  party  and  the 
queen's  party. 

Hamilton^  Jaxzs,  3rd  Mabquis  of 
{b.  1606,  d.  1649),  succeeded  his  father  in 
1625,  and  was  sent  in  1638  by  Charles  I.  as 
his  Commissioner  to  the  Covenanters,  to  de- 
mand the  rescinding  of  the  whole  Covenant. 
Hkving  failed  to  effect  a  compromise,  he  was 
empowered  to  make  an  entire  surrender  of 
the  Service  Book,  the  Book  of  Canons,  and 
the  High  Commission.  In  1639  he  was 
again  sent  to  Scotland  in  command  of  a  fleet 
of  nineteen  vessels,  conveying  five  regiments 
of  royal  troops.  In  1643  he  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  duke,  but  was  subsequently 
imprisoned  on  a  charge  of  disloyalty.  In 
August,  1648,  he  was  defeated  by  Cromwell 
at  Preston,  and  taken  prisoner,  being  be- 
headed in  London  in  the  following  March, 
after  a  summary  mock  trial  before  Bradshaw. 

Xbunilton,  William  Douglas,  Dukb 
OF  {b,  1650,  d,  1696),  appears  as  member 
of  the  Scotch  Privy  Counal  in  the  year  1686, 
when  he  was  summoned  by  James  II.  to 
London  for  demurring  at  the  king's  policy 
of  fayour  to  the  Roman  Catholics  and  per- 
secution of  the  Covenantei'S.  On  Jamos  re- 
fusing to  allow  religious  liberty  to  the 
Covenanters,  the  interview  came  to  an  un- 
satisfactory conclusion,  and  when  the  Assembly 
of  the  Scotch  Estates  also  proved  refractor}^ 
Hamilton  led  the  opposition.  But,  though  he 
threw  out  hints  against  the  dispensing  power, 
his  opposition  to  James's  arbitrary  acts  was 
but  languid.  At  the  Revolution  he  joined 
the  victorious  side,  while  his  eldest  son  de- 
clared for  James.  He  was  elected  President 
of  the  Convention  by  a  large  majority  over 
the  Duke  of  Athole,  and,  when  the  Convention 


became  a  Parliament,  he  was  made  Lord  High 
Commissioner.    But  he  attempted  to  bring 
the  old  influence  of  the  crown,  by  means  of 
the  Lords  of  the  Articles,  to  b^  on  the 
Estates,  and  hence  a  strong  opposition  was 
formed  which  thwarted  his  government  for 
the  romainder  of  the  session.     On  the  dis- 
covery of  Montgomery's  plot  (1689 — 90)  to 
place  James  on  the  throne,  it  was  discovered 
that  he  had  been  offered  the  post  of  President 
of  the  Council.    Upon  this  William  dismissed 
him  from  his  office  of  Commissioner,  and  put 
Lord  Melville  in  his  place  (1690).     From  this 
moment  Hamilton  began  to  oppose  the  plans 
of  government  with  such  persistency  that 
William  III.  was  once  heard  to  exclaim,  *'  I 
wish  to  heaven  that  Scotland  wero  a  thousand 
miles  off,  and  the  Duke  of  Hamilton  were 
king  of   it."     He  spoke  with  considerable 
wisdom    on   the    Settlement  of  the  Scotch 
Church,  by  which  synodical  government  was 
re-established,  and  upheld  the  cause  of  the 
ministers  who  had  been  ejected  from  their 
livings.    On  the  fall  of  Melville  he  once  more 
occupied    Holyrood    House  as   Lord    High 
Commissioner  (1692),  and  is  said   to  have 
subscribed  £3,000  to  the  African  Company. 
"  He  was,"  says  Mr.  Burton, "  neither  bigoted 
nor  unscrupulous,  but  infirm  of  purpose.    A 
peculiar  capriciousness  of  ^litical  action,  a 
wavering    uncertainty,  which    sickened   all 
firm  roliance,  seems  to  have  become  constitu- 
tional to  the  house  of  Hamilton." 

Kamilton,  James,  Dvkb  of  {d.  1712^, 
made  his  first  appearance  in  history  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  Lord  High  Commissioner,  the  Mar- 
quis of  Queensberry  ( 1 702).  He  led  a  secession 
of  more  than  seventy  members  from  Parliament. 
The  extremely  unsettled  nature  of  his  poli- 
tical views  caused  him  to  be  excluded  from 
the  Scotch  Union  Commission,  and  he  became 
a  zealous  opponent  of  that  measuro,  and,  in 
consequence,  the  darling  of  the  Edinburgh 
mob.  His  influence  in  this  year  (1706) 
checked  a  projected  rising  of  Uameronians 
and  Jacobit^.  In  1707  the  opponents  of  the 
Uuion  were  reduced  to  despair,  and,  as  a  last 
attempt,  it  was  resolved  to  lay  a  solemn  pro- 
test on  the  table  of  the  House,  and  tiien 
secede  from  Parliament.  It  was  to  have 
been  presented  by  Hamilton.  At  the  last 
moment  he  refused  to  appear,  pleading  tooth- 
ache, and  when  peremptorily  summoned 
declared  he  had  never  had  any  intention  of 
presenting  the  protest.  By  some  it  was 
supposed  that  the  cause  of  his  conduct  was 
the  claim  of  the  house  of  Hamilton  to  the 
Scotch  throne,  and  by  others  that  Anne  had 
commanded  him  to  lay  aside  his  opposition  to 
the  Union,  as  it  was  a  preliminary  step  to  a 
Stuart  restoration.  In  1708  he  was  looked 
on  as  the  leader  of  a  Jacobite  insurrection, 
but  the  emissary  from  St.  Germains,  Colonel 
Hooke,  was  unable  to  obtain  an  interview 
with  him.     When  the-  French  invasion  of 


(  629  ) 


1707 — 8  was  imminent,  the  Duke  of  Hamilton 
Bet  oat  for  England,  where  he  wafi  arrested ; 
bat  was  set  tree  by  the  exertions  of  the 
Whig  peers,  Newcastle  and  Wharton,  who 
wished  to  gain  popolarity  for  their  party 
in  Scotland!  In  1711  he  was  allowed  to 
take  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords  as  an 
English  peer,  with  the  title  of  Duke  of 
Hamilton  and  Brandon.  In  1712  he  was 
appointed  ambassador  to  France,  and  it  is 
assierted  by  the  Jacobite  Lockhart,  that  he 
was  to  be  sent  over  with  the  view  of  under- 
taking the  restoration  of  the  Pretender. 
Before  his  departure  he  was  killed  in  a  duel 
with.  Lord  Mojbtun,  in  which  there  was  every 
appeaiance  of  foul  play.  His  death  was 
regarded  by  the  Tories  as  a  political  murder. 

Kamiltoil,  Pathicx  {b.  1503,  d.  1528), 
the  "  proto-martj'r  of  Scotland,"  had  held 
one  of  the  lay  benefices  of  the  Church,  being 
Abbot  of  Fern,  in  Boss-shire.  He  is  said  to 
have  studied  theology  in  Germany,  under 
Luther  and  Melanchthon.  In  1528  he  was 
accused  of  heresy,  for  which  offence  he  suffered 
death  before  the  old  college  of  St.  Andrews. 

Samilton,  Richard,  was  descended  from 
a  noble  Scotch  family  long  settled  in  Ireland. 
Though  a  Catholic  by  religion  he  had  a  seat 
in  the  Irish  Privy  CouncU,  and  commanded 
the  Irish  troops  sent  over  to  England  in  1688. 
After  James  II.'s  flight  he  submitted  to 
William,  ana  was  sent  over  to  Ireland  by  the 
new  king  as  his  envoy,  having  first  pledged 
himself  to  return  in  three  weeks.  Finding, 
however,  that  Tyrconnel  was  determined  on 
resistance,  he  broke  his  parole,  marched  into 
Ulster  at  the  head  of  an  Irish  force,  and 
roated  the  Protestanto  at  Strabane,  April  16, 
1689.  For  some  time  he  was  in  command  of 
the  besiegers  of  Londonderry,  and  at  the 
battle  of  the  Boyne  led  the  cavalry  in  their 
gallant  efforts  to  retrieve  the  day.  In  their 
last  stand  he  was  severely  wounded  and 
captured.  William  did  not  revenge  himself 
on  him  for  his  treachery,  and  he  was  ex- 
<!hanged  for  Mountjoy  in  1692,  and  died  in 
the  service  of  Louis  XIV. 

Kamilton,  Bow  an,  was  a  gentleman  of 
fortune  who  became  a  United  Irishman.  In 
the  year  1794  he  was  apprehended,  sentenced 
to  pay  a  fine  of  £500,  and  imprisoned.  Jack- 
son, a  French  spy,  corresponded  with  him. 
Rowan  Hamilton,  however,  made  his  escape 
from  Newgate  as  soon  as  he  heard  of  Jack- 
ton's  apprehension,  and  fled  to  America.  He 
was  in  his  absence  sentenced  to  death,  but  his 
estates  were  saved;  and  in  1805  Castlereagh 
got  him  a  pardon,  and  he  then  lived  quietly  in 
Ireland  till  his  death. 

Hamiltoiif  Williaic  Gsrard  {b,  1729, 
d,  1796),  was  elected  member  for  Petersfield 
in  1754.  It  was  in  the  next  year  that  he 
delivered  the  famous  speech  which  won  for 
him  the  title  of  **  Single-speech  Hamilton " 


(Nov.  13).  After  this  occasion  he  never 
addressed  the  House  of  Commons  again, 
fearing,  so  it  was  currently  reported,  to  lose 
the  reputation  he  had  acquired  by  his  great 
effort.  In  1761  he  was  appointed  secretary 
to  Lord  Halifax,  and  was  for  twenty  years 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer '  in  Ireland. 
Gerard  Hamilton  was  one  of  the  numerous 
reputed  authors  of  JuniuSf  and  Fox  is  credited 
with  having  once  said,  in  reference  to  this 
question,  that  he  would  back  him  against  any 
single  horse,  though  not  againbt  the  whole 
field.  Hamilton  retired  into  private  life  in  1 784. 

Hammond,  Robert,  Colonel,  took  part 
in  the  siege  of  Bristol  in  1645,  and  was 
Governor  of  the  Isle  of  Wight  in  1647.  When 
Charles  L ,  in  this  year,  escaped  from  Hampton 
Court,  negotiations  were  opened  on  his  behalf 
with  Hammond,  who,  it  was  hoped,  would 
espouse  his  cause,  as  he  had  often  expressed 
dissatisfaction  with  the  violence  of  the  sol- 
diers. But  Hammond  was  a  trusted  friend  of 
Cromwell,  and,  having  married  a  daughter 
of  John  Hampden,  was  attached  to  the 
Parliamentary  cause.  Accordingly,  he  could 
only  be  induced  to  promise  that  he  would  treat 
the  king  as  might  oe  expected  from,a  man  of 
honour,  and  confined  him  in  Carisbrooke 
Castle,  though,  with  much  show  of  respect. 
While  negotiations  were  being  carried  on 
during  the  next  few  months,  Hammond  fre- 
quently requested  to  be  discharged  from  the 
charge  of  the  king's  person,  and  in  con- 
sequence  was  looked  upon  with  more  or  less 
suspicion  by  the  officers  of  the  army,  till  the 
king  was  removed  to  Hurst  Castle,  where- 
upon Colonel  Hammond  was  discharged  fi-om 
his  government,  Nov.,  1648. 

Hampdeiif  John  {b,  1594,  d,  1643),  was 
the  son  of  John  Hampden,  of  Great  Hampden, 
Bucks,  and  Elizabeth  Cromwell,  aunt  of  Oliver 
Cromwell.  He  was  bom  in  London,  educated 
at  Thame  School,  and  at  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford,  and  entered  the  Inner  Temple  in 
1613.  In  the  Parliament  of  1620  he  repi«- 
sented  Grampoimd ;  in  1626,  Wendover ;  in 
1640,  Buckinghamshire.  In  1627  he  was  im- 
prisoned for  refusing  to  pay  the  forced  loan. 
When  the  second  writ  of  ship-money  was 
issued,  by  which  that  tex  was  extended  to  the 
inland  counties,  he  refused  to  pay  it.  The 
case  was  tried  in  respect  of  twenty  shillings 
due  from  lands  in  the  parish  of  Stoke  Mande- 
ville,  and  out  of  the  twelve  judges  seven 
decided  for  the  crown,  two  for  Hampden  on 
technical  grounds,  and  three  for  him  on  all 
counts,  1638.  This  trial  made  Hampden  "  the 
argument  of  all  tongues,  every  man  enquiring 
who  and  what  he  was  that  he  durst  of  lus  own 
charge  support  the  liberty  and  property  of  the 
kingdom,  and  rescue  his  country  from  being 
made  a  prey  to  the  court."  Wien  a  Parlia- 
ment was  again  summoned  *'  the  eyea  of  all 
men  were  fixed  upon  him  as  the  pilot  which 
must  steer  the  vessel  through  the  tempest  and 


(  530  ) 


rocks  which  threatened  it."  In  the  Long 
Parliament  he  played  an  important  part, 
generally  moderating  by  his  influence  the 
pressure  of  the  popular  party.  Thus  he 
urged  the  Commons  to  proceed  against 
Strafford  by  impeachment  rather  than  by  bill 
of  attainder,  and  attempted  to  arrange  a  com- 
promise on  the  Church  question.  The  king's 
attempt  to  arrest  the  Five  Members  obliged 
him  to  alter  his  X)oUcy  and  urge  stronger 
measures.  He  was  appointed  a  member  of 
the  Committee  of  Safety,  and  raised  a  regi* 
ment  whose  flag  bore  the  significant  motto, 
"  Vestigia  nulla  retrorsum."  He  distinguished 
himself  by  his  activity  in  the  first  weeks  of 
the  war,  seizing  the  king's  Commissioners  of 
Array,  occupying  Oxford,  and  .defeating  the 
Cavaliers  in  many  small  skinnishes.  He  ar- 
rived too  late  to  fight  at  Edgehill,  but  both 
after  that  battle,  and  after  the  battle  of  Brent- 
ford, urged  vigorous  measures  on  Essex,  and 
in  the  Committee  of  Safety  argued  for  a 
march  direct  on  Oxford.  Aiter  the  capture 
of  Heading  in  1643,  he  again  counselled  in 
vsSn  a  direct  attack  on  the  king's  head- 
quarters. On  June  18,  1643,  at  Chalgrove 
Field,  in  endeavouring  to  prevent  the  retreat 
of  a  body  of  cavaby  which  had  made  a 
sally  from  Oxford,  he  was  mortally  wounded 
and  died  six  days  later.  Clarendon  de- 
scribes him  as  "a  very  wise  man  and  of 
Ct  parts,  possessed  with  the  most  absolute 
Ities  to  govern  the  people  of  any  man  I 
ever  knew."  His  influence  depended  not  on 
his  ability  as  a  speaker,  or  skill  as  a  soldier, 
but  on  his  energy  and  character.  "  He  was 
▼ery  temperate  in  diet,  and  a  supreme 
governor  over  all  his  passions  and  affections, 
and  had  thereby  a  great  power  over  all  other 
men's.  He  was  of  an  industry  and  vigilance 
not  to  be  tired  out  or  wearied  by  the  most 
laborious,  and  of  parts  not  to  be  imposed  upon 
by  the  most  subtle  or  sharp,  and  of  a  personal 
courage  equal  to  his  parts." 

Clarendon,  Hitt,  of  the  BtheUwn ;  Nnoent, 
Jfenumal*  of  Harnvden:  Foster,  British  StcdM- 
mm;  Oardmer,  Hutt.  ofEng.,  1603—1642. 

[C.  H.  F.] 

Xampdan,  John  (d.  1696),  grandson  of 
the  famous  John  Hampden,  disting^shed 
himself  by  his  opposition  to  the  succession 
of  the  Duke  of  York,  on  the  ground  of  his 
religion.  Later,  he  was  implicated  in  the 
E^e  House  Plot,  and.  was  arrested,  together 
with  Essex,  Russell,  and  others  (1683).  On 
this  occasion,  though  his  life  was  spared,  he 
was  condenmed  to  pay  an  enormous  fine 
(£40,000).  After  the  Hevolution,  he  was 
chairman  of  a  committee  appointed  to  pre- 
pare an  address  to  William  III.  inveighing 
against  the  conduct  of  Louis  XIV.  The 
same  year  (1689)  he  is  found  attacking  Lord 
Halifax,  not  only  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
but  before  the  Lords.  In  1690  he  failed  to 
obtain  a  seat  in  the  Tory  Parliament  elected 
that  year.      Disappointed  in  his  ambition, 


and  perhaps  ashamed  of  the  reproaches  his 
own  conduct  brought  upon  him,  he  committed 
suicide  a  few  years  later. 

Hampden.  Dr.,TheCasb  of  (1847).  Not- 
withstanding tne  fact  that  his  doctrines  were 
in  many  quarters  considered  to  be  highly  un- 
orthodox, especially  by  the  Tractarian  party, 
Dr.  R.  Hamj^en,  Fellow  of  Oriel  and  Principal 
of  St.  Mary's  Hall,  had  been  appointed  in  1836 
Begins  Professor  of  Divinity  in  the  University 
of  Oxford  by  Lord  Melbourne.  This  ap- 
pointment was  censured  by  the  convocation 
of  the  imiversity,  and,  in  consequence,  the 
university  authorities  deprived  him  of  the 
privilege  of  granting  certificates  to  the 
candidates  for  holy  orders  who  attended 
his  lectures.  In  spite  of  this,  in  1847 
Lord  John  Kussell  advised  the  crown  to 
^point  him  to  the  vacant  see  of  Hereford, 
^is  produced  a  great  outcry,  and  a  strong 
protest  from  many  of  the  High  Church  clergy. 
The  forms  of  election  were,  however,  gone 
through,  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the 
Dean  of  Hereiord.  The  election  was  formally^ 
confirmed  in  the  Court  of  Arches,  and  an  ap- 
peal was  made  in  vain  to  the  Court  of  Queen'a 
Bench.,    Bishop  Hampden  died  in  1868. 

Sampton  Court  ^as  a  palace  built 
by  Cardinal  Wolsey.  From  Wolsey's  ]pOB- 
session  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  king, 
and  has  continued  to  be  the  property  of  tho 
crown  ever  since.  Henry  VIII.  greatly 
enlarged  it,  and  formed  around  it  a  royal 
park.  Having  been,  for  some  time  at  least, 
a  favourite  residence  of  the  Kings  of  England^ 
Hampton  Court  has  naturally  been  the  scene 
of  several  interesting  events  in  the  history  of 
our  royal  family,  'file  birth  of  Edward  VI.^ 
the  death  of  his  mother,  Jane  Seymour,  and 
the  famous  conference  of  James  I.'s  reign 
between  the  High  Church  party  and  tho 
Puritans,  all  tocnc  place  there.  Charles  I. 
was  imprisoned  there  for  a  time  during  the 
Commonwealth,  and  the  palace  was  the 
occasional  residence  of  Protector  Cromwell, 
and,  in  later  years,  of  dSharles  II.  and  James 
II.  By  William  III.  the  palace  was  to  a 
great  extent  rebuilt,  and  its  park  and  gardena 
Slid  out  in  the  formal  Dutch  style. 

Hampton  Court  Conference  (1604). 

On  the  accession  of  James  I.  there  was  a 
general  feeling  that  some  concessions  might 
be  made  both  to  the  extreme  High  Church 
and  the  extreme  Presbyterian  sections  of  the 
nation.  The  leading  Puritans  were  ready  to 
soften  down  their  demands,  and  a  great  part 
of  the  laity — Bacon  amongst  the  number — 
were,  at  all  events,  not  opposed  to  a  com- 
promise. On  his  progress  to  London,  Jamea 
had  received  the  **  Millenary  Petition  "  from 
the  clergy,  and  in  the  January  of  1604  gave 
orders  for  a  conference  to  be  held  between  re* 
presentatives  of  the  Established  Church  and 
the  Puritans.  The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
eight  bishops,  and  other  Church  dignitaries. 


(  681  ) 


were  the  champions  on  the  one  side;  four 
moderate-  Puritans  on  the  other.  But  the 
nomination  of  the  last  party  was  a  mere 
farce.  They  were  not  admitted  to  the  discus* 
sions  between  the  king  and  the  bishops^  which 
were  carried  on  in  the  presence  of  the 
Lords  of  the  Council.  In  this  manner,  the 
extent  of  the  concessions  that  would  be  granted 
was  arranged  before  the  complainants*  case 
was  heard ;  and  when,  on  the  second  day,  the 
Puritan  spokesman,  Beynolds,  proposed  some 
alterations  in  the  articles,  and  proposed  to 
introduce  the  Lambeth  Articles,  and  to 
inquire  into  the  authority  for  coxifirmation. 
Bishop  Bancroft  interrupted  him,  and  kneel- 
ing down  before  the  king,  begged  him  not  to 
lii&n  to  a  '*  schismatic  speaking  against  his 
bishops.'*  Then  the  conference  proceeded  to 
discuss  questions  of  doctrine,  and  Jamea 
accepted  Reynolds's  proposal  for  a  new  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible.  The  debate  next  pa^iied 
on  to  the  comparatiTe  value  of  a  learned  and 
unlearned  ministry,  of  prayers,  and  of  preach- 
ing; but  each  part^  wished  in  the  first  place 
to  make  its  own  views  and  customs  binding 
on  the  other ;  the  true  spirit  of  compromise 
was  absent.  At  last  the  subject  of  '' pro- 
phesy ings"  (q.  V.)  came  forward,  a  religious  ex- 
ercise of  which  many  moderate  men  like  Bacon 
did  not  disapprove ;  but,  unluckily,  Reynolds 
proposed  that  disputes  during  the  prophesy- 
ings  should  be  settled  by  the  bishop  and  his 
presbytery.  James  took  offence  at  the  word, 
which  reminded  him  of  all  that  he  had  en- 
dured in  Scotland.  From  this  moment  the 
question  was  settled,  and  on  the  third  day's 
conference  the  king  and  the  bishops  agreed 
to  a  few  trifling  alterations  in  the  Prayer- 
book  and  to  the  appointment  of  commissions 
with  a  view  to  inquire  into  the  best  means 
for  obtaining  a  preaching  clergy.  It  was 
then  announced  to  the  Puritans  that  they 
would  have  to  subscribe  to  the  whole  Prayer- 
book,  the  Articles,  and  the  King's  Supremacy. 
And  so  the  Hampton  Court  Conference  ended, 
without  any  reasonable  concessions  hiving 
been  made  to  the  Puritan  party. 

Cardwell,  Conferonoet ;  8.  B.  Gsrdisar,  Hut. 

of  Sng.,  leca—ms. 

Hanorer,  The  House  of,  to  which 
Her  Majesty  Queen  Victoria  belongs,  is 
lineally  descended  from  the  famous  Guelfs, 
or  Wel&,  of  Bavaria,  who, '  in  the  twelfth 
century,  struggled  for  the  Empire  against  the 
Hohenstaufen,  and  gave  their  name  to  the 
Papal  faction  of  medisBval  Italy.  Henry  the 
Proud  became  Duke  of  Saxony  as  well  as 
Duke  of  Bavaria,  and  in  1180,  on  the  fall  of 
his  son  Henrv  the  Lion,  the  allodial  lands  of 
the  Guelfic  house  in  the  former  duchy  were 
saved  from  the  forfeiture  which  befell  their 
greater  possessions.  After  the  last  struggle 
of  Otto  IV.,  aided  by  his  uncles  Richard  and 
John  of  England,  the  Gnelfs  acquiesced 
in    their   new   position,  and   in    1235    the 


districts  of  Brunswick  and  Liineburg  were 
erected  into  a  duchy  in  their  favour  by 
Frederick  II.  After  various  partitions  and 
reunions  the  whole  of  the  duchy  of  Bruns- 
wick fell,  in  1527,  into  the  hancLs  of  Duke 
Ernest,  a  zealous  adherent  of  Luther.  His 
two  sons  effected  a  partition  of  the  duchy, 
which  has  continued  until  the  present  day. 
The  elder  aon  of  Ernest  became  the  Duke  of 
Brunswick-Wolfenbiittel.  The  present  Duke 
of  Brunswick  is  his  descendant.  William, 
the  younger  son  of  Ernest,  became  Duke  of 
Brunswick-Liineburg,  and  is  the  ancestor  of 
the  house  of  Hanover.  A  farther  division  of 
Liineburg  was  made  in  favour  of  George,  t!he 
only  one  of  William's  seven  sons  who  was 
allowed  to  marr}'.  He  was  made  Duke  of 
Ci^l^nberg,  with  the  town  of  Hanover  for  his 
cajj^^l,  CeJle  being  the  chief  town  of  Liine- 
burg. After  various  shiftings,  his  second  son, 
GeQTge  William,  became  Duke  of  Liineburg 
ori  iSeUfi ;  and  his  fourth  son,  Ernest  Au- 
gustus, Duke  of  Calenberg  or  Hanover  (1679). 
The  latter  was  an  able  and  ambitious  prince. 
He  introduced  primogeniture,  and  married 
Sophia,  the  daughter  of  Frederick,  the  Elec- 
tor Palatine,  and  Elizabeth,  daughter  of 
James  I.  of  England.  In  1692  his  constant 
adherence  to  the  cause  of  the  Emperor  was 
rewarded  by  the  creation  of  a  ninth  electo- 
rate in  his  favour,  on  conditions  which  en- 
sured his  hearty  support  to  the  league  against 
Louis  XIV.  This  electorate  was  properly 
called  the  electorate  of  Brunswick  (jSTtir- 
braunaeh%ceig)y  but  as  the  Dukes  of  Wolf  en- 
biittel  had  e^>ecially  appropriated  the  title  of 
Dukes  of  Brunswick  with  their  claims  over 
that  once  free  town,  the  new  Electors  were 
often  called  Electors  of  Hanover,  which  name, 
hitherto  strictly  confined  to  the  town,  was 
henceforth  used  as  the  name  of  the  distnct  as 
weU.  The  Act  of  Settlement  (1701)  made 
the  Electress  Sophia  heiress  to  the  English 
throne.  Ernest  had  already  died  in  1698, 
and  their  son  George  Louis,  by  marrying 
Sophia  Dorothea  of  CeUe,  the  daughter  and 
heiress  of  George  William  of  Liineburg,  suc- 
ceeded on  the  latter's  death,  in  1705,  to  his 
dominions.  Calenberg  and  Liineburg  were 
thus  reunited,  and  the  new  Elector  put  in 
possession  of  dominions  more  adequate  to  sus- 
tain his  dignity.  In  1714  he  became  King  of 
England.  From  that  date  to  1837  the  elec- 
torate of  Hanover  and  the  English  monarchy 
were  united.  In  1815  it  was  erected  into  a 
kingdom  with  large  accessions  of  territory. 
But  in  1837  the  accession  of  Queen  Vic- 
toria made  the  Duke  of  Cumberland  King  of 
Hanover,  as  males  only  were  allowed  to 
occupy  that  throne.  Thirty  years  of  arbitrary 
government  and  of  \'iolated  constitutions,  led 
to  the  absorption  of  Hanover  into  the  Prussian 
state  after  tiie  war  of  1866. 

The  house  of  Hanover  has  continued  to 
reign  in  England  since  George  Louis  became 
George  I.  in  1714. 


(  532  ) 


Speaking  yery  roughly,  we  may  divide  the 
Hanoverian  period  of  English  history  into 
three  sections.     From  1714  to  1761  the  Whig 
oligarchy  governed  the  country.    After  a  few- 
years  of  transition,  a  long  period  of  Tory 
rule,  1770—1830,  culminates  in  the  reaction 
against  the  Frezich  Revolution.     With  1830 
begins  the  period  of  Reform,  in  which  we 
are  still  engaged.    (Jeorge  I.   (17U — 1727) 
ascended  the  throne  as  the  pledged  supporter 
of  the  Whig  party,  to   whose   triumph  he 
owed  the  throne,  and  by  whose  principles 
alone  he  could  claim  it.     Ignorant   of  the 
English  language,  government,  and  consti- 
tution, he  suffered  without  much  difficulty 
the  authority  of  the  crown  to  pass  into  the 
hands  of  the  ministry  which  had  the  confi- 
dence of  Parliament,  and  was  content  if  his 
demands  for  money  were  satisfied,  and  if  the 
foreign  policy  of  England  was  framed  with 
special  regard  to  the  interest  of  his  electorate. 
Under  him,  as  under  his  son,  George  II. 
(1727—1760),  England,  in  the  unmeasured 
language  of  Opposition  orators,  "became  a 
province  of  a  despicable  electorate.*^    But  it 
may  be  doubted  whether  the  policy  of  Eng- 
land and  the  policy  of  Hanover  did  not  gene- 
rally coincide,  except  perhaps  so  far  as  the 
jealousy  of  a  petty  Gferman  prince  at  the 
rise  of  Prussia  for  a  time  brought   Eng- 
lish influence  rather   to   bear   against  the 
development  of  the  g^reat  state  which  was 
ultimately  to  bring  unity  to  Germany.     But 
despite  the  personal  hostility  of  George  It. 
and  Frederick  the  Great,  the  crisis  of  the 
Seven  Years'   War  forced  them  into  an  al- 
liance which  saved  Prussia  and  covered  Eng- 
land with  glory.    George  II.  had  been  con- 
tent to  govern  on  the  lines  of  bis  father ;  but 
his  son  Frederick,  Prince  of  Wales,  became 
the  centre  of  a  new  Toryism  that  had  its 
highest  expression  in  Bolingbroke's  IiUa  of  a 
Patriot  King.  Geoige  III.,  the  son  of  Frederick 
(1760 — 1820),  began  a  new  epoch  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  house  of  Hanover,"  by  carrying 
into  practice  Bolingbroke's  theories,  and  by 
endeavouring  to  secure  for  the  king  person- 
ally the  exercise  of  those  prerogatives  which 
the  practice  of  George  I.  and  George  II.  had 
handed    over    to  his  ministers.      His    first 
triumph  under  Lord  North  was  for  a  time 
ended  by  the  Coalition,  but  under  Pitt  his 
ideas  finally  gained  the  victory,  and  the  new 
Toryism  of  the  reaction  from  the  French 
Revolution   found  in  him  a  centre  for  its 
loyalty.    Proud  of  his  "  British  "  nationality, 
and  more  intent  on  home  than  foreign  poli- 
tics, the  dependence  of   English  policy  on 
Hanoverian  interests  nearly  ceased,  and  the  long 
occupation  of  that  country  by  Napoleon  (1803 — 
1814),  almost  cut  the  connection  between  the 
kingdom  and  the  electorate.     George  IV., 
who,  first  as  Regent  (1810—1820),  and  then 
>is  king  (1820 — 1830),  was  his  successor,  was 
too  feeble  and   self-indulgent,  too  destitute 
of  fixed  principle  and  courage  to  maintain 


his  fiather's  position.  He  managed  to  stave 
off  reform  in  England  and  Hanover;  but 
his  brother,  WUliam  IV.  (1830—1837),  whUe 
accepting  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832  in  Eng- 
land, gave  a  Constitution  to  Hanover  in  1833. 
In  1837  Queen  Victoria  ascended  the  throne, 
and  her  constitutional  rule,  and  the  prac- 
tical wisdom  of  her  husband,  enabled  the 
transition  back  from  the  practice  of  Gtoorge 
III.  to  the  practice  of  George  I.  to  be 
made  without  friction  or  difficulty.  It  is 
hard  to  formulate  any  general  character* 
istics  of  the  rule  of  the  house  of  Hanover  in 
England.  Underthemtheconstitutionhasbeen 
preserved,  and  Uie  material  aspects  of  the 
country  revolutionised.  Without  any  of  the 
more  heroic  virtues,  and  without  any  lofty 
ability,  their  good  sense  and  power  to  see 
things  as  they  are  have  made  them  well 
adapted  to  occupy  the  difficult  position  into 
which  they  have  been  elevated. 

The  best  genexsl  histories  of  England  during 
the  Hanoverian  neriod  are  Lord  Stanhope's 
Ritiorv  of  JBnylomC  172S^178S  ;  XMaaej'a  fltitory 
of  the  KetgnqfQeorne  III, ;  Min  Martineaa'a  His- 
tory of  th0  Tatrty  Y§art^  Peaoe ;  Charles  Knight'e 
PopvXar  History  t^  Bngltind;  Spenoer  Walpole's 
Hi$toru  of  England  «inoe  1816 ;  Molesworth  'a  Hu* 
iory  of  England  for  the  same  period ;  and  Dr. 
Fault's  Qachiehte  Englands  MtC  1814.  The  conati. 
tational  historr  of  the  reign  of  Qeorge  I.  and  IL 
is  given  in  Hallam,  and  that  of  the  anboeqnent 
period  in  Sir  Erskine  May's  CoYutttutumof  Hu- 
tory,  1790—1870;  while  Bagehot's  Engiiah  Contti- 
tuCton  givee  us  the  modem  theory  of  the  <Jon« 
stitntion.  The  Hwtory  of  Owr  Oum  Timn  is 
Dleaaontly  but  saperftcially  told  by  Mr.  Justin 
McCarthy.  Mr.  Lecky'sHwtoryo/JSii^Iaiid  during 
th9  Bighiomth  Cmtwry  is  practically  a  series 
of  Inminons  essays  on  important  points  of 
eighteenth  century  history,  and  is  putioiilarly 
valuable  for  Irish  affairs.  The  history  of  the 
bouse  of  Hanover  in  Qennan^  may  be  found  in 
Hune's  QMchioht§  dca  K&nigro%elu  Hannover  nnd 
Herzoaikuma  Braunackweig,  or  in  Schanmann, 
Handhuch  der  Qeechichte  der  Land*  Hannover  and 
Bratmachuseio.  fT    F    T  1 

Haaover.  ThbTrbatt  op  (Sept.  3,  1725), 
between  England,  France,  and  Prussia,  was 
rendered  necessary  by  the  Treaty  of  Vienna 
(April  20,  1726)  between  Spain  and  Austria. 
By   the  secret  article  of  the   treaty,  mar- 
riages between  the  two  houses  were  arranged; 
Austria    and  Spain  pledged    themselves    to 
assist  the  restoration  of  the  Stuarts,  and  to 
compel,  if  necessary  by  force,  the  restoration 
of  Gibraltar  and    H^finorca.      The    Jacobite^ 
leaders  were  in  direct  communication  with 
Ripperda.      In    opposition    to  this  alliance, 
Walpole  and   Townshend  obtained  the  ac- 
cession of   Franco  and   Prussia    to   a   con- 
federacy of  which  England  was  the  centre. 
In  case  of  any  attack  on  one  of  the  con- 
tracting parties,  the  others  were  to  furnish 
a  certain  quota  in  troops,  or  the  value  in 
ships    and    money ;    and,    in  case  of  need, 
should  agree  concerning    further    succours. 
The    real    objects    of   tiie    treaty    were   to 
counterbalance  the  Treaty  of  Vienna,  com- 
pel the  Emperor  to  relinquish  the  Ostend 
Company  (which  Austria  had  established  for 


(  533  } 


trade  with  the  Indies  in  violation  of  the 
Barrier  Treaty),  and  to  resist  any  attempts 
that  might  be  made  in  behalf  of  the  Pre- 
tender. Its  objects  were  suocesaful.  The 
Emperor  withdrew  from  his  unfortunate 
position,  and  peace  was  signed  at  Paris  in 
May,  1727.  The  Treaty  of  Hanover  was 
violently  attacked  by  the  Opposition  during 
Walpole's  administranon.  Its  true  j  ustification 
lies  in  the  terms  of  the  Secret  Treaty  of  Vienna. 

Lord  Stuihope,  Hiti,  of  England ;  Leoky,  Hut. 
<^  Ungiand  during  t)u  SighU^nih  Cintury* 


I,  LuKB  (*.  1762,  d.  1828),  was 

at  first  a  compositor  in  the  oflice  of  Mr. 
Hughes,  printer  to  the  House  of  Commons. 
After  two  years  he  became  a  partner  in  the 
firm,  and  in  1800  the  business  came  entirely 
into  his  hands.  He  managed  the  issue  of  the 
report  of  Parliamentary  proceedings  which, 
down  to  the  year  1803,  is  Imown  as 
Cobbett*8  I^arliafnentary  History;  and  after 
that  date  was  continued  under  the  title  of 
Parliamentary  Debates  by  Hansard.  The 
oflicial  report  of  the  proceedings  of  both 
Houses  of  Parliament  is  now  pubbshed  under 
the  title  of  ''The  Parliamentary  Debatesi'' 
[Stockdale.] 

SaauMatio    League    (Hamsa),  Thb, 

was  a  powerful  commercial  league  very 
closely  bound  up  with  English  foreign  trade. 
The  Teutonic  hanea  (it  first  appears  in 
the  Gothic  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment), signifies  a  company  of  men  both  in  a 
military  and  non-minta^  sense.  So  it  is 
used  (Luke  vi.  7)  for  a  great  company  of 
people,  and  St.  Mark  (xv.  16)  for  a  band  of 
soloiers;  hence  comes  its  more  general 
meaning  of  any  kind  of  union  or  assemblage. 
In  the  earliest  days  of  the  Middle  Ages,  all 
foreign  merchants  stood  outside  the  law  of 
the  country  in  which  they  were  settled  for 
trading  purposes;  being  neither  sharers  in 
the  rights,  nor  subject  to  the  duties  of  the 
nation  in  whose  midst  they  had  planted 
themselves.  The  Hanseatic  League  of  his- 
torical times  was  only  a  development  of  the 
principle  of  association  which  bound  foreign 
traders  in  a  strange  country  into  a  community 
for  the  common  protection.  In  the  first 
stage  of  its  g^wth  (as  a  league  of  merchants 
abroad),  the  Sanaa  may  be  said  to  have  grown 
up  chiefly  in  London ;  for  none  of  the  three 
other  great  centres  of  Teutonic  foreign 
trade  —  Wisby,  Novgorod,  and  Bruges  — 
was  of  so  early  a  date,  or  at  the  same  time 
composed  so  purely  of  foreign  merchants  in 
an  alien  country.  Even  in  l£e  days  of  Edgar 
(969 — 976)  there  appears  to  have  been  a  large 
settlement  of  Grerman  traders  in  London; 
and  this  settlement  was  early  possessed  of  its 
own  Guildhall  or  Hans'hue,  and  a  body  of 
officers  controlling  the  members  and  posses- 
sions of  the  society.  But  it  seems  that 
the  foreign  merchants  in  London  were 
mostly  townsmen  of  Ck>logne ;  and  it  soon 


became    the    rule    for  all    other    Germans 
desirous  of  a^Aring    in    the    KngliaTi    trade 
to  join  the  hatua  of  the  men  of  this  city. 
By  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century  special 
privileges  had  been  conferred  upon  the  Guild- 
hall of  the  Germans  in  London;    for  thia 
society  was  gradutdly  coming  to  embrace  all 
the  German  merchants  settled  there  (c.  1282), 
and  this  **Hansa    Alemanniie'*  included  the 
smaller  Hansaa  of  separate  German  towns  as 
branch  houses  of  itself.    Under  the  name  of 
the  Steelyard,  it  soon  came  to  play  a  most 
important  part  in  the  foreign  trade  of  this 
countr}*.     The  London  Hansa  acquired  the 
power  of  judging  its  own  members,  and  even 
of  settling  some  disputes  between  them  and 
Englishmen.    In  1282,  in  consideration  of  its 
munificent  contribution  towards  building  the 
new  Bishops-gate,  the  Hansa  was  allowed  to 
choose  its  own  alderman — to  represent  it  in 
the  city  councils,  and  to  be  the  special  pro- 
tector of  its  members ;  but  it  was,  at  the  same 
time,  bound  to  make  choice  of  a  London 
merchant.     London,  however,   w:as  not  the 
sole  seat  of  this  foreign  colony,  which  had 
subordinate  establishments  at  other  places, 
such  as  Lynn  and  Boston.    The  special  privi- 
leges accorded  to  these  stranger  tradesmen 
did  not  fail  to  awaken  English  jealousy  in  the 
course  of  the  fourteenth  century — the  century 
on  which  the  real  Hanseatic  League  of  his- 
tory may  be  said  to  have  assumed  its  true 
importance  by  becoming  a  league  of  German 
cities  at  home ;  and  from  this  time  its  politi- 
cal history  ceases  to  be  in  any  peculiar  way 
connected  with  England.    But  its  commercial 
importance    continued    for    a    long    period. 
Down  to  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century 
it  was  mainly  through  the  bauds  of  the  Han- 
seatic League  that  the    produce    of    North 
Europe  and  Bussia  reached  our  shores;  and 
it  was  this  league  that  brought  the  furs  and 
sables  of  Muscovy  for  the  wealthy  English, 
and  exported  the  herrings  which  abounded  on 
our  eastern  shores.    But  the  monopoly   of 
trade  enjoyed  by  this  lea^e  in  time  awakened 
the  jealousy  of  the  Enghsh  merchants,  and  in 
the  reign  of  Richard  II.,  an  Act  was  passed 
prohibiting  aliens  selling  to  other  aliens,  or 
even  selling  by  retail  at  all  (1392) ;  and  when 
the  charier  of  the  London  Hansa  had  been 
renewed    some    fourteen    years    earlier,    its 
members  were  enjoined  to  *'  aid,  council,  and 
comfort "  Englishmen  abroad.    The  exclusive 
privileges  of  the    league    in  England  were 
practi(»lly  extingpushed  in  1679. 

£.  Worms,  Rietairt  Commercial  cU  la  lAgue 
flonwatique  ;  D.  Macpherion,  ^nnol*  of  Eng\i*\ 
Commerce;  J.  T.  Bogers,  Hictory  qf  jlgricuttitre, 
yols.  i.  and  iiL  ;  W.  Onnninghain,  Htefory  o/ 
Jftyliifc  Inditetry  and  Commerce.      [T.  A.  A.] 

Kans-lLll8,  The,  was  the  name  given  to 
the  Guildhall  where  the  merchants  and 
burghers  of  early  English  towns  met  to 
treat  of  their  by-faws  and  trade  regulations. 
So  in  Archbishop  Thurstan's  (1114)  charter 


(  634  ) 


to  Beverley  he  writes:  "  I  will  that  my  bur- 
gesses of  Beverley  shall  have  their  Hans^hus; 
whidi  I  will,  andf  grant  to  them  in  order  that 
their  common  business  may  be  done  .  .  .  for 
the  amendment  of  the  whole  town  with  the 
same  freedom  that  the  men  of  York  have  in 
their  Hans-hus.**  Another  use  to  which  the 
Hans-hus  was  put,  was  as  a  recognised  centre 
where  purchases  and  sales  might  be  conducted 
in  the  presence  of  lawful  witnesses.  The 
Hansa  at  London  dates  at  least  from  the  time 
of  Ethelred  the  Unready. 

Harconrt.  Simon,  Lord  {b,  1660,  d.  1727)i 

was  called  to  the  bar  in  1 683.    He  was  elected 

member  for  Abingdon,  in  the  first  Parliament 

of  William  III.     He  was  a  strong  opponent  of 

the    Revolution    Settlement ;    ana    of    the 

attainder  of  Sir  John  Fenwick;  and  in  1701 

conducted  the  impeachment  of  Lord  Somers 

for  his  share  in  the  Partition  Treaty.     Next 

year  he  became  8olicitor-Gtoeral  and  Attor- 

noy-Qeneral,  and  in  this  capacity  conducted 

the  prosecution  of  Daniel  Defoe  (1703) ;  but 

his  legal  abilities  were  better  emplo3'ed  in 

framing  the  bill  for  the  Scotch  Union.    He 

followed  I^rley  out  of  office  in  1708 ;  and 

his  able  defence  of  Sachevercll,  two  years 

later,  resulted  in  the  acquittal  of  that  divine. 

When  the  Tories  came  into  power  in  1710,  he 

was  appointed  Lord  Keeper  of  the  Privy  Seal. 

In  the  quarrel  between  Oxford  and  Boling- 

broke,  he  sided  with  the  latter  statesman.  On 

the  accession  of  George  I.,  Lord  Harcourt  was 

deprived  of  office.    In  1715  he  defeated  the 

impeachment  of  Oxford.    [Harley.]  In  1721 

he  became  a  convert  to  Whig  prinaples,  and 

was  sworn  of  the  Privy  Council. 

Campbell.  LivM  of  the  Chancsllon;  Wyon, 
Reign  of  Queen  Anne. 

Sarooiirt,  Sir  William  Vernon  (6. 
1827),  graduated  in  high  honours  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1851,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1854,  being  appointed  a  Queen's  Counsel  in 
1866.  In  1868  he  was  returned  to  Parliament 
as  member  for  the  city  of  Oxford  in  the 
Liberal  interest.  He  became  Solicitor-Gene- 
ral and  was  knighted  in  1873.  On  the  return 
of  the  Liberals  to  power  in  1880,  he  was  made 
Home  Secretary.  In  1886  he  was  appointed 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  and  again  in 
1892,  and  in  1894  he  succeeded  Mr.  Gladstone 
as  Leader  of  the  House  of  Commons.  In 
the  same  year  he  effected  an  important 
revision  of  the  Death  Duties  and  of  the  Income 
Tax. 

Hardioaaute,  or  Karthaonut,  Kino 

(t.  March,  1040,  d.  June,  1042),  was  the  son  of 
Canute  by  Emma.  On  the  death  of  his  father 
in  1035  he  got  possession  of  Denmark  and  laid 
claim  to  England.  He  was  supported  by  God- 
win and  the  West  Saxons,  and  eventually 
made  a  treatv  with  his  brother  Harold, 
whereby  he  should  reign  in  the  south  and 
Harold  ift  the  north,  but  in  1037  Harold 
was  chosen  king  over  all,  and  Hardicanute 


forsaken  becs'jse  he  stayed  too  long  in  Den- 
mark. At  the  same  time  Emma  was  driven 
out  and  fled  to  Bruges.  Here  Hardicanute 
joined  her  and  was  preparing  to  assert  his 
claims,  when  in  1040  Harold  died.  Upon 
this  Hardicanute  was  unanimously  chosen 
king,  but  soon  proved  himself  as  worthless  as 
his  brother.  *'  All  his  public  acts  set  him 
before  us  as  a'  rapacious,  brutal,  and  blood- 
thirsty tyrant.**  His  first  acts  were  to  levy 
a  heavy  Danegeld,  and  order  Harold's  body  to 
be  dug  up,  beheaded,  and  thrown  into  a 
ditch.  The  Danegcld  ied  to  a  revolt  at  Wor- 
cester against  the  HouscH^arls,  who  were  killed 
in  their  attempt  to  collect  the  tax.  This 
rising  was  speedily  crushed,  Worcester  was 
burned,  and  the  whole  of  the  shire  ravaged. 
The  only  other  event  of  importance  in  this 
reign  is  Hardicanute's  accusation  of  Godwin 
as  the  murderer  of  the  Atheling  Alfred.  The 
trial  which  ensued  resulted  in  the  trium- 
phant acquittal  of  Godwin,  who,  to  make  his 
peace  with  the  king,  presented  him  with  a 
ship  fully  manned  and  equipped.  Probably 
with  the  idea  of  regaining  popularity,  Har- 
dicanute sent  over  to  Normandy  for  his  half- 
brother  Edward,  who  came  and  lived  at  his 
court.  In  1042,  while  at  the  marriage-feast 
of  his  standard-bearer,  Tovi  the  Proud, 
Hardicanute  suddenly  fell  down  dead  as  he 
stood  at  drink. 

Anglo-Saxon  ChronUU;  Florenoe  of  Worcester; 
Henry  of  Hantixiffdoaj  Fnteman,  Korman  Con- 
qvMt,  vol.  i. 


_  i,  Henry,  Ist  Lord  {b.  1785, 
d.  1856),  entered  the  army  at  a  very  early 
age,  and  was  present  at  most- of  the  great 
battles  of  the  Peninsular  War.  He  distin- 
guished himself  greatly  at  the  battle  of 
Albueia,  and  later,  during  the  Hundred  Days, 
he  was  entrusted  with  the  important  office  of 
Commissioner  at  the  Prussian  head-quartets. 
In  this  capacity  he  was  with  Blucher  at  the 
battle  of  Ligny,  but  the  loss  of  his  left  hand, 
which  was  taken  off  by  a  shot,  prevented  his 
presence  at  Waterloo.  During  the  years  of 
peace  that  followed,  he  entered  Parliament 
and  held  office  under  the  Duke  of  Wellington 
and  Sir  Robert  Peel,  till  the  latter  minister 
appointed  him  Gx)vemor-General  of  India  in 
1 844.  His  first  year  of  office  was  marked  by 
the  Scinde  mutiny.  In  1845  the  disturbances 
across  the  Sutlej,  which  had  followed  the 
death  of  Runjeet  Singh,  grew  more  and 
more  dangerous  to  the  British  dominions. 
The  intrigues  of  Lai  Singh  and  Fej 
Singh  to  obtain  the  supreme  power  at  last 
ended  in  their  crossing  the  Sutlej  and 
invading  the  British  territory.  The  first 
Sikh  War,  marked  by  the  brilliant  battles 
of  Moodkee  and  Aliwal,  and  the  crowning 
victory  of  Sobraon,  laated  till  1846;  and 
in  that  year  Lord  Hardinge  was  able  to 
conclude  the  pacification  of  Lahore,  by  which 
he  hoped  to  establish  the  security  of  the 
British   north-west    frontier.      The    infant 


(  636  } 


Bhuleep  Singh  was  left  as  nominal  Maha- 
lajah  at  Lahore  under  the  regency  of  his 
mother  and  Lai  Singh ;  and  it  was  finally 
decided  that  the  British  troops  should  remain 
for  eight  years,  and  so  ensure  the  tranquillity 
of  the  Sikhs  till  the  young  prince  came  of 
age.  Part  of  this  plan  included  the  transfer 
of  Cashmere  to  the  rule  of  Golab  Singh.  The 
rest  of  the  year  was  occupied  in  suppressing 
insurrections  in  Cashmere  and  Scmde.  In 
1847  Hardinge,  who,  in  1846,  had  been 
created  Viscount  Hardinge  of  Lahore,  re- 
turned to  England.  In  1852,  on  the  death  of 
the  Buke  of  Wellington,  Lord  Hardinge  was 
appointed  Commander-in-chief,  and  in  1852 
was  advanced  to  the  rank  of  field-marshal 

Xardwicke,  Philip  Yobke,  Ist  Eakl 
OF  {b.  1690,  d.  1764),  the  son  of  an  attorney 
at  Dover,  was  callea  to  Uie  bar  in  1715.     His 

golitical  rise  was  due  to  Newcastle  and 
tanhope.  He  first  sat  for  Lewes  in  1718, 
and  was  made  Solicitor-General  in  1720. 
From  that  date  he  became,  in  succession, 
Attorney-General  (1723),  Lord  Chief  Justice 
and  Lord  Hardwicke  (1733),  and  Lord  Chan- 
cellor (1737).  He  supported  Walpole  through 
his  long  administration;  but  towards  the 
dose  of  it  he  was  constrained  to  disagree 
with  his  chiefs  peace  policy,  and  became  an 
advocate  for  war.  On  the  fall  of  Walpole 
he  continued  to  hold  ofiice  under  Wilmington, 
and,  subsequently,  under  the  Pelhams.    In 

1753  Lord  Hardwicke  introduced  a  new 
Marriage  Act,  and,  in  the  course  of  the  de- 
hates  on  this  measure,  had  a  violent  quarrel 
with  Henry  Fox,  who  disapproved  of  it.    In 

1754  he  was  raised  to  an  earldom.  He  went 
out  of  office  with  the  Duke  of  Newcastle,  of 
whose  administration  he  had  been  the  chief 
supporter.  In  1758  he  persuaded  the  Lords 
to  throw  out  a  bill  for  the  extension  of 
Habeas  Corpus,  and  introduced  a  measure  for 
abolishing  hereditary  jurisdictions  in  Scot- 
land. His  last  great  speech  was  directed 
against  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  by  which  the 
Seven  Years'  War  was  closed.  Next  year 
(1764)  Lord  Hardwicke  died,  leaving  behind 
him  the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the 
greatest  Chancellors  that  have  sat  on  the 
Woolsack  since  the  Kevolution. 

Campbell,  Lives  of  the  Lord  ChanctXlort ; 
Qk&nhope,  Hist,  of  Eng. ;  Leoky,  Rid.  qf  Eng. 
during  the  Bighieenth  Century, 

Kafdy,  Sib  Thomas  Maste&man  {b.  1769, 
«L  1839)7Nelson*8  favourite  captain,  was  bom 
at  Dorchester.  He  entered  the  nav)'  at  the 
age  of  twelve,  and  was  present  at  the  battles 
of  St.  Vincent  (1797)  and  the  Nile  (1798). 
•For  his  bravery  in  this  last  action,  Nelson 
gave  him  the  Vanguard,  In  1803  he  became 
Nelson's  flag-captoin,  and  it  was  on  board 
his  ship,  the  Victory^  that  Lord  Nelson  received 
his  fatal  wound  at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar. 
In  later  years  Hardy  commanded  the  South 


American  squadron,  and  later  stiU  was  ap- 
pointed a  Lord  of  the  Admiralty  and  Govenior 
of  Greenwich  Hospital  (1834). 

Hardy,  Sm  Thomas  Duffus  {b.  1804,  d. 
1878),  succeeded  Sir  Francis  Palgrave  as 
Deputy-Keeper  of  the  Public  Records  in 
1861.  He  was  one  of  the  most  Indefatigable 
students  of  early  English  history.  HIb  most 
important  work  is  a  Descriptive  Catalogue  of 
Material*  relating,  to  the  History  of  Britain 
and  Ireland  to  the  reign  of  Benry  VII.  (4  vols., 
Rolls  Series).  This  work  has  been  left  in- 
complete, and  does  not  extend  beyond  the 
year  1326.  It  contains  an  account  of  all  the 
original  authorities  on  English  history  ar- 
ranged in  chronological  order,  and  not  only 
estimates  the  amount  of  authority  to  be 
assigned  to  each  writer,  but  also  gives  a  list 
of  MSS.  and  printed  editions  supplemented 
by  an  account  of  the  author's  life  and  sources 
of  information.  Sir  Thomas  Hardy  likewise 
published  a  Syllabus  to  Ryiner^s  Tcedera  (2 
vols.),  which  is  rendered  specially  valuable 
hy  its  chronological  tables  giving  the  legal, 
civil,  and  ecclesiastical  years  in  parallel 
columns,  with  the  regnal  years  of  eacn  Eng- 
lish sovereign,  and  the  day  of  the  month  on 
which  each  begins. 


J,  John  {b.  1378,  d.  1466J,  was 
brought  up  as  a  dependant  of  the  Percies 
from  the  age  of  twelve.  He  was  present  at 
the  battle  of  Shrewsbury,  and  was  afterwards 
a  faithful  servant  of  Edward,  Duke  of  York, 
subsequently  Edward  IV.  He  composed  a 
Chromcle  extending  from  the  earliest  times  to 
Henry  VI.'s  flight  into  Scotland.  He  was  at 
great  pains  to  get  original  documents  from 
Scotland,  which  he  gave  to  the  last  three  kings 
in  whose  reigns  he  lived.  His  Chronicle, 
which  was  edited  by  Sir  H.  Ellis  in  1812,  is 
not  of  much  value,  being  chiefly  composed  of 
facts  collected  from  earlier  writers,  and  loosely 
thrown  into  rhyme.  For  the  years  of  hi^ 
own  life  he  may  be  regarded  as  an  original 
authority.  Hard}n3g*s  Chronicle  was  continued 
in  prose  in  the  next  century  by  Richard 
Grafton. 

Harflenr,  a  town  of  France,  lying  some 
six  miles  from  Havre,  was  taken  by  Henry  V. 
Sept.  22,  1416.  It  was  besieged  by  the  Count 
d'Armagnac  and  relieved  by  the  Duke  of 
Bedford  the  following  year.  The  English 
were  expelled  in  1433,  but  once  more  obtained 
possession  of  the  city  in  1440,  and  held  it  till 
1449,  when  they  were  driven  out  by  Dunois. 

Karlaw,  The  Battle  of  (July  24, 1411), 
was  fought  between  the  invading  Islesmen, 
under  Donald  of  the  Isles,  and  the  Lowland 
troops,  under  the  Earl  of  Mar.  Donald  was 
completely  defeated. 


ley,  Robert,  Earl  of  Oxford   (ft. 

1661,  d.  1724),  was  the  eldest  son  of  Sir 
Edward  Harley,  a  Puritan  who  had  sat  in 
the  Long  Parliament,  and  who  declared  for 


(  636  ) 


William  III.  at  the  Bevolution.  Bobert 
Harley  began  hiB  political  career  aa  the  Whig 
member  for  a  Cornish  borough;  bat  he 
gradually  changed  his  politics,  and  adopted 
Toryism.  In  1690  he  was  appointed  one  of 
the  arbitrators  for  uniting  the  two  East  India 
Companies ;  and  in  1696  he,  as  leader  of  the 
Tories,  proposed  the  Land  Bank  scheme 
as  a  rival  to  the  Bank  of  England.  Next 
year  he  moved  that  the  army  should  be 
reduced  to  what  it  had  been  in  the  year  1680, 
and  when  the  measure  was  carried,  William 
was  forced  to  dismiss  his  Butch  guards.  In 
1701  he  was  chosen  Speaker  of  the  Commons 
In  1704  Marlborough,  who  had  broken  with 
the  extreme  High  Tories,  selected  him  to  suc- 
ceed Nottingham  as  Secretary  of  State,  and 
in  1706  he  was  appointed  one  of  Uie  com- 
missioners for  the  Treaty  of  Union  with 
Scotland.  Finding  that  the  Tories  were 
being  gradually  ousted  from  the  ministr}',  he 
used  the  influence  of  his  cousin,  Mrs.  i&Iasham, 
for  the  purpose  of  intriguing  against  l^larl- 
borough.  He  represented  to  Anne  that  Church 
interests  were  in  danger,  and  the  queen  was 
encouraged  to  create  Dr.  Blackall  and  Sir 
William  Dawes  Bishops  of  Exeter  and  Chester 
respectively,  without  consulting  her  ministers 
ri707).  Marlborough  and  Godolphin  at  once 
aetermined  to  break  with  Harley.  It  was  dis- 
covered that  one  Gregg,  a  clerk  in  his  office, 
was  in  correspondence  with  France,  and  this 
was  made  a  ground  for  his  dismissal.  Though 
the  queen  was  difficult  to  move,  she  yielded  at 
last,  and  Harley  resigned  his  office  in  1708. 
On  the  sudden  fall  of  the  Whigs,  Harley  be- 
came Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  and  virtu- 
ally Prime  Minister  (1710),  with  BoHngbroke 
for  his  colleague  and  rival.  Harley  at  once 
began  to  negotiate  a  peace  with  France,  while 
at  the  same  time  he  intrigued  with  the  Jacobite 
court  at  St.  Germains.  Guiscard  (q.v.),  a 
French  refugee,  who  had  frequently  been  con- 
sulted by  Marlborough,  now  offered  to  betray 
the  English  plans  to  the  French,  and  on  the 
detection  of  his  correspondence,  he  stabbed 
Harley  with  a  penknife  while  under  examina- 
tion before  the  Council.  This  wound,  and 
the  South  Sea  Company  started  by  Harley 
at  this  time,  made  him  very  popular,  and  the 
queen  created  him  Earl  of  Oxford  and  Lord 
Treasurer.  Meanwhile  the  negotiations  for 
peace  were  being  carried  on.  Marlborough 
was  dismissed  from  office,  and  the  hostile 
majority  in  the  Lords  was  neutralised  by  the 
creation  of  twelve  peers.  In  March,  1713, 
the  Peace  of  Utrecht  was  signed.  But  dissen- 
sions broke  out  in  the  ministr}'-.  Bolingbroke 
wished  for  a  Stuart  restoration :  Oxford  was 
averse  to  such  an  extreme  measure.  Boling- 
broke,  in  order  to  get  rid  of  the  Lord  Treasurer, 
introduced  the  Schism  Act,  a  measure  con- 
ceived entirely  in  the  High  Church  spirit. 
Afraid  to  offend  the  Dissenters,  Oxford  acted 
with  great  indecision,  and  was  in  consequence 
dismissed  (July,  1714).    After  the  aocesrdon 


of  George  I.,  Oxford  was  impeached  by  the 
Commons;  but  the  proceedings  against  him 
were  dropped,  as  it  would  have  been  impos- 
sible to  substantiate  the  charges  of  treason. 
Enraged  at  the  treatment  he  had  met  with, 
Harley  wrote  from  the  Tower,  offering  hie 
services  to  the  Pretender ;  but  on  his  release  he 
retired  into  the  country.  In  1721  the  leader- 
ship in  Bishop  Atterbury's  plot  was  offered 
him,  but  he  declined  it.  *'  Oxford  seems,"  says 
Lord  Stanhope,  "  to  have  possessed  in  perfec- 
tion a  low  sort  of  management,  and  all  the 
base  arts  of  party,  which  enabled  him  to 
cajole  and  keep  together  his  followers,  and  to 
sow  divisions  amongst  his  enemies.'*  He  was 
also  a  great  lover  of  literature,  and  a  friend  of 
the  leading  men  of  letters  of  his  day — of 
Swift  and  Pope  among  the  number.  His 
splendid  collection  of  MSS.  still  forms  one  of  « 
the  chief  treasures  of  the  British  Museum. 

Stanhope,  Eeign  cf  QiMm  Anne;  Swift,  Ltui 
Four  Tiar$  of  Qumii  Annt'a  Btign ;  Bolinsrbroke. 
LetterM;  Poi>e,  CorrMpondMUM ;  Boyer,  AnnaXt; 
Torcy,  Mhnmrea,  [S.  J.  L.] 

Harold  I.,  Kino  («.  Nov.,  1035,  d, 
March  17,  1040),  was  reported  to  be  the  son 
of  Canute,  by  Elgiva  (^Ifgifu)  of  North- 
ampton;  but  the  supporters  of  the  claims 
of  Hardicanute  (Harthacnut)  contended  that 
his  parentage  was,  in  the  highest  degree, 
doubtful.  After  Canute's  death  the  rival 
claims  of  Harold  and  Hardicanute  were  eagerly 
debated,  the  former  being  supported  by 
Leofric,  the  Danish  party,  and  the  city  of 
London;  the  latter  by  Godwin  and  the 
West  Saxons,  as  well  as  by  his  mother  Emma. 
The  result  was  that  ^rold  obtained  the 
country  to  the  north  of  the  Thames,  and 
Hardicanute  got  Wessex,  which^  during  his 
absence  in  Denmark,  was  administered  by 
Grodwin  and  Emma.  In  1036  the  two  sons 
of  Ethelred  made  an  attempt  to  re(x>ver  their 
father's  kingdom,  but  failed ;  whereupon  the 
younger,  Alfred,  was  taken  and  put  to  death 
by  Harold.  In  1037  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle 
tells  us  "  they  chose  Harold  over  all  the  kings, 
and  forsook  Harthacnut,  because  he  was  too 
long  in  Denmark."  Thus,  in  Mr.  Freeman's 
words,  **  England  again  became  one  kingdom 
under  one  Mng,  an  union  which,  since  that 
day,  has  never  been  broken."  Harold  at 
once  banished  Emma,  who  retired  to  Flanders, 
but  reconciled  himself  with  Godwin  and  the 
English  party.  His  reign  is  not  remarkable 
for  anything,  and  of  his  administration  abso- 
lutely nothing  is  known.  Great  corrup- 
tion, however,  appears  to  have  prevailed 
in  the  Chtirch  under  his  government.  We 
read  of  bishoprics  being  held  in  plurality, 
and  being  sold  for  money,  as  well  as  of 
many  other  abuses.  In  1039  Hardicanute, 
who  had  joined  his  mother  at  Bruges,  pre- 
pared an  expedition  against  his  brother,  but 
before  it  set  sail  Harold  had  died  at  Oxford, 
March  17,  1040.  We  do  not  bear  of  his 
having  had  wife  or  children.    He  was  buried 


(637  ) 


«t  Wesbniiuter,  but,  by  Haidioannte's  orden, 
his  body  was  dug  up  and  thrown  into  a  ditch. 
Of  Harold's  character  nothing  is  known. 
His  chief  accomplishment  would  appear  to 
have  been  swiftness  in  running,  for  which  he 
received  the  tobriqu^  of  "  Harefoot.*' 
FTeemsn,  Norman  ConqvMt,  i. 

Harold  ZZ.y  Kino  {b,  eirea  1021,  a.  Jan. 
•6,  1066;  d,  Oct  14,  1066),  was  the  second 
son  ck(  Earl  Gkxlwin  and  Gytha.  When 
still  young,  he  shared  in  the  splendid  for- 
tunes of  his  father,  and  about  1046  was 
made  Earl  of  the  East  Angles.  Of  the 
•early  part  of  his  'official  career  no  record 
remains;  his  public  prominence  began  with 
the  misfortunes  of  his  house.  In  the  struggle 
of  1051  he  led  the  men  of  his  earldom  to 
Beverstone  to  his  father's  support,  fell  from 
power,  and  was  outlawed  with  him ;  but  he 
and  Leofwine,  taking  a  different  road  from 
their  fellow  outlaws,  went  to  Dublin,  where 
they  passed  the  winter.  Appearing  next  year 
in  the  Bristol  Channel  with  nine  ships,  Harold 
landed  at  Porlock,  slew  thirty  opposing  thanes 
and  many  people,  ravaged  and  robbed  without 
stint,  and  then  sailed  away  to  join  his  father 
at  Portland.  In  the  restoration  of  the  Godwin 
family  that  ensued,  Harold  was  reinstated  in 
his  former  earldom  (1052).  His  successful 
activity  on  this  occasion,  and  the  death  of  his 
elder  brother,  Sweyn,  marked  him  for  special 
distinction ;  and  in  1053,  when  his  father  died, 
he  at  once  succeeded  him  as  Earl  of  the  West 
Saxons. 

Henceforward  Harold  was  the  foremost 
fig^ure  and  weightiest  influence  in  English 
politics.  Till  he  became  king,  almost  every 
important  event  and  action  of  his  own  added 
strength  to  his  position,  or  increased  his  repu- 
tation. On  the  death  of  Siward,  in  1055,  his 
brother  Tostig  became  Earl  of  the  Northum- 
brians. In  the  same  year  he  rescued  Hereford 
and  the  country  round  it  from  the  marauding 
Welsh,  under  King  Griffith  and  the  refugee 
Earl  Alfgar,  chased  the  invaders  back  to 
Wales,  and  fortified  Hereford.  Two  years 
later,  Herefordshire  was  placed  under  his  im- 
mediate rule ;  and  in  a  short  time  his  brother 
Gurth  was  raised  to  the  East  Anglian  earl- 
dom, while  the  shires  of  the  south-east  were 
grouped  into  another  for  Leofwine.  In  1058 
Harold  was  the  head  of  a  house  whose  mem* 
bers  divided  among  them  the  rule  of  three- 
fourths  of  England.  The  pious  King  Edward 
had  practically  placed  the  power  of  the  crown 
at  l&rold*s  disposal.  This  power  and  his  own 
he  used  to  check  the  spread  of  Norman  in- 
fluence, and  the  encroachments  of  the  king's 
Norman  favourites.  Nature  and  fortune  now 
clearly  pointed  to  him  as  the  heir  of  the 
almost  heirless  king.  Tall  and  stalwart, 
comely  and  gentle,  he  drew  men's  eyes  and 
hearts  towards  him.  He  had,  moreover,  en- 
larged his  mind,  and  added  to  his  capacity  by 
foreign  travel,   especially  by  a  journey  to 


Rome.  Yet  his  position  was  seriously  com- 
promised by  an  unlucky  adventure.  Having 
once  been  shipwrecked  on  the  coast  of  Pon- 
thieu,  he  was,  after  a  short  captivity,  g^ven 
up  by  Count  Guy  to  William  of  Normandy, 
from  whose  compulsory  hospitality  he  had  to 
purchase  his  release  by  taking  an  oath  to 
support  his  host's  claim  to  the  English  throng. 
No  trace,  however,  of  a  belief  that  this  oath 
was  binding  can  be  seen  in  his  subsequent 
conduct.  In  1060  he  founded  the  religious 
house  known  later  as  Waltham  Abbey.  In 
1063  he  was  provoked  by  the  raids  of  King 
Griffith  into  a  systematic  invasion  of  Wales, 
in  which  he  overran  the  country  "  from  dyke 
to  sea,"  routing  the  Welsh  in  every  encounter, 
and  slaughtering  them  without  mercy.  Grif- 
fith's head  was  brought  to  him,  whereupon  he 
married  his  widow,  Aldgyth,  daughter  of  Earl 
Alfgar,  and  sister  to  the  young  Mercian  earl, 
Edwin.  In  1065,  when  the  Northumbrians  rose 
against  Tostig,  a  sense  of  justice  or  policy  made 
Harold  take  their  part,  and  gain  the  king's 
sanction  to  the  transfer  of  their  earldom  to 
another  brother-in-law,  Morcar. 

The  day  after  the  king's  death  (Jan.  6, 
1066),  ho  **took,"  as  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicle  words  it,  "  to  the  kingdom,"  being 
crowned  king  by  virtue  of  some  form  of 
election  and  the  bequest  of  King  Edward. 
During  "the  forty  weeks  and  one  day"  of 
his  reign,  his  vigilance  was  never  once 
allowed  to  sleep.  His  outlawed  brother, 
and  the  rival  candidate  he  had  forestalled, 
were  planning  and  preparing  his  destruc- 
tion ;  and  the  former,  repulsed  in  one  or  two 
attempts  on  the  coast,  had  allied  himself 
with  Harold  Hardrada,  King  of  Norway. 
In  September  he  and  his  ally  made  their  in- 
vasion ;  and  Harold  had  just  time  to  march  to 
York,  meet  and  destroy  them  at  Stamford 
Bridge,  when  his  more  terrible  foe,  William 
the  Norman,  came  with  a  mighty  power  to 
challen^  his  crown.  On  October  14  the 
rivals  measured  their  strength  at  Senlac  in 
Sussex  [Hastings,  Battle  op]  ;  and  the 
Englishman,  after  an  unsurpassed  display  of 
stubborn  valour,  was  overthrown  and  slain  at 
six  in  the  evening.  His  body,  mangled  by 
Norman  ferocity,  was  singled  out  from  the 
enclosing  heap  of  corpses  by  a  former  mis- 
tress, Emth  Swanneck,  and  buried  either  on 
the  sea-shore  or  the  minster  at  Waltham. 

Anglo-Saiwi  Chronicle ;  Freeman,  Norman  Con- 
guett,  vols.  ii.  and  iii.  rj^  ^i 

Harold  Hardrada  (d.  1066),  King  of 
Norway,  was  the  son  of  Sigurd  and  the  brother 
of  St.  Olaf.  In  his  early  years  ho  had  served 
in  the  Emperor's  guard  at  Constantinople,  and 
made  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem.  He  came 
home  and  reigned  with  his  nephew,  Magnus 
the  Good,  becoming  sole  king  after  Magnuses 
death.  He  had  long  planned  the  conquest  of 
England,  and  was  in  the  Orkneys  with  a 
great  fleet  when  Tostig  was  beaten  from  the 


(  638  ) 


east  coast.     On    his  way  to    the  Humber 

Tostig  joined  his  expedition,  and  they  sailed 

up  the  Humber  together,  and  marched  on 

York.     Victorious  at  first  at  Fulford,  they 

gained  possession  of  York ;  but  Harold  proved 

too  strong  for  them,  and  the  Norwegiau  force 

was  defeated,  and  the  two  leaders  slain,  at 

Stamford  Bridge  (Sept.  25,  1066). 

Anglo-Saxon   Chroniclt ;    Freeman,   VorvMiU 
Conquest,  ii.,  iii. 

Harriiigton,  James  (b,  1611,  d.  1677), 
after  studying  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
travelled  abroad  and  entered  the  service  of 
Elizabeth,  Queen  of  Bohemia.  He  subse- 
quently returned  to  England  and  entered  the 
household  of  Charles  I.  He  was,  however,  a 
republican,  and  in  1656  wrote  and  dedicated 
to  Cromwell  a  political  romance  called  Oceana^ 
intended  to  promote  republican  principles. 
With  the  same  view,  ECarrington  formed  an 
association  called  the  "  Rota  Club."  In  1661 
he  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower,  but  released 
on  the  plea  of  insanity. 

Harrington's  Worla  (ed.  Birch),  1737. 

Harrington^  William  Staxhopb,  1st 
Earl  of  {d,  1756),  was  sent  as  ambassador 
to  Spain  (1717),  and  two  years  later  went 
on  a  mission  to  the  French  army.  He  was 
>lenipotentiary  at  the  Congress  of  Soissons 
1728).  In  1730  he  was  again  despatched  to 
»pain,  where  he  concluded  the  Treaty  of 
Seville.  He  was  immediately  created  Lord 
Harrington,  and  shortly  afterwards  became 
Secretary  of  State.  He  consistently  sup- 
ported Walpole  for  many  years,  but  in 
1738  we  find  him  in  opposition  to  that 
minister,  warmly  advocating  war  with  Spain. 
In  1742  he  was  oreated  an  earl,  and  Lord 
President  of  the  Council,  but  on  the  resigna- 
tion of  Lord  Granville  he  again  be^me 
Secretary  of  State.  In  1746  he  resigned, 
because  the  Pelhams  wished  for  the  admission 
of  Pitt  to  office,  and  was  ti-ansferred  to  the 
lord-lieutenancy  of  Ireland,  which  appoint- 
ment he  resigned  in  1751. 

Tindal,  flift. ;  Coze,  R\»t.  o/Eng. ;  Stanhope, 
Hiat,  of  Eng, 


L,  Thomas  {b.  1606,  d.  1660),  was 
a  native  of  Newcastle-under-Lj^me.  At  the 
opening  of  the  Ci>'il  War  he  entered  Essex's 
body-guard.  He  was  in  command  of  the 
guard  that  conveyed  the  king  from  Hurst 
Castle  to  London ;  he  was  also  one  of  the 
king's  judges,  and  signed  his  death-warrant. 
Harrison  was  commanding  on  the  northern 
border  when  the  Scots  entered  England 
under  Charles  II.  He  obstructed  their  march 
with  great  ability,  and  took  part  in  the 
battle  of  Worcester.  Already  he  had  been 
elected  a  member  of  the  Council  of  State 
(1650),  but  becoming  "  fully  persuaded  that 
the  Parliament  had  not  a  heart  to  do  any 
more  good  for  the  Lord  and  His  people,"  he 
assisted  Cromwell  in  expelling  both  Council 
and  Parliament.  In  the  *^  Barebones  *'  Parlia- 


ment Harrison  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
advanced  party,  and  an  opponent  of  the  dis- 
solution. Roger  Williams  describes  him  as 
the  head  of  **  the  fifty-six  party,'*  who  **  were 
of  the  vote  against  priests  and  tithes,*'  **  the 
second  in  the  nation  of  late,"  "  a  very  gal- 
lant, most  deserving,  heavenly  man,  but 
most  high-flown  for  the  kingdom  of  the  saints 
and  the  Fifth  Monarchy.'*  Cromwell,  after 
vainly  tr}'ing  to  conciliate  him,  deprived  him 
of  his  commission  and  relegated  him  to  Staf- 
fordshire. Harrison  took  part  in  Overton's 
plot  (1654),  and  was  suspected  of  taking  part 
in  Venner*8  (1657),  and  other  plots,  for 
which  he  was  several  times  imprisoned.  At 
the  Restoration  he  refused  to  fly,  and  was 
condemned  to  death  after  a  very  gallant 
defence,  in  which  he  justified  the  king's 
execution.  He  was  executed  on  October  13, 
1660,  saying,  *'  If  I  had  ten  thousand  lives,  I 
could  freely  and  cheerfullv  lay  them  aU  down 
to  witness  to  this  matter.'* 

Earrowbyp  Dudley  Ryder,  1st  Earl  op 
(b,  1762,  d,  1847),  entered  public  life  as  member 
for  Tiverton.  He  was  a  strong  supporter  of 
Mr.  Pitt,  under  whom  he  held  many  offices  in 
succession,  till  he  succeeded  to  the  peerage  in. 
1803.  The  following  year  he  was  appointed 
Foreign  Secretary,  and  in  1805  was  des- 
patched to  Berlin  with  a  view  to  forming  an 
offensive  alliance  with  Prussia.  The  battle 
of  Austerlitz,  however,  put  an  end  to  all 
hopes  of  uniting  Europe  against  Napoleon, 
and  Lord  Harrowby  returned  home.  Three 
years  later  he  became  President  of  the  Board 
of  Control,  and  was  created  an  earl.  In  1812 
he  became  P:resident  of  the  Council,  an  office 
which  he  continued  to  hold  for  sixteen  years. 
In  the  days  of  .the  first  Reform  Bill  he  was 
requested  to  form  a  cabinet,  but  declined  to 
undertake  so  responsible  a  duty,  and  it  con- 
sequently devolved  on  the  Duke  of  Welling- 
ton. On  the  question  of  Reform  he  became 
leader  of  that  section  of  the  peers  known  by 
the  title  of  "the  Waverers,'*  who,  though 
disapproving  of  the  new  measures,  felt  that 
obstinate  resistance  to  so  popular  a  movement 
would  entail  disaster.  From  this  time  he 
took  little  part  in  politics. 

Stanhope,  Life  of  Pitt;  lirerpool,  Wcmoin; 
Castlereagh,  Memoirs. 

Eartixigtoiiy  Spencbr  Compton  Cavbn- 
DISH,  Mahquis  of  {b,  1833),  who  became 
Duke  of  Devonshire  in  1891,  was  returned 
to  the  House  of  Commons  as  one  of  the 
members  for  North  Lancashire  in  the  Libe- 
ral interest  in  1857.  In  the  year  1863  he 
was  appointed  a  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  and 
in  April  of  the  same  year  Under  Secretary' 
for  War.  On  the  reconstruction  of  Loid 
Russell's  second  administration  in  1866  the 
Marquis  of  Hartington  took  office  as  Secre- 
tary for  War.  In  1868  he  was  returned  for 
the  Radnor  Boroughs,  and  accepted  the  offioe 
of   Postmaster-Greneial   in   Mr.  Qladstone'fr 


(  6«9  ) 


cabinet.  In  the  year  1871  he  succeeded  Mr. 
Chichester  Fortctscue  as  Chief  Secretary'  for 
Ireland.  When  Mr.  Gladstone  in  1875  aban- 
doned the  leadership  of  the  Liberal  party, 
the  Marquis  of  Hartington  assumed  the  post. 
On  the  return  of  the  Liberals  to  office  in  1880 
Lord  Hartington  accepted  office  under  Mr. 
Gladstone.  He  became  Secretary  for  India, 
and  subsequently  (1882)  Secretary  of  State 
for  War,  but  refused  to  enter  the  Home  Rule 
Cabinet  in  1886,  and  became  the  leader 
of  the  Dissentient  Liberals^  In  1895  he 
joined  Lord  Sali8bur>''s  third  Ministry  as 
Lord  President  of  the  Council. 


_r,  Baoekal  (rf.  1798),  of  Burgny  j 
Castle,  a  gentleman  of  property  in  county 
Wexford,  was  arrested  as  a  rebel  in  May, 
1798,  and  confined,  together  with  Colclough 
and  Fitzgerald,  in  the  city  gaoL  Being  sent 
oat  to  treat  with  the  rebels,  after  the  city 
had  been  evacuated  by  the  troops,  he  was  in- 
duced to  become  their  leader;  but  showed 
such  disgust  at  the  massacre  of  Scullabrogue 
that  he  was  deposed  from  his  command. 
When  the  troops  retook  the  town  ho  concealed 
himself,  together  with  Colclough,  in  one  of 
the  Saltee  Islands,  but  they  were  both  taken, 
sentenced  to  death,  and  hanged  (Juno  27, 1798). 

J.  A.  Fzoade»  EnglUhin  Irdomi;  Barrington, 
M§moi-n. 

Kastenbecky  Tub  Battle  of  (July  26, 
1767),  was  one  of  the  engagements  or  the 
Seven  Years'  War.  The  Duke  of  Cumber- 
land, with  a  motley  army  of  about  50,000 
men,  of  whom  none  were  English  excepting  a 
few  officers,  attempted  to  defend  Hanover 
against  80,000  French  under  Marshal 
d'Estrees.  He  allowed  the  enemy  to  pass 
the  Weser  unopposed  and  lay  waste  the 
Electorate.  The  engagement  took  place  at  a 
village  near  Hameln,  and  the  duke  was  de- 
feated with  the  loss  of  several  hundred  moi*. 
He  retired  on  Slade,  near  the  mouth  ot  t,.^d 
Elbe,  and  soon  afterwards  was  compelled 
to  sign  the  Convention  of  Closter-Seven. 
[Clostba-Sbtbn  ;  Cumhekland.] 

Hastiiiny  Thb  Battlb  of  (Oct.  14, 
1066),  is  the  name  usually  given  to  the 
great  combat  which  took  plaos  at  Senlac, 
near  Hastings,  between  the  invading  Nor- 
mans, under  William  the  Conqueror,  and  the 
English,  under  Harold.  On  the  news  of 
William's  landing  in  Sussex,  Harold  held  a 
hurried  council  at  Stamford  Bridge,  and, 
after  ordering  a  general  muster  in  London, 
pressed  southwards  himself  at  the  head  of  his 
Housecarls.  At  London,  men  fiocked  in 
from  all  southern  England ;  but  Mercia  and 
Northumbria,  the  provinces  of  Edwin  and 
Morcar,  held  aloof.  Rejecting  the  advice 
which  his  brother  Gurth  is  said  to  have 
given  him,  to  stay  behind  and  gather  troops 
for  a  second  battle  if  the  first  should  issue  m 
defeat,  Harold  set  forth  from  the  city,  and 
^tched  his  camp  on  the  hill  of  Senlac  (Oct. 


13).    This  hill  he  proceeded  to  fortify  with  a 
palisade  and  a  ditch.     After  a  night  of  con- 
fession and  prayer,  the  NoiTnan   army  ad- 
vanced over  the  higher  ground  of  Telham  to 
the    valley  which    ran    along    the    foot    of 
Harold's  fortified  hill.      The  Norman  army 
was  divided  into  three  pails,  of  which  the 
left  wing,  consisting  of  Bretons,  Poitevins, 
&c.,  was  under  the   direction  of    Alan    of 
Brittany ;  the  right  wiug,  consisting  of  the 
mercenary  troops,  under  Hoger  Montgomery 
and    William    Fitz-Osbem;    while    in    the 
centre,  grouped  round  the  Holy  Banner  of 
the  Pope,  came  the  Norman  men-at-arms  and 
archera,  led  by  the  duke  himself,  mounted  on 
his  Spanish  horse.    Each  of  these  divisions 
was  agsin  subdi^'ided  into  three  groups  of 
archers,  infantiy,  and  horsemen  respectively, 
in  which  order  they  were  to  advance  to  the 
fight.   On  the  English  side,  ever}'  man  fought 
bf^hind  the  bairicades  of  ash,  on  foot.     On  the 
rignc  and  left  wore  posted  the  light-armed 
recruits  from  the  southern  shires,  armed  with 
club  and  javelin,   or  even  with  forks  and 
stakes;    in   the    centre    stood   the    English 
Housecarls,  in   their   helmets  and  coats  of 
mail,   with  shield   and   javelin  and  Danish 
axe.    The  battle  commenced,  at  nine  o'clock 
in  the  morning,  with  a  shower  of  arrows  from 
the  advanced  archers  of  each  Norman  division ; 
then  the  heavy-armed  foot  came  on  to  attack 
the  palisade  at  the  bottom  of  the  hill ;  but  they 
could  make  no  impression  upon  the  closely- 
wedged  ranks  of  the  English  defenders.    Tlie 
Bretons,  on  the  left  wing,  seeing  all  efforts 
useless,  took  to  flight,  and  part  of  the  English 
troops,  against  Harold's  express  orders,  broke 
from  their  ranks  in  pui'suit.     A  rumour  was 
passed  along  that  William  had  been  slain,  and 
he  had  to  tear  his  helmet  from  his  head  to 
show  them  that  he  was  yet  living,  while,  spear 
in  hand,  he  drove  the  fugitives  back  to  the 
fight.    The  Bretons  then  took  heart  again, 
and  overpowered  their  disorganised  pursuers 
Despite  a  partial  success  here  and  on  the 
right  wing,  the  English  lines  still  remained 
unbroken,  and  the  enemy  had  to  retire  once 
more.    William,  however,  had  noticed  that, 
finnly  as  the  English  fought  in  close  rank 
behind  their  fortification,  Uiey  had  fallen  an 
easy  prey   to    the   Breton  auxiliaries  when 
separated  in    the    ardour   of   pursuit.      Ho 
accordingly    ordered    part    of    his    army  to 
counterfeit   a    flight;    and    once    more    the 
English  swept   down  from  the  hill,  only  to 
meet  with  a  similar  fate,  though  a  few  of 
them  managed  to  make  good  their  position  on 
an  out-ljTng  elevation.     The  Norman  centre 
made  its  way,  unopposed,  up  the  slope  to  its 
left,  which  was  now  tmprotected  by  its  proper 
defenders,  and  when  onco  on  the  hill  summit 
had  no  barricade  to  bar  its  progress.     But 
still  the  English  held  out,  though  with  some- 
what  diminished   vigour,   till   William  had 
recourse  to  a  fresh  stratagem.     His  archers 
were  bidden  to  shoot  up  into  the  air,  so  that 


(640) 


their  arrows  might  ooxne  down  from  above. 
This  had  the  desired  effect.  The  shields 
which  were  required  for  the  protection  of  the 
head  could  no  longer  shelter  the  body  too; 
and,  to  crown  all,  Harold  himself  was  pierced 
in  the  eye  by  an  arrow.  Night  was  now 
coming  on,  and  though  the  Housecarls  fought 
on  till  the  last  man  was  slain,  the  light-armed 
troops,  having  lost  their  king,  fled  away  in 
the  darkness,  pursued  by  the  Norman  horse ; 
and  the  battle  was  lost. 

Freeman,  Norman.  Conqu$st,  voL  ilL  The 
leading  original  authorities  for  the  battle  of 
Hastings  are,  the  Qetta  QuUiAmi  of  William  of 
Poitiers ;  the  Carmen  Ih  BtUo  HoKtingtnn,  by 
Guy,  Bishop  of  Amiens ;  and  Waoe,  JE^onuin  d« 
JBou.  These  soarces  of  information  are  very 
largely  supplemented  by  the  invalnable  pictoriiJ 
account  known  as  the  fiayeux  T'.pestry(q.y.). 

[T  A.  A.] 


JB,  Warren  (ft.  17'd2,  d,  1818), 
the  son  of  a  Worcestershire  gentleman,  in 
1750  went  to  Bengal  as  a  writer  in  the 
service  of  the  East  India  Company.  Here  he 
attracted  the  attention  of  Clive,  and  after 
Plassey,  was  appointed  agent  to  the  Nabob  of 
Moorshedabad  for  the  East  India  Company. 
In  1769  he  became  member  of  the  council  at 
Madras,  and  in  1772  was  appointed  Governor 
of  Bengal.  In  this  capacity  he  devoted  him- 
self to  retrenchment  and  reform.  Half  the 
nabob's  allowance  was  cut  off;  Corah  and 
Allahabad,  the  old  cessions  to  the  Mogul, 
were  resumed  on  pretence  of  a  quarrel,  and 
sold  to  the  Vizier  of  Oude  for  fifty  lacs  of 
rupees ;  the  land  tax  was  settled  on  a  new 
basis  which  produced  more  revenue  with  less 
oppression ;  and  lastly,  in  his  need  for  money, 
British  troops  were  let  to  the  Vizier  of  Oude 
for  forty  laics  of  rupees,  in  order  that  that 
prince  might  be  able  to  destroy  his  enemies, 
the  neighbouring  tribe  of  Rohiilas,  and  annex 
the  province  of  Rohilcund.  In  1773  Lord 
Nortii's  Begulating  Act  took  effect,  and  Has- 
tings became  the  first  Grovemor-General  of 
India,  with  powers  greatly  limited  by  those  of 
his  council,  three  members  of  which,  headed 
by  Philip  Francis,  came  out  full  of  prejudice 
against-  Hastings,  who  therefore  found,  him- 
self powerless,  and  in  a  perpetual  minority. 
Nuncomar,  a  Brahmin,  brought  a  charge  of 
peculation  against  him.  The  rancorous 
eagerness  wi&  which  the  council  took  the 
matter  up  drove  Hastings  to  desperate 
measures.  Invoking  the  separate  powers 
confided  in  the  Supreme  Court  by  the 
Eegulating  Act,  he  obtained  the  arrest  of 
Nuncomar  on  a  charge  of  forgery.  Sir  Elijah 
Impey,  the  Lord  Chief  Justice,  proceeded, 
thereupon  to  try,  condemn,  and  hang  Nun-* 
comar.  This  bold  stroke  resulted  in  the 
complete  triumph  of  Hastings  over  his 
enemies— rendered  still  more  secure  by  the 
death  of  one  of  the  triumvirate  in  the  council, 
which  enabled  him  to  obtain  a  perpetual 
majority  by  means  of  his  casting  vote.  Once 
secure  in  his  power  he  turned  his  attention  to 


the  sejgrandisement  of  the  English  power  in 
India.      Discovering    that,    owing    to   the 
quarrels  between  the  other  presidencies  and 
the    Mahrattas,    war    was    inevitable,   and 
that    the    latter  were    intriguing  with  the 
French,  he  determined  to  take  the  initiative, 
and  crush  the  half-formed  confederacy.    The 
Bombay  government  embraced  the  cause  of 
Ragonaut  £ao  Ragoba,  a  deposed  Peishwa, 
and  plunged  into  a  war  with  the  Mahratta 
regency,  in  which  they  were  extremely  un- 
successfnly  owing  to  bad  generalship.    Has- 
tings sent  Colonel  Gk>ddaid  with  the  Bengal 
armj  to  accomplish  a  dangerous  march  across 
India,  and  in  1779  Goddard  overran  Guzerat, 
captured  Ahmedabad,  and  finding  Scindiah 
disposed  to  delay  and  evasion,  attacked  and 
routed  him  April  14,  1780.    Hastings,  more- 
over, despatched  another    Bengal    army  to 
Malwa   under   Major    Popham,    who    com- 
pleted the  defeat  of  Scindiah  by  capturing 
his  almost  impregnable  fortress  of  Gwalior. 
Scindiah  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  Eng- 
lish ;  and  by  his  mediation  peace  was  made 
between  England  and  the  Pooiiah   govern- 
ment.   In  July,  1780,  Hyder  Ali  overran  the 
Camatic  and  threatened  Madras.    Hastings 
immediately  suspended  Whitewell,  the  Gro- 
vemor  of  Madras;   despatched  all  available 
troops  to  the  Camatic,   gave  the  command 
to    Sir    E}^re   Coote,   and   sent  large  sums 
of  money.     The  victories  of  Coote  in  1781 
restored    the    English    position.      On    the 
news  of  Hyder's  advance  in  1780,  Hastings 
demanded  troops,  and  £50,000  from  Cheyte 
Sing,   Hajah    of    Benares,    a    tributary    of 
the  English.     On  his  delaying,  it  was  raised 
to  £500,000.     This  being  unpaid  Hastings 
arrested  Cheyte  Sing,  deposed  him,  and  seized 
all  his  property.     But  the  Governor-General, 
being  still  in  want  of  money,  persuaded  Asaf 
ud  Dowlah,   Vizier  of    Oude,  to   assist    in 
robbing  his  mother  and  grandmother,   the 
Begums  of  Oude.     Hastings's  internal  ad- 
ministration was  most   successful.     He  dis- 
solved the  double  government,  and  transferred 
the  direction  of  affairs  to  the  English.     He 
created    the    public  offices   and    service   of 
Bengal.    He  organised  the  revenue  for  the 
first  time  on  a  definite  basis.    This,   more- 
over, he  effected  from  mere  chaos,  without 
any  assistance,  being  on   the  contrary  con- 
stantly trammelled    by  orders  from    home, 
and  frequently  borne  down  by  a  majority  in 
council. 

Hastings  remained  at  the  head  of  affairs 
till  1785.  By  the  time  of  his  return  peace 
was  now  restored  to  India;  there  was 
no  opposition  in  the  council;  there  was  no 
European  enemy  in  the  Eastern  seas.  But 
in  the  meanwhile  the  feeling  against  him  on 
account  of  some  of  his  acts,  and  notably 
those  connected  with  Oude  and  the  RohiUa 
War,  had  been  growing  very  strong  at  home. 
At  the  instance  of  some  of  the  Whigs,  at  the 
head  of  whom  was  Burke,  he  was  impeached 


(541) 


Kat 


by  the  House  of  Commons.  The  trial  began  Feb. 
13, 1788,  with  Borke,  Fox,  and  Sheridan  as  the 
principal  managers  for  the  Commons.  The 
trial  dragged  for  eight  years,  and  in  the  end 
Hastings  was  acquitted  (Apnl  23, 1795).  The 
rest  of  his  life  was  passed  peacefully  inEngland. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  Hastings  was  guilty 
of  some  of  the  worst  acts  imputed  to  him; 
but  the  surpassing  greatness  of  the  work  he 
accomplished,  in  placing  the  English  Empire 
in  India  upon  a  secure  basis,  may  well  have 
been  suffered  to  outweigh,  his  offences. 

state  TridU;   Wilka,   Mywv;    Orant   Duff, 
MahnUas;  Mill,    Hid.    of  India;   MaoaaUy, 

^•~V«-  [B.  S.] 

Hastixiffly  Francis  Rawdok,  Ist  Mar- 
quis OP  {b.  r764,  d.  1826],  was  the  son  of  Sir 
John  Rawdon,  who  was  afterwards  raised  to 
the  Irish  peerage  by  the  title  of  Earl  of 
Moira.  On  leaving  Oxford,  he  entei^  the 
army  as  an  ensign,  and  was  before  very  long 
engaged  in  the  American  War.  For  his 
services  on  this  occasion  he  was  made  an 
English  peer,  in  1783.  In  1793  he  sue 
ceeded  to  his  father's  title,  and  in  1803 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief  in  Soot- 
land.  About  the  same  time,  he  seems  to  have 
paid  considerable  attention  to  the  condi- 
tion of  poor  debtors,  and  the  state  of  Ireland. 
In  1813  he  was  appointed  to  succeed  Lord 
Minto  as  Grovemor-General  of  India,  and  com- 
mander-in-chief there.  His  first  measure  of 
importance  was  to  declare  war  (1814)  against 
the  Ghoorkas  of  Nepaul,  who  had  been  en- 
croaching on  the  British  territory  towards 
the  north  of  Hindoetan.  After  some  ini- 
tiatory reverses,  the  English  arms  were 
victorious,  the  Ghoorka  limits  were  de- 
fined, and  the  war  brought  to  an  end  (1816). 
For  this  success,  Lord  Moira  was  made 
Marquis  of  Hastings.  The  attention  of  the 
Governor-General  was  next  turned  to  the 
Mahratta  powers,  who  were  supporting  the 
raids  of  the  robber  Pindarees.  Within  a 
very  short  period,  the  Peishwa's  dominions 
were  practically  annexed,  the  Pindarees 
destroyed,  the  Bajpoot  States  protected, 
Sdndiah  forced  to  enter  upon  a  new  treaty, 
and  the  Holkar  State  compelled  to  ^ield  up 
part  of  its  territory,  and  become  a  subsidiary 
state  under  the  protection  of  the  British 
government  (1817 — 18).  Lord  Hastings  had 
succeeded  in  establishing  the  English  power 
more  firmly  than  ever,  and  in  securing  for 
India  a  peace  which  bade  fair  to  be  lasting. 
But  it  was  not  only  as  a  great  conductor  of 
military  operations  that  lus  name  is  worthy 
of  remembrance.  He  was  the  first  Grovemor- 
General  who  strongly  advocated  the  education 
of  the  natives,  in  direct  contravention  of  the 
popular  notion  that  their  ignorance  contri- 
buted to  the  security  of  the  English  rule. 
Native  schools  and  native  journals  were 
established  under  his  rule,  and  with  his 
approval,  though  the  innovation  was  strongly 
opposed  by  most  men  of  his  own  generation. 


In  1820,  Lord  Hastings  turned  his  attention 
to  the  Nizam*s  dominions,  where,  though  the 
extinction  of  the  Peishwa  had  relieved  the 
country  from  its  enormous  arrears  of  tribute, 
every  office  was  put  up  to  bribe,  and  ruin  was 
imminent.  Mr.  Charles  Metcalfe  now  was 
appointed  British  Resident  at  the  court  of 
Hyderabad;  and  he,  discovering  that  the 
Palmer  Bank  was  a  main  source  of  corruption, 
and  was  compromising  the  British  govern- 
ment, owing  to  Lord  Hastings's  connection 
with  one  of  the  partners,  took  such  drastic 
measures  as  led  to  the  speedy  winding-up  of 
the  concern.  Shortly  after  this,  Lora  Hast- 
ings resolved  to  resign  his  office.  He  accord- 
ingly left  India  in  1823,  and  accepted  the 
government  of  Malta,  where  he  introduced 
many  reforms.  His  death  occurred  in  1826. 
Though  .  Lord  Hastings  was  constantly  at 
war  with  the  Court  of  Directors,  it  must 
be  conceded  that  it  was  under  his  rule  that 
the  British  power  became  paramount  in  India. 
His  labours  in  India  and  elsewhere  shattered 
his  health,  and  it  is  said  that  his  fortune  was 
materially  impaired  by  the  expenses  of  his 
office. 

Mil].  Hi$t.  of  Briiith  India  g  Talboys  Wheeler, 
Hiat  of  India. 

Hastixiff%  William,  Lord  {d.  1483),  was 
the  son  of  Leonard  Hastings,  esquire  of 
Richard,  Duke  of  York.  He  was  a  ravourite 
of  Edward  IV.,  from  whom  he  received  con- 
siderable grants  of  land,  besides  holding  the 
offices  of  Master  of  the  Mint,  Captain  of 
Calais,  and  Lord  Chamberlain.  Though  he 
had  supported  Richard  against  the  Woodvilles, 
he  was  suddenly  seized  by  the  Protector's 
orders  while  at  tne  council-table,  and  hurried 
off  to  execution  on  a  charge  of  conspiracy 
(June,  1483).  The  reason  of  this  sudden 
execution  seems  to  have  been  due  to  the  fact 
that  he  was  unwilling  to  second  Richaixi*s 
nefarious  schemes  for  obtaining  the  throne. 
Hastings  married  Margaret  Neville,  sister  of 
the  Earl  of  Warwick. 

KatfielcU  The  CorxciL  of  (Sept.  17, 
680),  was  convened  by  Archbishop  Theodore, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  leading  Anglian 
and  Saxon  kings  in  Britain.  This  council 
devoted  itself  to  declaring  the  orthodoxy  of 
the  English  Church  as  regards  the  Monothelite 
heresy  and  its  acceptance  of  the  decrees  of 
the  five  first  general  councils  and  the  canons 
of  the  Lateran  Council  of  649.  John  the 
Precentor,  who  had  been  sent  over  by  Pope 
Agatho  to  inquire  into  the  faith  of  the 
English  Church,  was  present  at  this  s^'nod, 
and  brought  with  him  Benedict  Biscop 
to  instruct  the  English  in  the  art  of  church- 
building  ;  while  John  himself  was  commis- 
sioned to  g^ve  instructions  in  church-singing. 

Haddan  and  Stnbbe,  CounctU  and  BecleMiattieai 
LocumenU,  voL  iii. 

Hatherlejy  William  Paob  Wood,  Ist 


(642) 


Lord  (A.  1801,  d.  1881),  the  son  of  Sir 
Matthew  Wood,  was '  called  to  the  bar  at 
Lincolxi*s  Inn,  1827.  He  was  elected  for  the 
city  of  Oxford  in  1847,  in  the  Liberal  interest, 
and  continued  to  represent  that  constituency 
till  1852.  In  1849  he  was  appointed  Vice- 
chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster,  in 

1851  he  became    Solicitor- G-eneral,  and   in 

1852  Vice-Chancellor.  In  1868  he  was  ap- 
pointed a  judge  of  the  Court  of  Appeal  m 
Chancery  and  sworn  of  the  Privy  Council, 
and  in  1868  as  Lord  Chancellor.  He  re- 
signed in  1872. 

Hatton,  Sir  Christopher  (fi.  1539,  d. 
1591),  is  said  to  have  first  attracted  the 
notice  of  Queen  Elizabeth  b}'  his  graceful 
dancing  at  a  ball  given  by  the  Inns  of  Court. 
He  was  appointed  one  of  the  queen*s  gentle- 
men pensioners  in  1564,  and  soon  became  one 
of  her  chief  favourites.  In  1577  he  was 
appointed  Yico-Chamberlain  and  a  member 
of  the  Privy  Council — the  queen's  partiality 
for  him  causing  "much  envy  and  some 
scandal " — whilst  he  also  took  a  leading 
position  in  the  House  of  Commons.  In  1575, 
Hatton  vehemently  opposed  the  marriage  of 
the  queen  with  the  Duke  of  Anjou,  and  after- 
wards took  an  active  part  in  the  proceedings 
against  the  Queen  of  Scots.  He  was  a  com- 
missioner at  the  trials  of  Babington  and  the 
other  conspirators,  and  was  engaged  in  Hie 
examination  of  Curie  and  Nau.  ^lary  Stuart's 
secretaries.  He  subsequently  incurred  the 
queen's  anger  for  having  urged  on  the 
despatch  of  the  execution  warrant,  but  was 
quickly  restored  to  favour,  and  in  April,  1587, 
succeeded  Sir  Thomas  Bromley  as  Lord 
Chancellor,  much  to  the  surprise  and  anger 
of  the  bar,  many  of  whose  members  resolved 
not  to  practise  before  him.  Hatton,  however, 
filled  his  trying  post  with  credit;  delivered 
his  judgments  with  caution  and  never  decided 
difi&cult  cases  unadvised.  In  1591,  however, 
he  lost  the  queen's  regard,  and  died,  it  is 
said,  of  a  broken  heai*t  caused  by  Elizabeth's 
conduct  in  instituting  a  suit  against  him  to 
recover  a  sum  of  money  lent  to  him  in  the 
early  days  of  her  favour.  Sir  Christopher 
Hatton,  though  essentially  a  courtier,  was  a 
man  of  ready  wit  and  great  capacity,  and  is 
said  to  have  shown  g^reat  industry  when  he 
was  Lord  Chancellor,  and  to  have  made  him- 
self tolerably  well  acquainted  with  the  prac- 
tice of  the  Court  of  Chancery. 

Cunpbell,  Lives  ^  ths   ChoLnctMon ;    Foes, 
Liven  of  th»  Judges ;  Froade,  Hiet.  of  Bng. 

Havelock,  Sir  Henry  (A.  1794,  d.  1857), 
entered  the  army  in  1815,  and  in  1823  em- 
barked for  Bengal.  Next  year  he  went 
through  the  first  Burmese  War,  earning 
considerable  distinction  for  courage  and 
energy.  In  1838  he  was  promoted  to  a  cap- 
taincy, and  was  shortly  afterwards  sent  with 
his  regiment  to  form  part  of  the  force  in- 
tended to  replace  Shah  Soojah  on  the  throne 


of  Cabul.  After  the  occupation  of  Cabul, 
Havelock,  with  a  portion  of  the  army,  retired 
to  India,  but  was  shortly  recalled  at  the 
news  of  the  Cabul  massacre.  He  aided  in 
the  defence  of  Jellalabad  against  Akbar 
Khan  (1842),  and  marched  with  the  army  to 
occupy  Cabul  for  the  second  time,  and  revenge 
the  English  disasters.  He  took  part  in  the 
Gwalior  campaign  (1843),  and  was  present  at 
the  battles  of  Moodkee,  Ferozeshar,  Ali- 
wal,  and  Sobraon.  He  took  no  part  in 
the  second  Sikh  War,  being  employed  at 
Bombay.  After  a  short  interval  spent  in 
England  he  received  the  command  of  a 
division  under  Outram,  for  the  Persian 
War,  1857.  When  the  Indian  Mutiny  broke 
out  Havelock  advanced  upon  Cawnpore, 
and  defeated  Nana  Sahib  outside  the  town. 
He  then  made  his  way  for  Lucknow,  but 
finding  his  forces  too  weak  to  relieve  this 
place,  was  forced  to  return  tc  Cawnpore. 
Here  he  was  joined  in  September  at  the 
Alumbagh,  Lucknow,  by  Sir  James  Outram, 
and  the  two  together  succeeded  in  relieving 
Lucknow.  Two  months  had  hardly  passed 
before  Sir  Henry  Havelock  died  of  dysentery 
(Nov.  24,  1857). 

Howke,  Edward,  Lord  {b.  1705,  d,  1781), 
became  a  captain  in  the  Royal  Navy  in  1734. 
He  distinguished  himself  in  an  engag^ement 
with  the  French  fleet  off  Toulon  in  1 744,  and 
became  rear-admiral  in  1747.  He  defeated 
the  French  fleet  off  Belleisle,  and  at  the  end 
of  the  year  was  returned  for  Portsmouth. 
In  1748  he  became  vice-admiraL  He  served 
in  Nova  Scotia  (1749),  and  became  com- 
mander of  Portsmouth  (1750).  In  1755, 
though  war  had  not  yet  been  declared, 
he  was  directed  to  attack  French  ships  of 
war.  In  1757,  on  the  loss  of  Minorca,  he 
took  command  of  the  Mediterranean  fleet, 
was  at  the  head  of  the  blockading  squadron 
in  the  Bay  of  Biscay  (1758),  and  in  the 
following  year  defeated  the  French  under 
Marshal  Conflans,  in  Quiberon  Bay.  In  1765 
he  became  Vice-Admiral  of  Great  Britain 
and  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  and  eleven 
years  later  was  raised  to  the  peerage. 
M.  Burrows,  Life  of  Lord  Hatcleo. 


I,  Sir  John  {b.  1520,  d.  1595), 
one  of  the  most  enterprising  seamen  of 
Queen  Elizabeth's  reign,  passed  most  of  his 
youth  in  making  voyages  in  the  interests  of 
commerce.  He  has  incurred  the  odium  of 
having  been  the  first  to  establish  a  trade  in 
slaves  (1562),  whom  he  bought  in  Guinea  and 
sold  in  Hispaniola  (1562—64);  on 'several 
occasions  comins:  into  collision  with  the 
Spaniards.  In  1573  he  was  made  Treasurer 
of  the  Navy,  and,  after  having  been  nearly 
murdered  by  Peter  Burchell  in  mistake  for 
Sir  Christopher  Hatton,  was  appointed  ad- 
miral of  the  Victory  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish 
Armada ;  commanding  tiiat  part  of  the  fleet 
which  was  stationed  between  the  Land's  End 


(648) 


and  the  Scilly  Islands.    For  his  able  and 

energetic    conduct   at    this    crisis,   he    was 

knighted  and   received  the   thanks    of  the 

queen.    In   1590  Sir  John    Hawkins  made 

another  expedition  to  the  Spanish  Main  in 

conjunction  with  Sir  Martin  Frobisher,  and 

five  years  later  sailed  for  the  West  Indies 

with  Sir    Francis    Drake,  but  died   before 

anything  had  been  accomplished. 

Camden,  AnntUa  of  BUzabHh ;  Fronde,  Htst.  of 
Eng.;  Borrow,  Naval  WorihitB;  Fox  Bourne, 
Bng.  Seamen  under  Vie  Tudon. 


J,  Thomas,  a  prebendary  of  South- 
well,  presented  a  bill  of  complaint  in  the 
Parliament  of  1397,  on  the  condition  of 
the  king^s  household.  When  it  was  brought 
under  the  notice  of  Richard  II.,  the  long 
was  extremely  indignant,  and  demanded 
the  name  of  its  author  from  the  Parlia- 
ment. Thon^as  Haxey  was  pointed  out  as 
the  offender,  and  adjudged  to  die  as  a  traitor. 
He  was,  however,  saved  by  the  prompt  action 
of  Archbishop  Arundel,  who  claimed  him  as  a 
clergyman.  Shortly  afterwards  he  was  par- 
doned. This  case  illustrates  the  fact  that, 
in  the  fourteenth  century,  freedom  of  debate 
in  Parliament  was  very  far  from  being  estab- 
lished. 


L,  Sir  John  {b.  1660,  d,  1627), 
was  a  ^native  of  Felixstowe,  in  Suffolk,  and 
was  a  voluminous  author.  This  writer  owes 
what  reputation  he  possesses  to  the  fact 
of  his  being  one  of  the  earliest  of  our 
English  historians,  as  distinguished  from 
mere  annalists.  On  the  pubhcation  of  his 
Life  and  Reign  of  Henry  IV.y  as  the  work 
was  dedicated  to  the  Earl  of  Essex,  he  was 
thrown  into  prison,  where  he  remained  till 
the  death  of  Elizabeth.  On  the  accession  of 
James  I.,  he  published  two  treatises,  On  the 
Sight  of  Suecessiony  and  The  Union  of  Eng' 
land  and  Scotland^  for  which  services  he  was 
received  into  the  new  king's  favour,  and  was 
in  1610  appointed  Camden's  colleague  in 
the  office  of  historiographer  to  James's  pro- 
pooed  college  at  Chelsea.  A  few  years  lator 
he  wrote  his  Livee  of  the  Three  Nonnan 
Kings  of  Englandy  at  Prince  Henry's  request, 
and  was  knighted  six  years  later  (1619). 
After  his  death  two  works  were  found  among 
his  MSS. ;  The  Life  and  Rayne  of  Edward  VI. 
(published  1630),  and  Certain  Yeree  of 
Elizabeth*8  Rayne.  The  former  of  these 
two  productions  is  mainly  based  on  Edward 
VI.'s  diary,  and  the  latter  extends  over  the 
first  four  years  of  the  queen's  reign.  Both 
are  trustworthy  and  well  written.  They  have 
been  published  for  the  Camden  Society  with 
an  introduction  and  life  of  the  author  oy  Mr. 
John  Bruce  (1840). 


I,  Sib  Francis  (4.  1793,  d.  1876), 
was  in  1836  appointed  Governor  of  Upper 
Canada.  He  was  a  man  of  great  abiht}"-, 
and  eminently  successful  in  dealing  with 
the  national  party,  who  were  at  that  time 


clamouring  for  reform.  Though  possessed  of 
much  caution,  and  careful  to  follow  out  his 
instructions  from  home,  ho  was  powerless  to 
avert  the  insurrection  which  broke  out  in 
Upper  Canada  at  the  end  of  1837.  By  his 
prompt  measures,  however,  he  prevented  ite 
gaining  any  considerable  ground.  In  1839 
he  resigned  his  office,  owing  to  a  disagree- 
ment with  Lord  Q-lenelg,  the  Colonial 
Minister. 

Kead-borough  (Head-pledge),  The,  sig- 
nified the  chief  man  of  the  Frank-pledge 
(q.v.).  This  officer  was  also  known  by  the 
name  of  borough-head,  tithing^man,  &c.,  ac- 
cording to  the  local  custom.  This  head- 
borough  was  the  chief  of  the  pledges ;  the 
other  nine  who  were  with  him  and  made  up 
the  group  were  called  hand-boroughs.  The 
duties  of  the  head-borough  are  defined  in  one 
of  the  so-called  Laws  of  Edward  the  Confessor. 
If  any  member  of  the  frank-pledge  or  tenman- 
netale  had  done  an  injustice  to  anyone  else, 
and  had  fled  away  to  escape  punishment,  the 
head-borough  at  the  end  of  twenty-one  days 
had  to  appear  before  the  justice  with  two 
other  members  of  his  frank-pledge  and  six 
neighbours,  and  exculpate  the  body  of  which 
he  was  the  head  from  all  complicity  in  the 
original  wrong  and  the  flight  of  the  evil-doer. 

Cowell,   InterpreUri    Stubbe,    SAeat    Char- 
t«r»,  74. 

Heame,  Thomas  {b.  1678,  d.  1735),  a 
learned  English  antiquary,  was  the  son  of  the 
parish  clerk  at  Littleficld  Gk-een,  in  Berk- 
shire. His  abilities  attracted  the  attention  of 
a  gentleman,  who  first  sent  him  to  school  and 
then  to  Oxford.  In  the  year  1701  he  was 
appointed  assistant  keeper  of  the  Bodleian 
Library.  In  1716  he  was  deprived  of  his 
office  for  political  reasons ;  but  he  still  con- 
tinued to  live  at  Oxford  and  pursue  his  anti- 
quarian studies.  His  principal  works  were 
editions  of  Leland's  Collectanea^  of  Camden's 
Annalsy  Roper's  Life  of  Sir  T.  More,  For- 
dun's  Seotichronieottf  William  of  Newbury, 
Robert  of  Gloucester,  Benedict  of  Peter- 
borough, and  Alfred  of  Beverley.  But 
besides  these  he  issued  many  other  of  our  old 
chroniclers. 

Hearth  BEoney  ^^^  ^  ^^  ^^  ^^^ 

shillings  on  ever}"  hearth  *'  in  all  houses 
paying  to  CJhurch  and  poor.''  It  was  first 
imposed  by  Parliament,  1663,  and  abolished 
in  1689.  It  was  always  a  verj."  unpopular 
tax.  Under  the  name  of  *'  Chimney  Money  " 
it  dates,  as  a  tax  paid  by  custom,  from  the 
Norman  Conquest. 

Hearts  of  Steel,  Thb,  was  an  or- 
ganisation  formed  in  1772  among  the  Pro- 
testant tenants  of  Tyrone  and  Antrim.  The 
landlords  had  been  largely  increasing  the 
rent-s  of  their  tenants,  and  had  taken  up  with 
cattle-farming  on  their  own  account,  with 
the  result  that  Protestants  were  replaced  by 


(  544  ) 


Keb 


Catholics.  The  tenants  not  only  sent  a  peti- 
tion to  Parliament  and  to  the  Lord-Lieutenant, 
but  they  also  showed  their  hostility  to  the 
intruders  by  destroying  their  cattle  and 
burning  their  houses.  An  Act  was  passed 
against  them,  and  troops  sent  to  the  north. 
On  the  appearance  of  the  latter  the  move- 
ment  collapsed,  but  was  followed  by  increased 
emigration. 

Heath,  Nicholas  {d.  1566),  Archbishop 
of  York  and  Lord  Chancellor,  was  originally 
chaplain  to  Cardinal  Wolsey,  and  obtained 
the  favour  of  Henry  YIII.,  who  appointed  him 
successively  to  the  sees  of  Rochester  and 
Worcester.  In  1551,  owing  to  his  opposition 
to  the  Reformation,  he  was  deposed  from  his 
see,  but  was  reinstated  on  the  accession  of 
Mary,andshortly  afterwards  made  Archbishop 
of  xork.  At  the  end  of  1555  he  succeeded 
Bishop  Gardiner  as  Lord  Chancellor,  and 
speedily  proved  his  utter  incompetence  as  a 
judge.  On  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  Heath 
was  deprived  of  the  Great  Seal,  and  on  per- 
ceiving that  the  queen  intended  to  re-establish 
the  Protestant  religion,  declined  to  assist  at 
her  coronation.  He  shortly  afterwards  refused 
to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy  and  was 
deprived  of  his  archbishopric,  spending  the 
rest  of  his  days  in  *^  study  and  devotion.'* 
Fou,  Judge*  of  England. 

HeathflelcU  Thb  Battle  of  (633), 
fought  between  Fenda  of  Mercia  and  Edwin 
of  NorthumWia,  resulted  in  the  defeat  and 
death  of  the  latter.  The  place  is  probably  to 
be  identified  with  Hatfield,  in  the  West 
Kiding  of  Yorkshire. 

Heathfleld,  Gbokob  Auoustus  Elliot, 
Baron  (b.  1717,  d.  1790),  commenced  his 
military  career  by  serving  as  a  volunteer  in 
the  Prussian  army.  On  returning  home  he 
first  entered  the  ranks  of  the  Engineers  at 
Woolwich,  from  which  he  exchanged  a  few 
years  later  into  the  Horse  Grenadiers.  With 
these  troops  he  served  in  Germany,  and  was 
wounded  at  Dettingen.  After  taking  part  in 
the  expedition  to  Cherbourg  and  Havannah, 
he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
forces  in  Ireland  (1775),  but,  owing  to  some 
difference  with  the  authorities  at  Dublin,  he 
very  soon  resigned  his  post,  and  returned  to 
England,  whence  he  was  despatched,  as 
governor,  to  Gibraltar.  In  1779  began  the 
siege  of  that  important  port,  and  for  four  years 
were  the  governor's  ability  and  endurance 
tiixed  to  their  utmost.  In  every  respect  did 
Elliot  show  himself  equal  to  the  occasion, 
and  he  has  been  handed  down  to  posterity  as 
having  conducted  the  most  stubborn  defence 
of  modem  warfare.  The  value  of  his  services 
was  recognised  at  home,  though  somewhat 
tardily.  He  remained  at  the  post  he  had 
held  so  gloriously  till  1787,  when  he  returned 
to  England,  and  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as 
Baron  Heathfield.    In  1790  he  died  of  para- 


lysis, just  as  he  was  going  to  set  out  aguiL 
for  Gibraltar.  **  Ever  resolute  and  ever 
wary,'*  says  Lord  Stanhope,  *'  and  prevailing^ 
by  example  as  much  as  by  command,  he 
combined  throughout  the  siege  the  spirit  to 
strike  a  blow  at  any  weak  point  of  the 
assailants  with  a  vigilant  forethought  ex- 
tending even  to  the  minutest  xneasureB  of 
defence." 

Lord  Stanhope,  Hitt.  of  Eng, ;  Cummgham, 
Lives  of  Eminmti  £nylisKmen. 

Heairenfield,  The  Battle  of  (634),  was 
fought  between  Oswald  of  Northumbria  and 
the  Britons  under  Cadwalla.  Oswald  is  said 
to  have  reared  a  cross  with  his  own  hands 
before  the  battle  commenced.  The  Britona 
were  utterly  routed. 

Hebrides*  The,  were  known  to  Ptolemy 
under  the  name  of  the  Ebuds.  The  Scan- 
dinavians called  them  Sudrey-jar  or  Southern 
Islands,  in  contradistinction  to  the  Northern 
Islands  of  Scotland — ^the  Orkneys  and  the 
Shetlands.  Towards  the  very  end  of  the 
eighth  century  these  islands  became  subject 
to  the  incursions  of  the  Vikings.  Previous 
to  this  period  thov  maj  have  been  inhabited 
by  Celbc  tribes,  differing,  more  or  less,  from 
those  upon  the  mainland  of  Scotland ;  though 
Mr.  Rh^s  has  adduced  reasons  which  tend  to 
show  that  these  tribes,  as  well  as  the  Picts, 
may  have  been  largely  tinctured  with  the 
blood  of  an  earlier,  and  not  improbably  a 
non-Aryan  race.  In  the  ninth  century  the 
Hebrides  were  colonised  by  bands  of  Nor- 
wegian settlers,  fleeing  from  their  native 
country  before  the  growing  power  of  Harold 
Harfagr.  When,  however,  these  exiles  began 
to  send  expeditions  against  their  old  home, 
Harold  fitted  out  a  great  fleet  and  reduced 
these  islands ;  from  which  time  the  Hebrides, 
as  well  as  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  Isles,  were 
for  a  considerable  period  subject  to  Norwegian 
rule,  though  they  must  be  considered,  accord- 
ing to  Mr.  Skene,  to  have  been  *'  rather  the 
haunt  of  stray  Vikings  '*  than  subject  to  any 
distinct  raler.  About  the  year  989  Sigurd, 
Jarl  of  Orkney,  seems  to  have  made  good  his 
claim  on  these  islands  against  that  of  the 
Danish  king  of  the  isles,  who  appears  to  have 
been  connected  with  the  Danes  of  Limerick 
and  Dublin.  But  even  Sigurd  must  have  held 
his  rule  subject  to  the  King  of  Norway.  By 
the  middle  of  the  eleventh  eentur>'  the  Danes 
of  Dublin  and  Limerick  had  seized  upon 
Man,  and  began  to  contest  the  Hebrides  with 
the  Norwegian  Earls  of  Orkney.  When 
Duncan  was  murdered  or  slain  in  battle 
(1040),  the  Hebrides  formed  part  of  Thor- 
finn,  the  Earl  of  Orkney's  dominions.  Soon 
after  his  death  (1057  F),  however,  these 
islands  fell  into  the  power  of  an  Irish 
King  of  Leinster.  "When  Gedred,  whom  the 
Irish  historians  call  King  of  the  Dublin 
Danes,  conquered  the  Isle  of  Man  (1075  F), 
he  does  not  seem  to  have  been  long  before 


( ^^  ) 


extending  his  authority  over  the  Hebrides 
also.  Before  his  death,  however,  his  newly 
acquired  territories  were  wrssted  from  his 
hands  by  Magnus  Barefoot,  Kin^  of  Norway 
(1093 — 1103),  who  so  soon  perished  in  his 
attempt  on  Ireland,  but  not  before  the  Scotch 
King  Ed^r  had  relinquished  the  Western 
Isles  entirely.  Upon  this,  Magnus's  son 
Sigurd,  whom  he  had  left  as  his  ruler  in  the 
isles,  quitted  his  new  principality  for  his 
native  land,  and  the  Jlorse  colony  then 
broke  up  into  separate  states.  Ultimately, 
however,  Godred  Crovan's  son  Ohif  suc- 
ceeded in  establishing  himself  in  the 
Hebrides,  which  he  rmed  for  forty  years 
(1113 — 1163).  But  it  now  appears  that  the 
native  Celtic  or  pre-Celtio  race,  which  had, 
perhaps^  been  driven  to  the  more  inaccessible 
parts  of  the  islands,  were  preparing  to  assert 
themselves  against  the  Norse  strangers.  They 
were  led  by  one  Somerlaed,  who,  notwithstand- 
ing his  Teutonic  name,  was  of  Celtic  des- 
cent. Somerlaed  pretended  to  be  fighting  on 
behalf  of  his  son  and  Olaf  s  nephew  against 
his  brother-in-law;  but  in  1156  the  isles 
were  divided  into  two  halves,  of  which  the 
southern  half  seems  to  have  been  practically 
in  the  hands  of  Somerlaed,  who  held  it 
subject  to  the  King  of  Norway.  From  this 
time  there  were  two  sovereigns  bearing  the 
title  of  '*Kin|;  of  the  Isles?'  In  the  first 
half  of  the  thirteenth  century  Aleicander  II. 
demanded  the  restoration  of  the  Hebrides 
from  Hakon,  King  of  Norway,  on  the  ground 
that  Magnus  Bsurefoot  had  robbed  them  of 
the  Scotch  crown.  On  being  refused  he  was 
preparing  to  avail  himself  of  a  disputed 
succession,  when  he  died  suddenly  in  1249. 
When  Alexander  III.  grew  to  manhood  he 
began  to  contemplate  the  subjection  of  these 
idands,  and  when  Hakon,  hearing  the  com- 
plaints of  his  subject  kings,  and  coming  to 
their  relief  was  utterly  defeated  at  the  battle 
of  Larffs  (1263),  it  was  not  long  before  he 
ceded  the  disputed  territories  to  the  Scotch 
king,  in  return  for  a  payment  of  4,000  marks 
doMm,  and  a  pension  of  100  marks  a  year 
(1266^.  By  this  treaty  the  Archbishop  of 
Tronahjem  was  still  preserved  in  his  metropo- 
Htical  rights  over  the  Sndreys  and  Man,  rights 
which  hd  seems  to  have  preserved  tiU  at 
least  the  year  1400.  The  rule  of  the  ishmds 
seems  to  have  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
descendants  of  Somerlaed,  and  towards  the 
end  of  the  fourteenth  century  John  Mac- 
donald  of  Islay  adopted  the  style  of  Lord  of 
the  Isles,  a  title  which  James  V.  forced 
another  John  of  Islay  to  relinquish  some 
hundred  and  fifty  years  later. 

Skene,  Celtic  Scotland  ;  J.  H.  Burton,  H««t.  of 
Scotland  I  Munch,  ChrowicoK  JSMum  Jf  annior. 

[T.  A.  A.] 

Kedgeley  Moor,  The  Battle  of 
(April  26th,  1464),  was  fought  during  the 
Wars  of  the  Boses,  between  Margaret  of 
Anjou  and  the  Yorkists  under  Lord  Mon- 

BIKT.-18 


tague.  Margaret,  who  had  retired  to  Scotland 
after  the  battle  of  Towton,  collected  forces 
and  invaded  England  in  the  early  pirt  of 
1464.  She  took  several  northern  castles,  and 
was  joined  by  Somerset  and  the  Percies ;  but 
Montague,  who  was  sent  against  the  Lan- 
castrians, totally  defeated  and  slew  Percy  at 
Hedgeley  Moor,  some  miles  south  of  Wooler 
in  Northumberland. 

Solena,  St.,  The  Island  of,  owes  its 
name  to  its  having  been  discovered  by  the 
Portuguese  on  St.  Helena's  day.  May  21, 
1601.  In  the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth 
century  the  East  India  Company  got  posses- 
sion of  the  island,  and  from  this  date  it  has 
remained  in  the  hands  of  the  English.  St. 
Helena  was  a  station  of  great  importance  so 
long  as  the  ordinary  route  for  India  passed 
round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Since  the 
opening  of  the  Sues  Canal  it  is  a  place  of 
historic  interest  only,  owing  to  its  having 
been  chosen  as  the  place  of  exUe  for  Napoleon, 
who  died  here  in  1821. 

SoUgoUuid  (Holy  Land),  an  island  in  the 
North  Sea,  was  taken  from  Denmark  in  1807, 
and  in  1814  was  formally  ceded  to  Great 
Britain,  under  whose  rule  it  remained  until 
1890,  when  it  was  given  up  to  Germany 
in  exchange  for  possessions  in  East  Africa. 
It  is  now  attached  to  Schleswig-Holstciin. 
The  climate  is  mild  and  very  healthy. 
During  the  Napoleonic  wars  this  island  was 
of  very  considwable  importance  to  English 
commerce,  as  a  station  whence  English  goods 
could  be  smuggled  into  the  Continent  when 
the  European  ports  were  closed  to  our  vessels 
by  the  Berlin  and  Milan  decrees. 

Kemingbnrgliy  Walter  de  {d,  1347), 
was  sub-prior  of  Gisborough,  in  Yorkshire, 
and  wrote  a  Chnmide  extending  to  the  vear 
1297|  which  was  continued,  apparently,  by  a 
later  writer  to  1307,  and  by  a  still  later  to 
1346.  Whatever  the  history'  of  ito  compila- 
tion, Hemingburgh*s  Chrtmiele  is  undoubtedly 
of  very  considerable  value  for  the  reigns  of 
the  first  three  Edwards.  It  extends  from  the 
Conquest  down  to  the  year  of  the  battle  of 
Crecy,  but  it  is  only  for  the  last  three  rei^;ns 
that  it  seems  to  be  an  original  authority. 
The  work  is  remarkable  for  the  number  of 
documento  and  original  letters  preserved 
in  it,  notebly,  the  Latin  draft  of  Edward  I.'s 
Confirmatio  Cartarum,  to  which  the  name 
Stfitute  De  Talioffio  non  Coneedendo  has  been 
erroneously  applied.  The  style  of  this  writer, 
also,  is  much  above  that  of  the  ordinary 
monkish  annalists. 

The  Chronid4  of  Walter  de  Hemingbnrgh  ba^ 

been  edited  by  Mr.  Hamilton  for  tbe  Early 

EttgUsU  Text  Society  (1848). 

Henderson,  Alexandbr  {d,  1646),  was 

one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Presbyterian  party 
in  Scotland  in  the  seventeenth  century.  In 
conjunction  with  Johnston  of  Warriston  he 
drew  up  the  demands  of  the  Covenantors  in 


( w«) 


1638,  in  which  year  ha  was  Modentor  of  the 
Glasgow  Assembly.  He  was  one  of  the 
Sootdi  oommissLOners  at  the  Pacification  of 
Berwick  (q.vO»  '^^  ^^  ^®  Treaty  of  Ripon 
(1640).  He  died,  it  is  said,  of  remorse  at 
having  opposed  the  king,  ''regretting  the 
excess  to  which  affairs  were  carried." 

H0ll£f68t  [d-  489  P)  was  one  of  the  two 
leaders  of  the  first  band  of  Teutonic  settlers 
which  came  to  Britain.  By  some  writers, 
the  fact  of  the  name  Hengest  meaning  a 
horse  is  regarded  as  proTing  that  his  existence 
is  a  myth;  but  there  seems  no  reason  for 
adopting  that  theory  of  necessity,  as  we 
know  tiiat  among  the  Teutonic  peoples 
names  derived  from  animals  are  of  frequent 
Occurrence.  It  is  true  that  our  earliest 
authority,  Gildas,  does  not  mention  the 
names  of  any  of  the  Saxon  invaders,  and 
Bede  only  says,  ''the  two  first  commanders 
ar$  taid  to  have  been  Hengest  and  Horaa." 
Bat,  on  the  other  hand,  Ifemdus  and  the 
Anglo*  Saxon  Chronicle  distinctly  mention 
these  two  brothers  as  the  chiefs  of  the  Teu- 
tonic invaders  who  came  to  the  aid  of  Vor- 
tigem,  and  they  are  represented  as  being  the 
sons  of  one  Wihtgils^  who  was  a  great-grand- 
son of  Woden.  Dismissing  cll  the  later 
legends  which  accumulated  around  Heogest^s 
name,  the  following  is  a  very  brief  sketch  of 
what  we  know  of  him.  Together  with  his 
brother,  Horsa,  he  came  to  Britain,  probably 
(though  the  chronology  is  very  imcertain) 
about  the  year  450.  It  is  possible  they  may 
have  been  exiled,  as  Nennius  tells  us,  from 
Germany,  or  may  have  been  actually  invited 
over  by  Vortigem.  At  all  events,  they 
landed  at  Ebbsfleet,  and  agreed  to  assist 
the  British  king  against  the  Picts.  In  these 
wars  they  were  invariably  successful,  and 
as  a  reward  obtained  the  Isle  of  Thanet. 
But  shortly  afterwards  we  find  them  turning 
their  arms  against  Yortigem.  They  were 
defeated  at  Aylesford,  in  which  battle 
Horsa  was  shun.  But  the  tide  soon 
turned.  After  numerous  victories,  Hengest 
and  his  son,  .£sc,  oonauered  the  whole 
of  Kent;  fresh  swarms  of  Teutons  arrived; 
and  the  Britons  were  entirely  driven  out  of 
the  south-east  comer  of  the  island.  Such  is 
the  story  of  the  conquest  of  Kent  as  it  has 
been  banded  down  to  ns ;  but  it  is  impossible 
to  say  how  much  or  how  little  authority  is  to 
be  attached  to  details  which  cannot  well  have 
been  preserved  in  writing  at  the  time  of  their 
occurrence. 

^nylo-Seucon  Chr<micl«; Nennius;  BecU;  Gruen, 
Moinng  qf  Bngland. 

Kengest  Down^  or  Kingston  Down 

fHBNGSSTESUUN),  is  Situated  on  the  west  or 
Garnish  side  d  the  Tamar,  between  that 
river  and  Oallington.  Here,  in  886  or  887, 
Egbert  totally  defeated  the  combined  forces 
«f  the  Danes  and  the  West  Welsh. 
J.nflo>Sa«<m  Chronicle. 


_  k,  Ralph  nn  (d.  1309),  after 
filling  several  minor  judicial  offices,  was  made 
Chief  Justice  of  the  King's  Bench,  in  1274. 
In  1289  he  was  removed,  together  with  most 
of  the  other  judges,  on  a  charge  of  malversa- 
tion of  justice ;  but  he  subsequently  regained 
the  royal  favour,  and  became  Chief  Justice  of 
the  Common  Pleas,  in  1301,  an  ofiioe  he  con- 
tinued to  hold  tiU  his  death.  !]^ph  was  the 
author  of  two  legal  books,  J)e  £tmmiu  pro 
Defalt  %9  ei  Formulis  FlacUamdi,  commonly 
known  as  Hengham  Magna  and  Hengkam 
Farva.    These  were  edited  by  Selden  in  1616. 

Senriettay  Duchess  op  OnLBAh's, 
daughter  of  Cliarles  I.  (6.  1644,  d,  1670),  was 
bom  in  Exeter,  whither  her  mother  had  re* 
tired  during  the  Civil  War.  In  1646  she  was 
taken  in  disguise  to  France,  where  she  lived 
with  her  mother  till,  at  the  Bestoration,  she 
was  enabled  to  return  to  England.  In  1661 
she  was  married  to  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  only 
brother  to  Louis  XIV.,  by  whom  she  luul 
three  children.  She  was  employed,  in  1670, 
by  the  French  court  to  negotiate  the  Treaty 
of  Dover  with  England,  but  very  soon  after 
her  return  to  France  she  died  suddody. 
Rumour  ascribed  her  death  to  the  effects  of 
poison  administered  by  her  jealous  husband. 

Kanxiotta  Kaxia,  Qvbbn   (6.  1609, 

d.  1669),  wife  of  Charies  I.,  was  the 
yoimgest  daughter  of  Henry  IV.  of  Fiance. 
After  the  failure  of  the  Spanish  match, 
both  James  L  and  Buckingham  were  very 
anxious  that  Charles  shoukl  ally  himself 
with  Henrietta,  and  lor  this  purpose  ne- 
gotiations were  opened  in  1624.  The 
marriage  took  place  in  1625,  and  by  the 
marriage  treaty  Charles  agreed  to  suspend 
the  penal  laws  against  the  Catholics,  and 
allow  the  queen  the  free  exercise  of  her 
religion.  But  it  soon  became  evident  that 
Henrietta  was  a  tool  in  the  hands  of  the 
Catholics,  who  thronged  around  her,  and  not 
only  compelled  her  to  refuse  to  be  crowned 
with  her  husband  in  Westminster  Abbey,  but 
on  one  occasion  at  least  foroed  her  to  take 
part  in  a  pilgrimage  to  Tyburn,  where  tiie 
homan  Catholic  *' martyrs"  had  been  exe- 
cuted. At  last  Charles,  exasperated  by  this 
conduct,  drove  her  Roman  Catholic  attendants 
from  England.  As  long  as  Buckingham  Uved 
the  queen  took  very  little  part  in  public 
affairs,  but  after  his  death  she  exercised  a 
groat  infiuenoe  over  Charles,  who  ooidd  hardly 
have  had  a  worse  adviser  than  a  frivolous, 
passionate  woman,  fond  of  power,  but  careless 
of  the  use  she  made  of  it.  Though  Strafford's 
refusal  to  grant  places  in  IreUmd  to  her 
nominees  made  him  little  acceptable  to  her, 
she  used  her  influence  to  prevent  his  con- 
demnation, but  subsequently,  beinff  frightened 
by  the  outcries  of  the  people,  and  fearing  for 
her  own  and  her  huslMnd's  safety,  she 
entreated  Charles  to  assent  to  the  atteinder. 
It  was  chiefly  owing  to  her  advice  that  the 


(647) 


Jdng  made  the  foolish  attempt  to  arrest  the 
Five  Members  in  1642,  and  soon  after  this, 
when  civil  war  was  inevitable,  the  queen 
escaped  from  England  taking  with  her  the 
crown  jewels  for  the  purpoee  of  purchasing 
arms  for  her  husband.  She  returned  to 
England  in  1643,  and  narrowly  escaped  being 
taken  prisoner  by  the  Parliament.  Eventually 
she  joined  her  husband,  and  subsequently 
proceeded  to  the  West  of  England,  whence  in 
1644  she  escaped  to  France.  In  1643  she 
was  impeached  by  Pym  for  the  help  she  had 
given  her  husband,  but  after  the  impeach- 
ment had  been  unanimoasly  voted  by  the 
Commons,  and  sent  up  to  the  Lords,  no  more 
was  h^rd  of  it.  Qneen  Hemrietta  remained 
in  France  till  the  Restoration,  being  fre- 
quently in  great  poverty.  She  made  strenuous 
efforts  to  convert  her  children  to  Roman 
Catholicism,  and  succeeded  in  the  case  of  her 
youngest  daughter  Henrietta ;  but  the  young 
Duke  of  Gloucester  resolut^  withstood  all 
her  endeavours.  On  the  Restoration  she 
returned  to  England,  and  Somerset  House 
was  granted  as  her  residence.  Fearing  the 
plague  of  1665,  she  returned  to  France,  where 
she  remained  till  her  death.  While  in 
France  she  was  supposed  to  have  married 
Henry  Jermjnn,  afterwards  Earl  of  St.  Albans, 
but  there  is  no  direct  evidence  for  this, 
and  at  all  events  the  marriage  was  never 
acknowledged. 

Clazvndon,  BUi,  «/  the  B^ftlUon ;  Oavdhier, 


I.,  Kdio  {b.  1068, «.  Aug.  8, 1100, 
d.  Deo.  r,  1135),  was  the  youngest  son  of 
William  the  Conqueror.  His  education  must 
have  been  carefully  attended  to,  and  he 
seems  to  have  been,  to  some  extent  at  laast, 
familiar  with  Latin,  fie  was  dubbed  knight 
by  his  lather  and  Lanfrano  at  Whit- 
suntidoj  1086.  Next  year,  on  his  deathbed,' 
the  Conqueror  left  his  youngest  son  five: 
thousand  pounds  of  silver,  prophesjdng  at 
the  some  time,  aeoording  to  the  chronicles  of 
the  next  century,  that  he  would  succeed 
his  brothers  in  their  dominions.  With  his 
father's  bequest  Henry  bought  the  Cotentin 
and  Avranc^in  from  his  brother  Robert,  and 
is  found  later  assisting  Robert  against  Wil- 
liam and  the  revolted  city  of-  Rouen  (lOdO). 
In  1001,  when  peace  was  restored  between 
Robert  and  William  by  the  Treaty  of  Caen, 
the  two  brothers,  not  content  with  having 
taken  away  Henry's  right  of  succession, 
made  war  against  him  for  the  purpose 
of  stripping  him  of  his  lands.  Driven  m>m 
St.  Michael's  Mount,  Henry  accepted  the 
lordship  of  Domfront  in  1093.  Almost  im- 
mediately after  thi?,  he  was  reconciled  to 
William  and  won  back  part  of  his  old  posses- 
sions from  Robert  On  the  day  of  William's 
death,  Henry  alRO  was  hunting  in  the  New 
Forest ;  and  on  hearing  the  news,  he  at  once 
hastened  to  Winchester  to  seize  the  treasure 


and  to  put  forward  his  claims  to  the  crowA* 
After  some  discussion,  in  which  several  mem« 
hers  of  the  Council  maintained  the  rights  of 
the  absent  Robert,  Henry  was  elected  long, 
chiefly,  we  are  told,  by  the  influence  of  the 
Earl  of  Warwick.  Two  days  later  he  was 
crowned  at  Westminster,  and  swore  to 
abolish  the  wrongs  f it>m  which  the  country 
had  suffered  under  his  brother's  rule,  to 
maintain  peace,  repress  disorders,  and  deal 
justice  with  mercy.  Henry  immediately 
issued  a  Charter,  promising  to  maintain  the 
privileges  of  the  Church,  the  vassals,  and 
the  nation.  As  an  earnest  of  his  inten- 
tion to  observe  these  pledges,  he  impri- 
soned Flambard,  the  chief  instrument  of  his 
brother's  tyranny,  and  invited  Anselm,  the 
object  of  his  brother's  hate,  to  return  to 
England.  Before  the  year  was  out  Anselm 
had  come  back  and  married  the  new  king  to 
Edith,  the  daughter  of  Malcolm  Canmore 
and  nieoe  of  Eogar  Atheling.  Meanwhile, 
Robert  had  returned  from  the  Holy  Land 
and  began  to  claim  the  crown  aocoiding  to 
the  terns  of  the  Treaty  of  Caen.  The  great 
Norman  nobles  were  not  unwilling  to  assist 
him  in  his  pretensions.  Robert  of  Belesme, 
Ivo  of  Grantmesnil,  and  many  other  Nonnan 
banms  would  have  preferred  the  lax  in- 
dolence of  the  elder  to  the  stem  justice  of  the 
younger  brother  ;  while  Henry  laid  his  chief 
trust  in  the  influence  of  Anselm  and  the 
flddity  of  the  English.  When  the  two 
armies  met  near  Winchester,  the  great  barons 
on  both  sides  seeing  that  whoever  should 
conquer,  their  position  in  the  land  would  be 
rendered  insecure,  prevailed  on  the  two 
brothers  to  make  peace.  Henry  was  released 
from  his  oath  of  fealty  to  Robert  and  was 
acknowledged  King  of  England ;  but  on  his 
part  promised  to  pay  Robert  a  pension  of 
£3,000  and  to  restore  the  Cotentin  (1101). 
Three  years  later  the  quarrel  broke  out  again 
and  was  once  more  appeased  without  blood- 
shed; but  in  1106  Henry  crossed  over  to 
Normandy,  defeated  his  brother  at  the  battle 
of  Tenchebrai  and  entered  upon  the  possession 
of  his  duchy.  Robert  was  imprisoned  till  his 
death  in  1134. 

Meanwhile,  Henry  had  been  occupied  in 
restoring  order  and  good  government  to 
England.  The  great  Norman  lords  who  had 
sidoi  with  Robert — ^the  Malets,  the  Lacys, 
the  Grantmesnili^  and  Belesmes — ^lost  their 
castles  and  were  imprisoned  or  forced  to  re- 
linquish their  English  estates;  but  as  a 
rule  were  left  in  possession  of  their  Nor- 
man ones,  though  even  across  the  water 
their  castles  were  garrisoned  by  the  king. 
In  all  these  instances,  after  each  rebel* 
lion,  whether  of  1101,  1104,  1118,  or  1123, 
Henr}''s  great  object  was  to  restrain  the  in- 
dependence and  extortion  of  the  barons. 
Not  content  with  forfeiting  the  English 
estates  of  the  great  families  of  the  Conquest, 
Henry  put  into  full  working  order  a  strong 


(648  ) 


adminivtrative  bodv — consisting  for  the  most 
part  of  new  men  advanced  by  him  because  of 
their  capacities  for  doing  his  work — to  form 
a  oounterpoise  to  the  older  barons.  These 
men,  who  owed  their  whole  position  to  the 
crown,  were  employed  by  the  king  to  make 
drcuitis  round  the  country,  not  only  for  the 
purpose  of  assessing  and  collecting  taxes,  but 
also  for  that  of  redressing  abuses.  In  this 
way  he  set  the  example,  whicli  his  grandson 
was  to  improve  upon  and  enlarge,  of  en- 
forcing the  royal  authority  everywhere,  and 
bringing  the  royal  justice  within  the  reach  of 
all  people  who  eunered  from  the  extortion, 
the  cruelty,  or  false  justice  of  the  local  and 
baronial  courts.  Though  the  main  interest 
of  Henry  I.*s  reign  hes  in  the  orderly  in- 
crease of  the  Norman  system  of  centn^isa- 
tion,  yet  it  was  by  no  means  devoid  of  politi- 
cal or  dramatic  incident.  In  1 102  Kobert  de 
Belesme,  the  cruel  and  tyrannical  Earl  of 
Shrewsbury,  and  the  son  of  William  the 
Conqueror's  great  friend,  Montgomery,  was 
besieged  in  his  castle  of  Brid^orth.  The 
£^gli^  were  only  too  glad  to  aid  in  Robert 
of  Belesme*s  downfall,  and  called  on  the  king 
to  rejoice  that  he  became  a  free  man  from 
the  day  when  he  banished  Robert  of  Belesme 
(1102).  The  captive  Duke  Robert  had  a  young 
son,  William :  Louis  VI.  of  Franco  and  Fulk, 
Count  of  Anjou,  were  induced  to  espouse  the 
boy's  cause.  The  former  promised  to  invest 
him  with  Normandy ;  the  latter  to  give  him 
his  daughter,  Sibylla,  in  ma>rriage.  Mean- 
while, FuUc,  supported  by  his  suzerain, 
Louis,  laid  claim  to  Maine,  m  opposition  to 
the  pretensions  of  Henry :  and  peace  was 
only  re-established  between  the  claimants 
(1113)  at  the  expense  of  WiUiam,  who 
now  found  a  refuge  with  Baldwin  of  Flan- 
ders. Once  more,  after  five  years'  quiet, 
a  coalition  was  formed  on  behalf  of  the 
young  prince,  and  once  more  Louis  and  Fulk 
espoused  his  cause.  But  this  effort  was  fruit- 
less too.  At  the  battle  of  Brenneville  (1119) 
the  victory  lay  with  Henry,  and  before  long 
Calixtus  II.  reconciled  the  two  kings.  In 
1120  the  English  king  lost  his  only  son,  Wil- 
liam, in  the  White  Ship.  Three  years  later 
he  was  threatened  with  another  coalition,  for 
Fulk  of  Anjou  had  once  more  espoused  the 
cause  of  William.  Fitz-Eobert  and  several 
of  the  greatest  barons  in  Normandy  had 
promised  assistance.  But  Henry  was  too 
quick  for  his  enemies,  and  landing  in  Nor- 
mandy he  soon  reduced  the  castles  of  the  in- 
surgent barons  (1123 — 24).  A  few  years  later 
Louis  gave  his  sister-in-law,  Adeliza,  in 
marriage  to  the  young  prince,  granting  him 
at  the  same  time  the  Vexin  and  other  dis- 
tricts on  the  borders  of  Normandy,  and  also  in- 
vesting him  with  the  county  of  Flanders  (11 27) . 
The  newly-made  count,  however,  was  slain 
next  year  while  endeavouring  to  make  good 
his  claims.  With  the  rebellion  of  1124 
Henry's  home  troubles  seem  to  have  ceased, 


and  the  rest  of  his  reign  was  oeeup&ed  with 
the  extension  of  his  authority  and  the 
attempts  to  secure  the  fidelity  of  his  barons 
to  his  daughter,  Matilda,  and  her  infant 
SOB,  Henry.  This  lady  had  in  1 1 14  married 
the  Emperor  Henry  V.,  but  having  lost 
her  husband  before  many  years  were  past, 
was  then  contracted  to  Geoffrey  of  Anjou, 
the  father  of  Henry  IL  In  1126,  1131, 
and  1133  the  whole  council  of  the  king- 
dom were  sworn  to  maintain  her  rights  or 
those  of  herself  and  her  little  son  (Henry  II., 
bom  1133). 

It  remains  to  say  a  few  words  on  the 
ecclesiastical  history  of  this  reign.  It  waa 
largely  with  the  assistanoe  of  Anselm  that 
Henry  I.  had  been  enabled  to  secure  the 
crown,  and  by  mutual  consent  the  ques- 
tion of  investitures  waa  for  the  moment 
waived.  But  when  the  immediate  danger 
was  over,  Anselm  was  summoned  to  do 
homage  and  consecrate  the  bishops  whom  the 
king  had  invested.  After  the  Synod  of 
Westminster,  Anselm  left  England  once  move 
(1103),  and  only  returned  in  1106,  after 
having  come  to  a  compromise  with  Henry  on 
tiie  disputed  points.  Before  the  close  of  the 
reign  two  new  bishoprics  were  created — those 
of  Ely  (1109)  and  CarUsle  (1133),  and,  in 
1128,  the  new  order  of  the  Cutercians, 
founded  by  an  Englishman,  Harding,  planted 
their  first  colony  at  Waverley  in  Surrey. 
Heniy's  reign  was  also  signalised  by  the 
practical  completion  of  the  conquest  of  South 
Wales  by  a  series  of  Norman  adyenturen. 
who  established  for  themselves  feudal  lord- 
ships within  its  limits,  driving  the  Welsh  to 
the  hills,  or  subjecting  them  to  their  sway. 
In  some  places,  as  in  southern  Pembrokeshire, 
colonies  of  Fleming  or  ESnglish  settlers  were 
plantecl,  and  the  Welsh  absolutely  driven  out 
Henry  also  managed  to  secure  the  nomination 
of  the  South  Welsh  bishops.  Their  oonsecm- 
tion  by  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  com- 

Sleted    the    ecclesiastical    subordination   of 
oath  Wales  to  the  Engbsh  metropolitan. 

The  chief  oontemporarv  aathorlties  for  the 
reign  of  Henxv  L  are  the  AnglO'Samn  ChronitU; 
Eftdmer,  Uinoiria  Novorwnt  Ordericus  Vltalis, 
William  of  Malmesbury,  and  Henry  of  Hun- 
tingdon. The  best  raodttrn  works  on  this  period 
are  Freeman,  IforvMiii  C<m9iMft,  vol.  v. ;  Stabbs» 
Cwut,  HiBL  and  SOeti  CharUn;  Church,  Lt/«  cf 

^'"'^"'-  [T.  A.  A.] 

Henry  ZZ.,  Kino  {b.  March,  1133, 
B.  Oct.  2d,  1154;  d,  July  6,  1189),  was 
bom  at  Le  Mans,  and  was  the  son  of 
QeoSreyy  Count  of  Anjou,  and  ^latiMay 
daughter  of  Henry  I.  and  widow  of  the 
Emperor  Henry  V.  He  was  still  an  infant 
when  brought  over  to  England  in  1141  and 
placed  in  charge  of  his  uncle,  Bobert  of 
Gloucester.  He  afterwards  went  to  Scotland, 
and  was  knighted  by  King  David,  in  1 1 49.  In 
1151  Louis  Vll.  conferred  Normandy  on  him, 
and  in  the  same  year  he  succeeded  to  AnjoB» 


(  W») 


while,  in  1152,  his  marriage  with  Eleanor 
of  Aqiiitaine  gave  him  a  large  and  AtSk. 
tenitory  in  the  south  of  France.  Master  of 
SQch  resources,  his  expedition  to  Engluid  in 
1153  could  not  but  be  suocessfuL  The  Treaty 
<of  Winchester  gave  him  the  succession  aft^ 
Stephen's  death.  Within  a  year  his  rival  died, 
and  Henry's  succession  was  secured  without 
disturbance.  He  was  crowned  Dec.  19,  1154. 
Tho  long  and  important  reign  of  Henry  has 
been  divided  by  Bishop  Stubbs  into  four 
epochs — from  his  accession  to  the  Becket 
quarrel  (1154 — 64);  the  period  of  his  strife 
with  the  archbishop  (1 1 64  ^70) ;  from  Becket's 
death  to  the  death  of  the  younger  Henry  in 
1183 ;  and  from  thence  to  Henry's  own  death 
in  1189. 

The  first  period  of  Henry*s  reign  was 
mainly  devoted  to  his  work  of  restoration. 
He  found  the  g^^eat  administrative  system  of 
his  grand&ther  thoroughly  annihilated  during 
the  anarchy  of  Stephen's  reign.  ''Adul- 
terine "  castles  were  thickly  spread  over  the 
whole  land.  Peace  and  order  there  were 
none.  The  revenue  had  decUned  from  £60,000 
to  £20,000  a  year.  With  the  help  of  the 
surviving  members  of  the  family  of  Roger  of 
Salisbury,  and  of  Archbishop  Theobald, 
Becket  the  Chancellor,  and  the  Earl  of 
Leicester,  Henry  succeeded,  through  tact, 
energy,  and  perseverance,  in  a  thorough  re- 
storation of  the  ''avitao  consuetudines " — 
the  system  of  government  in  the  State  which 
Henry  I.  had  left  behind  him.  The  feudalists 
were  disarmed,  good  government  restored, 
the  coinage  reformed,  the  War  of  Toulouse 
successfully'  carried  out.  The  whole  ten 
years  are  years  of  prosperity  and  orderly 
progress. 

In  1162  Becket  succeeded  Archbishop 
Theobald  at  CSanterbury,  and  Henry  soon 
found  that  his  old  minister  was  thoroughly 
resolved  to  oppose  his  design  to  subject 
Church  as  well  as  State  to  the  supremacy  of 
the  law.  An  attempt  to  compel  an  acknow- 
ledgment, merely,  of  the  royal  jurisdiction 
on  the  part  of  criminous  clerks  precipitated 
a  conflict  already  imminent.  In  1164  the 
Constitutions  of  Clarendon  (q.v.)  were  pre- 
sented to  the  archbishop  for  acceptance. 
Becket's  reluctant  acquiescence  was  soon 
withdrawn.  Henry  called  his  archbishop  to 
account  for  his  chancellorahip,  and  after  a 
stormy  council  at  Northampton,  the  arch- 
bishop withdrew  beyond  the  seas,  and  the  king 
took  possession  of  his  temporalities.  For 
some  years  an  active  warfare  was  carried  on 
between  king  and  archbishop,  which  nothing 
but  the  tact  of  Henry's  ministers  prevented 
from  being  confused  with  the  great  struggle 
of  Frederick  Barbarossa  and  ^exander  III., 
of  which  it  was  the  English  counterpart. 
When  in  1170  a  hollow  reconciliation  was 
effected,  Becket  returned  only  to  meet  his 
death  at  the  hands  of  indiscreet  partisans  of 
^e  king.     It  is  most  remarkable  evidence  of 


Henry's  versatility  and  energy  that  the  period 
of  the  Becket  struggle  was  tiie  period  of  his 
greatest  constructive  reforms,  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  new  judicial  system  by  the 
Assize  of  Clarendon  (ll66),  and  of  the  suc- 
cessful conquest  of  Bntanny. 

The  death  of  Becket  brought  Henry's 
ecclesiastical  troubles  to  a  crisis.  The  coro- 
nation of  his  eldest  son,  Henry,  had  conciliated 
neither  his  family  nor  the  baronage.  Henry 
hurried  away  to  Ireland  to  escape  from  his 
difficulties,  and  to  receive  the  homage  of  the 
Norman  nobles,  who  had  within  the  last  few 
years  appropriated  a  large  part  of  the  island. 
On  his  return,  the  Pope's  need  of  English  aid 
made  his  reconciliation  with  the  Church  at 
Avianches  an  easy  matter  (1172).  But  the 
great  feudal  revolt  of  1173 — ^74,  which  simul- 
taneously broke  out  in  England  and  the 
Continent,  and  was  actively  favoured  by  the 
Kings  of  France  and  Scotland,  the  Count  of 
Flanders,-  and  Henry's  own  sons,  may  have 
been  an  indirect  consequence  of  the  Becket 

auarrel.  After  a  hard  struggle  Henry  gained 
tie  day.  The  last  of  the  feudal  rismgs  was 
suppressed,  and  the  monarch,  strong  in  na- 
tional support  and  in  his  system  of  government, 
was  henceforthabletodevotehisbest  energies  to 
administrativeandjudicialreconstruction.  The 
Assize  of  Northampton  (1176),  the  Assize  of 
Arms  (1181),  the  Assize  of  the  Forest  (1184), 
were  tbe  great  legislative  acts  of  this  period. 
No  less  important  were  Henry's  fertile 
schemes  for  the  perfection  of  the  judicial 
system,  his  strong  and  firm  government,  his 
gpod  peace  and  prosperity. 

But  Henry's  own  sons  were  now  his  worst 
enemies.  He  had  done  his  best  for  them. 
He  had  crowned  Henry,  secured  Britanny  to 
GeofErey,  Aquitaine  for  Richard,  and  pro- 
posed to  give  John  Ireland.  But  the  malign 
influence  of  their  mother  and  Louis  VII. 
4irove  their  turbulent  and  thankless  spirits 
into  a  series  of  risings  that  embittered  Henry's 
last  years.  In  1 183  the  younger  Henry  died. 
The  death  of  the  young  king  did  not 
check  the  rebellious  attempts  of  Henry's  re- 
maining sons.  Their  persistent  hostility 
seriously  checked  the  course  of  home  reforms, 
and  even  the  preparations  for  the  Crusade. 
Philip  Augustus  was  as  rancorous  an  enemy 
to  Henry  as  Louis  VII.  had  been,  and  his 
alliance  with  the  kind's  sons  seriously  dimin- 
ished the  power  and  prestige  of  Henry  in 
Europe.  In  the  midst  of  fulure  and  deser- 
tion the  old  king  died. 

Henry  II.'s  reign  was  a  *'  period  of  amal- 
rgamation."  The  Norman  central  and  mon- 
archical s^'stem,  and  the  old  English  local  and 
popular  system,  hitherto  existing  side  by  side, 
were  connected  by  Henry  and  combined  into 
a  single  whole,  put  of  which,  a  generation 
later,  the  English  Constitution  began  to  de- 
velop. His  bureaucratic  system  d^t  a  death 
blow  to  feudalism,  and  even  set  definite  limits 
to  the  power  of  tho  Church.    A  thorough 


(560) 


despot  and  cosmopolitao,  be  established  tbat 
alliance  of  king  and  people  wbicb  produced 
the  national  English  monarchy.  The  con- 
queror of  Ireland  and  Scotland,  Henry  revived 
that  empire  over  all  Britain  which  the  great 
Anglo-Saxon  kings  had  aspired  to.  The  ruler 
of  a  third  of  the  modem  France,  he  began  that 
policy  of  constant  warfare  with  his  nominal 
overlord  which  coloured  the  whole  mediseval 
history  of  England.  His  great  Continental 
position  rendered  Henry  the  first  of  European 
sovereigns.  His  frienoly  relations  with  the 
Empire,  Spain,  and  Flanders,  began  the 
close  connection  with  England's  three  tra- 
ditional medisBval  allies.  A  man  that  oould 
do  all  this  was  of  no  ordinary  character. 
Strong,  persistent,  far-seeing  and  hard  work- 
ing, he  was  at  once  a  great  statesman,  legis- 
lator, administrator,  warrior,  and  diplomatist. 
But  he  was  unscrupulous,  passionate  and 
xevensef ul — hard  ana  cruel  upon  occasion — 
and  his  domestic  difficulties  perceptibly 
changed  his  character  for  the  worse  towards 
the  end  of  his  reign.  Yet  with  all  his  defects 
he  did  a  good  wo^  for  England.  The  excel- 
lence of  the  results  must  excuse  the  selfish- 
ness of  his  aims. 

The  beat  original  aathorities  are  Oerrase  of 
Canterbury;  fieuedict  of  Peterboroofh,  and 
Roger  of  Hovedan  (Bolls  Series) ;  WfllJain  of 
Newbo]N>affh  (Engliah  Hlat.  8oc.).  and  Balph 
Niger.  The  copious  works  Of  Oiraldas  Oam- 
bxenais»  edited  in  the  BoUs  Series  by  Brewer 
and  Bimook,  are  nsefol  though  not  always  trust- 
worthjr,  especially  so  are  the  Bxpugnaiio  uibemiat 
and  Itinm-arium  Cambrim,  Dr.  Stubbs's  works 
are  authoritative  for  the  nign of  Henry  II.,  both 
his  Coiutitutional  Hitlory  and  bis  ezhaustiTe 
Prrface  to  the  editions  <d  Benedict  of  Peter- 
borongh  and  Boger  of  Hoveden  in  the  Bolls 
Series.  Lyttelton's  L^4  ofHtmry  XT.,  though  old- 
fashioned,  is  still  useful.  For  the  Beoketstmggle 
see  Bobertson,  Life  of  B$eMt ;  Giles,  UUwb  <tf 
D«eM ;  MaUnaU  far  the  Hiitwy  of  AreMntkop 
Bfdctt.  p,    J.    ,pj 


^.p».  III..  King  {b,  Oct.  1,  1207,  a. 
Oct.  19,  1216,  d,  Nov.  16,  1272^,  was  the  s<m 
of  John,  and  Isabella  of  Angoulemc.  His  long 
reign  iaUs  into  three  epochs — the  period  of  the 
xep;ency,  the  twenty  years  (1232 — 1252)  of 
misrule,  either  under  some  foreign  and  un- 
popular minister  or  the  king  in  person,  and 
the  last  twenty  years  of  the  baronial  struggle. 

The  tyranny  of  King  John  had  alienated 
ever}'  class  of  his  subjects,  and  the  barons 
who  had  won  Magna  Charta  had  called  in 
Louis  of  France.  But  the  wisdom  of  the 
Kegent  Pembroke,  the  strong  support  which 
the  I^man  Church  gave  to  its  infant  Missal,  and 
the  acceptance  by  church  and  crown  alike  of 
the  Great  Charter,  ultimately  resulted  in  the 
expulsion  of  the  foreigners,  and  in  the  suppres- 
moa  ot  a  feudal  survival  that  had  threatened 
to  prove  serious.  Pembroke  died  in  1219. 
An^bishop  Langton  got  rid  of  the  tyranny 
of  the  papal  legates  in  1221.  In  the  same 
veor  Wilham  of  AumtUe,  the  feudal  champion, 
UL  1224,  Falkes  de  Breaute,  the  representative 
of  John's  foreign  mercenaries^  were  subdued. 


In  the  year  1227  Hubert  de  Burgh  got  rid  of 
the  Poitevin  Bishop  of  Winchester.  Even 
the  baronial  opposition  were  national  in  their 
aims.  There  were  thus  not  wanting  signs  of 
the  development  of  Knglish  constitutionalism. 

In  1232  Henry  dismissed  De  Burgh,  and 
became  his  own  minister.  But  his  weak  and 
shiftleas  character,  his  incapacity  for  coo^ 
stant  application,  his  delight  in  mere  external 
splendour,  his  want  of  a  settled  policy,  his 
attachment  to  his  family,  all  led  him  to  lean 
on  some  stronger  support  than  himself.  Peter 
des  Roches,  recalled  m  1232,  was  indeed  dis- 
missed in  1234;  but  in  1236,  Henry's  marriage 
with  Eleanor  of  Provence  brought  a  swarm 
of  her  worthless  kinsmen  and  dependents  into 
England.  Foreign  fashions  spread  widely; 
foreigners  administered  Chur(3i  and  State. 
The  English  language,  which  had  kept  itself 
comparatively  free  of  French  words  up  to  this 
period,  was  now  inundated  with  tbam.  No 
doubt  an  increased  connection  with  the  Con* 
tinent  had  its  good  points ;  but  its  effects  on 
government  were  altogether  bad.  A  strong 
aristocratic  opposition  to  Henry  was  now 
established.  In  1242  the  barons  refused  to 
grant  an  aid  for  the  war  in  Poitoo.  In  1244 
barons  and  clergy  protested  against  the  royal 
misgovemment.  But  in,  1246  the  Count  at 
La  Maxche  and  his  sons,  Hemy's  ludf-farothers, 
came  into  England.  Tbe  Pope  exacted  tax 
after  tax  from  the  clergy.  Among  churchmen 
the  resistance  of  Grosseteste  was  almost  single- 
handed.  The  nobles  were  equally  diBoiganiiiBd. 
Without  leaders,  the  people  were  powerlew  to 
withstand  the  wretched  government  of  the 
foreign  favourites. 

At  last,  in  1252,  a  leader  arose.  Simon 
of  Montfort,  a  Frenchman,  who  had  acquired 
the  earldom  of  Leicester,  and  whose  marriage 
with  the  king's  sister  had  almost  provoked  a 
revolt,  was  in  that  year  dismissed  from  the 
government  of  Gktscony.  Eager  for  revenge* 
the  hated  foreigner  beoune  an  efficient  leader 
of  the  national  partpr.  The  foUy  of  Hemy 
in  accepting  the  Sicilian  crown  for  his  son 
Edmund,  his  lavish  expenditure  on  a  futile 
adventure  that  led  to  nothing  but  the  ag* 
gFondisement  of  the  papacy,  completed  the 
measure  of  baronial  indignation.  In  12«58  the 
opposition  culminated  in  the  Mad  Parlia- 
ment, which  compelled  the  acceptance  of  the 
constitution  known  as  the  Pronsions  of 
Gbcford,  that  practically  substituted  a  baronial 
oligarchy  for  the  royal  power.  Hitherto 
the  opposition  had  been  unanimous.  But 
while  the  bulk  of  the  baronage  were  now  dis- 
posed to  rest  content  with  their  triumph, 
Montfort  had  laiger  schemes  of  popular 
government.  He  quarrelled  with  Gloucester, 
the  leader  of  the  aristocratic  party.  In  1261 
Henry  availed  himself  of  thM  feud  to  regain* 
power ;  but  in  1263  war  began  again.  Both 
parties  had  competed  with  each  other  for 
popular  favour  by  summoning  representatives 
of  the  shire  communities  to  a  national  oooaciL 


(561) 


The  trinapE  of  Montfoxt  at  the  battle  of 
Lewet  led  to  his  fiunons  Parliament  of  1265, 
in  which  burgesaes  as  well  as  knights  of  the 
shire  were  summoned,  and  a  new  paper  con- 
stitution, which  put  the  government  into  the 
hands  of  the  community,  was  drawn  up.  But 
the  democxmtic  CsBSarism  of  Montfort  led  to 
a  quarrel  with  the  son  of  his  old  enemy 
Gloucester.  Edward,  the  king's  son,  escaped 
and  collected  an  army.  Montfort  was  slain  at 
Evesham.  .  The  capture  of  Kenilworth  ended 
the  war.  For  the  rest  of  the  reign  peace  was 
secured.  But  real  power  had  now  escaped 
from  Uenrv's  hands  into  those  of  his  son, 
who  knew  now  to  appropriate  the  results  of 
Hontfort's  policy,  and  reconcile  the  monarchy 
with  nationality.  Henry  died  on  Nov.  16, 
127*2.  His  extreme  incompetence  as  a  ruler 
blinds  us  to  his  private  respectability.  His 
reign,  though  its  details  are  beyond  expres- 
sion dreary,  is  of  the  last  importance  in  Eng- 
lish history.  It  was  the  period  of  the  growtii 
of  the  constitution,  of  the  concentration  of 
the  local  machinery  into  a  national  rroreeen- 
tative  assembly,  of  the  development  of  English 
nationality  in  opposition  to  royal  and  papal 
tyranny.  It  was  a  period  of  great  men,  of 
great,  if  ill-regulated  designs,  and  of  great 
originative  and  creative  power.  It  saw  the 
religious  revival  of  the  thirteenth  century*, 
the  establishment  of  the  mendicant  orders  in 
England,  and  the  development  of  culture 
through  the  universities,  ^ut  to  all  this  de- 
velopment Henry  was  little  more  than  an 
insignificant  figure-head. 

Soger  of  Wendorer ;  Matthew  Paris,  Sirioria 
MtMT  (Bolls  Series) :  Rishangw,  Chroniecn  (Bolls 
Seriss);  Br.  QUxlej's  Jtoyol  LttUn  (BoIIb 
Series) ;  Brewer,  MonummUa  Franei$cm»a  (Bolls 
Serifls);  Loud.GnwaetMte't  Ltitmn  (BoUs  Series); 
StiibM,  Ctmti,  Hiat,;  Prothero,  Simum  of  Jfoni- 
f9rt ;  Paoli.  Ai^lisofcc  GeuikieKU  and  Stmon  vcn 
Jf <mi/ort;  Blaaaw,  Atroni'  War;  Teaxfon,  Higt, 
^1^.  [T.  FTT.] 


\,  Kino  (4. 1366,  #.  Oct.  18, 1399, 
d.  Mar.  2l),  1413),  was  bom  at  Bolingbroke, 
in  lineolnshire,  being  the  eldest  son  of 
John  of  Graunt  and  cdP  his  first  wife,  the 
heiress  of  the  house  of  Lancaster.  At  the  age 
of  fifteen  he  mairied  Mary  Bohun,  daughter 
and  oo-heiress  of  the  last  Earl  of  Here- 
ford. In  1385  he  was  called  to  a  seat  in  the 
House  of  Peers,  by  the  title  of  Earl  of  Derby. 
He  at  first  took  part  with  the  uncles  of 
Bichard  II.,  in  their  endeavours  to  retain  the 
government  under  their  own  control;  but 
later  on  supported  the  king  in  trying  to  draw 
into  his  hands  an  absolute  power.  It  may  be 
suspected  that  this  was  done  with  the  sinister 
design  of  making  Richard  unpopular  with  his 
subjects.  It  would  seem  that  Henrj'  was,  to 
some  extent,  privy  to  the  death  of  the  Duke 
of  Gloucester,  the  king's  uncle,  in  1397 ;  but 
the  following  year  he  again  changed  round, 
accused  the  Duke  of  Norfolk  of  Uie  murder 
of  Gloucester  as  well  as  of  treasonable  prac- 
ticesy  and  ohallenged  him  to  wager  of  battle. 


On  tlie  combatants  presenting  themselves  at 
Coventry  on  Sept.  16,  1398,  to  try  the  issue, 
they  were  both  banished  by  Richard,  Norfolk 
for  life  and  Bolingbroke  for  ten  jrears.  The 
following  year  John  of  Gaunt  died,  and 
Richard  seised  his  lands.  On  receiving  in- 
telHgence  of  this  act,  Henry,  who  knew  him- 
self to  be  as  pc^ular  in  tiie  country  as  the 
king  was  unpopular,  determined  to  return  to 
th^  country  on  the  plea  of  claiming  his  lawful 
inheritance.  The  king  had  set  out  upon  an 
expedition  to  Ireland,  when  Henry  landed  at 
Rax'enspur,  July  4,  1399.  Bolingbroke  was 
everywhere  received  with  enthusiasm,  and  soon 
decided  to  put  forward  a  claim  upon  the 
crown.  Ricnard  returned  early  in  Aug^ust, 
but  upon  landing,  his  army  immediately 
began  to  desert  him.  He  was  forced  to  dis- 
guise himself,  but  was  seised  near  Conway  on 
Au^fust  19.  Henry  called  a  Parliament, 
which,  on  October  13,  pronounced  the  depo- 
sition of  Richard,  and  transferred  the  crown 
to  his  cousin.  '  It  need  not  be  pointed  out 
what  an  important  act  this  was  from  a  consti- 
tutional point  of  view.  Richard  died  in  prison 
in  the  beginning  of  the  following  year  in 
circumstances  that  gave  rise  to  suspicions  of 
violence. 

Henr>''s  energies  were,  henceforth,  entirely 
devoted  to  strengthening  his  position  on  the 
throne.  He  supported  the  orthodox  Church 
party  against  the  attacks  of  the  Lollards,  to 
whom  his  father,  John  of  Gkunt,  had  been 
markedly  favourable,  and  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant enactments  of  his  reig^  was  the  Act 
Dtf  JTWv/mo  Cwnbarendo  (1401).  It  must  not  be 
supposed  that  these  persecutions  were  popular 
with  the  cleigy  only.  Hie  contrary  is  proved 
by  the  traditional  character  which  attached  to 
the  name  of  the  most  conspicuous  Lollard  of 
the  succeeding  reign.  Sir  John  Oldcaatle — a 
traditional  character  which,  if  it  was  not 
identical  with,  certainly  bore  considerable  re* 
semblance  to  that  of  the  fictitious  Falstaff. 
For  the  rest,  Henry's  reign  was  chiefly  oc- 
cupied in  crushing  domestic  rebellion,  and  in 
meeting  the  attacks  of  the  Scots  and  Welsh.  In 
the  first  year  of  his  reign  he  was  at  war  with 
the  Duke  of  Albany,  the  regent  of  Scotland, 
and  with  Owen  Glendower,  who  had  raised  a 
national  revolt  among  the  Welsh.  The  Scots 
under  Douglas  were  decisively  defeated,  and 
their  leader  captured  atHomildon  Hill  by  Harry 
Hotspur,  son  of  the  Earl  of  Northumberland 
^Sept.  14,  1402).  The  expedition  into  Wales, 
m  which  Henry,  the  Prince  of  Wales,  took  part, 
was  less  successful  In  1403  broke  out  the 
formidable  rebellion  of  the  Percies,  who  were 
now  leagued  with  Douglas  and  Glendower.  On 
the  march  of  the  first  two  to  join  their  forces 
with  the  latter,  they  were  intercepted  by  the 
king's  army,  and  forced  into  an  engagement 
at  Shrewsbury  (July  21, 1403),  where  they  were 
completely  defeated  and  Harry  Percy  slain. 
Northumberland  was,  on  this  occasion,  par- 
doned.   Two  other  rebellions  of  less  conse- 


(  662  ) 


qneooe  broke  out  in  the  north,  in  the  hut  of 
which  (1408),  Northumberhind  was  again 
deooly  implicated.  It  was  crashed  at  the  b^Ue 
of  Bramhfun  Moor,  in  which  Northumberhuid 
fell.  In  the  interval  between  these  two  events, 
Henry  was  fortunate  enough  to  capture  the 
heir  apparent  of  Scotland  (James  I.},  who 
was  being  sent  to  France  (1406). 

After  1408,  Henry,  no  longer  in  fear  of  re- 
bellion, began  to  turn  his  attention  to  the 
afhirs  of  France,  where  the  quarrels  between 
the  parties  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  and  the 
Duke  of  Orleans  had  brought  the  country  to 
the  verge  of  civil  war  (the  assassination  of 
the  Duke  of  Orleans,  which  made  this  war  in- 
evitable, took  place  on  November  23,  1407). 
Henry  took  the  part  of  siding  first  with  one 
party  and  then  with  the  other,  so  as  to  weaken 
both  as  much  as  possible.  During  the  last  three 
years  of  his  life  the  king  was  subject  to  fits  of 
epilepsy,  and  the  Prince  of  WaLss,  who  had 
already  highly  distinguished  himself  in  the 
field,  generally  presided  at  the  Ck>uncil.  The 
growing  populiuity  of  this  prince  is  said  to 
have  excited  the  jealousy  of  iiis  father,  and 
caused  some  estrangement  between  the  two. 
Henry  died  March  20,  1413.  By  his  first 
wife,  Mary  Bohun,  he  left  four  sons — Henry ; 
Thomas,  Duke  of  Clarence;  John,  Duke  of 
Bedford ;  and  Humphrey,  Duke  of  Glouces- 
ter ;  and  two  daughters.  After  his  accession, 
Henry  married  Joanna,  daughter  of  CSiarles 
II.  of  Navarre,  but  had  by  her  no  issue.  The 
interest  of  Henry  lY.'s  reign  depends  upon 
the  success  of  his  policy  m  founding  the 
house  which,  in  the  person  of  his  successor, 
made  itself  so  famous,  and  in  that  of  the 
third  descendant  again  fell.  It  is  still  more 
remarkable  as  the  period  of  the  restoration 
of  Anglican  orthodoxy  against  Lollardy,  and 
as  the  period  of  mediaeval  constitutionausm. 

VUa  Req,  Ricardi  (ed.  Heorne);  Traison  $t 
Mort  de  Richard  11.^  Roy  DmgUterre  (Eog.  Hist. 
Soo.) ;  The  Monk  of  ETeBhaxn ;  Walsmgham, 
Tpodigma  and  Hi»t.  Anal. ;  Annaln  Hcnrici  IV. ; 
Capgiave,  ChrmdcU;  id.,  iAhtr  d»  lU\utinbu» 
HmtrieU;  Wanrin,  Reenea  des  Chroniqiut;  Le 
Beligienx  de  St.  Denys ;  Brongham,  England 
«nd«r  tht  Hotue  of  Lancaaler  ;  Lingard,  Httt.  of 
Bng.;  Paiill,£n9lueft«  Qteehietde;  Stabbs,  Conti, 

^^'  [C.  F.  K.] 

Kenry  v..  Kino  {b.  Aug.  9,  1388, «.  Mar. 
21,  1413,  d,  Aug.  31,  1422),  the  eldest  son  of 
Henry  IV.,  was  bom  at  Monmouth.  He  was, 
at  a  very  early  age,  practised  in  arms,  and 
was  sent,  when  fifteen,  to  take  command 
in  an  expedition  against  Owen  Glendower, 
and  one  year  later,  took  a  part  in  the 
important  battle  of  Shrewsbury.  The 
character  of  this  monarch  must  always 
be  one  of  great  interest  to  the  histori- 
cal student,  for  he  was  probably  the  most 
popular  king  who  ever  ruled  in  this  country. 
LAter  tradition,  apparently  to  g^ve  a  zest  to 
his  subsequent  merits,  has  represented  him  as 
passing  his  youth  in  dissipation,  and  in  in- 
aifference    to  his    reputation;  and  his   bio- 


grapher, Klmham,  admits  something  to  mpport 
this  charge*  This  period  of  temporary  ob- 
scurity could  not  have  occurred,  as  £uiake- 
Bpeare  represents  it  to  have  done,  before  the 
battle  of  Shrewsbury.  It  has  been  suggested 
that  Prince  Henry  was  disgusted  with  the 
jealousy  which  his  father  felt  for  his  rising 
talents,  and  for  a  while  absented  himself 
from  state  a£Eairs,  and,  in  fact,  while  about 
1410,  we  find  him  at  the  head  of  the  Council, 
he  appears  afterwards  to  have  yielded  his 
place  to  his  next  brother,  the  Duke  of 
Clarence.  He  was  crowned  on  April  9,  1413. 
By  his  first  acts  he  gave  evidence  of  the 
security  which  he  felt  upon  tiie  throne.  He 
released  the  young  Earl  of  March  from  his 
captivity,  and  reinstated  the  son  of  Harry 
Percy  in  the  family  honours  and  possessions. 
In  his  internal  administration  he  seems  to 
have  been  disposed  to  follow  the  general  lines 
of  his  father's  policy.  But  he  hiul  less  sjrm- 
pathy  with  the  Lollards,  who  were  now  perse- 
cuted with  relentless  rigour.  Among  the 
victims  is  to  be  counted  Sir  John  Oldoastie, 
commonly  called  Lord  Cobham,  in  1 4 1 7.  Henry 
was,  however,  supposed  to  have  been  not 
altogether  un^vourable  to  a  scheme  for  con- 
fiscating a  portion  of  the  revenuea  of  the 
Church  which  was  warmly  advocated  by  the 
majority  of  the  lay  peers  at  this  time.  The 
abolition  of  the  ahen  priories  is  sufficient 
evidence  of  this.  It  was  to  turn  the  attention 
of  the  king  in  another  direction  tiiat  Arch- 
bishop Chicheley  persuaded  Henry  that  in 
right  of  his  descent  from  Edward  III.,  he  had 
a  valid  claim  to  the  crown  of  France,  which 
the  present  distracted  state  of  that  kingdom 
gave  him  a  favourable  opportunity  of  assert- 
ing. The  proposal  was  received  with  favour 
by  all  classes,  and  in  pursuit  of  this  object 
Henry  set  sail  for  Harfleur,  Aug.  10,  1416. 

The  details  of  Henry's  invasion  form  an 
important  and  exceedingly  interesting  chapter 
in  military  history,  but  can  only  be  given 
here  in  brief  summary.  The  first  under- 
taking- was  the  attack  on  Harfleur.  The 
place  was  strongly  defended,  and  nearly  sur- 
rounded by  water,  so  that  the  siege,  of  which 
the  contemporary  authorities  give  us  a  toler- 
ably detailed  account,  dragged  on  for  six 
weeks.  During  this  time  the  English  army, 
which  at  first  consisted  of  about  20,000  foot 
and  9,000  horse,  diminished  to  not  more 
than  a  third  of  that  number.  It  appeared 
impossible  to  continue  the  war  without  ob- 
taining fresh  reinforcements  from  England. 
In  order,  however,  not  to  seem  to  retreat 
before  the  face  of  the  enemy,  Henry  deter- 
mined to  embark  from  Calais,  and  before 
leaving  Harfleur  he.  sent  a  chaUen^  to  the 
Dauphin,  offering  to  meet  him  in  eight  days, 
which  was  not  accepted.  This  is  a  curious 
instance  of  the  strategy,  or,  to  speak  more 
truly,  the  want  of  strategy,  which  charac- 
terised the  warfare  of  those  days.  The  safety 
of  Heni^^'s  army  might  seem  to  have  depended 


(  558  ) 


upon  his  keeping  his  movements  as  secret  as 
possible ; ,  on  the  contrary  he  waited  eight 
aays  for  the  reply  of  the  Dauphin,  and  then 
set  out  (Oct.  8)  upon  his  perilous  march. 
The  EngJish,  proceeding  by  Fecamp  and  £u, 
arrived  at  Abbeville  on  the  13th,  but  finding 
that  the  Somme  was  strongly  guarded  at  this 
point,  were  induced  to  mskke  a  detour  by 
Amiens  and  Nesle.  At  the  latter  place  they 
crossed  the  Somme  on  the  19th,  the  French 
showing  themselves  and  disappearing  again. 
On  the  24th  they  crossed  the  httle  stream  of 
Temoise,  and  there  saw  the  whole  French 
host  waiting  for  them  upon  the  opposite  side 
near  the  village  of  Agincourt,  and  so  com- 
pletely barring  the  way  to  Calais  that  the 
English  could  not  avoid  an  engagement.  The 
battle  took  place  on  St.  Crispin's  Day  (Oct. 
2*5,  1415).  The  French  army  is  believed  to 
have  been  five  times  as  large  as  the  English, 
and  vet  the  engafftment  resulted  in  a  vic- 
tory for  the  English  almost  the  most  complete 
that  has  ever  been  recorded  in  histor}*. 
The  most  important  of  the  prisoners  taken 
were  D*Albre^  the  Constable  of  France,  and 
Charles,  Duke  of  Orleans,  the  poet,  son  of 
the  murdered  Duke  of  Orleans.  In  August  of 
the  following  yeax  the  French,  who  had 
threatened  Harneur,  were  decisively  defeated 
at  sea  by  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  the  king's 
brother.  Despite  these  victories  Henry 
dearly  perceived  that  he  could  only  hope  to 
bring  his  schemes  to  a  successful  conclusion 
by  an  alliance  with  one  of  the  two  great 
parties  into  which  France  was  divided.  The 
traditional  polic}'  of  England,  her  commercial 
relations  with  the  Low  Countries,  pointed  out 
the  Duke  of  Burgundy  as  the  object  of  nego- 
ciations.  It  is  hardly  probable  that  a  per- 
manent alliance  would  have  been  made  with 
this  party  had  it  not  been  f  o^he  murder  of 
John  the  Fearless,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  on 
Sept.  10,  1419.  John's  son  and  successor, 
Philip  the  Good,  immediately  threw  in  his  lot 
with  the  English.  He  brought  with  him  all 
the  party  of  the  Burgundians,  which  included 
the  people  of  Paris.  The  result  of  this  acces- 
sion of  strength  was  the  Treaty*  of  Troyes 
between  Henry,  Philip,  and  Isabella,  the 
Queen  of  France  ^Charles  VI.  was  at  this 
time  insane),  in  which  the  Dauphin  was  ex- 
cluded from  the  inheritance,  and  Henr}%  on 
condition  of  his  marrj^ing  Catherine,  the 
daughter  of  Charles  YI.,  was  to  receive  the 
regency  of  France  during  the  life  of  the  king, 
and  the  succession  after  his  death.  The  treaty 
was  signed  on  May  21, 1420,  and  the  marriage 
of  Henr}'  and  Catherine  took  place  the  follow- 
ing 2nd  of  June.  The  kings  of  France  and 
England  entered  Paris  together  in  November, 
and  the  Treaty  of  Troyes  was  solemnly  con- 
firmed by  the  Parliament  of  Paris  on  Dec.  10. 
Henry  then  returned  to  England,  and  entered 
London  amidst  immense  rejoicings.  The 
Dauphin  of  course  repudiated  the  Ti*eaty  of 
Troyes,  and  he  still  had  the  support  of  the 
Hi«r.-.l8* 


powerful  party  of  the  Armagnacs.  In  l^Iarch, 
1421,  he  gained  the  victory  of  Beauge  over  the 
English  under  the  Duke  of  Claroice.  This 
obliged  Henry  at  once  to  return  to  France. 
He  drove  back  the  army  of  the  Dauphin  and 
entered  Paris  in  trium|m.  He  left  it  again  to 
advance  against  the  army  of  the  Dauphin, 
which  lay  before  Cosne.  On  his  way  he  was 
attacked  by  a  fever  which  terminated  fatally 
at  Yincennes  on  Aug.  31)  1422,  in  the 
thirty-fourth  year  of  Henr^^'s  age,  and  the 
tenth  of  his  reign. 

Htnriei  Qutnti  Qegta,  known  as  Tht  Cham- 
lain' 9  Aeccunt  lEng.  Bist.  Boo.) ;  £lmbani.  Vita 
H  Quia  Hen,  K^  and  LHw  mgtricw  d$  Hen,  V. 
(ed.  Heame);  William  of  Worcester,  ^trnalc* ; 
Wolmugham,  Bitt.  Angiic,  (Bella  Series) :  Titus 
Livina  of  Friuli  (he  was  an  Italian  in  the  aer^ 
vice  of  the  Duke  of  Olouceeter),  Vila  H«h.  V. 
ifiA,  Heame) ;  Monstrelet,  Chrxmiim§ ;  Cardinal 
des  Ursins,  Chroniqtu  dt  Hormanaie ;  Le  Bour- 
geois de  Parte;  Sir  H.  Nicolaa,  Tht  BaUU  ^ 
^^tticoart ;  Brougham,  JVti^Iand  i»id«r  ike  Hvmb 
oj  Laitoaaffr;  Liugaro,  Hitt.  of  Eng, 

[C.  F.  K.] 

Kenry  VI..  Kiko  {b,  Dec.  6,  1421,  «. 
Sept.  1, 1422,  <f.  May,  1471).  The  reign  of  this 
prince  was  the  third  act  in  the  historic  drama 
of  the  house  of  Lancaster,  and  that  which  was 
destined  to  witness  the  undoing  of  all  that 
had  been  accomplished  in  the  two  preWous 
reigns.      Henn*  VI.    was   bom  at   Wind- 
sor, and  was  less  than  nine  months  old  at 
the  time  of-  his  accession    to   the    throne. 
Charles  YI.,  his  grandfather,    died   a    few 
months    later.      The    regency   of   the   two 
kingdoms,  to  which  the    young   king  was 
considered   the   heir,   had  been   settled  by 
Heary  V.    The  Duke  of  Bedford  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  more  arduous  duty  of  govern- 
ing the  Engb'sh  possessions  in  France,  and  of 
prosecuting  the  war  in  that  country,  while 
the  English    regency'  was  assigned  to  the 
Duke  of  Gloucester  with  the  title  of  Lord 
Protector.     Among  Henrj'  V.*s  d}-ing  injunc- 
tions to  his  successor  was  to  do  all  in  his 
power  to  maintain  the  alliance  with  the  Duke 
of  Burgundy,  and  this  advice  Bedford  did  his 
best  to  carry  out.    At  first  he  was  eminently 
successful   in    all    his    undertakings.      The 
Dauphin  (Charles  VII.),  who  hoped  to  rallv 
his  party  now  that  his  greatest  rival  was  dead, 
led  his  army  into  Burgundy.     He  was  de- 
cisively defeated  at  Crevant,  and  the  next 
year  still  more  decisively  at  Vemeuil  (Aug. 
16, 1424).  The  Duke  of  Bedford  commanded  in 
person  at  this  great  battle,  which  has  been  well 
described  as  a  second  Agincourt.  Meanwhile, 
however,  the  Duke  of  Gloucester  had  con- 
trived, b}'  espousing  Jacqueline  of  Hainault, 
to    alienate    Burgundy    from    the    English 
interests,  and  though  Bedford  did  his  best,  by 
enormous  concessions,  to  retain  his  friendship, 
it  was  not  long  before  Philip  passed  over  alto- 
gether to  the  side  of  Charles  VII.,  and  drew 
with  him  the  Duke  of  Britanny.    The  Pope, 
too,  at  this  time  wrote  an  appeal  to  Bedford 
to  desist  from  his  attempts  to  force  upon  the 


(654) 


French  people  a  sovereign  in  defiance  of  the 
rights  of  sacoession,  and  the  public  opinion  of 
Europe  was  steadily  turning  against  the  Eng- 
lish. It  was  at  this  juncture  that  Joan  of  Axe 
came  forward  alleging  her  divine  commission 
to  rescue  the  country  from  its  invader.  At 
the  moment  when  Joan  obtained  her  first 
audience  with  Charles  VII.  the  English  were 
in  the  midst  of  the  protracted  siege  of 
Orleans.  Bedford  had  been  induced,  in  op- 
position to  his  own  judgment,  to  undertake 
this  operation  with  the  view  of  carrying  the 
war  into  the  country  beyond  the  Loire,  which 
adhered  altogether  to  the  party  of  Charles. 
All  France  Imd  begun  to  look  upon  the  siege 
of  Orleans  as  decisive  of  the  issue  of  the 
whole  war.  Joan  made  her  way  into  the  city  on 
April  29,  1429,  and  nine  days  later  compelled 
the  English  to  raise  the  siege.  The  next  act  of 
Joan  was  to  conduct  the  King  to  be  crowned 
at  Rheims,  which  she  effected  on  July  17, 
after  having  defeated  the  English  at  Patay 
in  the  preceding  month.  These  events  ended 
the  achievements  which  Joan  had  proclaimed 
it  her  mission  to  perform.  She  accomplished, 
however,  still  more  for  the  cause  of  France's 
deliverance  by  her  death.  Taken  prisoner  by 
the  V^nglioh  at  Compi^gne  on  May  23,  1430, 
she  was  carried  to  Rouen,  unjustly  con- 
demned for  sorcery,  and  burnt  in  the  May  of 
the  following  year.  But  the.  effect  of  her 
achievements  upon  Franco  did  not  pass  avray 
with  her  death.  The  national  spirit  had  been 
roused,  and  the  result  was  that  the  struggle 
became  now  a  national  effort  to  expel  the  lUien 
invaders.  From  that  time  the  cause  of  Eng- 
land was  virtually  lost.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  follow  in  detail  the  stages  of  its  decline. 
By  the  Treaty  of  Arras  (Sept.  21,  1435), 
Burgundy  finally  threw  in  his  lot  with 
Charles,  and  the  event  is  said  to  have  been 
the  cause  of  the  death  of  Bedford,  which 
shortly  followed.  The  war  dragged  on  with 
diminishing  hopes  on  the  Engli^  side,  and 
increasing  discontent  at  home,  for  ten  years 
more.  In  1444  a  truce  was  made  between 
the  two  countries  ;  and  in  the  following  year 
a  marriage  was  arranged  between  Henry  and 
Margaret,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Aniou  and 
Maine,  and  the  niece  of  the  King  of  fxance. 

Henceforward,  the  interest  of  events  abroad 
depends  mainl^*^  upon  the  effect  which  they 
had  u|)on  public  feeling  at  home — the  degree 
in  which  they  embittered  the  different  parties 
of  English  statesmen  and  tended  to  bring 
about  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  which  soon 
ensued.  Two  years  after  the  king's  marriage, 
the  two  rival  statesmen,  the  Duke  of  Glou- 
cester and  Cardinal  Beaufort,  died.  The 
Duke  of  Suffolk  now  came  to  be  the  trusted 
minister  of  the  crown.  He  had  been  chiefly 
instrumental  in  bringing  about  the  king^s 
marriage,  and  he  was  on  that  account  the 
favourite  of  Queen  Margaret,  by  whom  the 
kinp:  was  entirely  governed.  But  as  the 
royal  marriage  and  the  queen  herself  became 


every  day  more  unpopular  in  the  country,  the 
genend  distrust  of  the  duke  kept  pace  with 
his  favour  at  court.  The  Duke  of  York  now 
occupied,  and  with  much  more  desert^  the 
place  in  popular  estimation  that  Gloucester  had 
held  a  few  years  before  his  death,  while  the 
oontinued  losses  of  the  English  were  attributed 
to  the  treachery  of  Suffolk  and  the  queen.  At 
length  Suffolk  was,  at  the  instance  of  York 
and  his  party,  impeached  of  high  treason, 
was  banished  by  the  king,  and  seixed  and 
beheaded,  probably  by  a  pirate,  in  the  coune 
of  his  passage  to  the  coast  of  France.  He 
was  suoceeded  by  the  Duke  of  Somerset  in  the 
queen's  favour.  York  was  removed  from  the 
country'  by  appointment  as  Regent  of  Ireland, 
and  the  defence  of  the  possessions  in  Fiance 
was  entrusted  to  Somerset.  In  1460,  a  fore- 
taste of  the  civil  war  was  experienced  in  the 
rebellion  of  the  men  of  Kent,  under  Jack 
Cade,  who  called  himself  John  Mortimer,  and 
professed  to  be  a  cousin  of  the  Duke  of  York. 
After  this  rebellion  had  been  suppressed, 
York  returned  to  England,  with  a  following 
of  several  thousand  men,  and  insisted  upon  a 
reform  of  the  Council.  This  was  granted, 
and  the  appeal  to  arms  was,  for  a  while, 
deferred. 

Meanwhile,  the  affiairs  of  the  country  across 
the  Channel  had  gone  from  bad  to  worse. 
There  was  no  longer  any  (question  of  retainin|^ 
the  more  recent  acquisitions.  The  most 
ancient  possessions  of  the  English  in  France 
were  about  to  be  lost — Normandy  in  1450, 
Guienne  in  1453.  During  the  defence  of  the 
latter  place,  the  brave  Lord  Shrewsbury',  his 
sons,  and  about  thirty  knights,  f^  in  one 
engagement.  In  Aug^ust,  1453,  the  king^ 
began  to  exhibit  signs  of  mental  alienation. 
It  now  became  clear  to  all  that,  sooner  or 
later,  the  queeti  and  Somerset  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  Duke  of  York  and  his  partisanii 
upon  the  other,  would  appeal  to  the  sword  to 
settle  their  disputes;  and  the  noblemen 
throughout  the  country  began  to  arm  their 
retainers.  York  was  appointed  Protector  in 
April,  1454.  But  in  January'  of  the  succeed- 
ing year  the  king  recovered  his  faculties,  and 
the  appointment  was,  of  course,  annulled. 
The  queen  and  Somerset  now  began  to  think 
of  taking  vengeance  upon  York,  who  was 
obliged  to  retire  to  the  north.  There  he  was 
joined  by  the  most  powerful  among  his 
adherents,  and  definitely  took  up  arms,  and 
marched  upon  London.  On  May  22,  1455, 
the  army  of  York  encountered  the  forces  of 
the  king  at  St.  Albans,  and  there  was  fought 
the  first  battle  of  the  Wars  of  the  Roghos. 
Somerset  was  slain,  and  the  victory  remained 
with  the  Yorkists ;  so  that,  on  the  king  again 
becoming  derang^ed,  York  was  once  more 
made  Lord  Protector.  The  war  now  slumbered 
for  four  years.  It  broke  out  again  in  the 
autumn  of  1459,  when  Lord  Audlcy,  with 
the  king's  forces,  was  defeated  by  theSari  of 
Salisbury  at  Blore  Heath  (Sept.  23) .  But  on  the 


(  656  ) 


approach  of  the  Idnf;  the  Yorkists  were  obliged 
to  disperse,  and  their  leaders  were  attainted  by 
the  Parliament  of  Coventr}-  in  the  foltowihg 
November.  Soon,  however,  they  recovered 
their  position,  and  entered  London  in  triumph, 
in  July,  1460.  Immediately  after  was  fought 
the  battle  of  Northampton,  in  which  the  king 
was  taken  prisoner  (July  10, 1460).  On  Oct.  16 
the  Duke  of  York,  for  the  first  time,  laid  claim 
to  the  crown.  Meanwhile,  the  queen  had  fled 
to  the  north,  where  she  succeeded  in  raising  ah 
army.  York  hastened  to  meet  her,  and  on 
Dec.  30  was  fought  the  battle  of  Wakefield, 
in  which  the  army  of  York  was  completely 
defeated.  The  duke  himself  was  slain,  and 
his  second  son,  the  Earl  of  Rutland,  was 
murdered  after  the  battle.  Edward,  Earl  of 
March,  now  succeeded  to  the  claims  of  his 
father,  and,  after  some  indecisive  engage- 
ments, the  queen  was  decisively  defeated  at 
Towton  (March  29,  1461),  and  again  at  Hex- 
ham (May  15, 1464).  This  brought  the  war  to 
an  end ;  but  Henry  was  again  restored  for  a  few 
months  in  1471,  through  the  influence  of  the 
Earl  of  Warwick.  Warwick  was,  however, 
defeated  and  slain  at  Bamet  (AprU  14),  and 
the  Lancastrians  were,  for  the  last  time, 
repulsed  at  Tewkesbur}-  (j&Iay  4).  On  tiie 
22nd  of  the  same  month  the  body  of  Henry 
was  exposed  at  St.  Paul's.  It  was  ver}*  com- 
monly believed  that  he  had  been  murdered 
by  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  the  brother  of 
Edward  IV. 

Chronicle  of  8t.  AUbanai  Cotitinwdicn  of  tht 
Chi'oniele  oi  Crovland  (in  Gale's  SeKptor«s) ; 
William  of  Worcester  (Bolls  Series) ;  StevenaoUi 
If 'ars  pf  t\i  Bxiq\\%h  in  France  (Bolls  Series); 
Kills,  Original  I.«tt#rt ;  BoIIi  of  Parttam«nt ;  Vvtf- 
eeedtngt  of  Privy  CouneU ;  tti*  PaUon  Liters, 
with  Mr.  Oairdner's  raliiable  Introdnotions ', 
Beligieuz  de  St.  Denys ;  Boai^ois  de  Puris ; 
BroDiffaam,  Bng.  tiiid«r  tht  Houm  of  Lanoatier. 

[C.  F.  K.] 


Kenry  VZI.,  Kixo  (b.  Jan.  21,  1456, 
«.  Aug.  *I2,  1489,  d.  April  22,  1509),  was 
the  son  of  Edmund  Tudor,  £arl  of  Rich- 
mond, son  of  Owen  Tudor,  a  Welsh  gentleman 
who  had  married  the  widow  of  Henry  V. 
His  mother,  Blargaret,  was  a  great-grand- 
daughter of  John  of  Gaunt  by  Catherine 
Sw}*nford,  whose  offspring  had  been  legiti- 
matised  in  1397,  but  expressly  excluded  from 
succession  to  tbe  throne.  lienrj'  VI.  recog- 
nised his  half-brothers  of  the  Tudor  house, 
and  when  Edmund  Tudor  died,  soon  after  his 
son's  birth,  Henr}*  VI.  took  the  young  Henry 
of  Richmond  under  his  protection.  After  the 
battle  of  Tewkesbury,  Jasper  Tudor,  Earl  of 
Pembroke,  carried  off  his  nephew  to  Britanny 
for  safety.  Edward  IV.  left  no  means  untried 
to  get  Henr>'  into  his  power.  He  tried  to 
bribe  the  Duke  of  Britanny  to  give  him  up, 
but  the  duke  preferred  to  receive  an  annual 
subsidy  for  keeping  watch  over  his  important 
guest.  Richard  III.  sent  a  special  envoy  to 
Britanny  to  spy  Henry's  doings.  The  Eng- 
lish exiles  more  and  more  gathered  round 


Henr}%  and  saw  in  him  their  onlv  possible 
head.  His  mother  and  Bishop  Moiton  did 
their  utmost  to  furnish  him  with  money. 
On  Christmas  Day,  1483,  a  body  of  exiles 
took  oath  in  the  cathedial  of  Rheims  to  place 
Henry  on  the  English  throne,  and  he  on  his 
side,  swore  to  reconcile  tiie  contending  parties 
by  wedding  Elizabeth  of  York,  Edwturd  IV.'s 
eldest  daughter.  It  needed  much  patience 
on  Henxy's  part  to  keep  his  party  together, 
and  to  overcome  the  obstacles  which  the 
French  court  put  in  the  way  of  his  prepara- 
tions. At  length,  on  August  1 , 1 4  85,  he  Lmded 
at  Milford  Haven  in  Pembroke,  and  wais 
welcomed  by  the  Welsh  as  a  compatriot.  He 
advanced  to  Shropshire,  where  he  was  joined 
by  the  Talbots.  Richard  III.  advanced  to 
meet  him,  and  the  two  armies  came  in  sight 
near  the  little  town  of  Bosworth,  not  far 
from  A^by-de-la-Zouche.  The  battle  was 
decided  by  Lord  Stanley,  who  joined  Henr}*'s 
side.  Richard  III.  was  slain  and  Henry  of 
Richmond  was  the  conqueror  (Aug.  22). 
Still  there  were  many  difficulties  in  his  way ; 
but  he  showed  a  resolute  and  far-sigfatod 
spirit.  He  was  determined  to  reign  as  Eng- 
land's lawful  king,  and  not  to  assume  a  sub- 
ordinate position  by  accepting  any  title 
through  marriage  with  Elizabeth  of  York. 
The  claims  of  the  Lancastrian  house  were  not 
popular,  and  Henry  could  scarcely  pretend  to 
be  a  genuine  Lancastrian.  He  took,  however, 
a  victor's  right,  and  on  the  day  of  the  battle 
of  Bosworth  assumed  the  ro^'al  title.  He 
advanced  to  London  and  had  himself  crowned 
before  he  summoned  Parliament  in  Novem- 
ber. The  Act  which  recognised  his  accession 
made  no  mention  of  his  claim,  but  simply 
declared  that  *'  the  inheritance  of  the  crown 
be,  resty  remain,  and  abide  in  the  most  royal 
person  of  our  now  sovereign  lord  King  Henry 
Vll.  and  in  his  heirs."  It  may  be  said  that 
Parliament  simply  registered  an  accomplished 
fact  In  January,  1486,  Henry  VII.  married 
Elizabeth  of  York,  and  soon  afterwards  made 
a  journey  northwards  to  pacify  his  dominions. 
There  was  a  futile  rising  of  the  Yorkists 
under  Lord  Level  which  was  easily  put 
down,  and  was  sternly  punished.  But  Eng- 
land had  been  too  long  disturbed  by  party 
warfare  for  peace  to  come  at  once.  In  1487, 
a  young  man,  Lambert  Simnel,  was  trained  to 
personate  the  Eurl  of  Warwick,  son  of  the  Duke 
of  Clarence,  whom  Henry  VII.  kept  confined 
in  the  Tower.  The  impostor  was  welcomed 
in  Ireland,  and  received  aid  from  Flanders, 
where  the  Duchess  Margaret  of  Burgundy, 
sister  of  Edward  IV.,  resided.  He  landed  in 
England  in  June,  1487,  but  was  defeated 
and  taken  prisoner  at  Stoke,  and  was  after 
employed  as  a  servant  in  the  royal  kitchen. 
This  rising  taught  Henry  VII.  that  he  must 
mollify  the  bitterness  of  the  Yorkist  feeling, 
and  he  accordingly  had  Elizabeth  crowned  as 
his  queen  in  ^November.  He  also  took 
measures  to  reduce  still  further  the  power 


(  556  ) 


of  the  great  barons,  though  the  haronage  haA 
been  ahnoat  annihilated  in  the  bloody  battles 
of  the  Wars  of  the  Roses.  In  1487  Parlia- 
ment constituted  a  new  commission  of  judges, 
chosen  from  the  members  of  the  Privy  Coun- 
cil, with  power  to  put  down  divers  misde- 
meanours. Chief  of  these  was  the  practice 
of  maintenance,  by  which  a  lord  coxud  bind 
to  himself  a  band  of  retainers,  who  wore  his 
liver}',  espoused  his  quarrels,  and  were  too 
strong  for  the  ordinary  law  courts  to  touch. 
This  new  court  of  the  Star  Chamber  outlived 
its  original  purpose,  and  became  an  abuse. 
Hewry  VII.'b  policy'  was  peaceful,  and  he 
did  not  aim  at  gaming  glory  for  his  new 
dynastv  by  foreign  warfare.  The  daughter 
of  his  former  protector,  the  Duke  of  Britanny, 
asked  his  help  against  France ;  and  the  Eng- 
lish people  were  ready  for  war.  Henry  VII. 
used  his  people's  zeal  as  a  means  for  raising 
large  supplies,  but  only  made  a  show  of 
flghting,  and,  in  1492  made  with  Charles 
VIII.  of  France  the  Peace  of  Staples, 
by  which  he  consented  to  be  bought  off 
by  a  large  money  myment  of  £149,000. 
A  new  pretender,  a  Fleming,  Peter  Osbeck, 
generally  known  as  Perkin  Warbeck,  claimed 
to  be  a  son  of  Edward  IV.,  who  had  escaped 
from  the  hands  of  Richard  III.  By  the 
Treaty  of  Staples,  Warbeck  was  expelled  from 
France.  He  was,  however,  warmly  supported 
by  Margaret  of  Burg^undy,  and  had  many 
adherento  in  England.  Henry  VII.  steadily 
pursued  them,  and  punished  them  with  re- 
morseless severity.  After  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  at  landing  on  the  coast  of  Kent  in 
1495,  160  prisoners  were  hanged.  In  1496 
Henry  VII.  made  a  commercial  treaty, 
known  as  "The  Great  Intercourse,"  wife 
Flanders,  bv  which  liberty  of  trading  was 
secured,  and  each  party  undertook  to  expel 
the  other's  rebels  from  their  territory.  The 
obvious  advantages  of  commercial  intercourse 
overcame  d^'nastic  politics,  and  Flamders  was 
no  more  a  seedbed  of  plots  against  the  Eng- 
lish monarchy.  Warbeck  took  refuge  in 
Scotland,  where  Henry  VII.'s  policy  of 
conciliation  was  not  yet  able  to  overcome 
national  animosity.  Still  it  made  so  much 
progress  that  Warbock  was  driven  to  seek 
his  fortunes  in  the  field,  and  in  September, 
1497,  landed  in  Cornwall.  As  the  royal 
troops  advanced,  Warbeck's  forces  melted 
away,  and  he  was  taken  prisoner  in  the  abbey 
of  Beaulieu.  Warbeck  made  an  attempt  to 
escape  from  prison,  and  led  the  Earl  of  War- 
wick to  share  in  his  attempt.  In  1499  they 
were  both  executed,  and  Henry  VII.  was  at 
last  free  from  any  pretender  to  his  throne. 
Henry  VII.  devoted  himself  to  the  great 
object  of  establishing  the  royal  power  at 
home,  and  of  raising  the  English  monarchy 
to  a  strong  position  in  European  affairs.  He 
lived  economically,  and  seldom  summoned 
Parliament.  He  used  benevolences  to  raise 
money,   and   rigidly  exercised    all  the  old 


rights  of  the  crown.  He  reduced  the  barons 
into  complete  obedience,  and  raised  up  a  new 
class  of  offidals.  He  succeeded  in  bringing 
Ireland  into  sreater  order  and  closer  connec- 
tion with  Eng^d.  The  Deputy,  Sir  Edward 
Poynings,  passed  a  law  which  made  the  Irish 
Parliament  largely  dependent  on  the  English 
king.  Henry  Yll.  steadily  pursued  the 
endeavour  of  bringing  Scotland  into  closer 
union  with  England,  and  in  this  he  was  helped 
by  his  alliance  with  France,  which  weakened 
its  connection  with  Scotland.  In  1502,  peace 
was  established  with  Scotland,  and  Henry 
VII.'s  daughter,  Margaret,  was  given  in 
marriage  to  the  Scottish  king  James  IV. 

In  foreign  aiEairs  Henry  VII.  recog- 
nised a  congenial  spirit  in  Ferdinand  of 
Aragon,  and  wished  to  restore  on  a  firmer 
basis  the  traditional  alliance  between  Eng- 
kioid  and  the  Spanish  house.  A  marriage 
was  arranged  between  the  Infanta,  Cathe- 
rine, and  Arthur,  Henry  VII.*s  eldest  son. 
It  took  place  in  November,  1501,  but  five 
months  afterwards  Arthur  died  at  the  age 
of  fifteen.  Henry  VII.  and  Ferdinand  wei« 
both  unwilling  to  lose  the  advantages  of  this 
connection.  It  was  agreed  that  Arthur's 
brother  Henry  should  marry  Catherine.  The 
necessary  dispensations  were  obtained,  and 
Catherine  stayed  in  England,  but  the  mar- 
riage was  not  celebrated  till  after  Henry  VII.*s 
death.  The  death  of  Queen  Elizabeth  m  1503 
left  Henry  VII.  free  to  carry  farther  his 
policy  of  Continental  alliances.  He  proposed 
to  marry  Margaret,  daughter  of  the  Emperor 
Maximilian,  whose  son  Philip  was  Duke  of 
Burgundy.  By  this  marriage  he  proix>8edy 
amongst  other  advantages,  to  secure  posses- 
sion of  Edmund  de  la  Pole,  son  of  the  Duke  of 
Suffolk  and  Edwmrd  IV. 's  sister  Elizabeth. 
A  storm  drove  Philip  of  Burgundy  on  the 
English  coast,  and  Henry  VII.,  in  return  for 
his  hospitality,  demanded  the  surrender  of 
Edmund  de  la  Pole,  who  was  imprisoned  in 
the  Tower.  The  marriage  with  Margaret 
did  not  take  place,  and  Henry  VII.  spent  his 
last  years  in  devising  other  marriages  for  him- 
self and  his  daughter.  None  of  them  were 
accomplished ;  but  their  object  was  to  secure 
for  his  house  a  sure  friendship  both  with  Aus- 
trian and  Spanish  lines.  Henr^*  YII.*s  finan- 
cial policy  became  more  and  more  rapacious, 
and  he  was  skilful  in  finding  ready  instru- 
ments, chief  of  whom  were  Edmund  Dudley 
and  Richard  Empson.  When  Henry  VII. 
died  on  April  22, 1509,  he  left  England  paci- 
fied and  the  royal  coffers  well  filled.  He  had 
done  a  difficult  task  with  thoroughness  and 
persistency.  He  gave  England  order,  peaoe, 
and  prosperity.  He  establishod  firmly  his 
own  house  on  the  English  throne.  He  secured 
its  position  by  a  system  of  alliances  abroad. 
By  the  same  means  he  protected  English  in- 
terests, and  gained  for  England  an  important 
place  in  European  politics  without  fighting  a 
single  battle.     His  prudent  use  of  the  means 


(M7) 


4ii  hift  difpo«d  won  f or  him  in  afte  timM  the 

na^e  of  ijae  "  Soknurn  of  England." 

Polydoro  Venril,  An^iea  HMoHoo;  HaU, 
CfcroNieU  of  the  Union  t^  tko  Houam  qf  Tork  and 
Laneaator  ;  MtmorvdM  of  H«nry  FIX.,  ad.  Qftixd- 
ner  (BoUs  Series) ;  Fmnoeeoo  CapeUo,  B«lesume 
(Ounden  Sooietj);  Lendow  ChromMU  (Oui- 
aan  MieoeUanj.  toL  ir.);  Baooii,  Hut  of 
iko  Bmy»  oTirmry  FlI.;  Fanli,  En^laeke 
OctefcieUf ;  Hallaiii,  C«tuittMft(mal  HM.  ^Aiy. 
land ;  Ctoiidner, Hmry  ih« Sarmth.    r^^ qi 

Kttliry  VTZZ.,  Kmo  (6.  Jnne  TA,  1491, 
«.  April  22,  1509»  <;.  Jan.  28,  1647),  was 
the  son  of  Uenr}"  VII.  and  Elizabeth  of 
York.  He  came  to  the  throne  a  handaomo 
and  accompliflhed  young  man,  whose  acces- 
sion was  hailed  wiui  joy  as  a  relief  from  the 
severe  and  sombre  rule  of  Henry  YII.  Henry 
VIII.  increased  his  popularity  by  prosecuting 
the  hated  instruments  of  his  £ather*B  extor- 
tion, Empson  and  Dudley,  who  were  put  to 
death  on  a  cham  of  plotting  to  seize  the 
royal  person.  He  intimated  his  intention  of 
canyinff  on  his  father's  forei^  policy  by 
completing  the  marriage,  which  had  long 
been  deferred,  with  Catherine  of  Aragon,  his 
brother  Arthur's  widow.  He  longed  to 
plunge  into  an  adventurous  career  of  foreign 
policy,  for  which  the  troubled  state  of  Euro- 
pean affairs  afforded  every  opportunity.  Italy 
was  the  battle-field  of  the  rival  claims  of 
the  Empire,  France,  and  Spain.  The  League 
of  Cambrai — for  the  dismemberment  of  Venice 
-^had  awakened  the  Pope's  jealousy  against 
fVance.  The  Holy  League  was  formed  in 
1511  a^;ainst  Louis  XII.,  and  Henry  VIII. 
gladly  loined  it.  An  English  army  was  sent 
under  the  Duke  of  Suffolk  to  co-operate  with 
Spanish  troops  in  the  south  of  France.  But 
ferdinand  used  it  only  for  his  own  purposes ; 
he  delayed  any  great  operations,  and  the 
English  suffered  from  the  climate.  Nothing 
was  done  in  this  campaign  of  1512 ;  but  next 
year  Henry  VIII.  arran^^  to  co-operate  with 
the  German  king,  Alaximilian,  in  Flanden. 
The  bloodless  Battle  of  the  Spun  (Aug.  16, 
1513)  secured  the  fall  of  Terouenne,  and 
Toumai  also  was  taken.  France  retaliated' 
on  England  by  stirring  up  the  Soots  to  break 
tiie  peace  which  they  had  recently  made  with 
England.  James  I Y.  crossed  the  border  with 
a  large  army,  but  was  defeated  and  slain  by 
the  Earl  of  Surrey  in  the  battle  of  Flodd^ 
Field.  The  yeai*  1513  was  successful  for 
Henr}**  VIIL's  ambitious  schemes.  ,  But  his 
allies  were  ready  for  a  truce.  Henry  VIII. 
could  not  continue  the  war  by  himself.  .  He 
made  peace  with  Louis  XII.  in  return  for 
large  sums  of  monev,  and  ratified  the  peace  by 

fiving  his  sister  Mary  in  marriage  to  the  old 
ing.  The  death  of  James  IV.  of  Scotland 
left  another  of  Henry's  sisters,  Alargaret,  the 
queen  dowager,  regent  of  Scotland.  But  her 
second  marriage,  with  the  Earl  of  Ang^, 
made  her  unpopular,  and  afforded  an  opening 
for  French  intrigues.  The  death  of  Louis 
XII.  and  the  accession  of  Francis  I.  in  1515, 


again  led  to  European  war,  which  was  ended 
in  1518,  by  a  confederacy  between  England, 
Fnmce,  and  Spain. 

Henry's  chief  adviser  was  Thomas  Wol- 
sey,  who  rose  by  his  abilities,  and  showed 
his  capacity  especially  by  managing  the  de- 
tails of  the  campaign  of  1518.  Next  year  he 
was  made  Archbi&op  of  York,  and  Chan- 
cellor. He  soon  was  created  cardinal^  and 
made  papal  legate  in  England.  His  dvil  and 
ecclesiastical  authority  combined  gave  him 
a  commanding  position.  He  was  devoted 
to  the  king's  servioe,  and  bent  upon  exalting 
the  royal  authority.  He  Ukewiae  upheld 
stoutly  the  authority  of  the  Church,  though 
he  wished  to  reform  some  of  its  abuses.  < 
Above  all  he  laboured  to  make  England  in- 
fluential and  res^ted  in  European  affairs. 
At  home  he  exerased  arbitrary  power.  From 
1515  to  1523  no  Parliament  was  summoned, 
but  money  was  collected  by  forced  loans  uid 
benevolences. 

The  death  of  Maximilian  in  1519  raised 
the  question  of  succession  to  the  Empire. 
Henry  VIII.  offered  himself  as  a  candidate  ;< 
but  the  contest  really  lay  between  Francis  I. 
and  Charles,  grandsoni  alike  of  Ferdinand  and 
Maximilian.  The  election  of  Charles  V.  was 
the  beginning  of  a  long  rivalry  between 
France  and  &e  house  of  Hapsburg,  Both 
wished  to  secure  the  support  of  England, 
and  Wolsey  enhanced  the  importance  d!  the 
English  alliance  by  temporising  between  the 
two  powen.  Charles  V.  condescended  to  ' 
visit  Canterbury  for  a  conference  with  Henry 
VIII.  Francis  I.  arranged  an  interview  on 
the  plain  of  Ardres,  with  such  magnificence 
that  it  was  known  as  the  '*  Field  of  the  Cloth 
of  Gk>ld."  But  in  Wolsey's  eyes  the  interests 
of  En^and  could  be  better  served  by  siding 
with  Charles  V.,  and  in  the  war  which  fol- 
lowed, England  saw  its  ally  everywhere  suc- 
cessful. France  retaliated  on  England,  as 
usual,  by  raising  disturbances  in  Scotland, 
where  the  Duke  of  Albany  attacked  the  Eng- 
lish borden.  He  was,  however,  outgeneraUed 
by  the  Earl  of  Surrey,  and  in  1523  a  peace 
for  eighteen  yean  was  made  with  Scotland. 

In  1523  Henry  VIII.  had  hopes  of  reviving 
the  English  claims  on  the  French  throne. 
But  Charles  V.  had  no  wish  to  see  his  ally 
become  too  powerful.  His  object  was  to  use 
the  help  of  England  to  enable  him  to  make 
a  satisfactory  peace  with  France  in  his  own 
interests.  Wolsey  soon  saw  this,  and  the 
alliance  of  Englsind  with  Charles  V.  began 
rapidly  to  cool.  The  complete  success  of 
Cmirles  V.  at  the  battle  of  Pavia,  in  1525, 
where  Francis  I.  was  taken  prisoner,  showed 
still  more  clearly  that  England  had  nothine 
to  gain  from  her  ally.  Heniy  VIII.  and 
Wolsey  came  round  to  the  Fronch  side,  and  in 
1528  England  declared  war  against  Charles  V. 

During  this  period  Henry  VIII.  was  re- 
garded as  a  gav,  pleasure-loving  king,  am- 
bitious, and  full  of  great  schemes,  wluch  he 


(  '558  ) 


was  content  to  leave  in  the  hands  of  Wolaey 
to  be.  vorked  out.  .Wolsey's  hand  was  heavy 
on  the  people,  and  his  taxation  was  arbitrary 
that  he  might  raise  adequate  supplies.  Henry 
VIIL  stood  aloof  from  these  questions.  He 
retained  his  own  popuhuity,  and  allowed  all 
the  responsibility  and  aU  the  odium  to  iaXL 
upon  Wolsey's  shoulders.  The  country  was 
prosperous  and  contented  under  a  strong 
government,  and  looked  with  fervent  loyalty 
upon  the  king  who  secured  their  peace.  But 
Henry  YIII.  had  no  male  heirs.  All-  his 
children  by  Catherine  died  in  infancy,  save  a 
daughter,  Mary.  Uncertainly  about  the  suc- 
cession to  the  throne  would  again  plunge 
England  into  a  bloodjr  conflict.  Hcnr}*^  YIII. 
repressed  aU  speculation  about  the  future  with 
sternness.  In  1521  the  Duke  of  Buckingham 
was  condemned  and  executed  as  a  traitor  on 
sHght  charges  of  attempting  to  forecast  the 
duration  of  the  king^s  life.  But  Henr}*^  YIII. 
was  uneasy  at  the  want  of  a  male  heir.  His 
wife,  Gatherine,  was  older  than  himself,  and 
was  sickly.  So  long  as  he  remained  in  alli- 
ance with  Charles  v.,  Catherine  had  a  political 
significance.  On  the  breach^  with  Charles  V., 
she  became  an  obstacle  in  the  way  of  the 
new  policy.  The  marriage  with  a  brother's 
widow  had    sufficient   irregularity   to    give 

S-ounds  for  a  divorce,  and  a  desire  for  a 
vorce  gradually  took  possession  of  the  king's 
mind.  It  became  a  determined  object  when 
the  kinff  fell  in  love  with  Anne  Boleyn,  a 
lady  of  Catherine's  court.  Wolsey  had 
favoured  the  divorce  scheme  in  the  interests 
of  the  alliance  with  France.  When  he  found 
that  it  was  urged  to  make  room  for  Anne 
Bole}^,  he  was  dismayed,  but  none  the  less 
obeyed  the  king.  The  question  was,  however,  ' 
an  awkward  one,  axfd  it  was  difficult  to  find 
good  reasons ,  for  urging  it  on  the  Pope. 
Clement  YII.  was  cowed  by  the  sack  of 
Rome  in  1527,  and  was  afraid  of  drawing  on 
himself  the  wrath  of  Charles  Y.  He  con-  ' 
sented  to  constitute  Cardinals  Wolsey  and 
Oampeggio  commissioners  to  examine  into  the 
king  s  plea,  and  the  legates  sat  in  London  in 
1529.  But  the  case  was  revoked  to  Rome, 
and  Henry  was  left  disappointed.  Every 
effort  was  made  to  override  or  outwit  the  un- 
fortunate Catherine ;  but  her  resolution 
left  the  Pope  no  chance  of  evading  the  main 
issue,  which  was  the  >'alidity  of  the  dispensa- 
tion issued  by  a  previous  Pope.  It  is  no 
wonder  that  Clement  YII.  hesitated. 

The  immediate  result  of  Henry's  disap- 
pointment was  the  disgrace  of  Wolsey,  who 
had  so  faithfully  served  his  master  that  he 
had  no  other  friend.  Wolsey  was  brought 
under  the  penalties  of  the  Statute  of  Pnemu- 
nire  for  having  exercised  the  office  of  legate. 
He  died  in  November,  1530,  foreseeing  the 
great  questions  that  would  arise.  *'The 
king,"  he  said,  ''  is  of  ro}'al  spirit,  and  hath 
a  princely  heart ;  rather  than  he  will  miss  or 
want  part  of  his  appetite,  he  will  hazard  the 


loss  of  half  a  kingdom."     Henry  was  reso^ 
lute  for  his  divorce,  and  was  still  anxioiis  to 
obtain   the   papal   sanction.      In    dragginjg; 
befere  the  world  all  the  secrets  of  his  domestic 
life,  and  showing  openly  his  attachment  to 
•Anne  Boleyn,  he  entered  upon  a  career  which 
led  to  momentous   results.     The  Lutheran 
revolt  in  Germany  had  done  much  to  shake 
the  foundation  oi  the  papal  authority,  and 
Henry  YIII.  had  shown  his  orthodoxy.,  by 
writing  against  Luther,  and  receiving  from 
the  Pope  the   title   of   <*  Defender   of   the 
Faith."    But  the  demand  for  reform  was  loud 
inside  the  Church,  and  Henry  YIII.  encou- 
raged the  Parliament  of  1529  to  pass  mea- 
sures for  remedying  clerical  abuses.    He  tried 
to  bring  further  pressure  to  bear  upon  the 
Pope  by  gathering  opinions  of  the  universities 
of  Europe  upon  the  question  of  the  papal 
power  to  grant  a  dispensation  for  marriage 
with  a  brother's  widow.    In  1531  he  went 
further,  and  threatened  all  the  clergy  of  Eng- 
huad  with  the  penalties  of  Pi^aemunire  because 
ti^ey  had  recogmsed  Wolsey's  legatine  autho- 
rity.   They  bought  off  the  royal  displeasure, 
but  were  driven  in  their  bill  to  give  the  king;* 
the  title  of  supreme  head  of  the  Church. 
Still  the  Pope  did  not  give  way,  and  next 
year  Parliament  was  encouraged  to  continue 
the  war  against  the  clergy,  and  the  payment 
of  annates    or  first-fruits  to  the  Pope    was 
attacked.     At  last  the  king's  patience  was 
exhausted,  and  in  January,    1533,  he  was 
secretly  married  to  Anne  Boleyn.    The  Pope 
threatened  excommunication,  whereon  an  Act 
was  passed  forbidding  appeals  to  Rome.    The 
divorce  question  was  then  tried  before  the 
court  of  Archbishop  Cranmer ;  and  Catherine, 
who  refused  to  plead,  was  pronounced  contu- 
macious, and  sentence  was  given  against  her. 
The  Pope  declared  the  divorce  illegal.    The 
breach  with  Rome  was  complete.  Henir  YIII. 
had  done  what  he  could  to  avoid  the  breach ; 
but  st^  by  step  he  was  drawn  on  until  it  was 
inevitable.    Hie  Parliament  of  1534  finished 
the  work  of  separating  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land from  the  papal  headship,  and  instituting 
it  as  a  national  church  under  the  headship  (3 
the  king. 

Henr}'  YTII.'s  chief  adviser  in  these  mea- 
sures was  Thomas  Cromwell,  who  had  risen 
to  notice  in  Wolsey's  service.  C*romwell 
wished  to  re-establish  the  royal  power  as  su- 
preme over  Church  and  State  aliice.  The  dis- 
content created  by  these  sweeping  measures 
was  sternly  repressed.  The  Succession  Act, 
which  settled  tiie  crown  upon  the  -children  of 
Anne  Boleyn,  was  made  a  test  of  loyalty, 
llie  royal  supremacy  was  enacted  by  Parlia- 
ment, and  it  was  hi^h  treason  to  question  that 
title.  Cromwell's  spies  and  informers  crowded 
the  land.  The  monks  of  the  Charterhouse 
perished  on  the  scaffold  for  refusing  to  admit 
the  royal  supremacy.  Sir  Thomas  More  ant! 
Bishop  Fisher  were  executed  because  they 
could  not  conscientiously  take  oath  that  th^ 


('559  ); 


heartilv  approved  of  these  changes.  By  these 
examples  the  discontented  were  cowed  into 
acquiescence.  The  ro^'al  supremacy,  exer- 
cised by  Cromwell  as  Yicar-General,  was  used 
for  clearing  away  seedplots  of  disaffection. 
In  1536  the  smaller  monasteries  were  visited 
and  suppressed,  and  in  1539  the  larger  monas- 
teries were  involved  in  the  same  fate.  Their 
lands  passed  into  the  hands  of  a  class  of  now 
nobility,  who  thus  had  a  direct  interest  in  main* 
taining  the  new  state  of  things.  The  abbots 
disappeared  from  the  House  of  Lords,  and  the 
Parliamentary  influence  of  the  Church  was  at 
an  end. 

There  was.  no  limit  to  the  royal  power,  or 
to  the  subserviency  of  Parliament.  Henry 
Till,  seems  to  hiave  re^rded  himself  as 
beyond  all  recognised  prmciples  of  human 
conduct.  In  1536  Anne  Boleyn  was  accused, 
of  uncfaastity,  and  was .  beheaded.  The  day 
after  her  execution  the  king  married  Jane 
Seymour.  Again  the  succession  to  the  throne 
was  altered  by  Act  of  Parliament.  Henry 
VIII.  was  even  allowed  to  nominate  his  suc- 
cessor by  will.  But  the  king's  position  was 
dangerous.  In  Ireland  there  was  a  serious 
rising  of  the  Fitsgeralds.  In  Lincolnshire, 
an  army  of  discontented  folks  presented  their 
grievances.  In  Yorkshire,  a  more  serious 
rising,  "the  Pilgrimage  of  Grace,'*  was  put 
down  by  the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  To  guard 
against  a  rising  of  the  old  Yorkist  faction  in 
tho  west,  the  grandson  of  Edward  lY., 
Edward  Courtenay,  Marauis  of  E?ieter,  was 
executed  as  a  traitor.  By  the  end^of  1537, 
the  disaffection  created  by  the  violent  changes 
had  been  stamped  out. 

Henry  YIII.  desired  nothing  more  than 
the  absorption  into  the  crown  of  the  powers 
previously  exercised  by  the  Pope.  But  it 
was  difficult  to  repress  the  zeal  of  those  who 
were  inspired  by  the  teaching  of  Luther,  and 
discussed  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  with 
freedom.  Religious  change  and  doctrinal  re- 
form spread  more  widely  than  Henn'  VIII. 
liked.  He  was  willing  to  use  it  so  fai  as  it 
enabled  him  to  make  good  his  position,  but 
no  further.  In  1539  Parliament  passed  the 
Bill  of  Six  Articles,  which  asserted  the  chief 
points  of  the  old  system  against  the  attacks 
of  the  Beformers.  Cromwell  was  disposed  to 
go  further,  and  seek  political  advantages  by  a 
close  alliance  with  the  Protestant  princes  of 
Grermany.  In  1540  he  negotiated  Henry 
VIII.*s  fourth  marriage,  with  Anne,  daughter 
of  John,  Duke  of  Cleves.  His  new  wife  dis- 
pleased the  king;  the  Grerman  princes  were 
too  irresolute  to  be  of  any  political  service. 
Henry  VIII.  repudiated  his  wife,  and  aban- 
doned Cromwell,  who  was  condemned  by  bill 
of  attainder,  and  was  executed.  The  king 
married  Catherine  Howard,  niece  of  the  Duke 
of  Norfolk,  and  a  reaction  against  Cromwell's 
policy  set  in.  Catherine  Howard  was,  in  the 
year  1542,  convicted  of  misconduct,  and  was 
executed.    Ne::t  year  Henry  married,  as  his 


sixth  wife,  Catherine  Parr,  widow  of  Lord 
Latimer;  with  her  he  contrived  to  live  in. 
peace. 

The  remainder  of  Henry  VIIL's  reign  was 
spent  in  war  nith  Scotland  and  France,  which, 
to  his  great  annoyance,  had  renewed  their  old 
alliance.  The  young  king,  James  V.,  married^ 
a  French  wife,  and,  in  15412,  ravaged  the 
borders ;  but  died  in  consequence  of  the  igno- 
minious rout  of  his  army  at  Solway  Moss. 
Still  the  French  party  prevailed  in  Scotland^ 
and  tho  English  generals  on  the  borders  kept 
up  a  merciless  system  of  plundering  rai(U. 
Indignant  against  France,  Henry  again  allied 
himself  with  Charles  V.,  and,  in  1544,  cap- 
tured Boulogne.  .  But  Charles  V.  made  peace 
for  himself^  and  abandoned  his  ally.  Still 
Henr^  VIII.  carried  on  the  war  single-handed 
till,  m  1546,  peace  was  made  at  Boulogne, 
and  France  agreed  to  pay  a  large  pension  to 
the  English  kin^.  Meanwhile,  Henry  VIII.*s 
health  was  givmg  way,  and  his  popularity 
had  greatly  waned.  There  was  a  secret  stri& 
between  religious  parties,  which  only  the 
strong  hand  of  the  King  could  repress.  The 
Duke  of  Norfolk  led  the  reactionar}*^  party : 
the  Earl  of  Hertford,  uncle  of  the  young 
Edward,  heir  to  the  throne,  favoured  the  Re- 
formers. Norfolk  and  his  son,  the  Earl  of 
Surrey,  behaved  so  as  to  awaken  the  king's 
suspicions.  Henry  VIII.  was  above  all  things 
careful  that  there  should  be  no  disturbance 
during  the  minority  of  his  son.  In  December, 
1546,  Norfolk  and  Surrey  were  suddenly  im- 
prisoned. Surrey  was  beheaded,  and  Norfolk 
was  about  to  share  the  same  fate  when  Henry 
VIII.  died  on  Jan.  28,  1547. 

Henry  VIII.  was  by  nature  a  highly-gifted 
man,  of  a  strongly-marked  character,  which 
won  the  hearts  of  all.  He  attached  his  minis- 
ters to  him  as  few  rulers  have  ever  succeeded 
in  doing.  He  used  their  lo3ral  devotion  to  the 
full,  and  then  remorselessly  abandoned  them. 
He  was  above  all  things  a  king.  No  king 
had  a  higher  sense  of  the  privileges  of 
ro}'alty ;  no  king  exercised  them  more  fully, 
or  succeeded  in  obtaining  for  them  a  fuller 
recognition  from  his  people.  Henry  is 
equally  remarkable  for  what  he  did,  and  for 
what  he  abstained  from  doing.  He  clothed 
his  own  caprice  in  the  forms  of  justice ;  he 
elevated  his  own  personal  desires  to  principles 
of  national  policy ;  he  strained  the  Constitu- 
tion to  its  furthest  point,  but  he  did  not  break 
it ;  he  was  a  tyrant,  but  he  clothed  his  tyranny 
under  the  forms  of  parliamentary  sanction: 
he  so  far  identified  hmiself  with  the  general 
interest  of  his  people,  that  they  were  ready  to 
trust  him  with  larger  powers  than  any  pre- 
vious king  enjoyed.  In  his  nrivate  life  his 
coarseness  was  strangely  mixed  with  questions 
of  the  national  welfare;  and  the  morality 
required  from  the  ordinary  man  was  set  aside 
in  the  case  of  the  sovereign.  Everything 
was  pardoned  in  a  ruler  who  had  a  hand 
strong  enough  to  maintain  order,  and  who 


(  660) 


oould  hold  a  firm  balance  between  contending 

factions.  Under  Henry  VIII.  Engknd  passed 

tbrongh  a  great  crisis  without  material  chfuige 

of  the  constitution  either  of  Churoh  or  State. 

A  great  revolution  was  acoonylished  with 

comparative  peace. 

Calendar  of  Stale  Papers;  8tow»  Oknnide; 
Holinsbed,  ChroHide;  Wriothealejr,  Ckrpii^^ 
(Camden  Society) ;  Cavendish,  Ltfe  of  WoUev; 
ZVanch  lAtten  (Parker  Sooiet/) ;  Strype,  Bode- 
fiostuml  Mevnonalt;  Lord  Herbert  of  Coerbuzr, 
Xr(Ai  of  Henry  VlJh :  Pooook,  Reeorde  of  the 
B^oniuUioH  ;  Dixon,  Hiet.  qfihe  ChurthofBng. ; 
LingardL  Biai.  of  Eng. ;  J.  8.  Brewer,  Kexgn  of 
Hemru  Ylll.  ;  nonde,  Mint,  ef  Bng.  and  Dworee 
f4  Cath«nn«  of  Araqem,  [M.  0  1 


r,  PaivcB  OP  Wales  (*.  1694,  d, 
1612),  the  eldest  son  of  James  I.,  was  a  prince 
of  great  promise.  It  was  for  his  benefit  that 
his  father  wrote  the  manual  of  conduct  en- 
titled, BaeUikon  Doron,  or  Thg  Royal  Gift.  He 
seems  to  have  been  very  popular  with  the 
Scots  as  well  as  with  the  English,  and  owing 
to  his  violent  dislike  of  Popery  the  young 
prince  was  the  hope  of  the  Frotestant  party 
of  England ;  and  his  character  and  attain- 
ments offered  high  promise.  He  died  in 
November,  1612,  from  a  fever  probably 
brought  on  by  over-violent  exertions.  The 
suspicion  that  he  was  poisoned  seems  to  have 
been  altogether  unfounded. 

Booon.  In  Henrictun  PnnetjMm  Wallim  £k2o- 
ojum;  Court  and  Tiwiee  of  Jamee  I. ;  ComwaUiii, 
Life  of  Prince  Henry  (Somere'e  Tract  U,)s  8.  B. 
Gardiner,  Hiet.  of  Bng.,  1603—1842, 


r,  son  of  Henry  II.  {h,  1165,  d, 
1183),  was  married  at  an  early  age  to  Mar- 
garet, daughter  of  Louis  VII.  of  Fmnce. 
His  fkther  had  destined  him  to  succeed  him 
in  England,  Normandy,  and  Anjou,  while  the 
rest  of  his  dominions  was  to  be  divided 
between  his  other  sons.  In  1170,  in'  pur- 
suance of  this  scheme,  the  young  Henry  was 
crowned  king,  and  in  1173  was  re-crowned 
with  his  wife.  Next  year  Henry  II.,  anxious 
to  make  some  provision  for  John,  requested 
his  elder  sons  to  give  up  to  their  brother  some 
few  castles  out  of  their  promised  shares  of  his 
dominions.  The  young  King  Henry  refused, 
and  joined  the  French  king  in  the  great  con- 
federation he  had  formed  against  Henry  II. ; 
but  the  allies  were  defeated  ever}'where,  and 
Henry  was  only  too  glad  to  seek  reconcili- 
ation with  his  father.  But  his  intrigues 
continued  both  against  his  father  and  his 
brother  Richard,  his  whole  aim  being  to  es- 
tablish an  independent  dominion  for  himself. 
In  1183  these  intrigues  ended  in  an  open 
revolt  in  which  Henrj'  and  Geoffrey  were 
ranged  against  Prince  Richard  and  their 
father.  A  miserable  civil  war  ensued,  in 
the  course  of  which  Henry  died  at  Martel. 
Of  his  character  Giraldus  Cambrensis  speaks 
in  terms  of  high  commendation,  which  the 
facts  of  his  life  fail  to  justify. 

Lyttelton,  Hidory  of  Henry  II, 

P&iNCB  OP  Scotland  {d,  1152), 


was  the  son  of  David  I.  Stephen,  soon 
after  his  ooronatioD,  oonfenrea  on  him 
the  fiefs  of  Northampton  and  Huntingdon, 
which  his  father  repudiated,  and  at  the  IVeatv 
of  Durham,  1139,  added  Northumbria  as  well. 
Henry  led  a  division  of  the  Scottish  army  at 
the  Battle  of  the  Standard,  1138.  He  died 
June,  1152,  to  the  sorrow  of  all,  for  we  are 
told  by  iho  chroniclers  that  he  was  a 
brave  and  able  soldier,  and  walked  like  his 
father  in  the  paths  of  justice  and  of  truth. 
He  married  Ada,  daughter  of  William  de 
Warenne,  Earl  of  Surrey. 


.  of  Almayne  (d.  1235,  d.  1271) 

was  the  son  of  Richara  of  Cornwall,  King  of 
the  Romans.  In  1263  he  joined  the  banms 
against  his  uncle  Henry  III.,  and  was  taken 
prisoner  by  the  king,  but  in  the  civil  war 
which  ensued  he  fought  on  the  royalist  side, 
and  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Lewes.  He  was 
afterwards  given  as  one  of  the  hostages  to 
the  barons  ror  the  performance  of  the  Mise 
of  Lewes,  and  was  by  them  sent  over  to 
France  to  negotiate  a  new  arbitration  by 
St.  Louis.  Arter  the  defeat  of  the  barons  at 
Evesham,  Henry  received  valuable  grants  of 
land,  and  in  1268  accompanied  his  cousin 
Prince  Edward  on  his  Crusade.  On  his 
return  he  was  murdered  at  Viterbo  in  Itely 
by  Simon  and  Guy  de  Montfort. 

Kestarchy,  The,  is  a  term  often  applied 
to  the  English  kingdoms  which  ezistea  pre- 
vious to  the  time  of  Egbert.  It  has  been 
used  generally  by  most  of  the  historians  of 
the  last  century,  and  is  still  a  common  term 
in  historical  text-books.  It  is,  however,  in- 
appropriate, as  the  word  Heptarchy  (f*Tapx*«) 
strictly  means  a  government  of  seven  persons. 
Besides  this,  it  conveys  the  erroneous  idea 
that  there  were  in  England  from  the  fifth  to 
the  ninth  centuries,  always  seven  independent 
kingdoms.  This  was  very  far  from  the  case  : 
there  were  often  more  than  seven  kingdoms 
and  more  frequently  fewer ;  but  if  every  state 
which  at  any  time  had  a  king  of  ito  own 
were  to  be  reckoned,  the  number  of  kingdoms 
would  very  far  exceed  the  number.  Those 
writers  who  use  the  term  Hepterchy,  under- 
stand ^  it  the  kingdoms  of  Wessex,  Sussex, 
Kent,  Essex,  East  Anglia,  Blercia,  and  North- 
umbria. [For  the  whole  subject  see  Axolo- 
Saxon  Kingdoms.] 

,  Korat  is  a  cit>'  of  inunemorial  antiquity, 
situated  in  Afghanistan  on  the  high  road  from 
India  to  Persia,  and  Central  Asia.  Since  the 
foundation  of  the  Afghan  monarchy  in  the 
middle  of  the  last  century,  Herat  has  been 
more  or  less  subject  to  the  claims  of  Cabul ; 
and  when  in  1838  the  Persians  attempted  to 
seize  this  city,  the  English  helped  the  people 
of  Herat  to  resist  their  enemy,  and  in  1857, 
compelled  the  Shah  to  recognise  ite  indepen- 
dence. The  Afghans,  under  Sir  Edward  Pot- 
tinger,  endured  a  famous  siege  which  lasted  till 
the  English  government  sent  a  message  to  Uie 


(Bttl) 


Shah,  inlonning  him  that  his  occupation  of 
Hent  would  be  followed  by  war,  whereupon 
the  Peruana  raised  the  siege  Sept.  9,  1838. 
Herat  now  forms  part  of  uie  Afghan  king- 
dom. 

Sir  W.  Napier,  AdminUtraticn  o/SciiuU. 

Karbort  of  Chbbbvbt,  Lord  Edwakd 
{b.  1582,  d.  1648),  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
and,  after  travelUng  abroad,  where  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Gasaubon  and  other  great 
scholan,  serving  in  the  Netherlands  under  the 
Prince  of  Oranpe  (1615 — 16),and  visiting Ital]^% 
was  appointed  English  ambassador  at  Paris 
(1618).  Sevenyearslater  he  retired  into  private 
life,  and  devoted  himself  to  literary  pursuits. 
In  the  Civil  War  he  ultimately  sided  with  the 
ParUament,  though  at  first  somewhat  inclined 
to  the  Boyalist  cause.  Lord  Herbert's  chief 
historical  writings  are  a  Mistcty  of  Henry 
Vlll.y  an  account  of  the  ExpeditUm  to  the  lele 
of  Rhi  (in  which  he  defends  Buckingham's 
conduct),  and  a  celebrated  Autobiography. 
Lord  Herbert  also  wrote  several  philosophical 
works,  in  which  he  laid  down  the  principles 
of  Deism. 


OF  Lba,  Sidxby  Hbbbsrt, 
IsT  Lord  {b.  1810,  d.  1861),  entered  Parlia- 
ment as  member  for  Wiltshire  in  1832,  and 
attached  himself  to  the  party  of  Sir  Robert 
Peel  and  the  Conservatives.  In  184 1  the  last- 
mentioned  statesman  appointed  him  Secretary 
of  the  Admiralty,  from  which  ofBce  he  was, 
in  1845,  promoted  to  be  Secretary  for  War. 
In  common  with  almost  every  other  member 
of  Sir  Robert  Peel's  government,  he  changed 
his  views  with  regard  to  the  question  of  Pro- 
tection, and  became  an  ardent  advocate  of 
free  trade.  On  Sir  Robertas  death,  Sidney 
Herbert,  in  company  with  Sir  James  Graham, 
Mr.  Gladstone,  and  a  few  others,  formed  a 
party  by  themselves  called  "  Peelites." 
When  the  Earl  of  Aberdeen  became  Premier, 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  Peelites  took  ofSce, 
and  Sidnev  Herbert  once  more  became 
Secretary  lor  War,  but  was  not  altogether 
successful  as  the  head  of  this  department 
at  the  breaking  out  of  the  Crimean  War. 
When  Lord  Palmerston  succeeded  to  Lord 
Aberdeen,  Mr.  Sidney  Herbert  was  made 
Colonial  Secretary.  In  1858  he  again  became 
Secretary  of  State  for  War  under  Lord 
Palmerston,  and  introduced  some  important 
reforms.  In  the  midst  of  these  labours  Mr. 
Herbert's  health  began  to  &il.  He  was 
called  to  the  Upper  House  by  the  title  of 
Lord  Herbert  of  Lea  in  1860. 

Kerbert,  Sm  Thomas  (b.  1605,  d,  1682), 
was  a  member  of  the  family  of  Pembroke, 
and  had  distinguished  himself  as  a  traveller 
when,  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  he 
joined  the  Parliamentary  party.  He  was 
employed  as  commissary  of  Fairfax's  army, 
ana  when  Charles  I.  was  betrayed  by  the 
Scotch,  he  was  made  one  of  the  king's  at- 
tendants.   The  Threnodia  Carolina,  which  he 


published  in  1678,  ^ves  a  minute  accoimt  of 
Charles  I.'s  life  dunng  his  imprisonment.  He 
was  made  a  baronet  in  1660,  but  took  no 
farther  part  in  public  affairs,  devoting  him- 
self almost  exclusively  to  antiquarian  re- 
searches. Sir  Thomas  Herbert  published  an 
account  of  his  travels  in  1634,  and  this  work 
has  been  subsequently  reprinted.  His  account 
of  Charles  I.'s  Ust  days  was  re-publidied  in 
1701  and  1813. 

K«r«ford  first  appears  in  history  as  the 
place  where  Bishop  Putta  settled  (676),  on  the 
exercise  of  his  episcopal  functions  after  he  was 
obliged  to  leave  Rodiester.  Here,  according 
to  Dr.  Bright,  he  may  have  acted  as  a  kind  <n 
suffragan  for  Saxulf.  Bishop  of  Mercia,  though 
we  are  not  to  consider  him  the  first  of  a  con- 
tinuous line  of  bishops  belonging  to  this  see. 
Hereford  was  destroyed  by  Gruftydd,  of  Wales, 
fn  1065,  but  was  re-fortified  "bfy  Harold  the 
same  year.  Its  first  charter  dates  from  the 
reign  of  Richard  I.  (1189). 

K«r«iford,  Thb  Pebraobs  of.  The  earl- 
dom of  Hereford  was  held  by  William  Fits- 
Osbem,  the  Conqueror's  Justiciary,  and  by  his 
son  Roger.  In  1140  the  title  was  granted  by 
the  Empress  l^fatilda  to  Milo  of  Gloucester, 
from  whom  it  passed  to  his  son,  and  then  to 
the  son  of  his  daughter,  Maigery,  wife  of 
Humphrey  do  Bohun.  Seven  earls  were 
descended  from  the  Bohun  family,  until  its 
extinction  in  this  branch,  in  1372.  In  1397, 
Henry  of  Bolingbroke,  afterwards  king,  was 
created  Duke  of  Hereford,  a  title  which  be- 
came merged  in  the  crown.  In  1550  a 
viscounty  of  the  same  style  was  created  for 
Walter  Devereux,  who  was  descended  from 
Eleanor,  daughter  of  the  last  earl  of  the 
Bohun  family.  Walter's  son  was  made  Earl 
of  Essex  (1572),  but  in  the  next  generation, 
Robert,  the  famous  Earl  of  Essex,  was  at- 
tainted and  beheaded  (1601).  His  son, 
Robert,  was  restored  in  blood  and  honours  in 
1603,  but  died  childless  in  1646,  when  the 
viscounty  of  Hereford  devolved  upon  his 
cousin.  Sir  Walter  Devereux,  in  whose  issue 
it  still  remains. 

Harcfordf  Humphkey  de  Bohun,  10th 
Earl  op  (d,  1297),  Lord  High  Constable  of 
England,  succeeded  to  his  grandfather's  title 
and  estates  in  the  year  1275.  His  father  had 
been  a  supporter  of  Simon  de  Montfort,  and 
the  son  inherited  the  traditions  of  the  baro- 
nial party.  This  Earl  of  Hereford  is  chiefly 
remarkable  for  having  headed  the  opposition 
to  Edward  I.*s  demands  in  1297,  and  refused 
to  serve  the  king  abroad.  It  wns  in  vain 
that  Edward  threatened  or  prayed,  the  ear] 
and  his  fellow-baron,  Bigod,  stood  their 
ground,  and  when  the  Council  broke  up 
raised  a  force  of  fifteen  hundred  cavalr}'  to 
prevent  the  king  from  seizing  the  wool  or 
collecting  money.  This  contest  led  to  the 
enactment  of  the  statute  De  Tallagio  wm 
eoncedetido.     Dr.  Stubbs  considers  that  Here- 


(  562)' 


ford^s  conduct  on  thia  occasion  was  not  dic- 
tated by  any  strongly  disinterested  motive, 
but  actuated  by  revenge  for  his  imprison- 
ment in  1292. 

Sarefbrdf  Hvmphrby  db  Bohun,  Uth 

Eakl  of  {d.  1321),  was  the  son  of  the 
tenth  earl,  and  married  Elizabeth,  the  seventh 
daughter  of  Edward  I.  He  inherited  some- 
thii^  of  the  spirit  of  his  father,  and  was 
one  of  the  Ordainers  in  1310.  Eight  years 
later  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  four  earls 
in  the  permanent  Council  of  1318.  In  1321 
he  was  forbidden  to  attend  a  meeting  of  the 
aggrieved  lords,  at  which  he  meditated  ex- 
posing his  wrongs.  His  great  cause  of  com- 
plaint was  the  power  of  the  Despencers,  who 
were  threatening  his  influence  on  the  Welsh 
Marches.  In  the  same  year  he  was  the  chief 
prosecutor  of  the  Bespencers  in  Parliament, 
and  was  formally  panloned  for  the  part  he 
took  in  these  proceedings.  Next  year  he 
was  slain  at  tne  battle  of  Boroughbridge 
(1322). 


%  Lbotslatio^  concbrnino.  Ac« 
cording  to  the  canon  4ftw,  heresy  was  a 
subject  of  ecclesiastical  discipline.  The  sus- 
pected heretic  was  summoned  before  the 
bidiop*s  court,  was  examined  concerning  his 
opinions,  and  was  required  to  submit  to  the 

girental  jurisdiction  of  his  ecdesiastiical 
ther.  If  convicted,  he  submitted,  ..did 
penance,  confessed  his  errors,  and  amended 
his  ways.  The  common  law,  in  early  times, 
took  cognisance  of  heresy,  but  probably  only 
in  the  case  of  those  who  were  contumacious 
to  their  bishop,  or  relapsed  after  submission. 
Heresy  was  a  subject  of  inquest  at  the 
sheriffs'  toum,  and  the  pimishment  of  avowed 
unbelief  was  burning.  But  in  early  times 
there  were  very  few  cases  of  heresy,  and  it 
did  not  cause  any  serious  trouble  till  the  rise 
of  Lollardy.  In  the  Assize  of  Clarendon 
heresy  is  noted,  but  heretics  are  treated  with 
a  leniency  contrasting  strongly  with  the 
legislation  of  later  times.  The  Lolhuni 
preachers  refused  to  obey  the  citations  of  the 
bishops  summoning  them  to  answer  for  their 
opinions.  In  1382  a  statute  was  passed  enact- 
ing that  commissions  should  be  dii^cted  to  the 
sheriffs  to  arrest  persons  certified  by  the  bishops 
to  be  heretics,  and  to  keep  them  in  prison 
until  they  satisfied  the  Church.  Archbishop 
Courtenay  drew  up  a  series  of  fourteen  pro- 
positions which  were  condemned  as  heretical. 
The  kin^,  by  royal  letter,  empowered  the  bishops 
to  imprison  all  who  maintained  the  condemned 
propositions.  The  chief  Lollard  teachers  in 
Oxford  were  tried,  and  made  submission. 
But  in  the  Parliament  of  1383  the  Commons 
petitioned  a^inst  the  statute  as  not  having 
received  their  consent.  Though  the  statute 
was  not  repealed,  no  further  proceedings  were 
taken  under  it,  though  in  1391  Archbishop 
Arundel  proceeded  under  the  royal  letters  A 
1382. 


The  spread  of  Lollardy  was,  however,  a 
source  of  political  as  well  as  ecclesiastical 
discontent,  and  in  1401  a  severely  reprenive^ 
statute  was  passed,  De  Maretico  Cimburendo  (2 
Henry  lY.,  c  15).  By  this  Act  the  bishop 
was  empowered  to  arrest  and  imprison  a 
heretic;  he  was  bound  to  tr}'  him  within  three 
months ;  he  had  power  to  imprison  or  fine  him, 
if  he  were  convicted ;  if  he  refused  to  abjure, 
he  was  to  be  given  over  to  the  sheriff  and 
publicly  burned.  Durinff  the  session  in  which 
this  Act  was  passed,  a  Lollard  teacher,  Wil- 
liam Sawtre,  was  burned  by  the  king's  writ. 
Even  the  powers  given  by  this  statute  were  not 
found  sufficient)  and  in  1406  the  Commons 
petitioned  the  king  to  enact  that  all  oflScers 
of  the  crown  should  make  inquest  for  heretica 
and  present  them  for  trial  before  Parliament. 
Though  the  king  gave  his  consent,  nothing 
was  done;  possibly  the  archbishop  objected 
to  the  confusion  of  spiritual  and  secular 
jurisdictions.  But  the  principle  contained  in 
this  petition  was  turned  into  a  statute  by 
Henry  Y.  in  1414.  Tins  statute  expanded 
the  law  of  1401,  and  ^vided  further  that  all 

S'ustices  should  inqmre  after  heretics,  and 
leliver  them  to  the  ordinaries  to  be  tried  by 
the  spiritual  court.  Heresy  was  now  maae 
an  offence  against  the  common  law ;  and  the 
secular  arm  was  not  merely  used  to  support 
the  sjpiritual  power,  but  had  the  duty  of 
initianng  proceedings  against  offenders,  lliia 
statute  seems  to  have  been  sufiicient  to  sup- 
press Lollardy.  The  number  of  trials,  how- 
ever, under  all  these  statutes  was  not 
numerous,  and  the  executions  were  few. 

With  the  outbreak  of  the  Reformation 
movement,  heresy  again  became  a  crime,  and 
the  use  of  the  old  statutes  was  reWved.  The 
executions  for  opinion  during  the  sixteenth, 
century*  were  carried  out  by  Wrtue  of  them, 
and  the  legislation  of  that  period  was  con- 
cerned TAuier  with  determining  what  was 
heresy  than  how  heretics  were  to  be  tried  and 
punished.  By  a  statute  of  1533  offences 
against  the  see  of  Rome  were  declared  not 
to  be  heresy.  In  1539  the  Bill  of  the  Six 
Articles  declared  what  opinions  were  here* 
ticaL  We  need  not  follow  the  variations  ixL 
this  definition  during  the  two  succeeding 
reigns.  On  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  in 
1550,  former  statutes  were  repealed.  Heres}' 
as  a  simple  offence  was  visited  by  spiritual 
punishment  in  a  spiritual  court;  contuma- 
cious or  relapsed  heretics,  after  conviction  by 
a  provincial  synod,  were  handed  over  to  the 
secular  arm  to  be  burned.  At  the  same  time 
heresy  was  defined  to  be  such  opinions  aa 
were  contrary  to  (1)  canonical  scripture,  (2) 
the  four  general  councils,  (3)  future  declara- 
tions of  Parliament  with  the  assent  of  Con- 
vocation. Still  Anabaptists  were  burnt 
under  Elizabeth,  and  Arians  under  James  I. 
The  punishment  of  death  for  heresy  was 
abolished  under  Charles  II.  in  1677,  and  the 
heretic   was   subject   only  to   ecdeaiaatkal 


(•  6iB3  )' 


correction  "  pro  salute'  animss."  An,  Act  of 
1698  made  apostacy  or  denial  of  Christianity 
an  offence  liable  to  imprisonment. 

Stabbs,  Comt.  Bi$t.,  roh  iU.;  Bsport  ^  SoeU- 
•tostical  Courts  CommiMtoii,  Appeudix;  Bbwk- 
stone,  CommvntwU^  [m.  C.l 

K«T0tom  (lit.,  the  army  leader)  was 
the  Anglo-Saxon  title  given  originally  to 
the  commander  of  the  army;  but  in. later 
times  it  seems  (like  its  Latin  equivalent 
"  dux  ")  to  have  become  hereditarv,  and  was 
sometimes  used  s^nnonymously  with  the  titles 
of  **ealdorman"  and  **earl."  Ueretoga  is 
the  word  used  in  the  Anfflo^Saicoti  Chronicle 
to  describe  Hengest  and  Horsa;  whereas 
Cerdic  and  0)1^10  are  called  *'  ealdormen.*' 

See  ^nylo-Somii  Ohronteit,  in  the  BoUs  Bevies, 
▼ol.  i.,  pp.  21  and  84. 


{d,  eirca  1073),  called  the 
Wake,  was  the  son  of  Leofric,  Lord  of 
Bourne,  in  Lincolnshire.  He  seems  to  have 
fled  frem  the  country  for  some  time  after  the 
Conquest,  but  had  returned  and  was  in  pos- 
session of  the  Tsle  of  Ely  in  1070.  Round  him 
were  soon  gathered  the  bravest  and  most  reso- 
lute of  the  English  outlaws,  Bishop  Ethelwine, 
ot  Durham,  Siward,  and  even  Earl  Morcar. 
Hcreward*8  first  recorded  exploit  was  the 
plunder  of  the  monaster}"  at'  £ay,  which  had 
just  received  a  new  Norman  abbot,  Turold, 
from  Malmesbury.  The  fame  of  his  courage 
was  now  spread  abroad,  and  we  read  of  an 
unsuccessful  effort  made  by.  the  men  of  Berk- 
shire to  join  his  camp.  William  there- 
lore  determined  to  crush,  in  person,  a 
rebellion  which  was  assuming  such  large  pro- 
portions. Fixing  his  head-quarters  at  Cam- 
bridge, he  commenced  a  regular  siege,  and 
forced  the  greater  part  of  the  defenders  to 
yield  (1071),  but  Hereward  with  a  few  fol- 
lowers broke  through  the  enemies*  ranks  and 
escaped.  Legend  asserted  that  he  long  con- 
tinued his  predatory  incursions  against  the 
monastery  m.  Ely,  and  that  he  was  in  later 
times  reconciled  to  William  by  the  offices  of 
his  wife  ^Ifthryth.  According  to  Geoffrey 
Craimar,  William  took  him  over  to  help  in 
the  reduction  of  Maine  when  that  province 
revolted  in  1078. 

Freeman,  Ifenami  Cdnqueit,  voL  ir. 

Xeriot  (a  word  derived  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Here-geat,  war-gear)  was  the 
ri^ht  of  the  lord  on  the  death  A  his  tenant  to 
seize  eithOT  the  best  beast  or  the  best  chattel 
of  which  the  tenant  is  possessed  at  the  time 
of  his  death.  It  originated  from  the  &ct 
that  the  lord  used  to  lend  his  vassal  horse 
and  armour  for  life,  which  on  the  tenant's 
death  reverted  to  the  lord.  The  custom  is  by 
some  held  to  have  been  introduced  into  Eng- 
land by  the  Danes,  and  continues  down  to  the 
present  day  on  copyhold  land,  though  either 
the  lord  or  the  tenant  can  compel  the  extia- 
goishmant  of  the  right.    Heriot  differs  from 


Belief,  as  it  is  paid  out  of  the  estate  of  the  last 
tenant,  not  by  the  heir. 

Xemiit^ge  Caatle,  in  Roxburffhshire, 
is  the  place  where  Sir  Alexander  Ramsay 
was  starved  to  death  by  the  Knight  of 
Liddeedale  (1342).  In  Jan.,  1347,  it  wat^ 
taken  bv  the  English.  In  later  years  it 
passed  from  the  £uids  of  the  Douglases  to 
the  Earl  of  Bothwell,  who  was  visited  tiiere 
by  Queen  Mary,  after  he  had  been  wounded 
in  a  border  fray,  1561. 


y  John  Maxwbll,  Lord  [d: 
1583),  though  at  first  an  adherent  of  the 
liords  of  Congregation,  became  a  supporter 
of  l^Iary  Queen  of  Soots,  whom  he  warned 
in  solemn  terms  against  marrying  Bothwell. 
On  the  queen*s  escape  from  Lochleven, 
Herries  joined  her  at  luimilton,  and,  in  com- 
pany with  Lord  Fleming,  was  sent  as  her  am- 
bassador to  Elizabeth,  and  subsequently  acted 
as  one  of  her  commissioners  at  the  in^ry  of 
York.  He  was  accused  of  aiding  the  Hamil- 
tons  against  the  Regent  Murray,  but  obtained 
an  indemnity.  Lord  Herries  was  a  subtle 
diplomatist,  and  no  mean  rival  to  such  men  as 
I  Lethington  and  Cecil. 

XerringSy  Thb  BattlIs  op  (Feb.  12, 
1429).  was  fought  near  Rouvrai  between 
the  English  and  the  French.  The  English 
had  been  besieging  the  town  of  Orleans 
since  the  simmier  of  the  year  1428,  and  Sir 
John  Fastolf  was  commissioned  to  conduct  a 
convoy  of  provisions  for  the  use  of  t^o 
English  army.  The  French  made  an  effort 
to  prevent  its  arrival  at  the  besiegers'  camp, 
and  attacked  Sir  John,  who  had  only  1,700 
men  under  him,  with  ver}'  superior  numbers. 
Sir  John,  however,  entrenched  his  men 
behind  the  waggons,  and  succeeded  in  rout- 
ing the  enemy,  finidiing  their  confusion  by 
ordering  a  charge  when  he  perceived  that 
his  opponents  were  disorganised.  This 
success  seemed  to  have  rendered  the  fall  of 
Orleans  almost  unavoidable ;  and,  indeed, 
the  town  must  soon  have  surrendered  had  it 
not  been  for  the  appearance  of  Joan  of  Arc. 
The  Battle  of  Hemngs  was  so  named  from 
the  fact  that  a  large  part  of  the  provisions 
convoyed  by  the  English  troops  consisted  of 
salted  fish  for  the  use  of  the  besiegers. 

.  Xartford  was  a  place  of  considerable  im- 
portance under  the  Anglo-Saxon  kings.  An 
ecclesiastical  synod  was  held  there  as  early  as 
the  year  673.  It  was  the  site  of  one  of  the 
numerous  castles  founded  by  Edward  the 
Elder  in  the  first  decade  of  the  tenth  centur}*. 
The  castle  was  reconstructed  and  fortified 
after  the  Norman  Conquest.  It  held  out  for 
Henry  III.  in  the  rebellion  of  the  barons,  and 
was  captured  by  Louis  the  Dauphin,  Dec, 
1216.  The  castle  and  earldom  of  Hertford 
were  conferred  on  John  of  Gaunt  in  1345. 

HwUbrdf  Edward  Srymol-r,  2nd  Eahl 
OF  {d,  1621),  was  the  son  of  the   Duke  of 


(664) 


Kid 


Somerset,  Protector  of  England.  On  the  ac- 
cession of  Elizabeth,  the  earldom  was  revived 
in  his  favour  (1559).  Shortly  afterwards 
(1561)  Hertford  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower 
and  fined  £15,000  for  having  secretly  married 
Lady  Catherine  Grey,  who  was  regarded 
by  £lizabeth  as  a  possible  dangerous  rivaL 
Archbishop  Parker  declared  their  union 
illegal,  and  the  issue  ille^timate.  Hertford 
underwent  a  long  imprisonment,  and  con- 
tinued in  obscurity  during  Elizabeth's  reign. 
He  was  afterwards  married  again,  and  lived 
to  extreme  old  age. 


r^Wy  John,  Lord  (6.  1696,  d,  1743^, 
succeeded  to  the  peerage  on  the  death  of  hui 
brother  in  1 723.  I)uring  the  greater  part  of 
his  career  he  was  a  supporter  of  Sir  ttobert 
Walpole.  In  1731  he  fought  a  duel  with 
Pulteney,  on  account  of  a  liM  against  himself 
which  Pulteney  refused  to  disavow.  Both  com- 
batants were  dightly  wounded.  In  1740  he 
was  r.ppointed  Lord  Privy  Seal  against  the 
wish  of  the  Duke  of  Newcastle,  and  we  find 
him  subsequently  intrig^ng  with  Pulteney 
and  Chesterfield  against  Sir  Bobert  Walpole. 
In  1743  he  distinguished  himself  by  a  speech 
against  the  Gin  Act.  Lord  Hervey  left  be- 
hind him  certain  memoirs  of  his  own  time, 
which  form  a  most  valuable  addition  to  the 
history  of  the  period  of  which  they  treat. 
He  had  the  misfortune  to  offend  Pope,  who 
has  handed  his  name  down  to  posterity  under 
the  pseudonym  of  Sporus  in  the  Frologut  to 
the  Satirei. 

Lord  H«ryey*s  Mein<nr»  qfthe  Eeian  ofOtrrge  IL 
were  first  published  hj  Mr.  J.  W.  Croker  in  184& 


Ly  in  Northumberland,  was  the 
site  of  a  great  abbey  founded  by  Wilfrid  in 
674.  Four  or  five  years  later  he  instituted  it 
a  bishopric.  In  875,  however,  the  town  and 
abbey  were  sacked  and  burned  by  the  North- 
men, and  in  883  the  diocese  was  annexed  to 
Lindisfame. 


L,  The  Battlb  of  (May  15, 
1464),  was  fought  during  the  Wars  of 
the  Koses  soon  after  the  battle  of  Hedgeley 
Moor,  by  Montague  against  Somerset  and  the 
remnant  of  the  I^castrians.  The  latter  were 
totally  defeated  and  Somerset  slain.  Henry 
IV.  found  a  refuge  in  Lancashire,  while  Mar- 
garet and  her  son  fled  to  Flanders. 

Sezhaniy  John  of  (JI.  twelfth  century), 

was  the  author  of  the  Cotttinuatum  to  the  Bittory 

of  Simeon  of  Durham.  This  continuation  extends 

from  1130  to  1154,  and  is,  for  the  most  part,  a 

mere  compilation.    From  the  year  1139  to  the 

end  it  is,  however,  much  fuller,  and  is  specially' 

valuable  for  Northern  transactions,  though  it 

is   not  free  from    chronological  errors.     It 

seems  to  have  been    compiled  towards  the 

close  of  the  twelfth  century.    John  was  Prior 

of   Hexham,  but  beyond  this  &ct  nothing 

seems  to  be  known  of  his  life. 

John  of  UextaasD's  Coniinuaiion  is  published 
in  Twysden's  Dceam  Scriyiorea. 


Saylin,  Pbtbr  {b.  1600,  d,  1662),  was 
educated  at  Oxford,  and  recommended  by 
Laud  for  the  ofiice  of  chaplain  to  the  Idnj^. 
During  the  Civil  War  he  was  stripped  of  his 
property  and  forced  to  hide  himself.  In 
his  retirement  he  devoted  himself  to  litera- 
ture ;  and  on  the  Bestoration  he  was  restored 
to  his  benefices.  Dr.  HeyUn's  chief  his- 
torical work  is  entitled  CyprioMm  AngU" 
eanui  :  a  Hittory  of  the  Life  and  Death  . ,  ,of 
Arehhiehop  Laud,  This  is  very  valuable  for 
the  aooount  it  gives  us  of  Laud  and  of 
the  ecclesiastical  events  of  the  time.  Dr. 
Heylin  was  also  the  author  of  A  Short  View  of 
the  Life  of  Charlee  /.,  and  seyeral  other  works. 

Hidka-Beaoll,  Sir  Kxchabl  Edward 
(6.  1887),  was  Parliamentary  Secretary  to  the 
Poor  Law  Board  from  February  till  Decem- 
ber, 1868.  In  February,  1874,  he  took  office 
nnder  Mr.  Disraeli  as  Chief  Secretary  for 
Irehind.  In  1878  hebecameColonial  Secretary, 
in  1886  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  and 
Leader  of  the  Lower  House,  in  1886  Irish 
Secretary,  in  1888  President  of  the  Board  of 
T^e,andin  1895Chancellor  of  theExchequer. 

Tfifltlgfr  was  a  tax  anciently  paid  to  the 
king  for  every  hide  of  land.  Bracton  reckons 
it  with  carucage  as  an  extraordinary 
imposition,  and  not  as  a  regular  service  or 
custom.  Under  Ethelred  the  Unready  (994) 
the  land  was  taxed  b^  hides  at  the  time  <^ 
the  Danish  invasion,  eight  hides  furnishing  a 
man  in  full  armour,  and  every  three  hundred 
hides  a  ship.    [Hidb.] 

Hidef  Thb,  was  originally  the  extent 
of  land  allotted  for  the  support  of  one 
family.  The  size  of  the  hide  is  a  ques- 
tion which  has  given  rise  to  the  most 
various  conjectures.  Kemble  has  assigned  it 
thirty-three  acres,  whereas  Grimm  gives  the 
corresponding  German  huda,  from  thirty  to 
forty  acres.  But  in  later  times  the  hide  was 
reckoned  at  120  acres.  Dr.  Stubbs  has  sug- 
gested that  the  different  sizes  assigned  to  the 
hide  may  be  due  to  a  confusion  between  a 
man's  share  in  each  one  of  four  common 
fields  and  in  the  total,  which  would,  of  course, 
vary  from  one  to  four,  or  from  30  acres  to 
120;  but  he  adds  the  warning  that  this  is 
not  by  any  means  a  full  explanation,  and 
that  regard  must  be  had  to  local  custom. 
Under  Norman  and  Plantagenet  rule,  when 
division  into  knights*  fees  seem  to  have 
become  more  and  more  paramount,  it  is 
difficult  to  discover  that  they  bore  any  fixed 
proportion  to  the  hide.  In  the  Liber  Kiger 
de  Seaeeario,  the  size  of  the  knight's  fee  varies 
from  two  and  a  half  hides  to  six  hides.  Other 
authorities  have  reckoned  it  as  equivalent  to 
eight,  but  probably  it  bore  no  direct  relation 
to  the  extent  of  land,  but  rsther  to  its  value. 
In  Anglo-Saxon  times  the  hide  was  used  as  a 
unit  for  rating  and  for  estimation  of  a  man's 
social  and  political  standing.  The  freeman 
with  five  hides  and  a  burh-geat  seat  ranked 


(  665  ) 


88  a  thegn ;  the  freeman  with  forty  hides  as 
aneorl. 

Vialogua  <U  SooMario  in  M0et  CluarUn ;  Stubbs, 
CoiuC.  aitt, ;  Kemble,  Scucoiu  m  Aiylaiid. 

Higdan,  Ralph  Id.  1364),  a  monk  of  St» 
Werburgh's,  Chester,  was  the  author  of  a 
work  entitled  Folyehnmicony  a  universal 
history  and  geography,  divided  into  seven 
books.  It  is  c^  no  great  value  as  an  original 
authority,  but  as  Mr.  Gairdner  says,  "  its  real 
intei'est  lies  in  the  view  it  affords  of  the 
historical,  geographical,  and  scientiflc  know- 
ledge of  the  age  in  which  it  appeared.''  It 
was  translated  into  English  by  John  Trevisa, 
vicar  of  Berkeley,  in  Edward  IV.'s  reini, 
and  was  one  of  the  earliest  works  issued  oy 
Gaxton  (1480).  Two  years  later  the  same 
printer  brought  out  an  edition  of  Trevisa's 
translation. 

The  Polychroitioon  has  been  pnUlphed  in  the 
Bolls  Seriee  with  Trevisa's  translation, 

Kitfh  Cllliroll.    This  term  first  appears 
about!  703  to  designate  that  party  in  Eng- 
land which  d^nanded  the  strict  enforcement 
of  the  laws  against  Dissenters,  and  the  passing 
of  such  additional  measures  as  the  Ox^asional 
Conformity  Bill ;  it  was,  in  fact,  practically 
synonymous  with  Tory.     In  more  modem 
times,  however,  it  is  only  used  to  denote  those 
members  of  the  Church  of  England  who  hold 
certain  doctrines,  and  the  name  has  by  analogy 
been  given  to  the  party  associated  with  similar 
doctrines  in  the  seventeenth  century.    Under 
ISizabeth  the  majority  of  the  bishops,  and  of 
the  more  zealous  clergy,  were  Calvinist  in 
theology.     Episcopacy  was   defended   as  a 
matter  of  expediency;  conformity  was  only 
enforced  for  tne  sake  of  order,  and  because  it 
was  part  of  the  established  law.    But  towards 
the  end  of  the  reign,  a  party  arose  among  the 
younger  cler^,  who  *'  met  Calvinism  by  the 
assertion  of  its  inconsistency  with  the  ancient 
doctrine  and  constitution  of   the  primitive 
Church,  and  the  claim  of  a  divine  right  for 
the  Presbyterian  polity  by  claiming  a  divine 
light  for  Episcopacy.    They  asserted  against 
the  individualism  A  the  Puritan  theology  and 
worship,  the  reality  of  sacramental  grace,  of 
the  power  of  absolution,  of  the  authoritative 
ritual  of  the  Church."     (Dr.  Barry.)    Of  this 
sdiool  the  most  important  writer  was  Bishop 
Andrewes  (1555 — 1626),  the  most  active  prac- 
tical leader.  Laud  (1573—1645).    It  did  not 
become  prominent    till   the   later   years  of 
James  I.    That  king,  though  a  firm  supporter 
of  Episcopacy,  and  of  the  established  ecclesi- 
astical  system,  was  of    distinctly  Calvinist 
sympathies.    But  his  love  of  order  tended  to 
make  him  favour  the  growing  party  ;  and  in 
1616,  Laud,  its  leader  at  Oidord,  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  deanery  of  Gloucester,  to  put 
an  end  to  the  irregularities  in  the  cathedral 
worship,  which  the  Calvinist  bishop  of  that 
see  had  allowed.     He  at  once  caused  the 
communion  table  to  be  removed  from  the 


middle  of  the  choir  to  the  east  end  of  the 
chancel,  and  placed  "  altarwise.**     But  his 
example  was  not  largely  followed ;  and  it  was 
not  tm  1622  that  Laud  gained  much  political 
power.    In  that  year  he  had  taken  part  in  a 
discussion   with  the  Jesuit  Fisher,  on   the 
relative  claims  of  the  English  and  Roman 
Chiurches,  in  order  to  prevent  if  i>08sible  the 
conversion  to  Rome  of  Buckingham's  mother. 
His  ability  then  secured  for  him  considerable 
influence  over  Buckingham,  and   access  to 
Prince  Charles,  to  whom,  upon  his  accession, 
he  became  chief  adviser  in  ecclesiastical  mat- 
ters.   The  new  teaching  rapidly  spread;  in 
its  protest  against  the  donatio  definitions  of 
Calvinism  on  predestination,  it  resembled,  and 
was  doubtless  influenced  by,  the  Arminianism 
of  Holland;  so  that,  in  spite  of  their  pro- 
tests, the  term  Arminian  was  generally  ap- 
plied to  the  members  of  the  party.    In  1624 
a  reply  by  one  of  them  (Montage)  to  a 
Roman  Catholic  pamphlet,  wherein  he  had 
denied  that  the  popular  Calvinist  doctrines 
were  the  creed  of  the  Church  of  England, 
called  forth  a  remonstrance  from  the  Com- 
mons.  Montague,  however,  gained  the  king's 
sympathy,  and  wrote  a  second  book,  Appello 
Casarem,  to  explain  the  same  principles.  The 
movement  represented   by   Montague   was, 
however,  almost  entirely  a  learned  movement ; 
it  had  little  hold  upon  the  country  gentry  or 
town  traders,  and  irritated  them  by  exalting 
the  roy^  prerogative.    In  1625  the  Commons 
attacked  the  second  book,  and  Montague  was 
committed  for  a  short  time  to  the  custody  of 
the  Sergeant.    But  Charles  was  now  long, 
and  Laud  was  supreme  in  Church  matters. 
Laud  was  requested  to  draw  up  a  list  of  or- 
thodox and  Jruritan  clergy,  that  preferment 
might  be  reserved  for  the  former;  and  in 
1628  Montague  became  Bishop  of  Chichester, 
and  Laud  himself  Bishop  of  London.    In  the 
previous  year.  Dr.  Cozins  had  prepared  for 
the  use  of  the  queen's  attendants  a  book  of 
devotions,  which  gave  to  the  new  teaching  an 
expression  startling  to  the  ordinary  English- 
man of  the  time :  and  the  declaration  prefixed 
to  the  Artides  in  1629,  which  was  intended 
to  put  an  end  to  controversy,  still  further 
annoyed  the  Puritan  clergy.    In  the  Parlia- 
ment of  1628 — 29  the  storm  broke,  and  one  of 
the  celebrated  three  resolutions  of  1629  was 
to  the  edf ect  that  '*  whosoever  shall  bring  in 
innovation  in  religion,  or   seek   to    extend 
Popery  or  Arminianism,  shall  be  reputed  a 
capital  enemy  to  this  kingdom  and  the  com- 
monwealth."   Undeterred  by  this  expression 
of  national  feeling.  Laud,  now  archbishop, 
revived  in  1634  the  disused  right  of  metro- 
political  visitation,  and  everywhere  caused 
the  communion  table  to  be  removed  to  the 
east  end,  fortified  by  a  decision  of  the  king 
in  Privy  Council,  which  was  of  more  than 
doubtful   legality.      Laud's   action    aroused 
bitter  opposition  among  the  clergy,  and  was 
one  of  the  main  causes  of  the  Civil  War. 


mg 


I  56G  ) 


The  Act  of  Uniformity  of  1662  almost 
completely  removed  from  the  English  Church 
the  jpmritan  element ;  at  the  same  time  the 
comitry  gentry  rallied  round  the  Church,  and 
Anglo-Catholic  teaching  no  longer  met  with 
the  opposition  it  had  encountex«d  in  the  first 
half  of  the  century.  But  as  the  Church  had 
identified  itself  with  the  doctrine  of  passive 
obedience,  it  was  with  great  reluctance  that 
the  main  body  of  the  clergy  took  the  oath  to 
William  III. ;  eight  bishops  and  400  clergy 
preferred  to  suffer  deprivation,  and  created 
the  nonjuring  schism.  But  though  the 
Church  was  thus  weakened,  legitimist  feeling, 
associated  with  the  doctrine  of  non-resistance, 
revived  under-  Anne,  who  was  known  to 
favour  the  Tories  and  the  claims  of  her 
brother,  the  Old  Pretender.  A  bitter  warfare 
of  woitis  began  between  High  and  Low 
Church,  the  hitter  term  meaning  the  Whig 
clergy,  most  of  them  Latitudinarian,  with  a 
few  Calvinists.  Swift  declares,  ''our  State 
parties,  the  more  to  infiame  their  passions, 
have  mixed  reli^ous  and  civil  animosities 
together,  borrowing  both  their  appellations 
from  the  Church,  with  the  addition  of  'High  * 
and  '  Low,*  how  little  soever  the  disputes 
relate  to  these  terms.**  The  tide  quickly  rose ; 
ia  1705  Hoadley,  preaching  against  the  doc- 
trine of  passive  obedience,  was  condemned  by 
the  Lower  House  of  Convocation;  and  in 
1710,  the  impeachment  of  Sacheverell,  for  his 
oermon  on  non-resistance,  brought  about  the 
victory  of  the  Tory — i.e.y  the  High  Church 
party.  Their  period  of  power  (1710 — 14) 
was  marked  by  the  passing  of  the  Occasional 
Conformity  and  Schism  Acts,  by  the  building 
of  fifty  new  churches  in  London,  and  by  the 
temporary  withdrawal  of  the  Regium  Donum 
from  the  Irish  Presb}^rians.  But  the  poli- 
tical iU-sucoess  of  Tories  and  Jacobites  re- 
acted on  the  Church,  and  when  Convocation 
was  prorogued  in  1717,  and  not  again  allowed 
to  meet,  the  clergy  were  unable  to  create  any 
popular  movement  in  their  favour.  During 
the  earlier  part  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
the  majority  of  the  bishops  were  Whig  and 
Low-t.tf.,  Latitudinarian,  while  the  mass  of 
the  clerg}'  were  Tor}*  and  High.  But  the  old 
doctrinal  questions  ceased  to  be  discussed; 
popular  preaching  concerned  itself  with  mo- 
rality, and  theological  controversy  touched 
rather  the  foundation  of  Christianity  than 
its  superstructure.  Soon  after  the  beginning 
of  George  III.*s  reign,  however,  the  Puritan 
remnant  in  the  Church  were  roused  to  fre&h 
life  by  the  Wesleyan  movement,  and  b}'  the 
beginning  of  the  next  century,  the  Evange- 
lical party  had  gained  a  preponderating  in- 
fluence in  the  English  Church. 

It  was  under  these  circumstances  that  the 
Tractarian  movement  began  at  Oxford  in 
1833.  It  was  thought  by  several  that  the 
only  way  to  meet  the  ecclesiastical  changes 
threatened  bv  the  Whigs  ^it  was  the  year  of 
the  suppression  of  ten  Insh  bishoprics)  was 


to  fall  back  on  the  teaching  of  the  seventeenth 
century  English  divines.  The  "  real  founder** 
of  this  party,  according  to  Dr.  Blunt  (see 
article  on  High  Church  in  Diet,  of  Sects  and 
Schools  of  7*hought)  was  Hugh  James  Rose, 
who  was  soon  joined  l^  John  Henry  Newman, 
John  Keble,  Edwfu^  Bouverie  Pusey,  Hurrell 
Froude,  William  Palmer,  and  Isaac  Williams. 
These  commenced  the  series  of  Tracts  for  the 
Times,  which  brought  about  a  rapid  increase 
of  their  numbers,  and  excited  the  fiercest 
opposition.  In  1841,  the  Remotutranee  of 
Four  Tutors  (including  A.  C.  Tait,  afterwards 
archbishop)  led  to  the  condemnation  by  the 
Hebdomadal  Council  of  Newman's  IVact  No. 
90.  Four  years  later  Mr.  Ward  was  censured 
for  a  treatise  by  Convocation,  though  the 
proctors  prevented  Newman's  name  being  in- 
cluded. In  1846  Newman  joined  the  Roman 
Church.  In  spite  of  this  and  other  secessions, 
the  party  continued  to  spread.  In  the  Denison 
case  (1856)  a  sentence  of  deprivation  pro- 
nounced by  Archbishop  Sumner  upon  a  der- 
gyvoBxi  for  certain  teaching  as  to  the  Eucharist, 
was  reversed  b}'  the  Judicial  Committee  of  the 
Priv^  Coimcil,  though  on  technical  grounds : 
and  in  the  Bennett  case  (1872),  high  sacra- 
mental teaching  was  distinctly  declared  per- 
missible. The  revival  of  Anglo-Catholic 
doctrine  had  been  accompanied  by  a  renewed 
interest  in  archseology,  and  by  improved 
ecclesiastical  architecture,  under  the  influence 
of  Pugin  and  Scott.  In  recent  years  also,  a 
group  of  *'  Ritualists  "  has  arisen  among  the 
yoimger  derff}-,  who  desire  the  restoration  of 
many  pre-Elisabethan  usages;  the  disputes 
to  wnich  this  has  given  rise  have  led  to  pro- 
longed litigation,  which  the  Public  Worship 
Regulation  Act  of  1874  was  in  vain  paased 
to  prevent.    [Church  of  Enolaxd.] 

Fsr  the  best  aeooant  of  the  seTenteenth  cen- 
tnry  moTement  will  be  found  in  Qftxdiner,  Bi»t. 
Eng..  ie0S'-ie42.  See  also  Blunt,  BeformnHoa. 
ef  ChHtch  of  Snyland,  ii. ;  Church  on  Andrwute 
in  Mattert  tn  Sng.  ThecHoay ;  Moilej  on  Lawd, 
in  his  Ewatf.  The  most  oharacteristic  writings 
of  the  time  are  Moutaffue,  Apptllo  Cauarem 
(1625);  Prynne,  Survey  of  Mr.  Cotint  Ht«  oes«R- 
tii0  devotions  (1628) ;  Heylin.  Coal  from  theAUar, 
rei>lied  to  iu  Williams,  Holy  Table,  Sams,  and 
Thing  (1637) ;  Laud,  IHary ;  Frynne,  CanttrbHry't 
Doom  (1646).  For  the  eighteenth  century,  see 
Mocauiay,  Leoky,  and  Abbey  and  Overton, 
Eng,  Chvreh  of  £ighie€nth  Centwy.  For  the 
nineteenth,  J.  A.  Froude.  Tfc«  Oxford  Countn"- 
Reformation,  in  Short  Studies,  4  ser.  ;  Tracts  for 
the  Times  (1838-1841);  Palmer.  Narrative  of 
Events  (1843) ;  Ward,  Ideal  of  a  Christian  Chwrek 
(1844);  Newman,  Apologia  (1864);  Ck>leridge. 
MetnMr  of  KMe  (18&) ;  Ashwell  and  Wflber- 
foroe.  Life  of  Bishop  Wiihsrforee ;  Mosley. 
Xeminiseeness  of  OriA  ;  Stanley,  £<sa)rt  en  Church 
«>i4  State.  [W.  J.  A.] 

Kigh  Court  of  Justioe.  [CharlbsI.  ; 
Rbbbllion,  The  Great.] 

Kigh  Court  of  Jiuliico,THB  (Ireland), 
was  established  in  1652  at  Kilkenny,  from 
which  place  it  went  on  circuit  It  was  in- 
tended that  it  should  try  all  Catholics  who 
had  shed  Protestant  blood,  otherwise  than  in 


(W\ 


»c 


open  battle,  nnoe  1641.  Donellaii,  a  native, 
WBS  president,  Beynolds  and  Cook  were  his 
aaseflsors.  AJtogether  some  200  persons  were 
convicted,  among  them  Sir  Fhelim  O'Neil. 

Kigh  Treason.    [Trsabon.] 

ITjyM^-w^ff  Thb,  of  SooTi.Ain>,  in'  a 
strictly  geographical  sense,  seem  to  commence 
in  the  south  near  Looh  Lomond,  and  thence  to 
be  separated  from  the  Lowlandls  by  the  great 
valley  of  Strathmore.  But,  from  aa  historical 
point  of  view  the  word  must  be  considered  to 
embrace  the  Celtic-speaking  part  of  Scotland. 
In  the  eighth  century  there  appear  to  have 
been  seven  provinces,  each  of  which  was  ruled 
over  by  its  own  rt,  or  king,  who  had  a  sub* 
king  dependent  on  him.  The  names  of  these 
provinces  (with  the  sub-provinces  also),  so  far 
as  can  now  be  ascertained,  were  (1)  Angus 
and  Meams,  (2)  Athole  and  Gowrie,  (3)  Strath- 
earn  and  Menteith,  (4)  FUe,  (5)  Mar  and 
Buchan,  (6)  Moray  and  Hose,  (7)  Caithness. 
The  four  first  of  these  seven  provincesi 
according  to  Mr.  Skene,  formed  the  kingdom 
of  the  Southern  Scots,  and  the  town  of 
Scone  was  the  chief  seat  of  the  Pictish 
kingdom,  and  of  the  ardri,  or  head-king,  of 
all  these  four  provinces,  with  possibly  some 
authority  over  the  northern  three  also. 
Under  the  kings  of  Alban  and  of  Scotia  (889 — 
1092),  we  have  still  seven  provinces  bearing 
more  or  lees  relation  to  the  earlier  seven,  but 
apparently  more  regulated  by  the  great 
natural  features  of  the  countiy  than  was  the 
case  in  earlier  times.  At  this  period  these 
great  provinces  are  no  longer  ruled  by  kings 
and  sub-kings,  but  each  has  its  own  mor- 
maer,  or  great  steward,  though  the  Mormaer 
of  Moray  is  still  iMimetimes  styled  by  his 
old  title  ri.  Meanwhile,  in  the  extreme 
north,  Harold  Harfagr  had,  about  the  year 
889,  given  the  Orkneys  to  Jarl  Sigurd  to  be 
held  subject  to  the  King  of  Norway ;  and  the 
new  jarl  seems  to  have  overrun  Caithness 
and  Moray  and  Ross.  Moray  and  Ross  seem 
still  to  have  preserved  their  native  mormaer 
or  ri ;  but  Caithness  apparently  passed  over 
to  Xorse  rule  entirely.  By  about  the  rear 
969,  the  Earls  of  Orlmey  had  conquered  all 
the  country  north  of  the  Spey,  and  would 
probably  have  acknowledged  the  King  of 
iforway  as  their  overlord,  if  anyone.  But 
when  Sigurd  of  Orkney  was  slain  at  the 
battle  of  Clontarf  (1014)— the  great  battle 
between  the  Celtic  and  the  Norse  races — while 
the  Orkney  Isles  passed  to  his  elder  sons, 
to  be  held  of  the  King  of  Norway,  we  read 
that  his  younger  son,  Thorfinn,  was  sent  to 
Malcolm's  court,  and  there  invested  with  the 
iarldoms  of  Caithness  and  Sutherland.  But 
Moray  and  Ross  now  fell  off  from  both  Norse 
and  Scotch  dependency,  and  were  ruled  by 
their  own  ri,  Finleikr.  In  1031  we  read 
in  the  Anglo-Saxon  ChronieU  that  Malcolm, 
King  of  Scotland,  became  the  man  of 
Canute;    and    likewise    two    other    kings, 


Maelbaethe  and  lehmarc  This  Maelbaethe, 
or  Macbeth,  has  been  identified  with  Macbeth 
the  son  of  Finleikr,  Ri  of  Moray;  while 
lehmare  is  considered  to  have  been  the  Ri  of 
Argyle.  By  the  time  of  Duncan's  accession 
(1034)  Thorfinn  had  united  the  Orkneys  to 
his  original  jarldom  of  Caithness,  and  the 
Scotch  king  attempted  to  confer  the  latter 
province  on  his  nephew  Moddon,  and  even 
went  so  far  as  to  support  his  right  by  arms. 
It  was  on  this  occasion  that  Macbeth,  the 
Mormaer  or  Ri  of  Caithness,  deserted,  and 
perhaps  murdered  the  Scotch  king  (1040). 
Scotland  was  now  divided  between  Thorfinn 
and  Macbeth.  It  was  probably  on  the 
death  of  Thorfinn  (eWea  1057)  that  Dun- 
can's son,  Malcohn  Canmore,  was  able  to 
drive  back  Macbeth.  About  the  same  time 
the  other  earldoms  of  Thorfinn,  with  the 
exception  of  Caithness,  seem  to  have  been 
recovered  by  their  native  mormaers  or  kings, 
subject  probably  to  vague  claims  on  the  part 
of  Malcolm  as  ardri.  It  is  during  the  years 
1107  and  1 124,  when  Malcolm's  son  Alexander 
was  reigning  over  the  Celtic  part  of  Scotland 
north  of  the  Forth,  that  we  come  across  the 
first  mention  of  the  seven  earls — ^four  of 
whom  certainly,  and  probably  all  seven, 
represented  the  old  mormaers  who,  having 
lost  their  original  title  of  ri,  were  now 
changing  their  later  one  for  the  Latin  ^ofjiM. 
The  Counts  of  Athole,  Stratbeam,  Mar,  and 
Buchan,  by  their  territorial  designations  point 
back  clearly  to  the  earlier  Celtic  ri,  and 
indeed  can  be  fitfully  traced  backwards  across 
the  intervening  centuries  under  the  middle 
designation  of  mormaer ;  as,  for  example,  in 
the  Mormaer  of  Mar,  who  was  present  at  the 
battle  of  Clontarf.  During  the  reign  of  David 
I.  (1124 — 1153)  Moray,  which  rose  in  rebellion 
under  its  mormaer,  Angus,  was  far  more 
firmly  than  ever  united  to  the  Scotch  crown, 
and  its  people  seem  to  have  formed  a  division 
by  themselves  at  the  Battle  of  the  Standard. 
But,  though  the  native  rulers  of  Moray  may 
have  come  to  an  end  with  Angus,  the  district 
rose  in  rebellion  once  more  during  the  reign 
of  David's  grandson  Malcolm  (1153 — 1165). 
In  1160,  aftor  the  revolt  of  the  six  earls, 
Malcolm  is  said  to  have  removed  the  men  of 
Morav  from  their  own  seats,  and  "installed 
therein  his  own  peaceful  people."  Ross  was 
thoroughly  subdued  by  William  the  Lion  in 
1179,  though  an  attempt  was  made  a  few 
years  later  to  separate  the  districts  north  of 
the  Tay  from  the  rest  of  Scotland  by  setting 
up  a  new  king,  who  combined  in  his  own 
person  Norse  blood  with  that  of  Malcolm 
Canmore.  After  the  suppression  of  this 
insurrection  (1187)  William  forced  Harold, 
£arl  of  Orkney  and  Caithness,  to  acknow- 
ledge his  dependence  on  the  Scottish  king 
as  regards  the  half  of  the  latter  province 
by  the  payment  of  2,000  merks  (1202) ;  while 
Sutherland,  the  other  half,  ultimately  became 
an  earldom  in  the  family  of  De  Moravia,  eirea 


KQ 


(  69S  ) 


J  230.  On  the  death  of  the  last  Norwegian 
Earl  of  Caithness,  in  1231,  his  lands  were 
divided  between  the  last-mentioned  family 
and  that  of  the  Earl  of  Angus.  Lastly,  about 
the  ^'ear  1222,  the  sole  remaining  Celtic 
province  of  Argyle  seems  to  have  submitted 
to  Alexander  II.  But,  though  the  whole 
county  was  now  nominally  subject  to  one 
king,  yet  there  was  a  broad  line  of  demarca- 
tion between  that  part  of  Scotland  which  had 
become  thoroughly  feudalised,  and  had  been 
80  long  subject  to  the  head  king  at  Scone  or 
j^dinburgh,  and  the  Celtic-speaking  districts 
of  the  north  and  west.  In  1411,  Donald, 
Lord  of  the  Isles,  who  claimed  the  earldom 
of  Moray,  was  defeated  by  the  Earl  of  j^far 
at  the  great  battle  of  Harlaw,  which  seems 
to  have  finally  checked  the  dangers  threatened 
by  the  growtii  of  this  Celtic  and  Highland 
power.  From  this  time  onwards  the  in- 
cursions of  the  Highlanders  on  the  Lowlands 
were  limited  to  occasional  plundering  raids. 
Till  the  eighteenth  centuiy  the  Highland 
districts  remained  a  province  inhabited  by  an 
alien  and  semi-barbarous  people  *,  and  though 
nominally  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Scotland, 
it  was  in  fact  ruled  by  the  various  tribal  chiefs 
under  their  own  laws  and  customs.  In  the 
wars  of  the  seventeenth  centur}*,  the  High- 
landers were  easily  enlisted  on  the  side  of  the 
Stuarls  against  the  Covenanters;  and  they 
made  the  last  stand  both  under  Montrose  and 
Dundee.  After  the  suppression  of  the  re* 
hellion  of  1715^  a  determined  attempt  was 
made  to  break  up  the  tribal  organisation.  An 
Act  was  passed  (1724)  ordering  the  High- 
landers to  be  disarmed,  and  the  disarmament 
was  effected  by  General  Wade  (1726).  The 
same  officer  also  completed  between  1726  and 
1737,  the  g^reat  military'  roads  through  the 
Highlands,  by  means  of  which,  together  with 
a  chain  of  fortified  military'  posts,  a  vigorous 
police  was  established  and  plundering  stopped. 
A  happy  idea  was  conceived  of  utilising  the 
military  instincts  of  the  Highlanders  for  the 
8er\dce  of  the  country,  and  regiments  of 
Highland  troops  were  embodied  in  the 
regular  army  [Black  Watch].  In  1746,  the 
national  dress  was  prohibited  in  the  High- 
lands by  Act  of  Parliament  (19  Geo.  II.,  c.  39, 
repealed  22  Geo.  III.,  c.  63).  Under  the 
influence  of  these  measures,  the  Highlands 
g^mlually  became  as  peaceable  and  orderly  as 
the  rest  of  Scotland,  and  by  the  beginning  of 
the  present  centur}*  little  was  left  to  mark 
their  distinctive  character  except  the  sur- 
vival in  many  districts  of  the  native  language. 

Skene,  Celtic  Scotland;  J.  H.  Burton.  Hitt. 
cf  Scotland ;  E.  W.  Boberteon,  Scotland  under 
iur  EarlyKingt;  Hacanlay,  Hitt.  of  England; 
Lecky,  Hi$t.  of  England  in  tU  EigKtwith 
Cmtury.  [T.  A.  A.] 

If^n,  Rowland,  Irt  Lokd  {b,  1772,  d. 
1842),  a  son  of  Sir  John  Hill,  a  Shropshire 
baronet,  was  educated  at  Rugby,  and  at  six- 
teen entered  the    army.     He    was   sent  as 


secretary  of  a  diplomatic  missioa  to  Genoa, 
whence  he  proceeded  to  Toulon,  and  acted 
during  the  siege  as  aide-de-camp  to  Lord 
Mulgrave,  and  afterwards  to  Sir  David  Dundas. 
He  was  wounded,  and,  returning  to  England, 
was  soon  promoted  to  be  lieutenant-colonel 
of  the  90th,  with  which  he  went  to  Egypt. 
In  the  battle  of  Alexandria  he  was  sev^ely 
wounded.  In  1805  he  became  a  major- 
general,  and  was  despatched  to  the  Peninsula 
on  the  first  outbreak  of  war.  He  served  at 
Rolica  and  Yimiero,  and  at  Corunna  com- 
manded Sir  John  Moore*s  reserve.  In  1811 
he  succeeded  to  the  command  of  Greneral 
Paget's  corps,  and  continued  to  be  one  of 
Wellington's  most  trustworthy  officers.  He 
was  present  in  high  command  at  nearly  all 
the  battles  of  the  war,  and  always  acquitted 
himself  well  on  the  many  occasions  on  which 
Wellington  entrusted  him  with  a  separate 
command.  After  his  success  at  Almarez, 
where  he  destroyed  the  enemy's  works  after  a 
most  desperate  resistance,  ho  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  (^fay,  1814).  He  afterwards  served 
at  Waterloo,  and  was  personally  thanked 
by  Wellington  for  his  services  there  and 
elsewhere,  and  was  second  in  command  of  tht 
army  of  occupation  in  France  in  1815.  He 
was  appointed  commander-in-chief  in  1826. 
He  was  a  brave  and  able  soldier,  beloved 
and  entirely  trusted  by  his  men,  to  whom 
his  relations  are  best  understood  by  the 
nickname  which  they  gave  him  at  '*I)addy 
HilL" 

Aliaon,  Hutory  of  Bwope;   Sir  W.  N^ier. 
PeninanJar  War. 

Xill,  Sir  Rowland  (b.  1795,  d.  1879),  was 
bom  at  Kidderminster.  In  early  life  he 
was  a  schoolmaster.  His  attention  had  been 
directed  to  the  question  of  Australian  coloni- 
sation, and,  as  secretary  to  Gilbert  Wakeficld*s 
scheme  for  settling  that  country',  he  wrote  a 
pamphlet  on  Jlotne  CoUmiet.  It  was  in  1887 
that  he  issued  his  paper  on  Tft4  Pottage  Sj^- 
tem.  By  a  careful  series  of  investigations 
and  calculations,  he  had  arrived  at  the  con- 
clusion that,  as  the  chief  expenses  of  letter- 
carrying  were  not  in  the  carriage  itself,  but  in 
the  distribution  of  the  letters,  the  distance 
might  be  disregarded,  and  a  uniform  charge 
made  for  the  conversance  of  all  home  letters 
to  any  distance.  He  also  showed  how  the 
almost  nominal  charge  of  one  penny  for  ever>' 
half  ounce  would,  in  view  of  the  great  increase 
in  correspondence  likely  to  ensue  on  such  a 
reduction  of  cost,  peld  an  ample  profit  on  the 
transaction ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  he  sug- 
gested the  use  of  postage-stamps.  Despite 
the  opposition  o£fered  to  so  entirely  novel  a 
scheme,  a  committee  was  appointed  by  the 
House  of  Commons  to  investigate  the  ques- 
tion (1838) ;  and  when  Rowland  Hill's  pro- 
posals received  its  approbation,  a  bill  was  at 
once  brought  in  for  carrying  out  the  new 
project  (1839).  On  Jan.  10,  1840,  the  penny 
rate  was  inaugurated.      Rowland  Hiu  was 


(  569  ) 


Kol 


appomted  to  an  office  in  the  Treasnry,  for  the 
puipose  of  Buperintending  the  execution  of 
his  reforms,  but  had  to  retire  in  1841,  when 
the  Liberals  went  out  of  office.  In  1846  he 
was  presented  with  £13,000,  as  a  mark  of 
public  gratitude,  and  when  the  Liberals 
returned  to  office,  the  same  year,  he  was 
made  secretary  to  the  Postmaster-General. 
In  1860  he  was  knighted,  and  when  forced, 
four  years  later,  to  resign,  he  was  allowed 
to  retain  his  full  salary  of  £2,000  a  year. 

Koadleji  Benjamin,  successively  Bishop 
of  Bangor,  *Hereford,  Salisbury,  and  Win- 
chester {b.  1676,  d.  1761),  was  educated  at  the 
University  of  Oambridge.  When  he  removed 
to  London  he  appeared  as  the  antagonist 
of  Calamy  on  the  question  of  conformity^  and 
of  Bishop  Atterbury  on  that  of  non-resistance. 
He  was  a  staunch  Low  Churchman.  In 
1705,  Hoadley  was  attacked  in  the  House  of 
Lords  by  the  Bishop  of  London  for  having 
advocated  the  duty  of  resistance  and  counte- 
nanced rebellion,  in  a  sermon  preached  beforo 
the  Lord  l^Iayor.  Burnet,  in  reply  to  this 
speaker,  told  him  that  he  was  the  last  person 
who  ought  to  complain  of  the  sermon  in  ques- 
tion. A  few  ^ears  later  Hoadley  was  one  of 
the  most  prominent  opponents  of  Dr.  Sacheve- 
rell.  In  1715  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Bangor,  and  next  year  published  his  famous 
tract  against  the  Nonjurors.  This  was 
quickly  followed  (1717)  by  the  issue  of  his 
sermon  on  the  Kingdom  of  Christ,  printed  by 
royal  command.  Both  these  works  were  de- 
voted to  questioning  the  divine  authority  of 
the  king  and  the  dergy,  and  were  the  occa- 
sion of  the  famous  Bangorian  Controversy. 
The  matter  was  at  once  taken  up  by  Convo- 
cation, and  led  to  such  wrangling  and  discord 
that  this  body  was  suddenly  prorogued  by  the 
government.  From  this  time  (1717)  till  the 
year  1852  Convocation  was  allowed  to  meet 
-only  as  a  matter  of  form.  Dr.  Hoadley  was 
translated  to  the  sees  of  Hereford,  Salisbury, 
and  Winchester  in  the  rears  1721,  1723,  and 
1734  respectively,  and  died  at  Chelsea. 

KobbeSy  Thomas  (b.  1588,  d.  1679),  was 
educated  at  Oxford,  where  he  took  his  degreo 
as  Bachelor  of  Arts  in  1G08.  The  same  year 
he  was  appointed  tutor  to  the  eldest  son  of 
the  future  Duke  of  Devonshire,  and  accompa- 
nied his  pupil  in  his  Continental  tour.  Before 
the  year  1620  he  seems  to  have  become  ac- 
quainted with  Francis  Bacon,  and  was  by  him 
employed  on  the  Latin  version  of  the  JSMat/8.  * 
In  1631  he  undertook  the  education  of  the 
new  Earl  of  Devonshire,  his  former  pupil's 
son.  While  abroad  with  this  boy  he  made 
the  acquaintance  of  Gralileo,  and  spent  several 
months  at  Paris,  returning  home  in  1637. 
It  was  about  this  time  that  he  began  his 
philosophic  career.  In  1642  the  De  Cive  was 
printea;  in  1650  his  Ik  Corpore  PolUieo 
(English  in  everything  but  its  title),  and  in 
1651  the  Leviathan,  which  made  him  famous. 


Charles  II.,  who  had  once  been  Hobbes*8 
pupil  in  mathematics,  gave  his  old  teacher  a 
pension  of  £100  a  year  after  the  Restoration^ 
and  hung  his  portrait  up  in  his  private  room. 
After  the  Great  Fire  of  London  a  bill  levelled 
against  the  Leviathan  was  introduced  into  the 
House  of  Commons,  and  passed  early  in  the 
next  year  (1667).  The  Behetnoth,  or  history 
of  the  Civil  War,  was  published  1679,  just 
before  its  author^s  death,  but  without  his 
consent.  The  last  vears  of  his  life  were  spent 
in  Derbyshire ;  and  his  literary  labours  were 
continued  till  the  very  end,  in  the  quiet  of  tiie 
country.  Hobbes*s  influence  on  philosophical 
thought  has  been  eqivilled  by  few  English 
writers.  Even  greater  has  been  his  influence 
upon  political  and  ethical  speculation.  He 
aimed  at  finding  a  scientific  explanation  for 
the  phenomena  of  man  in  society,  and  this 
gave  an  impulse  to  a  movement  of  thought 
which  has  been  followed  by  English  thinkers 
ever  since.  His  main  political  conception 
was  that  of  the  right  of  all  men  to  seek  their 
own  happiness,  and  their  tendency  to  seek  it, 
even  at  the  expense  of  their  fellows.  In  a 
state  of  nature  the  selfishness  of  every  man 
would  have  free  play,  and  would  only  be 
limited  by  the  selfishness  of  others.  The 
stato  of  nature,  therefore,  would  be  a  state  of 
warfare  and  of  sufFering.  Government  has 
been  instituted  to  limit  this;  and  govern- 
ment in  its  perfect  form  should  have  absolute 
control  over  civil,  moral,  and  ecclesiastical 
affairs  alike.  The  demonstration  of  the  su- 
premacy and  irresponsibility  of  the  sovereign 
power  in  a  state,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  features  in  his  philosophy,  caused 
Hobbes  to  be  often  classed  with  the  defenders 
of  despotism,  and  roused  against  him  the 
champions  of  constitutionalism  and  of  eccle- 
.siastical  freedom  in  his  own  day;  but  at  a 
later  time  the  conception  formed  the  founda- 
tion of  the  theory  of  utilitarian  legislation, 
which  was  worked  into  a  regular  system  by 
the  school  of  fientham. 

The  works  of  Hobbes  have  been  edited  by  Sir 
W.  Moleeworth,  16  vols.,  Lond.,  1839—46. 

[S.  J.  L.] 

Kolinshed,  Kafhabl  (d,  eirea  1580),  is 
the  author,  or  perhaps,  rather,  the  editor,  of 
the  large  folio  Jlietory  o^  England  which 
furnished  Shakespeare  with  much  of  his 
knowledge  of  English  history'.  According  to 
the  dedicatory  preface,  inscribed  to  Lord 
Burleigh,  the  history  as  published  was  a 
fraction  of  the  original  scheme,  which  em- 
braced the  idea  of  a  universal  history,  ap- 
parently on  the  largest  scale.  The  work  in 
its  later  form  consists  of  (1)  a  description  of 
England,  followed  by  the  history  of  this 
country  down  to  the  Conquest;  (2)  a  de- 
scription of  Ireland,  followed  by  the  chronicles 
of  that  island :  (3)  a  description  of  Scotland, 
followed  by  The  Hietorie  of  Scotland  down 
to  the  year   1675  ;    (4)   the  history  of  the 


Kol 


(570) 


ma. 


English  kings  down  to  the  year  1577. 
Hounkhed  was  largely  assisted  in  his  great 
work  by  the  most  learned  men  of  the  time, 
such  as  Stow  and  Harrison. 

Xolkar  is  the  family  name  of  one  of  the 
chief  dynasties  of  ^lahintta  princes.  Midhar 
Bao  Holkar  took  part  in  the  Mahratta  in- 
vasion of  Guzerat  in  1721,  and  in  1735  led  a 
large  aimy  to  Delhi.  He  succeeded  in  ex- 
torting from  the  emperor  a  considerable 
territory  in  j^Ialwa  (1736),  which  was  erected 
into  the  principality  of  Indore,  and  became 
the  hereditary  dominion  of  the  Holkar  family. 
After  suffermg  a  severe  defeat  from  the 
Afghans  in  1761,  Mulhar  Bao  died  in  1763. 
In  1774  his  successor,  Tuckagee  Holkar,  took 
a  prominent  part  in  the  war  against  the 
English.  He  was  defeated  by  Colonel 
Goddard  in  1782,  and  subsequently  joined  the 
British  alliance  against  Tippoo  SaJub. 

Kolkar,  Jeswunt  Bao  (d,  1811).  In 
1797,  on  the  death  of  Tuckagee  Holkar,  a  dis- 
pute arose  between  his  sons,  and  Jeswunt 
Bao,  an  illegitimate  son,  fled  to  Nagporc  to 
escape  the  enmity  of  Scindiah,  who  had 
espoused  the  cause  of  his  half-brother  Khassee 
Bao.  Holkar  now  became  a  freebooter,  col- 
lected an  army  of  Patans,  Mahrattas,  and 
Pindarries,  and  joined  himself  to  Ameer 
Khan.  The  warfare  ^  between  Scindiah 
and  Holkar,  which  laid  all  Malwa  and 
Khandeish  in  ruins,  ended  in  the  battle 
of  Poonah,  Oct.  25,  1802,  in  which  Holkar, 
assisted  by  English  troops,  defeated  the 
united  forces  of  the  Peishwa  and  Scindiah* 
The  result  was  the  Treaty  of  Bassein  (Dec., 
1802).  Holkar  was  now  alarmed  at  the 
introduction  of  English  influence,  and  con- 
certed with  Scindiah  and  the  Bajtdi  of  Berar 
the  conspiracy  which  produced  the  Mahratta 
War.  The  reduction  of  Scindiah  and  Berar, 
1803,  produced  no  eflfect  on  Holkar,  who  was 
compelled  to  plunder  to  pay  his  army ;  and 
the  foolish  contempt  of  the  English,  which 
induced  them  to  underrate  him  and  pro- 
duced the  disastrous  retreat  of  Monson, 
gave  him  a  new  lease  of  life.  He  returned 
to  Hindostan  (1804)  with  a  larger  force  than 
ever,  and  besieged  Delhi..  Lake's  advance, 
however,  drove  him  away,  and  he  fled, 
followed  by  the  English,  who  surprised 
his  cavalry  at  Ferruckabad,  and  chasea  him 
in  the  direction  of  Deeg.  At  this  fortress 
his  disciplined  army  was  destroyed,  and  after 
hanging  about  Bhurtpore  for  some  time,  he 
fled  with  Ameer  Khan  to  Scindiah*8  camp, 
and  thence  to  Ajmere,  and  across  the  Sut- 
lej.  Lake  pursued  him,  beating  him  re- 
peatedly, and  at  last  forced  him  to  conclude 
the  Treaty  of  Baipoor  Ghaut  (1806),  which 
would  have  greatly  limited  his  power.  The 
declaratory  articles  of  Sir  John  Shore,  how- 
ever, removed  all  these  limitations  and 
gave  him  unlimited   licence  to  plunder  in 


Bajpootana  and  elsewhere,  a  licence  of 
which  he  freely  availed  himself.  He  was 
troubled  first  by  mutinies  in  his  axmy,  and 
then  by  an  insurrection  in  favour  of  his 
nephew.  This  disturbance  led  Holkar  to  put 
his  unfortunate  kinsman  to  death,  a  crime 
which  was  soon  followed  by  the  murder  of 
his  own  brother,  Khassee  Bao.  Bemoiae  for 
this  double  offence  drove  him  mad,  and  after 
three  years  of  restraint  h&  died  in  Oct^  1811. 

Grant  UaM,  MakratUu ;  WOlmUv  DmptAdm ; 
Mill,  Hitl.  of  India;  Malleson,  Nativ  State* o/ 
India  in  Stibmdiary  JilUanoe  ^cUh  tht  BritiA  Qo- 

Ml  RIRMlt. 

Holland.  Tuoi^as  {d.  1400),  was  the  eldest 
son  of  the  Earl  of  Kent.  In  1397  he  was 
made  Duke  of  Surrey,  but  was  degraded  in 
1399.  In  1400,  being  implicated  in  a  plot 
against  Henry  IV.,  he  was  beheaded. 

Holland,  Henry  Bich,  Earl  op  {d. 
1649),  was  a  younger  son  of  Lord  Bich.  He 
served  in  the  Dutch  wars,  and  on  his  return 
to  England,  attracted  the  favourable  notice  of 
James  I.,  who  heaped  honours  upon  him.  In 
1639  he  was  made  Lord  General  of  the  Horso 
in  the  Scotch  War,  but  seceded  two  Years 
later  to  the  Parliament.  He  rejoined  the 
king  in  1643,  and  fought  with  considerable 
bravery  in  the  first  battle  of  Newbury ;  but, 
finding  himself  coldly  received  by  Charles, 
he  quickly  deserted  to  the  enemy.  In  1648 
he  took  part  in  the  abortive  Bo^^alist  rising, 
was  captured  by  the  Parliamentary  troops, 
tried  before  the  High  Court  of  Justice  in  1649, 
and  executed. 

Holland,  Hbnrt  Fox,  Ist  Lord  (b.  1705, 
d,  1774),  second  son  of  Sir  Stephen  Fox,  was 
a  politiod  disciple  of  Walpole.  In  1743  he 
became  one  of  the  Commissioners  of  the 
Treasury,  under  the  Pelham  administration, 
and  on  Lord  Granville's  failure  to  form  a 
ministry  he  was  appointed  Secretary  for 
War.  but  dissensions  sprang  up  amonff  the 
ministry,  and  he  violently  opposed  Lord  Hazd- 
wicke*s  Marriage  Act.  On  the  death  of 
Pelham,  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  NewcMtle, 
attempted  to  form  a  government.  It  was  diffi- 
cult to  find  a  leader  of  the  Commons.  New- 
castle applied  to  Fox,  as  Pitt  was  obnoxioa& 
to  the  long.  But  they  quarrelled  about  the 
disposal  of  patronage ;  and  Bobinson,  a  man  of 
little  influence,  was  made  manager  of  the  Com- 
mens.  The  next  month,  however,  Newcastle 
secured  Fox's  services  by  making  him  Secre- 
tary of  State,  and  remo\ing  Bobinson.  He 
soon  quarrelled  with  his  chief ;  «nd  seeing  that 
the  blame  for  the  loss  of  Minorca  was  to  be 
cast  on  his  shoulders,  he  resigned,  in  1756, 
and  was  shortly  followed  by  Newouile.  It 
was  hoped  that  he  and  Pitt  would  unite,  and 
form  an  administration;  but  his  quarrel 
with  Pitt,  caused  b^  his  acceptance  of  office 
in  1754,  was  too  senoua.  However,  after  the 
fiiilure  of  Pitt's   first   administration.  Fox 


Sot 


(W) 


Sol 


•Dcepted  the  subordinate  position  oi  Pay- 
master of  the  Forces,  whereby  he  lost  evea 
a  seat  in  the  cabinet^  but  secured  a  large 
income.  On  the  accession  of  George  III.,  he 
joined  Lord  Bute  in  his  attack  on  the 
WhigSy  and  deliberately  set  to  work  to  buy  a 
majority  in  the  House.  The  Paymaster's 
oflSce  became  a  shop  for  the  purchase  of  votes. 
It  is  said  that  £25,000  was  thus  expended  in 
one  morning.  3ut  the  whole  feeling  of  the 
Commons  was  against  him,  and  his  colleagues 
refused  to  suM>ort  him.  Hints  of  bribery 
were  freely  tiuK>wn  out,  and  he  became 
thoroughly  unpopular.  '*He  had  always 
been  regarded  as  a  Whig  of  the  Whigs.*' 
On  the  sudden  resignation  of  Bute,  he  retired 
to  the  House  of  Lords  as  Lord  Holland.  He 
continued  to  hold  office  for  two  more  years, 
but  he  had  ceased  to  play  any  part  in  politics. 
In  1767  he  was  not  ashamea  to  soUcit  his 
old  enemy,  Chatham,  for  an  earldom.  Fox, 
though  a  veiy  able  man,  was,  in  the  opinion 
of  some,  a  distinct  failure  as  to  his  public 
career. 

Stanhope.  Ht<t.  <^  ^«9*;   Mftoaulsj,  JtMsyf; 
Trive]jraa«  JSaHy  L>/«  of  C.  J.  Fox. 

Holland,  Hbnky  Rxcha&d  Vassall,  3kd 
liOKD  {b,  1773,  d.  1840),  succeeded  to  the 
peerage  while  still  an  infant,  but  it  was  not 
till  the  year  1798  that  he  entered  on  his  par- 
liamentary career,  during  the  whole  of  which. 
he  maintained  the  views  and  principles  of  his 
nncle,  Charies  James  Fox.  In  1805  the  Whigs 
came  into  office,  and  Lord  Holland  was  sworn 
a  Privy  Councillor,  and  appointed  in  conjunc- 
tion with  Lord  Auckland  to  negotiate  with 
the  American  plenipotentiaries  for  the  settle* 
ment  of  some  differences  between  the  two 
governments.  In  this,  however,  they  were 
iiot  successful,  as  Mr.  Jefferson,  the  President, 
refosed  to  ratify  the  treaty.  On  the  death 
of  Mr.  Fox,  Lord  Holland  entered  the  cabinet 
as  Priv^'  Seal,  but  early  in  1807  the  ministers 
were  dismissed.  He  was  present  in  various 
parts  of  the  Peninsula  during  the  Spanish 
War.  On  his  return  to  England  (1809),  he 
became  a  follower  of  Mr.  Cuming,  to  whom 
he  lent  aid  on  his  accession  to  power  though 
he  did  not  become  a  member  of  his  cabinet. 
In  1830  he  entered  Lord  G^ey*s  ministry  as 
Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster,  which 
office  he  continued  to  fill  with  a  slight  in- 
terval when  his  party  was  not  in  power, 
until  the  time  of  his  death.  Lord  Holland  was 
the  author  of,  among  other  works,  Memoirs  of 
the  Whig  Forty  (1832). 

KoUaad,  Relations  with.  The  name 
Holland,  properly  belonging  to  the  Imperial 
Qoonty  of  that  name,  which  subsequently 
became  the  leading  State  of  the  Republic  of 
Seven  United  Provinces,  is  commonly  used 
loosely  for  the  United  Provinces  as  a  whole ; 
and,  though  the  official  title  of  the  modem 
kingdom  is  the  kinsdom  of  the  Netherlands, 
the  same  inexact  designation  is  BtHl  applied 


to  it.  With  the  mediieval  county  of  Holland 
the  relations  of  England  were  frequent  and 
friendly.  Count  William  I.  fought  for  Otto 
IV.  at  fiouvines,  and,  subsequently  changing 
sides,  followed  Loms,  the  son  of  Philip  II.,  to 
Enpfland,  in  1215.  Floris  V.  established 
intimate  relations  with  Edward  I.,  got  the 
wool-staple  placed  at  Dort,  and  secuied  fish- 
ing rights  on  the  English  coast.  But  in  1296 
he  reverted  to  the  French  connection.  His 
son,  John  I.,  restored  the  alliance  by  his 
marriage  with  a  daughter  of  Edward  I.  The 
new  Hainault  line  was  again  closely  bound  to 
England  by  the  marriage  of  Philippa,  daugh- 
ter of  William  III.,  to  Edward  III.  (1328). 
On  his  ^n's  death  in  1345,  Edwara  and 
Philippa  made  an  ineffectual  attempt  to  seize 
the  country.  In  the  next  century  the  attempt 
of  Humphre/  of  Gloucester  to  win  Holland, 
and  the  counties  attached  to  it,  for  his  wife 
Jacqueline,  was  the  means  of  breaking  up  the 
Anglo-Burg^undian  alliance  which  had  given 
the  Engli^  mastery  of  Fiance.  On  his 
failure,  Holland  became  included  in  the  Bur- 
gundian  dominions,  which  the  accession  of 
Charles  V.  transferred  to  Spain.  Burgundy 
and  Sjpain  were  both  English  allies,  and  so  the 
old  fnendshif)  was  kept  up.  Intimate  com- 
mercial relations  still  further  tightened  the 
bonds  of  union  between  the  two  countries. 

The  Reformation,  which  broke  up  the  al- 
liance of  England  and  Spain,  led  to  the  revolt 
of  the  Protestants  of  Holland  from  the  abso- 
lutism and  Catholicism  of  the  Spanish 
monarchy.  England,  under  Elizabeth,  was 
also  engaged  in  a  life  and  death  struggle  with 
Spain.  This  ultimately  compelled  the  queen, 
despite  her  reluctance,  both  to  help  rebels 
against  their  sovereign,  and  to  take  a  decided 
I^testant  lino,  to  afford  the  revolted  Hol- 
landers very  material  assistance.  At  first, 
English  help  took  tho  form  of  secret  sub- 
vention or  popular  subscriptions,  or  of  the 
willing  bands  of  volunteers,  who  flocked  to 
join  a  Protestant  cause.  Subsequently  the 
queen  assisted  the  Dutch  in  a  more  formal 
way.  Elizabeth's  first  decided  inten'ention 
began  with  the  lavish  grants  to  her  lover,  the 
Duke  of  Anion,  who  aspired  to  lead  the 
southern  provinces  of  the  Netherlands,  but  on 
his  disastrous  failure,  and  the  murder  of  Wil- 
liam the  Silent,  in  1584,  Elizabeth,  though  de- 
clining the  proffered  soverei^ty  of  tho  Seven 
Provinces,  sent  her  favourite  Leicester  as 
pfovemor-general  with  a  small  army,  receiving 
m  return,  some  *' cautionary  towns."  In 
1586,  Sidney  fell  at  Zutphen.  In  1587 
Leicester's  incompetence  necessitated  his  re- 
call. In  1588  the  Dutch  did  good  service  by 
blocking  up  the  army  of  Parma  in  their  ports 
which  the  great  Armada  hoped  to  land  in 
England.  Up  to  the  date  of  Elizabeth's  death 
our  relations  with  the  Hollanders  continued 
cordial,  and  materially  assisted  their  efforts 
for  libcorty. 

With  James  I.  a  new  epoch  begins.    That 


Sol 


(672) 


Kdl 


monarches  peace  with  Spain  was  followed  by 
the  reatitution  of  the  cautionary  towns,  and 
the  sowing  theolog:ical  differences  between 
the  two  countries,  and  the  increasing  rivalry 
between  English  and  Dutch  merchants 
produced  a  deeply-rooted  and  enduring  hos* 
tiUty.  When  tiie  Twelve  Years'  Truce  with- 
Spam  (1609 — 21)  came  to  an  end,  James's 
sympathies  were  altogether  Spanish.  Holland 
found  in  France  the  protector  she  had  lost  in 
England.  The  Amboyna  massacre  was  but 
the  prelude  of  a  long  struggle  of  the  two 
naval  powers  in  the  East  Indies.  The  eventful 
marriage  of  the  Stadtholder,  Frederick  Henry, 
with  Mary,  daughter  of  Charles  I.  (1641) 
rather  increased  &an  diminished  the  hostility 
of  England  and  Holland.  Flushed  with  the 
glorious  recognition  of  their  liberty  by  the 
Treaties  of  Westphalia  (1648),  the  Dutch 
plunged  into  their  famous  naval  war  with 
England.  The  passing  by  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment of  the  Navigation  Act,  dealt  a  deadly 
blow  at  the  Dutch  carrying  trade.  But  the 
war  which  ensued,  and  lasted  from  1651  to 
1664,  was  on  the  whole  unfavourable  to  Hol- 
land. The  restoration  of  the  Stuarts,  closely 
followed  by  the  re-enactment  of  the  Naviga- 
tion Act,  rather  intensified  the  opposition  of 
the  Amsterdam  oligarchs  to  their  commercial 
rivaL  The  war  (1666 — 1667)  was  on  the 
whole  fovouruble  to  the  Dutch,  though  the 
Treaty  of  Breda  lost  them  New  Amsterdam. 
In  1667  the  two  powers  united  to  check  Louis 
XrV.  by  the  Triple  Alliance ;  but,  in  1670, 
Charles  IT.  signed  a  treaty  with  France  to 
partition  Holland,  as  Charles  I.  had  nearly 
lorfy  years  earlier  concluded  a  similar  treaty 
with  Spain.  In  1672,  Charles  joined  Louis 
in  his  great  attack  on  Holland.  But  common 
political  hostility  to  the  tyrant  of  Europe  now 

f roved  so  strong  a  bond  of  union  between 
England  and  Holland  that  even  commercial 
rivalry  was  powerless  to  separate  them. 
The  restoration  of  the  house  of  Orange 
personally  united  the  two  courts;  and  the 
marriage  of  William  III.  wiUi  l^Iary  of 
York  (1677)  completed  the  alliance.  The 
Revolution  which  brought  William  to  Eng- 
land made  it  indissoluble.  Henceforward, 
the  '*  Maritime  Powers,*'  as  England  and 
Holland  were  now  called,  had  a  common  policy 
and  common  interests.  Marlborough  simply 
continued  the  work  of  William  of  Orange. 
But  the  narrow  basis  of  Dutch  prosperity  now 
began  to  show  itself.  It  was  perhaps  only 
because  England  had  won  the  commercial 
race,  that  her  alliance  with  Holland  had  be- 
come possible.  Though  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht 
gave  the  Dutch  all  thev  could*  wish,  they 
gradually  sank '  into  a  decided  condition  of 
dependence  on  their  g^reat  ally.  It  was 
English  influence,  now  extended  to  internal 
affairs,  that  made  William  IV.,  the  son-in- 
law  of  George  II.,  Stadtholder  in  1747.  But 
George's  grandson,  William  V. ,  was  a  weak 
ruler ;  and  despite  his  sympathy  with  George 


III.,  the  rising  Dutch  democracy,  which 
warmly  supported  the  American  colonists,  in- 
sisted on  Holland  adopting  the  "  Armed  Neu- 
trality "  (1780),  and  rushed  into  a  naval  war 
with  England.  But  the -glory  of  Holland 
had  now  departed,  and  the  States  willingly 
accepted  an  ingloYious  peace  in  1783.  In  1787 
the  English  and  Prussians  combined  to  restore 
the  Stadtholder,  an  act  which  directly  led  to 
the  conquest  of  Holland  by  the  Fi«nch  Re- 

Sublic,  with  the  approbation  of  Uie  Dutch 
emocracy.  Holland  was  forced  to  lend 
its  naval  strength  to  France,  and  re- 
mained in  antagonism  to  England  until  1815. 
It  was  largely  through  Engbsh  influence  that 
the  Congress  of  Vienna  erected  Holland  and 
Belgium  into  a  kingdom  for  the  house  of 
Orange.  In  1830,  after  the  revolt  of  Belgium, 
England  and  France  blockaded  the  Dutch 
ports,  and  insisted  on  *he  signature  of  the 
Convention  of  London  in  1833,  which  gave 
Belgium  its  independence.  In  1867  the 
Treaty  of  London  guaranteed  Luxemburg  to 
Holland. 

Grattan,  Httt.  of  the  NHherhaid*,  and  for  tlie 
earlier  perioiL  the  works  of  Hr.  Motley; 
Woffeneer,  Dc  Vaderlandnche  HiatorU  ;  Leo,  Zwoff 
Buclur  liliederlandUck0r  Q^nchicMe  ;  Benke,  /Twt. 
of  Eng. ;  Stanhope,  HxA,  i^Eng.;  Cunnin^iam, 
Hue.  o/Eng,  Commero$,  IT  F  T  1 

KoUes,  Dbnzil,  Lord  (6.  1597,  d.  1681) 
was  the  younger  son  of  the  Earl  of  Clare.  On 
entering  ParUament  (1624)  he  joined  the 
popular  party,  and  was  one  of  the  most 
ardent  opponents  of  Buckingham.  On  Msjich 
2,  1629,  when  the  Speaker  was  about  to  ad- 
journ the  House  in  obedience  to  the  kin^*s 
order,  Holies  forced  him  back  into  his  chair, 
for  which  act  he  was  fined  a  thousand  marks 
and  imprisoned.  At  the  opening  of  the  Long 
Parliament  he  was  much  valued  and  esteemed 
by  the  whole  popular  party.  In  the  year  1644 
he  was  one  of  the  commissioners  sent  to 
Oxford  to  negotiate  with  the  king,  showed 
himself  ver}*  anxious  to  effect  a  reconciliation, 
and  was  consequently  accused  of  treachery 
by  Lord  SaWle.  Holies  was  the  leader  of 
the  Presbyterian  party  in  their  contest  with 
the  Independents  and  with  the  army.  In 
August,  1647,  he  was  excluded  from  the 
House  of  Commons,  returned  to  share  the 
short  triumph  of  the  Presbyterians,  and  was 
forced  again  to  take  refuge  in  Normandy, 
and  to  console  himself  by  attacking  Cromwell 
in  his  Memoirs.  Holies  reappeared  in  Par- 
liament in  1659,  and  was  spoke^unan  of  the 
deputation  of  the  Commons  sent  to  Breda. 
Six  months  later  he  sat  in  the  court  which 
judged  the  regicides,  and  was  raised  to 
the  peerage  by  the  title  of  Baron  Holl^ 
in  1661.  In  1663  he  was  sent  as  ambas- 
sador to  Pnris,  recalled  in  1665,  and  nego- 
tiated the  Treaty  of  Breda  in  1667,  but  utterly 
disapproved  the  foreign  policy  of  Charles. 
*'8ave  what  the  government  of  the  Parlia- 
ment did,'*  he  wrote,  **  we  have  not  taken  one 


JBUk 


(•  673  ) 


truo  step  or  utruck  one  true  stroke,  since 
Queen  Elizabeth's  time."  His  last  public 
act  was  to  vote  for  the  acquittal  of  Lord 
Stafford  ^1680).  He  died  Februar>'  17,  1681. 
Burnet  describes  him  as  *'a  man  of  great 
courage,  and  of  as  great  pride.  He  had  the 
soul  of  a  stubborn  old  Roman  in  him." 

i's2V«oCi;Onixot» 


published  in 
XonlE  «t  8M  ConUitiporaiiu, 

Kdly  AlliaaoOf  The,  was  a  treaty  con- 
cluded at  Paris  on  Sept.  26,  1815,  between 
Alexander,  Emperor  of  Russia,  Francis,  Em- 
peror of  Austria,  and  Frederick  William  I., 
King  of  F^russia,  without  the  intervention  of 
their  ministers.  The  Emperor  of  Russia  was 
the  instigator  of  the  step,  and  he  is  supposed 
to  have  taken  it  under  the  influence  of 
Madame  Krudener,  a  visionary  Pietist.  The 
main  points  of  the  agreement  were  as  follows : 
(I)  European  Christendom  was  re^;arded  as 
forming  a  single  family,  "  the  only  principle 
either  between  governments  or  subjects  is  to 
regard  themselves  as  members  of  the  same 
Chnstian  nation,  the  three  allied  princes 
considering  themselves  as  delegated  by  Pro- 
ridence  to  govern  three  branches  of  the  same 
family."  (2)  Three  States,  representing  three 
forms  of  Christianity,  the  Greek  Church,  the 
Koman  Church,  and  Protestantism,  were 
asked  to  rise  above  their  differences,  and  to 
form  a  union  depending  on  their  common 
agreement.  (3)  Cnristianity  was  proclaimed 
as  the  foundation  of  all  government  and  all 
civilisation,  '*  the  sublime  truths  which  are 
tau^t  us  by  the  eternal  religion  of  a  God 
Saviour."  *'  The  present  act  has  no  other 
object  than  to  uow  in  the  face  of  the 
universe  the  determination  to  adopt  no  other 
nile  of  conduct,  either  in  the  administration 
of  government,  or  in  the  political  relations 
with  other  governments,  thim  the  precepts  of 
this  holy  xifligion,  precepts  of  justice,  charity, 
andpeaoe,"  which  were  as  wellfltted  tog^idethe 

{lubUc  acts  of  princes  as  they  were  to  guide  the 
ives  of  private  persons,  and  the  only  means 
to  ronsoudate  human  institutions  and  remedy 
their  imperfections.  (4)  The  three  sovereigns 
declared  themselves  bound  together  by  the  ties 
of  a  true  and  indissoluble  fraternity.  (5)  They 
were  to  consider  themselves  in  the  light  of 
fathers  to  their  subjects.  The  treaty  was 
offered  for  signature  to  all  European  powers, 
except  the  Pope  and  the  Sultan.  Great 
Britain  alone  declined  to  accede  to  it,  but  the 
Prince  Regent  declared  his  personal  adhe- 
rence to  its  principles. 

The  Treaty  is  printed  in  Koch  and  Sohoell, 
Huioirt  dn  Traiif$  ds  Paix,  iil.  547. 

[O.  B.] 

Kolyrood  Abbey  ^as  founded  by 
David  I.  in  1 128.  It  was  plundered  by  the 
^liah  in  1332  and  1385,  and  destroyed  by 
Hertford  in  1544.  The  foundation  vas  sup- 
piessed  in  1547.  Holyrood  Palaee  was  made 
a  royal  residence  by  James  V.  in  1528,  and 


was  henceforth  the  ordinary  oflicial  dwelling- 
place  of  the  Kings  of  Scotland.  It  was  tho 
scene  of  the  murder  of  Rizzio  in  1566.  Charles 
I.  was  crowned  there  in  1633.  In  1650  it  was 
partiy  destroyed  by  Ci'omwell*s  troops.  In 
1745  it  was  for  a  short  time  occupied  by  the 
Young  Pretender.  After  being  allowed  to 
fall  almost  into  ruins  it  was  repaired  in  1850. 

Soma^O  (hotnagium,  sometimes  hominium 

from  ho9nOf  through  the  earlier  Latin  form 

hommatieutn)t  was  that  profession  of  feudal 

subjection  which  the  vassal  (homo)  made  to 

his  lord  on  receiving  a  fief  from  his  hands. 

It  could  only  be  received  by  the  lord  himself. 

With  solemn  ceremonies  the  vassal  uncovered 

his  head,  laid  aside  sword  and  spear,  and  knelt 

before  his  suzerain,  and  formally  declared, 

**  I  become  your  man  for  the  lands  which  I 

hold  of  you,   and  will  be  faithful  to  you 

against  all  men,  saving  the  fealty  which  I 

owe    to    my    lord    the   king.*'       The  oath 

of  fealty  and  the  g^rant  of  the  fief  followed 

tho  formula  of  homage.    Ever}-  feudal  tenant 

on  acquiring  his  property  was  compelled  to 

do  homage  to  his  lord.    Besides  liege  homage, 

as  mentioned  above,  there  was  a  simple  Ao- 

tiuigef  in  which  the  oath  of  fealty  did  not 

follow,  and  a  homage  that  involved  no  feudal 

duties,  such  as  tho  Palatine  earls  proffered  to 

the  English  kings  or  the    great   peers   of 

France  {hofuagium  per  paragium),  or  such  as  the 

Buke  of  Normandy  performed  to  the  King  of 

France. 

Duconge,  8.v.  homa^tum;  Bracton,  lib.  2,  cap. 
35,  §  8;  GUuvill, lib.  9,  cap.  1. 

Home  Bole  Movement.    [Ikblanu, 

adjin^l 

Komildon  Hill,  The  Battle  of  (Sept. 
1402),  was  fought  near  Wooler  in  Northum- 
berland, between  a  marauding  party  of  the 
Scotch  under  Douglas,  and  an  English  force 
under  Hotspur  and  the  Earl  of  March.  The 
victor)'  was  won  for  the  English  by  the 
archers,  there  being  little  or  no  fighting  at 
close  quarters. 

SomilieSf  The  Book  op.  In  the  year 
1542  Convocation  decided  to  issue  *' certain 
homilies  for  the  stay  of  such  errors  as  were 
then  by  ignorant  preachers  spi*ead  amonff 
the  people,'*  and  this  determination  resulted 
in  the  publication  of  a  volume  of  sermons, 
fitted  to  be  delivered  by  preachers  whose 
ability  and  knowledge  were  not  equal  to  the 
task  of  writing  their  own  discourses  (1547). 
A  reprint  of  this  volume  appeared  in  1560. 
The  leading  writers  of  this  first  book  of 
Bomiliet  appear  to  have  been  Cranmer,  Hooper, 
and  Latimer,  but  one  or  two  of  the  sermons, 
at  least,  were  borrowed  from  earlier  publica- 
tions. The  second  book  of  Homiliee  was 
published  in  1563. 

SonduraSy  British,  situated  on  the 
east  coast  of  Central  America,  was  visited  by 
Columbus  in  1502,  and  was  for  many  years 
in  the   possession    of    Spain,  although  the 


(674) 


Boo 


GOAst  waM  freqaenfly  swept  by  English  bac- 
caneers,  and  a  few  English  colonists  were 
also  settled  there.  In  1670  the  Spaniards 
confirmed  Great  Britain*8  right  to  the 
Laguna  de  Terminos  and  the  parts  adjacent  in 
the  province  of  Yucatan,  those  places  having 
been  actually  in  possession  of  British  subjecte 
throuffh  right  of  sufferance  or  indulgence. 
But  despite  this  concession,  the  Spaniards 
some  fifty  years  later  (1717)  attempted  to 
deprive  the  English  of  all  share  in  the 
country,  and  a  desultory  war,  which  lasted 
forty  years,  was  the  result.  It  was  not  till 
1786  that  Honduras  finally  became  British 
territory ;  and  even  later  than  this  it  was,  in 
1796  and  subsequent  vears,  again  attacked  by 
the  Spaniards.  Honduras  was  at  first  a  de- 
pendency of  Jamaica,  and  was  governed  by  a 
superintendent  and  an  executive  council  of 
nine,  acting  under  the  Governor  of  Jamaica, 
by  whom  tiiey  were  appointed.  Besides  this 
executive  council  there  was  an  assembly 
elected  by  voters  possessed  of  £60  each.  In 
1861  it  was  made  a  colony,  though  still  sub- 
ordinate to  Jamaica,  from  which,  however,  it 
was  separated  in  1870. 


ofuii 


an  island  off  the  south- 
east coast  of  China,  was  occupied  by  the 
English  during  the  Chinese  War  of  1840,  and 
in  1842  was  formally  ceded  to  Great  Britain 
by  the  Treaty  of  Nankin.  Since  that  time 
the  colony  of  Hong-Kong  has  become  a 
centre  of  trade  and  a  na\'al  and  military 
station.  The  government  is  vested  in  a 
governor,  aided  by  an  executive  council  of 
six  members,  and  a  legislative  council  con- 
sisting of  six  official  and  five  uon-offidal 
members. 

KonorilUly  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(627 — 6*53),  was  one  of  the  companions  of 
Augnstine,  and  was  famous  for  ms  skill  in 
music.  On  the  death  of  Justus  he  succeeded 
to  the  archbishopric.  During  his  long  tenure 
of  office  he  saw  the  completion  of  the  conver- 
sion of  Northumbria  and  the  evangelisation 
of  Wessex  by  Birinus. 

Hook,  Ariihhithops  o/  Canttfrbicry. 

Konoiir.  The  term  honour  was  used  es- 
pecially <*  of  the  more  noble  sort  of  seigniories 
on  which  other  inferior  lordships  or  manors 
depend  by  performance  of  some  customs  or 
services  to  those  who  are  lords  of  them.** 
The  honour,  or  liberty,  was  one  of  the  great 
baronial  jurisdictions,  and  often  consisted  of 
many  manors.  Though  each  of  the  various 
manora  composing  the  honour  had  ito  own 
separate  jurisdiction,  yet  only  one  court  was 
held  for  Uie  whole ;  hence  the  rights  of  the 
honour  are,  in  the  main,  those  of  the  manor 
or  liberty.  From  the  later  Anglo-Saxon 
times  there  existed  large  "liberties,'*  whose 
jurisdiction  lay  outoide  that  of  the  hun- 
dred courts,  and  was  in  pri\'ate  hands. 
The  tenants  in  these  liberties  attended  the 
court  of  their  lord,  instead  of  the  hundred 


court,  and  were  judged  by  the  lord's  steward. 
The  greater  part  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
honours  seem  to  have  belonged  to  churches, 
but  the  thegn  possessing  five  hides  had  also  a 
right  of  judging  on  his  own  property.  In 
other  cases,  the  hundred  seems  to  have  fallen 
into  private  hands,  and,  under  these  circum- 
stances, would  be  practically  a  manor.  But 
exemption  fi'om  attending  the  hundred  court 
did  not  excuse  attendance  at  the  shire-moot. 
Under  the  Norman  kings,  the  number  of 
these  greater  franchises  or  honours  increased 
largely,  and  it  was  a  most  important  part  of 
the  work  of  Henry  I.  and  Henrx"  II.  to  force 
the  barons  to  admit  the  royal  officers  into  the 
privileged  courts.  The  above  remarks  apply 
equally  to  the  manor,  which  differed  from  an 
honour  mainly  in  that  the  latter  was  composed 
of  several  distinct  manors.  These  great 
honours,  when  they  escheated  into  the  hands 
of  the  crown,  were  not  generally  joined  on  to 
the  ordinary  county  administration,  but  were 
either  allowed  to  continue  in  the  possession 
of  the  king,  and  were  farmed  like  a  ahire,  or 
were  granted  out  again  as  an  hereditary  fief. 
But  even  if  reteined  in  the  king's  hands,  the 
tenants  of  the  honour  did  not,  according  to 
Dr.  Stubbs,  rank  as  tenants-in-chief  of  the 
crown ;  nor  was  the  kinff  justified  in  claim- 
ing dues  from  them  or  their  immediate  lord. 
In  later  years,  honours  were  often  created  by 
Act  of  ]^arliament,  ^.y.,  Ampthill,  Grafton, 
and  Hampton  Court,  by  33  Henry  YIII. 
Again,  four  years  later,  Henry  VIIL  was 
empowered  to  make  Westminster  and  King- 
ston-on-Hull  honours  if  he  would. 

T.   Ciumingliain,   Law  Didimiary:    Stabti, 

Koody     Samubl,     Viscount     {b.     1724, 
d.  1816),  entered  the  Koyal  Navy  in  1740. 
In     1754,    he    was    in    the    command    of 
a   sloop    stetioned  at  the  Bahama  Islands. 
Several  years  later  he  served  under  Rodney  in 
the  bombardment  of  Ha^Te,  and  passed  the 
four  years  which  preceded  the  Peace  of  Paris 
in  duty  off  the  coast  of  Ireland,  and  in  the 
Meditenanean.   In  the  course  <^  the  next 
twenty  years  he  was  created  a  baronet,  177S, 
and  later  was  appointed  rear-admiral,  with  toe 
command  of  a  squadron  of  eight  ships  which 
was  being  sent  to   reinforce  Rodney  in  the 
West  Indies,  1 780.  On  Rodney  sailing  away  to 
England  with  a  laiige  convoy.  Hood  was  left 
in  command  of  the  fieet  off  the   Leeward 
Islands.    On  learning  that  De  Grasse  had 
sailed  to  America,  H<x>d  hastened  after  hinif 
and  a  partial  engagement  occurred  between 
the  French  and  Englidi  fleets.     Again  De 
Grasse  sailed  for  the  West  Indies,  and  was 
followed  by  Hood, whobaffled  for  some  time  the 
combined  efforts  of  the  French  fleet  and  army 
to  teke  possession  of  the  island  of  St.  CSiris- 
topher*s.    The  island  at  length  capitulated, 
and  Hood  sailed  away  unmolested  to  join 
Rodney  at  Barbadoes.    On  April  9, 1782,  Sir 
Samuel  Hood,  in  command  of  the  adrsoced 


Vfc 


Xoo 


(575) 


Bquadvcm,  conBiitaiig  of  eigbt  ahipi,  came  np 
with  the  French,  and  was  at  onoe  vigorooBly 
attacked  by  fifteen  French  ahipa ;  but  so  ably 
did  he  fight  his  soihU  detachment,  that  on 
Bodney*s  aniTal  with  the  oentn  squadron, 
De  Grasae  sailed  away.  The  next  two  days 
were  occupied  in  a  chase;  but  on  the  12th 
Hodney  managed  to  bring  the  French  fleet  to 
an  engagement  off  the  north-west  comer  of 
Dominica.  Hood*s  division  was  engaged  with 
the  French  van,  and  the  contest  was  main- 
tained with  much  obstinacy  and  spirit,  until 
the  Ville  de  FarU,  De  Grasse*s  ship,  struck  to 
the  Barjleury  the  flagship  of  Hood.  Hood  was 
rewarded  for  this  victory  by  tbe  title  of  Baron 
Hood  in  tho  peerage  of  Ireland.  On  the  con- 
clusion of  peace  he  returned  home,  and  in 
May,  1784,  was  returned  as  M.P.  for  West- 
minster. In  1786  he  was  appointed  port 
admiral  at  Portsmouth,  and  two  years  later 
was  constituted  one  of  the  commissioners  for 
executing  the  office  of  Lord  High  Admiral. 
In  1793  he  was  appointed  vice-admiral  of 
the  red,  and  was  at  once  ordered  to  the  Medi- 
terranean as  commander-in-chief,  with  the 
object  of  taking  possession  of  Toulon.  After 
a  siege  of  two  months  this  town  was  reduced. 
At  the  end  of  1764  He  was  appointed  Gk>vemor 
of  Greenwich  Hospital,  being  soon  afterwards 
raised  to  the  Finglish  peerage  with  the  title  of 
Viscount  Hood  (1796).  He  survived  his  ele- 
vation nearly  twenty  years. 

Allen,  VavaJL  BoiiUt;  Lodg«,  Portraits. 

KoopeTf  John  (6.  1475,  d,  1554),  at  first 
a  Cistercian  monk,  became,  during  the  reiffn 
of  Edward  VI.,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
Reformation,  and  acquired  great  fame  as  a 
preacher.  In  1550  he  was  made  Bishop  of 
Gloucester,  though  for  some  time  he  refused 
to  enter  upon  his  office,  owing  to  his  objection 
to  obey  any  spiritual  authority  but  the  Scrip- 
ture^ or  to  wear  the  episcopal  dress.  In  1552 
he  received  the  bishopric  of  Worcester  in 
eommendam^  and  ''  by  his  activity,  his 
fervid  declamation,  and  his  bold  though  in- 
tem^rate  zeal,  deserved  the  applause  and 
gratitude  of  the  well-wishers  to  the  new  doc- 
trines.'' On  the  accession  of  3£ary,  Hooper 
was  at  once  marked  out  as  a  victim,  was 
ejected  from  his  see,  and  imprisoned  in 
the  Fleet,  September,  1553.  In  the  beginning 
of  1555  he  was  condemned  for  heresy,  and 
sent  to  Gloucester,  where  he  was  burnt  on 
Feb.  9.  *<  His  charities,"  says  Professor 
Tytler,  *'  were  extensive  auod  unwearied ;  his 
hospitality  generous  and  noble,  his  manners 
simple,  his  piety  unaffected  and  profound.** 

Foxevlfartyn;  Lingard, /flat.  o/£»o. ;  Fronde, 
HiA,  (mT  EtLq,;  Tytter,  Hut,  <tf  Bng,  muUr 
Bdwurd  YL,  Mary,  and  Blixabtih. 

Kooker,  Richabd  (5.  1553,  d.  1600),  the 
author  of  the  famous  £eele$uutical  Polity,  was 
educated  at  Oxford,  where  he  remained  until 
^84.  In  the  following  year  he  became 
Master  of  tho  Temple,  and  was  involved  in  a 


ooatroversy  with  Travers,  a  Konoonforniisty 
in  which  he  was  vigorously  supported  b^'  his 
friends  Archbishop  Whitgift  and  Bishop 
Sandvs.  .  Travers  was  suspended,  and  **  to 
justify  his  suspension  we  are  in  possession 
of  Hooker's  immortal  work,"  which  has 
gained  for  him  the  epithet  of  *' judicious.*' 
The  Eceleaiattieal  Polity  has  other  claims  to 
remembrance  besides  its  literary  excellence. 
It  is  in  reality  a  defence  of  the  Church  of 
England  as  then  established;  and  in  the 
course  of  his  argument  Hooker  has  to  deal 
with  those  principles  which,  underlying 
the  Puritan  doctrines,  were  at  that  time 
forcing  their  way  into  such  prominence.  He 
first  of  all  inquires  into  the  nature  of  law, 
and  finds  that  it  is  divided  into  two  distinct 
sections — laws  immutable  and  kws  variable ; 
and  then  applies  the  touchstone  of  criticism 
to  decide  to  which  category  the  various  texts 
of  Scripture  belong.  The  extreme  Puritans, 
who  would  have  borrowed  even  their  criminal 
jurisprudence  from  the  pages  of  the  Old 
Testament,  are  met  at  the  threshold  by 
Hooker's  challenge.  Passing  on  from  general 
to  particular  points,  he  comes  to  the  burning 
question  of  episcopacy ;  and  here,  though  ad- 
hering to  the  belief  that  this  form  of  Qinrch 
government  is  to  be  found  in  the  Scriptures, 
he  bases  his  chief  argument  on  the  fact  that 
no  special  form  of  ecclesiastical  rule  is  laid 
down  in  its  pages  as  being  absolutely  binding 
on  all  nations.  The  varying  circumstances 
of  different  peoples  will,  he  argues,  lead  them 
to  form  a  mode  of  discipline  fitted  to  their 
necessities.  It  is  hardly  necessary  in  this  place 
to  draw  attention  to  his  theories  of  secular 
government,  and  of  the  king's  limited  power, 
widely  as  they  differed  from  the  notions  gene- 
rally upheld  by  the  CSiurch  party  in  the  en^ 
suing  reigns. 

Eebls's  edition  of  the  JSeeknaitieal  Poitty. 

Kopton.  Si&  Ralph,  afterwards  Lord 
(d,  16o2)7fint  distinguished  himself  in  the 
wars  of  the  Low  Countries.  On  the  outbreak 
of  the  Civil  War  he  was  sent  into  the  western 
parts  of  England  to  assist  in  forming  an 
army  for  the  king.  His  success  in  Cornwall 
was  complete.  In  1643  he  defeated  Sir  W. 
Waller  at  the  battle  of  Lansdowne,  but  was 
himself  severely  wounded.  In  the  same  year 
diaries  I.  appointed  him  Gk)vemor  of  Bristol 
and  created  him  Baron  Hopton.  Next  year, 
after  taking  Winchester,  he  was  defeated  at 
Abesford  by  Sir  W.  Waller  with  Haselrig's 
'*  Lobsters,"  and  was  appointed  a  member  of 
the  Prince  of  Wales's  council  at  Bristol.  In 
1646  he  was  routed  by  Sir  T.  Faurfax  at  the 
battle  of  Torrington,  after  which  disaster  he 
dissolved  his  army  and  withdrew  to  the  Scilly 
Islands,  and  subsequently  to  the  Continent. 
He  died  at  Bruges. 


^,  The,  were  an  ancient  British 

tribe  occupying  the  modem  counties  of  Clack- 
mannan, Kinross,  and  Fife,  with  the  eastern 


(576) 


B<m 


part  of  Stratheme,  and  the  oofintry  to  the 
west  of  the  Tay. 


(d,  eirea  465)  is  said  to  havo  been 
the  brother  of  Uengest,  whom  he  aooom- 
panied  in  his  expedition  to  Britain,  where, 
according  to  tradition,  he  was  slain  in  the 
battle  of  A^esford  (455).  The  town  of 
Horstead,  in  Kent,  is  said  to  derive  its  name 
from  him,  and  a  barrow  in  the  neighbourhood 
is  pointed  out  as  the  tomb  of  Horsa.  The 
very  existence  of  Horsa  has  been  questioned 
of  late  years,  and  his  name  has  been  made  to 
be  no  more  than  a  representation  of  the  steed 
which  has  so  Idng  figured  on  the  standard  of 
Kent.  But  his  name  occurs  more  than  onoe 
in  the  Anglo-Saxon  ChronieU^  and  there  is  no 
reason  why  he  should  not  have  been  a  real 
historical  character,  even  though  his  name  bears 
the  signification' attributed  to  it.    [Hbnoest.] 

KospitallerSy  The  Knights,  or  Bbb- 
TH&EN  OF  St.  John  at  JerusalsMi  were 
one  of  the  two  militaxy  orders  of  Crusaders. 
They  derived  their  name  *'  from  their 
hospital  built  at  Jerusalem  for  the  use 
of  pilgrims  coming  to  the  Holy  Land,  and 
dedicated  to  St.  John  Baptist.*  The  order 
was  instituted  about  the  year  1092,  but  Uiey 
do  not  seem  to  have  had  a  house  in  London 
till  the  year  1 100.  They  were  much  favoured 
by  the  first  two  Kings  of  Jerusalem,  Godfrey 
of  Boulogne  and  Baldwin,  and  in  England 
soon  acquired  large  possessions.  The  superior 
in  England  became  in  process  of  time  a  lay 
baron,  and  had  a  seat  among  the  lords  in 
Parlisiment.  They  had  numerous  manors 
scattered  over  different  counties  in.  England. 
Each  settlement  of  Hospitallers  was  under 
the  rule  of  a  commander,  who  answered  to 
the  preceptors  of  the  Templars.  They  were 
followers  of  St.  Augustine's  rule,  and  wore  a 
black  habit,  with  a  white  cross  upon  it.  Their 
chief  establishment  in  England  was  the  Hos- 
pital of  St.  John,  at  Glerkenwell,  founded  by 
Jordan  Briset,  about  1 1 00.  Its  revenue  at  the 
time  of  the  Keformation  seems  to  have  beenbe- 
ween  £2,000  and  £3,000.  Other  commanderies 
of  this  order  were  at  Beverley  (Yorkshire)  and 
Warwick.  In  Dugdale*s  Monasticon  (edit 
1839)  more  than  fifty  others  are  enumerated. 

DDgdale.  Mowuiioon;  TKoner,  Notitia  Jfonot- 
fiba;  Porter,  Hid.  itf  th*  Knighta  of  MaUa; 
Knight$Ho9pUiM0irtiH  England  (Camden  Soc.), 

Kotham,  John  i>b  {d.  1336),  was  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer  in  Ireland  in  the 
second  year  of  Edward  II.,  and  in  1311  is 
found  as  guardian  of  Gravestones  houses  in 
London.  Next  year  he  was  made  Chancellor 
of  the  Exchequer  in  England,  and  in  1313 
was  sent  on  a  mission  to  France.  Two 
yean  later  he  was  despatched  to  Ireland  for 
the  purpose  of  inducing  the  barons  there  to 
make  a  stand  against  Edward  Bruce.  In 
1318  he  was  appointed  Chancellor,  and  con* 
tinned  to  hold  the  Qreat  Seal  till  January, 


1320.  Some  four  years  before  this  last  date 
(1816),  he  had  been  elected  Bishop  of  Ely. 
On  the  accession  of  Edward  III.  he  was  once 
more  made  Chancellor,  but  was  struck  with 
paralysis  some  two  years  before  his  deaths 
which  happened  in  1336. 

Kotham,  Sir  John  {d,  1645),  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  attack  on  the  Earl  of 
Strafford,  naving  some  personal  grudge 
against  that  statesman.  In  the  debate  upon 
the  Remonstrance  he  sided  with  Hyde  [Cla- 
rendon]. Next  year  (1642)  Hotham  was 
despatched  by  the  Parliament  to  take  com- 
mand of  Hull  and  secure  the  large  magazines 
of  that  important  town  for  the  popular  party. 
When  Charles  demanded  admittance  to  this 
fortress  Hotham  refused  him,  and  the  Fto- 
liament  approved  the  conduct  of  their  officer. 
But  he  was  not  entirely  in  the  confidence  of 
his  employers,  who  sent  his  son  to  play  the 
spy  upon  his  father's  movements.  Unfortu- 
nately, when  Lord  Digby  fell  into  their 
hands.  Sir  John  allowed  his  honour  to  be 
tampered  with,  and  promised  to  deliver  up 
the  town  on  the  first  shot  fired  against  it  by 
the  king's  army.  Accordingly  Hotham  per- 
mitted Digby  to  depart  for  the  purpose  of 
carrying  the  news  to  York,%ut  soon  found 
out  that  he  had  no  power  to  achieve  his  pur- 
pose. A  little  later  both  Sir  John  Hotham 
and  his  son  were  executed  for  treasonable 
correspondence  with  the  Marquis  of  New- 
castle (January,  1646),  and  died  leaving  on 
men's  minds  the  impression  that  had  it  not 
been  for  their  weakness,  the  Parliament 
would  have  become  the  absolute  masters  of 
the  whole  of  Yorkshire. 

Kotspnr.    [Ps&cT,  Henry.] 

Koughers,  The,  made  their  first  ap- 
pearance in  Connemara  in  the  winter  of  1711. 
They  consisted  of  anned  parties,  disguised  by 
white  sheets,  and  spread  over  Kayo,  Sligo, 
Roscommon,  Oalwav,  and  dare,  slaughtering 
and  **  houghing  "  the  cattle,  from  which  last 
Xmctioe  they  derived  their  name.  Notices 
were  posted  up,  signed  by  *'  Captain  Evan," 
bidding  the  shepherds  remain  indoors.  None 
of  the  Houghers,  who  were  evidently  directed 
by  men  of  birth  and  education,  had  been 
apprehended,  when  a  government  proclama- 
tion  was  issued,  promising  a  free  pardon  to 
all  who  would  confess.  Upon  this,  sixteen 
young  gentlemen  belonging  to  the  best 
Catholic  families,  came  forward  in  Galway, 
and  by  the  end  of  1718  the  movement  had 
ceased.  It  is  difficult  to  decide  whether  it 
was  merely  intended  to  check  cattle-farming 
and  Protestantism,  or  whether  it  had  a 
Jacobite  origin :  but,  in  any  case  ,the  priests 
do  not  appear  to  have  been  implicated  in  the 
disturbance.  Afterwards,  the  Houghers  were 
identified  with  the  Whiteboys  (q.v.).  In 
1783  the  Houghers  directed  their  efforts 
against  soldiers,  and  a  bill  was  passed  against 
them  in  1784. 


Hon 


(677) 


Kow 


Konseoarls,  Tub,  or  Thinoaxbn  {ffus 
carls)  J  were  a  body-guard  formed  by  Canute 
from  the  remains  of  the  f om- wikings,  who,  after 
the  battle  in  which  these  pirates*  power  was 
broken,  came  to  England,  under  Thurkill  the 
Tall,  and  took  Canterbury.  Canute  organised 
them  into  two  bodies,  of  about  2,000  men 
each,  picked  soldiers,  from  all  lands  under  his 
rule.  "This  force,"  says  Mr.  Freeman, 
'*  was,  in  fact,  a  revival  of  the  earliest  form 
of  the  primitive  Comitatus,  only  more 
thoroughly  and  permanently  organised;  re- 
ceiving regular  pay,  and  reinforced  by  volun- 
teers of  aJl  kinds  and  of  all  nations,  they 
doubtless  gradually  departed  from  the  higher 
type  of  Comitatus,  and  approached  more 
nearly  to  the  level  of  ordinary'  mercenaries. 
They  were,  in  fact,  the  germ  of  a  standing 
army,  an  institution  which  later  kings  and 
^reat  earls,  English  as  well  as  Danish,  found 
it  to  their  interest  to  continue.*'  The  English 
king's  Housecarls  were  almost  exterminated 
at  the  battles  of  Stamford  Bridge  and  Senlac. 

KoTedeiiy  Rooea  op  {d,  eirea  1201),  one 
of  the  most  valuable  of  our  early  chroni- 
clers, was  probably  a  native  of  Howden,  in 
the  East  Riding  of  Yorkshire.  He  may  have 
been  introduced  to  public  life  by  Bishop  Huff h 
de  Puiset,  of  Durham ;  but,  in  any  case,  he 
was  employed  in  the  king's  service  by  1174, 
for  in  this  year  we  find  him  in  attendance  on 
Henry  II.  in  France.  Next  year  Henry  sent 
him  into  Oalloway,  to  induce  the  princes  of 
Galloway  to  acknowledge  the  King  of  England 
as  their  lord.  A  few  years  later  Roger  was 
employed  in  the  monastic  elections  of  1185, 
and  in  1189  was  justice  itinerant  for  the 
forests  ia.  the  north  of  England,  from  which 
time  he  is  lost  sight  of.  Dr.  Stubbs  has 
divided  the  Chronicle  of  Roger  Hoveden  into 
four  parts  : — ^part  1  comes  down  to  1148,  part 
2  extends  from  1149  to  1169,  3  from  1170  to 
1192,  4  from  1192  to  1201.  Of  these  four 
diyi«ions,  the  same  authority  remarks  that  part 
\  \&^  copy  of  an  earlier  Durham  compilation, 
to  which  he  has  made  a  few  additions ;  part 
2  ip  Hoveden's  own  narrative,  but  is  largely 
indebtod  to  the  Melrose  Chronicle^  and  is  by 
no  TTcans  free  from  chronological  errors; 
part  3  is  a  revision,  or,  raUier,  a  new 
edition,  of  the  CkronielCy  that  goes  by  the 
name  of  Benedict  of  Peterhorougky  to  which, 
however,  Roger  hais  added  some  important 
documents;  part  4  appears  to  have  been 
Hoveden's  own  work,  and  is  of  special  value 
for  the  time  of  which  it  treats.  Hoveden  has 
been  edited,  with  invaluable  prefaces,  by  Dr. 
Stubbs  for  the  Rolls  Series. 

Stubbfl,  Introd.  in  the  Kolls  Editioii;  Sir  J. 
D.  Hardy,  Descnplive  Qaialog\u, 

,Kowardy  Thb  Family  of.  According  to 
Sir  Bernard  Burke,  the  family  of  Howard 
was  established  in  Norfolk  in  the  tenth 
century.  In  the  fifteenth  century  Sir  Robeit 
Howard  married  Margaret,  daughter  of 
HiaT.-19 


Thomas  Mowbray,  Duke  of  Norfolk  (who 
was  descended  from  Thomas  of  Brotheirton, 
son  of  King  Edward  1.),  and  of  Elizabeth, 
daughter  and  heiress  of  Richard  Fitzalan, 
Earl  of  Arundel.  Thus  the  estates  of  the 
Mowbrays  and  Fitzalans  came  into  possession 
of  the  Howards.  In  1470  Sir  John  Howard, 
son  of  this  Sir  Robert,  was  created  Lord 
Howard,  and  in  1483  Earl  Marshal  and  Duke 
of  Norfolk.  AmoDg  other  peerages  in  this 
family  are  those  of  Howard^e-Walden 
(created  1697),  Howard  of  Glossop  (1869), 
Carlisle  (1661),  Effingham  (1564),  Suffolk 
(1603). 

Howard,  Sik  Edward  {d.  1613),  was  the 
son  of  Thomas  Howard,  Earl  of  Surrey  and 
second  Duke  of  Norfolk,  the  victor  of  Flodden. 
Occupying  the  position  of  Lord  High  Admiral 
of  Engluid,  he  distinguished  himself  on 
several  occasions.  In  1610,  supported  by  his 
brother,  Sir  Thomas  Howard,  as  a  subordinate 
officer  in  his  fleet,  he  killed  the  Scotch 
privateer,  Andrew  Barton,  and  captured  two 
of  his  ships.  In  1612,  on  his  return  from 
Spain,  where  he  had  conducted  the  English 
forces,  under  the  Marqtds  of  Dorset,  Sir 
Edward  Howard  captured  manv  F^fench 
merchantmen,  and  made  several  destructive 
descents  on  the  French  coast.  Having  refitted 
at  Southampton,  and  being  reinforced  by  a 
further  squadron  of  twenty-five  sail,  he  en- 
gaged with  a  French  fleet  of  thirty-nine  sail 
near  Brest,  on  Aug.  10.  Victory  once  again 
inclined  to  the  side  of  the  English,  but  a 
complete  triumph  was  prevented  by  the  dismay 
occasioned  to  both  tiie  contending  parties 
upon  the  conflagration  of  the  two  largest 
ships  on  each  side,  the  Begent  and  the  Corde^ 
licTf  whose  entire  crews,  to  the  number  of 
1,700  men,  perished  in  the  flames.  In  1613 
Sir  Edward  Howard  was  killed  in  an  attempt 
to  destroy  the  French  fleet  near  Brest  (Apnl 
26).  He  was  succeeded  in  his  office  of  Lord 
High  Admiral  by  his  brother.  Sir  Thomas 
Howard,  who  became  in  later  yeara  the  third 
Duke  of  Norfolk. 

Howard  of  Effingham,  William,  Lohd 
(^.  1673),  was  the  son  of  Thomas,  second 
Duke  of  Norfolk,  Marshal  of  England. 
On  the  charge  of  concealing  the  incontinence 
of  his  niece,  Catherine  Hov\ard,  Lord  William 
was  declared  guilty  of  misprision  of  treason, 
and  condemned  to  perpetual  imprisonment. 
He  soon,  however,  recovered  his  liberty, 
and  was,  imder  Henry  Vlll.  and  Edward  VI., 
employed  on  various  diplomatic  missions, 
the  most  important  of  which  was  one  to  tho 
Czar  of  Muscovy,  in  1553.  Soon  after  Mary's 
accession  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  and 
made  Lord  High  Admiral  of  England.  In 
1554  he  greatly  distinguished  himself  in 
crushing  the  Kentish  rebellion,  and  suc- 
cessfully prevented  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt  from 
entering  London.  It  was  owing  to  his  in- 
fluence as  head  of  the  naval  power  of  Eng- 


Bow 


(  678  ) 


Bow 


li^id,  that  Gardiner  found  it  expedient  not  to 
press  the  charge  against  Elizabeth  of  being 
implicated  in  Wyatt's  rebellion ;  and  through- 
out the  whole  reign  of  Mary  ho  exercised  a 
constant  watch  over  the  princess,  by  whom, 
after  her  accession,  he  was  created  Lord  Cham- 
berlain and  Lord  Privy  Seal,  as  a  reward  for 
his  devotion.  In  1559  he  was  sent  as  com- 
missioner to  Cambrai,  in  conjunction  with 
Dr.  Wotton  and  the  Bishop  of  Ely,  and 
subsequently  did  his  best  to  bring  about  the 
marriage  of  the  queen  with  the  Archduke 
Charles  of  Austria. 

Fronde,  Hist,  of  Eng, ;  Tytler|  England  under 
Bdvard  VI.,  Mary,  and  Elttaheth;  Aikin, 
Mtmoirs  of  tht  Court  of  Queen  SlizaJbelh, 

Boward  of  Effingham,  Charles,  Lord 
(b.  1536,  d.  1624),  was  the  son  of  William, 
Lord  Howard  of  EflKngham,  and  grandson 
of  the  second  Duke  of  Norfolk.  In  the 
year  1569  he  held  a  command  in  the  roj^al 
army  during  the  Northern  rebellion,  and, 
in  1587,  ver)'  strongly  advised  the  execution 
of  the  Queen  of  Scots.  In  1585,  although 
a  Catholic,  he  was  appointed  Lord  High 
Admiral  of  England,  and  had  command 
of  the  fleet  during  the  alarm  of  the  Spanish 
Armada,  his  resolution  and  bravery  being 
conspicuous  throughout  the  crisis.  In  1596 
he  was  associated  with  the  Earl  of  Essex 
in  the  expedition  against  Cadiz,  and  was 
created  Earl  of  Nottingham  as  a  reward 
for  his  services.  In  1601  ho  was  instrumental 
in  suppressing  the  insurrection  of  Essex, 
with  whom  ne  had  quarrelled  after  the 
Spanish  expedition.  Under  James,  LoitL 
Howard  continued  to  hold  his  office  as  ad- 
miral, and  filled  the  post  of  Lord  High 
Stewsird  at  the  coronation.  Though  without 
very  great  experience  or  commanding  ability. 
Lord  Howard  was  fairly  successful.  He  had 
some  naval  skill,  and  was  both  bold  and  pru- 
dent. He  knew  whose  advice  to  follow,  and 
was  very  popular  in  the  navy.  [Armada.] 
Lingaxd,  HM.  qfEng. ;  Froude,  Hut.  of  Eng. 

Bowairdy  Lord  William  (d.  1640),  was 
the  second  son  of  Thomas,  fourth  Duke  of 
Norfolk,  and  ancestor  of  the  Earls  of  Carlisle. 
He  was  suspected  of  being  implicated  in 
Francis  Throgmorton*s  plot,  1583,  but, 
though  he  was  arrested,  no  proof  of  his  com- 
plicity could  be  obtained.  Having  become 
lord  of  Naworth  Castle  in  right  of  his  wife, 
he  was  made  Warden  of  the  Western  Mai*ches. 

Boward  of  Escrick,  Edward,  Lord  {J, 
1675),  was  the  seventh  son  of  Thomas  Howard, 
Earl  of  Suffolk,  and  was  created  Baron 
Howard  of  Escrick,  in  Yorkshire,  1628.  He 
sided  with  the  Parliament  throughout  the 
Civil  War,  and,  after  the  abolition  of  the 
House  of  Lords,  consented  to  become  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Commons,  where  he  represented 
Carlisle;  he  also  became  a  member  of  the 
Council  of  State.  In  July,  1650,  he  was 
accused  by  l^Iajor-General  Harrison  of  taking 


bribes  from  wealthy  delinquents.  A  year  later 
he  was  convicted,  expelled  from  the  House, 
sentenced  to  be  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  and 
to  pay  a  fine  of  £10,000.  He  was  soon  re- 
leased, and  the  fine  was  not  exacted,  but  he 
took  no  further  part  in  public  afEairs. 

Boward^  John  (6.  1726,  d,  1790),  a 
distinguish^  philanthropist,  was  bom  in 
London,  and  after  being  for  some  time 
apprenticed  to  a  grocer,  travelled  over 
Europe.  In  1756  he  undertook  a  voyage  to 
Lisbon,  but  on  the  way  was  captured  b^  a 
French  priN'ateer,  and  was  for  a  short  time 
held  in  captivity.  In  1773  his  attention  was 
directed  to  the  state  of  the  English  prisons, 
and  he  visited  most  of  the  countries  of  the 
Continent  to  examine  their  prisons.  In  1777, 
lie  published  The  State  of  the  Frieons  in 
England  and  Walee,  which  had  the  effect  of 
drawing  public  attention  to  the  abuses  which 
prevailed,  and  ultimately  leading  to  great 
reforms.  He  died  at  Kherson  while  prose- 
cuting researches  into  the  plague. 

Boward  ▼.  Qossett,  Case  of.  ^Ir. 
Howard,  who  had  been  Stockdale*s  solicitor 
in  his  action  against  Messrs.  Hansard  in 
1839  and  1840,  brought  an  action  against  the 
officers  of  the  House  of  Coqimons,  who  had 
taken  him  into  custody,  and  obtained  a  ver- 
dict for  £100.  He  then  obtained  a  second 
verdict  against  Sir  W.  Grossett,  the  Sergeant- 
at-Arms,  on  the  ground  that  the  Speaker's 
warrant  was  informal.  The  question  was 
once  more  brought  before  the. Court  of  Ex- 
chequer, and  here  the  verdict  of  the  lower 
court  was  reversed.  The  case  forms  a  con- 
stitutional precedent  of  some  importance.  As 
Sir  Erskine  May  points  out,  **  The  act  of  the 
officer  and  not  the  authority  of  the  House  itself 
was  questioned." 

May,  Contt,  Biei. 

Bowe,  John  {b.  1630,  d,  1705),  Puritan 
divine,  a  native  of  Loughborough.  After  his 
appointment  to  the  living  of  Great  Torring- 
ton  in  1652,  and  while  on  a  visit  to  London, 
he  attracted  the  notice  of  Cromwell,  who 
made  him  his  domestic  chaplain.  He  was 
also  appointed  Lecturer  at  St.  Margaret's, 
Westminster.  At  the  Restoration  ho  returned 
to  Torrington,  but  was  ejected  by  the  Act  of 
Uniformity,  and  became  a  Nonconformist 
minister  in  London.  He  was  an  erudite  and 
eloquent  preacher,  and  was  universally  es- 
teemed for  his  liberality  and  piety. 

Bowe,  John  (d.  1721),  was  returned  as 
member  for  Cirencester  to  the  Convention  of 
1689,  having  previously  been  known  as  the 
author  of  some  savage  lampoons.  He  was 
appointed  Vice-Chamberlain  to  Queen  Mary. 
He  proved  himself  a  zealous  Whig,  and  pro- 
pose sending  Dutch  troops  to  suporess  a 
Scotch  regiment,  which  had  mutiniea  when 
ordered  to  the  Continent.    He  attacked  Car- 


Kow 


(679) 


marthen  and  Halifax,  demanding  that  they 
should  be  removed  from  the  king's  councils, 
but  without  effect.  He  was  dismissed  from 
his  office  in  1693,  apparently  for  imagining 
that  Queen  Mary  was  in  love  with  hinu 
From  this  time  he  displayed  the  most  ranco- 
rous hatred  against  the  queen  and  her  hus- 
band, and  moved  the  impeachment  of  Burnet 
for  writing  an  obnoxious  pastoral  lelter. 
Shortly  afterwards  he  became  a  Tory,  and  a 
zealous  advocate  for  peace.  In  1702  he  re- 
ceived the  office  of  Joint  Paymaster  of  the 
Forces.  He  moved  without  success  that  the 
Prince  of  Denmark  should  have  the  enormous 
income  of  £100,000  a  year  on  the  death  of 
Queen  Anne.  Howe  was  sworn  of  the  Privy 
Council  in  1708,  but  on  the  accession  of 
George  I.  he  was  dismissed  from  his  offices, 
and  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  retire- 
ment. 

Macanlay,  Hid.  ofEng. ;  Banke,  BiilL  oS  Sng. ; 
Stanhope,  Rrign  of  Queen  Anne. 

Kowe,  Richard,  Ikt  Eaul   {b,  1722,  d. 
1799),  a  third  son  of  the  second  Viscount 
Howe,  entered  the  navy  at  the  age  of  four- 
teen, and  was  employed  under  Lord  Anson. 
After  serving  for  some  time  in  the  West 
Indies  he  was  appointed  commander  of   a 
sloop  in  1745.     In  1748  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land, and  spent    three    years    in   studying 
navigation  and  tactics.     He  was  then  ap- 
pointed to  perform  a  semi-diplomatio  mission 
m  the  MecQterranean,  and  executed  it  with 
great  skill  and  judgment.    In   1764,  while 
attached  to  Bo0cawen*s  fleet,  he  captured  a 
French    ship.      Three    years    later   he  was 
returned  to  Parliament  for  Dartmouth,  and 
in    the    following  year    made  himself  con- 
spicuous in  Hawke's  attacks  on  the  French 
coast,  and  in  the  same  year  succeeded  to  the 
family  title  and  estates  on  the  death  of  his 
brother.   Viscount    Howe.      Once   more   he 
distinguished  himself  at  the  action  in  Qui- 
beron  Bay  in  1759.    During  the  American 
War  he  was  employed  on  t^t  station ;  but 
his  force  was  so  small  and  ill  provided  that 
he  could   effect  little  or  nothing.     On  his 
return  to  England  in  1782,  he  was  at  once 
despatched  to  the  relief  of  Gibraltar,  a  ser- 
vice which  he  accomplished  in  spite  of  the 
superior    number    of   the  enemy.     On    his 
return  in  1783  he  was  appointed  First  Com- 
missioner   of    the    Admiralty,  and,    except 
during     the     short     Coalition    administra- 
tion, held  that    post  until   1788,  when  he 
resigned  and  was  created  an  earl.     In  1793, 
when  the  war  with  France  broke  out,  Lord 
Howe  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
Channel  Fleet.     On  Mav  2,  1794,  he  sailed 
from  8t.  Helens,   and  on  June  1   gained  a 
decisive  victorj-  over  the  French.    Honours 
were  heaped  upon  him ;  and  on  the  outbreak 
of  the  mutiny  in  the  fleet  in  1797,  Lord  Howe 
was  armed  with  full  powers  to  restore  order 
in  the  navy.  To  effect  &is  purpose  he  exercised 
«o  much  moderation,  firmness,  and  tact,  that 


he  soon  brought  back  the  sailors  to  their 

allegiance.     As  a  commander,   Lord  Ho^e 

has  been  accused  of  being  too  ctiutious ;  as  a 

man,  however,  he  seems  to  have  had  many 

estimable  qualities. 

James,  If  aval  Sid.;    Allen,  BattUs    of  the 
British  Navy, 

Howe.  Sir  William  {d.  1814),  brother 
ol  Earl  Howe,  was  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  English  army  in  America  in 
1775.  Acting  in  this  capacity  ho  won  the  battle 
of  Bunker  Hill  (1775),  and  took  New  York 
(1776).  Next  year  he  defeated  the  enemy  at 
Brandy  wine  Biver  and  occupied  Philadelphia, 
but  was  re-called  in  1778  at  his  own  request. 

Kowel  Dlia  (Howel  the  Good)  was  the 
most  famous  of  the  early  Welsh  kings  {reigned 
915 — 948).  He  was  the  son  of  Cadell  and  the 
grandson  of  Bhodri  Mawr.  Howel  seems  to 
have  had  a  vag^e  sort  of  overlordship  over 
North  Wales,  whose  chief  king  was  his  cousin, 
Idwal  Foel.  Later  writers  have  spoken  of  him 
as  king  of  all  Wales;  but  he  at  most  possessed 
over  his  contemporary  princes  the  authority 
of  superior  ability  and  power.  He  never  dis- 
puted the  West  Saxon  overlordship,  and  in 
922  accepted  Edward  the  Elder  as  **  father 
and  lord.  He  seems  to  have  attended  the 
English  witenagemots,  attested  charters,  and 
there  is  ground  for  the  belief  that  he 
joined  the  expedition  of  Edmund  against 
Cumbria  in  946.  Howel  is  most  famous 
for  his  collectibn  of  Welsh  laws  and  cus- 
toms, which  he  made  at  a  great  gathering 
of  Welsh  prelates  and  princes  at  his  hunt- 
ing lodge,  near  Whitland,  in  Carmarthen- 
shire, known  as  T>'  Gwyn  ar  Daf.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  aided  by  Blegywryd, 
the  first  scholar  of  his  time,  and  to  have 
taken  the  laws  in  person  to  Rome  to  obtain 
papal  sanction  (926).  But  the  "  Book  of  the 
Wliite  House  *'  is  no  longer  extant,  and  the 
bulky  codes  which  now  go  by  the  name  of 
the  Laws  of  Howel  Dha  can  only  in  their 
present  form  be  referred  back  to  the  eleventh 
or  twelfth  century-,  though  doubtless  based  on 
earlier  collections.  They  comprise  three 
varying  laws  belonging  to  the  districts  ol 
Gw^'nedd,  Powys,  and  Dyfed  respectively. 
They  bear  laige  traces  of  English  influence, 
and,  though  largely  occupied  with  minute 
details  of  flnes  and  court  duties,  are  very 
valuable  sources  of  information.  Howel  died 
in  948,  and  the  peace  which  seems  to  have 
attended  his  power  died  with  him.  ''He 
was,"  says  the  native  chronicler,  "  the  wisest 
and  justest  of  all  Welsh  princes,  greatly 
loved  by  everj'  Welshman  and  by  the  wise 
among  the  Saxons." 

The  Latrt  of  Hovctl  Dha  were  first  printed 
by  Wotton,  and  afterwards  more  completely 
and  accurately  edited  by  Mr.  Aneurin  Owen  in 
the  Kecord  ComxnisBion's  Ancient  Lavct  and 
IndiMw  of  Wale* :  Brut  y  Tptri/ao^ion  ;  Gvo^ntian 
Brut ;  Annalee  Camhriat :  Liber  Lavdaven^ie  ; 
WUlioma.  Hietory  of  WaXee.  [T.  F.  T.] 


Kow 


(  680  ) 


Kim 


Howicky  Lord.    [Gkby,  Ea&l.] 

Kudibras.    [Butlbu,  Samuel.] 

Kudson,  Sir  Jeffrey  {b.  1619,  d,  1682), 
was  Charles  L's  favourite  dwarf.  He  was  faith- 
fully attached  to  Queen  Henrietta,  whom  ho 
accompanied  in  her  first  flight  from  England ; 
not  long  after  this  he  was  taken  prisoner  by 
Tiurkish  pirates  and  sold  as  a  slave,  but  before 
long  he  was  released  and  served  as  a  captain 
of  horse  in  the  royal  army.  When  the  royal 
cause  became  hopeless  he  again  retired  to 
France  with  the  queen,  but  returned  to 
England  at  the  Restoration,  and  in  1681  was 
accused  of  complicity  in  the  Popish  Plot.  On 
this  account  he  was  imprisoned,  and  died  very 
soon  afterwards  in  captivity. 

Budson's  Bay  Territories,  The  (or 

Prince  Rupert's  Land),  which  extended  over 
a  vast  area  in  the  north-west  of  British 
America,  received  their  name  from  the  ex- 
plorer Hudson,  who  in  1610  penetrated 
into  the  bay  which  still  bears  his  name. 
It  had  been  previously  visited  by  Sebastian 
Cabot  in  1617,  and  by  Davis  in  1585. 
The  example  of  Hudson  was  followed  a  few 
years  later  by  various  exploring  parties, 
and  the  regions  about  the  bay  were  found  to 
be  abundantly  stocked  with  animals  furnishing 
valuable  fur.  In  1670  the  Hudson's  Bay 
Company  was  formed,  and  settlements  were 
established  in  various  places.  Frequent 
collisions  took  place  between  the  English 
settlers  and  the  French,  who  in  1685  took 
most  of  the  English  factories.  The  Peace  of 
Utrecht  in  1713  restored  the  English  posses- 
sion?, and  although  there  were  subsequent 
attempts  on  the  part  of  the  French  to  drive 
out  the  British  again,  they  were  unsuc- 
cessful. The  Hudson's  Bay  Company  was 
carried  on  in  accordance  with  the  charter  of 
1670,  which  *' authorises  the  governor  and 
company  to  make  laws  and  ordinances  for 
the  good  government  of  their  territory,  and 
the  advancement  of  trade,  and  to  impose 
penalties  and  punishments  not  repugnant  to 
the  laws  of  England."  In  1858  part  of  the 
territory  was  formed  into  the  colony  of 
British  Columbia,  and  in  1870  the  remaining 
portion,  then  known  as  the  North  West 
Territories,  was  incorporated  with  the  Do- 
minion of  Canada  (q.v.),  with  which  British 
Columbia  was  united  in  1871. 

B.  M.  llartin,  EiiyluH  CoUmiet ;  Sir  E.  Creasy, 
Briiannic  Empire, 


and  Cry  is  derived  from  the  French 

words  huer  and  criers  both  of  which  signify  to 
cry  aloud.  In  early  English  law  it  was  one 
of  the  recoi^nised  processes  of  common  Ihw  for 
securing  the  arrest  of  a  felon.  The  plaintiff 
who  had  been  robbed  had  by  this  process  the 
right  of  acquainting  the  constable  of  the 
township  with  the  wrong  ho  hud  suffered, 
and  the  description  of  the  culprit.  The 
constable  might  then  call  upon  all  the  inhabi- 


tants to  join  in  the  pursuit  of  the  suspected 
criminal  with  horn  and  voice ;  and  so  follow 
up  the  offender's  tracks  to  the  limits  of  the 
township,  at  which  limit  this  constable  would 
generally  hand  on  the  duty  of  pursuit  'to  the 
constable  of  the  neighbouring  parish.  It  was 
enjoined  by  the  Statute  of  Westminster,  1275, 
and  regulated  by  Acts  made  in  the  years 
128.3,  1585,  1735,  and  1749. 

Kuguenots.    [P&otestant  Refugees  in 
England.] 

Kvlly  or  KiNosTON-upoN-HuLL,  derives  its 
second  name  from  Edward  I.,  who,  seeing  its 
advantageous  position,  took  much  trouble  in 
fortifying  the  place.  But  it  seems  to  have 
been  of  considerable  importance  even  before 
this  time.  The  great  house  of  De  la  Pole 
Hull    merchants.      About    the    year 


were 


1300,  Edward,  in  an  ordinance  haying 
reference  to  the  establishment  of  mints, , 
appointed  it  one  of  the  places  for  the 
erection  of  f amaces.  Its  prosperity,  though 
occasionally  interrupted  by  plague  and 
famine,  seems  to  have  been  continuous 
during  the  succeeding  centuries.  ^  In  1642 
the  town  came  into  g^at  prominence  a» 
one  of  the  most  important  magazines  of 
arms  in  the  country.  Owing  to  this  it  was 
entrusted  by  Parliament  to  the  keeping  of 
Sir  John  Hotham,  whose  refusal  to  admit  the 
king  within  the  gates  was  almost  tantamount 
to  a  declaration  of  war.  Before  long,  how- 
ever, Sir  John  was  found  in  correspondence 
with  the  Royalists,  treating  for  the  surrender 
of  his  charge.  For  this  offence  he  suffered 
death ;  while  the  town  of  Hull  held  out 
against  the  siege  of  the  Marquis  of  Newcastle. 

Kiimble  Petition  and  Advice,  The 

(1657),  was  the  second  paper  Constitution  of 
the  Protectorate.  When  Cromwell's  second 
Parliament  met  in  1657,  great  anxiety  was 
felt  for  the  course  events  would  take  if  the 
Protector  were  to  be  suddenly  carried  off  by 
death  or  murder.  On  February  23  Alderman 
Pack,  member  for  the  city  of  London,  brought 
in  a  motion  to  this  effect,  and  enunciated  his 
proposals,  which  bore  the  title  of  "  An 
Humble  Address  and  Remonstrance."  These 
propositions  were,  after  a  long  debate, 
accepted  by  the  House,  in  spite  of  the  op» 
position  of  the  military  members.  On  April 
4,  when  a  committee  had  been  appointed  to 
discuss  the  whole  question  with  him,  Crom- 
well  definitely  refused  to  exchange  the  title 
of  Protector  for  that  of  king;  but  with  this 
and  a  few  other  minor  exceptions,  the 
whole  of  the  Humble  Petition  and  Advice 
received  the  Protector's  assent  {^lay  25, 
1057).  The  chief  provisions  of  this  docu- 
ment were,  that  Cromwell  should  name  his  own 
successor  in  his  lifetime ;  that  a  Parliament 
of  two  Houses  should  be  called  every  three 
years  at  the  fui-thcst ;  that  Papists  bo  dis- 
abled  from  sitting  in  Parliament  and  voting 
in  the  election  of  membei'S ;  that  an  Upper 


(581  ) 


House  be  constituted,  consisting  of  from 
forty  to  seventy  members,  whereof  twenty- 
one  should  form  a  quorum ;  that  the  members 
of  this  Upper  Houso  should  be  nominated 
by  CromweU  in  the  first  place — the  right 
ox  filling  up  vacancies  being,  however, 
inherent  in  the  chamber  itself;  that  a 
constant  revenue  of  £1,300,000  a  year  be 
granted  for  the  maintenance  of  the  army  and 
navy,  other  supplies  being  granted  b^  parlia- 
ment specially,  as  need  should  anse;  that 
the  Protector's  council  should  consist  only  of 
"  such  as  are  of  known  piety  and  of  undoubted 
•affection  to  tho  rights  of  these  nations,*' 
even  in  matters  of  religious  faith;  that  this 
•council  be  not  removed  but  by  consent  of 
Parliament;  that  it  shall  appoint  to  the 
military'  and  naval  commands  on  Cromwell's 
death;  that  the  Chancellor,  Ti*ea8urer,  chief 
justices,  &c.,  be  approved  by  Parliament; 
that  Parliament  should  issue  a  public  con- 
fession of  faith,  to  which,  however,  none 
should  be  compelled  to  assent,  nor  be 
molested  for  holding  other  views  so  long 
as  they  did  not  abuse  this  liberty;  but 
that  neither  Papacy  nor  Prelacy  bo  suffered. 
When,  however.  Parliament  once  more  met  in 
Jan.,  1658,  Cromwell  found  the  Lower  House, 
from  which  his  chief  supporters  had  been 
withdrawn  to  form  tho  new  House  of  Lords, 
^calling  in  question  all  that  had  been  done  in 
the  previous  year.  The  Lower  House  now 
refused  to  recognise  tho  Upper.  Cromwell, 
in  despair,  dissolved  Parliament  early  in 
1658,  and  tho  Humble  Petition  and  Advice 
fell  to  tho  ground. 

Banke,  Kxat.  o/Bng.  ;  Whitdlooke,  KemotiaXt, 
(B5-661. 

Enue,  BxyiD  [b,  \l\\,d.  1776),  was  bom 
at  Edinburgh  and  educated  for  the  law, 
though  his  own  tastes  ran  strongly  in  the 
direction  of  letters.  A  few  years  after  coming 
of  age  he  went  to  France,  returning  to  London 
in  1737,  for  the  publication  of  his  Treatise  on 
Huuum  NaUtre.  It  was  not  till  fifteen  years 
•later  that  he  published  his  FolUieal  Dieeourees 
(1752),  and  about  the  same  time  being  ap- 
|>ointed  librarian  of  the  Faculty  of  Advocates, 
conceived  tho  idea  of  writing  a  history  of 
England.  The  first  volume  of  this  work  con- 
taining the  reigns  of  James  I.  and  Charles  I. 
was  published  in  1754,  and  fell  almost  still- 
bom  from  tho  press.  Two  years  later  appeared 
the  continuation  of  tho  Histary  to  the  Revo- 
lution of  1688.  In  1759  Hume  published 
his  history  of  the  House  of  Tudor,  and  in 
1761  the  earlier  portion  of  his  histor}'.  By 
this  time  the  sale  of  the  new  histor}'  was  very 
-oonsiderablo,  and  its  author  realised  such 
^uns  of  money  from  the  booksellers,  that 
he  became,  in  his  own  words,  "not  only  inde- 
pendent but  opulent."  In  1763  he  was 
appointed  secretary  to  the  Earl  of  Hertford 
in  his  embassy  to  Paris,  and  in  1766  remained 
charge  d^aifaWee  in  that  city,  till  the  arrival 


of  Lord  Hertford's  successor,  the  Duke  of 
Richmond.  He  then  returned  to  Edinburgh, 
where  he  died.  Hume*s  History  was 
long  the  most  widel}'  popular  of  all  the 
general  histories  of  England.  This  popu- 
larity it  owes  in  great  part  to  the  lucid 
elegance  of  its  style,  and  the  literary  skill 
with  which  it  is  composed :  qualities  which 
still  entitle  it  to  rank  as  an  English  classic. 
To  the  historical  student  its  value  at  the 
pi-esent  day  is  comparatively  slight.  Hume*s 
acquaintance  with  the  subject  was  not  very 
close,  and  of  the  earlier  periods  and  the  origin 
and  growth  of  the  constitution,  he  had 
little  accurate  knowledge ;  nor  was  the  time 
taken  in  the  composition  of  the  History 
sufficient  to  allow  of  very  deep  research; 
while  his  narrative  of  events  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  is  vitiated  by  his  strong 
prejudice  a^inst  nil  who  asserted  popular 
rights.  Still  the  literary  merits  of  the 
book,  and  the  acuteness  of  some  of  the 
observations  of  one  of  the  greatest  thinkers 
of  the  last  century,  must  always  give  it  a 
certain  value  of  its  own. 

Kume,  Joseph  {b.  1777,  d,  1855),  was 
bom  of  humble  parents  at  Montrose.  After 
studying  medicine  at  Edinburgh  he  was 
appointed  surgeon  to  one  of  the  Indian 
regiments  (1797),  and  did  not  return  home 
till  1808.  From  this  time  he  devoted  his 
attention  to  the  practical  side  of  English 
politics,  and  in  1812  entered  Parliament  as 
member  for  Weymouth — a  borough  which  he 
did  not  long  continue  to  represent.  A  few 
years  later  he  was  returned  for  Aberdeen, 
and  after  one  or  two  changes  finally  became 
member  for  Montrose.  The  chief  object  which 
Hume  set  to  himself  as  a  politician  was  the 
reduction  of  taxation,  and  to  secure  this 
reduction  he  investigated  and,  when  necessary, 
challenged  every  item  of  public  expenditure. 
But  it  was  not  to  this  line  of  work  only  that 
Mr.  Hume  confined  his  attention.  Almost 
every  branch  of  domestic  policy  in  turn 
called  for  his  inquiries  :  he  proposed  reforms 
in  the  army,  the  navy,  and  thjB  ecclesiastical 
courts.  He  secured  the  repeal  of  the  laws 
forbidding  machinery  to  be  exported,  and 
workmen  from  going  abroad.  He  was 
also  a  determined  enemy  of  imprisonment 
for  debt,  of  flogging  in  the  army,  and  the 
system  of  impressment  for  the  navy.  In 
such  useful  work  he  passed  the  last  years  of 
his  life. 

Hundred,  Tkb.  Tacitus,  describing  the 
Germans,  says  that  their  chiefs  are  assisted  in 
matters  of  justice  by  a  hundred  companions, 
and  that  in  war  each  pagus^  or  district,  fur* 
nishes  a  hundred  warriors  and  the  host. 
Theso  bands,  he  tells  us,  are  called  "hun- 
dreds," but  "  what  was  once  a  number  is  now 
a  name  only."  Thus  the  tribe  is  divided  into 
"  hundreds,"  which  are  already  beginning  to 
loee  their  connection  with  a  definite  number 


(  582  ) 


Knn 


of  warriors,  or  folly  free  men.  Tbore  is  no 
trace  of  any  such  division  in  England  till 
Edgar^s  *^  Ordinance  how  the  Hundred  shall  be 
held."  But  in  the  Frank  kingdom  the  court  of 
the  hundred  had  been  the  moat  important 
part  of  the  judicial  machinery  as  early  as  the 
fifth  century;  and  an  arrangement  of  the 
land  in  hundreds  seems  to  have  been  common 
to  most  German  peoples.  It  is,  therefore, 
probable  that  Edgar's  measure  was  not 
the  creation  of  the  division  into  hundreds, 
but  the  employment  for  judicial  and  police 
purposes  of  a  primitive  method  of  grouping. 
It  does  not.  however,  follow  that  the  hundi'ods 
were  all  originally  of  the  same  size ;  the  dis' 
trict  given  to  a  hundred  warriors  would  natu- 
mlly  var^  in  size  according  to  the  natural 
characteristics  of  the  country,  and  to  the 
amount  of  land  at  the  disposal  of  each  tribe  at 
the  time  of  the  allotment..  According  to  Wil« 
liam  of  Malmesbury,  the  division  into  hun- 
dreds andtithings  was  due  to  Alfred;  possibly 
Alfred  revived  the  hundred  as  a  basis  of 
rating.  Connecting  this  tradition  with  the 
fact  of  the  first  appearance  of  the  name  under 
Edgar,  we  may  regard  the  revival  or  develop- 
ment of  the  hundredal  system  as  a  part  of  tho 
work  of  reorganisation  after  the  Danish  at- 
tack. The  laws  of  Edgar  mention  a  "hundreds- 
ealdor**  who  is  to  be  consulted  on  questions  of  • 
witness,  and  a  *'  hundred-man  "  whose  duty  it 
is  to  pursue  thieves.  These  may  or  may  not  bo 
the  same.  In  the  thirteenth  century  tho 
hundred  was  represented  in  the  shire-moot  by 
an  elected  ealdorman;  it  is  therefore  likely 
that  the  hundreds-ealdor,  or  hundred-man, 
was  from  the  first  an  elected  officer.  He  can 
scarcely  be  regarded  as  more  than  tho  convener 
of  the  court.  In  the  twelfth  century  the  hun- 
dreds  were  fast  becoming  dependent  upon 
great  lords  who  managed  and  took  the  profits 
6i  the  court.  The  hundred-moot,  wherein  the 
whole  body  of  suitors  or  freeholders  present 
were  judges,  and  which  was  probably  pre- 
sided over  by  a  deputy  of  the  sherin,  was 
held  monthly.  It  had  jurisdiction  in  all 
cases ;  was  the  court  of  first  instance  in 
criminal  matters;  and  Canute  decreed  that 
no  case  should  be  brought  before  the  king 
until  it  had  been  heard  in  the  hundred  court. 
The  laws  of  Ethelred  dii-ect  that  "  the  twelve 
senior  thegns  go  out  and  swear  in  the  relic 
that  they  will  accuse  no  innocent  man  nor 
conceal  any  guilty  one ; "  the  presentment  of 
criminals  was  therefore  probably  part  of  the 
immemorial  work  of  the  hundred  court,  and 
a  representative  body  of  twelve  seems  to  have 
acted  on  behalf  of  the  suitors  as  a  sort  of 
judicial  committee.  Upon  the  creation  of  the 
system  of  frank-pledges,  a  distinction  arose 
between  the  great  court  of  the  hundred  held 
twice  yearly  for  the  sheriff's  toum  or  view  of 
frank-pledge,  and  with  specially  full  at- 
tendance, and  the  lesser  court  of  the  hundred 
nnder  the  bailiff  for  petty  questions  of  debt. 
Its  criminal  jurisdiction  was  gradually  taken 


from  it  on  the  one  hand  by  the  growth  c/t 
the  manorial  courts-leet  and  of  franchises,  and 
on  the  other  by  the  ci'eation  of  the  system  of 
itinerant  justices.  From  the  twelfth  century 
the  hundred  ceased  to  be  of  much  political 
importance. 

Stubbe,  Con«t.  Hiit,  The  laws  are  printed  i& 
Schmid,  uesetxU  der  AngeUSachMn  (wo  also  his 
Olosaaxy,  s.v.  Hundred) ;  those  of  Edgar  and 
the  L^gn  Hearici  Primi  are  in  Stubhe's  StUtt 
CharUn.   See  also  Gneist,  Self-GovwmwMnt :  and 


as    to    Tacitus,    Waitz«    DeutBche    Vei'fanungs^ 
'    '       [W.  J.  A.] 


OmcK.,  i.  218-222. 


Eimdrad  HoUb*  Thb,  are  the  result  of 
inquisitions  taken  by  a  commission  appointed 
by  Edward  I.  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign, 
to  inquire  into  various  grievances  relating  U> 
illegal  tolls,  encroachments  on  royal  and 
common  lands,  unlawful  tradings,  oppressiona 
by  the  nobility  and  clergy,  &c.  These  re- 
turns are  of  the  greatest,  importance  to  the 
local  historian  and  the  gen^ogist.  They 
derive  their  names  from  the  fact  that  the  in- 
quiry was  conducted  from  hundred  to  hundred. 
A  jury  in  eadi  hundred  gave  witness  to  the 
extent  of  the  demesne  lands  of  the  crown;  of 
manors  alienated  from  the  crown ;  the  names 
of  tenants-in-capite  with  their  services,  and 
the  losses  incurred  by  the  crown  owing  to 
subinfeudation;  the  extent  of  lands  held  in 
frank-almoign ;  the  wardships,  marriages, 
escheats,  &c.,  wrongfully  withheld  from  the 
crown,  and  many  other  items  of  impoitance. 
These  Rolls  were  published  by  command  of 
the  king  in  1812. 

Kvndred  Team'  War,  Thb  (1338— 
1453),  is  the  name  generaUy  applied  to  the 
long  period  of  scarcely  interrupted  hostility 
between  England  and  Ftance,  which  began 
with  Edward  III.^s  assertion  by  arms  of  his 
claims  to  the  French  throne*  and  did  not 
finally  end  until  the  expulsion  of  the  English 
from  France  during  the  reign  of  Henr}'  VI. 
As  roughly  and  vaguely  indicating,  at  least, 
the  culminating  century  of  the  long  medi8s\-al 
struggle  between  the  two  nations,  the  term  i» 
a  useful  one  enough.  But  it  nrnst  not  be 
taken  to  indicate  any  definite  war  in  the  way 
that  the  Thirty  Years*  War,  or  the  Seven 
Years*  War  do.  The  long  warfare  was  in- 
terrupted by  more  than  one  interval  of  peace^ 
and  more  than  once  changed  its  character  and 
objects. 

bespito  the  claims  raised  by  Edward  III. 
in  1328  [EnwAKD  III.],  the  accession  of 
Philip  of  Yalois  was  peaceful,  and  it  was  not 
until  1338  that  hostilities  began.  A  variety 
of  secondary  causes  of  quarrel  had  long  em^ 
bittered  the  relations  of  England  and  France^ 
when  the  strong  support  which  Philip  gave 
to  the  Scots  made  war  inevitable,  and  Edward 
did  his  best  to  make  the  breach  irreparable 
by  his  obtrusive  reassertion  of  his  old  claim 
to  the  French  throne.  Strong  in  his  national 
leadeinship  of  the  English  hatred  of  France, 
Edward,  as  Duke  of  Guienne,  relied  also  on 


(  688  } 


TsUying  the  feudalists  of  the  south  to  his 
side,  while  he  concluded  a  dose  alliance  with 
Louis  of  Bavaria,  the  imperial  vassals  of  the 
Netherlands,  and  the  anti-French  party  in 
the  Flemish  cities.     From  1338  to  1340,  an 
indecisive  war  was  waged  on  the  northern 
frontier  of  France,  only  memorable  for  Ed- 
ward's   naval   victory    of    Sluys   (June  24, 
1340).    The  lukewammess  and  desertion  of 
Edward's  allies    necessitated  a  truce,    that 
continued  until  the  dispute  between  John  of 
Hontfort  and  Charles  of  Blois  for  the  duchy 
of  Britaiiny  gave  English  and  French,  as 
partisans  of  Slontfort  and  Charles  respec- 
tivel}',   an    opportunity  of   renewing    their 
quarrel.      In   1345  the  general  war  was  re- 
sumed.   Edward  again  established  intimate 
relations  with  Ghent,  and  Derby,  in  Guienne, 
won  the  victory  of  Auberoche,  though  com- 
pelled the  next   year  to  stand  a  siege  in 
Aiguillon.      In    1346,  Edward,    in    person, 
landed  with  a  great  army  in  Normandy,  and 
after  a  destructive  inroad,  won  the  fiimous 
victory  of  Crecy  (Aug.  6,  1346),  gave  the 
English  enduring  prestige,  and  the  possession 
of  Oilais,  which  surrendered  after  a  famous 
siege    in    1347.      The    Black    Death    now 
compelled   a   trace,  and   the  war  was  not 
renewed  until   1355,   when  a  bloody  foray 
of   the   Black  Prince,  at  the  head  of   the 
chivalry  of  Guienne,  bore  more  fruit  than 
Edward's  abortive   expedition    from  Calais. 
During  a  similar  inroad  in  1356,  the  Black 
Prince  won  the  victory  of  PoitierSy  where 
King     John    of    France    was    taken    pri- 
soner.   A  period  of  extreme  anarchy  now 
set  in,  in  France,  which  King  Edward  availed 
himself  of  to  conclude  the  very  favourable 
Peace  of  Bretigny  (1360).     The  treaty  was 
never  really    carriea  out,  and  the  war  in 
Britanny  continued  until  the  battle  of  Auray 
gave  Montfort    the    duchy ;  and  after  the 
Black  Prince  had  Ipst  health  and  reputation 
in  Spain,  the  appeal  of  the  barons  of  Aqui- 
taine  led  Charles  V.  to  renew  the  war  openly 
in   1369.     The  skilful  strategy  of  the  Con- 
stable Dugpicsclin    avoided   pitched   battles, 
and  wore  down  the  cnemv  by  a  partisan 
warfare  of  sieges,  skirmishes,  and  ambus- 
cades.    The  capture  of  Limoges  was  the  last 
of  the  Black   Prince's  exploits.    Lancaster 
traversed  France  from  end  to  end  in  1373, 
but  he  found  no  enemy  and  could  win  no 
durable  results.    By   1374  all  Guienne  was 
lost  except  two  or  three  towns  on  the  coast, 
and  in  the  north  Calais  alone  remained  Eng- 
lish.   The  feeble  government  of  the  minority 
of  Richard  II.  1^  the  French,  even  under 
Charles  VI.,  to  retaliation  on  England ;  but 
the  war  continued   ver}'  slackly,  and  with 
constant  truces,  until  in   1397,  Richard  II., 
intent  on  despotism,  established  a  close  al- 
liance with  France,  cemented  by  his  marriage 
with  Isabella  of  Valois.    But  the  revolution 
of  1399  again  embroiled  England  and  ¥Vance 
in  hostilities,  and  nothing  but  the  weakness 


of  Henry  IV.  and  the  outbreak  of  the  Bur- 
gundian  and  Armagnac  factions  prevented  a 
serious  renewal  of  the  war ;  as  it  was,  the 

1'udicious  trimming  of  Henry  led  in  1411  to 
lis    securing    full    possession    of    Guienne. 
Henry  Y.,   with  greater  resources,  renewed 
vigorous  hostilities.     On   Oct.  25,   1415,  the 
battle  of  Agincourt  (q.v.)  gave  him  a  victor)' 
over  Burgundian    and  Armagnac,  combined 
for  once  to  defend  their  countn-.     In  1417  a 
second  expedition  profited  by  the  renewal  of 
civil  strife  in  France ;  and  the  capture  of 
Rouen  completed  the  conquest  of  Normandy. 
In  1419,  the  murder  of  John  the  Fearless 
drove  the  whole  Burgundian  party  on  to  the 
English  side.     A  marvellous  change  of  feel- 
ing brought  the  monarchical  north  of  France 
to  welcome  the  national  enemy  and  head  of  the 
feudal  separatists.    Paris  opened  its  gates  to 
Henry,  and  the  Treaty  of  Troyes  (q.v.)  (1420) 
secured  him  the  succession  to  the  French 
throne.   But  Henry's  premature  death  in  1422 
led  the  Dauphin,  now  Charles  VII.,  to  renew 
the  war  against  the  regent  Bedford.     Despite 
the  victories  of  Crevant  and  Vemeuil,  the 
Anglo- Burgundian  party  failed  to  hold  their 
own  south  of  the  Loire,     llie  mad  folly  of 
Bedford's  brother  alienated    Burgundy.     A 
national  reaction  set  in,  in  France,  which 
found  its  highest  expression  in  the  heroic 
career  of  the  Maid  of   Orleans.      In  1429 
Joan    relieved     Orleans  and    defeated    the 
English    at    Pata}';     marched    to    Rheims 
to   crown  Charles  king,   and,    though   un- 
successful   in    her    attacks    on    Paris,  suc- 
ceeded in  rekindling  the  spirit  of  nationality 
through  all  North  France.    The  coronation 
of  Henr}'  VI.  at  Paris,  Joan's  capture  and 
execution  in  1431,  failed  to  stem  the  tide.    In 
1435  Burgundy  abandoned   the  English  at 
the  Cong^BS  of  Arras,  and  the  death  of  Bed- 
ford completed  their  discomfiture.    In  1437 
Paris  was  lost.  A  peace  party  that  recognised 
the  futility  of  continuing  the  war,  now  grew 
up  in  England,  but  their  temporar}*  triumph, 
though  it  led  to  the  truce  of  1446,  and  the 
marriage   of   Henr}'  VI.   and  Margaret    of 
Anjou,  failed  to  secure  a  permanent  peace. 
In  1448  the  war  was  renewed,  and  by  1449  all 
Normandy  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  French. 
Guienne  next  fell,  and  in  1453  Calais  alone 
remained  in  the  English  possession  in  France. 
The  outbreak   of    the  Wars  of   the    Kosc8 
finally    prevented    any  prolongation  of  the 
long  struggle — which   had  caused  so  much 
misery  and  had  been  so  barren  of  results — 
and  which,   if  resulting  in  bracing  up  the 
national  life  of    France,    brought  little    to 
England  but  barren   glor}',    chequered  with 
disgrace,   and  a  factious   and   unruly  spirit 
that  found  its  outcome  in  the  civil  wars  that 
now  fell  upon  the  land. 

Fauli,  Bngliach«  Qftehichtt ;  Lingard,   Hi«t.  of 
Sng.  ;Loogiiuui. Hi»t,  ofBdveard III.:  BrougluiiQ, 
Hou9t   qf  LaneoMtWi   U.  Martin,  Histmrs  det 
IVanfaw;   J;   Michelet,    Hitioire  det   FrnnfaiB 
(eapecially  for  Joan  of  Arc).  [T.  F.  T.] 


(584  ) 


Knngariaii  Reftigee  Qiiestioiiy  The 

(1851).  In  1851  KosHuth,  the  Hungarian 
revolutionary  leader,  came  to  Eogland,  and 
was  received  with  great  enthusiHsm.  The 
Austrian  government  (already  offended  by  an 
attack  at  Barclay's  brewery  on  the  Austrian 
general,  Haynau,  Sept.,  1850,  and  by  an  un- 
conciliator}'  note  of  Lord  Falmerston's  on  the 
subject)  looked  on  these  proceedings  with 
great  distrust  and  suspicion,  over-rating, 
much  as  Kossuth  himself  did,  the  value  of 
these  demonstrations.  Lord  Palmerston  had 
already  used  English  influence  to  protect  the 
Hungarian  refugees  in  Turkey,  and  it 
became  almost  understood  bhat  if  Lord 
Palmerston  received  Kossuth  at  a  private 
interview,  as  he  proposed  doing,  the  Austrian 
ambassador  would  leave  the  country.  Lord 
John  Hussell  grew  alarmed,  and  the  result 
of  his  remonstrances  with  Lord  Palmerston 
was  that  the  latter  promised  to  avoid  an  in- 
terview with  Kossuth.  He  consented,  how- 
ever, to  receive  some  deputations  from  various 
metropolitan  parishes  at  the  Foreign  Office. 
The  addresses  brought  by  these  bodies  con- 
tained strong  language  with  regard  to  the 
Austrian  government.  The  whole  transac- 
tion was  eventually  made  one  of  the  charges 
of  independent  action  brought  against  Lord 
Palmerston,  which  caused  his  dismissal  in  1852. 

Ashlev,  L^«  of  Paimertton ;  Annual  Regi^er; 
Hansard. 

Eunsdon,  Lord,  Henry  Carey  {d. 
1596),  cousin  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  one  of 
her  truest  friends  and  most  trusted  advisers, 
was  frequently  employed  on  confidential 
missions,  and  filled  many  posts  of  trust.  In 
1564  he  was  sent  to  France,  to  invest  Charles 
IX.  with  the  Order  of  the  Garter,  but  was 
usually  in  attendance  on  the  queen  at  court. 
Vehemently  opposed  to  the  scheme  of  a 
marriage  between  Mary  Stuart  and  the  Duke 
of  No^olk,  Hunsdon,  in  1569,  was  sent  to 
Scotland  with  proposals  for  the  delivery  of 
the  Queen  of  Scots  into  the  hands  of  Murray, 
in  order  to  get  her  out  of  the  way  of  any 
movement  in  her  favour  on  the  part  of 
the  rebel  lords.  Later  in  the  same  year, 
he  was  associated  with  Lord  Sussex  in  the 
command  against  the  insurgents  of  the  north. 
In  the  beginning  of  1570  he  attacked  the 
forces  of  Leonard  Dacres  on  the  banks  of 
the  river  Chelt,  in  Cumberland,  and  com- 
pletely routed  them,  doing  such  good  service 
to  the  queen  that  Elizabeth  wrote  to  him. 
In  1584  he  was  sent  on  a  special  mission  to 
Scotland.  During  the  alarm  which  held 
England  in  the  days  when  the  Spanish  Ar- 
ipada  was  threatening,  Lord  Hunsdon  had 
command  of  a  body-guard  of  36,000  men, 
enrolled  especially  for  the  queen*s  defence.  A 
soldier  rather  than  a  statesman.  Lord  Hunsdon 
gave  the  queen  ^^uent  momentary  offence 
by  his  plain  speaking,  but  he  remained  till  the 
end  one  of  her  most  trusted  supporters. 

Niu-es,  Life  of  Burltigh ;  BnrUigh  PajMi'S. 


Evnt,  Henry  {b,  1773,  d.  1835),  better 
known  as  "  Orator  Hunt,"  was  bom  at  Wid- 
dington,  Wiltshire,  and  was  a  farmer  in 
very  well-to-do  circumstances.  In  conse- 
quence, however,  of  some  misunderstand- 
ing, he  was  ejtpelled  from  the  Marlborough 
yeomanry  by  Lord  Bruce.  He  demanded 
satisfaction,  and  for  this  he  was  indicted 
in  the  King's  Bench,  found  guilty,  fined, 
and  imprisoned.  In  prison  he  met  with 
Waddington  and  some  other  Radicals,  who 
converted  him  to  their  party.  In  1812  he 
stood  for  Bristol,  where  for  some  time  he 
had  been  following  the  trade  of  a  brewer. 
The  poll  was  kept  open  for  fourteen  daj'S, 
serious  riots  took  place,  and  Hunt  was  beaten 
in  this,  as  in  many  subsequent  attempts  to 
enter  Parliament.  He  now  took  to  stump 
oratory,  held  Reform  meetings  at  West- 
minster, and  was  especially  conspicuous  at 
Spa  Fields  and  Manchester.  A  warrant  was 
issued  against  him,  and  he  was  arrested  at 
Manchester,  tried  and  imprisoned  (1820). 
During  the  excitement  of  the  Reform  Bill,  he 
defeated  Lord  Stanley  at  Preston,  and 
entered  the  House  of  (jommons  (1830).  He 
was  re-elected  in  1831,  but  his  oratory  pro- 
duced little  effect  in  the  House. 
Annual  Registtr,  1835. 

Evnt,  Leigh  (b,  1784,  d,  1859),  held  a 
clerkship  in  the  War  Office  from  the  time  of 
his  leaving  school  till  the  year  1808,  when, 
in  company  with  his  brother  John,  he  started 
the  Examiner,  a  journal  of  advanced  political 
views.  In  1812  the  two  brothers  were  fined 
£500  apiece  and  sentenced  to  undergo  an 
imprisonment  of  two  years  for  publishing  a 
satire  upon  the  Prince  Regent  in  the  pages 
of  their  paper.  On  his  release  from  prison, 
he  edited  the  Indicator j  and  about  1822  was 
associated  with  Byron  and  Shelley  in  their 
new  venture,  The  Liberal^  of  which  only  four 
numbers  were  issued.  Leigh  Hunt  received 
a  government  pension  of  £200  a  year  in  1847. 
He  was  the  author  of  many  poetical  and 
other  works,  and  of  an  Autobiography ,  pub- 
lished in  1850. 

Huntillg^don  was  the  seat  of  one  of 
Edward  the  Elder*s  castles,  built  about  916. 
It  was  made  an  earldom  for  Waltheof ,  son  of 
Si  ward,  in  1070.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the 
history  of  the  town  is  unimportant.  It  was 
one  of  the  great  centres  of  the  Parliamen- 
tarians in  the  Civil  War,  and  was  plundered 
by  the  Royalists  in  1645. 

Euntinifdon,  Peeraobs  of.  Waltheof, 
Earl  of  Huntingdon,  was  beheaded  in  1075. 
His  daughter  Maud  married  first  Simon  de 
St.  Liz,  and  secondly  David,  afterwards 
King  of  Scotland,  who  successively  bore  the 
title  of  earl.  The  title  then  passed  to  David's 
son,  Henry,  and  at  his  death  to  his  half- 
brother,  Simon  de  St.  Liz.  Afterwards  it 
reverted  to  the  Scottish  house,  and  was  held 
by  David's  grandson,  Malcolm,  and  by  the 


.on 


(  685  ) 


latter's  son  William,  Kings  of  Scotland. 
William,  however,  was  divested  about  1174, 
and  Simon  do  St.  Liz,  son  of  the  Simon  last 
named,  became  earl.  Then  followed  David, 
brother  of  William,  King  of  Scotland,  with 
whose  son  the  title  became  eictinct.  A  new 
earldom  was  subsequently  created  in  favour 
of  William  of  CUnton  (1337),  and  again  of 
Guiscard,  Lord  of  Angle  in  Poitou  (1377); 
but  neither  of  these  persons  left  heirs.  In 
1387,  John  Holand,  afterwards  Duke  of  Exeter, 
was  made  Earl  of  Huntingdon ;  this  title  was 
forfeited  when  his  grandson  Henry  was 
attainted  (1461).  Ten  years  later,  Thomas 
Grrey,  afterwanls  Marquis  of  Dorset,  was 
granted  the  earldom,  which,  however,  he  is 
stated  to  have  resigned  on  receiving  the 
marquisate ;  the  former  being  now  granted  to 
WUHam  Herbert,  Earl  of  Pembroke,  who 
died  without  male  issue.  In  1529,  George, 
Baron  Hastings,  was  created  Earl  of  Hunt- 
ingdon, and  by  his  family  the  honour  is  still 
held. 

Huntingdosiy  Fkancis,  2no  Earl  of 
{d.  1561),  was  employed,  in  1550,  in  an  ex- 
pedition for  the  relief  of  Calais  and  Boulogne, 
in  conjunction  with  Sir  James  Crofts.  In' 
1554,  he  did  good  service  to  Mary  in  the 
Duke  of  Suffolk's  rebellion,  and  succeeded  in 
taking  that  nobleman  prisoner.  He  married' 
Catheriae,  daughter  of  Lord  Montague,  and 
granddaughter  of  Margaret,  Countess  of 
Salisbury,  and  so  handed  on  to  his  .son  a 
remote  possibility  of  inheriting  the  English 
crown. 

Hvntixilfdony  Henry  Hastings,  3rd 
Earl  of  (d,  1595),  was,  soon  after  the  acces- 
sion of  Elizabeth,  regained  as  her  possible 
heir,  especially  by  Cecil  and  the  Protestant 
party;  but  the  plan  of  recognising  him  proved 
impracticable.  He  subsequently  strongly  op- 
posed the  contemplated  marriage  between 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots  and  the  Duke  of  Norfolk, 
as  one  which  would  be  fraught  with  much 
mischief  to  the  Protestant  cause.  In  the  year 
1569  he  became  Mary's  gaoler  at  Tutbury, 
and  proved  himself  the  bitter  enemy  of  the 
Scotch  queen  and  the  Catholic  party.  In 
1581  he  was  sent  to  levy  troops  against 
Lennox,  though  he  was  prevented  from 
taking  any  further  steps  against  the  regent 
by  Secretary  Randolph.  Huntingdon  married 
I^dy  Catherine  Dudley,  daughter  of  the 
Duko  of  Northumberland,  and  was,  therefore, 
the  brother-in-law  of  the  Earl  of  Leicester. 

Xnntingdoilf  Henry  of  {d.  eirca  1154), 
was  brought  up  by  Bloet,  Bishop  of  Lincoln, 
and  subsequently  became  Archdeacon  of 
Huntingdon.  His  chief  work  is  his  Historia 
Anglorum,  which  goes  down  to  the  reign  of 
Stephen.  Theimportance  of  this  work  is  chiefly 
owing  to  the  fact  that  it  incorporates  a  num- 
ber of  popular  songs  and  stories,  the  originals 
of  which  have  been  lost.    His  style  is  gran- 

HIHT.— 19* 


diloquent  and  often  turgid,  and  he  abounds 
in  classical  allusions.  His  Epistle  to  Waltn-,  his 
friend,  is  a  cynical  sketch  of  many  of  his  most 
famous  contemporaries  in  Church  and  State. 

Hennr  of  Huntiugdou's  works  have  been 
edited  for  the  Bolls  Series.  A  translation  of  his 
history  is  given  in  Bohn's  ilntu/varian  Library. 

Euntlyt  Alexander  de  Seton,  Ist 
Earl  op  (a.  1470),  was  created  earl  by  James 
II.  of  Scotland  (1449—50).  He  was  the 
head  of  the  Setons  and  the  Gordons,  and  re- 
ceived his  title  in  reward  for  his  serrices 
against  the  Douglas  faction.  Ho  defeated 
the  Earl  of  Craufurd,  one  of  the  Douglas 
leaders,  in  the  battle  of  Brechin  (1452). 

Ximtljrf  G^EOKC^E  GoKuoN,  2nd  Marquis 
OF  (d,  1649),  was  appointed  Charles  I.*8  lieu- 
tenant in  Scotland,  and  after  having  refused  all 
the  overtures  made  to  him  by  the  Covenanters, 
took  the  field  in  opposition  to  the  Marquis  of 
Argyle  (1644).  Next  year  he  refused  to  lay 
down  his  arms  even  at  the  command  of  the 
king,  who  was  then  under  the  control  of  the 
Parliament.  In  1647  he  was  taken  prisoner 
and  beheaded  at  Edinburgh  on  March  22, 1649. 

J.  H.  Burton,  Hxttory  of  Sco%\anA;  Sir  B. 
Douglas,  Peerage  of  Scotland, 

.  Xuntlyy  Geohoe  Gordon,  4th  Earl 
OF  {d.  1^2),  was  one  of  the  last  peers 
in  Scotland  to  oppose  the  Reformation.  He 
was  a  man  of  vast  power  and  wealth,  his  pos- 
sessions lying  chiefly  in  the  north  and  west 
of  the  Highlands.  In  his  earlier  years  he 
had  defeated  the  English  troops  at  Haddenrig 
(1542),  and  at  the  head  of  the  Scotch  army 
had  narrowly  watched  the  Duke  of  Norfolk's 
invasion  of  the  same  year,  on  which  occasion, 
though  avoiding  an  engagement,  he  succeeded 
in  materially  checking  the  progress  of  the 
English.  He  was  one  of  the  commanders  at 
the  battle  of  Pinkie,  where  he  was  taken  pri- 
soner (1547).  After  escaping  from  prison,  he 
became  a  great  supporter  of  Mary  of  Guise, 
the  queen-regent,  and  in  later  years  a  strong 
opponent  of  the  Lords  of  the  Congregation. 
When  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  returned  to  her 
own  country  (1661),  the  Earl  of  Huntly 
found  part  of  the  estates  which  had  been  in 
his  possession  transferred  to  James  Stuart, 
the  queen's  half-brother  (Earl  of  Murray), 
and  plotted  the  murder  of  that  nobleman. 
In  1562  he  took  up  arms,  and  openly  denied 
Mary  admittance  to  her  castle  of  Inverness, 
which  he  then  held.  The  castle,  however, 
was  soon  taken  by  the  royal  troops,  and 
shortly  afterwards  Huntly  was  defeated  and 
slain  at  Corrichie,  near  Aberdeen. 

Xuntly,  George  Gordon,  5th  Earl 
OF  (d,  \Sl^),  the  son  of  that  Eai'l  of 
Huntly  who  fell  at  Corrichie,  1562,  and  for 
whose  rebellion  the  family  estates  had  been 
forfeited  to  the  crown,  was  restored  to  his 
title  and  possessions,  August,  1565.  Soon 
afterwards  his  sister,  Lady  Jane  Gordon,  was 
married  to  Bothwell,  while  Huntly  himself 


(  686  } 


Kut 


married  a  daughter  of  the  Dake  of  Chatelh^- 
rault.  After  the  murder  of  Damley  (1667), 
Uuntly  accompanied  Mary  to  Seton,  and  was 
one  of  the  councillors  who  presided  at  Both- 
weWs  trial.  Having  afterwards  taken  up 
arnu  against  the  Regent  Murray,  he  was 
forced  to  make  submission  (1669),  and  to  join 
the  party  of  the  government.  On  Murray's 
death  (1570),  the  Earl  of  Huntly  once  more 
raised  forces  on  behalf  of  Queen  Mary,  but 
was  soon  forced  to  enter  into  a  pacification 
with  the  new  regent  (1573).  His  death  oc- 
curred a  few  years  later,  in  1576. 

Enntlyv  Geohob  Gordon,  6th  Earl 
and  1st  Makquis  of  {d.  1636),  was  one  of 
the  supporters  of  James  VI.  after  the  Raid  of 
Ruthven  (q.v.).  A  staunch  adherent  of  the 
Catholic  faith,  ho  was  accused  in  the  year 
1589  of  being  in  league  with  Philip  of  Spain, 
and  a  year  or  two  later  signed  the  **  Spanish 
blanks."  In  1592  he  put  the  Earl  of  Murray 
to  death,  nominally  as  an  accomplice  in 
Bothwell*8  rebellion  (1591),  but  most  probably 
in  revenge  for  the  treatment  which  the  Gor- 
dons had  experienced  from  the  Regent 
Murray.  In  1594  he  defeated  the  Earl  of 
Argyle,  who  attacked  him  at  the  instahce 
of  the  government ;  but  became  reconciled 
to  him  in  1597,  when  he  aUo  changed  his 
faith  and  obtained  the  reversal  of  his  for- 
feiture. He  was  not,  however,  a  particularly 
zealous  convert,  as  in  1616  he  was  excommu- 
nicated on  suspicion  of  receiving  and  protect- 
ing Jesuits  in  his  castle.  In  1630  lus  feud 
with  the  Crichtons  culminated  in  the  loss  of  his 
eldest  son  at  the  '*  burning  of  Frendraught." 
Shortly  afterwards  the  Marquis  of  Huntly 
himself  died  of  a  broken  heart  (1636). 

J.  H.  Bortou,  Uut.  of  Scotland;  Sir  B.  Doa- 
glM,  Pnrage  of  Scolland. 

HuflldsSOn,  WzLLlAK  (b.  1770,  d.  1830), 
the  son  of  WiUiam  Huskisson  of  Oxloy,  near 
Wolverhampton,  was  educated  for  the  profes- 
sion of  medicine.  Shortly  before  the  French 
Revolution  he  accompanied  his  uncle  to  Paris, 
and  warmly  entered  into  the  feelings  of  the 
revolutionary  party.  He  became  a  member 
of  the  Club  de  Quatre-vingt-neuf,  and  of  the 
London  Corresponding  Society,  and  turned 
his  attention  to  international  policy  and  com- 
merce. He  attracted  the  attention  of  Lord 
Grower,  the  British  ambassador,  who  offered 
him  the  situation  of  private  secretary  ^1790). 
In  17^3  he  was  appointed  to  assist  m  the 
projected  arrangement  of  an  office  for  the 
aifairs  of  the  emigrants  who  had  taken  refuge 
in  England.  In  1795  he  became  Under- 
Secretary  of  State,  and  received  the  same 
appointment  in  Mr.  Perceval's  ministry  of 
1807.  He  was  Cliief  Commissioner  of  Woods 
and  Forests  in  1814,  and  elected  member  for 
Liverpool  in  1823.  The  same  year  Mr. 
Huskisson  was  made  President  of  the  Board 
of  Trade,  and  with  him  a  complete  altera- 


tion came  over  our  commercial  policy,  and 
the  reign  of  protection  began  to  give  place 
and  yield  to  free  trade.  In  his  first  year 
he  was  not  able  to  do  much.  He  offered  to 
remit  the  import  duty  on  raw  cotton  if  the 
manufacturers  would  consent  to  give  up  the 
export  duty.  This  they  declined.  An  attempt 
was  made  to  free  the  Spitalfields  silk  manu- 
facture from  restrictions  such  as  the  settle- 
ment of  their  wages  by  a  magistrate,  but 
11,000  journeymen  petitioned  against  this, 
and  it  was  dropped.  He  was,  however, 
successful  in  practicallv  abolishing  the  old 
Na\dgation  Act,  and  thus  freeing  English 
and  foreign  shipping.  In  1824  he  reduced 
the  duty  on  raw  and  spun  silk,  and  lowered 
the  import  and  export  dut^  on  wooL  Under 
Canning's  ministiy  Huskisson  still  retained 
his  old  post  at  the  Board  of  Trade.  On  the 
death  of  Canning,  Huskisson  succeeded  Lord 
Goderich  as  Secretar}'  for  the  Colonies  (1827). 
A  quarrel,  however,  shortly  broke  out  about 
the  appointment  of  a  chairman  to  a  Finance 
Committee,  which  was  to  be  formed  at  the 
opening  of  the  session,  and  Huskisson  at  once 
sent  in  his  resignation.  This  produced  the 
downfall  of  Lord  Goderich*s  government.  In 
1828  he  joined  the  Wellington  ministry,  but 
in  a  very  few  months  a  slight  difference  of 
opinion  enabled  the  duke  to  insist  upon  his 
'resignation.  On  Sept.  15,  1830,  Huskisson 
was  accidentally  killed  on  the  occasion  of  the 
opening  of  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester 
Railway. 

AnnvMl  Rtgiater;  Spenoer  Walpole,  SiU»  of 
England  from  1816. 

HutcllinsOXl,  John  (b.  1616,  d.  1664), 
was  the  son  of  Sir  Thomas  Hutchinson  of 
Owthorpe,  Notts.  During  the  Civil  War  he 
was  Governor  of  Nottingham  for  the  Parlia- 
ment, a  position  of  great  importance  as  com- 
manding the  passage  of  the  Trent.  In  1645 
he  was  elected  member  for  Nottingham,  and 
three  years  later  sat  in  the  High  Court  of 
Justice,  and  signed  the  king^s  death  warrant. 
On  the  expulsion  of  the  Long  Parliament 
(1643)  he  retired  into  the  country  until  it  was 
reinstated  by  the  army  (Oct.,  1659).  He  was 
returned  to  the  Convention  (May,  1660),  but, 
though  his  life  was  spared,  he  was,  as  a 
regicide,  incapacitated  from  public  employ- 
ment. In  Oct.,  1663,  he  was  imprisoned, 
and  died  Sept  11,  1664.  A  certificate  pre- 
sented to  the  House  of  Lords  in  his  favour  in 
Jan.,  1661,  affirmed  that  "  above  seven  years 
ago,  and  from  time  to  time  ever  since,  Colonel 
Hutchinson  hath  declared  his  desire  of  the 
king's  majesty's  return  to  his  kingdoms,  and 
his  own  resolutions  to  assist  in  bringing  his 
majesty  back."  It  goes  on  to  state  that  he 
had  been  in  correspondence  with  conspirators 
for  that  purpose,  collected  arms  for  it,  and 
on  all  occasions  assisted  the  king's  friends. 
These  statements,  made  with  Hutchinson's 
knowledge  and  approval,  throw  considerable 


Kut 


(687) 


Kyd 


doubt  on  the  acoonnt  of  his  conduct  given  in 

his  biography  by  his  wife,  noticed  in  tiie  next 

article. 

lAJt  of  Col,  HtUchinnnf  by  Mm.  Hntchinson : 
Papen  of  tlu  Houm  of  Lord*  (Seyenth  Beport  oi 
Hist.  MSS.  Commiflaion). 

Xutohinflon,  Luct  {b,  1620,  d.  1669), 
was  the  daughter  of  ^ir  John  Apsley, 
Lieutenant  of  the  Tower,  where  she  was 
bom.  In  1638  she  married  Colonel  John 
Hutchinson,  was  his  faithful  attendant  in  all 
the  dangers  of  his  subsequent  life,  and  com- 
piled the  memoirs  of  his  life.  This  work, 
which  is  of  the  greatest  importance  for  the 
period  over  which  it  extends,  has  been  pub- 
Hflhed  many  times. 

A  coiiTenient  edition  of  the  Lif$  of  Colmiel 
Hutchtnton  for  ffeneral  use  is  publisbed  in 
Bohn's  Standard  Library. 

Xntohinson,  Thomas  {b.  1711,  d,  1780), 
was  bom  at  Boston.  In  1760  he  was  ap- 
pointed Chief  Justice  of  Massachusetts.  Nine 
years  later  he  was  made  governor  of  the 
colony.  In  this  capacity  he  refused  to  con- 
sent to  the  wishes  of  the  i>eople,  when  they 
desired  that  the  tea-ships  should  be  sent  back 
without  discharging  theii*  cargo  (1773),  and 
his  conduct  thus  led  to  the  famous  destruction 
of  the  tea  by  the  citizens  of  Boston.  By 
this  time  Hutchinson  had  lost  all  the  con- 
fidence of  those  whom  he  governed.  Dr. 
Franklin  had  exposed  the  letters  he  had 
written  to  England,  advocating  a  restriction 
of  colonial  liberty,  and  the  despatch  of  troops 
to  Boston.  Recognising  his  unpopularity, 
Hutchinson  retired  to  England  in  1774. 

Bancroft,  Hiat.  of  the  United  States;  Stanhope, 
iftat.  of  Eng, 


I,  The,  were  an  Anglian  tribe, 
occupying  the  present  counties  of  Gloucester 
and  Worcester.  Of  the  date  of  their  settle- 
ment we  have  no  certain  indication  ;  but  they 
were  in  later  days  merged  in  the  great  king- 
dom of  Mercia,  and  seem  to  have  preserved 
some  traces  of  their  old  independence  even  so 
late  as  the  close  of  the  eighth  century,  when 
Archbishop  Theodore  gave  them  a  bishop  of 
their  own. 

Eyda^  The  Book  of,  gives  a  brief  history 
Of  England  from  the  landing  of  Hengest  till 
the  year  059,  together  with  a  chartular)'  of 
that  monaster}'.  It  was  written  at  the  New 
Minster  or  Hyde  Abbey,  Winchester.  Sir  T. 
Hardy  says,  **  it  is  apparently  a  reconstruction 
of  earlier  materials,  which  have  been  blended 
along  with  information  of  a  comparatively 
recent  period,  certainly  some  time  after  the 
year  1354."  Besides  King  Alfred's  Will,  and 
some  important  charters,  it  contains  some 
traditions  and  anecdotes,  which,  though  not 
perhaps  xety  trustworthy,  are  certainly  inte- 
resting. 

The  Book  of  Hyde  has  been  translated  in  the 
Church  Hutoriana  of  England;  it  iz  edited  in  the 
Bolls  r 


Kyde,  Anne  f^.  1637,  d.  1671),  was  the 


daughter  of  Edward  Hyde,  Earl  of  Clarendon. 
In  1659  she  became  maid  of  honour  to  the 
Princess  of  Orange,  and  on  Nov.  24  a  secret 
contract  of  marriage  took  place  between  her 
and  the  Duke  of  York.  On  Sept.  3,  1660, 
she  was  privately  married  to  the  duke.  Great 
efforts  were  made  by  the  queen-motber  to  get 
the  marriage  annulled,  and  a  plot  was  got  up 
amongst  the  courtiers  of  the  queen's  party, 
by  Sir  Charles  Berkeley  and  others,  to  induce 
the  duke  to  repudiate  her.  These  intrigues 
failed,  and  she  was  publicly  acknowledged  as 
Duchess  of  York  in  December,  1660.  Pepys 
describes  her  as  **  a  plain  woman,  and  like  her 
mother."  Bomet  says  that  she  was  "  a  very 
extraordinary  woman,  of  great  knowledge 
and  great  spirit.'*  Her  daughter  Mary  was 
bom  April  2,  1662 ;  Anne,  Feb.  6,  1664.  In 
August,  1670,  the  duchess  became  a  Catholic. 
She  died  on  March  31  of  the  following  year. 

Hyd6t  Edward.    [Clauendok.] 

Hyde,  Lawrence.    [Rochester.] 

Hyde,  Sir  Robert  {b.  1595,  d.  1665),  was 
a  first  cousin  of  the  Earl  of  Clarendon.  In 
1640  he  was  returned  to  the  Long  Parliament 
as  member  for  Salisbur>',  and  joined  the 
court  party;  and  in  1644  he  was  a  member  of 
the  Oxford  Parliament.  During  the  Protec- 
torate he  continued  to  practice  at  the  bar,  and 
on  the  Restoration  was  made  a  judge  of  the 
Common  Pleas.  In  1663  he  was  promoted  to 
the  chief -justiceship  of  the  King's  Bench. 

Hyderabad,  The  Battle  op  (March, 
1843),  was  fought  during  the  war  against 
the  Ameers  of  Scinde  (1842—44).  After  the 
battle  of  Meanee,  Shere  Mohammed  collected 
an  army  for  another  attempt  at  indepen- 
dence. He  appeared  near  Hyderabad,  and 
Sir  Charles  Napier,  with  6,000  men,  found 
him  encamped  with  about  20,000  men,  in 
a  strong  position  behind  the  dry  bed  of 
the  Fullallee.  The  British  artillery  opened 
fire  on  the  enemy's  centre,  till  they  began 
to  give  way;  the  cavalry  charged  the  left 
wing,  while  the  22nd  Foot,  who  had  ad- 
vanced to  within  forty  paces  of  their  oppo- 
nents without  firing  a  single  shot,  stormed  the 
entrenchments,  and,  after  a  severe  struggle, 
the  victory  was  complete. 

Hjrder  Ali  (b.  eirca  1702,  d.  1782)  was  a 
Mohammedan  soldier  of  humble  extraction, 
the  son  of  a  petty  revenue  ofiicer.  He  entered 
the  service  of  the  Rajah  of  Mysore,  and  about 
the  year  1759  he  succeeded  in  making  himself 
master  of  the  whole  country.  Out  of  the 
wrecks  of  the  old  principalities  of  South  India, 
he  soon  founded  for  himself  a  compict  I^Ioham- 
medan  kingdom,  and  became  a  most  formi- 
dable enemy  to  the  English.  He  was  the  terror 
of  all  his  neighbours,  the  I^Iahraltas  of  Poonah, 
the  Nabob  of  the  Camatic,  and  the  Nizam  of 
Hyderabad;  while  at  the  same  time  he  was 
intriguing  with  the  French  at  Pondicherr>-. 
This  roiued  the  suspicions  of  the  English, 


Zoe 


(  588  ) 


Zko 


and  more  especially  .so  when  Nizam  All  de- 
serted their  side  for  that  of  Hyder.  The  two 
new  allies  invaded  the  Camatic,  but  were 
driven  back,  whereupon  Nizam  All  renewed 
his  alliance  with  the  English  (1768).  For  the 
next  ten  years  Hyder  All  was  engaged  in 
quietly  strengthening  his  army  and  his  state. 
At  last,  on  the  breaking  out  of  war  between 
the  English  and  the  French,  in  1778,  he  was 
enraged  at  the  English  expedition  sent  by  way 
of  Mysore  from  Madras,  against  the  French 
settlement  of  Mahe.  This  action  decided  Hyder 
Ali's  mind.  Bursting  into  the  Camutic  at  tho- 
head  of  100,000  men,  he  laid  the  whole  country 
waste  with  fire  and  sword  (1780).  He  had 
allied  himself  with  the  French;  Nizam  All 
and  the  Mahrattaa  had  engaged  to  support 
his  arms,  and  the  case  of  the  English  seomed 
very  desperate  for  a  time.  But  Warren  Has- 
tings, the  Governor-General,  was  more  than 
equal  to  the  occasion.  Negotiations  secured 
the  friendship,  or  at  least  the  neutrality,  of 
the  Nizam;  while  Sir  Eyre  Coote  was  de- 
spatched against  Hyder  himself.  The  great 
leader  of  the  war  was  defeated  at  Porto  Novo 
fl781),  and  all  immediate  danger  was  over 
irom  that  side.  A  year  and  a  half  later  Hyder 
,  All  died  suddenly  at  Chittore  (1782). 

Mill,  Hist  of  India;  TalboTS  Wheeler.  Hist. 
of  India;  Grant  Doff,  Ei$t.  ofih$  MahraWu, 

[B.  9.] 


Zbaa  is  the  name  of  territories  in  East 
Africa  on  and  behind  the  Suahili  coast  which 
the  Imperial  British  East  Africa  Company 
(from  whose  initials  the  name  is  formed)  was 
incorporated  in  1888  to  administer.  In  1895, 
however,  the  Company  surrendered  its  rights 
to  the  Government,  who  at  once  arranged  for 
the  construction  of  a  railway  from  the  coast 
to  Uganda. 

Zceni,  The,  were  an  ancient  British  tribe 
occupying  the  modem  counties  of  Suffolk,  Nor- 
folk, Cambridge,  and  Huntingdon.  According 
to  Professor  Rhys,  they  were  a  very  hardy  and 
warlike  race,  but  were  induced  to  make  an 
tilliance  with  the  Bomans  through  jealousy 
of  the  Trinobantes  and  CassivcLaunus.  It  has 
been  supposed  that  they  had  no  kings,  as  many 
of  their  coins  bear  the  inscription  *^Ecene,'' 
without  that  of  any  prince ;  that  there  were 
two  factions  dividing  the  tribe ;  and  that 
the  head  of  one  faction,  Bericua,  invited  the 
aid  of  Claudius,  and  so  was  instrumental  in 
bringing  about  the  beginning  of  the  long 
connection  of  this  island  with  Home  (43  a.d.). 
In  later  years,  though  apparently  still  pos- 
sessed of  their  own  kings  or  queens,  they 
revolted  against  the  Roman  rule  in  the  time 
of  Ostorius  Scapula,  who  was  appointed  in 
50  A.p.,  and  again  broke  out  into  a  general 
rebellion  while  Suetonius  was  occupied  in 
Mona. 

Sb^s,  CeUic  Britain. 


Xda^  Kino  op  Beunicia  (Jl.  eirea  550),  i» 
said  to  have  been  the  founder  of  that  kingdom ; 
but  this  phrase  is  perhaps  to  be  interpreted 
as  meaning  that  he  united  the  various  petty 
Anglian  or  Saxon  settlements  existing  in  that 
district  into  one  kingdom.  His  descent  is 
traced  from  Woden,  and  he  is  spoken  of  aa 
having  been  a  wise  find  temperate  ruler.  He 
is  also  said  to  have  fallen  in  a  battle  against 
the  Britons,  after  he  had  been  king  fourteen 
years. 

Anglo-Saxon  Chnnide;  William  of  Malmeebniy. 

Xknield  (or  Icknibld)  Way,  The,  waa 
one  of  the  great  Roman  roads  through  Britain. 
It  started  from  near  Yarmouth,  and  passing 
by  Newmarket,  Royston,  and  Baldock,  it 
reached  Dunstable,  where  it  crossed  Watling 
Street.  Thence,  by  Tring  and  Wendover, 
to  Groring,  where  it  crossed  the  Thames  and 
threw  off  a  branch  known  as  the  Ridge- 
way.  Thence,  it  proceeded  by  Aldworth, 
Newbury,  and  Tidworth  to  Old  Sarum.  Then 
across  Yenditch  Chase,  Bedbury,  Marden 
Castle,  Bridport,  Axminster,  Honiton,  Exeter^ 
Totnes,  to  the  Land's  End. 

Zkon  Basilike :  "or,  the  True  Portraiture 
of  his  Sacred  Majestv  in  his  Solitudes  and  Suf- 
ferings," was  a  work  published  some  ten  days 
after  Charles  I.'s  death,  and  purpoi'ted  to  have 
been  written  by  that  king  in  the  last  years  of  his 
life.  It  is  divided  into  twenty-eight  chapters, 
almost  every  one  of  which  is  appropriate  to 
some  remarkable  incident  in  the  closing  years 
of  its  author's  life.  A  short  sketch  of  some 
event  or  reflection  upon  it  is  given,  and  to 
this  is  appended  a  prayer  applicable  to  tho 
occasion.  So  chapter  iii.,  entitled,  *^  Upon 
his  Slajcstio's  going  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons," commences  with  an  explanation  of  the 
king's  reasons  for  this  step— *' To  call  in 
question  half  a  dozen  men  in  a  fair  and  legall 
way,  which  Grod  knowes  was  all  my  design ;  ** 
an  explanation  of  the  fact  that  he  was  at- 
tended by  some  gentlemen  of  his  ordinar>' 
guard,  and  a  declaration  that  he  had  no 
design  of  overawing  the  freedom  of  the  House. 
After  two  pages  of  such  meditation  follows  a 
short  prayer  of  some  half  a  page  in  length, 
calling  God  to  witness  his  innocence,  and  pray- 
ing for  forgiveness  on  his  enemies.  This  work 
had  an  immense  sale,  though  to  modem  eyes 
it  must  seem,  as  Professor  Masson  has  said,  a 
somewhat  dull  performance.  Fifty  editions 
are  said  to  have  been  sold  within  a  year,  and  it 
was  in  vain  that  Parliament  gave  orders  to 
seize  the  book.  So  great  was  its  popularity 
that  in  October,  1649,  Milton  had  to  publish 
his  Eikonoklante9^  or  Image-breaker,  in  answer. 
The  authorship  of  the  Eikon  Batilike  has 
generally  been  attributed  to  Dr.  Gauden^ 
afterwards  Bishop  of  Exeter. 

B'ikon  BaaiXHM  ;  Milton,  EikonMaskm ;  Masson, 
L»/«  of  Milton,  voL  iv. 

Impeacliment  is  the  name  given  to 


Imp 


(  589  ) 


Imp 


the  judicial  process  by  which  any  man, 
from  the  rank  of  a  peer  downwards,  may  be 
tried  before  the  House  of  Lords  at  the  in- 
stance of  the  House  of  Commons.  In  this 
case  the  Commons  are  the  proseci;Ltor8,  while 
the  Lords  combine  in  their  own  persons  the 
functions  of  judge  and  jury.  The  process  of 
conducting  an  impeachment  is  explained  by 
Sir  Erskine  May  as  follows  : — Some  member 
of  the  Lower  House  charges  the  accused  with 
high  treason,  or  any  other  offence  of  which 
he  may  be  considered  guilty.  If  he  succeeds 
in  winning  the  House  over  to  his  opinion,  he 
is  empowered  to  go  to  the  bar  of  the  House 
of  Lords  and  there  impeach  the  offender.  A 
committee  is  next  appointed  to  draw  up  the 
articles  of  impeachment,  which  are  then  for- 
warded to  the  Lords  in  writing,  with  a  reser- 
vation of  power  on  the  part  of  the  Commons 
to  add  to  the  original  counts  if  necessary.  A 
day  is  then  appointed  for  the  trial,  which 
generally  takes  place  in  Westminster  Hall. 
Certain  managers  conduct  the  case  on  behalf 
of  the  Lower  House,  and  the  accused  may 
defend  himself  by  counsel.  Witnesses  are 
called  on  both  sides,  and  the  whole  series  of 
charges  is  gone  through  article  by  article ;  the 
accusers  are  bound  to  confine  themselves  to 
the  charges  contained  in  the  articles  of  im- 
peachment, and  when  they  have  finished,  the 
offender  enters  on  his  defence,  after  which  the 
prosecutors  have  a  right  of  reply.  All  the 
evidence  being  then  completed,  each  peer  in 
succession  delivers  his  verdict  on  the  first  article 
in  the  words,  '*  Guilty  [or  Not  Guilty], 
upon  my  honour.**  And  so  on  for  every 
count.  In  conclusion,  the  Lord  Chancellor  or 
Lord  High  Steward  reckons  up  the  number 
of  votes,  and  a  simple  majority  acquits  or 
condemns  upon  each  charge.  Though  the 
House  of  Lords  may  have  delivered  its  ver- 
dict, judgment  is  not  to  be  pronounced  unless 
the  House  of  Commons  demand  it  by  their 
Speaker.  On  the  other  hand,  in  1679,  the 
House  of  Commons  protested  against  the 
Earl  of  Danby's  right  to  plead  the  king's 
pardon  when  impeached  in  1679,  and  by  the 
Act  of  Settlement  (1701)  it  was  made  part  of 
the  law  of  the  realm  **  that  no  pardon  under 
the  Great  Seal  of  England  shall  bo  pleadable 
to  an  impeachment  by  the  Commons  in  Par- 
liament. 

The  first  case  of  an  impeachment  in  which 
both  Houses  took  part,  would  appear  to  be 
at  the  time  of  the  attack  on  Richard  Lyons 
and  Lord  Latimer,  in  the  Good  Parliament 
of  1376.  Of  course  in  this  case  we  cannot 
expect  to  have  the  full  course  of  pro- 
ceedings which  have  characterised  the  im- 
peachments of  much  later  centuries ;  and  in 
fact  it  seems  to  have  been  the  whole  Par- 
liament, and  not  the  barons  alone,  who  im- 
prisoned these  offenders.  The  impeachment 
of  the  Earl  of  Suffolk  some  ten  years  later 
(1386)  seems  to  have  been  more  in  ac- 
cordance with   those  of  later  times,  for  the 


Commons  were  clearly  the  prosecutors  in  this 
case,  while  it  was  the  Lords  who  decided  the 
question  of  his  guilt.  In  a  similar  way,  the 
judges  who  had  in  1887  given  fheir  decision 
against  the  legality  of  the  commissioners  ap- 
pointed in  the  preceding  year,  were  next  year 
impeached  by  the  Commons  and  found  guilty 
by  the  Lords  (1388).  From  this  time  it  is 
hardly  necessary  to  cany  on  the  instances  of 
impeachment  down  to  later  times  in  any  detail. 
The  practice  was  not  discontinued  for  any 
very  long  period  till  the  accession  of  the 
house  of  York;  but  from  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward v.,  the  institution  seems  to  have  fallen 
into  disuse,  till  it  was  re%*ived  in  the  reign  of 
James  I.  Under  the  house  of  Tudor  the 
Commons  were  too  subser\'ient  to  the  royal 
authority  to  make  use  of  their  old  privilege 
on  their  own  account,  and  when  the  sovereign 
wished  to  be  rid  of  an  obnoxious  subiect  he 
found  a  bill  of  attainder  a  readier  instru- 
ment for  effecting  his  ends.  With  the  re- 
vival of  the  spirit  of  liberty  in  the  first  half 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  impeachments 
once  more  became  frequent:  the  two  first 
important  instances  being  those  of  Francis 
Bacon  in  1621  and  the  "E&rl  of  Middlesex  in 
1624.  Buckingham,  who  had  been  very  ur- 
gent in  inducing  the  Commons  to  proceed 
against  the  latter  nobleman,  would  in  his 
turn  have  been  impeached  a  few  years  later 
had  not  the  king  dissolved  Parliament  for  the 
purpose  of  sa%dng  him  (1626).  The  cases  of 
Strafford,  Laud,  Danby,  Warren  Hastings, 
Melville,  &c.,  will  be  found  alluded  to  under 
the  articles  devoted  to  these  statesmen;  but 
that  of  Fitz-Harris  in  the  year  1681,  deserves 
a  passing  notice  as  being  the  occasion  on 
which  the  Commons  afiirmed  their  **  right  to 
impeach  any  peer  or  commoner  for  treason, 
or  any  other  crime  or  misdemeanour."  This 
claim  of  the  Commons  seems  to  have 
been  practically  conceded  to  them,  but 
Blackstone  and  Lord  Campbell  are  both 
agreed  on  the  point  "that  a  commoner 
cannot  be  impeached  before  the  Lords  for 
any  capital  offence  but  only  for  high  mis- 
demeanours." 

Sir  T.  Erskine  May,  Imw  of  TarliavMni ;  Hal- 
lom,  Const.  Hiat. ;  Stubbs,  Cont/t.  Hist. 

[T.  A.  A.] 

Zinpressineilt.  The  practice  of  im- 
pressment, or  compelling  men  to  serv'e  in  the 
navy,  seems  to  date  back  to  a  very  early 
period  of  our  history.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
in  full  force  in  the  reign  of  John,  that  is, 
from  the  time  of  almost  the  first  English 
king  who  was  possessed  of  a  regular  royal 
fleet.  Towards  the  end  of  the  same  centurj" 
we  find  Edward  I.  empowering  William  Ley- 
bourne  to  impress  men,  vessels  and  arms  for  the 
manning  of  his  fleet.  So,  too,  wo  read  in  the 
Black  Book  of  the  Admiralty  that  if  a  mariner 
who  had  been  pressed  for  the  king^s  naval 
service  ran  away  he  should  undergo  a  year's 


Imp 


(  590  ) 


Xnd 


imprifionment.  The  same  penalty  for  the 
same  offence  may  be  traced  in  the  legisla- 
tion of  later  sovereigns,  Richard  II.  (1378), 
Henr^  VI.  (-1439),  and  Elizabeth  (1562—63), 
showing  that  this  method  of  manning  the 
royal  vessels  was  in  full  force  during  these 
centuries.  Towards  the  middle  of  the  six- 
teenth century  we  come  across  what  seems  to 
be  a  serious  attempt  to  make  it  criminal 
for  a  man  to  take  steps  for  eluding  impress- 
ment. In  1555  (2  &  3  Philip  and  Mary,  xvi. 
6),  a  very  harsh  law  was  passed  against  the 
Thames  bargemen,  according  to  which,  if  any 
watermen  '*  shall  willingly,  voluntarily,  and 
obstinately  hyde  themselves  in  the  tyme  of 
prestying  into  secret  places  and'out  comers," 
they  should  suffer  a  fortnight's  imprisonment 
and  be  debarred  from  following  their  calling 
for  another  year.  A  more  generous  enactment 
some  seven  or  eight  years  later  (1562 — 63) 
attempted  to  restrain  the  arbitrary  character 
of  impressments  by  enjoining  that  *^no 
Fisherman  haunting  the  sea  should  be  taken 
by  the  queen*s  commission  to  serve  her  High- 
ness as  a  mariner  on  the  sea,"  without  the 
commissioners  having  first  consulted  two 
neighbouring  justices  of  the  peace.  Still  more 
indulgent  was  the  spirit  displayed  in  the  7  &  8 
William  III.,  according  to  which  the  Lord 
High  Admiral  is  empowered  to  grant  letters 
"  to  any  landsmen  desirous  to  apply  themselves 
to  the  sea  services  and  to  serve  in  Merchant 
shipps  which  shall  be  to  them  a  protection 
against  being  impressed  for  the  space  of  two 
years  or  more.*'  The  provisions  of  the  Act  of 
1555,  with  somewhat  altered  details  and  in- 
creased penalties,  however,  were  re-enacted 
after  a  lapse  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  years 
under  Queen  Anno  (1705).  Under  George 
n.,  the  impressment  question  was  once  more 
taken  up  and  its  stringency  modified  (1739 — 
40).  By  a  statute  passed  in  this  reign  it 
was  decreed  that  all  persons  above  fifty -five 
and  under  eighteen  years  of  age,  should  be 
exempt  from  impressment ;  and  an  attempt  to 
encourage  men  to  adopt  a  sailor's  life  was 
made  at  the  same  time  by  a  clause  which 
granted  freedom  from  the  above  liability  to  all 
sailors  who  chose  to  demand  it  for  two  years 
from  the  time  of  their  first  going  to  sea.  An 
Act  of  William  IV.'s  reign  improved  the  posi- 
tion of  the  impressed  sailor  still  further  by 
limiting  his  term  of  service  to  five  years 
— unless  in  a  case  of  urgent  necessityj  when 
the  admiral  might  enlarge  it  by  six  months 
(1835).  By  this  time,  however,  the  prac- 
tice of  impressment,  which  had  been  very 
largely  used  during  the  great  wars  in 
the  opening  years  of  the  century,  had  been 
rapidly  losing  ground,  and  its  place  is 
now  altogether  supplied  by  voluntary  en- 
listment. 

Black  Book  of  the  Admiralty  (Bolls  Series) ; 
Nicola?,  Hittory  of  the  British  ifavy  ;  A  TreatUe 
on  tho  Sea  Laws,  1724 ;  James,  Naval  Hist. 

[T.  A.  A.] 


Xncidenty  The  (1641),  is  a  name  given 
to  a  supposed  plot  to  assassinate  the  Earls  of 
Hamilton,  Arg^le,  and  Lanark,  during  the 
visit  of  Charles  I.  to  Scotland  in  tiie  summer  of 
1 64 1 .  Although  a  parliamentary  inquiry  was  in- 
stituted, the  circumstances  stillremain  shrouded 
in  mystery ;  and  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  do 
more  than  g^uess  at  the  real  nature  of  the 
affair.  It  is  said  that  the  scheme  was  Mont- 
rose's, and  that  Charles  I.  himself  was  privy 
to  it;  but  there  seems  to  be  no  foundation 
for  the  statement. 

J.  H.  BortoD,  Hist.  ofSooUain^;  8.  B.  Chtfdiner, 
Hist  ofEng.,  1603-^1642. 

Income  Tax.  The  history  of  the  in- 
come tax  as  a  recognised  means  of  supple- 
menting the  other  financial  resources  of  the 
State,  dates  from  the  time  of  William  Pitt's 
premiership,  when  (in  1799)  a  bill  was  passed 
imposing  a  graduated  tax  on  all  incomes 
above  £60  a  year.  This  tax  continued  to  be 
levied  till  the  end  of  the  Continental  war, 
with  the  exception  of  a  slight  break  for  part 
of  the  years  1802  and  1803  ;  and  by  the  year 
1806  had  reached  the  rate  of  10  per  cent. 
It  was  not  renewed  after  1815  till  tho 
time  of  Sir  Robert  Peel's  second  administra- 
tion (1841),  when  it  was  levied  for  three  years 
at  a  rate  of  sevenponce  in  the  pound.  Time 
after  time  it  was  then  renewed — ^but  always 
for  a  limited  period  only,  till  in  1853  arrange- 
ments were  made  for  its  gradual  extinction  in 
seven  years.  Then,  however,  the  Russian 
War  intervened,  and  instead  of  being  reduced 
it  was  doubled.  From  this  time  it  has 
become  a  regular  item  of  the  revenue;  and 
it  has  now  almost  entirely  lost  its  original 
character  of  a  special  war-tax,  though  an 
increase  in  its  rate  still  remains  the  readiest 
means  of  meeting  the  expenses  of  a  war. 

Independents.    [See  Appendix.] 

India.  Administration.  The  govern- 
ment  of  India  in  this  country  since  the 
Act  of  1858  has  been  vested  in  the  Secretary 
of  State,  aided  by  a  council  of  fifteen,, 
who  are  usually  selected  from  men  who  have 
served  with  distinction  in  various  depart- 
ments of  government  in  that  country.  Thi» 
is  the  agency  through  which  India  becomes 
answerable  to  Parliament,  the  country,  and 
the  Queen.  In  India  itself  the  supreme 
authority  is  vested  in  the  Governor-General 
or  Viceroy  in  Council  (subject  to  the  control 
of  the  Secretary  of  State  in  Council  in  Eng- 
land), and  he  in  his  turn  is  aided  by  & 
Governor-General's  council,  corresponding  to 
the  cabinet  of  a  constitutional  country,  and 
by  a  legislative  council,  consisting  of  the 
Govemor-Greneral's  council,  reinforced  by 
certain  provincial  delegates  and  nominated 
members  of  the  non-official  native  and  Euro- 
pean communities.  Theoretically,  the  Gh>- 
vemor- General  is  supreme  over  every  part  of 
India,  but  practically  his   authority  is  not 


Xnd 


(691) 


Xnd 


everywhere  exercised  alike.    For  most  of  the 

Surposes  d  administration  British  India  is 
ivided  into  provinces,  each  with  a  subordi- 
nate government  of  its  own.  There  is  a 
further  grouping  of  these  various  provinces 
under  the  lai^r  divisions  of  the  three  Presi- 
dencies of  Bengal,  Madras,  and  Bomhay — a 
term  which  in  former  days  conveyed  a  less 
shadowy  line  of  definition  than  now.  At 
present,  however,  the  Presidencies  of  Madras 
and  Bomhay  retain  many  of  their  distinctive 
marks,  having  each  an  army  and  civil  service 
of  their  own;  they  are  administered  by  a 
governor  appointed  direct  from  England,  and 
each  has  an  executive  and  legislative  council. 
The  Presidency  of  Bengal  has  faded  away 
more  completely,  though  a  relic  may  be  seen 
in  the  le^slative  council  attached  to  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  lower  provinces  of  Bengal, 
which  is  now  vested  in  the  hands  of  a  lieu- 
tenant-governor, but  which  was  ^vemed  by 
the  Gk>vemor-General  himself  in  the  days 
before  the  North-West  Provinces,  the  Pun- 
jaub,  and  Oude  became  British  territory.  The 
two  former  provinces  are  governed  by  lieu* 
tenant-governors,  and  Oude  is  under  the  former 
of  these  two  lieutenant-governors,  British  Bur- 
mah,  Assam,  and  the  Central  Provinces  are 
ruled  by  Chief  Commissioners.  All  over  India 
are  scattered  native  states  of  varying  extent 
end  independence.  Many  of  these  native 
principalities  are  attached  to  the  various  pre- 
sidencies and  provinces ;  others  are  grouped 
tog^ether  imder  the  superintendence  of  a  poli- 
tiokl  agent.  Of  this  class  are  the  Rajpootana 
and  Central  Indian  agencies;  and  others, 
such  as  Hyderabad  or  the  Nizam's  territories, 
^Mysore,  and  Travancore,  are  quasi-indepen- 
dent. To  define,  however,  the  relations  of 
the  Indian  native  states  to  the  British  crown 
^would  be  a  lengthy  and  complicated  task,  and 
-would  practically  involve  a  review  of  the 
Tarious  treaty  relations  between  those  native 
principalities,  numbering  over  460,  and  the 
paramount  power. 

History.  The  history  of  the  British  con- 
nection with  India  dates  from  the  days  when 
Tasco  da  Grama  made  his  memorable  voyage 
round  the  Cape  and  sighted  the  shores 
of  Hindostan,  on  May  17,  1498.  Indian 
mroducts  commenced  to  find  their  way  to 
Europe  first  through  the  hands  of  the  Por- 
tuguese, and  then  mrough  the  Venetians,  who 
carried  on  their  Eastern  trade  by  way  of 
Egypt  and  the  Red  Sea,  thus  anticipating  the 
important  route  of  modem  times.  But  it  was 
nearly  a  century  after  Da  Gama's  voyage  that 
our  first  trading  voyages  were  made,  and  it 
was  in  the  last  year  of  the  sixteenth  century 
that  these  commercial  enterprises  were  or- 
ganifled  on  a  recognised  basis.  On  Sept. 
22,  1599,  the  merchants  of  London  held 
a  meeting,  at  which  it  was  resolved  to 
form  an  association  for  the  purpose  of  trad- 
ing with  India,  and  on  Dec.  31  of  the  fol« 
lowing  year,  a  charter  was  granted  to  "  the 


Governors  and  Company  of  the  Merchants 
trading  imto  the  East  Indies,'*  entitling 
them  to  exclusive  trade  with  the  countries 
between  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  the 
Straits^ of  Magellan.  The  first  vessels  de- 
spatched returned  home  with  cargoes  of  cin- 
namon, doves,  and  pepper,  and  realised  96 
per  cent,  profit  on  the  capital  invested.  It 
was  soon  evident  that  tiie  English  would  have 
to  defend  themselves  against  the  jealousy  of 
the  Portuguese  and  Dutch,  and  a  new  charter 
was  granted,  with  stringent  provisions  against 
**  interlopers."  In  1612  Captain  Best,  in 
command  of  a  small  squadron,  was  attacked 
in  the  roadstead  of  Surat  by  a  vastly  superior 
Portuguese  fleet,  but  defended  hixnself  with ' 
such  gallantry  and  effect  that  he  was  not  only 
able  te  land  all  his  goods  at  the  Surat  factory, 
but  obtained  a  confirmation  of  a  commercial 
treaty  between  the  Mogul  Emperor  and  the 
British.  During  the  following  years  subor- 
dinate agencies  wei-e  started  at  Gogra,  Ah- 
medabad,  Cambay,  and  Ajmere,  and  at  various 
places  in  the  Indian  archipelago.  This  led 
to  numerous  broils  with  the  Portuguese  and 
Duteh,  and  our  relations  with  the  latter  were 
greatly  embittered  by  the  cruel  torture  and 
execution  of  Captain  Towerson  and  about 
twenty  sailors,  at  Amboyna,  in  1623.  For 
this  outrage  Uie  Duteh  had  to  pay  £3,616  as 
compensation;  but  from  that  date  until  the 
great  naval  wars,  which  commenced  in  1793, 
they  became  supreme  in  those  parts,  and 
practically  monopolised  the  trade  of  the  Indian 
archipelago.  In  1634  the  Company  obtained 
dkjirman  from  the  Great  Mogul  lor  permission 
to  trade  in  Bengal,  and  the  same  year  saw 
the  expulsion  of  the  Portuguese  from  the 
province.  Five  years  later  Fort  St.  Geoige, 
or  Madras,  was  founded  by  Francis  Day ;  and 
in  1661  Bombay  was  ceded  to  the  British 
crown  as  part  of  the  dowry  of  Catherine  of 
Braganza,  and  was  subsequently  transferred 
by  Charles  II.  to  the  East  India  Company. 
The  separation  of  Bengal  from  Madras,  and 
the  appointment  of  Mr.  Hodges  as  **  agent 
and  governor  "  of  the  Company's  a&iirs,  with 
a  corporal's  guard,  was  the  first  beginning 
out  of  which  arose  the  appointment  of  Sir 
John  Child  as  the  first  titular  Governor- 
General  of  India,  with  full  power  to  make 
war  or  peace.  A  few  years  later  the  famous 
resolution  was  passed  by  the  Company  which 
was  destined  to  turn  their  clerks  and  factors 
throughout  India  into  conquerors  and  pro- 
consuls, and  which  ran  thus : — '*  The  increase 
of  our  revenue  is  the  subject  of  our  care,  as 
much  as  our  trade;  His  that  must  maintftin 
our  force  when  twenty  accidente  may  inter- 
rupt our  trade;  'tis  that  must  make  us  a 
nation  in  India.  Without  that,  we  are  but  a 
great  number  of  interlopers,  united  by  his 
Majesty's  royal  charter,  fit  only  to  trade 
where  nobody  of  power  thinks  it  their  interest 
to  prevent  us.  And  upon  this  account  it  is 
that  thd  wise  Duteh,  in  all  their  general 


ZnA 


(  692  ) 


Xnd 


adyices  that  we  have  seen,  write  ten  para- 
graphs  concerning  their  government,  their 
civu  and  military  policy,  warfare,  and  the 
increase  of  their  revenue,  for  one  paragraph 
they  write  concerning  trade/* 

Our  earliest  territorial  possession  in  India 
properly  so-called  was  Madras,  which,  as 
mentioned  above,  was  founded  by  Da^-  and 
purchased  from  the  Kajah  of  Chandragiri,  an 
annual  rent  of  about  £500  being  duly  paid 
to  the  representatives  of  the  Mog^  Empire. 
On  the  death  of  Aunmgzebe,  in  1707,  Southern 
India  broke  up  into  a  number  of  minor  states. 
In  1744,  war  broke  out  between  the  French 
and  English,  Dupleix  being  at  that  time 
Governor  of  Poncficherry,  and  Clive  a  young 
writer  at  Madras;  and  two  years  later  Madras 
surrendered  to  a  French  squadron,  under  La 
Bourdonnais.  Indecisive  hostilities  followed, 
but  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  1748, 
restored  Madras  to  the  English.  Their  first 
successes  had,  however,  inspired  Dupleix 
with  the  ambition  of  founding  a  French 
empire  in  India,  under  the  shadow  of  the 
Mohammedan  powers.  At  Hyderabad  and 
Arcot  the  successions  were  in  dispute,  and 
the  English  and  French  favoured  the 
claims  of  rival  candidates  to  the  throne  of 
Arcot.  A  war  ensued,  the  chief  incident  of 
which  was  the  capture  and  subsequent  defenee 
of  Arcot  in  1751  by  Clive.  For  some  years 
it  continued,  and  culminated  in  1760  in  a 
final  struggle,  whicJi  was  crowned  by  the 
decisive  \ictory  obtained  by  Colonel  (after- 
wards Sir  Eyre)  Cooto  at  Wandowash  over 
the  French.  Pondicherry  and  Ginjee  sub- 
sequently capitulated,  and  the  French  were 
expelled  from  Hindostan. 

To  turn  to  the  course  of  events  in  Bengal, 
in  1740  Ali  Vardi  Khan,  a  usurper,  but  the 
last  of  the  great  Nawabs  of  Bengal,  ruled 
over  Bengal,  and  in  his  days  the  Mahratta 
horsemen  began  to  ravage  up  to  the  walls  of 
Calcutta.  The  "  Mahratta  ditch,"  constructed 
to  keep  them  off,  still  bears  the  old  name. 
Ali  Vardi  Khan's  grandson,  Surajah  Dowlah, 
a  youth  of  ferocious  temper,  marched  on  Cal- 
cutta with  a  large  army  in  pursuit  of  an 
escaped  kinsman  who  had  aggrieved  him,  and 
thrust  the  remnant  of  the  English  who  failed 
to  fly  at  his  approach  into  the  "  Black  Hole," 
or  militaiy  prison  of  Fort  William.  Out  of 
146  who  were  imprisoned  therein  during  that 
fatal  night  in  Juni^,  only  twenty-three  sur- 
vived. Clive  and  Admii'al  Watson  promptly 
sailed  from  Madras  to  the  Ganges,  and  the 
speedy  recovery  of  Calcutta  with  but  little 
fighting  induced  the  Nawab  to  conclude  a 
peace  advantageous  to  the  Company.  But 
the  outbreak  of  hostilities  between  the  Eng- 
lish and  Fi-ench  found  Surajah  Dowlah 
ranged  on  the  side  of  the  latter.  With  a 
force  far  inferior  to  that  of  his  adversary, 
Clive  marched  out  to  the  grove  of  Plassey, 
and  there  by  dint  of  a  daring  attack  on  an 
angle  of  the  camp,  routed  the  Nawab*s  host 


(1757).  Meer  Jaffier,  Olive's  nominee,  was 
placed  on  the  viceregal  throne  at  Moorsheda- 
bad,  and  enormous  sums,  aggregating  many 
millions,  were  exacted  as  the  price  of  this 
honour.  The  same  year  the  Nawab  made 
a  grant  to  the  Compapy  of  the  landholders* 
rights  over  the  district  of  the  Twenty-four 
Pergunnahs,  an  extensive  tract  around  Cal- 
cutta amounting  to  882  square  miles. 

In  1758  Clive  was  appointed  the  first 
governor  of  aU  the  Company's  settlements  in 
Bengal,  and  defeated  the  Shahzada,  or  im- 
perial prince,  who  with  the  aid  of  the  Nawab 
Vizier  of  Oude,  was  marching  on  the  lower 
provinces  of  Bengal.  He  next  despatched  a 
force  under  Colonel  Forde  to  Madras,  and 
finally  crushed  French  infiuence  throughout 
the  Nizam's  territories.  The  return  of  Clive 
to  England  was  followed  by  the  dethrone- 
ment of  Meer  Jaffier,  and  the  substitution  of 
Meer  Cossim,  his  son-in-law,  in  his  place. 
The  new  ruler,  however,  began  to  show  signs 
of  wishing  to  become  independent,  and  having 
retired  to  Monghyr,  proceeded  to  oi^ganise 
his  army  after  the  European  fashion,  and 
to  ally  himself  with  the  Vizier  of  Oude. 
The  trade  privileges  arrogated  to  themselves 
by  the  Company's  servants  formed  a  sub- 
stantial grievance,  and  when  the  majority 
of  the  council  at  Calcutta  (in  spite  of  the 
wish  of  ^Ir.  Vansittart,  the  governor,  and 
Warren  Hastings,  a  junior  member  of  the 
council,  to  make  some  concession)  refused  to 
listen  to  the  Nawab,  the  officers  of  the  latter 
fired  upon  an  English  boat,  and  war  arose. 
A  massacre  of  Englishmen  and  Sepoys  took 

Slace  at  Patna ;  and  though  checked  by  two 
efeats  by  Major  Adams,  the  Vizier  of 
Oude  and  Shah  Athim,  who  had  succeeded 
as  emperor,  threatened  Patna.  It  was  at 
this  juncture  that  the  first  Sepoy  mutiny, 
quelled  eventually  by  Major  Munro,  broke 
out  in  the  Engnsh  camp.  The  battle  of 
Buxar,  won  bv  the  same  officer  in  1764, 
brought  the  ruler  of  Oude  and  the  Mogul 
emperor  to  the  feet  of  the  British. 

The  following  year  Clive  (now  Baron  Clive 
of  Plassey,  and  for  the  second  time  Governor 
of  Bengal)  proceeded  to  Allahabad,  and  re- 
stored Oude  to  the  Nawab  Vizier  on  payment 
of  half  a  million  sterling.  The  dewannee,  or 
fiscal  administration  of  Bengal,  Behar,  and 
Orissa,  and  the  territorial  jurisdiction  of  the 
Northern  Circars  were  granted  to  ihe  Com- 
pany, a  puppet  Nawab  was  maintained  by 
us  on  an  allowance  at  Moorshedabad,  and  a 
tribute  paid  to  the  emperor.  Thus  the 
English  received  the  revenue  and  maintained 
the  army,  and  the  criminal  jurisdiction  was 
vested  in  the  Nawab.  A  great  reform  was 
carried  out  by  Clive  in  the  reorganisation  of 
the  Company's  service,  their  paltrj*  salaries 
having  led  to  much  bribery  and  venality. 
Private  trade  and  the  acceptance  of  presents 
were  prohibited  for  the  future,  while  salaries 
were  increased  out  of  the  salt  monopoly. 


Xnd 


(  698  ) 


Znd 


Lord  Clive  left  India  for  the  last  time  in 
1767.  Five  years  later  Warren  Hastings 
avumed  the  governorship,  the  interval  having 
been  marked  by  a  disastrous  famine  (1770), 
which  is  believed  to  have  carried  off  one-thira 
of  the  inhabitants.  Warren  Hastings  abolished 
the  dual  system  of  government,  removed  the 
exchequer  from  Moorshedabad  to  Calcutta, 
and  appointed  English  collectors  to  see  to  the 
collection  of  the  revenues  and  the  adminis- 
tration of  justice.  He  also  created  the 
nucleus  of  a  police.  He  was,  however,  much 
thwarted  in  his  reforms  by  the  wars  forced  on 
him  by  native  princes,  by  the  incessantpressure 
from  home  for  money,  and  the  constant  oppo- 
sition of  his  colleague  in  council,  Philip 
Francis.  Hastings  reduced  the  large  allow- 
ance paid  to  the  Nawab ;  he  resold  to  the 
A^izier  of  Oude  the  provinces  of  AUidiabad 
and  Kora,  formerly  assigned  by  Clive  to  the 
Emperor  Shah  Allum,  but  forfeited,  as  Hastings 
contended,  by  the  seizure  of  the  emperor  by 
the  Mahrattas,  and  withheld  the  tribute  of 
£300,000  from  the  puppet  emperor.  British 
troops  were  also  lent  to  the  Vizier  of  Oude  to 
enable  him  to  put  down  the  BohiUa  Afghans, 
who  had  settled  down  in  his  dominions  since 
Ahmed  Shah's  invasion  (1761),  and  borne 
themselves  with  much  arrogance  and  oppres- 
sion. Warren  Hastings  cdso  improved  the 
financial  position  of  the  Company  by  the  so- 
called  plunder  of  Che3rte  Singh  and  the  Begum 
of  Oude,  transactions  which,  coupled  with 
other  alleged  acts  of  oppression,  formed  the 
ground  of  the  celebrated  impeachment  against 
him  in  the  House  of  I^rds,  proce^ings 
which  dragged  on  their  length  for  seven 
years,  and  eventually  terminated  in  a  verdict 
of  not  guilty.  Warren  Hastings  was  prac- 
tically ruined  by  the  cost  of  the  defence,  and 
left  dependent  on  the  charity  of  the  Court  of 
Directors. 

The  Bombay  government,  being  desirous  of 
seeing  a  nominee  of  its  own  on  the  throne  of 
Poonah,  concluded  in  1 775  the  Treaty  of  Surat, 
by  which  Ragunath  Rao  agreed  to  cede 
Salsette  and  Bassein  in  consideration  of  being 
recognised  as  the  sovereign.  Hastings  dis- 
approved of  the  treaty,  but  on  the  outbreak 
oi  the  war  (known  as  the  first  l^fahratta  War) 
despatched  energetic  officers  across  the  penin- 
sula, who  conquered  Guzerat,  and  captmred 
the  rock  fortress  of  Gwalior.  The  reverse 
sustained  by  the  Bombay  force,  however, 
equalised  matters,  and  the  Treaty  of  Salbai 
mctically  restored  the  status  quo.  Meantime 
Hyder  Ali  of  Mysore,  whose  hostility  had 
been  roused,  fell  upon  the  British  possessions 
in  the  Camatic,  and  his  cavalry  ravaged  the 
country  up  to  Madras.  The  aged  Sir  Eyre 
Coote,  the  victor  of  Wandewash,  with  the  aid 
of  Colonel  Pearse,  hastened  to  the  scene,  but 
the  contest  was  a  tough  one,  and  the  peace 
concluded  with  Tippoo,  Ryder's  son  and 
successor,  was  based  on  a  mutual  restitution 
of  all  conquests* 


In  1786  Hastings  was  succeeded  by  Lord 
Comwallis  as.  Governor-General.  His  ad- 
ministration was  signalised  by  two  events — 
the  introduction  of  the  Permanent  Settlement 
into  Bengal,  and  the  second  Mysore  War.  The 
permanent  settlement  of  the  land  revenue  of 
Bengal  appears  to  have  recommended  itself  to 
the  Court  of  Directors  at  home  mainly  from  a 
desire  toplace  their  finances  on  a  more  assured 
basis.  This  assessment  began  in  1789  and 
terminated  in  1791,  and  though  at  first 
intended  to  be  decennial,  was  madepeiinanent 
in  1793,  a  step  which  practically  inflicted 
enormous  loss  on  the  Indian  government  by 
fixing  in  perpetuum  at  a  low  standard  that  tax 
which,  according  to  all  economic  principles, 
should  be  proportioned  to  the  increasing  value 
of  the  land. 

The  second  Mysore  War  of  1790 — 92  was 
undertaken  by  Lord  Comwallis  in  person  at 
the  head  of  the  British  army,  the  Nizam  of 
the  Deccan  and  the  Mahratta  confederacy 
being  allied  to  the  British.  It  resulted  in 
the  partition  of  half  of  Tippoo^s  dominions 
among  the  allies,  and  the  payment  of  threo 
millions  sterling  as  indemnity. 

Lord  Momington,  better  known  as  the 
Marquis  of  Wellesley,  laid  down  during  his 
rule  the  guiding  principle  that  the  English 
must  be  the  one  paramount  power  in  India, 
and  the  gradual  development  of  this  polic}'^ 
hajB  since  culminated  in  the  proclamation  of 
Queen  Victoria  as  Empress  of  India  on  the 
1st  January,  1877.  The  presence  of  French 
battalions  in  the  native  states,  and  French 
intriguers  in  the  islands  of  l^Iauritius  and 
Bourbon,  as  well  as  in  Hindostan  itself, 
suggested  to  Lord  Wellesley  the  idea  of 
frustrating  all  possibility  of  a  French  invasion 
of  India  by  crushing  their  hopes  there.  The 
Mog^  empire  was  quite  broken  up,  so  the 
task  of  establishing  our  supremacy  in  northern 
India  was  at  first  easy.  By  the  Treaty  of 
Lucknow  a  large  tract  of  territory  was  ceded 
to  us  b^  the  Nawab  Yizier  of  Oude,  in  lieu  of 
a  subsidy  for  British  troops,'  and  we  thus 
became  territorial  rulers  as  far  as  the  heart  of 
the  North- West  Provinces.  Beyond  was  the 
confederacy  of  the  Mahrattas,  with  the  puppet 
emperor  in  their  hands,  and  farther  to  the 
south  the  Nizam  of  Hyderabad,  and  the 
defeated,  but  not  subdued,  Tippoo  Sultan  of 
Mysore.  The  Nizam  was  easily  dealt  with ; 
his  French  battalion  at  Hyderabad  was  dis- 
banded, and  the  Nizam  bound  by  treaty  not 
to  take  any  European  into  his  service  without 
the  consent  of  the  English  government,  a 
clause  of  universal  application  nowadays  in 
the  treaties  with  native  states.  Tippoo^s  turn 
came  next,  and  on  his  refusal  to  abandon 
his  intrigues,  and  throw  in  his  lot  loj'ally  with 
the  British,  war  was  declared.  The  decisive 
event  was  the  capture  of  Tippoo's  stronghold, 
Seringapatam,  where  Tippoo  died  bravely 
fighting  in  the  breach  (May  4,  1799).  The 
victory  created  a  profound  impression  on  the 


Xnd 


(694) 


Ind 


natives,  and  earned  Greneial  Harris  a  peerage, 
and  Wellesley  a  marquisate.  Tippoo's  do- 
minions were  partially  partitioned  among  the 
Nizams,  the  Mahrattas,  and  the  English,  and 
the  central  portion  (Mysore)  erected  into  a  sepa- 
rate state,  under  a  descendant  of  the  Hindoo 
Rajahs,  whom  Hyder  Ali  had  dethroned.  The 
sons  of  Tippoo  were  treated  with  high  con- 
sideration. 

The  Mahrattas,  however,  still  held  aloof, 
and  Wellesley  addressed  himself  to  the  task 
of  bringing  them  into  the  net  of  his  subsidiary 
system.  The  Peishwa  of  Poonah,  the  recognised 
head  of  the  confederacy,  after  being  defeated 
by  Holkar,  was  induced  to  sign  a  treaty  with 
the  British,  greatly  extendingour  influence  in 
the  Bombay  Presidency.  This  led  to  the 
second  IMahratta  War  (1802 — 4),  onb  of  the 
most  noteworthy  of  our  campaigns  in  the 
East.  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  (afterwards  Duke 
of  Wellington)  and  General  (afterwards  Lord) 
Lake  led  the  armies,  and  the  former  in  the 
Deccan  soon  won  the  battles  of  Assaye  and 
Argaum,  and  captured  Ahmednugger.  Lord 
Lake  in  Hindostan  fought  with  equal  courage 
and  success,  winning  the  battles  of  Alig^rh 
and  Laswaree,  and  capturing  Delhi  and  Agra. 
ScindiaVs  French  troops  were  dispersed,  and 
he  himself  ceded  all  territory  north  of  the 
Jumna  to  the  British,  while  the  old  emj)eror, 
Shah  AUum,  came  once  more  under  our  pro* 
tection.  Orissa  fell  under  our  rule,  and 
Berar  was  handed  over  to  the  Nizam.  The 
latter  years  of  Lord  Wellesley^s  rule  were 
marked  by  reverses,  including  the  repulse  of 
Lake  before  Bhurtpore.;  but,  nevertheless,  the 
result  of  the  administration  was  to  add  the 
North- West  Provinces  to  our  dominions,  to 
reduce  the  Peishwa,  and  constitute  the  Madras 
Presidency  pretty  much  as  it  is  at  present. 

Lord  WeUesley*s  successor  was  Lord  Com- 
walUs,  now  an  old  man,  whose  policy  during 
his  second  and  short  tenure  of  office  was  to 
practice  economy  and  relieve  the  financial 
pressure  caused  by  prolonged  military  opera- 
tions. The  safne  policy  was  followed  by  Sir 
G.  Barlow  (1805),  but  on  Lord  Minto's  arrival 
(1807)  more  resolute  counsels  prevailed,  and 
though  enjoined  to  abstain  from  drawing  the 
swora,  he  managed  to  consolidate  Wellesley's 
conquests.  The  islands  of  Mauritius  and 
Java  were  occupied  by  us,  and  friendly 
missions  were  despatched  to  the  Punjaub, 
Afghanistan,  and  Persia.  Lord  Moira,  after- 
wards Marquis  Hastings,  was  in  power  for 
nine  years  (1814 — 23),  during  which  period 
two  important  wars  were  wa^ed  against  the 
Goorkha  mountaineers,  or  inhabitants  of 
Nepaul,  and  against  the  Pindarries  and 
Mahrattas.  The  first  campaign  against  the 
former,  waged  in  an  unhealthy  and  difficult 
country,  was  unsuccessful;  but  iu  the  cold 
weather  of  1814  General  Ochterlony  com- 
pelled the  Nepaulese  to  sue  for  peace,  and  in 
the  following  year,  after  a  brilliant  march 
from  Patna,  forcibly  imposed  his  terms  on 


them  within  a  few  miles  of  Ehatmandoo,  the 
capltaL 

In  the  meantime  Central  India  waa  being 
overrun  by  the  Pindarries,  a  mixed  nationality 
of  plundering  bands,  which  appeared  to  have 
sprung  out  of  the  debris  of  the  Mogul 
empire,  and  which  were  supported  by  the 
sympathy  of  the  Mahratta  chiefs.  Lord 
Hastings  collected  an  enormous  army,  num- 
bering 120,000  men,  and  effectually  crushed 
them(l8 1 7 ) ,  but  this  success  was  coincident  with 
the  rising  of  the  three  great  Mahratta  powers 
at  Poona]^,  Nagpore,  and  Indore.  Elphinstone, 
our  Resident  at  the  court  of  the  Peishwa, 
having  withdrawn  to  Kirkee,  was  attacked  by 
that  ruler,  but  managed  to  repulse  the 
onslaught.  Holkar*s  army  was  defeated  the 
following  month  at  the  battle  of  Mehidpore, 
and  the  fugitives  having  been  followed  up 
and  dispersed,  a  pacification  was  establishe<C 
in  which  Sir  John  Malcolm  was  one  of  the 
chief  actors.  The  territory  of  the  Peishwa 
was  annexed  to  the  Bombay  Presidency,  and 
he  himself  pensioned. 

Lord  Amherst's  administration  from  1823  to 
1828  was  signalised  by  the  first  Burmese  War; 
operations  rendered  necessary  by  the  aggres- 
sions of  the  King  of  Ava.  The  Burmese  were 
in  no  way  formidable  in  themselves,  but  the 
unhealthy  character  of  the  country  lost  us 
about 20, 000  lives  and  £14,000,000  during  the 
two  years  of  hostilities.  The  Treaty  of 
Yandaboo  ceded  the  provinces  of  Aracan  and 
Tenasserim  to  the  British,  the  king  retaining 
the  valley  of  the  Irrawaddy.  Another  impor- 
tant event  was  the  capture  of  Bhurtpore, 
which  had  baffled  the  army  of  Lord  Lake  in 
1805,  and  which,  protected  by  its  impene- 
trable massive  mud  walls,  was  regarded  as 
impregnable. 

The  history  of  the  British  as  benevolent 
administrators  ruling  with  a  single  eye  to  the 
good  of  the  natives  may  be  said  to  have  beg^un 
with  Lord  William  Bentinck.  He  restored 
equilibrium  to  the  budget,  crippled  by  the 
Burmese  War,  by  various  important  financial 
measures,  and  abolished  mttee,  or  widow- 
burning,  and  the  thuffSf  or  hereditary  assassinBy 
two  institutions  which  had  shockingly  cor- 
rupted the  social  syvtem  of  the  Hindoos.  It  is 
scarcely  surprising  to  any  stud^it  of  Indian 
history  to  find  t£at  even  such  detestable 
practices  as  these  found  supporters  among^ 
Europeans  as  well  as  natives.  In  1833  the 
East  India  (Company's  charter  was  renewed 
for  twenty  years,  but  on  condition  the  Com- 
pany should  abimdon  its  trade  and  permit 
Europeans  to  settie  in  the  country.  [East 
India  Company.]  Other  events  of  Lord 
William  Bentinck's  administration  were  the 
appointment  of  a  commission  to  codify  the 
law,  the  placing  of  the  native  state  of  l^^rsore 
under  British  rule  ( 1 830) ,  and  the  annexationof 
Coorg,  with  the  full  consent  of  the  inhabitants. 

After  a  brief  interregnum,  during  which 
Sir  Charles  (afterwards  Lord)  MetcaJfe,  the 


Xad 


(  695  ) 


Xnd 


senior  member  of  council,  held  the  yice- 
royalty,  Lord  Auckland  (1836 — 42)  began  his 
rule,  which  is  conspicuous  for  the  memorable 
Afghan  War,  the  outcome  of  an  ill-advised 
resolution  on  the  part  of  the  British  to  place 
on  the  Afghan  throne  Shah  Soojah  as  one 
who  would  prove  a  subservient  tool  in  the 
repression  of  French  and  Russian  influence  in 
Asia.  For  fuller  details  of  all  these  events, 
which  led  to  the  disastrous  retreat  from  Cabul 
see  Afghan  Wars  (1).  The  news  reached 
Calcutta  just  before  Lord  £llenborough*s  ac- 
cession, and  the  retributive  expedition  of 
Pollock  took  place  the  same  year.  The  follow- 
ing year  saw  the  conquest  of  the  Ameei's  of 
Scinde  by  Sir  Charles  Napier,  whose  defeat  of 
20,000  Beloochees  with  only  3,000  British  at 
Meanee,  is  one  of  the  most  brilliant  feats  in 
Anglo-Indian  history.  In  1844  Lord  Ellen- 
borough  was  recalled  and  succeeded  by  Sir 
Henry  (afterwards  Lord)  Hardinge,  whose  ar- 
rival was  followed,  at  no  long  interval,  by  the 
Sikh  War,  a  contingency  which  had  been  fore- 
seen by  most  ever  since  the  death  of  Eunjeet 
Singh,  the  capable  and  energetic  founder  of 
the  Sikh  kingdom.  It  was  in  1845  that  Sir 
Hugh  Gough  advanced  to  confront  the  Sikh 
army,  numbering  60,000  men,  with  150  guns. 
The  battles  of  Moodkee,  Ferozeshar,  Aliwal, 
and  Sobraon  followed  in  quick  succession,  and 
the  country  was  at  the  feet  of  the  British. 
Dhuleep  Singh,  the  infant  son  of  Runleet, 
was  recognised  as  Rajah ;  a  British  Resident, 
supported  by  a  Briti^  force,  was  sent  to  the 
Punjaub. 

Probably,  however,  the  most  important 
results  ensued  from  the  administration  of 
Lord  Dalhousie  (1848 — 56).  Though  sincerely 
desirous  of  peace,  and  of  advancing  the  moral 
and  material  condition  of  the  country,  Bal- 
housie  found  himself  compelled  to  tight  two 
wars  and  to  annex  extensive  territory  in  the 
Punjaub,  Burmah,  as  well  as  Nagpore,  Oude, 
and  other  minor  states.  At  the  same  time  he 
founded  the  Public  Works  Department  with 
a  view  to  creating  the  network  of  roads  and 
canals  now  covering  India.  He  opened  the 
Granges  Canal,  the  largest  irrigation  work  in 
India,  and  turned  the  sod  of  the  first  railway. 
He  promoted  steam  communication  with 
England  via  the  Red  Sea,  and  introduced  cheap 
postage  and  the  electric  telegraph.  The  second 
Sikh  War  (1848— 49)  was  marked  by  the  disas- 
ter  of  Chilianwallah,  but  before  reinforcements 
from  England  arrived,  Mooltan  fell ;  and  Lord 
Gough  well  nigh  destroyed  the  Sikh  army  at 
the  battle  of  Gujerat.  The  Punjaub  became 
a  British  province,  and  thanks  mainly  to  the 
successful  labours  of  the  two  Lawrences 
and  Colonel  (afterwards  Lord)  Napier,  became 
so  contented  and  proffperous  that  the  Indian 
Mutiny  failed  to  turn  its  populace  into  rebels. 
The  second  Burmese  War  in  1852  arose  out 
ot  the  ill  treatment  of  some  merchants  at 
Rangoon,  and  resulted  in  the  annexation  of 
the  valley  of  the  Irrawaddy,  under  the  name 


of  the  province  of  Pegu,  since  which  time 
British  Burmah  has  made  the  most  astonish- 
strides  in  material  development.  For 
statistics  we  must  refer  our  readers  to 
the  Provincial  Administration  Reports,  which 
bear  witness  to  a  more  rapid  national  pro- 
gress than  any  other  part  of  India  can  boast 
of.  Lord  Dalhousie  annexed  several  native 
states,  including  Nagpore  and  Sattara,  on  the 
principle  that  the  governors  exist  only  for 
the  good  of  the  governed,  and  that  persistent 
misrule  cannot  justify  the  paramount  power  in 
assenting  to  the  continuance  of  the  same.  Oude 
was  annexed  after  repeated  warnings  issued  to 
the  Nawabs,  whose  degpnaded  rule  had  caused 
great  suffering  to  the  inhabitants.  It  was  his 
last  action  of  importance,  for  in  March,  1856, 
the  marquis  returned  home  and  was  succeeded 
by  Lord  Canning. 

The  leading  events  of  the  Indian  Mutiny 
which  followed,  will  be  foimd  under  the 
article  so  headed.  The  details  have  been 
excellently  told  by  Sir  John  Kaye,  while  the 
share  borne  by  Lord  Lawrence  is  narrated 
in  Mr.  Bosworth  Smith's  Life  of  him. 
The  causes  of  this  great  convulsion  are  still 
obscure,  but  may  be  probably  traced  to  the 
excitable  feelings  of  a  fanatical  though  sub- 
ject race  alarmed  by  the  sight  of  important 
annexations,  such  as  those  which  have  in- 
evitably accompanied  the  development  of  the 
British  power.  The  outbreak  at  Meerut  oc- 
curred on  May  10,  1857,  and  the  mutinous 
Sepoys  hastened  to  Delhi,  which  thus  became 
the  centre  and  rallying  point  of  the  rebellion. 
Under  Lawrence's  strong  hand  the  Punjaub 
was  enabled  not  only  to  hold  its  own,  but 
also  to  send  relays  of  troops  to  Delhi,  which, 
though  held  by  30,000  mutineers,  was  closely 
invested,  and  eventually  captured  by  our 
troops,  numbering  only  one-fourth  of  their 
opponents.  At  Cawnpore  the  Europeans  shut 
themselves  up  in  a  wretched  entrenchment, 
whence  they  emerged,  after  nineteen  days* 
siege,  only  to  fall  victims  to  the  abominable 
tr^hery  and  cruelty  of  the  infamous  Nana 
Sahib.  In  Lucknow,  the  third  town  round 
which  the  events  of  the  Mutiny  group  them- 
selves. Sir  H.  Lawrence  fortified  and  pro- 
visioned the  Residency,  and  with  a  weak 
British  regiment  kept  off  the  besieging  rebels 
till  reliev^  first  by  Havelock,  and  finally  by 
Sir  Colin  Campbell,  afterwards  Lord  Clyde. 
The  people  of  Oude  and  Rohilkhund,  who  had 
risen  en  tnaewy  were  next  attacked  and  van- 
quished by  Colin  Campbell,  while  in  Central 
India  Sir  Hugh  Rose  (aft«:wards  Lord  Strath- 
naim)  conducted  an  equally  successful  cam- 
paign against  the  Ranee,  or  Princess,  of  Jhansi, 
and  Tantia  Topee  [Indian  Mutiny.] 

This  mutiny  led  to  the  extinction  of  the 
East  India  Company,  for  it  was  felt  that  the 
administration  of  India  was  now  a  national 
matter  [East  India  Company];  and  an 
Act  was  passed,  to  g^ve  effect  to  the  assump- 
tion of  the  government  by  the  crown  (1858)* 


Ind 


(  696  ) 


Ind 


The  royal  proclamation  announcing  this 
event  took  place  at  a  grand  durbar  held  by 
Lord  Canning  on  Nov.  1,  1858,  and  on  July  8 
following  peace  was  proclaimed.  The  cost  of 
suppressing  the  Mutiny  had,  however,  been 
80  serious  that  Mr.  James  Wilson,  a  distin- 
guished  financier,  was  sent  out  to  Calcutta 
to  equalise  the  budget.  He  re-organised  the 
customs,  imposed  an  income-tax  and  licence 
duty,  and  created  a  state  paper  currency; 
and,  though  ho  died  before  completing  his 
labours,  what  ho  accomplished  bore  excellent 
fruit. 

Lord  Elgin's  short  rule  (1862—- 63)  was 
succeeded  by  that  of  Sir  John  Lawrence,  who 
3aw  the  Bhotan  War  and  the  ensuing  annexa- 
tion of  the  Duars,  and  the  lamentable  Oiissa 
Famine  of  1866.  The  same  year  was  marked 
by  a  serious  commercial  crisis,  which  injured 
the  rising  tea  industry  in  Bengal,  and  caused 
widespread  ruin  in  Bombay.  Sir  John  Law- 
rence returned  in  1869,  having  passed  through 
every  grade  of  Indian  service,  from  an  assis- 
tant magistrate  to  the  viceroyalty,  and, 
on  retirement,  was  fitly  rewarded  with  a 
peerage. 

Lord  Mayo's  too  brief  tenure  of  office  was 
occupied  with  several  useful  measures,  among 
which  the  creation  of  an  agricultural  depart- 
ment, and  of  a  system  of  provincial  finance, 
stand  out  conspicuously.  Ho  led  the  way  to 
the  reform  of  the  salt  duties,  and  developed 
the  material  resources  of  the  country  by 
roads,  railways,  and  canals.  His  death  at  the 
hand  of  an  assassin  in  the  Andaman  Islands 
(1872)  was  a  cruel  interruption  to  a  career  of 
usefuhiess.  Lord  Northbrook,  his  successor 
(1872 — 76),  had  to  contend  with  a  famine  in 
Lower  Bengal,  which  was  successfully  grappled 
with  by  an  organisation  of  state  reUef .  In 
the  cold  season  of  1875 — 76  the  Prince  of 
AVales  made  a  tour  through  the  country,  and 
"was  greeted,  by  the  feudatory  chiefs  especially, 
with  an  outburst  of  loyalty.  It  was  during 
the  \*iceroyalty  of  Lord  Lj'tton  (1876—80) 
that  the  proclamation  of  the  Queen  as 
Empress  of  India  (Jan.  1,  1877)  gave  oppor- 
tunity for  a  durbar  of  unusual  pomp,  held  on 
the  ridge  above  Delhi.  This  scene  of  rejoic- 
ing was  followed  by  a  disastrous  famine, 
which  prevailed  throughout  the  Deccan  and 
other  parts  of  the  Madras  and  Bombay 
Presidencies,  and  which,  despite  the  best 
efforts  of  the  government,  resulted  in  a  loss 
of  over  five  million  lives.  The  Afghan  War 
of  1878  led  to  the  temporary  occupation 
of  Cabul  and  Candahar  by  the  English 
[Afghan  Wars  (2)].  The  appointment  of  the 
Marquis  of  Ripon  in  the  place  of  Lord  Lytton 
in  1880,  was  followed  by  the  evacuation 
of  Candahar  and  other  Afghan  positions, 
though  it  has  been  clearly  proved  that  the 
former  measure  had  been  fully  determined  on 
by  Lord  Lytton  previous  to  his  resignation. 
Lord  Hipon's  measures  included  a  large 
extension  of  Ijord  Mayo's  system  of  provin- 


cialising the  finances,  which  has  been  attended 
with  the  happiest  results ;  a  scheme  for  the 
enlargement  of  native  self-government,  varied 
according  to  the  requirements  of  the  different 
provinces;  and  a  law  known  as  the  Ilbert 
Act,  which  has  removed  one  of  the  disabilities 
under  which  native  cirilians  laboured  in  regard 
to  their  powers  of  trj'ing  Europeans.  Regard- 
ing this  Act,  controversy  has  been  too  fierce  to 
enable  os  to  venture  a  general  estimate  of  its 
merits  and  demerits :  these  may  safely  be  left 
to  the  judgment  of  posterity.  The  most 
recent  events  which  call  for  notice  in  regard 
to  India  are  the  delimitation,  by  a  commission 
appointed  in  1884,  of  the  northern  frontier  of 
Afghanistan,  which  will,  it  is  hoped,  lead  to  a 
distinct  recognition  of  the  respective  limits  of 
British  and  Russian  influence  in  the  East; 
and  the  expedition  to  Chitral  in  1895. 

The  chief  works  to  which  readers  may  be 
referred  for  a  detailed  knowledfre  of  Indian 
history  ore  the  Imperial  Qwutteer  of  India 
(Hunter),  to  which  we  are  mainly  indebted  for 
the  facts  ahove  narrated ;  Sir  G.  Birdwood, 
Report  on  Old  Records  in  the  India  Ojficej  Mill, 
History  of  frituh  India,  continued  by  Wilson ; 
Low,  Hiatori/  of  the  Indian  Navy;  Orme, 
Indostau;  Molleson,  Bisiory  of  Oie  French  in 
India;  Aitchison,  Treaties  and  Engagements; 
Arnold,  ^dmtniattction  of  LordDalhouste;  Koye, 
Sepoy  War,  continued  by  Colonel  Mallesou; 
and  Sosworth  Smith,  Life  of  Lord  Laterenee. 

Ooveritors-Gehsbai.  of  Ivoia. 

Warren  Hastings 1774 

Sir  John  Macpherson 1785 

Marquis  Comwallis 1786 

Sir  John  Shore 1793 

Sir  Alured  Clarice 1798 

Marquis  Wellesley 1798 

Marquis  Comwallis 1805 

Sir  Oeorffe  Barlow 1805 

EorlofMiuto 1807 

Marquis  of  Hastings 1813 

Mr.  Adam    ....         Jan.  1— Aug.  1, 1823 

LordAmhent 1823 

Lord  William  Bentinck 1828 

Sir  Charles  Metcalfe 1835 

Earl  of  Auckland 1836 

Earl  of  Ellenboroogh 1812 

Viscount  Hardiuge 1845 

Marquis  of  Dalhonsie 1848 

Earl  of  Canning 1856 

Earl  of  Elgin 1862 

Sir  John  Lawrence 1864 

Earl  of  Mayo 1869 

Lord  Northbrook 1872 

Earl  Lytton 1876 

Marqms  of  Ripon       ......  18^ 

Earl  of  I>ufrerin 1884 

Marquis  of  Lansdowne 1888 

Earl  of  Elgin 1894 

[C.  E.  B.] 

Indian  Mutiny,  The  (1867—58).  The 
causes  of  the  Indian  Mutiny  are  difficult 
to  estimate,  hut  it  may  he  safely  assert4?d 
that  it  was  to  a  large  extent  due  to  the  very 
rapid  prog^-ess  which  European  civilisation 
had  of  late  years  been  making  in  Hindostan, 
a  civilisation  which  threatened  to  swallow 
or  assimilate  all  the  native  institutions  of  the 
country.  Under  Lord  Dalhousie  (1848 — 56) 
the  Punjaub  and  Oude  had  been  annexed,  and 
it  might  well  seem  to  an  Indian  mind  that 
the  English  were  bent  on  entirely  subduing 


Xnd 


(697) 


Znd 


the  whole  of  Hindostan,  regardless  of  the 
dictates  of  faith  or  justice.  About  the  same 
time  a  rumour  was  in  circulation  which  limited 
the  term  of  English  rule  to  one  hundred  years 
from  the  date  of  the  battle  of  Plassey  <17a7). 
The  Sepoy  troops  had  learnt  to  know  their 
own  worthy  and  having  fought  battles  and 
won  victories  under  English  generalship,  con- 
ceived that  their  success  was  solely  due  to 
their  own  valour,  and  fancied  that  they  held 
the  destiny  of  India  in  their  own  hands. 
Added  to  this,  in  the  deposed  King  of  Delhi, 
Bahadur  Shah,  there  was  an  ever-festering 
canker  of  rebellion  and  centre  of  disaffection 
which  was  just  now  rendered  mOre  dangerous 
than  ever  by  Lord  Dalhousie's  threat  of 
removing  the  Mogul's  family  from  its  old 
seat  at  Delhi.  Finally,  to  set  in  flame  all 
the  smouldering  ashes  of  discontent,  there 
came  the  story  that  the  cartridges  of  the 
new  Enfield  rifles  which  were  just  then 
being  introduced  among  the  Tiative  troops 
were  greased  with  the  fat  of  beef  or  pork^ 
and  were  thus  rendered  unclean  for  Mo- 
hammedan and  Hindoo  alike.  The  rebel- 
lion broke  out  with  the  incendiary  fires  at 
Barrackpore  in  January,  1857.  The  Sepoys 
here  conceived  that  the  new  cartridges  were 
being  distributed  with  the  sole  object  of 
destroying  their  caste,  and  on  Feb.  26  they 
broke  into  open  mutiny.  Though  they  were 
restrained  from  violence  and  disbanded,  these 
men  carried  the  evil  report  through  Oude 
and  Bundelkhund,  inflaming  the  minds  of 
the  |)eople.  On  May  16  a  proclamation 
was  issued  by  Lord  Canning,  denying  these 
reports  and  warning  the  people  against  them. 
On  May  10  the  mutiny  broke  out  at  Meerut, 
being  preceded  by  incendiary  fires.  The  1 1th 
and  20th  Begiments  of  Native  Infantry  and^ 
the  3rd  Cavalry  rose,  massacred  their  officers,* 
and  marched  off  to  Delhi  The  people  of  that 
city  rose  at  once  and  butchered  the  Europeans. 
The  38th,  64th,  and  74th  caught  the  infection, 
shot  their  officers,  and  marching  into  the  city, 
saluted  the  king.  Meanwhile  Nana  Sahib  was 
pat>ceeding  through  Oude  and  the  North-West 
Provinces  fanning  the  flame.  In  Oude  the 
mistakes  of  Mr.  Jackson  had  made  the  govern- 
ment unpopular,  and  Sir  Henry  Lawrence, 
the  new  commissioner,  was  unable  to  remove 
the  impression.  In  May,  risings  took  place  at 
Ferozepore,  at  Lahore,  and  Peshawur,  but 
were  put  down  with  severity  by  Sir  John 
Lawrence  and  his  subordinates,  who  armed 
the  Sikhs,  and  with  their  help  reduced  the 
Sepoys.  The  Punjaub  thus  remained  faithful, 
and  Lawrence  was  able  to  send  a  strong  body 
of  Sikhs  to  aid  in  the  siege  of  Delhi.  On  the 
17th  the  commander-in-chief  prepared  to 
advance  on  Delhi,  and  on  June  10,  Sir  Henry 
Barnard,  his  successor,  advanced  to  within 
four  miles  of  Delhi,  where  he  was  joined  by 
Brigadier  Archdale  Wilaon  from  Meerut. 
Meanwhile,  all  through  Oude,  the  Doab,  and 
Bundelkhund,  the  rebellion  broke  out  accom- 


Snied  by  massacres.  In  Bajpootana  and 
alwa  the  native  princes  for  the  most  part 
remained  &ithful,  but  Scindiah^s  and  Hol- 
kar*s  body-guards  mutinied,  and  the  widowed 
Banee  of  Jhansi  headed  an  outbreak  in  her 
annexed  principality.  At  Cawnpore  the  mutiny 
broke  out,  under  Nana  Sahib,  June  5,  and 
ended  in  a  ghastly  massacre.  At  Lucknow  the 
foresight  of  Sir  Henry  Lawrence  enabled  the 
English  garrison  to  hold  out  against  the 
rebels  till  relieved  by  Outram.  But  the  great 
point  of  anxiety  was  Delhi,  where  all  the 
mutinied  Sepoy  regiments  were  assembling 
in  a  final  efi^ort  to  restore  the  ancient  dynasty 
of  the  Moguls.  On  June  8  Sir  Henry  Barnard 
invested  Delhi,  and  on  June  13  an  unsuccess- 
ful attempt  was  made  to  capture  the  city  by 
blowing  the  gates  open.  The  besiegers  were 
exposed  to  rear  attacks  from  mutinied  regi- 
ments who  kept  arriving.  The  energy  of 
Lawrence,  however,  now  made  itself  felt; 
new  Sikh  levies  came  pouring  in,  bringing 
supplies,  stores,  money,  and  all  necessaries. 
On  July  17,  owing  to  the  death  of  Sir  H. 
Barnard,  Archdale  Wilson  took  the  command ; 
on  Sept.  6  a  heavy  siege- trdin  arrived,  and 
on  the  20th,  after  a  severe  struggle,  Delhi 
was  won  [Delhi,  Sieob  of,  1867].  Mean- 
while Havelock  had  marched  into  Cawn- 
pore (July  17),  after  defeating  the  Nana, 
but  only  to  find  the  prisoners  massacred 
as  at  Jhansi.  Leaving  Neill  to  punish 
the  rebels,  he  endeavoured  to  advance  to  the 
relief  of  Lucknow,  but  was  compelled  to 
retire,  Aug.  13.  On  Sept.  16,  however,  a 
grand  army  marched  on  Lucknow,  and  on  the 
24th  Havelock  and  Outram  entered  the  be- 
sieged Residency  with  their  reinforcements. 
On  Sept.  10  Brigadier  Greathed,  by  a  forced 
march,  surprised  the  mutinous  troops  from 
Bajpootana  and  Ag^  and  routed  them, 
scattering  them  in  a  disorderly  flight.  Similar 
successes  were  obtained  in  Malwa,  Berar,  and 
elsewhere,  and  these  were  crowned  in  No- 
vember by  the  final  relief  of  Lucknow, 
achieved  by  Sir  Colin  Campbell  (Nov.,  1867), 
who  had  arrived  in  India  as  commander-in- 
chief  in  August.  Meanwhile  the  Gwalior  Con- 
tingent, under  Tantia  Topee,  had  advanced  on 
Cawnpore,  and  driven  General  Windham  into 
his  entrenchments,  and  it  was  only  by  a  hurried 
march  that  Campbell  could  come  to  his  assis- 
tance before  the  bridge  over  the  Ganges  was 
broken  down.  By  the  end  of  the  year  1867  the 
rebellion  in  Bengal  had  been  to  a  great  extent 
stamped  out,  and  the  future  war  was  restricted 
to  Oude,  Rohilkhund,  parts  of  Bundelkhund, 
and  Central  India.  In  Dacca,  Mhow,  In- 
dore,  Ferruckabad,  and  elsewhere,  order  had 
been  restored ;  Outram  was  holding  his  own 
against  the  garrison  of  Lucknow,  and  Saugor, 
faithful  to  the  last,  would  serve  as  a  centre 
for  operations  in  Central  India.  At  the 
beginxiing  of  the  year  (1868)  Mahomed  Baha- 
dur Shah,  the  last  of  the  Moguls,  being  con- 
victed of  treason  and  murder,  was  transported 


Xnd 


(  698  ) 


Xna 


to  Bnrmah.  During  January  and  February 
Sir  Colin  Campbell  occupied  himself  with 
clearing  Oude  and  Rohilkbund.  In  March 
he  made  for  Lucknow,  and  after  a  severe 
struggle  wrested  the  city  from  the  enemy's 
hanoB.  On  May  6,  Sir  Colin  Campbell  suc- 
ceeded in  crushing  the  revolt  in  Rohilkhund, 
but  the  rebel  leaders  and  many  of  their 
followers  escaped.  Meanwhile,  the  Bombay 
division,  under  Sir  Hugh  Rose,  had  advanced 
steadily  into  Central  India  to  the  relief  of 
Saugor,  and  soon  defeated  the  rebels  at  the 
pass  of  Muddunpore.  General  Roberts  and 
Whitlock  were  marching  triumphantly  through 
Malwa  and  Bundelkhund ;  on  April  1  Sir  H. 
Rose  defeated  Tantia  Topee,  who  was  marching 
on  Jhansi,  and  two  days  later  he  stormed  and 
took  the  fort  of  Jhansi.  On  May  7  he  at- 
tacked and  routed  the  united  armies  of  Tan- 
tia Topee  and  the  Ranee  of  Jhansi,  and  on 
May  23,  after  a  severe  struggle,  he  assaulted 
and  captured  the  strong  fori;  of  Ealpy. 
Tantia  Topee  now  proceeded  to  Gwalior  and 
organised  an  insurrection  against  the  authority 
of  Scindiah ;  but  on  June  17  Sir  Hugh  en- 
countered and  fief eated  the  rebel  force  out- 
side GwaUor,  and  on  the  18th  stormed  and 
captured  the  city.  Brigadier  Napier  pursued 
the  enemy,  and  routed  them  again  at  Alipore, 
thus  ending  the  campaign.  General  Roberts 
had  meanwhile  stormed  and  taken  Eotah, 
and  the  rebellion  was  now  practically  at  an 
end,  and  the  time  come  for  vengeance 
and  reconciliation.  It  was  undoubtedly  the 
splendid  organisation  of  the  Punjaub  under 
Sir  John  Lawrence  that  contributed  mainly 
to  the  ultimate  success  of  the  English  arms ; 
and  had  this  district  shared  in  the  revolt 
instead  of,  thanks  to  the  firmness  of  its  ruler, 
sending  assistance  to  the  English  forces 
before  Delhi,  it  is  difficult  to  see  where  the 
disasters  would  have  stopped.  But  Sir  John 
Lawrence,  from  the  very  commencement 
bridled  the  mutinous  Sepoys  in  the  Punjaub 
with  a  stem  hand,  and  the  Sikhs  were  only 
too  ^teful  for  the  blessings  of  Engli^  rule 
to  nse  against  their  bene&ctora.  The  most 
important  political  result  of  the  Indian 
Mutiny  was  the  transferrence  of  the  entire 
administration  of  Hindostan  from  the  East 
India  Company  to  the  crown.  [India  ;  East 
India  Company.] 

Sir  J.  Kaye.  S^aoy  War,  1871—76 ;  G.  B.  Malle- 
son.  Hist,  of  010  Indian  Mutiny  ;  T.  B.E.  Holmes, 
Hicf.  of  the  Indian  Mutiny;    Anntuil  Register, 

l8W-<»  [S.  J.  L.] 

Indllltf61lC6f  Thb  Declaration  of 
(1687),  isthe  name  g^ven  to  the  proclamation 
of  James  II.,  by  which  he  declared  that  "  as 
he  would  not  force  the  conscience  of  any 
man  himself,  so  neither  would  he  allow  any 
man  to  force  the  conscience  of  another."  By 
this  he  hoped  to  show  favour  to  the  Roman 
Catholics  without  offending  his  Protestant 
subjects,  whom  he  promised  to  keep  in  full 
possession  of  all  the  Church  estates  they  had 


acquired  at  the  Reformation.  In  order  to 
disguise,  at  all  events  in  some  degree,  that 
^e  real  objects  of  this  indulg^ce  were  the 
Papists,  he  promised  full  freedom  of  worship 
at  the  'Same  time  to  moderate  Presbyterians 
and  Quakers.  All  the  penal  laws  against  the 
Roman  Catholics  were  suspended,  and  the 
king  declared  himself  resolved  for  the  future 
to  employ  the  best  men  in  hi^  service  irre- 
spective of  their  creed  (Feb.  and  June,  1687). 
In  April  next  year,  James  ordered  this  de- 
claration to  be  republished,  and  sent  an  order 
to  the  bishops  that  they  should  bid  the  clergy 
of  their  several  dioceses  read  it  from  their 
pulpits  after  divine  service,  on  the  Sundays, 
May  20th  and  27th.  It  was  their  refusal 
to  do  this  that  led  to  the  trial  of  the  Seven 
Bishops. 

Indulph,  King  of  Alban  (b.  964,  d.  962), 
was  the  son  of  Constantine.  It  was  in  his 
reign,  according  to  the  JPietish  Chronicle,  that 
Dunedin  or  Edinburgh  was  surrendered  to 
the  Scots  by  the  EngHah — a  surrender  which, 
Mr.  Skene  thinks,  implied  the  district  be- 
tween the  Esk  and  the  Avon.  Indulph*s  reign 
is  further  noteworthy  for  the  descent  of  the 
Norwegian  pirates.  He  is  said,  according  to 
one  account,  to  have  been  slain  in  battle 
with  the  invaders,  but,  according  to  another, 
he  died  at  St.  Andrews.  Probably  he  retired 
to  a  monastery,  and  entrusted  his  kingdom  to 
Dubh  the  son  of  Malcolm,  who  was  his  lawful 
successor  on  the  tanistic  principle. 
Skene,  CeUio  ScotUmd. 

Xna,  or  Ina,  King  of  Wessez  (688—726), 
was  descended  from  Cerdic  through  Cuth- 
wine,  and  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the 
abdication  of  Ceadwalla.  He  was  one  of  the 
greatest  of  the  West  Saxon  kings,  and  sue- 
'ceeded  in  reducing  Kent,  Sussex,  and  East 
Anglia  to  obedience.  He  also  fought  many 
battles  against  the  Britons  or  Welsh,  and 
extended  the  West  Saxon  kingdom  beyond 
the  Parret,  building  the  fortress  of  Taunton 
to  protect  his  new  frontier.  We  find  him 
fighting  against  the  Welsh  of  Glamorgan, 
and  against  Ceolred  the  Mercian  king,  with 
whom  he  fought  a  drawn  battle  at  Wan- 
borough.  The  latter  part  of  his  reign, 
however,  does  not  seem  to  have  been  so 
prosperous.  "His  wan  with  the  Britons 
were  less  successful  than  before,  and  he  was 
troubled  by  rebellions  of  members  of  the 
royal  house,  the  leader  of  whom  was 
Aldbert,  who  was  eventually  defeated  and 
slain  by  Ine.  Ine  himself  resigned  the  crown 
in  726,  and  went  to  Rome,  where  he  died  in 
728.  He  was  great,  not  only  as  a  warrior, 
but  as  a  legislator,  and  made  a  collection  of 
laws,  seventy-six  in  number,  which,  with  the 
exception  of  those  of  the  Kentish  kings,  are 
the  eai'liest  known  to  us  among  the  Anglo- 
Saxons.  He  likewise  divided  Wessex  into 
two  dioceses,  placing  the  new  bishop  at  Sher- 
borne in  Dorsetshire;  he  moreover  founded 


Znf 


(  599  ) 


Xnq 


and  endowed  several  monasteries,  and  rebuilt 
and  enliirg^  the  abbey  of  Glastonbury. 

Anglo-Saxon  Chronide;  Bede,  EecUgiaatical 
Hittory.  The  Laws  of  Ine  are  translated  by  Mr. 
Tborp  in  AneinU  Lava  and  liutitulu  q/*  the  Anglo* 
Saxont. 

lufiuigtheof  was,  in  Anglo  -  Saxon 
times,  the  right  of  trying  and  punishing  a 
thief  caught  within  the  limit  of  the  juris- 
diction to  which  the  right  belonged.  It  was 
one  of  the  rights  appertaining  to  a  hundred 
or  soken. 

Ingoldsby,  Sir  Richard  (d.  1685),  was 
closely  related  to  Oliver  Cromwell,  and  served 
with  considerable  distinction  in  the  Parlia- 
mentary army.  He  was  one  of  the  High 
Court  of  Justice  appointed  to  try  Charles  1., 
but  did  not  attena  any  of  the  sittings,  and 
though  his  signature  appears  on  the  warrant 
for  execution,  he  declared  that  he  was  forced 
to  afl&x  it  by  violence,  his  iumd  being  glided 
by  Cromwell.  He  afterwards  took  part  in  the 
campaign  in  Ireland ;  in  1652  he  was  made  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  State ;  in  1654  and 
1656  he  sat  in  Cromwell's  Parliament,  and 
was  made  one  of  the  members  of  the  Upper 
House.  He  was  a  great  favourite  of  Richard 
Cromwell,  after  whose  resi^puation  he  was 
appointed  one  of  the  Committee  of  Safety. 
He  was  active  in  promoting  the  Restoration, 
and  was  in  command  of  the  force  sent  against 
Lambert  after  he  had  escaped  from  the 
Tower.  He  received  a  pardon  from  Charles  II. , 
and  was  created  a  Knight  of  the  Bath  in 
1660.  He  sat  in  the  Parliaments  of  1661, 
1679,  and  1680,  but  took  no  very  prominent 
part  in  public  afEairs. 

Xn^olpliiui  {d.  1109)  was  one  of  the  secre- 
taries of  William  the  Conqueror,  and  subse- 
quently became  Abbot  of  (>oy]and.  To  him 
was  attributed  a  Deseriptum  of,  Croyland 
Abbey  J  which  is  now  universally  considered  to 
bo  a  spurious  production  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  It  consists  of  charters,  all  of  which 
are  forseries,  interspersed  with  historical 
notices  derived  from  older  chroniclers.  This 
work  was  first  published  by  Sir  Henry  Savile 
in  his  Strum  Angltcamm  SeriptoreSf  and  from 
one  MS.  of  it,  which  was  tiien  existing  at 
Croyland,  Sir  Henry  Spelman  extracted  the 
copy  of  dubious  Laws  of  William  tiie  Con- 
queror given  in  his  Coneilia. 

H.  T.  Biley,  Archceological  Journal,  i.  82— 
40 ;  ii.  114-133 ;  Sir  T.  D.  Hardy.  Dwcinptiv« 
CatologiM  of  Ifaauscrtpts. 

Inkermaainy  Tub  Battlb  of  (Nov.  5, 
1854),  was  fought  during  the  Crimean  War. 
Early  on  the  morning  of  Nov.  5,  1854,  the 
Russian  army,  which  had  lately  received 
large  reinforcements,  made  a  sortie  from 
Sebastopol.  The  chief  point  of  attack  was 
the  plateau  of  Inkermann,  where  the  English 
forces  lay,  and  so  dense  were  the  mists  that 
our  troops  were  hardly  aware  of  the  enemy's 
advance  till  he  was  close  upon  them.  There 
was   little   time  for   any  regular   plan   of 


operations  on  the  English  side,  and  they  were 
here  at  a  strong  disadvantage  compared  with 
the  Russians,  who  had  received  aefinite  in- 
structions before  starting.  The  result  was 
the  engagement  became  more  of  a  hand-to- 
hand  encounter  than  a  regular  battle.  At 
last  the  French  general,  Busquet,  who  had 
divined  from  the  first  that  the  attack  was 
destined  for  the  British  troops  and  not  against 
his  own,  came  to  their  aid,  and  fell  upon 
the  Russians  with  such  fury  as  to  drive 
them  down  the  slope,  and  thus  decide  the 
battle. 

Klnglake,  InvatUm  q/*  the  Crimea. 

Xndliost.  Recognition  by  sworn  inquest, 
i.e.,  me  discovery  of  matters  of  fact  by  in- 
quiry from  sworn  witnesses,  is  a  custom  of 
very  ancient  standing  in  England,  and  the 
origin  of  the  civil  jury.  A  process  of  inquirj' 
by  government  officers  from  witnesses  from 
the  district  concerned,  first  appears  clearly  in 
the  capitularies  of  the  Frank  kings.  To  them 
it  possibly  came  from  the  regulations  of  the 
Theodosian  code,  which  prescribed  a  special 
method  of  investigation  by  imperial  officers 
in  matters  touching  the  fisc.  From  cases  in 
which  the  king  was  concerned,  the  method 
was  occasionally  extended  in  the  Fi-ank  em- 
pire, but  only  by  special  permission,  to  the 
suits  of  churches  and  private  persons.  This 
s^'^stem  was  found  working  by  the  Norman 
conquerors  of  northern  Gaul,  and  became  a 
part  of  the  Norman  jurisprudence.  But  it  was 
still  exceptional  in  private  suits,  and  per- 
sons who  wished  their  own  cases  to  be  tried 
by  inquest,  had  to  gain  the  duke's  consent. 
"From  Normandy  it  was  introduced  by  the 
Conqueror  into  England;  the  Domesdav  survey 
is  a  gigantic  example  of  its  employment 
to  draw  up  a  rate-book  of  the  kingdom  for 
the  use  of  the  central  administration;  and 
several  writs  of  Rufus,  Henry  L,  and  Stephen 
are  extant,  ordering  inquests  through  men 
of  the  county  or  hundrcKi,  to  determine  the 
rights  of  churches.  It  is  flie  merit  of  Henr}- 
II.  to  have  made  what  had  been  **  an  excep- 
tional favour"  an  ordinary  part  of  English 
legal  procedure.  By  the  Grand  Assize  he 
substituted  the  more  equitable  method  of 
inquest  in  cases  concerning  land,  for  trial  by 
battle,  which  was  a  Noiman  innovation,  and 
justly  hated  in  England.  The  three  pro- 
cesses of  Darrein  Presentment,  Mort  d' An- 
cestor, and  Novel  Disseisin  prorided  satis- 
&ctory  means  of  settling  disputes  as  to  ad- 
vowsons,  and  the  claims  of  heirs  and  dispos- 
sessed persons.  In  the  Assize  of  Arms, 
recognition  bjr  jury  was  employed  to  deter- 
mine the  liability  of  each  indiWdual;  and, 
finally,  in  the  Ordinance  of  the  Saladin. 
IHthe  inquest  by  sworn  jurors  was  used  for 
the  assessment  of  taxation.  [For  later  histor}- 
see  Jury.]  In  ordinary  modem  use  the  woi'd 
is  almost  confined  to  the  inquest  held  by  a 
coroner  with  regard  to  a  suspicious  death. 
This  seems  to  have  been  his  chief  duty  as 


Ziui 


(  600  ) 


Ziui 


early  as  Edward  I.,  whose  statute  De  Officio 
Coronatorio  (127C)  is  the  loundation  of  the 
law  on  the  subject. 

For  the  history  of  inquest,  m  ooxmected  with 
the  Jury  system,  see  Stubbs,  Coiut.  Ki»t.,  i. 
eh.  IS,  and  for  a  more  detailed  account,  Brun- 
ner,  Bnt»t«hung  dor  SohvevxgnichUf  1871.  For 
ooroner's  inquest,  Stephen,  Hut.  Cn'm.  Law, 
i.  216,  and  UigeA  of  Crim.  Proceed.,  ch.  7. 

[W.  J.  A.] 

Xnsoriptioiui,  CsltiCi  are  chiefly  con- 
fined to  a  number  of  rough  stone  monuments, 
upon  whose  edges  the  inscriptions  are  cut  in 
characters  of  a  peculiar  type,  consisting  en- 
tirely  of  long  and  short  lines.  This  character 
is  styled  Ogam  or  Ogham.  The  larg^t 
number  of  these  Ogam  inscriptions  have  been 
found  in  Ireland— almost  exclusively  in 
Munster — ^but  about  twenty  have  also  been 
found  in  South  Wales,  one  in  North  Wales,  and 
three  iti  Devonshire  and  ComwalL  Others 
occur  in  Scotland,  and  especially  in  Fife, 
Aberdeenshire,  and  Sutherland,  and  some 
even  in  the  Shetland  Islands.  Of  these  the 
Irish  are  very  imperfectly  deciphered,  and 
the  Scotch  still  more  so,  but  most  of  the 
Welsh  have  been  satisfactorily  investigated. 
These  are  nearly  all  bi-ling^l,  and  a  Latin 
translation  or  paraphrase  makes  the  work 
of  interpretation  the  easier.  For  though 
Irish  MSS.  of  the  fourteenth  century  g^ve  a 
systematic  account  of  the  character,  yet  the 
ravages  of  time,  and  the  imperfections  of  the 
system,  make  it  no  easy  task  to  decipher 
tnem.  It  is  even  doubtful  whether  some  of 
the  Scottish  Ogams  are  of  Celtic  origin.  The 
date  of  these  inscriptioDS  can  only  be  vaguely 
ascertained.  Proluibly,  most  of  the  Welsh 
are  of  about  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries ;  but 
it  seems  most  likely  that  the  character  was 
invented  at  a  much  earlier  date,  for  it  is  hard 
to  believe  that  so  imperfect  an  alphabet  would 
have  been  adopted  when  the  Koman  letters 
were  known.  It  is,  indeed,  strange,  that 
Ogam  should  have  survived  until  the  ninth  or 
tenth  centuries. 

It  has  been  conjectured  that  Ogam  is  in  a 
way  derived  from  the  Phoenician  alphabet.  A 
late  Irish  legend  attributes  its  invention  to  a 
mythic  Ogma.  Professor  Rh^s  regards  the 
word  as  etymologically  akin  to  iy/ios  and 
afftnefij  and  as  a  derivative  of  a  root  which  is 
used  in  the  senses  of  "a  leading,  a  line,  a 
row,  writing,  letters,  and  ultimately  literature, 
or  knowledge. " 

The  historical  value  of  the  Ogam  inscriptions 
is  entirely  indirect.  They  are  nearly  all  mere 
sepulchral  inscriptions  of  the  name,  and  perhaps 
the  father's  name,  of  some  forgotten  chieftain. 
But  philologically  their  interest  is  very  great. 
Careful  comparison  shows  that  the  language 
of  those  inscriptions  is  of  the  Goidelic  rather 
than  of  the  Brythonic  type — Irish  rather  than 
Welsh.  They  testify  to  the  presence  of 
Gk)idel8  in  South  Wales  and  Damnonia,  spots 
from  which  nearly  all  traces  of   them  have 


now  vanished,  either  Irish  immigrants,  or  the 
survivals  of  an  earlier  population  driven 
westward  by  the  Brythons,  just  as  the 
Brythons  themselves  were  at  a  later  date 
driven  westwards  by  the  English.  Thus 
they  have  thrown  new  light  on  the  early 
ethnology  of  Britain  as  well  as  on  the  study 
of  Celtic  philology.  Besides  the  Ognms,  there 
are  other  Celtic  inscriptions  written  in  the 
ordinary  Latin  character,  or  in  that  modifica- 
tion of  it  to  which  the  name  of  the  "  Irish 
alphabet "  has  been  given.  But  the  bulk  of 
the  inscriptions  of  the  Bntons,  centuries  after 
the  withdrawal  of  the  Roman  legions,  were 
written  in  Latin. 

Bh^s,  WeUh  PhUology ;  Hubner.  In«crtptiOMs 
BritannuB  CHruttatue;  Westwood.  Lapidarium 
Wallia,  [T.  F.  T.] 

InscriptionSy  Rouak.  Roman  rule  in 
Britain  began  late,  ended  early,  and  never  was 
much  more  than  a  military  occupation.  As  a 
natural  result  the  Roman  inscriptions  in  Britain 
are  comparatively  few  in  number,  limited  in 
the  variety  of  their  subjects,  and  of  inferior 
historical  and  less  philological  interest. 

Epigpraphists  di\'ide  inscriptions  into  two 
main  classes — inscriptions  in  the  strictest 
sense  written  on  other  objects  to  indicate 
their  purpose,  and  those  which  are  themselves 
the  objects,  and  inscribed  on  stone  or  haid 
metal  to  make  them  durable.  The  former 
class  {HiuH  in  Latin),  are  divided  into  sepul- 
chral inscriptions  (tituli  sepulehraies) ;  dedi- 
catory inscriptions  (tituH  sacrC) ;  honorary 
inscriptions  (tituli  honotarii),  or  inscriptions 
on  statues  erected  to  mortals,  either  after 
death  or  during  their  life,  but  not  on  their 
tombs,  in  which  class  are  included  tittdi  opentm 
publicorum,  via  publicie,  the  records  of  the 
names  of  those  erecting  public  buildings, 
tho  inscriptions  on  milestones,  bounduy 
stones ;  and  lastly,  the  comprehensive  class  of 
inscriptions  arranged  in  the  Corpus  under  the 
head  iuttrutnetUuin^  which  includes,  for  exam- 
ple, inscriptions  on  weights  and  measures, 
household  articles,  tho  tesMra^  or  little  tokens 
with  names  of  individuals  or  dates  upon  them, 
the  inscriptions  stamped  on  blocks  of  metal, 
very  numerous  in  a  mining  district  like  Eng- 
land, or  on  military  weapons,  and  the  leaden 
marks  which,,  perhaps,  were  borne  by  soldiers 
as  countersigns,  and  have  been  found  in 
Britain  only.  Of  the  inscriptions  made  for 
their  own  sakes,  which  are  called  inttrumcnta 
or  Uges — treaties,  laws,  local  decrees,  agree- 
ments of  private  persons,  may  be  quoted  as 
examples. 

Most  of  the  above  classes  of  inscriptions 
have  been  found  in  Britain,  though  certain 
classes,  and  particularly  the  xnatrumentOj  are 
rare.  Very  few  inscriptions  of  the  first  cen- 
tury remain.  "They  are  as  scarce,"  says 
Dr.  Hubner,  **as  those  of  the  republican  period 
in  the  older  portions  of  tho  Kmpire."  The 
oldest  is  an  inscription  to   Nero,  found  at 


Ziui 


(  601  ) 


Chichester,  and  a  few  leaden  balls,  marked 
with  the  names  of  Claudius,  Britannicus,  Nero, 
Slo.  The  oldest  milestones  are  of  the  time  of 
Hadrian  and  the  Antonines.  A  few  military 
inscriptions  complete  the  record.  During  the 
next  centur}'  fairly  abundant  inscriptions  are 
found  in  the  south-eastern  part  of  the  island, 
and  especially  in  the  great  towns,  such 
as  Camulodunum  (Colchester) ;  Londinium 
(London) ;  Kegni  (Chichester) :  Aquw-Sulis 
(Bath).  Though  Eboracum  had  become  a 
great  Roman  station  so  early  as  the  reign  of 
Trajan,  few  inscriptions  of  earlier  date  than 
the  latter  part  of  the  second  centur}'  are  found 
in  the  land  of  the  Brigantes.  Still  further 
north,  zones  of  inscriptions  mark  the  site  of 
the  two  Roman  walls.  But  north  of  this 
district,  and  among  the  hills  of  Wales,  the 
almost  total  absence  of  real  Roman  inscrip- 
tions attests  the  incompleteness  of  the  Roman 
conquest.  In  the  latter  country  it  is  only  in 
a  few  garrisons,  such  as  Isca  (Caerleon),  or 
Deva  (Chester),  or  Segontium  (Caernarvon), 
that  they  are  at  all  abundant,  and  here  none 
are  earlier  than  the  end  of  the  second  century. 
Many  third-centur^'  inscriptions,  both  in  the 
north  and  west,  indicate  the  frequency  of  the 
Roman  expeditions  to  those  regions.  It  is, 
however,  remarkable  that  very  few  inscrip- 
tions of  the  "provincial  emperors,'*  such  as 
Carausius  and  Allectns,  remain.  Great  names, 
such  as  Diocletian  and  Constantino,  are  but 
scantily  represented.  There  are  few  impor- 
tant Christian  inscriptions  of  the  fourth  or 
fifth  centuries.  The  sepulchral  inscriptions 
of  Wales  and  Damnonia  are  not  strictly 
Roman.  The  Greek  inscriptions  are  very 
few.  As  to  the  historical  value  of  the  Roman 
inscriptions  in  Britain,  it  is  hard  to  generalise, 
but,  as  a  rule,  it  is  not  great.  "  They  vary 
little  in  their  information ;  a  victorious  legiun, 
the  death  of  a  commander,  the  performance  of 
a  vow,  a  tribute  to  the  memory  of  a  departed 
Telati%*e,  are  the  subjects  generally  commemo- 
rated.'' (Preface  to  Monumenta  Hintorica 
Britanniea.)  Yet  Dr.  Htibner  has  been  able  to 
illustrate  from  them  some  characteristics  of  the 
provincial  administration  and  military  history' 
of  Britain,  and  the  frequency  or  infrequency 
of  their  occurrence  is  at  least  some  index  to  the 
nature  of  the  Roman  occupation  in  any  given 
locality.  In  many  ways  the  inscriptions  illus- 
trate or  vivify  the  historical  knowledge  which 
written  authorities  g^ve  us ;  the  prevalence  of 
military  inscriptions  in  Britain  testifies  clearly 
to  the  character  of  Roman  rule  in  the  land. 
But  the  vast  majority  of  inscriptions  are 
too  short,  too  obscure,  too  private  in  their 
reference,  or  too  limited  in  their  subject,  to 
furnish  us  with  any  real  historical  informa- 
tion. 

The  Roman  inscriptions  In  Britain  have  heen 
collected  by  Dr.  Emil  HUbuer,  in  the  seventh 
▼olameof  the  Berlin  Corpir*  /nucriptionvm  La(m- 
arum.  Dr.  HQbner'M  epigraphical  map  of 
Britain  at  the  end  of  tbe  volume  indicates  the 
localities  in  which  they  have  been  found  inmost 


abundance.  The  same  scholar's  artlole  on 
Boman  Inscriptions  in  the  new  edition  of  the 
Snc^opadia  Britanntca  may  be  referred  to  for 
an  aocount  of  these  inscriptions  generally.  The 
inscriptions  of  historical  interest  have  been 
printed  in  the  HnmiuMnia  Hi«tonoa  Britattntoo. 
McC^Mil's  JSritanMO-itoman  /nccriptt<m«,  and 
Scarth's  Romau  Briiain  may  be  also  referred  to. 

[T.  F.  T.] 

Inatitiitioii  of  a  Christiaii  Man, 

The,  is  the  name  of  a  work  sometimes  said  to 
have  been  written  by  Henry  VIII.,  but  is  more 
probably  the  work  of  Cranmer  and  other 
bishops,  and  only  stamped  with  the  king's 
approvaL  It  consists  of  an  Exposition  of  we 
Ci^ed,  the  Seven  Sacraments,  the  Ten  Com- 
mandments, the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Angel's 
Salutation  to  Mar}-,  and  of  the  doctrines  of 
Free  Will,  Justification,  and  Good  Works.  It 
concludes  with  an  authorised  prayer  for  de- 
parted souls. 

Xnstniiiiaiit  of  Govamment,  Thb^ 

is  the  name  g^ven  to  a  paper  constitution 
of  forty-two  articles,  called  **  the  Government 
of  the  Commonwealth,"  by  which  the  Protec- 
torate of  Cromwell  was  established  (December, 
16*53).  The  executive  power  was  vested  in 
the  Protector  and  a  council  of  fifteen  to 
twenty-one  persons  appointed  for  life.  Until 
the  meeting  of  Parliament,  fixed  for  Sept.  3, 
1654,  the  Protector,  with  assent  of  the  Council, 
could  make  ordinances  to  have  the  power  of 
laws.  After  this,  the  legislative  power  was 
vested  in  the  Parliament  alone,  and,  though 
bills  were  to  be  submitted  to  the  Protector 
for  his  assent,  he  had  no  power  to  veto  them 
if  they  were  themselves  in  accordance  with 
the  constitution.  Parliaments  wei*e  to  be 
called  of  necessity  every  three  years,  and 
when  called  could  not  be  dissolved  for  five 
months,  except  by  their  own  consent.  The 
representative  system  was  reformed,  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  plan  proposed  bv  Ireton, 
and  amended  by  the  Rump.  Scotland  and  Ire- 
land were  each  represented  by  thirty  members, 
while  the  number  of  members  for  England 
and  Wales  ;was  reduced  from  five  hundi-ed  to 
four  hundred.  The  number  of  county  mem- 
bers was  largely  increased,  many  rotten 
boronghs  were  disfranchised,  and'  important 
places  like  Leeds,  Manchester,  and  Halifax 
received  representatives.  At  the  same  time, 
two  cinnnnn  of  electors  were  disfranchised :  — (1) 
All  Roman  Catholics  and  those  concerned  in  the 
Irish  rebellion  were  disabled  for  ever;  (2) 
all  persons  who  had  been  engaged  in  war 
against  the  Parliament  since  January'.  1642, 
except  such  as  had  given  signal  testimony 
since  then  of  their  good  affection,  were  dis- 
abled from  electing  or  being  elected  for  the 
next  Parliament  and  the  three  following.  By 
article  xii.,  it  was  expressly  inserted  in  the 
writs  that  the  persons  elected  should  not  have 
power  to  alter  the  government  as  vested  by 
the  Instrument  in  a  single  person  and  a 
Parliament.    Accordingly,  when  Parliament, 


(  602  ) 


Znt 


assembled    in   September,    1654,   wished   to 

debate  the  constitution,  and  settle  the  limits 

of  the  F^tector*8  power,  Cromwell,  whilst 

drawing  a  distinction  between  *^  circumBtan- 

tials,"  which  they  might  alter,  and  "  fmida- 

mcntals,*'  which  they  must  leave  untouched, 

forced  them  to  sign  an  engagement  not  to 

propose  the  alteration  of  the  government  in 

that  particular.     Mr.  Gardiner  remarks  on 

the  Instrument  of  Government  that  it  was 

'*  the  first  of  himdi-eds  of  written  constitutions 

which  have  since  spread  over  the  world,  of 

which  the  American  is  the  most  conspicuous 

example,  in  which  a  barrier  is  set  up  against 

the  entire  predominance  of  any  one  set  of 

official  persons,  by  attributing  strictly  limited 

functions  to  each.  * 

Maason,  L^e  of  MUton;  Gardiner,  Puritan 
Eevoluiion;  Guizot,  CromvatU;  Banke,  History 
of  England. 

Zjumrrection  Acts  (Ireland).  The 
first  (1787)  enacted  the  Riot  Act  for  Ireland, 
made  all  attacks  on  clergy  or  churches,  the 
administering  unlawful  oaths,  seizure  of  arms, 
and  other  similar  offences,  felony,  to  be 
punished  with  death.  It  also  inflicted  a 
punishment  of  fine,  imprisonment,  or  the 
whip,  on  all  who  conspired  to  deprive  the 
clergy  of  their  tithes.  In  1796  a  similar  Act 
was  passed,  but  with  terms,  if  possible,  still 
more  stringent  than  the  foregoing;  and, 
though  it  excited  the  wonder  of  the  English 
Ministry,  it  passed  without  difficulty.  The 
third  (1807)  gave  the  Lord* Lieutenant  power, 
if  the  magistrates  in  special  session  declared 
a  county  disturbed,  to  proclaim  it.  By  so 
doing,  trial  by  jur^'  was  suspended,  and  any 
ono  out  at  night  after  dark  became  liable  to 
seven  years*  transportation,  unless  he  were 
able  to  give  a  good  excuse.  It  remained  in 
force  till  1810.  In  1814,  1815,  1816,  1817, 
1822,  and  1824,  it  was  renewed,  and  a  similar 
Act  was  passed  in  1833. 

Interdicts,  Papal,  may  be  defined  as 
local  excommunications.  They  deprived  a 
certain  district  of  all  the  privileges  of 
Christian  worship  and  ceremonies.  The 
proclamation  of  an  interdict  put  the  country 
out  of  the  pale  of  the  Church.  During  the 
time  that  a  country  lay  under  an  interdict,  all 
public  religious  services  ceased;  churches 
were  closed,  and  the  sacraments  suspended. 
To  this  general  rule  there  were  a  few  excep- 
tions. On  Sunday  a  sermon  might  bo  preached 
in  the  churchyard,  and  on  Good  Friday  the 
cross  was  exhibited  to  the  people  in  the  same 
place ;  the  dead  might  be  buried,  but  without 
the  full  rites  of  interment ;  infants  might  be 
baptised ;  and  the  dying  were  allowed  to 
communicate.  But,  beyond  this,  all  the 
services  of  the  Church  ceased;  the  bell  neither 
rang  nor  tolled;  the  solemn  processions  of 
the  Church  were  discontinued ;  neither  Virgin 
nor  saint  could  be  worshipped  at  their  own 
shrines.       Monasteries,    however,    preserved 


the  right  of  holding  their  own  services ;  but 
these  had  to  be  performed  with  closed  doors, 
and  no  strangers  might  be  present  The 
most  famous  interdict  in  English  history  was 
that  proclaimed  by  Iimocent  III.  in  March, 
1208,  over  all  England.  It  was  brought  about 
by  John's  obduracy  in  refusing  to  recognise 
the  papal  nominee,  Stephen  Langton,  as  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  and  it  was  not  remitted 
till  the  king  had  made  full  submission,  in 
May,  1213. 

Interest.  Two  principles  seem  in  the 
Middle  Ages  to  have  been  at  work  in  miti- 
gating the  extent  to  which  the  usurer  might 
take  ulvantage  of  the  distresses  of  his  debtors : 
first,  that  of  the  mediaeval  Church,  which, 
inheriting  the  doctrine  of  the  Jewish  Scrip- 
tures, has  unhesitatingly  condemned  usury  in 
all  its  forms;  and,  secondly,  that  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  which,  while  recognising  the 
necessity  of  paying  interest  on  borrowed 
moneys,  attempted  to  limit  abuse  by  fixing^ 
a  legal  maximum  percentage,  beyond  which 
payment  could  not  be  enforced.  Among  the 
Romans  the  rate  wasatone  time  twelve  percent, 
per  annum,  but  it  was  reduced  by  Justinian 
to  four.  It  could  not  be  expected  that  among 
the  Teutonic  tribes  this  question  should  have 
formed  a  part  of  their  origrinal  common  law, 
and  hence  in  the  Middle  Ag^  usury  was  not 
so  much  regarded  as  an  offence  against  the 
law  as  a  sin;  and  it  was  one  of  the  great 
merite  of  the  Mediasval  Church  that  it  set  its 
face  steadily  against  this  abuse  at  a  time 
when  no  king  had  the  self-denial,  and  no 
other  court  sufficient  strength,  to  protect  the 
poor  from  the  oppression  of  the  rich.  Ac- 
cordingly, usury  became  a  recognised  o£Penoe 
in  the  spiritui^  courts;  and  thus  we  find 
Alexander  III.  writing  to  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  that  he  should  compel  all  lenders, 
whether  ecclesiastical  or  others,  to  restore 
their  pledges  without  usury.  But  despite  the 
censures  of  the  Church  and  the  laws  of  Ed- 
ward III.,  according  to  which  the  goods  of  a 
living  usurer  belonged  to  the  Church,  those  of 
a  dead  one  to  the  king,  the  practice  never  died 
out,  though  in  many  cases  the  actual  interest 
was  disguised  under  the  name  of  expensesw 
Complamts  were  made  by  the  Commons  under 
Richird  IL  of  the  prevalence  of  this  offence, 
but  the  king  could  only  reply  that  it  was  the 
fault  of  the  ecclesiastical  coiuis,  who  did  not 
use  their  own  powers.  As  yet  there  was  no 
thought  of  the  State's  taking  the  question  in 
hand.  It  was  a  question  of  morality,  and  not 
of  law.  Some  hundred  years  later,  when  the 
incapacity  of  the  Church  to  deal  with  this 
subject  became  clearer,  Parliament  at  last 
took  the  matter  up.  Even  under  Henry  IIL 
the  Statute  of  Merton  had  forbidden  usury  to 
be  charged  on  infants  for  debts  incurred  by 
their  parents,  and  we  have  just  seen  the  en- 
actment of  Edward  III.  as  regards  the  goods  of 
deceased  usurers.    But  it  was  not  till  Heniy 


Xnt 


(  603  ) 


Zhy 


YII.*8  reign  that  the  State,  following  the  old 
Roman  principie  and  recognising  the  legality 
of  interest,  fixed  a  rate,  above  which  au 
charges  should  be  unlawful.  In  1487  a  law 
was  passed  directly  aimed  against  the 
"  daApnable  bargayns  groundyt  in  usurye, 
contrario  to  the  laws  of  nuturell  justis/'  and 
empowering  the  Lord  Chancellor  and  justices 
of  the  peace  to  inflict  a  penalty  of  £100  on  all 
transactions  that  savoured  of  this  kind  (3 
Hen.  VII.,  5  and  6).  Eight  years  later,  it  was 
enacted  that  if  the  lender  received  back  more 
than  he  had  lent,  ho  should  forfeit  half. 
The  tendency  of  these  laws  is,  as  may  at  once 
be  perceived,  to  restrict  iiither  than  to  en- 
courage usury.  Under  Henry  VIII.  all  former 
Acts  on  the  subject  were  repealed  in  1545,  and 
it  was  enacted  that  after  Jan.  31  next  no  more 
than  ten  per  cent,  should  be  charged,  on  pain 
of  the  lender's  losing  threefold  the  debt  and 
suffering  imprisonment  (37  Hen.  VIII.,  9).  Of 
course  the  effect  of  this  Act,  whatever  was 
intended,  can  only  have  been  to  stop  all  loans 
at  less  than  ten  per  cent.,  and  that  it  had 
this  result  is  evident  by  the  enactment  of 
1551 — 52,  which  pronounced  all  usury  to  be 
unlawful,  declared  that  the  former  law  had  not 
been  intended  for  the  maintenance  of  uaury, 
and  lamented  that,  since  its  passing,  usury 
had  been  daily  used  and  practised  in  the 
realm.  Under  Elizabeth  this  Act  was  re- 
pealed, **  because  it  hath  not  done  as  much 
good  as  it  was  hoped  it  should."  Usury, 
perhaps,  in  its  simplest  form,  had  decreased, 
but  the  old  evil  had  only  taken  new  forms, 
and  had  '*  by  shifts  increased  and  abounded 
to  the  utter  undoing  of  many  gentlemen, 
marchauntes,  and  others.'*  The  old  law  had 
erred  by  making  no  distinction  in  the  kind  of 
offences,  and  punishing  all  ali  ke.  Accordingly 
Henry  VIII.*s  Act  was  revived  for  five  years. 
It  seems,  from  the  wording  of  this  Act,  that 
men  were  still  nominally  liable  to  prosecution 
in  the  spiritual  courts  for  taking  any  interest 
whatever  (13  Eliz.,  c.  8).  Under  James  I. 
(1621)  it  was  enacted  that,  because  of  the 
general  faU  in  the  value  of  land  and  prices  of 
merchandise,  only  eight  per  cent,  should  be 
allowed  from  June  24, 1625.  This  enactment 
was  to  last  seven  years,  and  the  penalty  of  its 
infringement  was  to  be  treble  the  amount 
lent.  Here  again  we  see  the  double  feeling 
at  work — the  conflicting  sentiments  of  the 
injustice  of  all  usury,  and  the  expediency  of 
allowing  it  under  restrictions ;  for  a  clause  is 
added  to  this  bill  declaring  that  its  terms  are 
not  to  bo  so  expounded  as  to  allow  the  practice 
of  usury  in  point  of  religion  or  conscience. 
But  there  is  no  longer  any  mention  of  ecclesi- 
astical courts;  though,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
expenses  of  scriveners  who  might  negotiate  a 
loan  are  jealously  defined.  On  the  Restora- 
tion, it  was  enacted  that  as  previous  experience 
had  justified  the  lessening  of  the  legal  rate  of 
interest  from  ten  to  eight  per  cent.,  it  would  be 
expedient  to  reduce  it  to  a  nearer  level  with 


that  of  the  nations  with  whom  we  chiefly 
traded,  and  from  henceforth  it  was  to  run  at 
six  per  cent.  Under  Queen  Anne,  on  the  con-r 
elusion  of  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession, 
it  was  still  further  reduced  to  five  per  cent.,  on 
the  plea  of  its  being  good  for  trade  and  to  the 
interest  of  the  landowners,  on  whom  the  ex- 
penses of  the  war  had  mainly  fallen.  Another 
reason  assigned  for  this  reduction  was  that  the 
great  interest  which  could  be  secured  for  money 
invested  at  hoine  had  rendered  people  un- 
willing to  embark  in  foreign  trade.  This 
remained  the  legal  rate  of  interest  till  the 
present  rei^,  when  all  the  previous  laws  for 
its  regulation  were  swept  away  in  the  year 
1854. 

StatuttB  of  the  Realm  ;  A.  Smitli.  WeaUh  of 
Nations ;  X),  Hume,  Euaya;  Ducauee,  sub  voce 
Umraritu.  [T.  A.  A.] 


Znverkeitliing,  The  Battlb  of  (1317)^ 
was  fought,  in  Fifeshire,  between  the  Scots^ 
under  the  Earl  of  Fife,  and  the  English. 
Fife  was  at  first  driven  back,  but  his  men, 
beinff  rallied  by  William  Sinclair,  Bishop  of 
Bunkeld,  at  last  di'ove  the  English  back  to 
their  ships. 

Znverlocliy,  The  Battle  op  (1645), 
resulted  in  the  victory  of  Alontrose  and  the 
Royalists  over  the  Covenanters  led  by  Argyle. 
Inverlochy  is  near  Fort  William,  in  the 
south  of  Inverness. 

Inverness  was  most  probably  at  one  time 
the  capital  of  the  Pictish  kingdom.  In  later 
days  it  possessed  a  strong  casue,  erected  by  the 
Earl  of  Huntly  (eirca  1460) .  In  1 562  this  castle 
was  taken  by  the  Regent  Murray  from  the 
insurgent  foUowers  of  the  Earl  of  Huntly, 
and  nearly  a  century  later  was  garrisoned  by 
Cromwell  (1651).  In  1689  it  was  pillaged  by 
Claverhouse,  and  in  1746  was  taken  by  the 
Jacobites,  but  recovered  by  the  Duke  of  Cum- 
berland after  the  battle  of  Culloden. 

Inverness,  John  Hay  {d,  1740),  titular 
Earl  of  Inverness,  was  a  favourite  of 
James  Edward,  the  old  Pretender.  In 
1725  he  became  Secretary  of  State  and  Earl 
of  Inverness,  and,  toother  with  his  brother, 
Lord  Kinnoul,  and  his  brother-in-law,  James 
Murray,  ruled  the  prince's  councils.  He 
was,  according  to  Lockhart  of  Camwath, 
"a  cunning,  false,  avaricious  creature,  of 
very  ordinary  parts,  cultivated  by  no  sort  of 
literature,  and  altogether  void  of  experience 
in  business ;  with  insolence  prevailing  often 
over  his  little  stock  of  prudence."  Soon  after 
he  and  his  brother  had  been  admitted  to 
direct  James's  conduct,  the  Pretender's  wife 
left  her  husband  when  he  refused  to  dismiss 
his  favourites.  On  her  return,  both  the 
brothers  went  into  exile  at  Avignon. 

Invemryy  The  Battle  of  (May  22^ 
1308),  was  fought  on  the  Don,  in  Aberdeen^ 
shire,  and  resulted  in  a. complete  victor}'  foi^ 


Ion 


(604) 


Ire 


Bobert  Bruce  over  his  enemy,  the  Earl  of 
Buchan,  and  the  English  commanded  by 
Mowbray. 

Zona  (or  Hii))  an  island  situated  to  the 
west  of  Mull,  is  famous  as  the  place  where 
St.  Columba  landed  (May  12,  663)  on  his 
departure  from  Ireland,  and  as  the  spot  he 
selected  for  his  monastery.  For  150  years 
lona,  the  cradle  of  the  Scottish  Church 
and  of  Scottish  letters,  was  the  centre  of  the 
national  Church  of  the  Dalriad  Scots ;  but  in 
716,  owing  to  the  zeal  of  Adamnan,  its  abbot 
and  the  other  members  of  the  monastery  con- 
formed to  the  Roman  views  both  as  regards  the 
date  of  Easter  and  the  shape  of  the  tonsure. 
There  appears,  however,  to  have  been  another 
party  which  still  adhered  to  the  old  way. 
From  794  lona  was  repeatedly  ravaged  by 
the  Danes;  in  818  the  monastery  which  had 
been  restored  by  Adamnan,  was  rebuilt  by 
the  abbot  Diarmid,  who  deposited  therein 
the  shrine  of  Columba.  Towards  the  end 
of  the  twelfth  century  the  monastery  was 
again  rebuilt  by  Reginald  of  the  Isles,  who 
founded  a  Benedictine  abbey  there. 

Ionian  Islands,  The,  were  seized  by 
the  French  from  the  Venetians  in  1797, 
the  former  being  confirmed  in  their  new 
possession  by  the  Treaty  of  Campo  Formio. 
Two  years  later,  the  islands  were  declared  an 
independent  republic  under  the  joint  protec- 
tion of  Turkey  and  Russia.  By  the  Treaty 
of  Tilsit  (1807),  they  once  more  became 
French.  In  1814  they  were  placed  tmder 
British  protection,  and  administered  by 
British  commissioners,  and  so  remained  till 
1864,  when  they  were  finally  handed  over  to 
the  kingdom  of  Greece. 

Ireland.  The  early  history  of  Ireland  is 
wrapped  in  an  obscurity  which  the  researches  of 
scholars  into  the  evidence  afforded  by  archae- 
ology, inscriptions,  and  etymology  are  only 
beginning  to  dispel.  The  g^eat  cycle  of  Celtic 
legend  has  hitherto  proved  of  little  historical 
value.  The  ablest  archieologists  cannot  dis- 
tinguish the  original  traditions  from  the  em- 
bellishments of  mediteval  annalists.  Records 
of  real  events  are  interwoven  with  fragments 
of  Greek  and  Roman  fable,  and  the  incon- 
gruous narrative  thus  obtained  has  been 
forcibly  adapted  to  the  Mosaic  cosmogony. 
[Celts.] 

We  near  of  five  immigrations  from  the 
East,  of  incessant  wars  between  the  invaders, 
and  of  the  final  triumph  of  the  Milesians  or 
Scots.  Two  Scotic  kingdoms  gradually  arose; 
the  kingdom  of  Meath  in  the  north,  and  the 
kingdom  of  Munster  in  the  south.  Early  in  the 
second  century,  Tuathal  of  Meath  established 
a  nominal  supremacy  over  the  entire  island, 
but  in  the  reign,  of  Cond,  Tuathal's  grandson, 
the  Eberian  princes  restored  the  independence 
of  Munster.  Excluded  from  the  south,  the 
Scots  of  Meath  devoted  their  energies  to  a 


thorough  conquest  of  Ulster.  This  was 
effected  during  the  fifth  century,  under  Niall 
of  the  Nine  Hostages  and  his  sons.  The 
royal  house  split  into  two  branches.  The 
northern  Hui  N^ill  ruled  in  Ulster  for  five 
hundred  years,  while  the  southern  fAnily 
governed  the  great  central  plain.  The  ard 
ri  or  titular  over-king  of  Ireland  was  some- 
times of  the  one,  sometimes  of  the  other  stock. 
The  Munster  dynasty  underwent  a  similar 
change.  The  Engenian  and  the  Dal  Caisian 
lines  divided  the  old  Eberian  kingdom 
between  them. 

From  the  middle  of  the  third  century  to 
the  dose  of  the  fifth,  both  the  northern  and 
the  southern  Irish  planted  colonies  in  Britain. 
The  former  settled  in  North  Wales,  Man,  and 
Scotland ;  the  latter  in  South  Wales,  Devon, 
and  Cornwall.  Towards  the  end  of  the 
colonising  period,  the  Irish  were  converted 
to  Christianity.  St.  Patrick  is  said  to  have 
begun  bis  labours  in  the  year  432.  The 
whole  island  quickly  adopted  the  new  faith. 
In  one  respect  the  result  would  seem  to  have 
been  unhappy.  The  remarkable  system  of 
Brehon  law  might,  under  favourable  condi- 
tions, have  done  much  to  bind  the  tribes  into 
a  nation,  but  the  sanction  of  the  law  was 
probably  religious,  and  thus  perished  with 
the  old  beliefs.  About  the  middle  of  the 
sixth  century  the  migratory  spirit  revived  in 
a  new  form.  The  Irish  monks  carried  their 
missions  to  the  remotest  parts  of  Europe. 
At  home  their  schools  were  visited  by  students 
from  England  and  from  Gaul.  But  outside 
the  convent  walls  all  was  war  and  bloodshed. 
The  Norwegians  first  pillaged  the  Irish  coast 
in  the  year  795.  They  were  succeeded  by 
the  Danes  (852),  who  effected  permanent 
settlements  at  the  chief  seaports.  The  monas- 
teries were  plundered  and  burnt,  and  the 
internal  anarchy  grew  worse.  But  the  end 
of  the  tenth  centtury  brought  a  change.  The 
invaders  under  Ivar  occupied  Limerick,  and 
attempted  the  conquest  of  Munster.  In  the 
struggle  that  followed  a  native  ruler  appeared, 
who,  for  a  time,  seemed  destined  to  make 
Ireland  a  nation.  Brian  Boruma,  sprung 
from  the  Dal  Caisian  line  of  the  Eb^rians, 
.routed  the  Danes  near  Tipperary  in  968.  Six 
years  later  he  succeeded  his  brother  Mahon 
on  the  throne  of  Munster.  In  989  he  made 
war  on  Malachy  II.,  the  titular  over-king  of 
the  Huf  N6ill  dynasty.  After  thirteen  yeai« 
of  fighting  and  negotiation,  Malachy  sub- 
mitted (1002).  The  victor}^  of  Glen  Mama 
(1000)  had  quelled  a  desperate  revolt  of 
Leinster  and  the  Dublin  Danes.  Brian  was 
at  last  supreme.  For  twelve  years  he  ruled 
Ireland  strongly  and  well.  Then  the  Dublin 
Danes  again  rebelled.  They  sought  and 
found  allies  amongst  all  the  Scandinavians 
of  the  West.  It  was  the  last  desperate 
conflict  of  the  Pagan  Northmen  with  the 
Christian  Irish.  The  battle  was  fought  on 
the  banks  of  the  Tolka,  by  Dublin,  on  Good 


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Friday  of  the  year  1014.    The  Danes  were 
driven  into  the  sea,  but  the  old  king  was  slain 
by  the  '*  apostate  deacon  "  Brodir,  as  he  prayed 
for  his  people.      Uis  death  left  the  condition 
of  the  country  hopeless.     He  had  destroyed 
the  tiaditionsd  supremacy  of  the  Hui  N^ill ; 
his  own  house  were  unable  to  make  good  their 
claims.    Long  and  ruinous  wars  between  the 
O'Neills,  the  O'Briens,  and  the  0*Conors  of 
Connaught,  continued  to  the  Norman  invasion. 
The  civilisation  of  the  Irish  Celts  reached 
its  full  development  before  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury.   They  formed  numerous  tribes  {tuath), 
each    consuting    of     several    septs     {Jiney 
Both    tribes   and    septs    were    landowning 
corporations    closely   resembling    the    Teu- 
tonic "  marks."     j^oth   divided  their  terri- 
tories into  three  parts;  the  tuath  into  the 
demesne   of   the  n,  or  chief  of   the   tribe, 
the    lands  of   the   different  JineSf  and    the 
tribal  waste.;  the  Jine  into  the  demesnes  of 
the  ftaiths,   or  hereditary    landowners,    the 
common,  and  the  waste  of  the  sept.    The 
Jloiths  and  the   bo^aireSy  or    cow-noblemen, 
were  the  only  freemen  with  full'   political 
rights.    The  Jlaith  aire  fine  was  the  chieftain 
of  the  sept.    If  a  freeman    "commended" 
himself  to  a  **fiaith"  of  his  own  sept,  he 
became    a  ctxU,     He    **took  stock"    from 
the^i^A,  with  a  right  of  grazing  the^ai/A*« 
demesnes,  owing  him  in  return  rent,  services, 
and  homage.    If  he  accepted  only  a  small 
amount  of  cattle,  he  rettuned  most  of  his 
civil  rigl&ts.    He  paid  a  "  house  tribute  "  to 
his   lord,    and  was  called   a   aaer-e^ile.     If 
he  accepted  a  large  amount  of    cattle,  he 
forfeited   much    of   his   freedom,  and    was 
bound,  in  addition  to  his  other  burdens,  to 
afford  **  refections"  to  the  lord  and  his  tiain 
at  stated  times.    Such  a  tenant  was  called  a 
daer-eSilef  or  villein.      But    even  the  dMr- 
eeile  had    definite  rights  in  the  sept,  inclu- 
ding the  important  right  of  enjoying  the 
usufruct  of  common  land,  and  of  building 
a  house  upon  it.    The  rt  could  legally  com- 
pel a   tribesman   to  accept  Jiaer  stock  and 
pay  house-tribute,  and  this  power  seems  to 
have  been    often   illegally  usurped    by  the 
Jlaith  aire  fine  over  the  members  of  the  sept. 
But  eLsaeT'Ceile  could  not  become  a  daer-^Hle, 
nor  could  a  daer-eeiie  take  more  stock,  without 
the  consent  of  the  sept.    The  sept  had  a  veto 
on  all  contracts  by  its  members  affecting  the 
rights  or  liabilities  of  the  corporation.    It 
was  particularly'  jealous  of  conts^cts  outside 
itself  but  within  the  tribe.    Every  member 
of  the  sept  own^d  the  site  of  his  house  in 
severalty.    He  held  a  portion  of  the  common 
land  as  his  allotment,  and  had  defined  rights 
of  pasturage  over  the  waste.    As  the  lots 
were  annually  exchangeable,  he  was  bound 
to  follow  the  common  course  of  tillage.    He 
had  no  general  power  of  alienation  or  en- 
cumbrance, but  in  special  circumstances  he 
enjoyed  a  limited  power  of  disposition,  with 
or  without  the  consent  of  the  sept. 


The  freeman  who  commended  himself  to  a 
fiaith  of  another  sept  was  called  a  "eaerfuidirf** 
or  free  immigrant  stranger.  He  was  a  mere 
tenant  at  will  at  a  rack-rent.  Below  him 
came  the  **  doer  fuidirs,**  or  servile  immi- 
grants. They  were  men  who  had  broken  the 
tribal  bond,  prisoners  of  war,  convicts,  and 
other  "  sons  of  death."  They  were  the  per- 
sonal dependents  of  the  flaithj  and  formed 
his  body-gn^uird.  His  power  depended  ^eatly 
on  their  number.  He  was  bound  of  right  to 
settle  them  on  his  demesne,  but  it  is  believed 
that  they  were  often  planted  by  the  ri  upon 
the  waste  of  the  tribe,  and  by  ih^flaiths  upon 
the  waste  of  the  sept.  The  rights  and  lands 
of  a  rt,  or  of  a  fiaith,  passed  at  his  death  to 
the  *'  agnatic  "  kinsman,  previously  chosen  to 
succeed  him.  This  kinsman  was  called  the 
**  tanaitte.**  The  tanaiate  of  a  rt  was  elected 
by  the  tribe.  The  tanaiste  of  ti  fiaith  was 
elected  by  the  sept.  The  descent  of  inferior 
tenancies  was  regulated  by  some  custom  re- 
sembling gavel-kmd.  But  as  civil  rights 
depended  on  a  property  qualification,  the 
immediate  family  of  bo-aire  often  agreed  to 
keep  together  as  a  "joint  and  undivided 
&mily,"  and  elected  a  tanaiste.  Poor  kinsmen 
miffht  even  club  together  as  a  "  joint  family  " 
and  appoint  a  head,  who  then  ranked  as  an 
aire.  Mensal  lands  were  assigned  to  the 
Brehons,  medicine-men,  harpers,  smiths,  and 
metal  workers. 

Oats,  wheat,  barley,  flax,  wool,  madder, 
onions,  and  parsnips  were  grown.  The 
dense  forests  abounded  in  game,  and  the 
rivers  and  lakes  in  fish.  The  boar,  the  red 
deer,  the  wolf,  the  beaver,  the  wild  peacock, 
and  the  osprey  were  common.  In  winter 
the  scanty  population  dwelt  in  the  plains; 
in  summer  they  drove  their  cattle  to  the 
mountains  or  the  sea-coast.  The  domestic 
animals  were  plentiful  and  good.  Bees 
were  largely  cultivated.  Houses  were  built 
of  wattles  or  hewn  timber.  Those  of  free 
men  consisted  of  several  detached  struc- 
tures, surrounded  by  one  or  more  ditches  and 
mounds.  A  loose  woollen  shirt,  covered  by  a 
tight  tunic,  formed  the  dress  of  both  sexes. 
A  shawl  fastened  by  a  brooch  hung  from  the 
left  shoulder.  Beautiful  gold  and  silver 
ornaments  were  common.  Toilet -mirrors, 
hair-oil,  and  paint  for  the  eye-lashes  and  the 
finger-nails  were  used  by  the  women.  Slings, 
pikes,  swords,  and  shields  were  the  arms  in 
general  use.  The  customs  of  polygamy,  and 
tiie  intermarriage  of  near  kinsfolk,  gave  the 
early  missionaries  much  trouble.  The  rank 
of  the  wife  depended  upon  her  dower,  and 
upon  her  bearing  sons.  As  the  children  of 
the  same  father  by  different  wives  had  equal 
rights,  they  were  all  fostered  outside  the  sept, 
to  prevent  foul  play.  Slavery  was  universal. 
Hides  and  frieze  were  the  chief  exports. 
They  were  largely  exchanged  for  English 
slaves  at  Bristol,  and  for  French  wines  at 
Poitiers.    The  native  artists  excelled  in  copy- 


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(  606  ) 


Ire 


ingand  iUuminating  books,  in  working  the 
precious  metals,  and  in  music. 

In  the  year  1169  Robert  Fitz-Stophen  and 
Maurice  Fitz-Gerald  .landed  in  Wexford,  as 
nominal  allies  of  Dermot  McMurrough,  the 
deposed  King  of  LeiDster.  The  more  famous 
**  Strongbow,'*  Richard  de  Clare,  followed  the 
next  year.  The  conquests  they  made  were  so 
■easy  and  so  rapid,  that  Henry  II.  feared  they 
would  establish  an  independent  Norman  state 
-across  the  Channel.  To  prevent  the  danger, 
became  himself  to  Ireland  in  1172.  Many 
native  chiefs  acknowledged  his  supremacy; 
many  did  him  feudal  homage  in  ignorance 
of  the  obligations  they  incnrred.  The  con- 
flict thus  introduced  between  the  Brehon  law 
<»f  the  tribes,  and  the  feudal  law  of  the  Eng- 
lish, is  the  true  explanation  of  the  subsequent 
relations  of  the  two  races.  The  English  per- 
sistently ignored  the  rights  of  the  tribesmen 
in  their  lands,  and  in  the  choice  of  their  chief. 
The  Irish  clung  to  their  ancestral  customs. 
The  death  of  a  chief  might  always  bring  a 
disputed  succession. 

Henry  acted  under  colour  of  a  Bull  of  the 
English  Pope,  Adrian  IV.  He  was  at  first 
well  received  by  the  churchmen.  The  brutality 
of  John  (1185)  estranged  both  clerks  and 
laymen.  The  Norman  power  spread  without 
consolidating.  The  crown  discouraged  the 
growth  of  strong  principalities,  and  without 
strength  order  was  impossible.  The  Irish 
could  isolate  the  scattered  settlements  at  plea- 
sure, by  seizing  the  passes  through  the  woods 
and  the  hiUs.  The  foreigners  fought  amongst 
themselves,  and  called  in  Irish  aid.  They  were 
compelled  to  serve  their  king  in  his  wars  with 
France  and  Scotland.  Estates  passed  by  mar- 
riage into  the  hands  of  English  absentees. 
They  were  ill  guarded,  and  retaken  by  the 
tribes.  The  barons  themselves  in  the  wild 
districts  bowed  before  the  Celtic  revival. 
They  abandoned  their  feudal  pretensions,  and 
acted  as  native  chiefs. 

By  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
the  English  power  had  sunk  to  a  low  ebb.  It 
was  ruined  by  the  Scottish  invasion  of  Edward 
Bruce.  For  two  years  he  wasted  Ireland. 
At  length,  *'  after  eighteen  successive  victo- 
ries," he  was  defeated  and  slain  by  the  Viceroy 
near  Faughard  (1317).  But  he  had  exter- 
minated tibe  English  yeomen,  the  sinews  of 
the  settlement.  In  1333,  William  and  Edward 
do  Burgo,  the  heads  of  a  great  Norman  house, 
the  sons  of  an  English  Viceroy,  deliberately 
renounced  their  allegiance,  divided  the  lordship 
of  Connaught  between  them  in  defiance  of 
the  Engli^  rule  of  succession,  and  adopted 
the  Irish  "language,  apparel,  and  laws." 
Their  example  was  followed  by  many.  Large 
territories  in  Ulster  and  Leinster  were  re- 
occupied  by  the  O'Neills  and  the  McMur- 
roughs.  The  flight  of  the  English  popula- 
tion was  vainly  forbidden  by  law.  In  1367 
the  Statute  of  Kilkenny  (40  Edward  III.) 
records  the  conscious  impotence  of  its  authors. 


They  have  ceased  to  dream  of    conquests. 
Their  ambition  is  to  preserve  the  shrunken 
remnant  of   their  dominions  from  the  insi- 
dious encroachments  of  the  Celt.   The  natives 
are  rapidly  assimilating  the  colonists  to  them- 
selves.   The  statute  attempts  by  savage  penal- 
ties to  isolate  the  English  from  the  contagion, 
and  to  put  a  stop  to  the  adoption  of   the 
native  dress,  language,  and  customs.   In  1374 
the  great  constitutional  question,  which,  four 
centuries  later,  cost  England  an  empire,  arose 
in  the  Irish  Parliament.    The  viceroy  tried  to 
force  the  colonists  to  send  representetives  to 
England,  with  power  to  assent  to  taxation  on 
their  behalf.    He  was  firmly  and  successfuUy 
opposed.    A  few  years  later  the  Kavanaghs 
and  the  0*Briens  levied  black-mail  on  Dublin 
Castle. 

King  Richard  was  at  last  provoked  to  vin- 
dicate the  power  of  the  crown.    He  crossed 
the   sea   with  a  great  army,  but  the  Irish 
"  mocked  him  with  their  light  submission/* 
so  that  **  he  enlarged  not  the  English  borders 
the  breadth  of  one  acre  of   land"   (1395). 
Four  years  later    he  returned.     A    march 
through  the  Kavanaghs*  country  reduced  his 
forces  to  a  rabble.     He  fled  from  Dublin  to 
meet  Henry  of  Lancaster.    For  a  century  the 
colony  continued  to  dwindle.    Parts  of  four 
shires  formed  the  English  dominion,  and  tbese 
were  fidl  of  native  Irisli.    The  Wars  of  the 
Roses  were  disastrous  to  the  settlers.    Thev 
were  Yorkists    to    a    man.    Thej]  formally 
acknowledged  Duke  Richard  as  their  viceroy, 
in  defiance  of  the  English  attainder.    They 
solemnly  asserted  the  independence  of  their 
Parliament.      They  followed  the  Pretender 
Simnel  into  England.    They  were  decimated 
at  Sandel  Castle  and  at  Stoke.     To  Henry 
VTI.  the  Anglo-Irish  were  more  dangerousthan 
the  Celts.    The  only  important  Irish  measure 
of  his  reig^  was  that  which  made  the  colonial 
Parliament  completely  subject  to  the  Council, 
and  extended  all  existing  English  statutes  to 
the  colony  (Poynings*Act,  lOHenry  VII.,c.4). 
For  the  first  fifty  years  of  the  Tudor  rule,  the 
Leinster  Geraldines  were  the  true  lords  of  the 
settlement.   Their  rebellion,  in  1535,  brought 
a  new  force  into  Ireland.    All  over  Europe 
the  old  feudal  monarchies  had  been  succeeded 
by  despots,  who  embodied  the  national  forces 
and  the  national  will.    'H.enxy  VIII.  was  the 
first  King  of  England  who  could  strike  with 
the  whole  force  of  the  State.     He  resolved  to 
let  the  Anglo-Irish  feel  the  blow.     A  disci- 
plined force  and  a  train  of  artillery  reduced 
the  Creraldine  castles.    The  king  was  master 
of  the  island.     He  desired  to  rule  his  new 
kingdom  well.    But  the  greed  of  his  servants, 
and  his  unhappy  determination  to  thrust  Eng- 
lish manners  upon  the  Celts,  inevitably  led  to 
resistance  and  repression.    The  secularisatiou 
of    the    Church    lands    was  not  unpopular. 
Many  abbeys  were  granted  to  the  chiefs  "  as 
the  means  to  make  them  rather  glad  to  sup- 
press them."    The  doctrinal  changes  on  the 


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Ire 


other  hand  provoked  a  bitter  opposition.  No 
open  outbreak  occarred,  but  on  the  accession 
of  Mary,  the  old  order  was  triumphantly  re- 
stored.    [IiusH  Church.^ 

The  garrison  of  Enghsh  landholders,  the 
bulwark  of  Protestantism  in  Ireland,  was  by 
a  carious  irony  introduced  in  the  name  of 
Philip   II.  of   Spain.     King's  and   Queen's 
Counties  were  "  planted  "  by  3  &  4  Philip  and 
Mary,  caps.  1  &  2.     The  third  chapter  at  the 
same  Act  authorised  the  Chancellor  to  des- 
patch commissioners  throughout  the    island 
'*  to  set  ont  shires  and  counties,"  that  is,  to 
substitute  English  for  Irish  law  without  regard 
for  vested  rights.    The  disputed  succession  to 
the  earldom  of  Tyrone  brought  matters  to  a 
crisis  under  Elizabeth.    Shane  O'Neill  was 
the  tanaisfe  of  his  tribe ;  the  bastard  of  Dun- 
gannon   claimed  by  an  English  patent.    A 
war  followed,  disgiacef ul  even  amongst  Eng- 
lish wars    in   Ireland.      Shane    visited   the 
queen.    He  was  detained,  in  breach  of  his  safe- 
conduct,  until  he  accepted  terms  he  could  not 
keep.     On  his  return  home,  ''  my  Lord  Trea- 
surer's man*'  tried  to  poison  him.  In  1566  the 
war  was  renewed.    The  new  Lord  Deputy 
Sidney  fought  O'NeiU  by  the  hands  of  his 
native  rivals.    The  O'Donnells  defeated  him 
near  Lifford ;  the  Scots  of  Antrim  murdered 
him.    His  death  was  followed  by  an  Act  of 
Parliament  (11  Elizabeth,  cap.  0),  making  all 
Ireland    flhire-land,  and    thereby   depriving 
many  chiefs  of  benefits  expressly  secured  to 
them  by   indenture  with  the  crown.     Ten 
years  later  the  Desmond  rebellion  (1579)  was 
quelled  by  a  war  of   extermination.     The 
plantation   system    was    definitely   adopted. 
The  policy  of   the.  government  was  not  to 
subdue,  but  to  destroy.    Women  and  infemts 
were  regularly  murdered.     A  well-planned 
famine  removed  the  fugitives  who  escaped 
the  sword.     Munster  was  a  desert,  fit  at  mst 
for  the  civilisation  of  the  Raleighs  and  the 
Spensers.     Half  a  million  of  acres  were  be- 
stowed on  English  adventurers,  on  condition 
that  they  should  plant  their  vast  estates  with 
English  farmers.     The  condition  was  never 
fulfilled.    The  starving  Celts  crept  from  the 
woods  and  glens  to  outbid  the  strangers.    But 
one  province   did  not  satisfy  the   English. 
Hugh  O'Neill,  the  English  Earl  of  Tyrone, 
the  son  of  the  bastard  of  Dungannon,  was 
reluctantly  driven  into   war.    Bred  at  the 
English  court,  and  conscious  of  the  English 
power,  he  tried  to  combine  the  impossible 
P^rt»  of  an  Irish  chief  and  an  English  noble. 
His  tribe  accepted  him  as  their  leader  in  1593. 
The  next  year  he  was  summoned  before  the 
Council,  and,  to  the  queen's  great  indignation, 
^offered  to  return.     His  course  could  be  no 
longer  doubtful.    He  contrived  to  unite  aU 
tbe  Ulster  tribes  beneath  his  banner,  and  he 
«>ught  for  aid  from  Spain.   In  1598  he  routed 
Bagnall  at   the  Yellow    Ford,  and   roused 
Munster.    For  three  years  he  harassed  with- 
out engaging  the   enemy.     At   length,  in 


Sept.,  1601,  a  strong  Spanish  force  landed 
at  Kinsale.  If  Hugh  could  join  them,  his 
triumph  was  secure.  They  were  blockaded 
by  veteran  troops.  Hugh  was  betrayed 
and  beaten  (Dec.).  In  the  following  March 
he  made  peace  on  almost  the  same  terras 
he  had  himself  proposed  in  1587.  But  al- 
though O'Neill  had  held  his  own  in  the 
field,  he  could  not  resist  the  **  war  of 
chicane,"  which  at  once  began  against  him. 
He  and  his  ally,  O'Donnell  of  Tyrconnel, 
the  repi^esentatives  of  the  old  ro^'al  house  of 
the  Hui  N^ill,  were  forced  to'  fly.  Their 
lands  were  confiscated  and  "  planted,"  and  the 
tribesmen  treated  as  tenants-at-will  under  the 
crown.  This  fiagrant  injustice  led  directly  to 
the  outbreak  of  1641.  The  "  subtle  ravage  " 
of  the  lawyers,  and  the  growing  Protestantism 
of  the  government,  which  now,  for  the  first 
time,  had  a  large  Piotestant  population  at  its 
back,  g^dually  forced  even  the  old  Ai\glo- 
Irish  Catholics  into  a  dose  union  with  the 
Celts.  Strafford  claimed  all  the  estates  of 
Connaught  for  the  crown,  on  the  plea  that 
the  Clumcery  officers  had  neglected  to  enrol 
the  patents  of  the  owners.  The  Irish  gentle- 
men offered  £120,000  for  quieting  their  titles. 
The  offer  was  accepted,  the  money  was  paid, 
and  then  the  Viceroy  announced  that  he  would 
not  observe  the  conditions. 

Meanwhile  the  religious  tension  was  in- 
creasing. A  Catholic  revival  had  spread 
over  Europe.  In  England  the  Puritans  were 
rising  into  power.  On  Oct.  22,  1641,  arising 
occurred  in  Ulster.  In  December  the  English 
Commons  resolved  to  extirpate  Popery  in 
Ireland.  Then  the  rebellion  spread.  The 
Lords  Justices  were  careful  not  to  limit  it ;  the 
wider,  it  was  said  at  the  time,  the  rebellion, 
the  wider  would  be  the  forfeitures  at  their 
disposal.*  The  struggle  was  very  horrible. 
The  colonists  were  everywhere  expelled,  and 
often  murdered.  The  Irish  chiefs  did  what 
they  could  to  humanise  the  war ;  the  English 
leaders  encouraged  the  ferocity  of  their  men. 
The  divisions  of  the  Irish  Royalists  gave 
Cromwell  an  easy  victory.  The  act  of  de- 
vastation was  perfected  by  the  Saints.  Nearly 
half  the  population  perished  in  eleven  years. 
When  the  war  was  over,  many  hundreds  of 
boys  and  of  marriageable  girls  were  sold  into 
slavery.  Thirty  or  forty  thousand  men 
enlisted  in  foreign  service.  Three  provinces 
were  confiscated,  and  parcelled  out  amongst 
the  soldiers  and  the  creditors  of  the  Parlia- 
ment.     By  the  peace  of   1648,   Charles  I. 

*  Whether  the  terrible  charge  of  Carte,  Leland, 
LordCastlehaven,  and  NaUon,  be  well  founded  it  is, 
perhane,  impossible  to  determine.  Bat  it  is  certain 
that  tne  measnrefl  of  the  Lords  Jnstices  were  emi- 
nently adapted  to  spread  ihe  rebellion.  It  is  certain, 
too,  that  from  the  first  they  looked  forward  to 
oonflscations.  When  the  seven  Lords  of  the  Pale 
revolted,  they  hastened  to  point  out  how  '*  those 
nreat  counties  of  Leinster,  ulster,  and  the  Pale/' 
lay  now  "  more  open  to  hia  Malesty's  free  dispoasJ, 
and  to  a  general  settlement  of  jpetMe  and  religion 
by  introducing  of  English.*' 


Ire 


(  608  ) 


Ire 


promised  to  restore  the  Irish  Catholics  to 
their  estates.  In  1650  Charles  II.  confirmed 
the  engagements  of  his  father.  He  changed 
his  mind  when  he  was  king .  He  **  considered 
the  settlement  of  Ireland  as  an  affair  rather 
of  policy  than  justice,"  and  *'  thought  it  most 
for  the  good  of  the  kingdom,  advantage  of 
the  crown,  and  security  of  his  government, 
that  the  loss  should  fall  on  the  Irish."  By 
the  Acts  of  Settlement  and  Explanation,  he 
confirmed  to  the  Cromwellians  the  estates  of 
his  father's  last  supporters.  Before  the  re- 
hellion,  two-thirds  of  the  fertile  soil  belonged 
to  the  Catholics.  Under  the  Act  of  Settlement, 
two-thirds  remained  to  the  Protestants.  The 
War  of  the  Revolution  gave  the  final  blow 
to  the  old  race.  They  saw  in  it  a  chance  of 
undoing  the  wrongs  of  the  last  thirty  years. 
Their  ablest  leaders,  backed  by  D'Avaux  and 
LouYois,  desired  to  establish  Ireland  as  a 
separate  kingdom,  under  French  protection. 
The  king  landed  in  March,  1689.  The  Parlia- 
ment met  in  May.  Poynings'  Act  and  the 
Acts  of  Settlement  and  Explanation  were 
repealed.  The  Cromwellians  and  their  heirs 
were  dispossessed,  as  wrongful  possessors,  but 
bondjide  purchasers  for  valuable  consideration 
were  to  be  reprised.  To  provide  for  these 
reprisals,  the  estates  of  the  English  colonists 
who  supported  the  Prince  of  Orange  were 
confiscated.  A  wholesale  Act  of  Attainder 
was  passed  to  increase  the  forfeitures.*  But 
the  war  went  against  King  James.  He  had 
neither  money  nor  arms.  His  troops  were 
ill-disciplined,  and  his  counsels  divided.  The 
relief  of  Derry  and  the  battle  of  Newton 
Butler,  in  1689,  were  followed  up  by  the 
passage  of  the  Boyne,  in  1690,  and  the  de« 
cisive  defeat  of  Aghrim,  in  1691.  The  capi- 
tulation of  Limerick  was  signed,  after  an 
heroic  defence,  on  Oct.  3.  The  flower  of  the 
Irish  soldiers  followed  their  king  into  France, 
to  *'find  their  graves  in  strange  places  and 
unhercditary  churches."  Parliament  refused 
to  ratify  the  Treaty  of  Limerick ;  fresh  con- 
fiscations were  made ;  and  the  national  faith 
was  proscribed. 

A  great  development  of  material  prosperity 
might,  perhaps,  have  reconciled  the  Irish  to 
the  conquest.  The  English  and  the  Irish 
Parliaments  vied  in  legislation  which  made 
prosperity  impossible.  Trade  was  crushed  by 
the  commercial  jealousy  of  the  one ;  society 
was  sapped  by  the  bigotry  of  the  other. 
Ireland  was  already  excluded  from  the  Navi- 
gation Acts.  Acts  of  1665  arid  1680  had  pro- 
hibited the  importation  of  Irish  cattle  and 
provisions  into  Enpfland.  The  colonial  trade 
was  ruined  in  1696  ;  the  wool  trade  with 
England  in  1698 ;  the  wool  trade  with  the 
Continent  in  1699.     Catholics  were  forbidden 


*  A  precisely  Bimilar  hill  afntinBt  the  IrJsh  was 
introduced  in  England  five  davs  before  the  Irish 
bill  woa  brought  in.  It  jMuised  both  H<  uses,  and 
was  lo<it  by  a  prorogation.  It  is  not  mentioned  by 
Lord  Maoauli^. 


by  Irish  Acts  to  purchase  lands,  to  lend  on 
real  securities,   to  take    long    or    beneficial 
leases.     The  Gavelling  Act  (2  Anne,  c.  6) 
broke  up  existing  estates.     Catholic  minors 
were  pkced  under  Protestant  guardians.  The 
Courts  of  Equity  assigned  a  liberal  provision 
to  apostate  wives  and  children.    The  English 
grantees  of  confiscated  estates  were  necessarily 
absentees.    They  leased  vast  tracts  to  Irim 
Protestants  on  beneficial  terms.    The  lessees 
sub-let,  sometimes  four  or  five  deep.     The 
miser\'  of  the  cottier  was  extreme.     He  paid 
a  rack-rent;    he  supported  his  priest  ;    he 
was  tithed  by  the  parson.  The  steady  growth 
of  pasture  drove  him  to  the  mountain  and  the 
"bog.    Famine  and  disease  were  chroaic    A 
vast  emigration  set  in.      Before  the  trade 
laws  and  the    Test  Act,  the    Presbyterian 
artisans  and  yeomen  fled  to  Grermany  and 
America.    The  Catholics  served  under  every 
European  flag  save  one.    At  home  they  were 
a  rabble.    '^  Tlxe  tendons  of  society  were  cut." 
When  the  masses  came  to  power,  they  had 
none  to  lead.    The  penal  code  was  so  repug- 
nant to  human  nature,  the  commercial  code 
was  so  opposed  to  the  coomion  interest,  that 
their     regular    execution    was    impoesible. 
Priests,  **  whom  the  laws  did  not  presume  to 
exist,"  publicly  discharged  the  duties  of  their 
office ;  smuggling  became  a  national  industry. 
The  whole  population  was  educated  into  con- 
tempt for  the  law.    They  came  soon  to  have 
a  law  of  their  own,  enforced  by  the  Houghers 
and  the  Whiteboys  (1761)  with  merciless  seve- 
rity.  The  government  wasa  corrupt  oligiirchy. 
The  hereditary  revenue,  which  included  two- 
thirds  of  the  taxation,  made  the  crown  inde- 
? indent.      The    judicial    interpretation    of 
oynings*  Act  and  the  Declaratory  Act  of  6 
Geo.  I.,  c.  6,  ensured  the  subservience  of  the 
Parliament.     All  bills  were  submitted,  fiist 
to    the  Irish,  then    to    the    English   Privy 
Council.     They  were  suppressed  or  altered 
at  the  pleasure  of  either.     If  npprovcd  by  the 
two  councils.  Parliament  might  pass  or  reject, 
but  could  not  amend  them.   The  Upper  House 
was  largely  controlled  by  the  English  courtiers 
who  sat  upon  the  Right  Reverend  bench.    An 
English  Act  of  1691  excluded  Catholics;  an 
English  test  clause  of  1704  excluded  Dissenters 
from  the  legislature.    The  Catholics  lost  the 
franchise.     Protestants  exercised  it  once  in  a 
lifetime.    The  Parliament  of  George  II.  sat 
for  thirty-three  years.     Two-thirds   of   the 
members  were    returned  by  boroughs,  and 
the  boroughs  were  in  the  hands  of  under- 
takers and  patrons.     The  Houses  met  once 
in  two  years.     The  judges  were  remo\'able 
at  pleasure.     The  greatest  offices  were  habi- 
tually bestowed    on  English   non-residents. 
A  spirit  of  resistance  slowly  gp^w  amoncst 
the  colonists.    The  House  of  Lords  vainly 
protested    against    the    deprivation    of    its 
appellate  jurisdiction  in  the  Annesley  case 
(1719).     Three  vears  later  the  country  rose 
against    ^*  Wood's    halfpence,*'    and    drove 


Ire 


(  609  ) 


Walpole  to  submission.    The  struggle  '^  had  a 
most  unhappy  influence  on  the  state  of  the 
nation,  by  oringing  on  intimacies  between 
Papists  and  Jacobites,  and  the  Whigfs,  who 
before  had  no  correspondence  witih  them." 
In  1749  the  crown  worsted  the  Houses  over 
an  Appropriation  Bill.      In    the   next  two 
sessions  the  contest  was  renewed,  and  the 
government  outvoted.     The  opposition  grew, 
the  pension  list  swelled,  the  price  of    the 
boroughs  advanced.     Between  1750  and  1754 
seats  trebled  in  value.    The  influence  of  the 
middle  classes  was  first  felt  at  the  dissolution 
on  the  demise  of  the  crown.     Their  objects 
were  to  control  their  representatives  by  an 
Octennial  Act,  and  to  correct  the  scandals  of 
the  pension  list.    The  Peace  of  Paris  added 
India  and  Canada  to  the  Empire.  An  increase 
of  the  standing  army  was  essential  to  their 
safety.     Ministers  did  not  dare  to  make  the 
proposal  in  EIngland.    By  the  concession  of 
an  Octennial  Act  (Feb.,  1768)  the^  secured 
an  increaae  of  3,000  men  to  the  Irish  Estab- 
lishment.   The  overthrow  of  the  Undertakers 
followed.      Lord  Townshend  and  Lord  Har- 
court  attempted  by  lavish  bribes  to  create  a 
party  of  **  king's  friends,**  dependent  only  on 
the    crown.      Between   1757    and   1777  the 
civil  list    had   nearly  doubled,  the  pension 
list  had  nearly  doubled,  and  a  million  had 
been  added  to  the  debt.    The  American  War 
brought  a   crisis.      In  1778  the  impending 
bankruptcy  of   Ireland   forced  Lord  North 
to  relax  the  commercial  code  in  defiance  of 
the  English  middle  classes.      The  govern- 
ment was  too  poor  to  replace  the  garrisons 
withdrawn  for  the  colonial  war.   The  country 
was  defenceless,  and  invasion  seemed  imminent. 
The  whole  Protestant  population  armed.     In 
December,    1778,  the   Volunteers   numbered 
MOO;  in  June,  1779,  42,000;  in  1781,  it  is 
said,  as  many  as  80,000  men.    They  were  for 
the  most  part  Protestants ;  they  were  officered 
by  the  Protestant   gent^,  and    they  were 
thoroughly  loyal  to  the  English  connection. 
But  they  resolved  to  free  their  country  from 
the  commercial  tjTanny  of  England.    They 
began  to  discuss  political  questions  and  to 
concert  their  action.     In  Dec.,  1781,  came 
the  news  of  Saratoga  and  of  York  Town. 
In  the  following  Februaiy  the  delegates  of 
143  Ulster  corps  met  at  Dungannon.    They 
asserted  the  independence  of  the  kingdom,  and 
the  right  to  free  trade.     They  demanded  that 
the  judges  should  be  made  mdependent,  and 
the  Mutiny  Act  limited  to  a  single  session. 
They  condemned  the  penal  laws,  and  appointed 
a  committee  to  communicate  with  other  corps. 
Their    example    was    everywhere    followed. 
Qrattan  pressed  the  demand  for  independence 
in  the  Commons.     In  April  the  House  ad- 
dressed the  crown.      It  adopted  in  full  the 
constitutional  theories  of  Dungannon.    They 
vere  accepted  in  May  by  the  Piurliament  of 
England.     Fox,  it  has  been  said,  "  met  Ire- 
'^uin  on  her  own  terms,  and  gave  her  every- 
BiHT  —20 


thing  she  wanted  in  the  way  she  herself  seemed 
to  wish  for  it.*' 

But  independence  was  not  the  sole  legislative 
achievement  of  the  Volunteers.  Between  1778 
and  1782  many  wholesome  measures  were 
passed.  Almost  all  the  commercial  restraints 
were  removed.  A  Habeas  Corpus  Act  and  a 
limited  Mutiny  Act  became  law.  The  judges 
were  made  immovable.  The  Test  Act  was  re- 
pealed. Bills  for  the  relief  of  the  Catholics 
were  carried  in  1778,  1782,  and  1792.  In 
1793  they  were  enfranchised. 

Two  grievances  remained — the  corruption  of 
Parliament,  and  the  exclusion  of  Catholics 
from  its  waUs.  Upon  both  points  the  patriots 
were  divided.  Charlemont  and  Flood  feared 
to  extend  the  political  power  of  the  Catholics. 
Grattan  was  their  earnest  advocate.  All 
agreed  upon  the  necessity  of  Reform,  but 
Flood  alone  was  ready  to  overawe  the  Houses 
into  honesty.  The  Volunteer  Convention 
showed  a  growing  appetite  for  politics. 
Charlemont  and  Grattan  were  entirely  op- 
posed to  legislation  by  menace.  Flood*s  Re- 
form Bill  was  rejected  by  a  great  majority, 
and  the  Convention  was  immediately  dis- 
solved. For  fifteen  years  Pitt  debauched  the 
Irish  Parliament.  Reform  or  Emancipation 
would  alike  have  been  fatal  to  the  union 
which  he  presently  began  to  design.  It 
was  to  redress  these  evils  that  the  club  of 
United  Irishmen  was  formed  by  Rowan 
Hamilton.  The  persistent  opposition  of  the 
government,  however,  drove  its  members  to 
disloyalty.  Sjnnpathy  with  the  French  Revo- 
lution g^w  active  in  the  north.  In  1793  the 
Convention  Act  became  law.  At  last,  in  1794, 
Pitt  seemed  to  waver.  Lord  Fitzwilliam,  a 
known  friend  of  the  Catholics,  was  named 
Viceroy ;  and  the  expectations  of  the  Catholics 
were  raised  to  the  highest  pitch.  Suddenly  the 
Viceroy  was  recalled.  The  miserable  rebellion 
of  1798  followed.  A  brief  and  horrible  agra- 
nan  rising  was  suppressed,  and  punished 
with  the  cruelty  that  comes  of  fear.  The 
English  minister  saw  his  opportunity,  and 
bought  the  Parliament  he  had  degraded  so 
ably  and  so  long.  The  union  with  England  was 
accomplished  by  the  Act  39  &  40  Geo.  III., 
c.  67,  July  2,  1800,  and  the  Irish  Parliament 
ceased  to  exist  a  month  later.  For  many  years 
the  country  was  profoundly  disturbed.  Robert 
Emmett  was  hanged  in  1803,  for  plotting  a 
second  rebellion.  Orange  outrages  prevailed 
in  the  north,  and  Daniel  O'Connell  was 
beginning  to  marshal  the  Catholic  democracy. 
He  determined  from  the  first  to  win  emanci- 
pation without  conditions.  The  Liberal  Pro- 
testants under  Grattan,  the  Catholic  gentry 
under  Lord  Fingall,  the  English  Catholics, 
and  a  strong  party  at  Rome,  under  Gonsalvi, 
were  prepared  to  give  the  crown  a  veto  on  the 
nomination  of  Irish  prelates,  in  return  for 
the  boon.  The  bishops  themselves  favoured 
the  compromise.  O'Connell  opposed  and  beat 
them  all.    The   Catholic  Association  (1824) 


Ire 


(  610) 


Ire 


organiBed  the  peasantry  through  the  priests. 
The  Waterford  election   (1826)   proved  the 

S)wer  of  the  movement.  The  return  of 
'Connell  for  Clare  in  1829  convinced  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  that  he  must  choose 
hetween  concession  and  civil  war.  The 
Emancipation  Act  was  passed,  the  forty-shil- 
ling freeholders  were  disfranchised,  and  the 
Catholic  Association  suppressed.  The  horrors 
of  the  Tithe  War  led  to  a  severe  Coercion  Act 
in  1832,  and  to  the  abolition  of  tithes  and  the 
substitution  of  a  land-tax  in  1838.  A  Poor 
Law  was  passed  in  the  same  year,  and  a 
Municipal  Kef orm  Act  two  years  later.  The 
National  Schools  were  founded  in  1831 — 32, 
and  the  Queen's  Colleges  in  184d.  O'Con- 
nell*s  formidable  agitation  for  Repeal  marked 
the  second  administration  of  Sir  Robert  PeeL 
The  prohibition  of  the  monster  meetingat  Clon- 
tarf  (Oct.  3,  1843)  broke  his  power.  He  died 
at  Genoa  in  1847.  The  ** Young  Ireland" 
party,  chiefly  composed  of  Prot^tant  jour- 
nalists and  men  of  letters,  made  a  foolish  at- 
tempt at  rebellion  in  1848.  The  Potato 
Famine  of  1846 — 48,  and  the  Encumbered 
£2states  Court  Act,  caused  a  vast  exodus  to 
America.  A  considerable  amount  of  English 
capital  was  invested  in  Ireland,  and  some 
years  of  steady  progress  ensued.  But  the  en- 
during existence  of  social  and  political  dis- 
contents was  revealed  by  the  Phoenix  Con- 
spiracy of  1858.  They  ciuminated  in  Fenian- 
ism  at  the  close  of  the  American  War.  Abor- 
tive attempts  at  insurrection  continued  to 
disturb  Irdand  and  Canada  for  nearly  four 
years,  but  they  came  to  nothing.  [Fenian 
CoNSPi&ACT.I  The  conspirators  tooK  refuge 
in  crime,  and  in  December,  1867,  London  was 
startled  by  an  attack  on  Clerkenwell  Prison. 
Mr.  Gladstone  became  premier  shortly  after 
this  event,  and  immeoiatehr  proceeded  to 
legislate  for  Ireland.  The  Irish  Churdi  was 
disostablished  and  disendowed  in  1869,  and 
a  Land  Bill  embodying  some  novel  prin- 
ciples became  law  in  1870.  Two  years  i^ter 
the  Ballot  Act  (1872),  the  Home  Rule  party 
came  into  prominence  under  Mr.  Isaac  Butt^ 
He  was  soon  ousted  from  his  position  by  Mr. 
Pamell  (1877 — 78),  who  availed  himself  of 
the  distress  caused  by  bad  harvests  in  1878 — 
80  to  organise  tiie  formidable  Land  League 
movement.  By  a  second  Land  Act,  passed  in 
1881,  Mr.  Gladstone  transformed  the  whole 
system  of  Irish  tenures.  The  Land  League 
was  suppressed  in  the  same  year,  but  imme- 
diately revived  as  the  National  League.  Sys- 
tematic outrages,  however,  still  prevailed  over 
three  of  the  provinces.  Offenders  against  the 
«*unwrittenlaw  "  were  shot  or  "boycotted,"  and 
in  May,  1882,  Lord  Frederick  Cavendish  and 
Mr.  Burke,  the  Chief  and  Under  Secretaries 
for  Ireland,  were  stabbed  by  the  "Invinci- 
bles''  in  the  Phoenix  Park.  In  1885,  nearly 
ninety  Kationalists  having  been  elected  to 
Parliament  under  the  reduced  franchise, 
Mr.  Gladstone,  followed  by  the  great  bulk 


of  the  Liberal  party,  embraced  the  cause  of 
Home  Rule.  His  Bill  was  rejected  in  1886, 
his  government  being  succeeded  by  one 
pledged  to  maintain  the  Union  intact.  But 
he  returned  to  power  in  1892,  and  introduced 
a  second  Bill,  which  passed  through  the 
House  of  Commons  but  was  thrown  out  by 
the  House  of  Lords.  At  the  next  appeal  to 
the  country,  in  1896,  a  large  Unionist  ma- 
jority was  returned. 

1.  Celtic  Ireland,    a.  Coatemporazy:  —  Most 
of  the  extant  mannscripta  are  still  whollj  or 
partially  unpublished.    Ample  acooonts  cS  them 
axe  given  by  O'Cuny,  ManvMorivt  MoitriaU  of 
Aneimi    Irish    History;     and    O'Beilly,    Iritk 
Writen,    A  few  were  printed  by  O*  Conor,  fiervm 
Hib.  V$t9n9  Seriptoru,  in  1814.     The  following 
have  been  published  in  the  Beooid  Series:^ 
AncimU  Lawt  oflrtHand,  The  WarcfOu  GatdhUl 
with   the   Qaui   (Norae    invasions),    Chronieon 
Bcotorum  (a.x.  1509— a.d.  1150),  Annale  of  Louyh 
CS  (1014— 1590X  Hielorioal  and  MvnieipaL  Docw- 
menta  qf  Ireland  (U72-1320),    Oiroldus    Coia- 
brsNsis.     There  is  a  fine  edition  of  the  AnnaU  of 
the  Four  Kosters,  by  CDonovan.    h.  If  odem  :— 
O'Corzy,  On  the  Jfannsra,  etc.,  of  the  AndmU  Iruh, 
ed.  by  Dr.  W.  K.  SoUivan  ;  Sir  Henry  Sumner 
Maine,  farly  History  <tf  InstttutioM.    IL  The 
English  Conquest,     a.  Contemnorary  :— Calm* 
dart  df  State  Fapere  in  the  Bolls  Series ;  £dmund 
Campion,  A  Hi^orie  <^  Irsload  written,  in  1672 ; 
Spenser,  A  View  of  the  State  of  Ireland  ;  Sir  John 
Davies,  A  Diecoverie  of  the  State  of  Ireland;  Sir 
William  Petty,  Th«  Political  Anatomy  of  Ireland: 
Clarendon,  Hutorteot  View  of  the  Anexre  of  Ire- 
land;  Carte,  Ormond;   Clogy,  Life  ofBadM: 
Leland,  BiriAry  of  Ireland;    Nalson,  Historical 
Collsctions.      b.   Modem  : — ^Pzendergast,     The 
Cromtcelliam    Settlsmsnt    cf   Ireland;     Biohey, 
Xectures  on  tfcs   History   of  Ireland    (the  bMt 
short  history  to  1002) ;  Leoky,  History  of  Eng- 
land in  the  Exghteenth  Cmtury.     III.   The  Eng- 
lish Bule.    a.  Contemporary  :—Molyneaz,  Ins 
Cass   of    IrAand,   10B6;     Swift.     Short    View, 
Dropier'a    Letters,    and    other  traets;    Dobbs, 
Essay  on  the  Trade  of  Irfiand,  1784;    Berkelev, 
The  Querist,  1735—7 ;  Mrs.  Delany,  ilutobioyraphy 
and  Correipondencs  (an  amniiing  social  pictore) ; 
O'Leaxy,     TTorln;     Wesley,     Diariee;      Hely 
Hutchinson,  Commercial  Rekrainte,  1779;  Yomi^, 
Tour,  1780 :  Burke's  Jfiscellansovs  Tracts  on  Ir»- 
land;  TTie  Lives  of  Charlemont,  Hood,  and  Grottan, 
by  Hardy,  Warden  Flood,  and  Henzy  Ghmttan 
the  younger,  b.  Modem:— Sir  OeorgeCoraawsIl 
Lewis,  On  Local  Pietwrbanoss  in  Ireland;  Ledqr* 
History  ofEnqland  in  the  Ei0hieentH  C«ntnry,and 
The  Leaden  of  Public  Opinion  in  Ireland. 

[J.  W.  F.] 

LoaD-LxEUTSVAJm  axtd  Loao  Dxpunxs  or 
IssLuro. 

Hugh  de  Lacy     .......    UTS 

Bichard,  Earl  of  Pemlnoke       ....    117S 

Baymond  le  Oroe 117S 

FnnceJohn 1177 

Lord  Justices,  no  Lord  Deputy  .    IIM 

Huf?hde  Lacy  (1189)  .  .     also  1203  and  1»& 

Meyler  Fits-Henry     ....    UM  and  19M 
OeofErey  de  Marasco   .  1215—1232—1233 

Piers  Gaveston 1908 

Edmund  le  Botiller 1512 

Boger  de  Mortimer 1316 

Thomas  Fitzgerald 1320 

John  de  Bermingham 1321 

Earl  of  Kildare 1337 

Prior  Boger  Outloir    ....    1S28  sad  1340 

Sir  John  d*Arcy 1332 

Sir  John  de  Cherlton 1337 

Sir  Baoul  de  Ufford 1344 

Sir  Boger  d'Ar<7,  Sir  John  Moris    .       .       .    1346 
Walter  de  Bermingham     .  .    1348 

Maurice,  Earl  of  Desmond        ....    1S5& 


(611  ) 


In 


Thomas  de  Bokeby 1856 

Ahneric  de  St.  Amand 1S57 

James,  Earl  of  Ormonde 1S5B 

Lionel,  Duke  of  Claxenoe 1361 

Gerald,  Earl  of  Deemond 1867 

William  de  Windsor 18e»— 1874 

Maurice,  Earl  of  Desmond;  James,  Earl  of 

Ormonde 1876 

Edmund  Mortimer,  Earl  of  March  .       .       .  1380 

Aobert  de  Vere,  Earl  of  Oxford                       .  1885 

Sir  John  Stanley 1889  and  1888 

James,  Earl  of  Ormonde 1881 

Thomas,  Duke  of  Oloncester    ....  1888 

Roger  de  Mortimer 1385 

Reginald  Grey,  Thomas  de  Holland;   Lords 

Justices 1888 

Thomas  of  Lancaster ....    1401  and  1406 

Sir  John  Stanley  and  Sir  John  Talhot     .       .  1413 

James,  Earl  of  Ormonde 1420 

Edmund  de  Mortimer. 1423 

Sir  John  Talbot 1425 

Sir  John  Grey 1427 

Sir  John  Sntton 1428 

Sir  Thomas  Stanley    ....    1431  and  1435 

Lord  de  Wells 1438 

John,  Earl  of  Shiewsbnry 1446 

Richard,  Duke  of  York 1448 

George,  Duke  of  Clarence 1461 

Earl  of  Worcester 1470 

John  de  la  Pole,  Earl  of  Suffolk                      .  1478 

GenJd,  Earl  of  Kildaxe 1483 

John  de  la  Pole.  Earl  of  Lincoln      .               .  1484 

Jasper  Tudor,  Duke  of  Bedford  .  .  1488 
Henry,    Dnke   of  York   (afterwards   Henzy 

Vm. )  ;  his  deputy.  Sir  Edwazd  Foynings  1484 
Gerald,  Earl  of  Kildare      .       .       .          1486-1504 

EarlofSuxre^ 1521 

Henry,  Dake  of  Richmond        ....  1529 

Thomas,  Earl  of  Sussex 1560 

Robert,  Earl  of  Essex 1699 

LordMountjoy 1603 

Lord  Falkland 1688 

Lord  Strafford 1629 

James,  Marquis  of  Ormonde  .    1643  and  1648 

OliTer  Cromwell 1649 

Henry  Cromwell 1657 

Duke  of  Ormonde 1662 

Lord  Roberts 1669 

Lord  Berkeley 1670 

Earl  of  Essex 1672 

Duke  of  Ormonde 1677 

Earl  of  Clarendon 1685 

Earl  of  T^roonnel       ...               .       .  1687 

Lord  Sydney 1690 

LordCapel 1695 

Earl  of  Roohester 1700 

Duke  of  Ormonde 1703 

Earl  of  Pembroke 1707 

Earl  of  Wharton 1709 

Duke  of  Ormonde 1710 

Duke  of  Shrewsbury 1713 

Duke  of  Bolton 1717 

Duke  of  Grafton '.        .  1721 

John,  Lord  Carteret 1724 

Lionel,  Duke  of  Dorset 1731 

Duke  of  Deronshire   ....*.  17S7 

Earl  of  Chesterfield 1745 

Earl  of  Harrington 1747 

Duke  of  Dorset 1751 

Duke  of  Devonshire 1755 

Duke  of  Bedford 1787 

Earl  of  Halifax 1761 

Earl  of  Northumberland 1768 

Earl  of  Hertford 1765 

George,  Yisoount  Townshend  ....  1767 

Simon,  Earl  of  Harcourt 1772 

John,  Earl  of  Buckinghamshire               .       .  1777 

Frederick,  Earl  of  Carlisle        ....  1780 

Duke  of  Portland 1782 

Earl  Temple 1782 

Robert,  1^1  of  Korthington    ....  1783 

Duke  of  Rutland 1784 

Marquis  of  Buckingham  (Earl  Temple)  .       .  1787 

John,  Earl  of  Westmoreland    ....  1790 

William,  Earl  FitzwilUam        ....  1795 


John,  Earl  Camden 1796 

l^urquis  ComwalLis 1798 

Earl  of  Hardwicke  .       .  1801 

Duke  of  Bedford 1806 

Duke  of  Richmond 1807 

Earl  Whitworth 1818 

Earl  Talbot 1817 

Marquis  of  Wellesley 1821 

Marquis  of  Anglesey 1828 

Duke  of  Northumberland 1829 

Marquis  of  Anglesey 1880 

Marquis  of  Welleel^ 1833 

Earl  of  Haddington 1884 

l^urqnis  Normanby 1835 

Earl  Tortesoue 1889 

Earl  de  Grey 1841 

Lord  Hertesbury 1844 

Earl  of  BesaboTough 1846 

Earl  of  Clarendon 1847 

Earl  of  Eglinton 1852 

Earl  of  St.  Germans 1858 

Earl  of  Carlisle 1855 

John,  Lord  Wodehouae  (Earlof  Eimberley).  1864 

Marquis  of  Aberoom 1866 

John,  Earl  Spencer 1868 

Duke  of  Abercom 1874 

Duke  of  Marlborough 1874 

Earl  Cowper 1880 

Earl  Spencer 1888 

Earl  of  Camarron 1R85 

Earl  of  Aberdeen 1886 

Marquis  of  Londonderry 1886 

Earl  of  Zetland 1889 

Lord  Houghton  (the  Earl  of  Crewe)  .  1892 

Earl  of  Oadogan 1886 

Ireton,  Henut  {b.  1610,  d.  1651),  was 
educated  at  Oxford,  and  on  the  outbreak  of 
the  Civil  War,  joined  the  Parliamentary 
party,  and  fought  at  Gainsborough.  In 
Jan.,  1647,  he  mairied  ~Oom well's  daughter 
Bridget.  He  was  active  in  putting  down  the 
Eoyalist  risings  in  1648,  and  was  one  of  the 
most  energetic  members  of  the  High  (Ik)urt  of 
Justice,  which  condemned  Charles  I.  to  death. 
He  was  nominated  in  the  Council  of  State  in 
1649^  but  his  name  was  struck  out  by  Parlia- 
ment. When  Cromwell  went  over  to  Ireland, 
Ireton  was  appointed  his  maior-general,  and 
on  the  recall  of  the  former,  Ireton  was  made 
Lord  Deputy,  which  office,  says  Ludlow,  who 
was  his  colleague,  "  he  conducted  with  great 
ability,  and  with  unbounded  devotion  to  the 
public  service."  Parliament  settled  £2,000  a 
year  on  him,  but  he  refused  it,  saying  that  he 
would  rather  they  paid  their  just  debts  than 
be  so  liberal  with  the  public  money.  He  died 
of  the  plague,  in  his  forty-second  year,  and 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Clarendon,  EitA.  of  the  Rebellion;  Whitelocke, 
MenuyriaU;  Grainger,  Biaaraphical  Hist. ;  Banke, 
Hitt.  of  Eng. ;  Ludlow,  Jf anotra. 

Irish  Church,  The.  Ireland  was  con- 
verted to  Christianity  by  St.  Patrick,  in  the 
latter  half  of  the  fifth  century.  The  faith 
of  the  new  Church  was  that  of  the  rest  of 
Western  Christendom.  Her  organisation 
was  peculiar  to  herself.  The  tribe  was  re- 
constituted upon  a  religious  footing,  and  be- 
came a  monastic  community.  The  chief 
was  the  founder  and  first  abbot.  A  number 
of  his  tribesmen  and  tribeswomen  practised 
celibacy.  All  devoted  themselves  to  fasting 
and  to  prayer.    They  were  a  religious  family 


Xri 


(612) 


Xri 


living  under  their  own  ruleSi  rather  than  an 
order.  The  abbot  was  still  a  spiritual  chief, 
to  whom  aU  members  of  the  tribe,  even  the 
tribal  bishops,  were  subject.  His  successors 
were  almost  invariably  chosen  from  his  kin. 
The  management  of  the  abbey  lands  re- 
mained with  his  married  relations.  The 
abbots  were  his  spiritual  descendants  {eeeleai- 
astiea  proffiniea)y  the  stewards  (airehinneeha), 
his  descendants  by  blood  (plebilis  progenies). 
Of  the  first  eleven  successors  of  St.  Columbia 
at  lona,  ten  were  of  the  same  royal  stock. 
For  two  centuries  none  but  members  of  the 
Clan  Sinaich  sat  in  the  chair  of  Patrick  at 
Armagh.  When  ^*the  family  of  Columba" 
pushed  their  spiritual  colony  into  England, 
they  reg^ularly  sent  the  bishops,  without  ca- 
nonical election,  from  lona  to  their  sees. 

The  tribal  constitution  of  the  Celts  made 
them  monks.  Their  old  roving  spirit  made 
them  missionaries.  As  both  they  exercised  a 
lasting  influence  over  European  Christianity. 
They  converted  England,  and  left  it  the  most 
monastic  of  Latin  Churches.  In  the  twelfth 
century  Germany  was  studded  with  their 
monasteries.  They  were  the  apostles  of  Fran- 
conia  and  Carinthia.  From  Naples  to  Iceland 
they  have  left  their  names.  But  it  was  in 
Gaul  that  the  Irish  set  an  enduring  mark  on 
Western  civilisation.  Towards  the  close  of 
the  sixth  century  St.  Columba  settled  at 
Luxeuil,  in  the  Yosges,  and  from  that  centre 
colonised  the  classic  land  of  Latin  monasticism. 
His  disciples  conformed  to  the  wiser  rule  of 
Benedict,  and  were  absorbed  in  the  Bene- 
dictine order.  But  their  labours  led  to  the 
Benedictine  settlement  of  Burgundy.  Their 
monasteries,  planted  in  the  darkest  days  of 
Western  Christianity,  prepared  the  way  for 
Clugny,  for  Citeaux,  and  for  Clairvaux,  for 
Pope  Gregory  VII.,  and  St.  Bernard.  When 
the  monk-popes  of  Burgfundy  saved  Christen- 
dom from  an  hereditary  priesthood,  the 
danger  was,  perhaps,  g^reatest  in  the  tribal 
church  of  Ireland.  But  the  popes  themselves 
were  reared  by  the  children  of  Columban. 
St.  Malachy  (1094—1148),  who  had  been 
brought  early  under  the  influence  of  Home, 
introduced  the  new  discipline  into  Ireland. 
The  Norse  invasions  had  destroyed  the 
monasteries.  The  lay  administrators  of  the 
Church  lands  had  encroached  upon  the  title 
and  the  prerogatives  of  the  abbots.  Malachy 
reformed  Bangor.  He  was  nominated  Arch- 
bishop of  Armagh  by  Celsus,  the  hereditary 
incumbent.  After  a  long  struggle  with  the 
assertors  of  the  tribal  principle,  he  found  him- 
self acknowledged  as  Primate  in  1133.  He 
visited  Clairvaux.  He  left  his  companions 
with  Bernard  for  instruction.  He  journeyed 
to  Home,  and  was  appointed  legate  by  Inno- 
cent II.  On  his  return  he  founded  the  Cister- 
cian house  of  Mellifont,  in  Louth,  the  first 
reg^nlar  monastery  in  Ireland.  Eight  years 
later  he  again  passed  into  Gkiul  to  re- 
oeive  the  pallium  from  Eugenius  IV.    But 


his  strength  failed  him  at  Clairvaux.    He 
died  under  the  roof  of  his  friend  and  master 
in  1148.     Four  years  after  his  death  Cardinal 
John  Paperon  and  Christian,  Bishop  of  Lis- 
more,  presided  as  papal  legates  over  a  coimdl 
at   Mellifont.      The   four  metropolitan    sees 
were  established,  an  attempt  was  made  to 
introduce  the  canonical  restraints  on  marriage, 
and  some  minor  abuses  were  corrected.    Many 
other  synods  were  held  in  the  twelfth  century. 
Those  of  Cashel  (1172)  and  Dublin  (1186) 
are  the  most  important.    The  first  tried  to 
introduce  the  payment  of  tithes  and  other 
English   observances.     The  second  confined 
itself  to  regukting  the  ritual.     In  both  there 
is  a  marked    tendency  to  conform    to    the 
Homan  discipline.     By  the  end  of  the  century 
the  traditional  monasticism  was  everywhere 
superseded  by  the  rule  of  the  Auguistinian 
canons.     The  learning  of  the  older  monks 
is  proved  by  the  testimony  of  Bede,  by  the 
classical  manuscripts  in  their  peculiar  charac- 
ter still  scattered  over  Europe,  and  by  the  bold 
and  often  unorthodox   doctrines  they  main- 
tained.   Virg^lius  taught  the  existence  of  the 
antipodes  in  the  eighth  century,  John  Scotus 
Erigena  upheld  the  views  of  Origen  in  the 
ninth,  and  Macarius  seems,  in  some  points,  to 
have  anticipated  the  theories  of  Spinoza. 

From  their  -first  conversion  the  Danes  of 
the  eastern  seaboard  looked  upon  the  tribal 
church  as  irregular.  Their  endeavours  to 
place  themselves  under  the  jurisdiction,  first 
of  the  Norwegian,  and  afterwards  of  the 
English  primate,  led  to  a  sepaiation  between 
the  two  Irish  Churches,  which  in  one  form  or 
other  has  lasted  to  the  present  time.  Bishops 
of  Dublin,  Wateriord,  and  Limerick,  were 
consecrated  by  the  English  primates  from  the 
days  of  Lanfranc.  The  establishment  of  the 
metropolitan  sees  by  Eugenius  was  resented 
in  England  as  an  infringement  of  the  rights 
of  Canterbury.  From  the  coming  of  the  Nor- 
mans to  the  final  enforcement  of  Protestantism 
under  Charles  I.,  the  mutual  animosity  of  the 
natives  and  the  coloniste  deepened  the  estrange- 
ment between  Dublin  and  Armagh.  Irifdi 
clerks  and.  Irish  monks  were  excluded  from 
English  benefices  and  EngHsh  monasteries^ 
while  the  Saxon  was  shut  out  from  founda- 
tions beyond  the  Pale.  •  At  length  the  Hcfor- 
mation  freed  Dublin  from  its  dependence  by 
an  order  in  council  (1661). 

The  mendicants  reached  Ireland  soon  after 
their  foundation,  and  have  ever  since  rendered 
great  services  to  their  Church.  Even  before 
the  Reformation  "  no  person  of  the  Church, 
high  or  low,  great  or  small,  English  or  Irish, 
used  to  preach  the  word  of  God,  saying  the 
poor  friars  beggars."  Ecclesiastical  diaciplino 
had 'perished  in  the  general  desolation.  Great 
foundations  like  Clonmacnoise  and  Ardagh 
were  without  vestments  and  church  plate. 
Walled  towns  alone  possessed  means  for  the 
decent  conduct  of  public  worship. 

The  earlier  measures  of  Henry  Vm.  met 


(613) 


with  little  opposition.  The  declaration  of 
the  royal  supremacy  (28  Henry  VIII.,  c.  13) 
wtLR  accepted  by  the  Catholics  of  the  Pale, 
4ind  generally  disregarded  hy  the  Celts.  The 
only  protest  against  the  dissolution  of  the 
monasteries  came  from  the  Deputy  and  Coun- 
•cil,  who  regarded  it  as  a  blow  fatal  to  the 
education  "of  the  whole  Englishry  of  this 
land."  The  attempt  made  in  1551  to  force 
the  ritual  of  1649  upon  the  Irish  was  the  first 
step  which  provoked  resistance.  The  new 
doctrines  were  preached  in  a  foreign  tongue. 
The  new  preachers  were  time-servers,  and 
men  of  scandalous  lives.  Zealous  Protestants 
refused  the  cure  of  souls  whom  they  could 
not  hope  to  instruct.  On  the  death  of 
Edward  VI.  the  old  rites  were  restored,  and 
the  Protestant  prelates  withdrew.  The  re- 
ligious policy  of  Elizabeth  is  well  illustrated 
bv  her  reply  to  Hugh  O'Neill's  demand  for 
liberty  of  conscience.  "  Her  Majesty  hath 
tolerated  herein  hitherto,  and  so  in  likelihood 
she  will  continue  the  same."  Catholicism 
was  a  real  danger  to  an  excommunicated 
sovereign,  and  there  were  too  many 
Irish  Catholics  in  the  queen's  armies  for  a 
systematic  persecution  of  the  Catholic  faith. 
The  steps  which  gradually  led  to  the  fusion 
of  the  AjQglo-Normans  of  the  Pale,  and  their 
old  enemies  tho  Celts,  into  a  "  quasi-nation," 
have  been  indicated  in  the  general  article  on 
Ireland.  Careful  provision  for  tne  Anglican 
Church  was  made  in  the  plantation  under 
James  I.,  and  again  at  the  Restoration.  But 
lier  position  was  essentially  weak.  The 
highest  offices  were  invariably  filled  with 
^English  courtiers.  The  Archbishop  of  Dublin 
was  usually  one  of  the  chief  Parliamentary 
managers  for  the  crown.  Non-residence  was 
shamefully  common  amongst  the  dig^taries 
of  tho  Establishment,  while  extreme  poverty 
hampered  the  usefulness  of  the  country 
parsons.  Their  missionary  efforts  bore  little 
fruit,  but  as  resident  country  gentlemen  they 
did  much  to  improve  the  social  condition 
of  the  people.  The  provisions  of  the  penal 
code  affecting  Catholic  laymen  belong  te  the 
X>olitical  history  of  Ireland.  But  there  were 
many  special  laws  aimed  directly  at  the 
priesthood.  By  an  Act  of  1703  all  priests 
^wcre  compelled  to  register  their  names  and 
-addresses,  and  take  the  oath  of  allegiance. 
Over  a  thousand  obeyed.  In  1709  they  were 
required  to  take  the  oath  of  abjuration,  which 
they  believed  to  be  unlawful.  Less  than 
forty  submitted.  The  rest  incurred  the 
penalty  of  banishment  for  life,  and  of  death 
if  they  returned.  All  the  dignitaries  of  the 
Church,  from  archbishops  to  vicars-general, 
all  friars,  and  all  unregistered  priests,  were 
liable  to  the  pains  of  treason.  Catholic 
education  was  absolutely  forbidden,  while  the 
proselytism  of  the  Charter  Schools  (1733)  was 
^encoui-nged  by  heavy  subsidies,  and  special 
legislative  restrictions  on  the  natural  rights 
of    parents.      The    penal    system    inflicted 


frightful  evils  on  the  country,  but  of 
course  failed  of  its  object.  From  the  first, 
**  Popish  priests  spared  not  to  come  out 
of  Spain,  from  Rome  and  from  Reimes, 
only  to  draw  the  people  into  the  Church  of 
Rome."  Even  in  the  worst  days  bishops, 
arch-priests,  and  vicars-general  lurked  dis- 
guised in  obscure  farmhouses.  In  1732  there 
were  892  mass-houses,  served  by  1,445  priests, 
besides  regulars,  in  the  kingdom.  Twenty 
years  later  an  organised  hierarchy  of  twenty- 
four  archbishops  and  bishops  administered 
the  Church,  under  the  general  super\*ision  of 
the  Nuncio  at  Brussels.  The  prelates  were 
still  nominated  by  the  exiled  Stuarts.  After 
the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  many 
causes  tended  to  promote  a  general  toleration. 
The  spirit  of  Locke  and  Hoadley  prevailed 
amongst  educated  Protestants.  Educated  Ca- 
tholics brought  home  the  doctrines  of  the  Ency- 
clopedic from  France.  A  Gallican  tinge  per- 
vaded the  priesthood.  The  bishops  of  Munster 
wei-e  censured  by  the  Propaganda  for  approving 
the  oath  embodied  in  13  and  14  George  III., 
c.  35.  The  teaching  of  Abemethy  and  of 
Francis  Hutcheson  had  diffused  a  rationalistic 
spirit  amongst  the  Ulster  Presbyterians.  The 
schisms  of  £he  "  New  Lights"  in  1726,  and  of 
the  rigid  Covenanters  twenty  years  later, 
broke  their  i)ower.  The  toleration  of  1778 
sprang,  as  Charlemont  said,  "rather  from 
fashionable  Deism  than  from  Christianity, 
which  is  now  unfortunately  much  out  of 
fashion."  But  the  latitudinarian  phase  soon 
passed  away.  The  Evangelical  movement 
and  the  Ultramontane  revival  embittered  the 
animosities  caused  by  the  rebellion  and  its 
suppression,  by  0*  Council's  agitations,  by  the 
Church  Temporalities  Act  of  1833,  the  appro- 
priation clause  of  1835,  the  tithe  war,  and  the 
education  question.  The  position  of  the 
Establishment  was  indefensible.  The  enfran- 
chisement of  the  Catholics  (1793)  sealed  its 
doom.  The  Protestants  realised  their  danger, 
and  made  an  express  guarantee  of  the  rights  of 
the  Church  an  indispensable  condition  of  the 
Union.  This  policy  was  for  a  time  success- 
ful, but  no  guarantee  could  permanently 
maintain  so  faring  an  abuse.  In  March, 
1868,  Mr.  Gladstone  carried  resolutions  con- 
demning the  existence  of  the  Church  as  an 
Establishment.  A  dissolution  followed  in  the 
autumn,  and  the  Liberals  acceded  to  power. 
In  the  first  session  of  the  new  Parliament  an 
Act  **^  to  put  an  end  to  the  Established  Church 
in  Ireland,  and  to  make  provision  in  respect 
of  the  temporalities  thereof,"  became  law. 
The  Episcopalians  availed  themselves  of  the 
change  thus  wrought  in  their  position  to  rcMse 
their  constitution  and  liturgy  in  an  anti- 
sacerdotal  sense.  The  Catho£c  Church  has 
made  great  material  progress  during  the  last 
half  centur}',  while  her  discipline  has  been 
thoroughly  reformed  under  the  vigorous  rule 
of  a  new  school  of  prelates.  "  Secularism " 
has  of  late  begun  to  threaten  her  political 


Xri 


(614  ) 


Zsa 


power.  The  Presbyterians  are  still  the 
strongest  and  most  numerous  communion  in 
the  North. 

Reeves's  ed.  of  Adamnan's  Li/«  of  St.  Colwnha^ 
and  the  scattered  papers  of  the  same  writer  lu 
the  Proceedings  of  tke  Royal  Iri»h  Academy ;  the 
Lives  of  the  Irish  Saints  in  the  BolUiudist  A^a 
Sanctonim;  Lani^n,  Eecle$iaatiodl  Hittory  of 
Ireland  to  the  Beginning  of  tho  Thirteenth  Cen- 
tury;  Moutalembert,  Monks  of  the  West  (for 
the  missionaries) ;  Luke  Wadding,  AnnaXes 
Minorum;  de  Biugo,  Hibemia  Dominicana;  Dr. 
Xoraii,  Essays  on  the  Origin,  ^c,  of  the  Early 
frish  Church,  Spicilegium  Ossoriense,  Historical 
Sketch  of  the  Persecutions,  dc. ;  the  Ecclesiastical 
Histories  of  Brenan  (B.  C.),  £Iant  (EpiscopcUian), 
Beid   and   Killen    (Presbyterian).      The   best 

freneral  sketch  since  the  Reformation  will  be 
ound  in  Lecky's  Hist,  of  Eyig.  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century.  [J.  \V.  R] 

Irish  I^ad  Acts.  [Land,  Tenure  of 
(Ireland).] 

Irish  Society,  The.  Under  James  I. 
a  committee  was  formed  by  twelve  of  the 
London  city  companies,  to  coloniso  the  con- 
fiscated lands  of  O'Neil  and  0*Donnell  in 
Ulster,  and  the  Ulster  plantation,  with  Lon- 
donderry and  Coleraine  as  chief  towns, 
was  the  result  (1613).  The  charter  was 
taken  away  in  1637,  out  restored,  though 
with  some  changes,  in  1670.  This  corpora- 
tion still  owns  much  land  in  the  north  of 
Ireland. 

Isabella  of  Anooul&ms  (d.  1246),  second 
wife  of  King  John,  was  the  daughter 
of  Almeric,  Count  of  Angouldme.  She 
was  betrothed  to  Hugh  of  Lusignan,  but  when 
John  became  enamoured  of  her,  in  1200,  she 
was  married  to  him,  on  the  divorce  of  his  first 
wife,  Hadwisa,  who  was  put  away  on  the  plea 
of  consanguinity,  while  Isabella's  betrothal 
was  likewise  annulled.  After  John's  death  she 
returned  to  Angouleme,  and  in  1220  she  mar- 
ried her  former  lover,  Hugh  of  Lusignan, 
whom  she  induced  to  transfer  hisallegiance  from 
the  French  king  to  her  son  Henry  III.  This 
step  resulted  in  the  war  in  Poitou,  in  which 
Henry  and  his  step-father  were  beaten,  and 
Isabella  had,  in  1244,  to  flee  to  the  abbey  of 
Fontevraud,  "where,"  says  Matthew  Paris, 
"  she  was  hid  in  a  secret  chamber,  and  lived 
at  her  ease,  though  the  Poitevins  and  the 
French,  considering  her  the  cause  of  the  dis- 
astrous war,  called  her  by  no  other  name  than 
Jezebel,  instead  of  her  rightful  appellation  of 
Isabel."  At  Fontevraud  she  took  the  veU, 
and  shortly  afterwards  died. 

Matthew  Paris,  Hist,  Angl(yr. 

Isabella,  wife  of  Edward  IL  {b.  1295, 
d,  1358),  was  the  daughter  of  Philip  IV.  of 
France.  She  was  betrothed  to  Prince  Edward 
in  1301,  and  the  marriage  took  place  in  1308. 
Her  husband's  attachment  to  Gaveston  alien- 
ated her  from  him,  and  towards  all  his  confi- 
dential ministers  she  displayed  a  settled 
aversion.  She  seems  to  have  been  very 
popular  with  the  baronial  party,  and  more 


particularly  with  the  citizens  of  London. 
The  insult  offered  to  her  by  Lord  Badlesmere^ 
who  refused  to  allow  her  to  enter  Leeds  Castle, 
Kent,  was  the  cause  indirectly  of  the  temporary 
downfall  of  the  baronial  party,  and  the  de- 
feat of  Lancaster  at  Boroughbridge.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  Isabella  had  formed  any 
intimacy  with  Mortimer  previously  to  h^ 
journey  to  France  in  1325,  but  some  writers 
assert  that  it  was  by  her  means  that  he 
effected  his  escape  from  the  Tower.  A  dis- 
pute having  arisen  between  Edward  II.  and 
his  brother-in-law,  the  French  king,  Isabella 
was  sent  over  to  France  to  arrange  the  matter 
in  1325.  Having  induced  the  king  to  send 
over  Prince  Edward  to  join  her,  she  openly 
declared  her  intention  of  returning  to  Eng> 
land  to  deliver  her  husband  from  the  hanos 
of  the  Despencers.  Many  of  the  excited  and 
discontented  barons  had  assembled  at  the 
French  court,  and  with  their  aid  and  the 
troops  she  obtained  from  Hainault,  she  got 
together  a  sufficient  force  to  enable  her  to 
venture  on  invading  England.  She  landed  in 
Sept.,  1326,  near  Harwich,  where  she  was 
joined  by  many  of  the  nobles.  Her  party 
gradually  gathered  strength  as  she  marched 
westward  against  the  king.  Edward  surren- 
dered, the  Despencers  were  executed,  and 
shortly  afterwanls  the  king  was  deposed,  and 
Prince  Edward  placed  on  the  throne.  From 
this  time  till  the  end  of  1330  the  queen  and 
her  paramour,  Mortimer,  were  supreme.  Ed- 
ward II.  was,  in  all  probability,  put  to  a 
cruel  death,  the  greater  part  of  the  royal 
revenues  were  placed  in  the  queen^s  lands, 
and  all  attempts  to  give  the  young  king  a  real 
share  in  the  government  were  defeated.  The 
terror  which  these  two  confederates  had 
managed  to  establish  was  seen  by  the  way  in 
which  the  conspiracy  of  the  Elarl  of  Kent, 
the  uncle  of  the  young  king,  the  Archbishop 
of  York,  and  the  Bishop  of  London,  was  sup- 
pressed. Kent  was  seized  and  put  to  death. 
But  a  more  formidable  movement  waa  now 
made.  King  Edward,  acting  in  alliance  with 
some  of  the  barons,  suddenly  seized  Mortimer 
at  Nottingham  (1330),  and  had  him  speedily 
tried  and  executed.  The  queen  was  excluded 
from  all  further  share  in  the  government, 
and  compelled  to  pass  the  remainder  of  her 
life  in  retirement  at  Castle  Rising,  on  a  ytarly 
allowance  of  £3,000. 

Robert  of  Avesbcoy,  Chi'onicU  (printed  bj 
Hearne) ;  Knyghton  (in  Twysden,  Scriptortt 
Decern);  Louinnon,  Hist,  of  Edward  III, 

Isabella  {d.  1400),  was  the  daughter  of 
Charles  Y I.  of  France,  and  at  the  age  of  eight, 
in  1396  became  the  second  wife  of  Richard  IL 
By  this  marriage  an  end  was  put  for  a  time 
to  the  war  between  the  two  coimtries.  After 
her  husband^s  deposition  she  returned  to 
France,  but  for  some  time  resolutely  refused 
to  marry  again,  retaining  her  beb'ef  that 
Richard  was  still  alive,  and  attempting  more 
than  once   to    join  him.      In    1406,  being 


(616  ) 


ImL 


convinced  of  his  death,  she  mnrried  Charles, 
Dnke  of  Orleans.    [Richard  II.] 

Isabella  (^.  1332,  d.  1370),  the  eldest 
daughter  of  Edward  III.,  was  hetrothed  to 
Ck>ant  Louis  of  Flanders,  in  1347.  This 
marriage,  however,  was  distasteful  to  the 
young  noble,  and  he  escaped  into  France  to 
avoid  fulfilling  the  contract.  Eighteen  years 
later  (July,  1365),  she  was  marned  to  Inge- 
braadde  Coucy,  who  had,  in  the  previous  year, 
come  to  England  as  a  hostage  for  King  John 
of  France.  Her  husband  was  made  Earl  of 
Bedford  soon  after  the  birth  of  his  first  child 
(1366).  De  Coucy,  in  the  course  of  the  next 
few  years,  went  over  to  the  French  interests, 
and  was  at  last  parted  from  his  wife,  who 
returned  to  England  after  her  husband  had 
renounced  all  his  English  estates  {circa  1377). 
Two  years  later  she  dQed. 

Mrs.  Qreen,  Liva  of  the  PrinG§9au  of  SngUmd. 

Zaabella  (&.  1214,  d.  1241),  the  second 
daughter  of  King  John,  was  married  to  the 
Emperor  Frederick  II.,  in  the  year  1235, 
after  negotiations  had  been  set  on  foot  for  her 
marriage  with  Alexander  II.  of  Scotland 
(1220),  and  even  with  Honry,  King  of  the  Ger- 
mans (1225),  the  son  of  her  future  husband. 
In  1238  the  new  empress  gave  birth  to  a  eon, 
who  was  named  Henry,  after  his  uncle  Henry 
III.  Isabella  does  not  seem  to  have  enjoyed 
the  society  of  hor  husband  much,  as  she  lived 
for  the  most  part  by  herself  at  Noenta.  In 
1241,  however,  she  met  her  brother  Richard 
on  his  return  from  tho  Holy  Land,  though  not 
without  considerable  difficulty.  Isabella  died 
at  Foggio  towards  the  close  of  the  same  year. 
"Henry  III.*s  grief  for  his  sister*s  death  was 
so  great  that  he  gave  the  large  sum  of  £208 
6fl.  8d.  to  his  almoner  to  be  distributed  among 
the  poor  in  one  day  for  his  sister's  soul.  Her 
son  Henry,  in  later  years,  became  titular 
"  King  of  Jerusalem,"  but  died  in  1254  at  the 
age  of  sixteen — **  a  victim,  as  is  generally  sup- 
posed, to  the  traitorous  artifioea  of  his  brother 
Conrad." 

Mrs.  Green,  lAvet  of  ike  PrinctMtt*  of  England, 
vol.  U. 

Zslaad  Soots,  The,  seem  to  have  settled 
in  Ireland  some  time  during  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.  These  Redshanks,  as  they 
were  often  called,  were  most  of  them  High- 
landers, and  they  issued  forth  from  their 
Ulster  fastnesses  for  the  sake  of  plunder. 
The  efforts  of  the  Earl  of  Sussex  as  Lord 
Deputy,  and  of  Ormonde,  were  insufficient 
for  repressing  them.  Their  chief,  Mac- 
Connel,  was  as  a  rule  the  close  ally  of  the 
terrible  0*Neils;  but  about  1564  Shane 
O'Neil  attacked  tiiem  and  defeated  them  in  a 
ffreat  battle,  killing  their  chiefs.  In  revenge 
Sir  this  defeat,  Oge  MacConnel,  the  brother 
of  the  slain  chief,  caused  Shane,  when  a 
mppliant  in  his  camp,  to  be  brutally  mur- 
dmd.    During  the  whole  of  the  troubles  of 


Elizabeths  reign,  they  held  Antrim  and 
Down ;  during  the  reign  of  James  I.,  too,  tiU 
the  year  1619,  when  Sir  Randal  MacConnel, 
or  MacDonald,  was  their  chief. 

Island  Voyage,  The,  is  the  name 
given  to  the  aisastrous  expedition  to  the 
Azores  undertaken  by  Essex  and  Raleigh 
in  1597. 

Zslos.  Lords  of  thb.  The  Lords  of  the 
Isles  clamied  their  descent  from  Somerlaed, 
Regulus  of  Argyle,  who  towards  the  middle 
of  the  twelfth  century  obtained  possession  of 
half  of  the  Sudereys.  [Hbbkide.*«.]  Douglas 
has  quoted  a  letter,  dated  1292,  bidding 
Alexander  de  Insulis  Scotiso  to  keep  the 
peace  within  his  bounds  of  the  isles  till  the 
next  meeting  of  Parliament.  The  same 
authority  mentions  an  indenture,  dated  1334, 
by  which  Baliol  yielded  to  John,  Lord  of  the 
Isles  of  Mull,  S%e,  Islay,  and  other  islands, 
while  that  nobleman  in  return  became  the 
liegeman  of  the  king.  In  later  years,  how- 
ever, John  seems  to  have  done  homage  to 
Darid  II.  {eirea  1344).  In  1356  Edward  III. 
treated  with  him  as  an  independent  prince, 
and  in  the  treaty  for  the  liberation  of  King 
David  (1357)  the  truce  between  England  and 
Scotland  included  John  of  the  Isles  and  all  the 
other  English  allies.  Though  some  years 
later  John  of  the  Isles  (d,  1387)  bound 
himself  to  answer  for  all  taxes  the  king  might 
impose  on  his  domains,  ^yet  he  was  to  all 
intents  and  purposes  an  independent  prince, 
and  was  the  first  to  assume  die  title  of  Lord 
of  the  Isles.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
David,  who  claiming  the  earldom  of  Man  in 
right  of  his  wife,  invaded  the  Lowlands,  and 
was  defeated  at  Harlaw,  near  Aberdeen 
(1411).  His  son  Alexander,  who  succeeded 
to  his  father  about  1426,  was  forced  to  beg 
pardon  for  the  rebellion  he  raised  against 
James  I.,  *'  attired  in  his  shirt  and  drawers 
and  kneeling  before  the  high  altar  of  Holyrood 
Churi'h."  Alexander's  son  John,  who  was  Lord 
of  the  Isles  from  1449  to  1498,  joined  in  the 
Douglas  rebellion  of  1451 ;  and  in  1481  was 
in  treasonable  communication  with  Edward 
IV.,  for  which  he  was  outlawed,  and  several 
of  the  island  chieftains  transferred  their 
allegiance  from  him  to  the  crown.  From  this 
time  the  glor}'  of  the  l6rdship  disappeared: 
the  title  was  indeed  resumed  by  a  John  of 
Islay  imder  James  Y. ;  but  it  was  only  an 
empty  vaunt.  The  real  power  on  the  western 
coast  passed  from  the  Macdonalds  to  the 
Campbells,  though  the  former  long  kept  up  a 
kind  of  royal  state  in  Skye. 

DonglAB,  Peerage  cf  Scotland. 

Zslipf  Simon  {d,  1366),  Archbishop  of 
Ganterl^y  (1349—1366),  was  one  of  the 
royal  secretaries,  and  on  the  death  of  Brad- 
wardine  was  appointed  to  the  metropolitan 
see.  He  is  famous  as  an  ecclesiastical  ren>rmer, 
and  did  much  to  remedy  some  of  the  crying 


Ita 


(616) 


J»0 


abuses  in  the  Church.  He  boldly  reproved 
Edward  III.  for  the  extravagance  and  luxury 
of  his  court  and  household,  and  assisted  in 
enacting  the  famous  Statutes  of  Provisors 
and  PraBmunire  which  were  levied  against  the 
oppressions  of  the  Popes.  The  conduct  of 
this  archbishop  on  several  occasions  merits 
great  praise ;  especially  so  in  the  case  of  the 
Flagellants,  who  in  the  early  days  of  his 
office  were  swarming  into  England.  These 
he  found  on  enquiry  to  be  mere  enthusiasts, 
and  not  men  of  loose  lives;  hence  he  left 
their  frenzy  to  die  of  its  own  accord,  and 
would  not  encourage  it  by  persecution.  In 
1359  we  find  him  ordering  prayers  throughout 
the  kingdom  for  the  success  of  Edward  III.'s 
French  expedition. 

Hook,  Livet  of  ths  Archhithop$  of  Canterbury. 

Italy,  Belations  with.  As  Italy  has 
only  recently  become  a  single  state,  its  rela- 
tions with  England  are  very  hard  to  define. 
In  a  sense,  all  the  relations  of  England  with 
Imperial  and  Papal  Rome  come  within  this 
question.  The  literary'  and  civilising  in- 
fluences which  the  home  of  ancient  culture 
has  constantly  exercised  on  mediaaval  Eng- 
land, have  a  still  more  direct  claim  for  treat- 
ment. But  the  mere  political  relations  of  the 
various  governments  of  Italy  and  England 
only  necessitate  a  much  more  cursory  con- 
sideration. The  States  of  mediaeval  Italy 
were  too  small,  too  self-centred,  and  too  re- 
mote to  have  many  direct  political  dealings 
with  the  distant  and  barbarous  English.  Some 
of  the  more  important  transactions  will  be 
found  under  Empire,  Relations  with,  Papacy, 
Relations  with,  etc.  The  close  friendship  of 
the  Normans  of  England  with  the  Normans 
of  Naples,  especially  as  instanced  in  the  effect 
upon  each  other  of  the  systems  of  government 
of  Henry  11.  and  William  the  Good — ^the 
long  struggle  of  Henry  III.  to  get  Naples  for 
his  son  Edmund  of  Lancaster — the  influence 
of  Italian  lawyers  and  financiers  on  Edward  I. 
— the  want  of  faith  of  Edward  III.  to  his 
Florentine  creditors — our  commercial  deal- 
ings with  Venice,  are,  if  we  leave  literary 
connections  out  of  sight,  perhaps  the  most 
important  examples  of  direct  relations  be- 
tween the  two  countries  during  the  Middle 
Ages.  The  struggles  of  Henry  VIII.  to 
enter  into  the  European  system  which  was 
formed  almost  in  consequence  of  the  break- 
up of  the  political  system  of  mediaeval  Italy 
— ^his  poUtical  alliance  with  the  Pope 
and  the  Venetians — his  efforts  to  exclude 
both  French  and  Imperial  influences  in  turn, 
are  of  small  importance  when  compared  with 
the  influence  of  the  New  Learning  on  the 
spiritual  and  intellectual  life  of  the  country,  or 
even  the  indirect  political  influences  of  Italian 
examples  of  tyranny  in  an  age  when  Thomas 
Cromwell  learnt  his  methods  of  government 
from  the  Prince  of  Machiavelli.  Despite  the 
cessation  of  all  religious  dealings  in  conse- 


quence of  the  Reformation,  and  of  most 
political  dealings  as  the  result  of  the  subjec- 
tion of  Italv  to  the  Austro-Spanish  house,  the 
literary  and  civilising — too  often  the  corrupt- 
ing— influence  of  Italy  on  England  was  never 
stronger  than  during  the  Elizabethan  age. 
All  writers,  from  Harrison  to  Ascham  and 
Shakespeare,  largely  testify  to  its  importance. 
Yet,  hutlly  excepting  the  constant  intercourse 
with  Venice — ^whose  diplomatists  still  em- 
bodied the  results  of  their  objective  study  of 
our  affairs  in  their  despatches  and  Belazumi — 
our  political  dealings  with  Italy  were  unim- 
portant. This  is  especially  the  case  during 
the  seventeenth  century,  a  period  peculiarly 
barren  in  its  foreign  relations.  James  I.'s 
sympathy  for  Father  Paul  and  the  Venetians 
— Cromwell's  intervention  on  behalf  of  the 
Vaudois  of  Piedmont — the  Travels  of  Duke 
Cosimo  III.  of  Tuscany  in  England  during 
the  reign  of  Charles  II. — the  marriage  of 
James  II.  with  Maria  of  Modena — are  fair 
instances  of  the  sort  of  relations  that  existed 
between  the  two  countries.  After  the  Revolu- 
tion of  1688  had  again  made  England  a  g^rcat 
European  power,  our  political  dealings  with 
Italy  became  more  important.  The  assist- 
ance England  from  time  to  time  g^ave  to  the 
rising  power  of  Piedmont,  excited  g^reat  in- 
digfuation  from  the  Austrians.  For  example, 
the  Treaties  of  Worms  (1743)  and  Aachen 
(1748),  and  the  consequent  rupture  between 
Austria  and  England.  The  vigour  which  com- 
pelled Don  Carlos  of  Naples  to  abandon  his 
allies  during  the  same  war  may  also  be  men- 
tioned as  illustrating  the  natural  hostility  of 
England  to  the  Bourbon  Kings  of  Naples. 
Yet  English  fleets  protected  the  Neapolitan 
partners  of  the  Family  Compact  when,  in  evil 
days  for  monarchy,  the  French  Directory  and 
the  Empire  successively  drove  them  from  the 
mainland.  Nelson's  unfortunate  dealings 
with  Naples,  the  gallant  incursion  which 
led  to  the  victor^'  of  Maida,  are  conspicuous 
instances  of  ^glish  relations  with  that 
monarchy.  The  gradual  emancipation  of 
nineteenth  centur}'  Italy,  associated  as  it  is 
with  the  name  of  GariWldi,  has  constantly 
found  warm  sympathy  from  English  public 
opinion,  though  the.  colder  support  of  English 
diplomacy  drove  Cavour  to  seek  in  Napoleonic 
France  a  strange  ally  in  a  struggle  for  na- 
tional liberty.  r^   F.  T 1 


JTaoobites,  The  (from  Jaeohu,  the  Latin 
for  James),  were  the  adherents  of  the  Stuart 
cause  after  the  Revolution  of  1688.  The  ex- 
pulsion of  James  II.  had  been  effected  with 
surprisingly  little  difficulty ;  but  the  unpopu- 
larity of  the  new  government,  the  crushmg 
taxation  which  the  great  war  involved,  tiie 


Jio 


(617) 


Jao 


5 arty  triumph  of  the  Whigs,  the  preeezice  of 
ames  in  Ireland,  and  the  reacUon  which 
alwaya  succeeds  revolution,  had  produced  in 
a  very  short   time  a  formidable   party   of 
friends  of  the  exiled  house.    The  Tories  and 
High  Churchmen  began  to  realise  that  the 
Revolution  could  be  justified  only  on  Whig 
principles,  when,  despite  the  efforts  of  William 
III.,  the  Whigs  assumed  the  control  of  the 
administration.     The  very  Churchmen  who 
had  led  the  opposition  to  a  Popish  king  be- 
came the  founders  of  the  schism  of  the  Non- 
jurors.    They  and  the  Catholics  could  not  be 
other  than  avowed  Jacobites.    But  among  the 
nominal  adherents  of  William  there  vras  a 
cfaus  of  what  a  prominent  Whig  called  "  Non- 
juring  swearers,"  whose  acquiescence  in  the 
Revolution  was  at  best  formal,  whose  more 
active  section  might  be  reUed  upon  to  join  a 
Jacobite  revolt,  and  whose  passive  section 
would,  at  least,  welcome  the  restoration  of 
the  exiled  d^noasty.    A  large  section  of  the 
Tory  party  fell  within  the  latter  category. 
"Several    in    England,"  writes   a  Jacobite 
agent,  "  wish  the  king  well  who  would  not 
risk  their  estates  for  him.    If  he  came  with 
ten  thousand  men,  not  a  sword  would  be 
drawn  against  him."    Thus  there  were,  be- 
sides the  avowed  Jacobites,  the  Nonjurors, 
and   the    Catholics,    a  very  largd   class   of 
Jacobite  sympathiseiB.     lliere  were,  more- 
over, a  large  numbw  of  prominent  statesmen 
who,  in  an  age  of  loose  political  morality,  did 
not  scruple  to  uecure  a  safe  retreat  for  them- 
selves in  the  event  of  the  restoration  of  King 
James.     Many  of  the  great  Whig  and  Tory 
leaders — Russell,  Leeds,  Shrewsbury,  Godol- 
phin,   Marlborough — carried    on   an   active 
mtrigue  with  the  banisbed  king.    Besides  the 
above  classes,  there  was  a  nucleus  for  organi- 
sation in  the  exiled  Court  of  St.  Germain, 
whence  many  a  subtle  and  experienced  in- 
triguer set  forth  to  win  back  for  the  king  his 
lost  throne.  The  active  support  of  the  French 
could  be  relied  upon ;  and,  besides  the  English 
Jacobites,  they  could  rely,  in  Scotland,  on  the 
bulk  of  the  Highland  clans,  more  jealous  of  the 
Whig  dan  of  the  Campbells  than  zealous  for 
divine  right,  but  ever  ready  to  revive  the 
glories  of  Montrose  and  Dundee.    The  per- 
secuted Episcopalian  sect  in  the  Lowlands 
were   Jacobites  to  a  man;    and,  after  the 
Barien  episode  had  re-kindled  the  national 
animosity  of  Scotland  against  England,  the 
Jacobite  emissaries  were  not  without  hope 
even  that  Wbigs  and  Presbyterians  might 
be  impelled  by   patriotism    to  support  the 
old  line  of  Scottish  monarchs.  In  Ireland, 
After  the  failure  of  James  II.'s  forces  and 
the  triumph  of  the  English,  there  was  little 
chance  of  any  Jacobite  movement.    Religious 
and   national   sentiment  brought  the  Irish 
to  the  side  of  James.    The  penal  code  and 
the  Protestant  ascendancy  made  revolt  im- 
possible.   Still,  something  could  be  hoped  for 
if  England  were  to  rise. 

H18T.-20* 


When  the  appeal  to  arms  had  proved 
unavailing  in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  and  a 
French  l»«Hitig  had  been  made  impracticable 
by  the  victory  of  La  Hogue,  a  series  of  plots 
and  conspiracies — aimed  against  the  life  and 
throne  d  William — kept  up  the  activity  of 
the  Jacobite  party.  Of  these,  the  AMoBBima" 
tion  Flot  was  the  most  famous.  But  such 
atrocities  only  had  the  effect  of  weaken- 
ing the  Jacobite  cause.  Combined  with  the 
stvurdy  bigotry  of  James  and  his  traitorous 
dex>endence  on  the  foreign  enemy  of  England,  it 
alienated  the  bulk  of  the  Tory  party,  on  whom 
the  hopes  of  the  exiled  house  really  depended. 
Eveii  the  Jacobite  party  split  up  into  Cbw- 
.pMtfMfer«,  who  were  only  anxious  for  a  condi- 
tional restoration,  with  constitutional  iffuaran- 
tees,  and  the  Jjfon-Compaunders^  who,  in  blind 
adherence  to  the  theories  of  divine  right  and 
passive  obedience,  thought  it  downright 
Whiggery  to  impose  terms  on  the  Loni's 
anoindked.  The  prevalence  of  Non-Compound- 
ing views  at  St.  Germains,  the  refusal  of 
James  to  abdicate  in  his  son*s  favour  or  bring 
him  up  a  Protestant,  completed  the  alienation 
of  the  Jacobites  from  English  popular  senti- 
ment. The  Peace  of  Ryswick  was,  for  a 
time,  fatal  to  their  hope  of  French  aid. 
The  passing  of  the  Act  of  Settlement,  in  a 
Tory  Parliunent,  marks  the  lowest  point  of 
their  fortunes. 

Under  Queen  Anne,  the  Jacobite  policy 
was  changed.  The  death  of  James  was  a 
great  help  to  it.  His  son,  James  III.,  as  he 
styled  himself — ^the  Chevalier  de  St.  George, 
or  the  Old  Pretender,  as  others  styled  him — 
was  at  least  personally  innocent;  and  his 
recognition  by  Louis  XIV.,  and  the  renewal 
of  hostilities  with  England,  revived  the  hopes 
of  the  party.  But  most  was  expected  from 
the  development  of  the  High  Church 
Toryism,  of  which  Dr.  Sacheverell  was  the 
popular  exponent.  The  Scx>tch  Jacobites 
might,  indeed,  under  cover  of  hostility  to  the 
Union,  assail  the  queen's  throne;  but  the 
EngliiAi  Jacobites  directed  their  main  efforts 
to  secure  the  succession  on  her  death,  to 
avail  themselves  of  Anne's  notorious  affection 
for  her  family  and  dislike  of  the  House  of 
Brunswick,  and  even  to  obtain,  by  peaceful 
means,  a  repeal  of  the  Act  of  Settlement. 
The  Ministry  of  Harley  and  Bolingbroke  put 
aU  the  resources  of  the  State  in  the  hands  of 
the  Jacobite  intriguers.  The  army  whs  newly 
modelled  under  the  Jacobite  Ormonde.  All 
possible  means  were  taken  to  secure  the 
proclamation  of  James  on  the  queen's  ap- 
proaching death.  But  the  quarrel  of  Harley 
and  Bolingbroke,  the  new  attitude  of  the 
Whigs  in  Church  matters,  the  coup  d^iiat 
which  made  Shrewsbury  Treasurer,  and  the 
premature  death  of  the  queen,  frustrated  the 
well-laid  plan.  George  I.  peacefully  ascended 
the  throne.  The  Tory  ministers  weie  im- 
peached, imprisoned,  exiled.  The  death  of 
Louis  XIV.,  and  the  anxiety  of  the  Regent 


Jac 


(  618  ) 


Jac 


Orleans  to  be  on  good  terms  with  England, 
was  the  culminating  disaster.  Bolingbroke 
was  now  the  Pretender's  Secretary-  of  State. 
His  hopes  died  when  the  old  king  expired; 
but  eitiier  James  was  too  obstinate  or  the 
news  came  too  late  to  stop  the  revolt  in  the 
Highlands,  which  was  the  outcome  of  the 
intrigues  of  the  last  few  years. 

Under  such  gloomy  circumstances,  the 
first  great  Jacobite  rising — the  affair  of  1715 
— ^began ;  the  offspring  of  levity  or  despair, 
after  the  death  of  Anne  and  Louis  XIV.  had 
made  any  external  assistance  impossible. 
Ormonde  made  a  gallant  but  ineffectual  at- 
tempt to  land  in  Devonshire;  but  there,  as 
elsewhere,  the  planned  revolt  of  the  friends 
of  James  was  prevented  by  the  vigour  and 
activity  of  the  new  government.  l£e  arrest 
of  six  Tory  members  of  Parliament  deprived 
the  Jacobites  of  leaders.  The  University  of 
Oxford  and  the  western  counties  were 
dragooned  into  loyalty;  only  in  Northumber- 
land was  a  rising  effected  in  England,  and 
the  choice  of  Mr.  Forster  as  its  kader  was 
fatal  to  its  small  hopes  of  success.  Mean- 
while, more  formidable  risings  had  broken 
out  in  Scotland.  On  Oct.  12  Lord  Kenmure 
proclaimed  King  James  at  Moffat.  Foiled  at 
Dumfries,  but  joined  by  Lords  Nithisdale, 
Wintoun,  and  Camwath,  with  two  hundred 
horse,  he  crossed  the  borders,  and  joined 
Forster's  "  handful  of  Northumberland  Fox- 
hunters."  But  the  Highland  revolt  alone 
possessed  any  real  imi)ortance.  This  was  led 
by  Lord  Mar,  who,  after  accepting  Greorgo  I., 
had  suddenly  hurried  north ;  and  on  Sept.  6 
had  raised  his  standard  in  Biaemar.  A  large 
number  of  the  clans  joined  him ;  and,  despite 
his  personal  incompetence  and  failure  to 
surprise  Edinburgh  Castle,  he  entered  Perth, 
detached  Brigadier  Macintosh  to  join  Ken- 
mure  and  Forster,  and  ultimately  advanced 
against  Argyle,  appointed  to  command  King 
George's  forces  m  Scotland.  On  Nov.  13 
the  Battle  of  Sheriffmuir,  near  Stirling, 
was  fought,  and  Mar  was  compelled  to 
retreat  northwards.  The  landing  oH  the 
Pretender  at  Peterhead  could  not  revive  the 
falling  cause.  James  and  Mar  re-embarked 
for  the  Continent,  and  the  insurgent  army 
was  dispersed.  The  southern  rebels,  after  a 
fruitless  march  southward  to  Preston,  in 
Lancashire,  surrendered  at  that  town  to  the 
royal  forces.  The  chief  prisoners  were  tried 
and  executed.  The  last  hope  of  the  Jacobites 
was  destroyed  by  the  dismissal  of  Boling- 
broke. The  expulsion  of  the  Pretender  from 
FVance  ratified  the  alliance  of  England  and 
her  old  enemy.  So  little  formidable  were 
the  Jacobites  now,  that  Harley's  impeach- 
ment was  dropped;  and,  though  the  in- 
trigfues  of  Alberoni  and  the  plot  of  Bishop 
Atterbury  for  awhile  revived  interest  in  the 
cause,  the  long  ministry  of  Walpole,  his 
policy  of  conciliation  and  peace,  and  the 
similar  disposition  of  the  French  government. 


postponed  the  hopes  of  the  Jacobites  for  a 
generation. 

In  1742,  the  fall  of  Walpole  revived  poli- 
tical intrigue,  and  the  renewal  of  war  with 
France  gave  the  Jacobites  fresh  hopes  of 
French  aid.  In  Prince  Charles,  the  young 
Pretender,  the  party  found  a  more  gallant 
and  romantic  leader  than  in  James,  his  father. 
Undeterred  by  the  disastrous  storm  which 
wrecked  the  French  transports  and  ruined 
the  projected  invasion  in  1744,  Charles  landed 
near  Moidart,  with  seven  followers,  on  July 
25,  1745.  Joined  by  Lochiel,  and  by  other 
important  chieftains,  Charles  found  little  diffi- 
culty in  gathering  a  great  army  of  the  dans, 
and  was  accepted  as  Prince  by  the  g^reater 
part  of  the  Highlands.  Sir  John  Cope,  the 
English  commander,  abandoned  his  strong 
position  at  Corry  Arrack,  and  left  tho  road  to 
the  Lowlands  open.  At  Perth,  the  Duke  of 
Perth  and  Lord  George  Murray  joined  the 
Pretender's  cause.  After  the  "Canter  of 
Coltbrigg,"  in  which  the  regulars  fled  in  dis- 
graceful panic  from  the  irregular  Highland 
hordes,  Edinburgh  was  occupied  by  Charles. 
On  Sept.  20  the  battle  of  Preston  Pans  in- 
flicted on  Cope  the  defeat  he  had  avoided  at 
Corry  Arrack.  After  a  brief  period  of  inac- 
tion and  gaiety,  Charles  started  in  November 
on  an  invasion  of  England.  He  besieged  and 
conquered  Carhsle,  and,  helped  by  the  inac- 
tivity of  Marshal  Wade,  maix^ed  juir  into  the 
heart  of  England.  At  Manchester  some  slight 
feeling  in  the  Pretender's  favour  was  mani- 
fested ;  but,  as  a  rule,  the  population,  though 
not  very  zealous  for  an  unpopular  and  foreign 
monarcn,  were  perfectly  indifferent  to  the 
cause  of  the  Jacobites.  On  Dec.  4  Charles 
entered  Derby,  but  the  division  of  his  fol- 
lowers, and  the  vastly  superior  forces  of 
Wade  and  Cumberland,  necessitated  a  retreat 
Meanwhile,  the  Lowlands  of  Scotland  had 
quietly  renewed  their  allegiance  to  George 
when  the  backs  of  the  Highlanders  were 
turned.  Followed  closely  by  a  superior  army, 
Charles  retired  hastily  to  Glasgow ;  bul^ 
streng^ened  by  new  Highland  reinforce- 
ments, he  gave  battle  on  Jan.  23,  1746,  to 
General  Hawley  at  Falkirk.  The  wild  charge 
of  the  Highlanders  again  won  the  day ;  but 
they  dispersed  to  their  homes  with  the  booty, 
and  Charles,  deserted  on  ever}'  side,  was 
driven  to  bay  on  Culloden  Moor  on  April 
16.  Cumberland,  with  12,000  r^^ar  troops, 
made  short  work  of  the  dispirited  clans- 
men. The  revolt  was  over.  The  High- 
lands were  subdued  thoroughl}',  and  for  the 
first  time.  The  abolition  of  the  heritable 
jurisdictions  destroyed  the  power  of  the 
chiefs,  and  for  ever  put  an  end  to  Highland 
revolts.  Charles,  after  many  adventuree, 
escaped  to  France. 

The  very  success  of  the  "  Forty  Five  "  de- 
monstrated the  hopelessness  of  a  Jacobite 
reaction.  The  national,  religions,  and  political 
principles  of  the  vast  bulk  of  the  nation  made 


Jao 


(  619  ) 


Jam 


it  impoflaible.  The  age  was  not  one  favourable 
for  lost  causes  or  chivalrous  hallucinations. 
The  party  which  adhered  steadfastly  to  obsolete 
political  doctrine,  which  found  in  France  its 
constant  supporter,  and  in  Catholicism  its 
congenial  creed,  could  make  no  way  in  eight- 
eenth century  England  Charles  himself 
nsited  London  in  1750,  if  not  on  later 
occasions;  but  he  soon  gave  up  politics  for 
drink  and  debauchery.  The  bnUiant  suc- 
cesses of  Pitt  reconciled  his  party  to  the  new 
administration.  The  accession  of  George 
III.  was  gladly  availed  of  as  an  excuse  for  a 
return  to  their  allegiance.  The  new  Tory  party 
was  purged  from  all  suspicion  of  Jacobitism. 
Under  Greorge  III.  that  party  became  tri- 
umphant.  The  downfall  of  the  Whigs  was  the 
downfall  of  the  last  hope  of  the  Jacobites. 
But  years  before  that,  none  but  a  few  theorists 
of  divine  right,  or  the  fanatics  of  Nonjaring, 
hoped  for  a  Jacobite  restoration. 

Jesse,  Memoin  of  the  PretenierM;  The  S(uai*t 
Paper$;  Johnstone,  Memoin  of  the  Rebellion  of 
1746 ;  Macaulay.  Hut.  of  Eng. ;  Stanhope,  if  ist. 
of  Eng. ;  Barton,  Hiet.  of  Scotland :  Leckj,  Hiat, 
&f  Eng. ;  Ewald,  Life  and  Timee  ^Prinoe  ChAvln 
Stuart :  Macpherson,  State  Papere;  Lv/b  of 
James  II. ;  Campona  de  Cavelli,  Lee  Demiere 
StuarU  d  St.  Geraian.  [T.  F.  T.] 

Jacquetta  of  Liucembiirg  {d.  1472) 

was  the  daughter  of  the  Count  de  St.  Pol, 
and  was  married  in  1433  to  John,  Duke  of 
Bedford.  After  his  death  she  became  the 
wife  of  Sir  Richard  Woodville,  and  bv  him 
was  the  mother  of  Elizabeth  Woodville,  the 
queen  of  Edward  IV. 

Jaenberty  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
^66— 790),  attempted  to  thwart  Offa  in  his 
designs  on  the  kingdom  of  Kent.  When  Jaen- 
bert's  appeal  to  Charles  the  Great  was  disre- 
garded, Offa,  in  revenge  for  his  opposition, 
erected  Lichfield  into  an  archbishopric,  giving 
to  that  see  authority-  over  Mercia  and  the 
whole  of  the  possessions  which  belonged  to 
Canterbur}'.  Jaenbert  lived  to  see  his  rival 
receive  the  pallium  from  Rome,  and  was  him- 
self compelled  to  recognise  the  independence 
of  the  Mercian  see.  He  was  the  first  arch- 
bishop to  coin  money  in  England. 

Janudca  is  the  largest  of  the  British 
West  Indian  Islands.  It  was  first  discovered 
by  Columbus,  May  2,  1494,  was  colonised  by 
the  Spaniards  in  1509,  and  held  by  them 
until  the  English  captured  it  in  1665.  llie 
Spanish  rule  proved  most  disastrous  to  the 
island,  and  it  is  said  that  when  our  troops 
took  possession  of  the  countr}'  there  was  not 
a  single  aboriginal  inhabitant  remaining.  In 
1605  the  capital  of  the  island,  St.  lago,  which 
had  been  founded  by  Diego '  Columbus  in 
1526,  was  taken  by  a  British  fleet  under  Sir 
Ai;thony  Shirley.  '  In  1655  the  island  was 
capxured  by  General  Yenables,  and  measures 
foi  its  settiemcnt  were  taken  by  Cromwell, 
who  issued  an  ordinance  to  the  effect  that  no 


duty  should  be  levied  on  any  goods  exported 
to  Jamaica.  The  island  was  at  first  governed 
by  a  militar  V  council,  and  many  of  the  troops 
were  disbanded,  and  induced  to  form  settle- 
ments. In  1662  the  island  was  divided  for 
municipal  purposes  into  seven  parishes,  under 
regular  magistrates,  and,  two  years  later,  a 
legislative  assembly  was  created.  By  the 
Treaty  of  Madrid,  1670,  Jamaica  was  formally 
ceded  to  England,  and  speedily  became  one  of 
the  most  valuable  possessions  of  the  crown. 
The  history  of  Jamaica  from  this  time  ia 
little  more  than  a  record  of  slave  insuirec- 
tions  and  Maroon  wars.  From  1664  till  1740 
the  Maroons  continued  in  more  or  less  open 
hostility  to  the  colonists,  and  it  was  found 
necessary  to  maintain  in  the  island  a  large 
force  of  regular  troops.  In  1760  a  formidable 
insurrection  took  place,  which  was  followed 
by  another  in  1765,  caused  principally  by  the 
ill-treatment  to  which  the  slaves  were  sub- 
jected, and  by  the  inhuman  punishments 
mflicted  on  them.  Thirty  years  later  (1795) 
another  rebellion  broke  out,  in  spite  of  an 
Act  which  had*been  passed  three  years  before 
for  ameliorating  the  position  of  the  slaves. 
The  attempts  of  the  English  government  on 
behalf  of  the  negroes,  and  still  more  the 
representations  which  were  gradually  being 
made  in  Ebigland  in  favour  of  the  abolition 
of  slavery,  had  the  effect  of  stirring  up  much 
ill  feeling  amongst  the  colonist^,  of  Jamaica, 
who  talked  freely  of  separating  from  England 
and  joining  the  United  States.  The  negroes, 
believing  that  the  planters  were  wrongfully 
keeping  their  liberty  from  them,  rose  en  masse 
in  1831,  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  the  clerg}' 
to  restrain  their  violence.  The  l^bellion  was 
crushed  with  great  severity  and  much  needless 
cruelty.  In  1833  a  bill  for  the  Abolition  of 
Slaver}'  was  passed,  and  from  Aug.  1,  1834. 
all  slaves  were  to  be  set  free,  and  to  become 
apprenticed  labourers.  This  act,  however 
did  but  little  towards  alleviating  the  suffer- 
ings of  the  negroes,  and  in  1836  a  Parlii- 
mentar}'  Committee  was  appointed  to  enquire 
into  the  question,  with  the  result  tha^  in 
1838,  in  spite  of  the  protests  of  the  Jamaica 
assembly,  apprenticeship  was  abolished,  thus 
averting  another  impending  insurrection. 
The  decline  of  Jamaica  is  sometimes  erro- 
neously ascribed  to  the  abolition  of  slaver}' ; 
it  had  commenced  a  centuiy  before,  and  was 
due  to  insular  jealousy  and  misrule.  When 
the  mismanagement  of  affairs  in  Jamaica  had 
become  only  too  apparent  in  1839,  a  motion 
to  suspend  the  constitution  of  the  govern- 
ment for  five  years  was  lost  by  so  narrow  a 
majority  as  to  cause  the  fall  of  the  English 
ministry.  From  1864  till  1866  the  govern- 
ment was  carried  on  by  a  governor,  council, 
and  representative  assembly.  In  1865  a 
rebellion  broke  out  and  wa.s  repressed  with 
great  severity  by  Governor  Eyre.  On  Dec. 
21,  1865,  the  representative  constitution  was 
abolished  by  the  legislature,  this  abolition 


Jam 


(  620  } 


Jam 


bein^  afterwards  confirmed  by  the  British 
Parhament.  Affairs  have  aiace  been  ad- 
ministered by  a  governor,  appointed  by  the 
crown,  assisted  by  a  legislative  assembly, 
partly  elected  and  partly  nominated.  Besides 
the  assembly,  there  is  a  privy  council, 
not  exceeding  eight  in  number,  who  are 
either  named  by  the  queen,  or  appointed 
by  the  governor,  subject  to  the  approval 
of  the  crown.  Jamaica  is  at  the  present 
time  making  considerable  progress.  Of  her 
two  great  difficulties,  that  of  the  slaves  has 
disappeared,  and  that  of  the  mismanagement 
of  the  land  is  rapidly  being  smoothed  away. 

Long,  Hitt,  of  Jamaica;  Martin,  HUl.  qf 
Britith  Colonies;  Crettsj,  Britannia  Empire; 
Southey,  Hist,  of  th«  West  Indies;  B.  Edwaxdes, 
West  Indies,  [S.  J.  L.] 

James  I..  King  of  Scotland  (b.  1391, 
t.  1424,  d,  1437),  the  second  son  oi  Bobert 
III.,  was  captured,  when  only  fourieen  years 
old,  by  an  i^lish  ship  whilst  on  his  way  to 
the  court  of  ^^rance  to  receive  his  education 
there  (1405).  On  his  father's  death  (1406), 
ho  was  acknowledged  King  of  Scotland,  the 
regency  being  undertaken  by  Albany,  to 
whose  machinations  his  capture  and  subse- 
quent long  captivity  have  been  ascribed. 
'Whilst  a  prisoner  in  England,  James,  natur- 
ally a  man  of  great  ability,  received  an 
education  which  eminently  fitted  him  to  play 
the  part  of  king,  and  made  him  one  of 
the  most  accomplished  princes  of  his  age. 
After  tho  death  of  Albany  (1419),  nego- 
tiations for  his  release  were  commenced 
which  at  last  ended  in  his  return  home, 
whero  he  was  crowned  at  Scone,  l^Iay, 
1424.  Before  he  left  England,  James  I.  had 
married  Jano  Beaufort,  daughter  of  the  Earl 
of  Somerset,  and  cousin  of  Henry  Y.  The 
effect  of  his  English  education  was  soon 
apparent  on  his  return  to  Scotland ;  his  first 
act  was  to  put  to  death  tho  regent  Murdoch 
of  Albany  for  abusing  his  power,  a  step 
which  was  quickly  followed  by  the  re-consti- 
tution  of  the  Scottish  Parliament,  the  refor- 
mation of  the  statute  law,  and  a  general 
valuation  of  all  property  for  the  purposes  of 
taxation.  In  1426  James  seized  and  im- 
prisoned sundry  turbulent  Highland  chief- 
tains at  Inverness,  and  declared  bis  intention 
of  putting  down  the  acts  of  lawlessness  which 
were  so  common.  In  1434  ho  sent  his 
daughter  to  France  to  be  married  to  the 
Dauphin,  afterwards  Louis  XI.,  thus  cement- 
ing the  connection  which  already  existed 
between  Scotland  and  the  French  court. 
Meanwhile,  the  king's  reforms,  his  attempts 
to  diminish  the  power  of  the  great  nobles, 
and  the  necessity  of  imposing  taxes,  gave  rise 
to  a  conspiracy  against  him.  On  t£e  night 
of  Feb.  20,  1437,  he  was  brutally  murderod, 
in  the  abbey  of  Black  Friars  at  Perth,  by  a 
band  of  300  conspirators  headed  by  Sir 
Robert  Graham.  This  murder  was  amply 
avenged  by  his  queen,  whom  the  asBassins 


had  spared  in  their  hurry.  James  I.  was  per- 
haps the  ablest  king  Scotland  had  yet  known ; 
he  was  a  man  of  letters,  a  lover  of  justice,  a 
prince  actuated  by  the  desire  of  doing  good 
to  his  country  and  people.  He  was  the  only 
poet  of  real  genius  m  either  Englemd  or 
Scotland  during  the  fifteenth  century.  Hia 
£iuff*8  Quair  and  Christe'a  Kirk  on  the  Green 
have  been  justly  praised.  His  PoetiaU 
Remains  were  published  by  Mr.  Tytler  in 
1783. 

Fordun,  SooUchronieon ;  Barton,  RyA.  of  Seat- 
land  :  Wiutoon,  Crouykil ;  Walpole,  Royal  and 
Nohle  Authors;  Chalmers,  Hutoric  Remains  o/ 
Scottish  Worthies;  Pinlurton,  Scottish  Histarg. 

James  11.,  King  of  Scotland  (b.  1430, 
8.  1437,  d.  1460),  was  the  son  of  James  I. 
After  his  coronation  at  Holyrood  he  was 
immediately  conveyed  by  his  mother  to 
Edinburgh  Castle  for  safet>'.  The  queen, 
alarmed  at  the  action  of  Sir  William  Crichton, 
the  governor  of  tho  castle,  soon  contrived  to 
escape  to  Stirling.  Here,  however,  Crichton 
succeeded  in  seizing  the  young  king,  who  him- 
self did  not  begin  to  rule  for  some  years.  In 
1449  James  married  Mary,  daughter  of  the 
Duke  of  Gueldres.  Three  years  afterwards, 
in  a  fit  of  passion,  he  stabbed  with  his  own 
hand  William,  Earl  of  Douglas,  who  had  been 
for  some  time  past  in  more  or  less  open  rebel- 
lion to  the  royal  authority.  The  king  was 
now  at  war  with  tho  house  of  Douglas,  whose 
estates  were  declared  foifeited  to  the  crown 
(1454).  In  1460  James,  who  was  of  a  fiery 
and  warlike  nature,  crossed  the  "Rngl^h 
border  at  the  head  of  a  large  army  to  lend 
aid  to  Henry  VI.,  but  returned  without 
effecting  his  object  He  then  undertook  the 
reduction  of  the  castle  of  Roxburgh,  where 
he  was  killed  by  the  bursting  of  a  cannon, 
Aug.  3,  1460.  He  was  on  the  whole  a  good 
king.  We  are  told-  that  "  in  the  time  of  his 
later  days,  his  realm  was  in  quiet,  prosperous 
estate,  in  no  fear  of  outward  enemies,  and 
he  kept  his  nobles  in  loving  and  noble 
obedience,  and  the  commons  in  good  peace.'* 
His  ability,  perhaps,  comes  out  more  clearly 
than  elsewhere  in  his  method  of  dealing  witL 
the  Douglas  rebellion.  When  the  £^rl  of 
Douglas  made  alliance  with  the  Earl  of 
Craufurd,  James  succeeded  in  enrolling  a 
third  noble,  belonging  to  a  rival  house — ^the 
Earl  of  Huntly — on  his  own  side ;  and  even 
contrived  to  split  up  the  great  family  of  tho 
Douglases  by  winning  over  one  of  its  chief 
members,  the  Earl  of  Angus,  to  the  royal 
party  (1452^54). 

Burton,  Hist,  of  Scotland. 

James  III.,  King  of  Scotland  {h,  1453, 
«.  1460,  d.  1488),  was  the  son  of  Jiimes  II., 
whom  ho  succeeded  when  only  eight  years  old. 
For  some  time  the  government  of  the  king- 
dom was  placed  in  the  hands  oi  Kennedy, 
Bishop  of  St.  Andrews,  till,  in  1466,  the 
young  king  was  carried  off  to  Edinburgh  by 
the  Boyds,  after  which  event  the  hrad  of 


Jam 


(621) 


Jam 


this  family  became  Q^uardian  of  the  kingdom. 
In  1469  James  married  Margaret,  daughter 
of  Christian,  King  of  Denmark  and  Norway, 
receiving  as  her  dowry  the  Orkney  and  Shet- 
land Isles.  About  this  time  the  Boyds  were 
depriA'ed  of  the  estates  which  the  royal  bounty 
had  conferred  upon  them,  and  the  head  of 
the  house,  the  Earl  of  Arran,  who  had 
married  the  king's  sister,  was  forced  to  flee  into 
England.  Shortly  afterwards  James  ex- 
pressed a  wish  to  lead  an  army  to  the  assistance 
of  Louis  XI.  against  the  Duke  of  Burgundy, 
and  was  only  prevented  by  the  action  of  the 
Estates.  He  is  said  to  have  had  his  brother, 
the  Earl  of  Mar,  put  to  death,  and  in  1479 
his  other  brother, 'Albany,  was  compelled  to 
seek  refuge  in  France.  Meanwhile  James's 
partiality  for  favourites  of  low  tastes,  notably 
two,  namecT  Cochrane  and  Kogers,  gave  rise 
to  a  conspiracy  against  him  on  the  part  of 
the  Scottish  nobles,  who  seized  and  hanged 
several  of  them  at  Lauder  (1482),  where  the 
king  had  halted  on  an  expedition  which  had 
set  out  to  invade  England.  James,  too,  was 
carried  to  Edinburgh,  where,  however,  he  was 
soon  set  at  liberty,  at  the  request  of  his 
brother  Albany,  who  had  now  returned  from 
France.  Before  long  it  was  rumoured  that 
the  king  was  in  private  treaty  with  England 
for  the  purpose  of  getting  assistance  in  his 
contemplated  vengeance  on  his.  enemies.  The 
Estates  of  the  Kealm  now  formed  a  con- 
federacy against  their  sovereign,  and  raised 
a  cry  that  the  young  prince,  afterwards 
James  IV.,  was  in  danger.  But  the  king 
raised  a  large  army  in  the  North  of  Scot- 
land, and  attacked  the  rebellious  lords  at 
Sauchiebum,  near  Stirling.  He  was,  how- 
ever, defeated,  and  fled  for  refuge  into 
a  house  called  Beaton's  Mill,  near  Bannock- 
bum,  where  he  was  stabbed  by  an  un- 
known hand,  June  18,  1488.  James  III.  was 
a  bad  i^iler,  and  a  man  of  avaricious  and 
cowardly  disposition.  He  was  charged  with 
drawing  his  chief  friends  from  the  lowest 
ranks  of  society  ;  but  how  far  this  accusation 
is  strictly  true  is  considered  by  Mr.  Burton 
to  be  a  doubtful  point.  For,  as  this  historian 
points  out,  the  **  mason  "  Cochrane  may  have 
been,  in  reality,  the  architect  of  the  "  noble 
buildings  which,  about  this  time,  began  to 
adorn  Scotland ;  '*  while  Rogers  the  "  musician  " 
may  have  been  no  mere  performer  of  other 
men's  music,  but  a  great  composer.  In  any 
case  the  rude  nobility  of  Scotland  were  little 
capable  of  distinguishing  between  the  various 
grades  of  artistic  work. 

Burton,  Hist,  of  Scotland. 

James  ZV.,  King  of  Scotland  {b.  1472,  «. 
1488,  d,  1513),  succeeded  his  father  James  III., 
after  the  battle  of  Sauchiebum,  1488,  and 
at  once  found  himself  compelled  to  guard 
against  a  plot,  formed  for  the  purpose  of 
seizing  his  person  by  Henry  VII.,  with  the 
aid  of  Loi-d  Bothwell.    In  1495  James  hos- 


pitably  received  Perkj-nWarbeckat  his  (ourt, 
and  the  following  year  sent  an  expedition 
across  the  borders  on  his  behalf.  This,  how- 
ever, came  to  nothing,  and  shortly  afterwards 
James  contrived  to  get  rid  of  his  visitor.  In 
1497  Henry  began  to  make  overtures  of  peace 
to  Scotland,  and  in  1502  James  IV.  maiTied 
the  Princess  Margaret  of  England,  and  joined 
the  English  and  Spanish  alliance.  In  1512  a 
dispute  arose  with  England  out  of  the  capture 
of  some  Scotch  vessels  in  the  Downs;  the 
French  alliance  was  vehemently  pressed  upon 
the  king  by  the  Queen  of "  iVance,  who 
appointed  him  her  knight  to  maintain  her 
own  and  her  countr^^'s  cause  against  their 
common  English  enemy.  Urged  by  her  en- 
treaties and  his  own  wrongs,  James  determined 
to  undertake  the  disastrous  campaign,  which 
ended  in  his  total  defeat,  and  was  followed 
>y  his  death  at  Flodden  Field  (Sept.  9,  1513). 
The  king  left  behind  him  the  character  of  a 
brave  soldier  and  a  just  administrator,  though 
his  private  life  is  open  to  severe  blame.  **  For 
his  political  government  and  due  administra- 
tion of  justice,  whii^h  he  exercised  during 
the  time  of  his  reign,  he  deserveth  to  be 
numbered  among  the  best  princes  that  ever 
reigned  over  that  nation."  To  James  IV. 
miist  be  ascribed  the  establishment  of  the 
first  efficient  navy  possessed  by  Scotland,  and 
the  settlement  of  the  Highlands,  by  distri- 
buting garrisons  throughout  the  turbulent 
districts.  With  regard  to  the  first  of  these 
two  achievements,  letters  of  marque  were 
given  to  two  Scotch  sea-captains,  Sir  Alex- 
ander Wood  and  Sir  Andraw  Barton,  who 
cleared  the  Scotch  coast  of  English  pirate 
vessels,  and  carried  on  their  depredations 
against  English  and  other  nations.  We  are 
told  that  towards  the  close  of  the  reign  the 
Scotch  navy  consisted  of  no  less  than  thirteen 
vessels,  one  of  which,  the  Michael^  was  the 
marvel  of  its  day  for  bulk.  The  settlement 
of  the  Highlands  was  largely  assisted  by 
using  the  influence  of-  two  great  families — 
the  Huntlys  and  the  Arg^-les — ^who,  though 
Lowland  in  their  origin,  had  by  marriage  or 
other  means  been  gradually  acquiring  im- 
mense possessions  and  influence  in  the  High- 
land districts ;  and  this  influence  James  aid 
not  scruple  to  manipulate,  so  far  as  he  could, 
for  the  purposes  of  strengthening  the  royal 
authority  in  those  remote  parts. 

Burton,  Kid,  of  Sca^lani. 

James  V.,  King  of  Scotland  (b.  1512, 
«.  1513,  <j.  1542),  the  son  of  James  IV.  and  Mar- 
garet of  England,  succeeded  his  father  after 
flie  fatal  battle  of  Flodden.  As  he  was 
not  quite  two  years  old,  the  regency  was 
entrusted  to  his*  cousin,  the  Duke  of  Albany, 
who  was  invited  over  from  Fi-ance — of 
"Which  country-  he  was  admiral — to  undertake 
this  office,  at  the  request  of  the  Estates 
of  the  R^m  (1515).  The  queen-dowager, 
who  had  married  the  Earl  of  Angus  almost 


Jam 


(  622  ) 


Jam 


immediately  after  her  first  husband's  death, 
was  soon  obliged  to  yield  up  her  son,  whom 
she  had  carried  off  for  safety  to  Stirling 
Castle.  Within  a  year  of  his  first  landing, 
the  regent  had  crushed  all  attempts  at  rebel- 
lion, and  very  soon  left  Scotland,  after  having 
placed  French  garrisons  in  several  of  the 
strongest  fortresses.  In  Albany's  absence, 
Angus  seemed  likely  to  secure  the  chief  power, 
had  he  not  offended  his  wife,  who  urged  the 
absent  regent  to  return  (1521).  At  last,  after 
various  fluctuations,  and  the  interference  of 
Wolsey,  the  young  king  was  installed  in 
!Bdinburgh  as  king,  and  the  regency  taken 
away  from  the  Duke  of  Albany  (1524).  But, 
despite  the  apparent  pacification,  the  great 
nobles,  Ang^s,  Argyle,  and  Errol,  were  strug- 
gling for  power  among  themselves,  and  the 
young  king  was  kept  in  dose  duress,  till,  in 
1528,  he  managed  to  escape  to  Stirling.  James 
now  took  the  government  into  his  own  hands, 
and  Angus  was  driven  into  England.  The 
details  of  domestic  government,  the  reduction 
of  the  lawless  borderers  and  the  Highland  clans, 
occupied  the  next  few  years  of  the  reign. 

In  spite  of  the  failure  of  the  proposed 
alliance  with  the  Princess  (afterwards  queen) 
Mary,  and  in  spite  of  various  border  frays,  a 
peace  was  concluded  with  England  in  1534, 
though  James  rejected  all  proposals  for  a  meet- 
ing with  his  uncle,  believing  that  his  safety 
would  be  endangered.  In  1 536,  the  kins^ ,  whilst 
at  the  court  of  France  on  a  visit,  undertaken 
with  the  object  of  marr}4ng  Mary,  daughter 
of  the  Duke  of  Yendome,  fell  in  love  with 
and  married  Magdalen,  the  French  king's 
daughter.  Next  year,  however,  the  queen  died, 
and  James  married  Mary,  daughter  of  the  Duke 
of  Guise  (June,  1538).  On  his  return  home, 
the  king  had  begun  to  occupy  himself  with 
domestic  affairs,  and  succeeded  in  alienating 
a  grreat  number  of  the  nobility  by  confiscating 
many  estates  which  had  passed  into  their 
hands  during  his  minority.  Towards  tiie 
close  of  his  reign  he  roused  his  uncle,  Henry 
"Vill.,  to  fury  by  promising  to  meet  him  at 
"Xork,  and  failing  to  keep  his  word  through 
fear.  Henry  at  once  declared  war  on  the 
ground  that  James  was  acting  treacherously 
towards  England,  and  the  Scotch  king  could 
not  prevail  upon  his  nobles  to  cross  the 
border.  The  (usorganisation  in  his  army  was 
taken  advantage  of  by  the  enemy,  and  the 
defeat  of  Solway  Moss  was  the  consequence. 
A  few  days  afterwards  (Dec.  14, 1642J,  tne  un- 
fortunate monarch  died  at  Falklana,  having 
just  before  his  death  received  the  tidings  of 
the  birth  of  a  daughter,  afterwards  the  famous 
Mary,  Queen  of  Scots.  BVom  his  restraint  of 
the  nobles,  his  lavish  expenditure,  his  accom- 
plishments, and  his  carelessness,  he  was  a 
lavourite  with  his  people,  by  whom  he  was  long 
remembered  as  "  the  King  of  the  Commons." 

Burton,  Hist,  of  Scotland;  Fronde,  Hist,  of 
Bng.;  State  Papers,  Henry  VIILt  with  Mr. 
j)rewer'8  Introduction. 


James   I.,  Kino   fjames  VI.  of  Scot- 
land),   (b.    June    19,    1566," «.  in   Scotland, 
July  24,  1567,  in  England,  Mar.  24,  1603,  d. 
^iar.  27,  1625),  was  the  son  of  Mary  of  Scot- 
land and  of  Henry  Damley.     He  was  en- 
trusted to  the  care  of  the  Earl  of  Mar,  and  of 
Alexander  Erskine,   and  his  principal  tutor 
was  the  celebrated   George  Buchanan.     In 
1578  the  regency  was  taken  from  the  Earl  of 
Morton,  and  James  was  henceforth,  in  name 
at  least,   ruler  of  Scotland.     His  reign  in 
Scotland  was,  to  a  large  extent,  a  quarrel 
with  the  clergy-  and  the  nobles.    In  1581  the 
General  Assembly  resolved  to  abolish  Epis- 
copacy ;   and  James,  who  had  been  seized  by 
some  of  the  nobles  at  the  raid  of  Ruthven  (q.v.), 
was  unable  to  prevent  it.    In  1585  he  came 
to  tenns  with  Elizabeth,  and  made  a  treaty 
with  her,  consenting  to  receive*  a  pension. 
The  same    year   he    was   besieged   by  the 
banished  lords  in  Stirling  Castle,  and  was 
compelled  to  pardon   them,  to  dismiss  his 
favourite  Arran,  and  to  deprive  him  of  his 
title  and  estates.  Notwithstanding  the  execu- 
tion of  his  mother  by  Elizabetii,  and  the 
disregard  of  his  intercession,  he  co-operated 
in    the   preparations    against    the    Spanish 
Armada  m  1588,  and  in  1589  drew  closer  his 
alliance  with  the  Protestant  powers  by  his 
marriage  with  Anne  of  Denmark  (1589).    A 
treasonable  attempt  was  made  upon  him  by 
Bothwell  in  1591,  and  another  in  1593,  and  in 
the  latter  year  ho  was  seized  and  imprisoned 
by  that  nobleman,  but  soon  released.      In 
1594  he  undertook  a  campaign  against  Huntly 
and  Errol,  the  great  Catholic  nobles  of  the 
north,    and   after   a    victory   at    Glenlivat, 
reduced  them,  and  compelled  them  to  quit  the 
country.     They  were,  however,  allowed  to 
return  in  1597.    The  breach  between  James 
and  the  Presbyterian  clergy  had  been  growing 
wider  for  some  time,  and  was  increased  by 
the  publication  of  his  work,  the  Basilictm 
Doron,  and  by  the  appointment  of  bishops  in 
1599.    In  1600  occurred  a  somewhat  mys- 
terious plot  against  his  life,  known  as  the 
Gowrie  conspiracy  (q.v.).     On  the  death  of 
Elizabeth,  James  immediately  set  out  for  Eng- 
land, and  was  proclaimed  king  in  March,  1603. 
being  crowned  at  Westminster  on  July  25 
following.    He  assumed  the  title  of  King  of 
Great  Britain,  France,  and  Ireland  the  follow- 
ing year.   In  ecclesiastical  matters  he  immedi- 
ately manifested  his  preference  for  the  High 
Church  \'iew.    The  ruritans  were  thwarted 
and  punished  at  the  Hampton  Court  confe- 
rence, while  at  the  same  time  the  Jesuits  and 
seminary  priests  were  ordered  to  quit  the 
kingdom   (!Fob.,   1604).     The  anger  causea 
among  the  Papists  by  these  stringent  measures 
led  to  the  abortive  Gunpowder  Plot.     James 
almost  from  the  first  year  of  his  reign  waa 
involved  in  disputes  with   his   Parliament, 
vchiefiy  turning  on  the  questions  of  money 
land  redress  of  grievances.    In  1604  a  dispute 
f  on  the  subject  of  privilege  bad  terminated  ia 


Jam 


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Jam 


&your  of  the  Commons.  The  government 
waH  extravagantly  adminiBtered,  and  the  ex- 
penses of  the  court  were  very  great.  In 
order  to  supply  the  deficiency  in  the  revenue, 
Cecil  raised  loans  under  the  privy  seal,  and  in 
1608  issued  a  Book  of  Rates,  by  which  the 
customs  on  various  articles  were  considerably 
increased.  Notwithstanding,  in  1610,  the 
king  was  obliged  to  ask  the  Conmions  for  a 
large  grant,  which  was  made  the  subject  of 
mi^  bargaining,  until  finally  the  Parliament 
was  dissolved,  without  any  result  having 
been  attained  (Feb.,  1611).  Cecil  died  the 
following  year.  The  chief  place  in  the  king's 
favour  was  now  taken  by  Robert  Carr,  a 
young  Scotchman,  who  was  created  Earl  of 
Somerset.  In  Nov.,  1612,  the  young  Prince 
of  Wales,  Henry,  of  whose  character  high 
expectations  had  been  formed,  fell  ill  and 
di^  The  following  year  James,  still  ad- 
hering to  Cecil's  policy  of  opposition  to 
Spain,  cemented  the  alliance  with  the  German 
princes  by  marrying  his  daughter  Elizabeth 
to  the  Elector  Pidatine,  Frederick  V.  Somer- 
set was  ruined  and  degraded  by  the  revelation 
of  his  wife's  murder  of  Sir  Thomas  Overbury, 
and  the  management  of  affairs  was  henceforth 
(1615)  in  the  luindsof  James's  second  favourite, 
George  ViUiers,  afterwards  Duke  of  Bucking- 
luun.  The  anti-Spanish  policy  of  Cecil  was 
given  up,  and  James  entered  into  negotia- 
tions for  peace  and  alliance  with  Spain.  In 
1614  Parliament  was  reassembled,  and  at- 
tompto  were  made  to  secure  ite  docility  by  a 
body  of  managers  called  Undertakers.  These, 
however,  were  unsuccessful ;  and  the  "  Addled 
Parliament,"  as  it  was  called,  was  dissolved 
before  any  business  had  been  done.  The 
kinfi^  now  resorted  to  several  illegal  means  of 
raising  money.  Benevolences  were  collected, 
patente  of  peerage  sold,  and  numerous  mono- 
polies let  out  to  private  individuals.  In  1617 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh, 'Who  had  been  in  prison 
since  1603,  on  a  charge  of  complicity  in  the 
plots  against  the  king,  was  released,  and 
allowed  to  lead  an  expedition  against  Guinea, 
where  he  hoped  to  discover  gold  mines.  The 
expedition  proved  a  failure,  and  Raleigh  on 
his  return  was  put  to  death.  Tliis  was  done 
in  deference  to  Spanish  susceptibilities,  and 
was  greatly  resented  by  the  people.  At  the 
begimiin^  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  (1618) 
the  feeling  in  England  was  strongly  in 
favour  of  interference  on  the  part  of  this 
country  in  favour  of  the  Protestant  Elector. 
James,  however,  refused  to  interfere  viffor- 
oualy,  and  trusted  to  his  diplomatic  skill  to 
mediate  between  the  parties  and  restore 
peace.  In  1621  another  Parliament  was 
called.  But  after  impeaching  Bacon,  the 
Lord  Chancellor,  and  inquiring  into  griev- 
ances, a  dispute  on  foreign  policy  took  place 
between  the  king  and  the  Commons.  James 
in  ang^r  dissolved  Parliament  (Jan.,  1622). 
Negotiations  were  set  on  foot  for  a  marriage 
between   Prince   Charles    and    the    Spanish 


Infanta,  to  effect  which  Charles  and  Bucking- 
ham went  to  Spain  in  1623.  Buckingham^ 
however,  quarrelled  with  the  Spanish  minis- 
ters, and  the  mateh  was  broken  off  (Dec.» 
1623).  This  led  to  a  sudden  reversal  of  the 
king's  policy.  War  was  declared  on  Spain  in 
Mait^,  1624,  and  Count  Mansfeldt  was  ^owed 
to  enlist  troops  in  England  for  the  Protest- 
ante  in  Germany.  Negotiations  were  set  on 
foot  for  a  marriage  between  Charles  and 
Hcnriette  Maria,  the  French  Princess,  but 
before  it  was  completed  James  died.  *'He 
had,"  sa^^s  Mr.  Gardiner,  ^'many  qualities 
befitting  a  ruler  in  such  difficult  times.  Good- 
humoured  and  good-natured,  he  was  honestly 
desirous  of  increasing  the  prosperity  of  his 
subjects.  .  .  He  was  above  all  things  eager 
to  be  a  reconciler,  to  make  peace  where  there 
had  been  war  before,  and  to  draw  those  to 
live  in  harmony  who  had  hitherto  glared  at 
one  another  in  mutual  defiance.  .  .  With  a 
thorough  dislike  of  dogmatism  in  othera,  he 
was  himself  the  most  dogmatic  of  men.  .  . 
He  had  none  of  that  generosity  of  temper 
which  leads  the  natural  leaders  of  the  human 
race  to  rejoice  when  they  have  found  a  worthy 
antagonist,  nor  had  he,  as  Elissabeth  had, 
that  intuitive  perception  of  the  popular  feeling 
which  stood  her  m  such  stead  during  her 
long  career."  James  wrote  a  variety  of 
tracte  on  a  number  of  different  subjects. 
Most  of  them  are  absolutely  worthless.  They 
were  collected  in  1616. 

Regi^er  of  Privy  Counca  of  Scotland ;  Letien 
and  Stat§  Papen  during  the  Reion  ofJavMt  YI. 
fAblwtsford  Club) ;  Court  and  Timet  of  Jamea  f. 
(1846);  Camden,  History  of  Jamet  I.;  Qood- 
man,  Court*  of  Jamn  1. ;  Historic  and  JAfe  <4 
James  th«  StiA  (Bannatyue  Club) ;  Daliymple, 
K«mortaI«  anA  tetter*  llluetrative  of  Reigna  of 
Jamee  L  and  Charle*  I. ;  Sir  Slmonds  D'Ewes, 
^Autobiography;  Sully,  M«motr«;  Sushworth. 
Hitlorical  ColUotion».Jtc. ;  Disraeli,  Literary  and 
Poltttoal  Character  ofjamee  I.  ;  Burton,  Hxstory 
of  Scotland  ;  Calderwood.  Hiat.  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland,  The  histonr  of  Jamea's  reigrn  in  Ensr- 
land  ia  told  in  much  detail  and  with  unimpeach- 
able aocuraoy  in  Profeasor  &  B.  Oaidiner's 
great  work.  The  Hiutory  of  England,  ieoS—ie4S. 

[8.  J.  L.] 

James  II.p  Kino  (d.  1633,  r.  Feb.  6, 1685— 
Dec,  1688,  d.  Sept.  16,  1701),  was  the  second 
son  of  Charles  I.,  and  Henrietta  Maria.  He  was 
created  Duke  of  York  immediately  after  his 
birth.  He  accompanied  his  father  during  the 
Civil  "War,  and  was  captured  by  Fairfax  on  the 
surrender  of  Oxford,  but  contrived  te  escape, 
disguised  as  a  girl,  to  Holland  in  April,  1648. 
He  served  with  reputetion  in  both  the  French 
and  the  Spanish  armies,  and  was  to  teke  the 
command  of  a  force  for  the  invasion  of 
England  if  the  rising  of  Sir  George  Booth 
in  1659  had  been  successful.  In  1660  he 
returned  to  England  with  his  brother,  and 
was  made  Lord  High  Admiral,  subsequently 
receiving  large  gnmto  of  land  in  Irelana. 
In  1665  he  took  the  command  of  the  fleet 
against  the  Dutch,  and  showed  great  ability 
in  the  conduct  of  naval  affairs.    In  1669  he 


Jam 


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Jma 


avowed  his  converaioii  to  Roman  Catholicism, 
and  on  the  passing  of  the  Test  Act  in 
1673  he  was  obli^d  to  resign  his  office  of 
Lord  High  Adnural.  The  Whig  party, 
headed  by  Shaftesbury',  attemptechto  get  an 
Exclusion  Bill  passed  depriving  him  of  his 
right  of  succession  to  the  throne,  and  so  great 
was  the  feeling  against  him  that  in  1679  he 
was  induced  by  the  king  to  go  abroad,  but 
before  long  was  recalled  and  sent  as  Lord 
High  Commissioner  to  Scotland,  where  he 
showed  such  harshness  and  severity  that  he 
had  to  be  recalled  in  1680.  He  was  in  that 
year  presented  by  the  Grand  Jury  of  Middle- 
sex, at  Shaftesbury's  instigation,  as  a  Popish 
recusant,  but  the  judge,  by  suddenly  dis- 
missing the  jury,  quashed  the  procoeidings. 
He  returned  to  Scotland  shortly  afterwards, 
where  he  remained  till  1682.  In  1684  he 
was  restored  to  his  office  of  Lord  High 
Admiral,  and  to  his  seat  in  the  Council,  and 
on  his  brother's  death  in  the  next  year  suc- 
ceeded to  the  crown.  James  commenced  his 
reign  with  disclaiming  any  intention  of  inter- 
fering with  the  Church,  and  promising  a 
legal  form  of  government ;  but  his  acts  were 
not  in  accordance  with  his  declarations,  and 
his  opponents,  who  in  the  last  years  of  his 
brother's  reign  had  found  an  asylum  in 
Holland,  at  once  began  to  concert  measures 
for  an  invasion.  Accordingly  the  Duke  of 
Monmouth  landed  in  England,  and  the  Earl 
of  Argylc  in  Scotland,  but  both  failed,  and  the 
attempt  of  the  former  especially  was  punished 
with  great  severit}'.  James  was  emboldened 
by  this  success  to  proceed  with  hasty  steps 
in  the  design  which  he  had  formed  of 
restoring  liomanism.  He  had,  at  the  com- 
mencement of  his  reign,  made  arrangements 
with  that  view  in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  and 
he  now  ventured  to  extend  them  to  Engli^nd. 
He  claimed  a  power  of  dispensing  with  the 
penal  laws,  dismissed  his  Parliament  when  it 
showed  a  resolution  to  oppose  him,  exhausted 
ever>'  effort  to  gain  converts,  called  such,  as 
well  as  Roman  ecclesiastics,  to  his  councils, 
laboured  to  procure  the  repeal  of  the  Test 
Act,  and  forbade  the  controversial  sern^ons 
which  the  clergy,  justly  alarmed  at  his  pro- 
ceedings, felt  it  their  duty  to  deliver.  This 
iojunction  was  disregarded,  and  to  enforce  it 
a  new  court  of  ecclesiastical  commission  was 
established,  which  suspended  the  Bishop  of 
London  from  his  office,  and  afterwards  per- 
petrated the  most  flagrant  injustice  on  both 
universities.  The  king  induced  the  judges 
to  g^vo  a  decision  in  favour  of  the  dispensing 
power,  and  he  followed  this  up  by  forming  a 
camp  on  Hounslow  Heath,  the  officers  of  which 
were  chiefly  Romanists.  He  had  already  pub- 
lished a  Declaration  of  Indulgence  (April, 
1687),  and  sedulously  courted  the  Protestant 
Nonconformists ;  but  they  in  general  mis- 
trusted him,  and  declined  to  forward  the 
restoration  of  Romanism  by  joining  in  his 
attack  on  the  Church.     Undeterred  by  this. 


he  ordered  the  Declaration  to  be  read  in  all 
diurches,  and  on  seven  of  the  bishops 
petitioning  against  this  he  sent  them  to  the 
Tower  on  the  charge  of  libelling  the  king. 
They  were  soon  after  put  on  their  trial  ana 
aoquitted.  Just  at  this  juncture  a  son  and 
heir  was  born  to  James,  and  was  considered 
by  the  people  to  be  a  supposititious  child. 
Meanwhile  a  numbex'  of  the  leading  states- 
men of  all  parties  requested  James*s  son-in- 
law,  William  of  Orange,  to  come  over  to 
England  to  secure  his  wife's  right  to  the 
throne,  and  protect  the  liberties  and  religion 
of  the  English  people.  Accordingly  William 
issued  a  manifesto,  and  eventually  landed  in 
England  on  Nov.  5,  1688.  James  now  at- 
tempted to  retrace  his  steps.  He  reinstated 
the  Bishop  of  London,  made  such  reparation 
as  he  could  to  the  universities,  and  dismissed 
his  most  obnoxious  counsellors ;  but  he  could 
not  regain  the  confidence  of  his  people.  His 
army  melted  away,  and  the  prince  advanced 
towards  London.  James,  deserted  by  most 
of  his  friends,  sent  his  queen  and  infant 
son  to  France,  and  attempted  to  foUow  them, 
quitting  Whitehall  in  disguise  on  Dec.  11. 
He  was,  however,  seized  near  Faversham,  and 
brought  back  to  London,  whence  in  a  few 
days  he  was  removed  to  Rochester,  and  was 
then  allowed  to  escape  to  France,  landing  at 
Ambleteuse  on  Christmas  Day.  He  was 
'  kindly  received  by  Louis,  who  warmly 
espoused  his  cause,  and  assisted  him  wiUi 
troops  in  his  expedition  to  Ireland  in  1689. 
Landing  at  Kinsale,  he  was  received  with 
enthusiasm  by  the  Catholics,  and  for  some 
time  seemed  hkely  to  succeed  in  making  him- 
self at  all  events  master  of  Ireland,  but  the 
raising  of  the  siege  of  Londonderry  was  a  great 
blow  to  him,  and  in  1690  (July  1)  he  was 
totally  routed  by  William  in  the  battle  of  the 
Boyne,  after  which  he  fled  to  France.  The 
Irish  expedition  failed  partly  owing  to  the 
bigotr}'  and  cruelty  of  the*  king  and  his 
followers,  and  partly  from  the  divided  aims 
of  the  different  sections  of  his  party ;  James 
himself  looking  upon  Ireland  as  a  stepping- 
stc^e  to  England,  while  the  Iri9h  only  sought 
relief  from  the  rule  of  the  Saxon,  and  the 
French  aimed  at  making  Ireland  a  fief  of 
their  monarchy.  James  spent  the  remainder 
of  his  life  at  St.  Germains,  engaged  in 
intrigues  for  recovering  possession  of  his  lost 
crown,  but  constantly  finding  his  hopes  dashed 
to  the  ground.  James  marriea  first  Anne  Hyde 
(Sept.  3,  1660),  daughter  of  Lord  Clarendon, 
by  whom  he  had  two  daughters,  Mary  and 
Anne,  and  four  sons  and  two  daughters  who 
died  in  infancy;  and,  secondly,  Mary  of 
Modena  (Kov.  21, 1673),  who  bore  him  one  son 
and  four  daughters  whq  died  young,  and  one 
son,  James  Edward,  known  afterwards  as  the 
Old  Pretender.  Of  his  natural  children  tiie 
most  famous  was  his  son  by  Arabella  Churchill, 
James,  Duke  of  Berwick. 

James  II.'s,  Memoin  ied.  Clarke);  Ctarmiloa 


Jav 


(  625  ) 


Jeff 


8tuU  Papers;  Sydney  State  Papen;  Fox»  Hial, 
•[  JamM  II.;  welwood.  Memoir* ;  Luttrdl, 
ReUitum  of  State  Affairs  i  Echxird,  Ftst.  of  the 
Xcvol«tioii;  Burnet,  fltet.  of  Hm  Ovm  Time; 
Maenulaj,  Hi$L  o/Eng. ;  Bonke,  Hue.  o/En^. 

[F.  S.  P.] 

Java,  Expedition  to  (1811).  The  subju- 
gation of  Holland  by  Napoleon  rendered  it 
important  to  British  interests  to  occupy  the 
Dutch  settlements  in  the  East.  An  expedition 
was  therefore  sent  against  the  Spice  Islands  in 
1809,  and  Amboyna,  Banda,  and  Temate 
were  occupied  after  a  feeble  resistance.  The 
island  of  Java  alone  remained,  and  an  expedi- 
tion was  fitted  out  against  it,  consisting  of 
ninety  sail,  on  which  were  embarked  2,000 
Kuropeans  and  2,000  Sepoys.  Lord  Mintb 
accompanied  it  as  a  volunteer,  and  with  him 
-went  Mr.  (afterwards  Sir)  Stamford  Raffles, 
ixrho  was  largel^r  acquainted  with  the  habits, 
languages,  and  intei^ests  of  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Eastern  Archipelago.  The  fleet  anchored 
in  the  bay  of  Batavia  (Aug.  4).  The  capital 
^was  occupied  without  resistance,  and  the  cap- 
ture of  the  fortified  position  of  Ck>melio  gave 
the  whole  island  to  the  English.  The  Sidtan 
of  Djocjocarta,  however,  a  native  prince, 
caUed  upon  the  Javanese  to  assert  their  inde- 
pendence, and  set  up  the  standard  of  revolt. 
Ck>lonel  Gillespie  conducted  a  force  against 
Djocjocarta,  which  was  profteoted  by  a  high 
rampart,  and  batteries  mounted  with  100 
pieces  of  cannon,  and  manned  by  17,000  men. 
it  was  carried  by  assault,  and  the  fortifica- 
tions rased.  Lord  Minto  committed  the 
command  of  the  army  to  Colonel  Gillespie, 
and  the  government  to  ]Mr.  Raffles,  under 
whose  wise  and  liberal  administration  it 
continued  to  fiourish  for  several  years,  till  it 
was  restored  to  Holland  at  the  general  peace 
of  1815. 

Jadlnirgliy  in  Roxburghshire,  was  one  of 
the  Scottish  strongholds  delivered  to  England 
in  1174,  as  security  for  the  fulfilment  of  the 
Treaty  of  Falaise.  About  the  year  1408,  it 
was  wrested  from  the  English,  by  whom  it 
was  burnt,  a  century  later  (1523),  during  the 
invasion  under  Lord  Dacre.  In  1544  it  was 
again  burnt,  by  Sir  Ralph  Evers.  Jedburgh 
was  one  of  the  royal  burghs,  and  its  abbey 
founded  by  David  L 


Jeetgnrh  (Jestpobx),  The  Sisob  of 
(Jan.  14,  1816).  General  Wood  having  been 
appointed  to  take  Bootwal  and  penetrate 
Nepaul,  took  the  field  Dec.,  1814,  after  a 
great  deal  of  delay,  and,  without  any  re- 
connaissance, allowed  himself  to  be  brought 
before  the  stockade  of  Jeetgurh,  by  the 
treachery  of  a  Brahmin  guide.  A  heavy  fire 
was  immediately  commencedfrom  the  redoubt, 
which  was  garrisoned  by  1,200  Goorkhas. 
Though  the  British  army  amounted  to 
4,500  men,  the  general,  after  fighting  his 
way  to  a  position  which  commanded  the  en- 
trenchment, and  placed  it  within  his  grasp, 


sounded  a  retreat  just  as  the  enemy  had  be-    ^ 
gfun  to  abandon  it.     [Goorkha  War.] 

JefErey,  Francis  Lord  (b.  1773,  d.  1850), 
was  bom  and  educated  at  Edinburgh.  On  being 
called  to  the  Bar,  he  found  that  he  could  obtain 
ver>'  little  legal  business,  owing  to  his  being  a 
Whig  at  a  time  when  Tory  influence  was  so 
predominant  in  Scotland.  Turning  his  at* 
tention  to  literature,  he  became  one  of  a  small 
group  of  men  who,  towards  the  year  1802, 
planned  the  publication  of  the  Edinburgh 
BevxeWy  of  which  he  very  soon  became  the 
editor.  This  periodical,  which,  before  long, 
took  rank  as  tne  leading  exponent  of  Whig 
views,  continued  under  Jeflrey^s  management 
till  the  year  1829.  Such  importance  did  it  as- 
sume as  a  political  organ,  that  before  very  long 
the  Tories  were  constrained  to  issue  a  similar 
review  on  their  own  lines — the  Quarterly.  In 
1831  Jeffrey  was  appointed  Lord  Advocate, 
and  he  subsequently  entered  the  House  of 
Commons  as  member  for  Edinburgh.  It  was 
he  who  had  most  to  do  with  arranging  the 
measures  of  the  Reform  Bill  so  far  as  Scot- 
land was  concerned.  In  1834  ho  was  made  a 
judge  in  the  Court  of  Session. 
Cockbam,  Life  of  Jtffrey, 

JefbreyBy  Georgb  Lord  (b.  1648,  d. 
1689),  was  bom  in  Denbighshire  of  a  respect- 
able family.  After  receiving  his  education 
at  St.  Paul's  and  Westminster  Schools,  he 
seems  to  have  entered  the  Inner  Temple, 
when  very  young,  in  1664.  When  called  to 
the  Bar  (Nov.,  1668),  he  confined  himself  for 
a  long  time  to  the  Old  Bailey  and  criminal 
courts,  where  he  speedily  rose  to  the  top  of 
his  profession  in  this  peculiar  line  of  businesc  ^ 
for  his  ignorance  of  law  prevented  his  having 
any  chance  of  employment  in  the  higher 
branches  of  his  ptof ession.  In  1 67 1  he  became 
Common  Serjeant  of  the  City  of  London,  and 
managed  to  keep  on  good  terms  with  both  the 
great  political  parties.  Six  years  later  he  was 
made  solicitor  to  the  Duke  of  York,  and 
knighted ;  while  towards  the  end  of  the  next 
year  he  was  appointed  Recorder  of  London. 
And  now  JeSbeys  saw  that  his  chances  of 
preferment  would  be  infinitely  greater  if  he 
attached  himself  to  one  of  the  g^reat  political 
parties  of  the  day.  Having  placed  his 
services  at  the  disposal  of  the  Cotut,  he  was 
largel}'  employed  in  prosecuting  those  who 
were  accused  of  being  concerned  in  the  Popish 
Plot.  It  was  in  the  capacity  of  Recorder  of 
the  City  of  London  that  he  was  at  this  time  of 
such  use  to  the  government,  which  speedily 
rewarded  him  by  making  him  Chief  Justice  of 
Chester  and  a  baronet  (1680).  About  the 
same  time  he  was  sworn  d  the  Privy  Council. 
It  was,  however,  chiefly  to  the  influence 
of  the  Duke  of  York  that  Jeffreys  owed  his 
promotion ;  Charles,  though  not  disdaining  to 
avail  himself  of  the  Recorder's  parts,  viewed 
him  with  disgust.  *'That  man,*'  he  once 
said,  *^  has  no  learning,  no  sense,  no  mannert. 


Jek 


(  626  ) 


Jen 


aad  more«  impudence  than  ten  carted  street- 
walkers.*' Before  the  close  of  the  year  1680 
JefErejs  was  reprimanded  in  the  House  of 
Commons  for  ha\'ing  ohetructed  the  meeting 
of  Parliament.  This  censure  was  mainly- 
due  to  the  instance  of  the  City  of  London, 
on  which  he  attempted  to  revenge  himself  by 
his  efforts  to  destroy  its  municipal  institution. 
After  the  trial  of  Lord  William  RusseU 
and  the  offenders  connected  with  the  Rye 
House  Plot,  Jeffreys  was  appointed  Chief 
Justice  of  the  King's  Bench  (Nov.,  1683),  in 
which  capacity  he  pronounced  sentence  of 
death  on  Algernon  Sidney.  When  James  II. 
became  king  the  Chief  Justice  presided  at  the 
trial  of  Titus  Oates  and  Richanl  Baxter,  and 
it  is  difficult  to  say  whether  he  appeared  in  a 
more  odious  light  by  reason  of  his  cruel 
sentence  on  the  one  or  his  blasphemous 
impudence  to  the  other.  He  was  now  raised 
to  the  House  of  Lords  as  Baron  Jeffrey's  of 
Wells  (May,  1683),  and  almost  immediately 
afterwards  went  down  into  the  neighbourhood 
whence  he  derived  his  new  title  to  try  the 
insurgents  who  had  assisted  in  Monmouth's 
rebelHon  (July,  1685).  Some  idea  of  the 
cruelty  with  which  he  exercised  his  commis- 
sion may  bo  gathered  from  his  conduct  on 
particular  occasions,  such  as  the  trial  of 
Lady  Lisle,  and  Hamling;  but  his  blood- 
thirsty temperament  can  only  be  fully 
realised  when  we  recollect  the  number  of  his 
victims,  of  whom  three  hundred  and  twenty 
were  hanged.  It  was  for  this  piece  of 
butcherv  that  Jeffreys  received  his  crowning 
reward  by  being  made  Chancellor,  in  Septem- 
ber, 1685  ;  and  he  immediately  signalised  his 
appointment  to  the  new  office  by  procuring 
the  "murder"  of  Alderman  Cornish  by  a 
packed  jury.  Jeffreys  was  next  instrumental 
m  obtaining  the  verdict  of  the  judges  in 
favour  of  the  Dispensing  Power,  and  the 
revival  of  the  High  Commission  Court.  Then 
followed  the  Declaration  of  Indulgence.  On 
the  landing  of  the  Prince  of  Orange,  when 
James  II.  left  London  for  Salisbury,  Jeffreys 
was  one  of  the  five  lords  appointed  to  repre- 
sent him  in  his  absence.  As  William's  cause 
prospered  daily,  the  Chancellor  attempted  to 
escape  in  a  sailor's  dress ;  he  was  seized  by 
the  mob  in  a  Wapping  ale-house,  but,  being 
secured  by  the  trained  bands,  was  carried 
before  the  Lord  Mayor  and  committed  to  the 
Tower,  where  he  died  a  few  months  later 
(April,  1689). 

Macanlay,  Hiat.  of  Eng. ;  Campbell,  Lives  of 
the  Chanc€llor$ ;  Soger  North,  Lires  of  tM 
Norths  i  Wooliych,  Hemotra  of  Jeffreys. 

[T.  A.  A.] 

Jekyll,  Sib  Joseph  (b,  1664,  d.  1738),  was 
called  to  the  Bar  in  1687.  In  1697  he  was  ap- 
pointed Chief  Justice  of  Chester,  and  in  the 
following  year  was  returned  for  Eye,  and 
received  the  honour  of  knighthood.  In  1710 
he  was  one  of  the  managers  of  Sacheverell's 
impeachment.    In  1717    he  became  Master 


of  the  Rolls,  and  in  1725  one  of  the  Com- 
missioners of  the  Great  SeaL  In  1733  he 
astonished  the  ministry  by  his  vigorous  sup- 
port  of  Walpole's  Excise  Scheme.  In  the 
year  1736  he  introduced  the  Gin  Act,  and  the 
Mortmain  Act.  "He  was,"  says  Stanhope, 
"a  ver}'  indifferent  speaker,  and  somewhat 
open  to  ridicule  in  his  dress  and  deportment, 
but  a  man  of  the  very  highest  benevolence 
and  probity."  Pope  has  summed  up  his 
character  as  one  **who  never  changed  his 
principle  or  wig." 

JeUalabacU  '^^t^  ^teoi^  of  (1842),  took 

place  during  the  first  Afghan  War.  On  March 
11,  1842,  Akbar  Khan  made  his  appearance 
before  Jellalabad,  and  advanced  to  the  attack 
of  the  town  with  his  whole  army.  The  garri- 
son, however,  sallied  out  and  drove  him 
ignominiously  from  the  field,  upon  which  he 
turned  the  siege  into  a  blockade.  On  April  1 
the  troops  sallied,  and  swept  into  the  town 
500  sheep  and  goats  they  had  seen  from  the 
bastions  grazing  in  the  plain.  Akbar  now 
pitched  Us  camp  within  two  miles  of  the 
ramparts,  to  cut  off  foragers.  On  April  6 
General  Sale  determined  on  an  assault  on  the 
enemy's  encampment.  The  troops  issued 
from  the  gate  at  dawn,  and  were  received  with 
a  flanking  fire  from  one  of  the  ports.  This 
was  gallantly  stormed.  The  advance  guard 
under  Captain  Havelock  moved  on,  repelled 
two  charges  of  Akbar's  splendid  cavalry,  and 
drove  them  into  the  camp.  The  enemy  were 
dislodged  from  every  point,  and  pursued  to 
the  river,  with  the  loss  of  their  guns,  equipage, 
and  ammunition. 

Kaje,  Af^ghan  War;  AnnuaX  BegiMtr, 

JenldlUiy  Sir  Leoline  (Llewellyn)  {b. 
1623,  </.  1685),  was  educated  at  Oxford.  On  the 
death  of  Charles  I.  he  retired  to  Wales,  and 
later  to  the  Continent,  whence  he  returned 
shortly  before  the  Restoration.  In  1661  he 
was  elected  principal  of  Jesus  College,  of 
which  society  he  was  a  munificent  benefactor. 
In  1664  he  was  engaged  in  reviewing  the 
maritime  laws,  and  in  1668  was  made  judge  of 
the  Prerogative  Court  at  Canterbury.  In  1678 
he  was  employed  in  negotiating  the  Trea^  of 
Nimeguen,  and  next  year  suc(^eded  Sir  Wil- 
liam Temple  as  the  English  ambassador  at 
the  Hague.  On  his  return  home  he  was  a 
strong  opponent  of  the  Exclusion  Bill,  for 
which  service  he  was  appointed  a  Priv}' 
Councillor  about  the  year  1680.  Five  years 
later  he  died.  His  Letters  and  Papers  were 
published  in  1724. 

Jenkins's  Ear,  The  Stort  of,  was  cir^ 

culated  in  1738,  greatly  to  the  prejudice  of  Sir 
Robert  Walpole.  At  this  time  war  with  Spain 
was  eagerly  desired  by  the  nation,  but  opposed 
by  the  minister.  Jenldns,  who  was  the  master 
of  a  trading  sloop  from  Jamaica,  asserted  that 
his  ship  had  been  boarded  by  a  Spanish 
fwtrda  eosta,  and  that,  although  no  proof  of 


Jen 


(  627  ) 


Jew 


smuggling  had  been  found  on  the  vessel,  one 
of  his  ears  had  been  barbarously  torn  off. 
This  ear  he  carried  about  in  cotton  to  display 
to  his  hearers.  It  was  said  at  the  time  that 
he  had  lost  it  on  another  occasion,  probably 
at  the  pillory.  On  being  asked  by  a  mem- 
ber what  were  his  feelings  when  he  found 
himwfllf  in  the  hands  of  such  barbarians, 
"  I  recommended,"  he  said,  "  my  soul  to  God, 
and  my  cause  to  my  country."  "The  truth 
of  the  story,*'  says  Mr.  Lecl^,  "  is  extremely 
doubtful,  but  the  end  that  was  aimed  at  '^as 
attained.  The  indignation  of  the  people, 
fanned  as  it  was  by  the  press  and  by  the 
untiring  efforts  of  all  sections  of  the  opposi- 
tion, became  uncontrollable." 

Staabope,  Hist,  of  Bng. ;  Jjecky,  Hist,  of  Bng, 
during  ths  Eightssnth  Century. 

Jenkinson,  A»thont  (d.  1584),  was  one 
of  the  most  famous  travellers  and  explorers  of 
Elizabeth's  reign.  In  1558  he  was  sent  out 
to  Russia  as  the  agent  of  the  Bussian  Com- 
pany, and  made  his  way  to  Astrachan,  Persia, 
and  Bokhara,  revisiting  the  last-named  place 
no  less  than  six  times  in  the  interest  of 
commerce.  In  1571  he  was  sent  to  the 
Czar's  court  by  Elizabeth  as  her  accredited 
ambassador. 

HaUayt,  Voyages, 

Jersey.    [Channel  Islands.] 

Jewel,  John,  Bishop  of  London  (b. 
1622 J  d.  1571),  was  one  of  the  most  active 
of  the  Reformers  during  the  reign  of 
Edward  VI.  Under  Mary,  he  was  com- 
pelled to  seek  an  asylum  in  Germany,  but 
returned  to  England  on  the  accession  of 
Elizabeth,  and  was  made  Bishop  of  Salisbury 
(1569).  He  was  one  of  the  champions  of  the 
Protestants  at  the  Theological  Conference  at 
Westminster  in  the  same  year.  He  was  a 
strong  upholder  of  the  doctrine  of  the  divine 
right  of  kings,  a  great  controversialist,  and  a 
voluminous  writer.  His  great  work,  the  Apo- 
logy,  or  Defence  of  the  English  Church  (1562), 
is  mainly  based  on  a  denisJ  of  the  theory  that 
truth  necessarily  resides  in  a  numerical  majo« 
rity ;  it  is  practically  a  claim  made  on  behalf  of 
Protestant  bodies  to  be  admitted  to  the  Coun- 
cil of  IVent,  and  while  denying  that  Roman 
Catholic  doctrines  have  the  support  of  the 
great  fathers,  is  content  to  rest  all  its  argu- 
ments on  the  direct  teaching  of  Christ  and 
bis  apostles.  This  work  was  translated  into 
English  very  soon  after  its  first  publication, 
and  was  so  generally  esteemed  that  Elizabeth 
gave  orders  for  one  copy  of  it  to  be  placed  in 
every  parish  church. 

Jews  in  England.  The  first  appear- 
ance of  the  Jews  in  any  number  in  Eng- 
land must  be  reckoned  among  the  results 
of  the  Norman  Conquest.  Immediately  after 
1066,  many  ooming  from  Rouen,  Caen,  and 
other  Norman  citieSi  arrived  in  London  in  the 


train  of  the  invaders.  Like  the  forests,  the 
Jews  were  declared  in  early  Norman  law  to 
be  the  peculiar  property  of  the  king,  and 
his  local  representative,  usually  the  constable 
of  the  tower  or  castle  erected  to  signalise  the 
submission  of  a  town  to  Norman  conquerors, 
ruled  over  each  settlement.  The  Jews  were 
subject  to  tallages  at  the  arbitrary  will  of  the 
crown,  and  to  all  the  feudal  dues  of  tenants- 
in-chief,  and  the  Norman  kings  claimed  a 
large  pro^rtion  of  their  wealth.  But  they 
enjoyed,  m  early  times,  no  small  security  in 
return.  Their  religion  excited  little  hostility. 
In  their  special  districts,  known  as  the 
Jewries,  they  were  allowed  to  practise  all 
their  religious  rites,  and  synagogues  with 
schools  attached  to  them  sprang  up  in  all 
parts  of  the  country.  Standing  outside  the 
authority  of  the  Church,  the  canon-law  for- 
bidding trade  in  money  did  not  affect  them, 
and  it  was  that  caUing  that  most  of  them 
successfully  pursued.  Their  general  financial 
skill  was  widely  acknowledged.  William  II. 
employed  them  to  farm  the  revenues  of 
vacant  sees,  and  at  this  and  later  dates,  great 
barons  and  ecclesiastics  sought  their  services 
as  stewards  of  their  estates.  Many  at  the 
same  time  gained  distinction  as  physicians, 
and  in  several  towns,  notably  at  Oxford,  the 
lectures  of  their  rabbis  on  medicine,  and  other 
sciences,  were  attended  by  Christian  as  well 
as  by  Jewish  scholars. 

After  the  death  of  Hemry  I.,  the  security 
which  the  Jews  had  previously  enjoyed 
was  rapidly  weakened.  At  the  close  of  the 
twelfth,  and  throughout  the  thirteenth  cen- 
turies, their  position  was  one  of  growing 
danger.  They  became  the  helpless  victims 
of  the  kings,  who  made  their  wealth  an 
important  source  of  revenue.  Stephen  and 
Matilda,  and  their  supporters,  robbed  them 
recklessly.  In  1187  Henry  II.  demanded  a 
fourth  of  their  chattels,  and  Richard  I.  de- 
pended largely  on  them  to  meet  his  extravagant 
expenditure.  Until  the  reign  of  Henry  III., 
however,  a  somewhat  tolerant  policy  was  still 
pursued  toward  them  by  the  government  in 
matters  of  religion.  In  1176  permission  was 
given  them  to  acquire  burial-grounds  outside 
the  towns  where  they  were  settled.  Richard  I. 
practically  legalised  their  own  forms  of  oath 
in  civil  cases.  John  corresponded  with  a 
chief  rabbi  on  terms  of  intimacy.  But 
from  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  the 
people  of  the  towns,  stirred  constantly  by  the 
preachers  of  the  Crusades  to  a  fanatical  hatred 
of  them,  attributed  to  them,  as  heretics,  as 
foreigners,  and  as  capitalists,  their  poverty 
and  misfortunes,  and  subjected  them  to  every 
variety  of  persecution.  In  1144  the  baseless 
charge  was  preferred  against  the  Jews  of  Nor- 
wich of  murdering  a  child  to  use  his  blood  in 
their  religious  ceremonies,  and  this  and  similar 
accusations  were  repeated  later  in  London, 
Gloucester,  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  Lincoln,  and 
elsewhere.    In  1189  riots  took  place  in  every 


Jew 


(  628  ) 


Jew 


town  where  any  Jews  resided.  The  Jewries 
were  pillaged  and  fired,  and  their  inhabitants 
bratafly  murdered.  Restrictions,  too,  were  fre- 
quently placed  on  their  financial  dealing.  The 
Assize  of  Arms  forbade  the  Jew  to  take  mto  the 
towns  any  weapon  of  war.  In  1194  Richard  I. 
issued  a  decree  placing  their  commercial  trans- 
actions more  thoroughly  under  the  control  of 
the  local  officers  of  the  crown.  At  the  same 
time  special  itinerant  justices  were  to  enforce 
the  now  law,  and  were  to  form  at  Westminster 
a  special  court,  known  as  the  Jews*  Exchequer 
{Judaorwn  Scaccarium)^  for  the  trial  of  lawsuits 
in  which  Jews  were  concerned,  and  for  auditing 
the  accounts  of  their  contributions  to  the 
national  treasury.  l.*he  barons  introduced 
into  Magna  Carta  a  clause  forbidding  the 
Jews  on  the  death  of  a  baronial  debtor  to 
distrain  the  property  of  his  survivors,  and  in 
1218  they  were  ordered  for  the  first  time  to 
wear  a  distinguishing  badge. 

The  thirteenth  century  witnessed  little 
change  in  the  position  ox  the  Jews.  The 
first  years  of  John's  reign,  and  of  his 
son*s,  gave  them  brief  respites  from  per- 
secution, and  speciously  extended  their  pri- 
vileges, but  otherwise  their  history  is  a 
mere  repetition  of  extortionate  exactions  and 
deeds  of  popular  violence.  John  not  only 
constantly  levied  tallages  upon  them,  and 
imprisoned  and  tortured  those  unable  to  pay, 
but  he  confiscated  the  property  of  their  in- 
solvent debtors,  and  distributed  it  among  his 
supporters.  When  Henry  III.  came  of  age, 
he  followed  his  father's  example,  and  reverwd 
the  moderate  policy  that  his  justiciars, 
William  ^larshaU  and  Hubert  de  Burgh,  had 
pursued  towards  them.  They  were  made 
responsible  for  all  the  extravagances  of  him- 
self and  his  wife's  relatives,  who  bitterly 
hated  them,  and  hardly  a  year  passed  without 
a  heavy  exaction,  varying  from  60,000  to 
10,000  marks,  being  made  upon  their  property. 
In  1255  Henry  maae  them  over  to  his  brother, 
Richard  of  Cornwall,  as  security  for  a  large 
loan.  And  these  exactions  and  indignities 
were  far  from  being  their  only  difficulties. 
The  Church  now  deliberately  attacked  their 
religion.  The  friai^s — ^the  new  preachers  of 
reli^on  in  the  towns — were  filled  with  zeal 
against  Judaism,  and  they  sought  and  ob- 
tained, as  at  Cambridge,  many  synagogues  for 
their  own  habitations.  Simon  de  Montfort 
shared  the  friars'  hostility  to  them,  and  the 
battles  of  Lewes  and  Evesham  were  followed 
by  revolting  attacks  upon  the  Jews  throughout 
the  country.  In  vain  they  begged  permission 
to  leave  England  altogether.  The  king  found 
them  too  valuable  to  lose  them  lightly.  His 
refusal  of  their  petition  was  followed  by  a 
harsh  edict  forbidding  them  to  hold  in  future 
any  property  in  land. 

From  Edward  I.'s  connexion  with  the  Jews 
a  similar  story  has  arisen,  but  with  his  reign 
their  medieval  history  ends.  He  shared  the 
antipathy  for  which  his  mother,  Eleanor  of 


Provence,  was  remarkable,  and  the  statute  it 
la  Jeuerie^  issued  in  1275,  was  calculated  to 
ruin  them  utterly.  Lending  money  at  interest 
was  absolutely  forbidden,  and  every  Jew 
was  to  pay  a  poll-tax  of  threepence  or 
fourpenoe  annually.  Persecution  by  people 
and  priests  was  meanwhile  left  onpunished, 
and  at  length,  in  1290,  Edward  I.,  exercising 
some  self-denjal,  consented  to  expel  them. 
About  17,000  aro  roported  to  have  left  the 
country,  and  the  majority  of  them  appear  to 
have  sought  refuge  on  the  coast  of  France 
and  Flanders,  ^fany,  however,  were  wilfully 
wrecked  in  their  passage,  and  perished  at  sea. 
The  grounds  of  their  expulsion  were  stated  to 
be  the  blasphemous  character  of  their  religious 
belief,  and  their  oppression  of  the  people  as 
usurious  money-lenaers.  Hieir  real  property 
was  naturally  confiscated  by  the  crown. 

It  is  frequently  stated  that  after  tho  banish- 
ment of  1290  no  Jews  came  to  England  until 
the  later  years  of  Cromwell's  Protectorate, 
but  special  investigation  of  the  subject  leaves 
L'ttle  doubt  that  small  numbers  of  them  were 
present  in  the  country  from  the  fourteenth  to 
the  seventeenth  century.  Throughout  this 
period  the  House  for  Jewish  Converts  in 
London  was  seldom  without  some  inmates. 
In  1594  Roderigo  Lopez,  a  Jewish  ph3rBician 
of  Queen  Elizabeth,  was  hanged  at  Tyburn 
on  a  charge  of  treason.  Charles  I.  borrowed 
money,  there  can  be  little  doubt,  of  some  oi 
their  race  who  came  to  England  from  Amster- 
dam, and  Cromwell  employed  several  Jews  as 
foreign  spies.  It  was  not,  however,  till  1656 
that  Edward  I.'s  decree  was  practically  re- 
pealed. In  that  year  the  Protector,  on  his 
own  responsibility,  in  answer  to  the  petition 
of  Mana8seh-ben-Israel,a  Dutch  rabbi,  granted 
permission  to  a  few  Jews  to  settle  openly  in 
this  country.  Much  opposition  was  xmiaed  to 
the  order  by  the  London  merehants,  who  feared 
commercial  rivalry,  and  in  1660  a  petition 
was  presented  to  Charles  II.  to  reverse  Crom- 
well's action,  but  it  met  with  no  success.  The 
king  had  received  loans  from  the  Jews  in 
the  days  of  his  exile,  and  had  already  pledged 
his  word  to  maintoin  them  in  England. 
The  first  Jewish  immigrants  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  were  descended  from  Spanish 
and  Portuguese  families  who  had  taken  r»fuge 
in  Holland,  and  they  were  followed  later  by 
Jews  from  Germany  and  Poland.  Hie 
English  law  at  first  allowed  them  few 
civil  rights.  By  a  statute  of  James  I.'s 
reign  the  sacramental  test  was  essential  to 
naturalisation,  and  the  various  penal  laws, 
excluding  Catholics  from  civil  ana  municipal 
office,  and  from  the  legal  profession,  were 
applicable  to  them.  Their  public  worship 
contravened  a  law  of  Elizabeth  making 
attendance  at  churoh  compulsory,  but  their 
various  places  of  worship  in  London,  erected 
in  this  and  the  next  century,  were  never  seri- 
ously menaced.  Their  marriages,  however, 
were  only  valid  by  courtesy,  and  all  Jews 


Jew 


(  620  ) 


m 


were  subject  to  the  alien  duties  (a  heavy  tax 
imposed  on  all  goods  exported  by  foreiKners), 
from  which,  however,  James  II.  relieved  them 
lor  a  few  years. 

In  commerce  the  English  Jews  rapidly 
gained  a  high  reputation.  In  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  succession,  a  Jew  contracted  to  supply 
the  army  with  bread,  and  it  was  currently  re- 
ported that  they  entered  in  the  same  reign  into 
negotiations  with  Gk>dolphin  for  the  purchase 
of  Brentford  as  an  exclusively  Jewish  settle- 
ment.  In  the  succeeding  reigns  several 
attempts  were  made  to  relieve  them  of  their 
various  disabilities.  In  1723  they  were  per- 
mitted to  omit  from  the  oath  of  abjuration  all 
words  obnoxious  to  their  faith,  and  a  little 
later  naturalisation  was  allowed  to  all  who  had 
lived  seven  years  in  America,  or  had  engaged 
in  the  flax  or  hemp  trades,  or  who  had  served 
in  the  nav^.  Thus  the  principle  of  their  right 
to  natorahsation  was  admittM.  In  1753  the 
Pelham  ministry  introduced  the  Jews'  Natu- 
ralisation Bin,  extending  the  privilege  but  not 
making  it  universal ;  in  spite  of  much  oppo- 
sition in  the  (commons,  it  became  law.  Popular 
fanaticism  and  commercial  jealousy  were,  how- 
ever, roused  against  it  in  the  country,  and 
predictions  of  the  evils  that  would  flow  from 
the  measure  excited  a  very  bitter  agitation 
against  the  Jews.  In  1751  the  government, 
in  obedience  to  the  panic,  moved  the  repeal  of 
the  Act.  A  clause,  however,  in  Lord  Hard- 
wicke's  Marriage  Act  of  the  previous  year 
gave  practical  legal  validity  to  Jewish 
marriages. 

In  &e  present  century  the  disabilities  of 
the  Jews  were  finally  removed,  and  their 
cause  found  strong  support  in  the  dtf  of 
London.  In  1832  they  were  given  the  nghts 
of  freemen  of  the  city,  and  by  Lord  Ounp- 
bellls  Act  of  1836  they  were  enabled  to  take 
the  oath  requisite  for  admission  to  the  office 
of  Sheriff.  In  1832  the  Reform  Bill  granted 
them  the  snfira^.  A  motion  for  the  abolition 
of  aU  their  dvil  disabilities  was  introduced 
into  the  House  of  Commons  in  1833,  and 
Hume,  0'Connell,andMacaulay  spoke  strongly 
in  its  favour,  but  after  passing  the  Lower 
House  it  was  thrown  out  by  the  Lords.  The 
same  fate  awaited  the  bill  on  many  subse- 
quent occasions.  In  1846,  however,  by  the 
Belig^ouB  Opinions  ReUef  Bill,  the  public 
exercise  of  their  religion,  and  the  education 
of  their  children  in  it,  were  legalised.  In  the 
next  year  Baron  Lionel  de  Rothschild  was 
elected  Member  of  Parliament  by  the  City  of 
London,  but  the  law  necessitating  an  oath 
which  he  could  not  conscientiously  take  pre- 
vented his  taking  his  seat.  In  1851  Alderman 
Salomons  was  elected  for  Greenwich,  and  he 
took  his  seat  after  omitting  from  the  oath  the 
words  obnoxious  to  his  faith,  for  'vrhich  he 
was  subsequently  fined  iB500  in  the  Court  of 
Qaeen*s  Bench.  Finally,  in  1858,  the  re- 
maining Jewish  disabilities  were  removed  by 
law,  and  the  oath  admitting  members  to  tht 


House  of   Commons  so  altered   that  Jews 
might  conscientiously  take  it. 

Tovey,  Anglia  Judaica  (1788),  with  Hadoz's 
account  of  the  Jewish  Exchequer  in  his  UxHorv 
of  the  Eachequer  (vol.  i.),  covers  the  medisDvol 
history,  of  which  a  good  summary  is  given  in 
Marirottouth's  J«iM  of  Qretd  Britain  (1845). 
Picciotto*8  Anglo^nri»h  SkelcheB  (1878)  gives  the 
most  elaborate  hiformation  on  the  subject  from 
the  time  of  Oomwell.  [g.  L.  L 1 

Jeypare.    [Rajpootana.] 

JlUUUd  is  the  name  of  a  district  in 
Bundelkhund,  lying  142  miles  south  of  Agra. 
In  1804,  on  the  first  connection  of  the  go- 
vernment with  Bundelkhund,  a  treaty  was 
concluded  with  Gheo  Rao  Bhao,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Peishwa,  and  governor  of  this 
small  territory^.  In  1817,  when  aU  rights  of 
the  Peishwa  m  the  ^province  "were  ceded  to 
the  company,  in  consideration  of  his  fidelity 
the  territory  was  declared  hereditary  in  the 
family  of  the  above-mentioned  ruler.  On  the 
death  of  his  grandson,  who  died  without 
leaving  any  issue  (1835),  the  territory  was 

S'ven  to  a  collateral  branch  of  the  same 
mily ;  and  when  in  1854  the  last  descendant 
of  Gheo  Rao  Bhao  died  childless,  the 
British  government  declined  to  recognise  his 
adopted  son,  and  annexed  the  province.  The 
Ranee  protested  in  vain  at  the  time ;  but  on 
the  outbreak  of  the  Mutiny  in  1857,  she  took 
a  fearful  revenge,  and  put  to  death  every 
European — man,  woman,  and  child — she  could 
seize,  proclaiming  herself  independent.  She 
was  besieged  and  driven  from  Jhansi,  1858, 
and  was  eventually  slain  before  Gwalior  fight- 
ing in  the  front  ranks  like  a  man.  Her  body, 
however,  was  not  found,  and  it  is  presumed 
that  it  must  have  been  carried  away  and 
burnt. 

Malleson,  Hitt,  of  th§  Indian  Mutiny  j  Ann vai 
RegisUr,  1858. 

Jhannit  T^^  Suob  of  (1858).  When  the 
Indian  Mutiny  broke  out,  the  fortress  of 
Jhansi,  which  had  for  some  years  been 
in  the  hands  of  the  English  Government, 
was  garrisoned  by  the  12th  Native  Infantry. 
Early  in  June  (1867),  the  rebellion  broke  out 
here,  and  the  fort,  together  with  the  treasure 
and  the  magazine,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
insurgents.  It  was  not  till  March,  in  the 
next  year,  that  Sir  H.  Rose  was  enabled  to 
advance  to  this  town,  and  establish  his  bat- 
teries round  it.  On  the  30th  the  defences  of 
the  city  and  fort  were  dismantled,  and  the 
guns  so  far  disabled  that  they  no  longer  kept 
up  a  serious  fire.  The  final  assault  was  made 
April  2,  by  two  columns.  The  town  was 
quickly  cleared,  and  the  Ranee  fied.  The 
rebels  now  abandoned  their  positions,  and  the 
English  took  possession  of  this  formidable 
fortress  without  further  opposition. 

Jhindur  Blisre  was  the  wife  of  Runjeet 
Singh,  on  whose  death  she  assumed  the  re- 
gency at  the  Punjab,  or  rather  shared  it  with 
her  paramour,  JjbJI  Singh.     Her   intrigues 


Jin 


V  630  ) 


Joh 


brought  aboat  the  reduction  of  the  Punjab 
by  Lords  Hardingeand  Dalhousie.  After  a 
series  of  strange  and  romantic  vicissitudes, 
prematurely  old,  well-nigh  blind,  broken  and 
subdued  in  spirit,  she  found  a  resting  place  at 
last  under  the  roof  of  her  son,  in  a  quiet  comer 
of  an  English  castle,  and  died  in  a  London 
suburb. 

Eaye,  Sepoy  War, 

JiagOBB  was  a  name  g^ven  during  the 

excitement  of  the  Eastern  Question  in  1878  to 

the  party  which  was  in  favour  of  war  with 

Russia.    The  word  sprang  from  a  popular 

song  of  the  period,  the  refrain  of  which  was — 

*'  We  don't  want  to  fight,  but  by  Jingo  if  we  do. 
We've  got  the  ships,  we've  got  the  men,  we've  got 
the  money  too.' 

The  term,  however,  was  adopted  in  serious 
political  controversy,  and  used  to  designate 
those  who  favoured  an  aggressive  foreign 
policy. 

Joan,  wife  of  Edward  the  Black  Prince 
{d.  1385),  commonly  called  the  Fair  Maid 
of  Kent,  was  the  daughter  of  Edmund 
of  Woodstock,  Earl  of  Kent,  son  of  King 
Edward  I.  On  the  death  of  her  brother, 
without  issue,  she  became  Countess  of  Kent. 
IShe  was  married  first  to  Sir  Thomas  Holland, 
and  secondly  to  the  Earl  of  Salisbury,  from 
whom  she  was  divorced.  In  1361  she  became 
the  wife  of  the  Black  Prince,  and  five  years 
later  gave  birth  to  Richard  II.  In  1381  she 
was  exposed  to  the  insults  of  the  insurgents, 
who  took  possession  of  the  Tower,  whither 
she  had  fled  for  refuge,  but  her  life  was  pre- 
served. 

Joan  of  Arc.    [Hundred  Yeabs'  Waa.] 

Joan,  OP  Navar&b,  Queen  {d.  1437),  was 
the  daughter  of  Charles  II.  of  Navarre,  and 
was  married  first  to  John  V.,  Duke  of 
Britanny,  and  secondly  (1403)  to  Henry  IV. 

Joanna,  Pkincess  {b.  1321,  d.  1362),  was 
promised  in  marriage  to  Prince  David  of 
Scotland,  by  the  Treaty  of  Northampton 
(1328),  and  betrol^ed  in  Julv  the  same  year. 
On  the  successful  in\'asion  of  Edward  Baliol, 
the  young  king  and  queen  went  to  France, 
where  they  were  kindly  received  by  King 
Philip  (1333),  and  whence  they  did  not  return 
to  Scotland  till  1341.  After  her  husband's 
capture  at  Neville's  Cross  (1346),  she  Ansited 
him  in  his  captivity  (1348).  On  his  release  in 
1357,  she  accompanied  him  to  Scotland,  but 
soon  after,  being  insulted  by  David's  prefer- 
ence  for  his  mistress,  Katherine  Mortimer,  she 
returned  to  Edward  III.*s  court,  and  refused  to 
return  to  her  husband  even  when  her  rival  was 
murdered  in  1360. 

Jocelin   de    Bralcelonde    {d.   Hrea 

1211)  was  a  Benedictine  monk  at  Bury  St. 
Edmunds,  where  he  held  the  offices  of  prior's 
chaplain,  abbot's  chaplain,  guest-master,  and 


almoner  in  succession.  He  is  the  author  of  a 
domestic  chronicle  of  the  abbey  to  which  he 
belonged.  This  work  extends  from  the  year 
1173,  *'  when  the  Flemings  were  captured  out- 
side the  town" — ^in  which  year  also  Jocelin  be- 
came a  monk— to  the  year  1202.  When  Jocelin 
deals  with  public  events  in  this  chronicle, 
thev  are  chiefly  such  as  had  some  connection 
with  the  abbey  of  which  he  was  a  member. 
Jocelin's  chronicle  has  been  edited  by  Mr.  J. 
6.  Rokewode  for  the  Camden  Society  (1840), 
and  forms  the  text  of  Carlyle's  Fast  mid 
JhretenU 

John,  Kino  {b.  Dec  24,  116ff,  «.  April  8, 
1199,  d,  Oct.  19,  1216],  was  the  youngest 
son  of  Henry  II.  and  Eleanor  of  Aqui- 
taine.  He  was  Henry's  favourite  son,  and 
destined  to  receive  as  his  share  of  his 
father's  empire  the  lordship  of  Ireland. 
But  his  petulant  and  arrogant  behaviour 
to  the  Irish  chiefs  when,  in  1186,  he 
was  sent  on  a  visit  to  Ireland,  compelled 
Henry  to  g^ve  up  this  scheme.  Before  long 
John  joined  his  orother  Richard  in  his  last 
revolt  against  his  father,  under  circumstances 
of  pecuHar  treacbery.  Henry's  schemes  to 
win  for  John  a  rich  marriage  had  proved  no 
less  unsuccessful  than  his  Irish  plan.  But 
soon  after  Richard  I.'s  accession,  John's  mar^ 
riage  with  the  heiress  of  the  great  Gloucester 
earldom  gave  him  revenue  and  position. 
During  Ridiard's  absence  on  crusade,  John 
joined  the  popular  movement  for  deposing 
Longchamp,  f&e  foreign  justiciar,  and,  in 
close  alliance  with  Philip  of  France,  rose  in 
revolt  on  the  news  of  Kichard's  captivity. 
But  the  administrative  system  was  too  strong 
to  be  shaken  by  John's  turbulence.  The 
rising  was  suppressed,  and  its  author  very 
leniently  treated  by  his  brother,  who  did  his 
beet  to  secure  his  succession  in  preference  to 
the  heir  of  his  elder  brother,  Geoffrey.  In 
1 199  John  became  king.  His  reign  marks  the 
collapse  of  the  great  power  whidi  Henry  II. 
had  founded ;  but  also  shows  the  begin- 
ning of  the  national  English  state  which 
emerged  from  its  ruins.  The  loss  of  Nor- 
mandy, the  quarrel  with  Innocent  HI.,  and 
the  struggle  with  the  baronage  which  pro- 
duced Magna  Carta,  are  the  great  events  of 
his  reign.  Philip  Augustus  promptly  de- 
serted his  old  fnend  when  he  became  king, 
and  posed  as  the  champion  of  Arthur  of 
Britanny,  whom  John  was  generally  believed 
to  have  murdered,  and  as  protector  of 
the  injured  Count  of  La  Marche,  whose  be- 
trothed wife,  Isabella  of  Angouleme,  John  had 
recently  married,  having  divorced  his  first 
wife.  After  a  solemn  trial,  John  was  ad- 
judged to  have  forfeited  his  French  fiefs.  In 
1204  Philip  conquered  Normandy,  John 
making  littiie  or  no  attempt  to  protect  his 
dominions.  Anjou,  l^Iaine,  and  tiie  greater 
part  of  the  southern  fiefii  which  Eleanor  had 
Drought  to  Henry  II.,  were  speedily  annexed 


Joh 


(  631  ) 


Jiim 


■Ibo.  Not  until  it  was  too  late  did  John 
make  a  vigoroiuB  effort  to  regain  them.  By 
that  time  other  difficulties  prevented  his 
attempts  being  successful.  The  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury-,  Hubert  Walter,  had  been  a 
great  influence  for  good  on  John.  His  death, 
in  1205,  was  thus  a  great  loss  in  itself.  But 
the  quarrel  of  the  £ng  and  the  Canterbury 
monks,  and  the  imposition  of  a  papal  nominee 
whom  neither  would  accept,  led  to  John's 
famous  contest  with  Innocent  III. ;  the  inter- 
dict of  1208  ;  the  deoosition  of  1211,  and  the 
abject  submission  of  the  king  when  Philip, 
as  executor  of  the  papal  decrees,  was  prepar- 
ing to  invade  EngLuid.  He  surrendered  his 
kingdom  to  Pandulf,  the  papal  representa- 
tive, and  consented  to  receive  it  back  as  a  fief 
of  the  papacy.  Henceforth  John  was  Inno- 
c^ent'sally ;  but  his  innumerable  tyrannies  had 
raised  up  enemies  in  the  nation  against  which 
papal  support  was  of  little  value.  The  death 
of  the  faithful  justiciar,  Fitz-Peter,  in  1213, 
liroke  up  the  civil  administration.  The  last 
checJc  on  John's  tyranny  was  now  removed  ; 
but  with  unwonted  energy  he  planned  a  great 
expedition  for  the  recovery  of  Poitou,  in  con- 
junction with  an  alliance  with  the  princes  of 
jLiower  Germany,  who  supported  his  n<^hew. 
Otto  IV.,  against  Philip.  The  defeat  of  Otto  at 
Souvines,  and  the  want  of  co-operation  of  the 
Poitevins,  made  both  schemes  abortive.  The 
refusal  of  the  northern  barons  of  England  to 
sorve  abroad  began  the  series  of  events  which 
led  to  the  Great  Charter.  The  papal  arch- 
'bishop,  Langton,  took  up  an  unexpectedly 
patriotic  attitude.  He  held  up  the  charier  of 
Henry  I.  to  the  barons  as  a  good  basis  for 
their  demands.  A  great  meeting  of  the  nobles 
at  Bury  St.  Edmunds  declared  itself  against 
the  kin^.  The  clergy,  the  Londoners,  the 
ministerial  prelates,  in  turn  deserted  John. 
Abandoned  by  all  but  hirelings  and  foreigners, 
he  was  constrained,  in  1215  (June  15),  to 
sign  Magna  Carta.  But  the  support  of 
Innocent  III.  could  still  be  relied  upon. 
Langton  was  summoned  to  Home.  The  Pope 
annulled  the  charter.  John,  with  his  merce- 
naries, spread  desolation  throughout  the 
country.  Nothing  was  left  for  tiie  barons 
but  to  impeal  to  Philip  of  France.  In  1216, 
the  landing  of  Louis,  the  French  King's  son, 
with  a  French  army,  reduced  John  to  aespair. 
His  death  at  Newark  (Oct.  19,  1216)  only 
prevented  his  deposition. 

John  was  one  of  the  worst  of  English 
kings,  tyrannical,  treacherous,  petulant,  pas- 
sionate, infamous  in  aU  his  private  relations, 
careless  of  all  his  public  duties.  But  he  was  of 
no  mean  ability ;  and  had  he  possessed  more 
persistent  energy  and  stability  of  purpose,  he 
might  have  reigned  as  successfully  as  his 
father.  As  it  was,  he  failed  in  everything  he 
undertook.  The  system  of  government  which 
Henry  II.  had  established  had  survived  the 
neglect  of  Bichard,  but  broke  up  under  the 
active  tyranny  of  John.    Yet  its  dissolution 


left  the  nation  free  to  work  out  its  own  de- 
velopment The  loss  of  Normandy  made  the 
baronage  finally  English.  It  was  no  smsdl 
benefit  to  the  nation  that  John's  tyranny 
compelled  beoons  and  people,  and,  despite  the 
Pope,  the  better  elements  in  the  Church,  to 
make  common  cause  against  John.  Magna 
Carta  was  the  result  of  the  first  corporate 
action  of  the  English  nation,  and  the  founda- 
tion of  the  mediaeval  constitution.  Even  the 
submission  to  Home  helped  on  in  the  next 
generation  the  national  reaction  which  John^s 
reign  had  done  so  much  to  stimulate.  , 

Matthew  Paris,  K\$t.  Angl. ;  Pauli,  EnaUMcht 
GnchUMes  Stubbs,  Ccnst.  Hist.;  Pearson, 
Hitt,  ofBng.i  Lingard.  [T.  F.  T.] 

John.  9th  liOrd  of  the  Isles,  and  11th 
Earl  of  K06S  (d.  1498),  aided  James  II.  at  the 
siege  of  Hoxburgh  (1460),  for  which  service 
he  was  appointed  a  Warden  of  the  Marches. 
In  1462,  however,  he  entered  into  a  treaty 
with  Edward  IV.,  which,  becoming  known 
some  years  later,  led  to  the  forfeiture  of  his 
earldom  of  Boss.  But  John  was  too  powerful 
to  be  offended,  and,  in  1476,  was  created  a 
peer  as  John  de  Isia,  Lord  of  the  Isles,  by 
way  of  conciliation. 

Jolmston,  Archibald,  of  Warriston 
{d.  1661),  was  a  leader  of  the  Covenanters, 
whose  demands  he  is  said  to  have  formulated. 
He  was  one  of  the  Commissioners  at  the 
Peace  of  Berwick  (1639),  and  at  the  Treaty 
of  Ripon  (1640).  The  following  year  he 
became  a  Lord  of  Session,  and  is  credited 
with  having  suggested  the  Acts  of  Classes  in 
1649.  Having  acted  as  chairman  of  Crom- 
well's Committee  of  Public  Safety,  ho  was 
condemned,  in  1661,  and  executed  at  Edin- 
burgh. 

Judge.    [Justice.] 

Judith,  daughter  of  Charles  the  Bold, 
King  of  France,  in  856  was  married  to 
King  Ethelwulf.  She  is  said  to  have  sat  by 
her  husband's  side  on  the  royal  throne,  but 
this  apparently  means  nothing  more  than 
that  die  was  recognised  as  queen,  a  title 
which  had  belonged  to  no  wife  of  a  West- 
Saxon  king  since  the  days  of  Edburga. 
After  Eth^wulfs  death,  she  married  hei 
stepson  Ethelbald  (858),  and  on  his  decease, 
in  860,  she  went  back  to  her  father's  court, 
and  subsequently  took  for  her  third  husband 
Baldwin  (Iron- Arm),  first  Count  of  Flanders. 

Juudhg^Mf  Robert  of.  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  (1060  —  52),  was  a  Norman 
who  came  over  to  England  in  the  train 
of  Edward  the  Confessor.  He  was  made 
Bishop  of  London  in  1044,  and  at  once 
came  forward  as  the  leader  of  the  French 
party.  His  influence  over  the  king  was  very 
great.  ''So  high  did  he  stand  in  the  king's 
estimation,  that  if  he  had  said  a  black  crow 
was  a  white  one,  the  king'would  sooner  have 
believed  the  bishop's  word  than  his  own  eyes." 


Jiim 


(  632  ) 


Jnn 


And  this  inflaenoe  was  exerted  to  fill  every 
office  with  Normanfl,  and  destroy  the  national 
party  of  which  Grodwin  was  the  head.  The 
success  of  Robert*s  scheme  was  seen  in  1060, 
when  Edward  appointed  him  archbishop,  in 
opposition  to  the  Chapter  of  Canterbury,  who 
had  ^ected  one  of  their  own  number,  Elfric, 
to  the  post.  The  triumph  of  the  Normans 
seemed  secured  in  1051  by  the  banishment  of 
Godwin  and  his  sons ;  but  in  the  next  year 
they  returned,  were  received  with  the  greatest 
entnusiasm,  and  for  the  time  destroyed  the 
influence  of  their  rivaL  Archbishop  Robert 
was  one  of  the  first  to  flee  before  the  storm, 
and,  in  company  with  the  Bishop  of  Dor- 
chester, he  made  his  way  in  a  crazy  fishing- 
boat  to  Normandy.  The  Witenagemot, 
which  met  almost  inmiediately,  deprived 
Hobert  of  his  archbishopric,  and  outlawed 
him,  and  the  interposition  of  the  Pope  in  his 
favour  was  disregarded.  He  had  to  retire  to 
the  monastery  of  Jumi^ges,  where  he  remained 
till  his  death. 

AnglO'Saxon  Chron,;  Freeman,  Norman  Con- 
fpuit,  vol.  ii 

JutnihgeBf  William  of  (b.  eirea  1020), 
was  a  Norman  monk,  who  compiled  a 
Iiatin  history  of  the  Dukes  of  Normandy 
from  Bollo  to  the  year  1071.  His  work 
has  been  greatlv  interpolated  by  later 
writers ;  but  for  the  Conquest,  and  the  early 
years  of  William  I.'s  reign,  William  of 
Jumi^ges  is  a  fairly  good  authority.  The 
earlier  part  of  this  writer's  work  is  an  abridg- 
ment of  Dudo  of  St.  Quentin.  Onlv  the  first 
seven  books  can  be  looked  upon  as  belonging  to 
William ;  the  eighth,  and  many  interpolations 
on  the  previous  boohi,  being  due  to  Robert  de 
Monte.  The  narrative  of  ^Uiam  of  Jumi^ges 
forms  the  ground- work  of  Wace's  Le  Motnan 
de  Rou. 

This  aathor  has  been  printed  in  Duchesne's 
ScriptoTM  Normania,  and  in  Migue's  I'atrolo^ue 
Cttr«iu  CompI«tu«,  vol.  cxlix. 

Jvng  Baliadur,  Sm  {d.  1877),  the  chief 
minister,  and  virtual  ruler,  of  Nepaul,  brought 
a  large  contingent  to  the  help  of  the  EngUsh 
in  the  rebellion  of  1857,  and  assisted  at  the 
siege  of  Delhi  (1868).  Jung  Bahadur  had,  in 
earlier  jrears,  assisted  in  the  murder  of  Mala- 
bar Singh  (1845),  the  chief  minister  of 
Nepaul,  and  after  this  became  one  of  the 
principal  governors  of  the  country.  His 
previous  conduct  seems  to  have  been  to  some 
extent  dictated  by  a  wish  to  serve  the  Queen 
of  Nepaul ;  but  when  ordered  by  her  to  destroy 
the  heir-apparent  and  his  brother,  Jung 
Bahadur  refused  to  obey,  and  before  long 
succeeded  in  appointing  him  as  ruler  of 
Nepaul  in  the  room  of  l£e  I^Iaharajah  (1847). 
A  few  years  later  (1850)  Jung  Bahadur  paid 
a  visit  to  England. 

Junitis,  The  Lbttebs  of.  The  first  letter 
bearing  the  signature  of  "  Junius  '*  made  its 
appeara:ice  in  the  Fublie  Advertiser  for  Nov. 


21,  1768.  But  we  have  the  author's  own 
assurance  that  he  had  been  writing  under  dif- 
ferent names  for  at  least  two  years  previously. 
It  was  not,  however,  till  Jan.  21,  1769, 
that  the  regular  series  of  political  attacki 
under  the  title  of  Junius  commenced  with 
an  assault  on  the  characters  of  the  Duke  of 
Grafton  and  Lord  North,  in  a  letter  addressed 
to  the  former  of  these  two  nobles.  With 
reference  to  the  duke  we  are  told  that  **  the 
finances  of  a  nation  sinking  under  its  debts 
have  been  committed  to  a  young  nobleman 
already  ruined  by  play  ; "  while  Lord  North 
is  characterised  as  **  an  object  of  derision  to 
his  enemies,  and  of  melancholy  pity  to  his 
friends.  *'  The  vacillation  and  inoonsistency 
of  the  government  are  pointed  out,  and  hardly 
any  name  mentioned  escapes  irony  or  abuse 
excepting  that  of  Mr.  Gren  /ille.  The  mili- 
tary part  of  this  attack  drew  out  a  repi v  ^m 
Sir  William  Draper,  in  which  he  callei  upon 
Junius  to  ask  pardon  of  "  Lord  Granby  and  the 
whole  kingdom  for  his  abominable  scandal.** 
Letter  followed  letter  between  the  two  com- 
batants, till  on  March  18  Junius  once  more 
turned  his  batteries  directly  against  the 
Duke  of  Grafton  for  having  pardoned  a  cer- 
tain Edward  MacQuirk,  who  had  been  found 
guilty  of  murder.  This  question  is  made  the 
prelude  to  a  fierce  condemnation  of  the  Dukc*s 
whole  conduct  as  regards  the  Wilkes  and 
Luttrell  question,  his  private  morals  and  his 
political  capacity.  The  Prime  Minister  is 
told,  ^*  There  is  something  which  distinguishes 
you  not  only  from  all  other  ministers  but 
from  all  other  men.  It  is  not  that  you  do 
wrong  by  design,  but  that  you  should  never 
do  right  by  mistake.*'  By  the  end  of  May 
the  Duke  of  Bedford  is  incidentally  brought 
upon  the  scene  to  share  in  the  Prime  Minister's 
abuse,  and  towards  the  end  of  July  Black- 
stone  is  directly  attacked  for  his  reflections 
on  GrenviUe.  Towards  the  middle  of  Sep- 
tember Junius  addressed  his  first  letter  to  the 
Duke  of  Bedford,  the  inheritor  of  a  name 
"  glorious  till  it  was  youn : "  and  once  more 
Sir  W.  Draper  came  forward  for  the  defence. 
On  Dec.  19,  1769,  appeared  the  famous  letter 
to  the  king,  for  which  the  printers  and  pub- 
lishen  were  tried  (1770),  on  which  occasion 
the  jury  brought  in  a  verdict  of  **  Guilty  of 
publishing  only.*'  The  conduct  of  Lord 
Mansfield  on  this  occasion  laid  him  open  to 
the  attacks  of  the  anonymous  writer.  In- 
deed, in  the  first  letter  to  this  great  lawyer 
(Nov.,  1770),  Junius  attacks  him  with  pecnhar 
bitterness:  *'no  learned  man,  even  among 
your  own  tribe,  thinks  you  qualified  to  jire- 
side  in  a  court  of  Common  Law."  In  the 
preceding  August  (1770)  Junius  had  had 
published  his  first  letter  to  Lord  North, 
and  there  reproached  this  statesman  for 
appointing  Colonel  Luttrell  Adjutant-General 
of  the  army  in  Ireland.  With  the  opening 
of  1771  foreign  politics  attracted  the  pen<rf 
Junius,  but  by  the  middle  of  the  year  he  had 


Jnr 


(  633  ) 


JjiX 


once  more  directed  his  attention  to  the  Duke 
of  Grafton,  who,  says  the  author,  "is  the 
pillow  upon  which  I  am  determined  to  rest 
aU  my  resentments.*'  Then  followed  the 
discussion  with  Mr.  Home  (July  to  Aug., 
1771).  Later  in  the  same  year  Lord  Mans- 
field is  again  attacked  for  having  hailed 
John  Eyre,  a  Scotchman,  and  on  Jan.  21, 
1772,  Junius's  last  letter  appeared  in  proof  of 
his  assertion  that  on  this  occasion  Lord  Mans- 
field had  done  **  that  which  by  law  he  was 
not  warranted  to  do."  The  same  paper  con- 
tained Junius's  appeal  to  Lord  Camden,  **  in 
the  name  of  the  English  nation  to  stand  forth 
in  defence  of  the  laws  of  his  country,"  lest  it 
«*  should  be  said  that  for  some  months  past  he 
had  kept  too  much  company  with  the  Duke 
of  Grafton."  This  letter  winds  up  with  the 
words  *'  I  do  not  scruple  to  affirm  that  in 
my  judgment  he  (Lord  Mansfield)  is  the 
very  worst  and  most  dangerous  man  in  the 
kingdom.  Thus  far  I  have  done  my  duty  in 
endeavouring  to  bring  him  to  punishment. 
But  mine  is  an  inferior  ministerial  office  in 
the  temple  of  justice.  I  have  bound  the  vic- 
tim and  dragged  him  to  the  altar." 

The  question  of  the  authorship  of  these 
letters  is  one  which  has  severely  taxed  the 
critical  ingenuity  of  the  last  hundred  years. 
Hardly  a  single  prominent  statesman  of  the 
time  who  was  not  himself  directly  attacked  by 
Junius,  has  wanted  champions  to  assert  his 
claim  to' their  production.  Lord  George 
Sackville,  Barre,  Grattan,  Burke,  Lord 
Loughborough,  Gibbon,  Lord  Chatham,  and 
Wilfiam  Mtuon,  Lord  Temple,  and  many 
others,  have  all  had  their  supporters; 
but  none  of  their  pretensions  can  be  con- 
sidered as  valid.  The  weight  of  inferential 
evidence  seems  to  point  towards  Sir  Philip 
Francis,  and  it  is  certain  that  he  was  not  un- 
willing to  be  considered  as  Junius,  though  he 
never  admitted  the  claim  in  words.  The 
test  of  handwriting  seems  to  tend  in  the  same 
direction.  But,  if  he  be  the  author,  it  must 
be  allowed  that  however  much  this  distinction 
may  add  to  his  intellectual,  it  takes  away 
from  his  moral  character;  for  he  seems  to 
have  been  receiving  favours  from  and  living 
on  intimate  terms  with  many  of  those  whom 
he  assailed  most  fiercely.  The  most,  how- 
ever, that  can  be  said  in  favour  of  the  view 
that  he  was  the  writer  is  that  he  is  the  least 
unlikely  of  the  most  prominent  candidates. 

Jtmlna's  Letters  have  been  frequently  repnb- 
lished.  For  the  eontroveny  on  their  author- 
shtp  aee  Miicaalay .  Essay  on  Warren  Hattinas; 
StMihope,  Hut.  ^  Bng..  vol.  v.,  appendix; 
BrHton,  Juntua  BlueidaUa  ;  Dillce,  Papers  of  a 
Critic;  heckj,  Htst.  o/Eng.  during  the  EigliUenih 
Century,  iii. ;  W.  Maoaey,  Htst.  qf  Q«o,  III,, 
▼oLi. 

Jury,  Thb,  in  modem  English  juridical 
usage,  IS  a  body  of  laymen,  generally  twelve 
in  number,  chosen  by  lot  to  ascertain,  with  the 
assistance  and  guidance  of  the  judse,  questions 
of  &ct  only,  proved  before  them  by  evidence. 


They  are  bound  by  oath  (hence  their  name) 
to  discharge  their  duties  properly.  Unanimity 
is  generally  required  of  them.  Juries  are  used 
both  in  criminal  and  civil  cases.  In  the 
former  the  Grand  Jury  presents  offenders 
against  whom  there  is  a  primd  facie  case,  to 
be  tried  before  the  judge  and  the  Petty  Jury. 
In  the  latter  a  distinction  is  drawn  between 
the  Special  Jury  and  the  Common  Jury,  the 
property  qualification  of  the  special  juror 
being  higher.  There  is  also  a  Coroner*8  Jury, 
on  whose  finding  persons  may  be  brought  to 
trial  at  the  assizes. 

Of  the  origin  of  juries  every  conceivable 
theory  has  been  held.  It  was  once  almost  an 
article  of  constitutional  faith'that  they  were  in- 
vented by  King  Alfred,  Welsh  antiquaries  add- 
ing at  the  suggestion  of  Asser,  who  had  expe- 
rienced the  b^efits  of  the  system  in  Wales. 
Many  have  stoutly  maintained  the  exclu- 
sively English  origin  of  this  typical  English 
institution.  Northern  archseologists  have 
argued  that  it  was  brought  ready-made  by 
the  Danes  to  England;  others  that  it  came 
over  with  William  the  Conqueror.  The 
Canon  l&w,  the  Roman  law,  the  customs  of 
the  early  SUivs  copied  by  their  Saxon  neigh- 
bours, hisive  also  luui  the  jury  fathered  upon 
them.  Even  wilder  is  the  hypothesis  of  their 
Eastern  origin  and  introduction  into  Europe 
by  the  Crusaders.  The  truth  seems  to  be  that 
the  jury  is  a  specialised  development  under 
favourable  conditions  of  a  tendency  common  to 
all  the  Teutonic  peoples,  if  not  to  many  other 
Aryan  tribes  as  well.  In  its  modem  form  it 
is  hardly  older  than  the  reign  of  Henry  II., 
and  in  many  important  features  not  so 
old  as  that.  But  in  ite  broader  aspect  the 
jury  simply  carries  (m  the  popular  judicial 
courts  of  the  old  German  polity.  It  is  the 
latest  survival  of  the  time  when  the  law 
courte  were  the  courtH  of  the  people,  when 
the  mass  of  the  suitors  were  judges,  witnesses, 
and  jurors  in  one.  It  is  in  this  sense  only 
that  the  twelve  assessors  of  the  presiding 
officer  in  the  shire  and  hundred-moot  (the 
rachimburffi,  or  acabini,  of  the  Franks),  or  the 
twelve  compurgators  whose  testimony,  added 
to  that  of  their  principal,  was  regarded  as 
conclusive,  or  the  sworn  witnesses  who  repre- 
sented, as  it  were,  common  fame,  can  be 
regarded  as  progenitors  of  the  j  ury  system ; 
in  strictness  they  were  not.  They  shared 
with  the  Jury  a  common  representative  cha- 
racter. £ike  them  they  were  bound  by  oath, 
and  were  commonly  of  the  sacred  number  of 
twelve.  But  the  specific  function  of  judging 
on  matters  of  fact  was  not  yet  differentiated 
from  the  other  elemente  of  judicial  proceed- 
ings. Only  in  one  of  the  laws  of  Ethelred  II. 
— which  refers  to  a  committee  of  twelve 
thegns  in  the  shire-moot,  who  teke  oath  to 
accuse  no  man  falsely— do  we  find  any  real 
analogy  to  the  later  jury ;  and  this  remark- 
able anticipation  of  the  "jury  of  present- 
ment" stands  so  much  by  itself  that  it  is 


Jnr 


(  634) 


Jut 


unsafe  to  generalise  from  each  scanty  data. 
Thus  we  can  find  no  real  juries  among  the 
Tgngliah  before  the  Conquest.  Still  less  can 
the  analogous  Ndmd  of  Sweden,  or  the  other 
Scanaina^'ian  tribunals  of  the  same  sort,  be 
regarded  as  parents  of  an  institution  which 
has  only  collateral  affinity  to  them.  But 
soon  after  the  Norman  Conquest,  the  system 
of  inquest  by  sworn  recognitors,  representa- 
tive of  the  popular  courts,  was  introduced 
into  England  by  the  invaders.  This  system 
may  have  been  borrowed  from  the  Theo- 
dosian  Code  by  the  Carolingian  emperors. 
The  i'Vankish  Capitularies  contain  numerous 
instractions  to  the  royal  Missi  to  inquire 
into  various  fiscal  and  judicial  rights  of 
the  crown,  by  the  oath  of  the  trustworthy 
men  of  the  neighbourhood,  whose  evidence 
was  regarded  as  the  embodiment  of  the 
witness  of  the  community,  which  in  early 
times  was  the  ultimate  evidence  of  rights. 
This  system  survived  the  fall  of  the  Carolmgs, 
and  was  still  frequently  used,  both  in  France 
generally  and  Normandy  in  particular,  at  the 
time  of  the  Conquest.  There  was  every 
reaspn  why  William  I.  and  his  idnisters 
should  introduce  this  practice  into  England. 
Anxious  to  rule  according  to  ancient  prece- 
dent, and  ignorant  of  the  old  customs  of  the 
country,  these  InquiBitiones  were  of  unique 
value  in  giving  them  trustworthy  information. 
The  immense  mass  of  antiquarian  knowledge 
collected  in  the  Domesday  Survey  was  obtained 
by  inquests  of  the  royal  officials  before  repre- 
sentatives of  the  popular  courts.  It  was  a 
slight  step  in  advance  to  allow  the  means  so 
useful  in  ascertaining  the  rights  of  the  crown 
to  be  employed  in  ascertaining  the  rights  of  the 
subject.  Both  for  ro}'fi,l  and  private  purposes, 
mostly  for  fiscal,  but  also  for  judicial  objects, 
Henry  I.  developed  the  system  still  further. 
But  it  was  Henry  II.  who  gave  to  the  system 
a  political  and  judicial  importance  it  never  had 
before.  He  made  it  part  of  the  ordinary 
judicial  machinery.  He  applied  it  to  all  sorts 
of  civil  and  criminal  suits.  So  &r  as  great 
institutions  can  be  the  work  of  individuals, 
he  is  the  founder  of  the  English  system  of 
trial  by  jury. 

The  Conquest  had  made  trial  by  battle  the 
ordinary  means  of  settling  disputes  about 
freeholds.  Henry  II.,  in  the  Great  Assize, 
gave  suitors,  as  an  alternative,  the  use  of  the 
inquest.  A  jury  of  twelve  knights  of  the 
county,  chosen  by  four  knights  electors,  were 
summoned  by  the  sheriff  to  appear  before  the 
king  or  his  judges  to  g^ve  evidence.  Again, 
the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon  enjoined  cases 
of  dispute  as  to  lay  or  clerical  tenure  to  be 
settled  by  the  recognition  by  twelve  sworn  men ; 
and  the  three  assizes  of  Mort  d' Ancestor,  Novel 
Disseisin,  and  Darrein  Presentment,  were 
accomplished  by  the  same  means.  In  criminal 
cases,  the  precedents  of  the  law  of  Ethelred, 
of  the  juratores  of  the  shire  mentioned  in 
Henry  I.*s  Pipe  Roll,  and  of  the  criminal  jury 


of  the  sixth  article  of  the  Constitutions  of 
Clarendon,  were  developed  into  the  system  of 
trial  prescribed  by  the  assizes  of  Clarendon 
and  Northampton.  By  the  former  measure, 
inquiry  was  onlered  to  be  made  through  every 
shire  and  hundred  by  twelve  lawful  men  of 
each  hundred,  and  four  of  each  township, 
upon  oath,  for  all  suspected  criminals.  When 
the  royal  justices  came  round  on  their  jour- 
neys, tiie  above-mentioned  jury  was  to  present 
the  suspected  offenders  to  them  in  the  county 
court,  where  they  were  to  be  tried  by  tho 
ordeal.  But  the  development  of  juridical 
science  led,  first,  to  the  minimising  of  the 
ordeal,  so  that  the  presentment  became  the 
important  thing,  and,  next,  to  its  abolition 
by  the  Lateran  Council  of  1215.  Even 
before  this,  an  alternative  to  the  ordeal  was 
sometimes  found  in  a  second  jury,  empanelled 
to  investigate  further  the  truth  of  the  pre- 
sentment. After  1215  this  became  the 
universal  method  of  procedure.  The  Grmd 
Jury  presented  criminals.  The  trial,  strict!)' 
speaking,  was  before  the  Petty  Jury,  as  this 
second  jury  was  soon  called.  This  is  still 
the  case,  though  the  establishment  of 
elaborate  magisterial  investigations  has 
tended  to  reverse  the  original  importance  of 
the  two  bodies. 

Juries  thus  established  were  almost  peculiar 
to  England.  The  Frankish  inquest  was 
never  developed  to  further  consequences  in  its 
own  home.  The  imperfect  juries  of  the 
mediaeval  Continent  were  almost  entirely  the 
result  of  the  reflex  action  of  the  English  juries. 
The  modem  Continental  jury  is  avowedly 
borrowed.  Thus,  Professor  Freeman  can 
claim  with  reason  that  the  jur^  is  a  native 
English  growth,  despite  its  filial  relation  to 
the  Frankish  inquest. 

The  juries  of  the  thirteenth  century  differed 
in  many  important  respects  from  modem 
juries.  They  were  still  largely  witnesns. 
The  jury  of  the  Grand  Assize,  for  example, 
were  chosen  from  those  practiodly  cognisant 
of  tho  facts  of  the  particular  case.  Even 
when  it  was  found  impossible  to  sunmion 
only  witnesses  as  jurors,  it  was  long  before 
the  advancement  of  juridical  science  Hmitsd 
their  functions  to  deciding  on  evidence  laid 
before  them.  It  was  long  before  the  jury 
was  free  from  judicial  censure  if  their  verdict 
was  disliked  by  the  judge.  Not  before  the 
Bevolution  of  1688  could  the  jury  in  a 
political  case  be  said  to  have  acquired  full 
freedom.  Not  before  Fox's  Libel  Act  did 
they  acquire  real  power  of  deciding  on  the 
whole  facts  of  one  important  branch  of  trials. 

The  political  importance  of  trial  l>yjyry  is 
very  considerable  in  English  history.  Ijiough 
a  mere  administrative  expedient  in  its  origin, 
the  fact  that  the  county  jury  was  a  system- 
atic representation  of  the  shire  commtinity,  se- 
lected to  treat  with  the  king  or  hia  represent- 
ative, was  a  step  of  the  greatest  importance 
in    the    development  of   our  repiresentatiTe 


Jim 


(  635  ) 


Jim 


institations.  fPABLZAMENT.]  The  great  prin- 
ciple of  trial  by  peers  was  embodied  in 
Magna  Carta;  and,  before  long,  tiie  jury 
system  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  greatest 
safeguard  against  arbitrary  imprisonment,  and 
the  greatest  guarantee  of  a  fair  trial,  and  of 
the  personal  liberty  of  the  subject.  A  venal 
or  time-serving  judge—dependent  for  his 
position  on  royal  favour — could  only  be 
checked  by  some  such  means.  In  political 
trials,  even  of  the  last  century,  without  trial 
by  jury  it  would  have  fared  badly  with  an 
enemy  of  the  government.  Even  now  that 
the  impartiality  of  the  judges  is  thoroughly 
established,  the  jury  system,  though  shorn  of 
its  original  importance,  and  limited  in  its 
operation  by  the  tendencies  of  legal  reform,  still 
keeps  its  own  function  in  our  judicial  system. 

Stubbs,  Contt.  Hitt. ;  Fxeeman,  Norman  Con- 
ouMt,  vol.  V. ;  FalgniTe,  English  Commonwealih, 
The  Bublect  is  treated  more  folly  in  Fors^^b, 
Hi$t.  of  Trial  by  Jury,  and  Biener,  Dcu  Englische 
QMchveomengerioht,  Dr.  H.  Bronner,  in  bis 
treatlBe  l7«6or  die  Bnt^ehung  der  Sehwurgtriehte, 
giroB  a  very  full  and  complete  view  of  the  sab- 
jecty  and  demonstratea  very  clearly  the  relation 
of  the  Jiuy  to  the  Fraahiah  InquinHo, 

[T.  F.  T.] 

Jnstio^f  or  Judge.    In  the  old  English 
popular  courts,  tbe  whole  body  of  suitors 
acted  as  judges.    The  sheriff,  or  hundreds- 
ealdor,  was  simply  their  chairman,  or  mode- 
rator ;  and  the  judicial  committee  of  twelve 
thegns  were  the  assessors  of  the  sheriff.     The 
feudal  jurisdiction  of  the  lan^ca,  the  supreme 
jurisdiction  of  the   king,  invested  lonls  of 
soken  and  monarchs  with  some  of  the  attri- 
butes  of  the  later  judge.    But  the  real  differ- 
entiation of  the  office  of  judge  took  place 
subsequently  to  the  Norman  Conquest,  and 
was  due  to  the  development  of  the  study  of 
jurisprudence,  the  increasing  specialisation  of 
the  whole  system  of  government,  the  organi- 
sation on  an  extended  basis    of  the  royal 
jurisdiction,  and  ito  connection  with  the  head- 
less popular  judicature,  through  the  jury,  by 
the  Norman  and  Angevin  kings.    These  cir- 
cumstances necessitated  the  employment  of  a 
large  judicial  staff,  which,  if  not  strictly  con- 
fined, after  the  precedents  of  later  times,  to 
its    juridical    business,  and  if  equally  em- 
ployed by  the  king  on  fiscal  and  administra- 
tive duties,  was   sufficiently  occupied  with 
legal  work  to  obtain  from  it  its  most  com- 
mon appellation.    During  the  eleventh  cen- 
tuxy,  the  word  Jtutitia  began  to  be  used  in 
a  sense  which  included  the  persons  charged 
with  the  administration  of  the  law,  as  well  as 
to  indicate  the  abstract  principles  on  which 
the  law  was  based.    The  justice,  or  judge, 
received  his  name  from  the  justice  which  he 
declared.     The  so-called  Laws  of  Edward  the 
Confesaor  speak  <rf  the  sheriffs  as  justices; 
John  of  Salisbury  g^ves  them  the  same  tiUe,  and 
the  Assize  of  Clarendon  couples  them  with  the 
justices  in  the  stricter  sense.    But  it  is  pos* 
aible  that  this  title  belonged  specially  to  the 


sheriffs  as  transacting  special  business  under 
the  king*s  writ.  In  Henry  I.'s  Charter  and 
Laws,  and  in  some  other  instances,  the  tenn 
seems  to  include  all  landlords  possessing 
oourto  of  their  own,  or  all  suitors  qualified 
to  act  as  judices  in  the  shire  moot.  But 
the  title  became  gradually  further  limited, 
until  it  was  ultimately  used  to  indicate  (1)  the 
president,  or  chief  officer  of  the  Curia  Begis, 
(2)  all  the  members  of  the  same  court. 

The  chief  minister  of  the  Norman  and  An- 
gevin kings  was  styled  the  justitia,  or  some- 
times  Hie  Justitiarius,  or  eapitaiisy  or  sumtnus 
justitia.  His  office,  obscure  in  origin,  and 
perhaps  developed  from  the  Norman  sene- 
schalship  through  the  regents  of  William  I., 
during  his  absences  on  the  Continent,  ac- 
quired great  imi)ortance  under  Banulf  Flam- 
bard,  who  assumed  the  name,  if  not  the  func- 
tions, of  the  later  justiciar.  Under  Roger, 
Bishop  of  Salisbury,  the  great  minister  of 
Henry  I.,  and  the  practical  founder  of  his 
administrative  system,  both  the  name  and 
functions  of  the  office  became  more  strictly 
defined.  Until  the  middle  of  the  reign  of 
Henry  III.,  a  long  and  scarcely  interrupted 
series  of  chief  justiciars  acted  as  permanent 
prime  ministers,  as  representatives  of  tho 
monarch  in  all  relations  of  state,  as  regenta 
during  the  king's  absence,  as  royal  deputies 
even  in  his  presence,  as  presidente  of  the 
judicial  svstem  which  centred  in  the  Curia 
Regis,  and  as  presidents  of  the  fiscal  svstem 
which  centred  in  the  exchequer.  A  similar 
need  produced  analogous  offices  in  half  the 
kingdoms  of  Europe.  In  Aragon  and  Naples 
the  correspondence  extended  even  to  the  name 
of  Justitia.  So  long  as  the  feudal  spirit  re- 
mained strong,  the  holders  of  the  office  were* 
bishops,  unable  to  found  a  legal  family ;  but  the 
triumph  of  Henry  II.  over  the  feudal  sepa- 
ratists rendered  it  safe  to  appoint  baronial 
justiciars.  The  development  of  the  power  of 
the  chancellor,  the  break-up  of  the  bureau- 
cratic system  of  the  Angevins  and  the  de- 
velopment of  a  constitution  in  which  a  per- 
manent prime  minister  found  no  place,  lea  to 
a  gradual  change  in  the  functions  of  the 
justiciar  during  the  thirteenth  century.  His 
political  functions  gradually  disappeared, 
while  the  increasing  specialisation  of  our  legal 
system  gave  to  his  functions  as  president  of 
the  chief  court  of  justice  a  new  importance. 
Hubert  de  Burgh  was  the  last  great  political 
justiciar.  His  successor,  Stephen  Segrave, 
was  simply  a  good  lawyer.  He  began  the 
process  at  change  which  was  completed  before 
the  end  of  the  century.  The  Capitalis  Jus- 
titia of  Henry  II.  becomes  the  Lord  Chief 
Justice  of  Edward  I. 

The  titie  of  justice  was,  however,  never 
confined  to  the  justiciar.  Even  during  the 
administration  of  Roger  of  Salisbury,  the 
title  is  frequently  conferred  on  other  members 
of  the  Curia  Regis.  In  the  Dialogua  de  Seac-^ 
cario  it  is  their  official  designation,  although 


Jim 


(  636  ) 


Jut 


the  same  individuals  sat  in  the  Exchequer 
with  the  title  of  barons.  Henry  II.  made  his 
grandJ^ther's  system  of  iudicisLi  visitations  a 
permanent  part  of  the  legal  system  of  the 
country.  As  representatives  of  the  sovereign, 
the  Justices  of  the  Curia  Begis  systematically 
perambulated  the  country  and  tried  the  of- 
fenders presented  to  them  by  the  grand 
juries  elected  by  the  shire-moot,  held  in- 
quiries into  freehold  suits  under  the  Grand 
Assize,  transacted  proceedings  under  the  three 
assizes  of  Mort  D'Ancester,  Darrein  Present- 
ment, and  Novel  Disseisin,  besides  acting  as 
fiscal  and  executive  officers  of  the  crown. 
But  the  judicial  aspect  of  the  justice  gradu- 
ally became  more  important.  In  1178  the 
Court  of  King's  Bench  was  cut  off  from  the 
Curia  Regis  in  its  larger  aspect,  and  the 
clause  of  Magna  Carta  that  Common  Pleas 
should  no  longer  follow  the  crown,  but  be 
held  in  some  fixed  place,  led  to  the  further 
differentiation  of  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas, 
which  eat  constantly  at  Westminster,  from 
the  Court  of  King's  Bench,  now  entirely  de- 
voted to  judicial  business.  Meanwhile  the 
old  financial  system  which  had  centred  in  the 
Exchequer  became  obsolete,  and  the  Barons 
of  the  Exchequer,  deprived  of  most  of  their 
fiscal  business,  became  almost  as  much 
simple  judges  as  the  justices  of  the  King's 
Bench  or  Common  Pleas.  The  process 
of  differentiation  had  already  gone  so  far 
that  each  of  the  three  courts  had  a  separ- 
ate staff  of  officials.  As  has  been  shown, 
the  Justiciar  became  Chief  Justice,  and,  as  he 
retained  a  special  relation  to  the  King's 
Bench,  a  similar  official  of  less  dignity  pre- 
sided over  the  Common  Pleas.  Meanwhile 
Edward  I.  defined  and  completed  what 
Henry  II.  had  established.  The  Justices 
Itinerant  of  Henry  II.  became  the  Justices 
of  Assize  of  Edward  I.  The  various  com- 
missions under  which  they  sat  at  West- 
minster or  went  on  circuits,  were  systematised 
and  enlarged.  Instead  of  the  separate  Iters 
for  different  purposes,  the  justices  were  sent 
out  at  reg^ar  intervals  on  a  fivefold  mission 
— as  Justices  of  the  Peace,  of  Oyer  and  Ter- 
miner, of  Gaol  Delivery,  of  Assize,  and  of  Nisi 
Prius  (q.v.).  Their  functions  and  positions 
were  hardly  changed  until  recent  legislation 
consolidated  the  three  courts,  and  super- 
seded by  justices  the  Barons  of  the  Ex- 
chequer. The  title  of  Justice  is  given  by 
recent  Judicature  Acts  to  all  judges  of  the 
Supreme  Court.  In  the  High  Court  of  Jus- 
tice, into  which  the  three  old  courts  have 
been  merged,  they  are  called  Mr.  Justice,  and 
their  head  is  the  Lord  Chief  Justice  of  Eng- 
land, the  titles  of  Chief  Justice  of  the  Common 
Pleas  and  Lord  Chief  Baron  having  been  abo- 
lished. In  the  Court  of  Appeal  the  judges 
are  styled  Lord  Justice.  The  title  of  Lord 
Justice  had  in  previous  times  been  often  given 
to  persons  invested  with  extraordinary  ju- 
dicial commissions,  such  as,  for  example,  the 


government  of  Ireland  during  the  absence  or 
vacancy  of  the  Lord  Lieutenant,  or  the  com- 
missions of  regency  that  sometimes  governed 
the  country  during  the  absences  of  Wil- 
liam III.,  and  the  Hanoverian  monarchs  on  the 
Continent.  Besides  the  justices  of  the  Eng- 
lish courts,'  there  were  special  justices  for 
Durham,  Chester,  the  Isle  of  Ely,  and  similar 
Palatine  jurisdictions. 

In  a  lower  sphere  the  title  of  justice  has 
long  been  g^ven  to  the  inferior  magistrates  of 
the  first  instance.  The  "  custodes  pacis,"  or 
**  conservatores  pacis,"  which  it  became  usual 
for  the  long  to  nominate  during  the  thirteenth 
century  («.y.,  Henry  III.'s  writ  in  1233,  and 
Edward  I.'s  statute  of  Winchester),  received, 
by  an  Act  of  Edward  III.,  both  power  to  try 
felonies,  and  the  more  honourable  designation 
of  Justice  of  the  Peace.  "  The  whole  Chris- 
tian world  hath  not  the  like  office  as  justice 
of  the  peace,  if  duly  executed,"  was  the 
opinion  of  Lord  Coke,  and  despite  the  ob- 
vious objections  to  lay  tribunals,  drawn 
from  a  limited  class,  the  system  still  remains, 
except  in  a  few  populous  places  where  stipen- 
diary magistrates  with  legal  training  have 
been  appointed.  The  Justices  of  the  Peace 
are  appointed  by  a  special  commission  under 
the  great  seal  to  keep  the  peace  within  the 
limits  of  the  county  in  which  they  are  ap- 
pointed to  act.  The  property  qnalification 
for  the  office  is  £100  a  year  in  land.  They 
exereise  jurisdiction  either  individually,  or 
in  petty  sessions  of  the  justices  of  a  limited 
district,  or  in  quarter  sessions  of  the  jilstices 
of  the  whole  county.  The  latter  boidy  still 
combines  with  its  judicial  work  adminisbrative 
and  fiscal  business  in  a  way  that  recalls  the 
justices  of  the  reign  of  Henr}*  I. 

StubbB,  Contt.  Hift. ;  Queist,  VervcaUungtrttM ; 
Campbell,  Lives  of  the  Chief  Jtulices;  ¥otm,  Jttdgee 
of  Eng.  ;  Beeve,  Hiet.  of  English  Lata  ;  St^hean, 
Hut.  of  Crtmmal  Lava ;  Haydn's  Book  of  DignitUs 
gives  a  list  of  the  Chief  Jastices ;  Bum's  jv^Aice 
of  the  Peace  is  on  authoritative  manual  on  the 
many  f  imotions  of  that  office*        [T.  F.  T.l 

JnstllS,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (624 — 
627),  was  one  of  the  monks  who  were  sent  by 
Gregory,  in  601,  to  join  the  mission  at  Canter- 
bur}^  In  604  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Ro- 
chester. On  the  death  of  Ethelbert,  fearing 
persecution,  he  fied  to  France,  but  soon  re- 
turned and  resumed  the  charge  of  his  see. 
In  624,  he  became  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
in  succession  to  Mellitus.  The  great  event  <u 
his  short  occupancy  of  this  see  was  the  exten- 
sion of  the  Kentish  mission  to  Korthumbria. 
Bede,  EecXeexasiicaX  HisL 

JntaSt  Thb.  There  are  three  questions 
of  interest  connected  with  this  tribe,  which 
is  generally  considered  to  have  been  the 
first  people  of  Teutonic  blood  to  settle  in 
Britain  after  the  withdrawal  of  the  Boman 
legions,  viz.,  the  date  of  their  arrival,  the 
place  of  their  origin,  and  the  place  of  their 
settlement.     The  year  most  usually  assigDed 


Jks 


(  637) 


as  that  in  which  they  came  to  our  shores  is 
the  one  given  by  the  Anglo-Saxon  chronicler 
and  Florence  of  Worcester  (449—450) ;  both 
of  these  authorities  probably  basing  their 
computation  upon  the  words  of  Bede,  Mist. 
EeeUs,^  i.  15.  According  to  Gildais,  this 
event  must  have  happened  after  ^tius  had 
been  consul  for  the  lliird  time,  that  is,  after 
446;  and  Nennius,  too,  in  a  very  corrupt 
JMUsage,  seems  to  imply  that  it  took  place  m 
449.  But,  while  accepting  this  date,  we 
must  not  forget  that  there  are  groimds  for 
assigning  the  first  landing  of  the  Teutonic 
tribes  to  a  period  much  nearer  the  commence- 
ment of  the  century.  The  next  question  that 
arises  is,  as  to  the  orig^inal  seat  and  the  race  of 
these  Jutish  invaders.  And  here  it  is  note- 
worthy that  neither  Gildas  nor  Nennius  seems 
to  know  them  as  Jutes ;  with  the  former  they 
are  "Saxons,*'  with  the  latter  "exiles  from 
Germany  "  and  "  Saxons."  Bede  appears  to 
speak  of  them  vaguely  as  being  of  "  the  race 
of  the  Angles  or  Saxons,"  then  as  "  Saxons," 
and  lastly  as  "  Jutes."  He  also  tells  us  that 
these  Jutes  originally  came  from  the  north  of 
that  "coun^  which  is  called  Anjulus,  and 
which  is  said  to  have  remained  unoccupied 
from  that  time  to  our  day."  This  passage 
has  generally  been  interpreted  as  locating 
the  Jutes  in  Jutland,  which  may  still  preserve 
the  old  root  in  its  modem  name.  Lastly,  we 
have  to  consider  the  area  of  the  Jutish  settle- 
ments in  Britain.  This  we  are  enabled  to  do 
by  the  aid  of  Bede,  who  speaks  of  their  having 
occupied  Kent,  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  a  part 
of  the  West-Saxon  mainland  opposite.  To 
this  statement  we  may  add  Nenniu8*s  declara- 
tion that  Hengest's  son  and  nephew,  Octha 
and  Urisa,  held  much  territory  beyond  the 
Prisian  Seti  up  to  the  borders  of  uie  Picts. 
This  legend  may  perhaps  point  to  a  Jutish 
colonisation  of  some  part  ox  S.  or  S.W.  Scot- 
land. [The  history  of  the  conquest  of  Kent 
will  be  found  under  the  articles  Henobst, 
HoBSA,  English  Conquest,  and  Kent.] 

Gildas,  Huforia,  23  :  NeimiuB,  Historta  Brito- 
iMcm,  31.  36,  38,  Ac. :  Bede,  KitUtria  BocUsiostioa, 
i.  15;  £.  Quest,  Ortyin«  Cdtica,  ii.  166,  &o. 

[T.  A.  A.] 

Jmcon,  William  {b.  1582,  d.  1663), 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  bom  at 
Chichester,  and  educated  at  Merchant  Tay- 
lors' School  and  St.  John's  College,  Oxford. 
He  succeeded  Laud,  in  1621,  as  Master  of 
St.  John's.  In  1632  he  became  also,  by 
liaud's  recommendation.  Clerk  of  the  King's 
Closet,  and,  in  the  following  year.  Dean 
of  the  Chapel  Royal,  Bishop  of  Hereford, 
and  by  his  translation  before  being  con- 
secrated to  the  former  see.  Bishop  of  London. 
By  the  same  influence  he  was  appointed,  in 
1635,  Lord  High  Treasurer,  which  office  he 
held  till  1641.  When  the  king  sought  advice 
from  several  of  the  bishops  whether  to  con- 
sent to  the  bill  for  Strafford's  attainder  or  not, 
Juxon  honestly  advised  him  that  he  ought 


not  to  consent  if  he  were  not  personally 
satisfied  of  Strafford's  g^lt.  Again,  in  1648» 
he  advised  the  king  on  the  questions  of  coiu 
science  which  arose  with  reference  to  tiie 
Treaty  of  Newport,  and  in  the  following 
January  attended  the  king  during  his  triaL 
During  the  Commonwealth  the  bishop  lived 
in  retirement  in  Qloucestershire,  occupied  in 
study  and  hunting.  At  the  Restoration,  his 
attendance  on  the  king's  last  moments  marked 
him  out  for  promotion  to  the  Archbishopric 
of  Canterbury  (Sept.,  1660).  But  his  age  and 
his  health  prevented  him  from  taking  an 
important  part  either  in  the  Savoy  Con- 
ference or  in  the  memorable  meeting  of  Con- 
vocation which  followed. 

Hook,  Iavu  of  ih9  ^roTtbichops  of  Can(«rbttry» 
2Dd  series,  toI.  yI. 


Wars,  The,  were  frequent  be- 
tween the  Dutch  Boers  and  the  Kaffirs  during 
the  Dutch  tenure  of  the  Cape  of  Grood  Hope. 
After  this  colony  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
English,  these  wars  occasionally  broke  out 
with  renewed  violence.  In  1811,  a  re-settle- 
ment of  the  frontier  led  to  a  severe  struggle 
between  the  colonial  forces  under  Colonel 
Graham,  and  the  Kaffirs,  who,  although  th^ 
at  first  gained  a  victory  at  the  White  Rivct, 
were  jdfterwards  completely  defeated.  In 
1818  another  war  broke  out,  owing  to  the 
arbitrary  conduct  of  Lord  Charles  iSomerset, 
the  governor  ox  Cape  Colony,  who  assisted 
one  of  the  chiefs  with  3,000  men  in  a  private 
quarrel.  The  result  was  that  the  Kaffirs, 
under  a  chief  named  Makanna,  attacked 
Graham's  Town,  and  were  only  repulsed  after 
great  slaughter  had  taken  place  on  both  sides. 
After  some  further  hostilities  in  1829,  10,000 
Kaffirs  invaded  the  colony,  in  1835,  under  a 
chief  named  Xoco,  and  devastated  the  easteiti 
province.  The  British  troops,  under  Sir 
Benjamin  Durban  and  Sir  Harry  Smith,  sub* 
sequently  invaded  Kaffirland,  and  exacted  a 
severe  retribution  from  the  aggressors.  In 
consequence  of  this  collision,  it  was  found 
necessary  to  reverse  the  policy  of  repression 
and  extermination  which  had  hitherto  been 
employed.  In  1846,  however,  another  war 
broke  out,  owing  to  the  violation  of  the 
treaty  on  the  part  of  the  British ;  an  invasion 
of  Kaffirland  followed,  and  much  blood  was 
shed  on  both  sides.  In  1851-2  there  was  a 
further  renewal  of  hostilities,  owing  chiefly 
to  the  conduct  of  the  Dutch  Boers,  whose 
treatment  of  the  natives  has  always  been  such 
as  to  cause  them  to  look  with  suspicion  and 
hatred  upon  all  white  men.  A  year  or  two  later 
British  Kaffraria  was  made  a  crown  colony,  and 
in  1865  was  incorporated  with  Capo  Colony. 


XalraTf   The  Siege  of  (1858),  occurred 
during  the  Indian  Mutiny.     On  May   19^ 


(  638  ) 


1868,  Sir  Hugh  Bose  laid  siege  to  the 
town  of  Kalpy  from  the  north.  On  the  20th 
the  rehel  army  made  a  spirited  sally,  but 
were  driven  back.  On  the  22nd,  being  be- 
tween a  double  fire,  they  again  attacked  Sir 
Hugh's  force,  and  were  only  beaten  back 
after  an  obstinate  combat,  suffering  very 
heavily  under  the  charges  of  cavalry  and  the 
guns  of  the  horse  artillery.  All  that  night 
Kalpy  was  cannonaded,  and  in  the  mormng 
of  the  23rd,  Sir  Hugh  Bose's  troops  advanced 
to  assault  the  town  in  two  columns.  But 
they  encountered  no  resistance,  for  the  enemy 
had  fled,  and  the  whole  rebel  arsenal,  includ- 
ing fifty  guns,  feU  into  the  hands  of  the 
English. 

MaUeson,  Indian  Mutiny:  Annwd  RegitUr, 
1858. 

Kalnnga,  Thb  Sieob  of  (Oct.,  1814). 
On  the  breaking  out  of  the  Groorkha  War, 
in  1814,  General  Gillespie  advanced  into  the 
Dhoon  valley,  and  coming  upon  the  fortified 
position  of  Kalunga,  summoned  the  Goorkha 
chief,  Bulbuddur  Sing,  to  surrender.  The 
Goorkha  refused,  and  Gillespie  determined  to 
carry  the  fort  by  assault.  His  men  were 
staggered  by  the  murderous  fira  directed  on 
them  as  they  advanced  up  to  the  wicket, 
when  the  general,  irritated  by  the  repulse, 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  tluree  com- 
plies of  Europeans,  and  rushed  up  to  the 
Hfte,  but  was  shot  through  the  heart  as  he  was 
waving  his  hat  to  his  men  to  follow  him.  A 
retreat  was  immediately  sounded;  but  not 
before  twenty  officers  and  240  men  were  killed 
cmd  wounded.  A  month  was  lost  in  waiting 
for  heavy  ordnance  from  Delhi.  On  Nov.  27 
the  breach  was  reported  practicable,  and  a 
second  unsuccessful  assault  was  made,  with  a 
loss  of  680  men  in  killed  and  wounded.  The 
mortars  were  now  brought  into  play,  and, 
after  three  days'  incessant  shelling,  the  Goor- 
khas  sallied  forth  and  escaped.  [Goohrha 
Vak.] 

Kaady  Wars,  The.  Whilst  Ceylon 
was  under  the  rule  of  the  Portuguese  and 
Dutch,  the  Kandyan  territories  in  the  interior 
of  the  island  hod  remained  unconquered,  al- 
though a  kind  of  desultory  warfare  between 
the  natives  and  the  Europeans  was  kept  up. 
In  1799  and  1800  Mr.  North,  the  governor  of 
Ceylon,  endeavoured  to  induce  the  King  of 
Eandy  to  put  himself  under  British  protec- 
tion. These  negotiations,  however,  failed; 
and,  in  1803,  ^ir.  North  having  received  an 
accession  of  power  by  the  separation  of  the 
government  of  Ceylon  from  that  of  Madras, 
at  once  invaded  the  Kandyan  territories,  at 
the  head  of  a  force  of  3,000  men. 


,,  The  Siege  of  (1855).  On  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Crimean  War,  Colonel 
Fenwick  Williams  was  sent  to  Asiatic  Turkey 
to  organise  the  Turkish  army  against  the 
Bussian  invaders.  On  the  approach  of  the 
Buisians  under  Mouravieff,  he  hastened  to 


Kars,  which  he  provisioned  for  four  montfaE, 
and  prepared  to  defend  to  the  last.  Earth- 
works were  erected  wherever  they  seemed  to 
be  required.  Mouravieff  arrived  before  Kais 
in  August,  with  an  army  of  50,000  men,  a 
portion  of  which  was  detached  to  watch 
Erzeroum.  In  order  to  get  rid  of  as  many 
useless  mouths  as  possible,  Williams  directed 
the  Bashi-bazouks,  or  Turkish  cavalry,  to  cut 
their  way  through  the  Bussian  army,  a  feat 
which  they  performed,  though  with  some  loss. 
On  Sept.  29,  under  the  obscurity  of  the  morn- 
ing, the  Bussians  made  a  grand  attack,  but 
were  met  with  such  a  stubborn  resistance  that 
they  were  forced  to  retire,  with  a  loss  of  6,000 
men.  Williams  did  his  best  while  provisions 
lasted.  There  was  no  hope  of  relief  or  assist- 
ance. Selim  Paohfl,  who  might  have  come  to 
his  aid,  refused ;  and  Omar  Pasha  wbb  too  far 
off.  On  Nov.  24,  therefore,  Williams  sent 
Captain  Teesdale  with  a  flag  of  truce  to  Moura- 
vieff. The  Bussians  displayed  great  generosity, 
and  granted  terms  which  could  be  accepted 
without  loss  of  honour. 


ly  John,  1st  Lord  {b.  1780,  d, 
1844),  entered  the  army  in  1793,  and  served 
in  Egypt,  the  Mediterranean,  and  Mar- 
tinique, down  to  the  year  1809.  Having 
reached  the  rank  of  lieut.-oolonel,  he  com- 
manded a  brigade  in  the  third  division 
all  through  the  Peninsular  War.  In  1814  he 
was  made  major-general,  and  served  through 
the  American  War.  He  passed  eight  years  in 
Jamaica  as  commander-in-chief,  from  1823  to 
1830,  and  for  a  year  and  a  half  of  the  time  he 
administered  the  civil  government  also.  In 
1833,  he  went  to  India  as  commander-in- 
chief  at  Bombay.  Five  years  later  (1838), 
he  received  orders  from  the  government  of 
India  to  organise  and  lead  a  force  intended  to 
co-operate  with  the  Scinde  army,  on  the 
north-west  frontier,  at  the  breaking  out  of 
the  Afghan  War;  and  in  December  he  as- 
sumed the  command  of  the  combined  forces. 
.Ghazni  was  stormed,  and  the  English  troops 
entered  Ghazni,  and  restored  Shah  Shujah 
to  the  throne  of  Afghanistan,  while  Dost 
Mahommed  fled  across  the  Oxus.  For  his 
services  in  this  expedition,  Sir  John  Eeane  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  (1839). 

Kells,  The  Council  of,  was  held  in  1 152  by 
Eugenius  III.'s  legate,  (Cardinal  Paparo,  who 
brought  with  him  the  pallia  for  the  Arch* 
bishops  of  Armagh,  Cashel,  Dublin,  and  Tuam. 
The  influence  of  St.  Malachy  was  prominent 
at  this  synod,  and  anticipating  the  action  of 
the  synod  at  Cashel,  it  condemned  the  mar- 
riage of  the  clergy,  and  perhaps  even  imposed 
tithes. 

Kemble,  John  Mitchell  {b,  1807,  d. 
1857),  was  the  son  of  the  celebrated  actor 
C!harles  Kemble.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  and  afterwards  stndied  in 
Germany.    He  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the 


(  639  ) 


1 

Anglo-Saxon  language  and  antiquities,  and 
became  one  of  the  first  Anglo-Saxon  scholars 
in  Burope.  His  first  works  of  importance 
were  Codex  JHpiomatieiu  JEvi  Saxoniei^  6  vols., 
1839  —  48,  a  valuable  oollection  of  the 
charters  and  other  instruments  of  the  period 
of  Anglo-Saxon  rule  in  England;  and  Ths 
Saxons  in  England,  2  vols.,  1849,  which  latter 
is  a  moat  authoritative,  learned,  and  acute  ac- 
count of  the  laws,  institutions,  and  social 
condition  of  the  English  previous  to  the 
Norman  Conquest.  ]k&.  Kemble  also  edited 
StaU  Papers,  ^,,  Uhutratwe  of  the  State  of 
Europe  from  the  .Revolution  to  the  Aeeeetion  of 
the  House  of  Sanover,  which  is  a  useful  com- 
pilation for  the  student  of  this  period  of 
history. 


j»  John  {b.  eirca  1380,  d.  1454), 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  descended 
from  a  good  Kentish  nunily,  and  after 
holding  various  minor  preferments,  was 
in  1418  appointed  Bishop  of  Hochester,  from 
which  see  he  was  soon  translated  to  London 
(1421).  He  was  one  of  the  council  of  regency 
daring  Henry  VL's  minority,  and  in  1426 
was  made  Chancellor,  and  in  the  same  year 
raised  to  the  archbishopric  of  York.  He  was 
a  supporter  of  Cardinal  Beaufort  against 
Gloucester,  and  in  1432  had  to  resign  the 
great  seaL  After  this  he  seems  for  some 
years  to  have  taken  no  very  prominent  part 
in  public  afiFairs,  but  in  1460  he  was  again 
appointed  Chancellor,  and  continued  to  hold 
the  seal  till  his  deatK  Two  years  later  he 
was  raised  to  the  archbishopric  of  Canterbury, 
and  in  the  same  year  received  a  ciurdinal*s  hat 
from  the  Pope.  He  displayed  great  firmness 
and  prudence  in  dealing  with  Jack  Cade  and 
his  followers,  and  by  his  wisdom  and  modera- 
tion kept  the  rivalry  between  the  Dukes  of 
York  and  Somerset  within  bounds  during  his 
lifetime. 

Hook,  lAoes  of  the  ArehhithopB  of  Canderhwry, 


^  Thomas  (b.  1687,  d,  1711), 
Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells,  was  bom  at 
Berkhampstead,  and  educated  at  Winchester 
and  Oxford.  About  the  year  1679  he  became 
chaplain  to  the  Princess  Mary,  wife  of 
William  of  Orange,  and  afterwards  to  Lord 
Dartmouth,  at  Tangiers.  Later  he  was  ap- 
pointed chaplain  to  Charles  II.,  whom  he 
attended  on  his  death  bed,  and  who  seems  to 
have  admired  the  spirit  of  a  man  who  dared 
to  refuse  to  allow  Eleanor  Gwynn  to  lodge 
in  his  prebend's  house  at  Winchester.  He 
was  appointed  Bishop  of  Bath  and  WeUs  in 
1685.  After  the  western  rebellion  he  visited 
Monmouth  in  prison,  and  was  the  pro- 
tector of  the  unhappy  victims  of  that  com- 
motion. Ken  was  one  of  the  "Seven 
Bishops"  tried  for  petitioning  against  the 
Dedaiation  of  Indulgence  in  1688.  Despite 
his  conduct  on  this  occasion  he  refused  to 
take  the  oaths  to  William  and  Mary,  and 


consequently  lost  his  bishopric,  though  uni- 
versally respected  for  his  piety. 

Kendal,  E&mengard  MzLrsmA  vom 
ScHULBMEBKO,  DucHSSS  OF  {d.  1743),  was  one 
of  the  mistresses  of  George  I.  In  1714  she 
was  created  Duchess  of  Munster,  in  the  Irish 
peerage,  and  in  1719  Duchess  of  Kendal.  She 
affected  great  devotion,  and  sometimes  at- 
tended several  Lutheran  chapels  in  the  course 
of  the  day.  On  the  death  of  the  Duke  of 
Somerset  no  Master  of  the  Horse  was  ap- 
pointed for  several  years,  the  profits  of  the 
place  being  paid  to  the  Duchess.  She  seems 
now  to  have  been  looked  upon  as  the  dispenser 
of  the  king*8  favoum,  and  was  bribed  accord- 
ingly. She  received  £10,000  from  the  South 
Sea  Company.  In  1722  she  was  g^ranted  the 
monopoly  of  coining  halfpence  lor  Ireland, 
and  sold  it  to  Wood.  In  1727  she  was 
gained  over  by  Bolingbroke,  and  became 
Uie  leader  of  a  powerful  combination 
against  Walpole,  although  the  king  handed  a 
memorial,  conveyed  to  him  through  her  hands, 
over  to  the  minister.  She  is  said  to  have  been 
overwhelmed  with  grief  on  hearing  of  the  death 
of  George,  and  to  have  imagined  that  a  raven 
which  flew  in  at  her  window  was  the  spirit 
of  the  king.  She  seems  to  have  possessed 
neither  beauty  nor  intellect,  and  Lord 
Chesterfield,  who  had  married  her  niece,  says 
that  she  was  little  better  than  an  idiot. 

Kenilwortllp  four  miles  from  Warwick, 
was  granted  by  Henry  III.  to  Simon  de  Mont- 
fort,  and  on  his  rebellion  was  retaken  in  1266, 
after  a  siege  of  six  months,  at  which  time  the 
famous ' '  Dictum  de  Kenilworth  "  was  drawn  up 
under  its  walls.  In  1327  it  was  the  scene  of 
the  imprisonment  of  Edward  II.,  at  the  time 
of  his  aeposition,  and  subsequently  came  into 
the  hands  of  John  of  Graunt.  It  was  granted 
by  Elizabeth  to  the  Earl  of  Leicester,  and  is 
famous  for  the  entertainment  which  he  gave 
to  the  queen  in  1575. 

Kenilworth,  Dictum  de  (1266),  was 
the  name  given  to  the  treaty  made  between 
King  Henry  III.  and  the  remains  of  the 
baronial  party,  who  after  the  battle  of  Eve- 
sham shut  themselves  up  in  Kenilworth  Castle, 
where,  after  a  siege  of  several  months,  they 
capitulated.  This  ordinance  was  then  drawn 
up,  declaring  the  plenary  power  of  the  king, 
annulling  the  acts  of  De  Montfort,  providing 
that  the  liberties  of  the  Church  and  the 
charters  should  be  maintained  ;  that  all  per- 
sons, with  the  exception  of  the  De  Montforts 
and  a  few  others,  might  compotmd  for  their 
offences  with  a  fine ;  and  that  all  who  sub- 
mitted within  forty  days  should  be  pardoned. 
At  the  same  time  all  persons  were  forbidden 
to  circulate  vain  and  foolish  stories  of  miracles 
regarding  Simon  de  Montfort,  or  to  repute 
him  a  saint  and  a  martyr.  The  Dictun^  was 
accepted  by  the  barons,  except  a  few  who  held 
out  m  the  Isle  of  Ely ;  and  even  these,  when 


(  640  ) 


they  submitted  in  1267,  were  allowed  the  same 
terms  as  those  who  had  yielded  in  the  pre- 
ceding year. 

Kennedy,  James,  Bishop  of  St.  Andrews 
{b,  1405,  d.  1466),  a  relative  of  James  II. 
of  Scotland,  gave  offence  to  the  Earl  of  Craw- 
ford by  discovering  to  the  king  the  "  band  " 
that  had  been  formed  between  that  nobleman 
andtheEarlof  Douglas.  Crawfurd,  in  revenge, 
laid  waste  the  bishop's  lands.  During  the 
first  part  of  the  minority  of  James  III.,  Ken- 
nedy acted  as  governor  of  the  kingdom,  of 
which  he  proved  himself  an  able  and  con- 
scientious guardian.  Mr.  Burton  observes 
that  he  was  the  first  ecclesiastic  who  held 
high  political  power  in  Scotland,  and  so  to 
some  extent  marks  the  dawn  of  a  new  era. 

Kenneth  I.,  the  Habdt  {d.  860),  was 
the  son  of  Alpin,  King  of  the  Scots,  whom  he 
succeeded  fprobably  in  Gklloway)  in  832, 
though  he  aid  not  obtain  Dalriada  proper  till 
some  years  later.  In  839  he  invaded  the 
Pictish  territory  in  conjunction  with  the  Danes, 
and  in  844  finally  established  himself  on  the 
Pictish  throne,  to  which  he  had  a  claim  by 
maternal  descent,  thus  being  the  first  to  in- 
corporate the  two  kingdoms.  In  851  Kenneth 
built  a  church  at  Dunkdd,  which  he  endowed 
richly,  and  to  which  he  removed  part  of  the 
relics  of  St.  Columba.  He  was  a  man  of 
warlike  character,  and  six  times  invaded 
Lothian,  burning  Dunbar  and  Melrose.  His 
family  consisted  of  two  sons  —  Gonstantine 
and  Aid  —  and  three  daughters,  married 
respectively  to  Run,  King  of  the  Britons  of 
Stnithclyde,  to  Olaf ,  King  of  Dublin,  and  to 
Aedh  Finnhath,  King  of  Ireland. 

Chron,  PioU  and  Scots ;  Skene,  CeUio  Scotland ; 
Sobertson,  £arly  Kings  of  Sootland, 

Kenneth  XX.,  the  son  of  Malcolm,  ob- 
tained the  crown  of  Alban,  in  succession  to 
Colin,  971 .  His  first  act  was  to  invade  Strath- 
dyde,  and  to  fortify  the  fords  of  the  Forth 
against  the  Britons ;  his  next  to  invade  North- 
umbria,  whose  earl  he  carried  off  captive. 
The  events  of  this  reign  are  exceedingly  ob- 
scure ;  it  is  probable,  however,  that  Kenneth 
gained  a  greai  victory  over  the  Danes  at  Lun- 
carty,  near  Perth,  and  that  he  was  slain  at 
Fettercairn,  in  Kincardineshire  (995),  by  Fe- 
nella,  Countess  of  Angus,  in  revenge  for  the 
murder  of  her  son  by  the  king.  The  story  of 
the  English  chroniclers  that  King  Edgar  ceded 
Lothian  to  Kenneth,  to  be  held  as  a  fief  of  the 
English  crown,  is  without  foundation. 

Kenneth  III.,  the  Grim,  son  of  Duff, 
succeeded  Constantino  III.  as  king  of  Alban, 
997.  In  1000  he  was  engaged  in  warfare 
with  Ethelred  of  England.  He  was  killed 
in  battle  in  Stratheam,  1003,  by  his  cousin 
Malcolm,  who  succeeded  him  as  Malcolm  II. 

Kent,  Peerage  of.  The  earldom  of  Kent 
was  held,  between  the  Norman  Conquest  and 
the  fourteenth  century,  by  three  individuals : 


(1)  Odo,  Bishop  of  Bayeux,  brother  to 
William  I.  (1067)  ;  (2)  William  of  Yprea 
(1141) ;  and  (3)  Hubert  de  Burgh  (1227) ;  none 
of  whom  tnnsmitted  the  honour.  In  1321 
King  Edward  I.  granted  the  earldom  to  his 
younger  son,  Edmund  of  Woodstock,  who, 
however,  was  attainted  in  1330.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  the  title  was  restored  to  his  son 
Edmun<i,  who  died,  as  did  his  younger  brother, 
childless.  The  earldom  was  then  inherited 
by  a  sister's  son,  Sir  Thomas  Holland, 
whose  grandson,  Thomas,  was  created  Duke 
of  Surrey  (1397).  In  spite  of  the  latter*s 
having  been  beheaded  in  1400,  and  declared  a 
traitor  in  Parliament,  his  son  Edmund  re- 
ceived his  lands,  and  sat  in  Parliament  as 
Earl  of  Kent  (1405^.  On  his  death  without 
issue  (1407),  the  title  became  extinct.  It 
seems  to  have  been  revived  in  favour  of 
William  Nevill,  Lord  Fauconberg,  about 
1461 ;  but  he  also  died  childless,  and  the 
earldom  was  granted  in  1466  to  Edmund 
Grey,  fourth  Lord  Ruthyn,  in  whose  family  it 
remained  until  1 740.  Henry,  the  twelfth  and 
last  earl  of  this  creation,  was  raised  to  a 
dukedom  of  the  same  style  in  1706.  The 
title  of  Duke  of  Kent  was  revived  for  Edward, 
fourth  son  of  King  George  III.  and  father  of 
Queen  Victoria,  who  died  without  male  issue 
in  1820. 

Kentp  KiNODOM  .  OF,  took  its  name  from 
the  Celtic  tribe  of  the  Cantii — whom  Caesar 
found  inhabiting  this   part   of  our   island. 
Tradition  has  recorded  that  in  the  year  449 
**  Hengest  and  Horsa,  incited  by  Vortigem, 
King  of  the  Britons,  sought  Britain."    After 
the  battle  of  Crayford,  in  456,  we  read  that 
**  the  Britons  then  forsook  Kent,  and  fled  in 
terror   to    London."     The    first    Teutonic 
kingdom  seems  to  have  been  established  iu 
England  by  the  Jutes— «  Low  Grerman  tribe 
who  also  gained  possession  of  the  Isle  of 
Wight.    It  is  not  altogether  impossible  that 
there  were  two  Jutish  kingdoms  founded  in 
Kent,  the  memory  of  which  was  in  later  times 
preserved  by  the  division  of  the  realm  into 
two  sees,  with  Canterbury  and  Rochester  re- 
spectively as  seats  for  the  "  bishop's  stool." 
For  some  hundred  and  fifty  years  we  hear 
little     or    nothing     of     the    kingdom    of 
Kent,  till   towards    the  close  of    the  sixth 
century,  when  Augustine  on  landing  in  this 
island  found  Ethelbert  King  of  Kent.   Ethel- 
bert,  who  appears  to  have  ascended  the  throne 
when  only  a  child  of  some  eight  years,  had  in 
the  course  of  a  long  reign  largely  extended 
the  bounds  of  his  Inngdom,  and  pushed  his 
way  up  the  Thames  vaUev,  till  in  568  he  whs 
defeated  at  Wimbledon  by  the  West  Saxon 
king — ^the  first  battie  between  the  Teutonic 
invaders.      But  despite  this  disaster  Ethel- 
bert's  reign  was  one  of  great  success  for  the 
Kentish  kingdom.    Some  ten  ^ears  before  the 
end  of  the  century  his  authority  was  more  or 
less  paramount  as  far  north  as  the  Humber, 


(641  ) 


and  the  Kings  of  Essex,  East  Anglia,  and 
Mercia  were  dependent  upon  him.    His  fame 
had  even  extended  as  fsir  as  the  Continent ; 
and  his  wife  was  Bertha,   the  daughter  of 
the   Frankish    king,    Charibert.      The    su- 
premacy of  Kent  at  the  time  of  the  first 
conversion  may  be  considered  as  the  main 
cause  of    the  metropolitan  see  being  fixed 
at    Canterbury.    On    Ethelbert's    death   in 
dl6,  his  son  Eadbald  seems  to  have  relapsed 
into    paganism;    and    on    the    rise   of   the 
Northumbrian  power  we  read  that  Edwin 
was  overlord  of  every  English  kingdom  except 
Kent,  and  Kent,  too,  was  closely  knit  to 
Northumberland  by  the  marriage  of  Eadbald's 
daughter  Ethclburga  to  Edwin.    It  was  this 
marriage  that  led  to  the  first  conversion  of 
Northumberland  and  the  mission  of  Paulinus 
to  the  north  of  England.    But  by  this  time 
the  days  of  Kentish  supremacy  were  over; 
and   the    chief   interest   in   the   later   his- 
tory of  this  kingdom  is  the  ftfct  that  its  sove- 
reigns were  the  first  to  issue  a  code  of  laws, 
or  to  reduce  their  laws  to  writing.      The 
codes  of  Ethelbert,  of  Lothaire  and  Eadric 
(673— 690),  and  of  Wihtrsed  (690),  are  still 
extant.      j3espite   the  importance  attaching 
to    Kent    as   being   the    seat  of    the  arch- 
bishopric,  it   seems   to  have   henceforward 
held  its  own  among  the  rival  kingdoms  with 
difficulty.     We   read   how  in    686   it  was 
ravaged  by  Ceadwalla  of  Wessex,  and  how 
next  year  its  folk  burnt  CeadwaUa*s  brother 
Mull — an    offence  which   led   to   a   second 
iuA'asion  by  the  West  Saxon  king.    In  694 
Ine,  Kin|^  of  Wessex,  received  blood-money 
for  the  slaughter  of  Mull:   and  in  61^2  we 
read  of  there  being  two  kings  in  thf  land. 
"  Kent,"  says  Dr.  Stubbs,  "  in  the  eigh  th  cen- 
tury broke  up  into  the  kingdoms  of  the  East 
and  West  Kentings,  probably  on  the  lines  of 
the  earlier  kingdoms,  which  are  said  to  have 
been  united  by  Ethelbert."    As  the  power  of 
Mercia  increased  it  is  probable  that  the  country 
came  more  and  more  under  the  influence  of  the 
kings  of  that  province  (more  especially  when 
the  royal  Kentish  house  died  out),  and  later 
imder  that  of  Wessex.    As  an  example  of  the 
way  in  which  Kent  swayed  backwards  and 
forwards  between   Wessex  and  Mercia  we 
may  take  the  last  few  years  of  its  separate 
existence.      In    784   Aliic,    the    father    of 
Egbert,  and  a  descendant  of  Cerdic,  the  West- 
^xon,  was  reigning  over  this  kingdom.    Ten 
years  later  the  Chronicle  tells  us  that  the 
reigning  king^s  name  was  Eadberht  Praen. 
Then  camo  a  time  of  Mercian  supremacy; 
for  Kenulf  of  Mercia  drove  out  Eadberht  in 
796,  and  made  his  brother  Cuthred  king.    On 
Cuthred'a  death  the  throne  was  seized  by 
Baldred,   who    in    823   was  driven  out    by 
Egbert  of  Wessex.     But  even  now  Kent  was 
liardly  an  integral  part  of  the  West-Saxon 
rea^m.      Egbert    made    it    into    a    8cx)arate 
kingdom,    subject    to    the    overlordship    of 
Wessex,  for  his  eldest  son  iEthelwulf ;  and 

H18T.-21 


when  iEthelwulf  succeeded  to  his  father's 
throne  Kent  was  g^ven,  with  Sussex,  Surrey, 
and  Essex,  to  Athelstan.  Again,  nearly 
twenty  yeax-s  later,  we  read  in  the  Chronicle 
that  Ethelberht  succeeded  to  the  kingdom  of 
the  Kentish  people  in  955.  There  does  not 
seem  to  be  any  i^ason  for  supposing  that 
Kent  continued  separate  from  the  rest  of  the 
kingdom  after  the  accession  of  Ethelberht  to 
the  throne  of  Wessex  (860),  but  we  probably 
have  traces  of  its  Witan,  and  even  of  the 
Witan  of  one  of  the  two  sub-kingdoms  into 
which  it  had  been  divided  a  century  and  a  half 
earlier ;  when,  after  the  king  and  all  the  "  high 
Witan*'  had  gone  home  in  despair,  "the 
East  Kentish  men  made  peace  with  the 
Danish  army,  and  gave  them  £3,000."  Under 
Edward  the  Confessor  Kent  formed  part  of 
Godwin's  earldom  of  Wessex,  but  its  distinct 
character  as  compared  with  the  rest  of 
Southern  England  may  be  traced  in  its  being 
towards  the  latter  part  of  the  same  reign  sepa- 
rated from  that  province,  and  jgiven,  together 
with  Essex,  into  the  hands  or  Godwin's  son 
Leofwine.  After  the  conquest  Kent  seems 
for  a  time  to  have  been  created  a  County 
Palatine  for  William  I.'s  half-brother,  Odo, 
who,  however,  must  have  forfeited  this  honour 
at  the  beginning  of  the  next  reign.    [Gavei^ 

KINO.] 

I  Euros  OF  Kht. 

Seii|^6st  ......  d.  488 

Mao d.  518 

Octa (?) 

XtOrmcnric       .....  d.  5G8 

Ethelbert d.  616 

Eadbald d.  640 

Eroombert d.  664 

Egbert d.  673 

Lothaire d.  685 

Eadrio d.  686 

'WihtnBd d.  726 

Eadberht d.  748 

Ethelbert  II. d.  760 

Alric d.  794 

Eadberht  Fnan      .  d.  796 

Anglo-Saxon  ChronicU;   Lappenbezg,  AngUh 
Saxon  Kiwjt ;  Stubbs,  Const.  Utn. 

[T.  A.  A.] 

Kent,  Edmund  Grey,  Earl  of  (rf.  1488), 
known  in  the  early  part  of  his  life  as 
Lord  Grey  of  Ruthin,  was  origpfnally  on 
the  Lancastrian  side,  but  during  the  battk*  of 
Northampton  he  deserted  to  the  Yorkists,  to 
whose  victory  he  contributed  greatly  by  this 
piece  of  treachery.  On  Edward  IV.'s  acces- 
sion, he  was  received  into  the  royal  favour, 
and  created  Earl  of  Kent  and  Lord  High 
Treasurer.  He  managed  to  preserve  his 
titles  and  estates  till  his  death,  notwithstand- 
ing the  different  changes  of  government. 

Kentigem,  St.,  or  St.  Muxgo  (rf.  603  ?)j 
was  a  cont(.'mporary  of  St.  Coluinba,  and  the 
apostle  of  Strathelyde.  He  is  said  to  ha\'e 
founded  the  see  of  Glasgow,  where  he  seems 
to  have  long  lived  in  quiet,  till  the  disorders 
of  the  age  drove  him  from  that  district  into 
Wales.     There  he  founded  a  monastery  and 


(  642  ) 


bishopric  in  the  vale  of  Clwyd,  which  received 
its  name  from  his  disciple  Asaph.  When 
Rydderch  Hael  established  his  rule  in  Strath- 
clyde,  and  after  the  battle  of  Ardderyd  (513), 
Christianity  could  once  more  revive  in  those 
parts,  Eentigem  was  r^^alled  to  his  old 
diocese,  with  Hoddam,  in  Dumfriesshire,  for 
his  heaidquarters,  till  he  once  more  removed 
to  Glasgow.  Thence  he  seems  to  have  pro- 
ceeded on  his  missionary  labours  to  Gallowav 
and  the  more  northern  parts  of  Scotland, 
especially  in  the  upper  valley  of  the  Dee. 
An  old  legend  tells  how  St.  Kentigom  and 
St.  Columba  met  before  their  death,  and 
passed  several  days  together  in  spiritual  con- 
versation. 

Skene,  Ceitie  Scotland;  Forbes,  CdUniar  of 
Scottish  Saint*. 

Kentisll  Petition,  The  (170I),  was  an 
expression  of  public  opinion  against  the  peace 
policy  shown  by  the  Tories  in  their  delay 
in  voting  supplies  and  in  seconding  the 
measures  taken  by  William  III.  for  the 
security  of  Europe  against  the  ambitious 
schemes  of  Louis  XIV.  It  was  drawn  up 
by  William  Colepepper,  chairman  of  the 
Quarter  Sessions  at  Maidstone,  and  signed  by 
the  deputy  lieutenants,  about  twenty  justices 
of  the  peace,  and  a  large  number  of  free- 
holders. It  deprecated  "  the  least  distrust  of 
his  most  sacred  majesty  "  on  the  part  of  the 
Commons,  and  implored  the  House  "  that  its 
royal  addresses  might  be  turned  into  BiUs  of 
Supply."  It  was  sent  up  to  London  in  the 
hands  of  William  Colepepper,  and  with  him 
went  four  gentlemen  of  the  county  to  pre- 
sent it.  The  House  of  Commons  was  in- 
dignant at  the  idea  of  one  county  setting  it- 
seS  in  opposition  to  the  united  wisdom  of 
the  country,  and  perhaps  still  more  so  at 
the  indirect  way  in  which  it  was  first 
brought  under  its  notice.  The  petitioners 
could  only  get  their  document  presented  at 
all  on  condition  that  they  would  avow 
their  deed.  Seymour  and  Howe  violently 
denounced  them.  The  petition  was  voted 
'*  scandalous,  insolent,  seditious ;  "  and  the 
five  gentlemen  were  removed  in  the  custody 
of  the  Serjeant-at-Arms.  But  public  opinion 
was  unanimous  in  their  favour,  being  chiefly 
influenced  by  the  "  Legion  Memorial,"  drawn 
up  by  Daniel  Defoe,  and  at  the  close  of  the 
session  the  petitioners  were  set  free.  Hallam 
remarks  that,  *'  though  no  attempt  was  made 
to  call  the  authority  of  the  House  in  question 
by  habeas  corpus  or  other  legal  remedy,  it 
was  discussed  in  pamphlets  and  general  con- 
versation, with  little  advantage  to  a  power  so 
arbitrary,  and  so  evidently  abused  in  the 
immediate  instance." 

Burnet,  Hist,  of  His  Own  Time:  Stanhope, 
Reign  of  QiMen  Anrnj  Hallam,  Const.  Hist.; 
Boyer,  AnnaXt. 

Xenyon,  Lloyd,  1st  Lord  {b,  1733, 
d.   1802),  was  called  to  the   Bar  in  1761. 


In  1780  he  made  himself  a  great  reputa- 
tion by  his  skill  in  conducting  the  defence 
of  Lord  George  Gordon.  Two  years  later  he 
was  made  Attorney-General,  and  in  1784 
became  Master  of  the  Rolls.  In  1788  he  suc- 
ceeded Lord  Mansfield  as  Chief  Justice  of  the 
King's  Bench. 

Keppelf  ArorsTus,  Viscoukt  (b.  1725, 
d.  1786),  entered  the  navy  under  Lord  Anson. 
In  1749  he  was  sent  to  the  Mediterranean, 
and  two  years  later  displayed  some  judgment 
in  negotiations  with  the  Court  of  Algiers. 
On  the  French  War  breaking  out,  in  1757, 
Keppel  served  with  distinction  under  Hawke, 
and  next  year  captured  Goree,  under  difficult 
circumstances.  In  1759  he  took  part  in  the 
fight  in  Quiberon  Bay,  and,  in  1761  and  1762 
respectively,  he  conducted  the  naval  part  of 
the  operations  in  the  capture  of  Belleisle,  and 
commanded  at  Havannah.  In  1765  he  was  a 
Lord  of  the  Adtoiralty,  under  the  Rockingham 
ministry.  For  some  years  he  remained  in 
Fngland  unemployed,  and  in  1778  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  command  of  the  Channel  Fleet 
On  July  27,  after  being  reinforced,  Keppel 
encountered  the  French  fleet  off  Ushant.  He 
utterly  failed  to  bring  them  to  a  decisive 
action,  and  tamely  allowed  them  to  escape  in 
the  night.  Thereupon  ensued  a  series  of 
mutual  recriminations  between  Keppel  and 
Palliser,  his  second  in  command.  A  couit- 
martial  ensued,  which,  after  sitting  for  a 
month,  declared  the  charges  against  Keppel 
to  be  unfounded.  Keppel's  case  became  a 
party  question,  and  the  Whigs  made  it  a 
vital  point  to  gain  an  acquittal.  He  had  the 
good  fortune  to  have  the  popular  voice  on 
his  side,  as  well  as  the  advocacy  of  £rskine. 
and  he  escaped  amid  the  loud  ao^mations  of 
the  nation  generally,  and  of  the  'Whigs  in 
particular.  In  March,  1782,  he  was  appointed 
to  be  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  but  re- 
signed on  the  formation  of  the  Coalition 
Ministry,  only  to  resume  the  post,  however, 
in  four  months  under  the  same  government 
On  Pitt's  accession  to  office  he  again  resigned, 
and  took  no  further  part  in  politicfl  till  his 
death,  in  1786.  As  a  naval  commander, 
Keppel  showed  no  talent,  nor  even  the  most 
commonplace  enterprise,  and  owes  his  position 
in  history  entirely  to  his  own  blunders  and 
the  accident  of  his  fanuly  connection  with 
the  Whigs. 


OF  Ferntbhurst   {d.  1685)  was  the 

son-in-law  of  Kirkcaldy  of  Grange,  who 
made  him  Provost  of  Edinburgh,  in  Queen 
Mary's  interest,  1571.  On  the  capture  of 
Edinburgh,  he  was  compelled  to  take  refuge 
in  England  from  the  resentment  of  Morton. 
He  was  a  bold  soldier,  and  as  warden  of  the 
8cotch  ^larches  became  embroiled  with  the 
English  (1584),  in  a  disturbance  in  which  it 
was  said  that  Arran  w£is  implicated :  a  demand 
from  the  English  court  for  his  surrender  and 
trial  was  rendered  futile  by  his  death* 


(643) 


Sil 


is  the  name  g:ivexi  to  the  light- 
armed  Irish  foot-soldiers.  They  are  described 
for  the  first  time  in  the  Saga  of  £gil,  which 
gives  the  Norse  account  of  the  battle  of 
Brunanburh ;  and  the  name  was  used  for  the 
Irish  irregular  infantry  all  through  the 
Middle 


Set,  Robert  (d.  1 549) ,  a  tanner  of  Wvmond- 

ham,  in  Norfolk,  was  a  leader  in  the  Norfolk 

insurrection  of  1549.  Having  collected  a  body 

of  16,000  men,  he  encamped  on  Household 

Hill  (q.v.),  near  Norwich,  and  assumed  the 

title  of  King  of  Norfolk  and  SufEolk,  holding 

a  daily  court,  before  which  were  tried  such  of 

the  country  gentlemen  as  fell  into  the  hands 

of  the  rebels.    On  Aug.  1  Ket  took  Norwich, 

and  subsequently  drove  out  the  Marquis  of 

Northampton,  who  had  re-occupied  the  city. 

At  this  time  the  Earl  of  Warwick  appeared 

upon  the  scene  with  a  large  body  of  men,  and 

having  cut  off  Ket*s  provisions,  forced  him  to 

a  battle,  in  which  he  was  defeated  and  taken 

prisoner,  being  soon  afterwards   hanged  in 

chains  at  Norwich  Castle. 

Fronde,  Hue.  of  Eng. ;  TjUet,  HUt,  of  Ed- 
ward  VL  and  Mary. 

Khelaty  in  the  Ghilzai  country  of  Af- 
ghanistan, was  taken  possession  of  by  Shere 
All  in  1865.  In  1878  it  was  captured,  during 
the  second  Afghan  War,  by  Sir  Donald  Stewart. 
It  was  evacuated,  and  restored  to  Abdur 
Rahman,  the  Ameer  of  Afghanistan,  in  1880. 


\,  The  Battle  of  (Nov.  5,  1817), 
was  fought  between  the  English  and  the 
Mahratta  troops  of  the  Peishwa  Bajee 
Rao.  It  resulted  in  the  defeat  of  the  latter 
by  the  English  commander,  Colonel  Burr. 
The  Mahratta  general  took  advantage  of 
a  gap  in  the  English  line,  to  launch  a  select 
body  of  cavalry  against  it,  hoping  to  cut 
the  English  in  two.  The  energy  of  the  com- 
mander. Colonel  Burr,  prevented  this,  and  the 
Mahrattas,  charged  by  the  English  troops, 
broke  and  fled. 

KhondSy  The,  are  inhabitants  of  the  part 
of  Orissa  lying  south  of  the  Mahanuddy. 
They  are  a  very  primitive  community,  re- 
taining their  old  patriarchal  government, 
habits,  and  superstitions.  Among  otiier  cus- 
toms Uiey  were  long  addicted  to  the  sacrifice 
of  human  beings  to  the  earth  goddess,  for  the 
purpose  of  increasing  the  fertility  of  their 
fields.  The  custom  was  to  hack  the  living 
victim  in  pieces,  divide  the  flesh,  and  bury 
it  in  the  respective  plots  of  ground.  The 
exertions  of  Major  Macpherson,  Sir  John 
plant,  and  Colonel  Campbell,  were  successful 
in  destroying  the  custom  by  disproving  its 
efficiency  (1837—49). 

Xiddy  Captaix  William  {d,  1701),  was  a 
noted  pirate  living  in  retirement  in  New  York, 
when  he  was  selected  by  the  Earl  of  Bellamont, 
governor  of  New  York  and  Massachusetts,  to 
suppress  piracy  in  the  Indian  Ocean.    As  the 


English  Admiralty  threw  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  fitting  out  a  man-of-war  for  this  pur- 
pose, a  ship  called  the  Adventure  Galley  was 
equipped,  chiefly  by  the  subscriptions  of  the 
Whig  ministers.  Kiddwasput  in  command,  and 
took  with  him  a  commission  under  the  great 
seal,  empowering  him  to  seize  pirates.  The 
king's  right  to  tiie  goods  found  in  possession 
of  Siese  malefactors  was  granted  b^  letters 
patent  to  the  supporters  of  the  expedition,  his 
majesty  reserving  only  one-tenth  of  the  spoil 
to  himself.  In  Feb.,  1697,  Kidd  sailed  from 
the  Hudson,  and  finding  that  plundering 
merchant  vessels  was  more  profitable  than 
attacking  gangs  of  desperate  men,  he  soon 
« threw  off  the  charact^  of  a  privateer  and 
became  a  pirate.''  It  was  about  Aug.,  1698, 
that  this  was  made  known  in  London,  and  Kidd 
was  arrested  at  New  York,  to  which  town  he 
had  returned.  He  was  taken  to  England,  and 
there  hanged  with  throe  of  his  companions. 
Maoaalaj,  Htct.  of  Eng» 

Blildare,  Earls  of.  This  family  traced 
its  descent  through  Maurice  Fitzgerald  to 
Walter  Fitzother,  the  Castellan  of  Windsor. 
His  son  Gerald  became  Lord  Offalev  in  1205. 
John,  the  seventh  lord,  brother  of  the  first 
Earl  of  Desmond,  was  on  his  victory  over  De 
Vescy — till  then  Lord  of  Kildare— in  1316 
created  Earl  of  Kildare,  and  died  soon  after. 
The  fourth  earl,  Maurice,  was  Lord  Justice 
of  Ireland,  and  died  in  1390.  Thomas,  the 
seventh  earl,  was  Lord  Deputy  till  his  death 
in  1478,  and  from  this  time  the  Earls  of 
Kildare  became  the  most  powerful  nobles  in 
all  Ireland,  opposed,  but  as  a  rule  unsuccess- 
fully, by  the  Butlers.  [For  the  further 
fortunes  of  this  family  see  separate  aiticles, 
and  the  Fitzoehalds.]  The  ducal  family  of 
Leinster  at  present  represents  this  ancient 
house. 

Blildare.  Gerald,  8tm  Earl  of  (d.ldlZ), 
was  thirty-three  years  chief  governor  of  Ire- 
land. In  1487,  the  earl,  as  Lord  Deputy, 
actively  assisted  at  the  coronation  of  Lambert 
Simnel  as  Edward  YL,  at  Christ  Church, 
Dublin.  £Us  brother,  the  Chancellor  of  Ire- 
land, fell  at  Stoke.  However,  when  the  earl 
made  his  submission  to  Edgecumbe,  the 
king's  controller,  and  had  an  interview  with 
Henry  YII.  at  Windsor,  he  again  became 
Lord  Deputy.  After  Warbeck's  landing  in 
Ireland,  however,  his  office  was  taken  &om 
him,  and  Sir  Edward  Poynings  had  him  at- 
tainted. He  was  then  sent  over  to  England,  and 
confined  in  the  Tower.  Man^  stories  are  told 
of  his  conduct  there,  and  his  frank  avowal 
that  he  burnt  the  cathedral  at  Cashel  because 
he  thought  the  archbishop  was  in  it,  is  said  to 
have  convinced  Henry  that  he  was  no  con- 
spirator. The  Bishop  of  Meath,  his  chief 
accuser,  concluded  his  charges  by  •  sa^nng, 
'*  You  see  what  a  man  he  is — all  Ireland  can- 
not rule  him."  *♦  Then,"  said  the  king,  "  it 
is  meet  that  he  should  rule  all  Ireland.*'    Ac- 


Ul 


(644) 


XJl 


cordingly  the  Earl  of  Kildare  was  again  made 
Lord  Deputy,  and  remained  so  till  hia  death. 
From  this  time»  however,  he  was  a  loyal  sub- 
ject, and  waged  incessant  war  against  the 
natives,  who  were  again  encroaching  on  the 
Pale,  till  he  fell  in  battle  against  the  O'Moores 
(1613). 

Moore,  Hiat.  of  Ireland ;  Fioode,  Ht«f .  of  Sng. 

Bkildare,  Gerald  Fitzob&ald,  9th  Earl 
OP  (rf.  1634),  became  Lord  Deputy  after  his 
father's  death  in  1513,  and  remained  so  till 
1619,  when,  in  spite  of  his  successful  administra. 
tion,  he  was  superseded  by  the  Earl  of  Surrey. 
The  hereditary  feud  with  the  Butlers  (q.v.), 
meanwhile,  assumed  such  dimensions  that, 
though  he  had  again  been  made  Lord  Deputy 
in  1624,  he  was  summoned  to  England  and 
kept  a  prisoner  in  the  Tower  from  1626  to 
1630.  In  1632,  though  the  struggle  with  the 
Butlers  W£i8  still  going  on,  he  was  again  Lord 
Deputy,  but  in  1634  he  was  once  more  sum- 
moned to  England,  though  he  was  allowed  to 
appoint  a  deputy  during  his  absence.  Gerald 
appointed  his  son,  Lord  Thomas,  and  after 
supplying  his  own  castles  with  artillery  and 
ammunition  from  the  royal  magazines,  he  left 
for  England.  He  was  at  «once  thrown  into 
the  Tower,  where  it  is  reported  he  was  be- 
headed. 

Kildaray  Gbrald,  11th  Earl  ov(d.  1686), 
was  brother  of  Thomas,  the  tenth,  and  second 
son  of  Gkrald,  the  ninth  earL  On  his  father's 
death  he  was  only  ten  years  old ;  but  in  spite 
of  all  the  efforts  of  the  government  to  cap- 
ture him,  he  was  conveyed  away  from  Ireland 
to  the  Continent.  Cardinal  Pole,  a  relation 
of  his  mother,  Lady  Gray,  sent  for  him  into 
Italy,  in  which  country  he  was  educated.  His 
estates  were  restored  under  Edward  YI.,  and 
under  Mary  ho  was  reinstated  in  all  his 
honours.  The  attainder,  however,  was  not 
really  reversed  till  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. 
He  was  active  in  suppressing  Irish  insurrec- 
tions, and  died  in  1585  in  the  Tower,  where 
he  had  been  sent  on  suspicion  of  being  con- 
nected with  the  Geraldine  rebellion  in  the 
south.  All  his  sons  died  early,  without  issue, 
and  the  family  honours  descended  to  the 
present  house  of  Leinster,  through  a  brother 
of  his. 

Froude,  Riot,  of  Eng, ;  Lodg«,  Pewage. 

Kilkenny,  Synod  at,  consisting  of  all 
the  Irish  bishops  and  delegates  from  the 
clergy,  met  at  Kilkenny  in  May,  1642,  and 
decided  that  no  distinction  was  to  be  made 
between  the  old  Irish  and  the  new,  or  Anglo- 
Irish.  A  common  oath  of  association  was 
agreed  on ;  the  aid  of  foreign  powers  was  to 
be  solicited,  and  any  repetition  of  the  Ulster 
outrages,  which  the  SjTiod  condemned,  was  to 
bring  down  excommunication  on  the  authors. 
A  central  council  was  established,  and  com- 
manders were  appointed  for  the  different  pro- 
vinces— Owen  Roe,  for  Ulster;  Preston,  for 
Leinster;  Barry,  for  Munster;   and  Colonel 


John  Burke,  for  Connaught.  In  1643  a  papal 
legate,  Scarampi,  joined  them ;  and  it  was 
under  his  guidance  that  the  council  opposed 
the  Cessation.  First  Lord  Mountgarret,  and 
then  Kinuccini,  occupied  the  pkce  of  presi- 
dent of  the  council.  In  1647,  after  the  failure 
of  Glamorgan's  treaty,  they  concluded  peace 
with  Ormonde ;  but  it  was  only  in  1649,  after 
Kinuccini  had  fled,  that  they  were  really  in 
earnest. 

Fronde,  Engluh  in  Ireland, 

Kilkenny y  The  Convention  at  (1342). 
Alarmed  at  the  attitude  of  the  Anglo-Irish 
lords,  Edward  III.  sent  instructions  to  his 
justiciary,  Sir  John  D'Arcy,  bidding  him 
exclude  tiiose  who  were  possessed  of  great 
Insh  estates  from  the  high  offices  of  State, 
and  replace  them  by  Englishmen  whose 
estates  lay  at  home.  For  the  purpose  of 
carr^g  out  this  measure,  D'Arcy  called  a 

girliament  at  Dublin,  which  the  Earl  of 
esmond  and  the  other  members  of  the  Iridi 
party  refused  to  attend.  The  latter  called  a 
general  meeting  of  those  who  s^rmpathised 
with  him;  and  this  convention,  meeting  at 
Kilkenny  in  Nov.,  1342,  addressed  a  petition 
to  Edward  III.  pointing  out  that  English 
misgovemment  had  led  to  the  loss  of  nearly 
all  Leinster,  appealing  to  Magna  Carta,  and 
stating  their  fears  as  to  a  resumption  of 
grants  and  as  to  the  contemplated  supplant- 
ing of  the  Engli^  by  blood  by  English  by 
birth.  Edward's  reply  to  this  remonstrance 
is  not  extant,  but  he  seems  to  have  received 
it  graciously. 

Close  Boll,  16  Edward  IIL 

Kilkenny^  The  Statute  of  (1367),  was 
passed  in  a  Parliament  held  in  the  town  of 
this  name,  when  Lionel,  Duke  of  Clarence, 
was  Lord  Lieutenant  for  the  third  time.  This 
statute  was  intended  to  check  the  degeneracy 
of  the  Anglo-Irish.  Its  chief  provisions 
were — the  prohibition  of  intermarriages  be- 
tween the  English  and  the  natives ;  of  gossi- 
pred,  and  the  adoption  of  the  Brehon  law  by 
the  English,  who  were  also  forbidden  to  make 
war  on  the  natives.  No  man  of  English  race 
was  henceforth  to  be  allowed  to  assume  an 
Irish  name,  dress,  language,  or  customs; 
while  no  Irish  were  for  the  future  to  be 
allowed  to  pasture  their  cattle  on  English 
ground,  or  to  be  admitted  to  any  religpious 
house  or  benefice.  The  breach  of  these  pro- 
visions entailed  the  penalties  of  high  treason. 
In  addition  to  the  above  ena(*tments,  it  was 
also  provided  that  no  Irish  were  to  be 
called  in  as  minstrels.  Co^^e  and  livery  are 
also  strictly  forbidden.  The  statute,  it 
may  bo  pointed  out,  was  directed  exclusively 
against  the  Anglo-Irish,  and  where  it  deals 
with  the  natives,  only  does  so  to  protect  them 
from  the  lawless  baronage. 
Hallam,  Const.  Hist. 

Xillala,  French  Attempt  at.     On  Aug. 
22,  1798,  General  Humbert  landed  at  Killala, 


su 


(645) 


in  MayOi  with  about  IJOO  men,  and  was 
joined  by  some  Irish  insurgents.  He  kept 
excellent  discipline,  and  prevented  the  Pro- 
testants (among  them  the  Bishop  of  Killala) 
from  being  molested  by  the  rebels.  General 
lake's  troops  fled  before  the  invaders ;  but  on 
the  destruction  of  the  reinforcements  that 
were  coming  by  sea  to  his  help,  General 
Humbert  found  himself  forced  to  surrender 
to  Lord  Comwallis. 

Alison,  Htat.  of  Europe. 

XilligreWy  Sir  Henky,  who  had  taken 
part  in  Sir  Henr}'  Dudley's  plot  against  Mary 
(1556),  was,  in  1559,  selected  to  bring  the 
Earl  of  Arron  to  England.  In  1566  he  was 
sent  on  an  embassy  to  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots ; 
and  in  1569  was  employed  in  negotiating  for 
the  opening  of  fresh  ports  on  the  Baltic  to 
English  commerce.  Three  years  later  he  was 
sent  by  Elizabeth  to  try  to  bring  about  the 
deliver>''  of  Mary  Stuart  to  the  Scots,  and  her 
execution ;  and  was  subsequently  employed  in 
some  of  the  queen's  most  confidential  missions. 


r,  Thomas  {b.  1611,  d,  1682), 
after  having  been  a  page  in  the  court  of 
Charles  I.,  joined  Charles  II.  in  his  exile, 
and  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  Venice,  where 
his  prodigate  conduct  did  much  harm  to  his 
master's  cause.  On  the  Restoration,  he  was 
made  master  of  the  revels,  a  post  for  which 
he  seems  to  have  been  well  fitted.  He  had 
considerable  influence  over  the  king,  and 
seems  to  have  used  it  not  unfrequently  for 
good.  Many  anecdotes  are  told  which  show 
him  as  the  candid  friend  of  the  king,  whom 
he  endeavoured  to  divert  from  his  insatiable 
pursuit  of  pleasure.  Killigrew  Wlas  the  author 
of  many  plays,  none  of  which,  however,  are 
of  any  striking  merit. 

"Killing  no  Mnrder:  briefly  dis- 
coursed in  three  questions,  by  William  Allen," 
was  the  title  of  a  pamphlet  published  in  May, 
1657,  to  justify  the  assassination  of  Cromwell. 
It  justified  the  recent  attempt  of  Sunder- 
combe,  whom  it  compared  to  Brutus.  The 
authorship  of  the  pamphlet  is  generally 
attributed  to  Edward  8exby,  the  Leveller, 
then  engaged  in  promoting  an  alliance  be- 
tween Levellers,  Royalists,  and  Spaniards. 
It  was  claimed,  after  the  death  of  Sexby,  by 
Silas  Titus. 

Clarendon,  History  of  the  ReMUon ;  Evelyn, 
Diary  ;  Mosaon,  Life  of  Milton, 

Xilmansegge,   Baboness.     [Darlixo- 

TOX,  CorXTESS   OF.] 

Xilmamock.  William  Boyd,  2xd  Eakl 
OP,  joined  the  rebellion  of  1745.  After  the 
battle  of  Culloden  he  surrendered  himself, 
was  carried  to  London,  convicted  of  high 
treason,  and  executed  on  Tower  Hill  (1646). 
His  title  and  estates  were  forfeited  for  treason. 

Xjl87tli,THE  Battle  op  (Aug.  15, 1645), 
was  fought  during  the  Civil  War  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  and  resulted  in  a  victory 


for  Montrose  and  the  Cavaliers  over  the 
Covenanters,  who  were  commanded  by  Baillie. 
Kilsyth  is  about  ten  miles  south  of  Stirling. 

Bkilwardbyy    Robekt,    Arohbishop    of 

Canterbury  (rf.  12791,  was  Provincial  of  the 
Dominicans  in  England.  On  the  death  of 
Boniface  of  Savoy,  in  1270,  a  dispute  as  to 
his  successor  took  place  between  the  king  and 
the  monks  of  Canterbury,  which  resulted  in 
-an  appeal  to  the  Pope,  who  nominated  Kil- 
wardby  to  the  vacant  see.  He  proved  himself 
worthy  of  the  oflSce,  and  adopted  a  concili- 
atory policy,  at  the  same  time  introducing 
many  valuable  reforms.  Archbishop  Kilwardby 
crowned  Edward  I.  and  his  wife,  Eleanor  of  Cas- 
tile, in  1274.  He  was  also  present  at  the  great 
council  of  Lyons,  where  the  deputies  of  the 
Greek  emperor,  Michael  Palieologus,  expressed 
their  longing  for  a  union  of  the  Eastern  and 
Western  Churohes.  The  same  year  he  seems  to 
have  attempted  to  instil  something  of  his  own 
spirit  into  the  course  of  study  at  Oxford. 
He  was  a  great  patron  of  learning,  and  a  pro- 
lific author.  In  1278  he  was  ma^e  a  cardinal, 
whereupon  he  vacated  his  arehbishopric,  and 
retired  to  Rome,  where  he  died. 
Hook,  Liv9M  of  the  Arehhitikof. 

Xilwarden,  Abthur  Wolfb,  Viscount 
{d.  July  23,  1803),  was,  in  1787,  made  Soli- 
citor-Ghsneral  for  Ireland,  and  Attorney- 
General  in  1789.  In  1798  he  became  Lord  Chief 
Justice  of  the  King*s  Bench,  and  was  elevated 
to  the  peerage.  In  1803  he  was  unfortu- 
nately just  driving  into  Dublin  when  Em- 
met's shortlived  insurrection  was  raging,  and 
together  with  his  nephew,  was  piked  by  the 
furious  rebels.  As  a  judge  he  was  well  known 
for  his  inclinations  to  merey;  and,  being 
Currants  friend,  was  able  to  save  that  states- 
man from  many  annoyances  in  1798. 

Kimberloy*  Johx  Wodehousb,  Ist  Earl 
OF  {b.  1826),  was  the  eldest  son  of  the 
third  Baron  Wodehouse.  In  1852  he  first 
took  office  as  Under  Secretary  of  Foreign 
Affairs,  which  post  he  held  successively  under 
Lord  Aberdeen  and  Lord  Palmerston,  till 
1856,  when  he  was  appointed  ambassador  at 
St.  Petersburg.  In  1858  he  returned,  and 
resumed  his  post  in  Lord  Palmerston*s  second 
administration  (1859).  In  1863  he  was  sent 
on  a  special  mission  to  the  north  of  Europe 
to  endeavour  to  settle  the  Schleswig-Holstein 
difficulty,  and  next  year  succeeded  the  Earl 
of  Carlisle  as  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  re- 
signing the  post  when  Lord  Russeirs  admin- 
istration retired  in  1866.  He  held  the  office 
of  Privy  Seal  in  ^fr.  Gladstone's  administra- 
tion from  1869  to  1870,  when  he  accepted  the 
Colonial  Office,  In  1874  he  retired  with  his 
colleagues.  In  1 880  he  became  Colonial  Secre- 
tary, and  in  1882  Secretary  for  India.  From 
1892  to  1894  he  was  Secretary  for  India  and 
Lord  President  of  the  Council,  and  in  1894-95 
he  succeeded  Lord  Rosebery  as  Foreign 
Secretary. 


(646) 


_,  is  derived  from  a  common  Aryan 
root,  meaning,  originally,  the  father  of  a 
family,  and  is  not  connected  so  closely  with  kin 
as  Old  English  usage  would  suggest  (cyning=z 
son  of  the  race) .  The  early  Germans  descrihed 
by  Tacitus  were  more  frequently  ruled  over 
by  elective  principet  in  peace,  or  temporary 
duces  in  war,  than  by  kings.  One  result  of  the 
migration  into  Britain  was  the  universal  es- 
tablishment of  monarchy  among  the  old  Eng- 
lish. But  the  earliest  kings  can  be  regarded 
only  as  chief  magistrates,  or  permanent 
duces.  The  constant  war  with  the  Britons 
had  developed  the  heretoga  into  the  eyning. 
But  by  degrees  a  halo  of  sanctity  surrounded 
the  royal  house.  Descent  from  Woden  marked 
it  out  for  special  reverence ;  and  though  the 
royal  dignity  remained  stricUv  elective,  it  was 
very  exceptional  for  the  choice  of  the  Witan 
to  fall  on  any  but  a  member  of  the  traditional 
royal  race.  As  the  representative  and  personi- 
fication of  the  unity  of  the  state,  as  the  chief 
magistrate  in  peace,  as  the  leader  of  the  host 
in  war,  the  Early  English  king  acquired  a 
position  which  ability  and  energy  could 
always  make  imposing,  despite  the  consti- 
tutional check  of  the  Wise  Men  and  the  diffi- 
culties inherent  in  the  exercise  of  power  in  a 
primitive  and  disorderly  state  of  society.  The 
consolidation  of  the  smaller  states  into  greater 
ones  was  invariably  attended  by  a  great  in- 
crease in  the  royal  power.  ''  As  the  kingdom 
increased  in  extension/'  says  Dr.  Stubbs, 
"the  royal  power  increased  in  intension.*' 
The  conception  of  the  sphere  and  functions  of 
kingship  was  enlarged.  The  development  of 
the  comitatus  gave  the  monarch  a  faithful 
band  of  followers,  who  became  the  nucleus  of 
a  new  nobility.  The  blessing  of  the  Church 
gave  the  Christian  prince  new  attributes  of 
dignity  and  sanctity.    The  traditions  of  Im- 

Sjrial  Rome  transferred  to  the  overlord  of  all 
ritain  the  prestige  of  the  emperor  within 
the  island  wluch  was  his  empire. 

Thus  throughout  the  Anglo-Saxon  period 
the  theory  of  kingship  was  constantly  de- 
veloping ;  but  its  old  basis  remained  the  same. 
Edgar  was  as  much  the  king  of  the  race,  the 
personal  monarch  bf  a  free  people  as  the 
smallest  "heptarchic"  sovereign.  But  the 
growth  of  a  feudalism  of  native  origin  side  by 
side  as  yet  with  the  old  Teutonic  polity 
gradually  modified  both  the  theory  and  prac- 
tice of  kingship.  In  the  earliest  tables  of 
wergilds,  the  value  of  the  king's  life  differs 
only  in  degree  from  the  value  of  the  life  of  a 
subject.  But  in  the  days  of  Alfred  a  rudi- 
mentary conception  of  treason  had  come  into 
existence.  The  king  became  lord  of  the 
people,  and  was  gradually  becoming  lord  of 
the  soil  as  well.  Though  still  national  mon- 
arch of  the  race,  his  position  had  become  in 
part  at  least  affected  by  the  territorialising 
influences  that  attended  the  development  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  Constitution.  But  what 
the  king  gained  on  the  one  hand  he  lost  on 


the  other.  Whatever  fresh  prerogatives  were 
in  theory  assigpied  to  him,  he  was  compell^i 
to  delegate  dem  to  feudal  vassals,  who,  if 
nominally  holding  their  powers  from  the  crown, 
were,  for  all  real  purposes,  more  independent 
of  him  than  the  national  ministers  of  the 
earlier  stages  of  kingship.  The  absence  of  an 
official  organisation — the  merely  personal 
character  of  old  I^iglish  kingship — makes  the 
transition  from  an  Edgar  to  an  Ethelred 
explicable.  Even  a  Harold  could  hardly  have 
held  his  own  against  the  feudalising  tend- 
encies of  the  time.  In  fact,  the  election  of  the 
greatest  of  the  earls  to  the  seat  of  the  house  of 
Cerdic,  was  as  great  a  triumph  of  the  feudal 
principle,  as  the  election  of  the  leader  of  the  na- 
tional party  was  a  triumph  of  the  national  policy. 

The  Norman  Conquest  had  remarkable 
effects  upon  the  development  of  English  king- 
ship. Though  necessarily  introducing  a  large 
feudal  element  into  the  constitution, William  I. 
did  his  best  to  counteract  the  disruptive  tend- 
encies of  the  feudal  party  by  emphasising  as 
strongly  as  he  could 'the  continuity  of  the  Old 
English  kingship,  and  by  assigning  to  it 
fre&  prerogatives  such  as  were  clamied  by 
continental  sovereigns.  He  still  professed  to 
be  the  national  king  of  the  people  as  well  as  the 
feudal  lord  of  the  land.  He  did  his  best  to  use 
fully  the  powers  which  theoretically  belonged 
even  to  the  feudal  king,  however  little  prac- 
tically they  were  in  most  countries  exercised. 
As  the  custodian  of  law  and  order,  as  the 
protector  of  the  people  against  the  anarchy 
and  disruption  of  the  feudal  party,  the  Nor- 
man king  was  in  a  real  sense  the  loauler  of  his 
people.  Thus  the  general  effect  of  the  Con- 
quest on  kingship  was  a  great  development  of 
the  royal  power  on  the  old  lines,  llie  con- 
stitutional checks  were  removed.  The  elec- 
tive element  became  nearly  nominal.  The 
establishment  of  a  strong  bureaucratic  svstem, 
and  an  elaborate  mechanism  of  organisation 
and  administration,  carried  the  royal  power  to 
the  highest  point  ever  known  in  England. 

Henr}'  II.  completed  what  Henry  I.  had 
begun.  The  feudal  reaction  suppressed,  the 
way  was  clear  for  the  consolidation  of  a  great 
despotism.  It  is  hard  to  realise  that  the 
monarchy  of  the  Angerins  was  a  gradual 
evolution  from  the  monarchy  of  the  old  West 
Saxon  kings.  But  though  the  struggle  with 
the  Church  had  led  to  the  growth  of  the  op- 
position theory  of  the  divine  origin  of  king- 
ship, and  the  results  of  the  revived  study  of 
Roman  Law  doubtless  entered  into  the  idea 
of  kingship  as  realised  by  Henry  II.,  yet  the 
inferiority  of  his  own  power  in  Normandy 
sufficiently  indicates  that  the  English  mon- 
archy had  mainly  developed  from  internal 
causes.  Feudal  Oaul  had  not  much  to  teach 
the  country  of  Edg^r  and  Dunstan.  The 
analogy  of  the  Carolings  was  too  remote  to 
give  more  than  the  impulse  to  the  growth  of 
Henry  II.'s  despotism. 

But  the  very  administrative  system  which 


(  647  ) 


gave  permanence  to  the  power  of  the  Angevin 
monarchy,  even  when  the  carelessnefis  of  a 
liichard  or  the  tyianny  of  a  John  had  done  its 
hest  to  degrade  the  lustre  of  the  crown,  con- 
tained in  itself  the  elements  of  the  constitution 
which  was  to  set  limits  to  the  prerogatives 
of  future  monarchs.  The  pure  despotism  of 
the  Conqueror  and  his  sons  became  a  despotism 
tempered  by  precedent  when  the  administra- 
tive system  had  worked  long  enough  to 
establish  a  bureaucratic  circle  of  administra- 
tive families  and  a  well-defined  adminis- 
trative tradition.  A  baronage,  which,  in 
ceasing  to  be  feudal,  had  become  national,  led 
the  people  to  a  struggle  which  in  less  than 
two  generations  from  Magna  Carta  had  estab- 
lished the  mediaeval  constitution  of  England. 

The  reign  of  Henry  III.  marks  the  transition, 
that  of  Edward  I.  the  completion  of  the  new 
theory  of  English  kingship.  The  legislative 
and  laxative  powers  were  now  reposed  in  the 
hands  of  the  national  representatives,  whose 
power  of  presenting  grievances  was  an  indica- 
tion of  that  national  feeling  in  accordance 
with  which  a  wise  king  would  govern.  Prac- 
tical efficacy  was  given  to  the  old  Teutonic 
maxim,  Lex  Jit  consensu  pcptUi  et  eonstitutione 
regis.  But  the  whole  executive  power  re- 
mained with  the  king.  He  still  had  in  his 
hands  the  destinies  of  the  whole  state.  He 
took  the  initiative  in  everything.  He  governed 
the  country,  made  war  or  peace,  was  the 
fountain  of  justice  and  honour,  appointed  all 
ministers,  negotiated  all  treaties,  and,  through 
his  council,  even  exercised  concurrent  legis- 
lative and  taxative  powers  with  those  of  Parlia- 
ment. So  long  as  the  nation  trusted  him,  he 
could  do  almost  anything ;  but  he  was  iherex 
politietts,  who  ruled  by  law,  and  the  law,  so 
far  as  not  fixed  by  tradition,  could  only  be 
altered  by  Parliament. 

During  the  fourteenth  centur}',  though  the 
basis  of  kingship  was  hardly  altered  from  the 
position  of  Edward  I.,  there  grew  up,  in  pro- 
portion as  the  popular  claims  of  a  Parlia- 
mentary party,  conscious  of  its  strength,  were 
advanced,  an  antagonistic  series  of  royal  as- 
sumptions. "  For  every  assertion  of  national 
right,"  says  Dr.  Stubbs,  "  there  is  a  counter- 
-assertion  of  royal  autocracy.  Royalty  becomes 
in  theory  more  absolute,  as  in  practice  it  is 
limited  more  and  more  by  the  national  will." 
Edward  III.  was  certainly  less  able  to  g^t  his 
own  way  than  Edward  I.,  yet  Edward  III.'s 
claims  to  override  Parliament  were  fcir  in  ex- 
cess of  Edward  I.'s.  The  reign  of  Richard  II. 
was  a  neriod  of  Parliamentary  growth ;  but 
Richard  was  the  most  strenuous  asserter  of 
the  divine  right  and  indefeasible  preroga- 
tives of  monarchy  of  any  medisBval  sovereign. 
His  great  attempt  at  despotism  speedily  led, 
however,  to  a  new  adjustment  of  the  position 
of  the  monarchy  by  the  Revolution  of  1399. 

Both  the  practice  of  the  Lancastrian 
monarchs  and  the  theorising  of  Sir  John 
Fortescue  illustrate  very  strongly  the  highest 


development  of  mediaeval  constitutionalism. 
"  The  origin  of  politic  kingship,"  says  For- 
tescue,  '48  the  will  of  the  people.  The  limita- 
tions of  the  royal  power  are  the  glory  rather 
than  the  shame  of  regality,"  as  the  prosperity 
of  constitutional  England  and  the  misery  of 
despotic  France  sufficiently  indicate.  The 
nomination  of  the  council  in  ParHament  almost 
anticipates  the  modem  ministry,  and  shows 
that,  even  within  his  executive  functions,  Henry 
IV.  was  under  the  control  of  Parliament.  But 
constitutionalism  was  too  weak  a  form  of  go- 
vernment for  the  fifteenth  century.  'The 
Wars  of  the  Roses  demonstrated  its  futility, 
and  the  "  new  monarcliy,"  which  the  Yorkist 
Edward  IV.  began,  and  the  Lancastrian 
Henry  VII.  established,  shows  that  a  new  de- 
velopment of  kingship  could  alone  cope  with 
the  turbulence  of  an  age  of  revolution. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  regard  the  monarchy  of 
the  Tudors  as  in  any  formal  sense  a  break  in 
the  continuity  of  the  English  constitution.  But 
practically  it  was  little  less.  The  functions  of 
Parliament  were  minimised,  and  the  House  of 
Lords  packed  with  servile  bishops,  and  the 
Commons  with  courtiers  and  placemen.  But 
the  absence  of  a  standing  army  shows  that 
Henry  VTII.  could  rely  on  his  people's 
support,  and  that  the  monarchy  was  strong 
because  national  and  popular.  The  king 
was  careful  not  do  illegal  acts  without 
sufficient  reason  for  them.  Even  the  lex 
regia  of  English  history,  which  gave  the 
king's  proclamations  the  force  of  law,  and  the 
sanguinary  attainder  of  fallen  statesmen,  show 
that  Parliament  was  on  the  king's  side.  The 
assertion  of  the  royal  supremacy  over  the 
Church  was  the  chief  new  contribution  of  the 
Tudor  period  to  the  theory  of  the  monarchy. 
The  claim  of  imperial  self-sufficiency  for  the 
English  king  was  hardly  new ;  but  there  was 
the  less  need  to  theorise  when  the  practical 
power  was  secure.  Yet  now  that  the  mediaeval 
feudal  checks  were  removed,  the  proprietary 
theory  of  sovereignty,  which  was  a  result  of 
feudaLisra,  and  regarded  the  nation  as  the 
estate  of  the  king — as  much  his  private  pro- 
perty as  the  land  of  his  nobles — directly  pre- 
pared the  way  for  the  divine  right  theories 
of  the  Stuarts. 

As  a  rule,  the  political  writers  of  the  six- 
teenth century  spoke  of  '*the  regiment  of 
England  as  no  mere  monarchy,  but  a  rule 
mixed  by  oligarchy  and  democracy "  (Ayl- 
mer) ;  but  Raleigh  regards  the  English  and 
French  monarchies  as  similar  in  power,  and 
the  lang^uage  of  Sir  T.  Smith  is  much  less 
emphatic  Uian  that  of  Fortescue.  The 
troubles  of  an  age  of  revolution  had  resulted 
in  a  theory  that,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary 
constitutional  and  limited  prerogatives  of  the 
crown,  the  supreme  necessity  of  saving  the 
state  involved  in  the  very  coni.eption  of 
kingship  a  dictatorial  and  paramount  sove- 
reignty, which  was  generally  called  the  king's 
"absolute  power."    This  perhaps  necessary 


(M8) 


conception  was  now  combined  with  the  high 
monarchical  theorisings  of  James  I.,  and  the 
doctrine  of  the  rising  Arminian  party  that  the 
origin  of  government  was  to  be  found  in  that 
patriarchal  society,  whose  monarchical  consti- 
tution was  the  precedent  for  all  time,  that  an 
indefeasible  divine  right  entitled  the  next 
heir  by  hereditaiy  succession  to  the  monarchy, 
that  ail  constitutional  checks  on  the  crown  are 
of  favour  and  not  of  right,  and  that  passive 
obedience  was  in  all  cases  to  be  paid  to  the 
established  monarch.  This  was  supplemented 
by  lawyers  zealous  for  the  dignity  of  the 
fountain  of  justice,  and  by  reformers  who 
could  see  in  the  royal  prerogative  the  only 
way  to  progress  and  improvement;  but  the 
antagonistic  claims  of  Parliament  soon  re- 
duced these  theories  into  unreality.  The  Ci\'il 
War  practically  decided  the  struggle.  How- 
ever Hobbes  might  theorise  on  the  abso- 
lutism of  the  sovereigpi  state,  or  Filmer  on  the 
patriarchal  basis  of  divine  rights;  however 
parliaments  might  record  their  approval  of 
the  doctrines  of  passive  obedience  and  non- 
resistance,  the  government  under  Charles  II. 
was  practically  in  the  hands  of  two  political 
parties,  of  which  one  might  indeed  be  more 
personally  favourable  to  the  monarch,  but  the 
Tories*  adulation  of  the  royal  power  was 
turned  into  open  rebellion  when  James  II. 
took  them  at  their  word,  and  lost  his  throne 
in  consequence. 

The  Revolution  of  1681  was  the  triumph  of 
the  Whig  theory  of  monarchy,  which  Locke's 
political  treatises  bad  developed  against  Filmer. 
The  sovereign  owed  his  position  to  the 
'*  original  contract "  between  king  and  people. 
The  violation  of  this  led  to  an  ipso  facto  abdi- 
cation; for  the  social  contract  was  not,  as 
Hobbes  maintained,  absolute  and  indefeasible, 
but  terminable  if  broken.  But  not  only  was  the 
power  of  the  sovereign  thus  limited  in  theory, 
not  only  was  the  ultimately  elective  character 
of  the  monarchy  re-asserted,  and  all  the  old 
checks  recapitulated  and  enlarged,  but  the 
distinction  between  the  crown  and  the  king, 
between  the  royal  office  and  the  royal  person, 
which  the  Long  Parliament  had  used  to 
justify  their  rebellion,  became  now  an  essen- 
tial part  of  that  unwritten  constitutional 
usage  which,  in  practice,  soon  superseded  the 
old  legal  and  theoretical  constitution  of  the 
country.  The  influence  and  power  of  the  crown 
went  on  increasing,  while  the  king's  real  power 
became  less  and  less.  Nothing  but  the  fiction  of 

S*  irists  regards  the  nominal  head  of  the  modem 
nglish  State,  who  '^  reigns  but  does  not 
govern,"  as  the  real  wieldor  of  the  ever-in- 
creasing executive  power  which  is  carried  on 
in  his  name.  The  cabinet,  an  informal  com- 
mittee of  Parliament,  and  ultimately  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  is  the  real  king  in  the 
mediteval  sense.  The  old  distinction  of  the 
legislative  and  executive  power  upon  which 
the  old  constitution  rested,  has  been  broken 
down.    Many  theoretical  powers  of  the  sove- 


reign,  such  as  tho  royal  veto  on  bills,  are 
practically  obsolete. 

Indirect  influence,  rather  than  acts  of 
authority,  now  makes  the  monarch  a 
still  important  factor  in  English  politics. 
George  III.,  for  a  time,  restored  the  old  royal 
right  of  naming  ministers,  but  his  ultimate 
success  rested  on  a  harmony  of  royal  and 
popular  wishes  which,  possible  under  the 
'*  Venetian  oligarchy  "  of  the  eighteenth  cen* 
tury,  becomes  increasingly  difficult  when  three 
Keform  biUs  have  brought  into  full  power 
the  English  democracy,  and  made  the  "  Pa- 
triot King"  almost  impossible.  The  con- 
tinuity of  English  kingship,  so  long  as  it 
remained  a  reality,  is  very  remarkable,  de- 
spite the  change  of  its  forms  and  the  fluctua- 
tions of  its  power. 

A  general  view  of  the  growth  of  kingship- 
can  be  obtained  from  the  Comtiiuiional  Ht»> 
iovin  of  Stubbs,  Hallam,  and  May.  The  primi- 
tive kingship  of  Qermauy  is  to  be  studied  in 
Tacitus'  Qtrmania.  Some  i>arts  of  the  Dialogyis 
d$  Scaecario  illustrate  the  Angevin  monarcbj, 
and  the  formal  treatises  of  mediaeval  political 
philosophers,  such  as  Thomas  Aquinas,  put 
medieval  monarchy  on  its  broadest  basis. 
Mr.  Freenuui's  writings,  whUe  fully  illustratiiig 
early  English  kingship/  bring  out  clearly  ita 
oonnnuity.  Allen  On  ike  PrerogaJtive  is  sometimes 
useful.  Fortescue's  book,  De  LaudibHt  Legum, 
Anglio!,  is  the  only  full  oiiginal  statement  of  the 
constitutional  position  of  the  medisBTal  mon* 
apohy.  The  preambles  to  some  of  Henry  V1II.'» 
ref  onning  statutes,  illustiate  clearly  the  position 
claimed  by  that  monarch.  Aylmer's  answer  to 
Knoz*s  Biad  agaimi  the  Regiment  0/  Wom«n ; 
Harrison,  Deecription.  of  England,  preflzed  to 
HoUnshed's  Chronicle;  Sir  T.  Smith,  On  ike 
Commouxeealth ;  and  some  of  Baleigh's  political 
writiun.  show  the  position  of  the  monarchy 
under  Eilizabeth.  James  I.'s  True  Law  of  Free 
Monarehiee  gives  the  theoretical.  Bacon's  poltti> 
cal  treatises  the  practi(»l  basis  :  and  Overall's 
Convocation  Bookf  and  Cowell's  Interpreter,  th» 
ecclesiastical  and  legal  justifications  of  the 
Stuart  claims.  Filmer^s  Pairiarcha  is  a  more 
elaborate  statement  of  the  divine  right  posi- 
tion ;  Hobbes's  Levtaihan,  a  strong  declaration 
of  the  autocracy  of  the  State,  which,  in  prac- 
tice, led  to  a  despotism  of  the  Cromwell  or 
Bichelieu  type.  Liocke's  Treaiiee  of  Qovem- 
m«nt  is  the  text -book  of  eighteenth  oentunr 
Whiggism,  and  in  a  sense,  aimed  against  both 
Filmer  and  Hobbes.  Boliugbroke's  ratriot  King^ 
marks  the  revival  of  the  Tory  monarchical  party, 
which  ultimately  carried  George  III.  into 
power.  Mr.  Bogehot's  English  Conetiiution  gives 
the  best  view  of  the  present  position  of  the 
monarchy.  [T.  F.  T.] 

RsoNAL  Tears  op  the  Eikos  or  Eetolakd.— 
"The  importance  of  extreme  accnmcy,"  says  Sir 
H.  Nicolas  (from  whose  valuable  Chroiteto^y 
0/  Hietory  the  subjoined  table  is  taken)  *' re- 
specting the  regnal  years  of  the  Kings  of  England, 
is  at  once  shown  by  the  fact  that,  in  most  instances, 
after  the  reign  of  Henry  n.  no  other  date  of  a  year 
occurs,  either  in  public  or  private  doonments,  than 
ihe  year  of  the  reign  of  the  existing  monarch, 
and  that  an  error  respecting  the  exact  day  from 
which  the  regnal  year  is  calculated  TOBymoduce 
a  mistake  of  one  entire  year  in  reducing  such  a  date 
to  the  year  of  the  Incarnation.  Every  year  of  a 
king's  reign  is  in  two  years  of  our  Lord,  except 
(which  has  never  yet  nappened  in  England)  in  the 
case  of  an  accession  on  the  1st  of  January.  1*^^ 
first  year  of  the  reign  of  our  late  sovereign  com- 
menced on  the  2dth  of  June,  1830,  and  terminated 
on  the  25th  of  June.  1831.    If,  therefore,  the  be- 


( ^4d ) 


winning  of  that  reign  be  aroneooBly  calculated— 
for  examplct  fTom  the  28tli  instead  of  from  the 
28th  of  June,  1830— every  document  dated  on  the 
26th  and  27th  of  June,  1  William  IV.,  would  be 
aaaitrned  to  the  year  1831  instead  of  the  year  1890, 
and  a  similar  mistake  would  occur  on  each  of  those 
days  in  every  year  of  that  rdgn.  The  effect  of  an 
error  of  even  a  few  days,  much  more  of  one  entire 
year  in  the  date  of  events,  must  be  evident,  and  a 
correct  table  of  the  regnal  ^ears  of  the  Kings  of 
En^irland  is  consequently  a  nvs  qud  non  to  the  hi»> 
toncal  student. 

"  In  usine  this  table,  it  is  necessaiy  to  observe  that 
it  is  calculated  according  to  the  common  and  hia* 
torical  ^eu>- viz.,  from  the  Ist  of  Januaiy — bat  as 
the  civil,  ecclesiastical,  and  legal  vear  for  a  long 
period  began  on  the  25th  of  March,  all  dates  be- 
tween the  1st  of  January  and  the  25th  of  March 
belong,  accordincr  to  the  civil  computation,  to 
the  year  before  the  historical  year,  for  example, 
from  the  1st  of  January  to  the  25th  of  March,  in 
the  first  year  of  the  reign  of  William  the  €k>nqaeror, 
was  in  the  civil  year  1006  instead  of  1067.  For  the 
same  reason,  Edward  III.'s  reigrn  is  sometimes  said 
to  have  begun  on  the  25th  of  January,  1326,  instead 
of  the  25th  of  January,  1327 ;  Henry  Y.'s  on  the 
21st  of  March,  U12,  instead  of  the  21st  of  March, 
1413;  Edward  IV/s  on  the  4th  of  March,  1460, 
Instead  of  the  4th  of  March,  1461 ;  and  the  same 
remark,  miUatU  mutandis,  applies  to  the  commence- 
ment of  the  reigns  of  Edward  TI.,  James  I., 
Charles  IL,  James  II.,  William  and  Mary,  and 
Queen  Anne  aocordingly,  whether  the  historical 
or  civil  year  be  alluded  to." 


{ 


25 
24 

*\24 

Mi 

25 
24 


•{ 


Dec. 
»» 
*t 
»» 

ti 
*f 
«> 
tl 
•• 
»l 
ff 
ft 


William  ths  Corquxbob, 


1066 
1067 
1067 
1068 
1068 
1069 
1060 
1070 
1070 
1071 
1071 
1072 
1072 
1073 


8 


{ 


25 
24 


Dec. 


"IE 

12!  25 

^^124 
iaJ25 


If 
ff 


ff 
ff 


ff 

ft 


ff 
ff 


ff 
f» 


ff 
ff 


ff 


1073 
1074 
1074 
1075 
1075 
1076 
1076 
1077 
1077 
1078 
1078 
1079 
1079 
1060 


Dec.  1060 
1081 
1081 
1082 
1082 
1088 
1088 
1064 
1084 
1085 
1085 
1086 
„  1086 

Sept.  1067 


William  ths  Bsoohd. 


ff 


26  Sept.  1067 
1068 
1068 
1080 
1069 

loeo 

1090 
1001 
1091 
1002 


ff 
ff 
ff 
f> 
ff 
*f 
ft 
ff 


•12 

**(25 
^\2S 


ff 


Sept  1092 
1098 
1098 
1094 
1094 
1095 
1095 
1096 


ff 
ft 
$» 
ff 
ff 
ft 


1^125 
"125 

^i  2 


Sept.  1096 
1097 
1007 
1098 
1098 
1060 
„     1099 

Aug.  1100 


ft 
t» 


t* 
t> 


ft 


\i 

aJ5 

it 

h 

8 


Avg, 


10 


18 
1 


t» 
ff 
ft 
t* 
It 
It 
ft 
9» 
t9 
tf 
ft 
ft 
tt 
tf 
tt 
tt 
ft 
ft 
fl 


Hbhkt 

1100,,  J  6 

1101  "14 
1101,  e/5 

1102  "U 

1102^^(5 

11081^14 

il03,- J5 

1x04  "t  4 

1104:,  J  5 
1105' 15|  4 

1106!    .16 

1106!  181* 
1106!     |6 

110711714 
1108  1814 


1108^ 

1100119 

1109' 

„    mo' 20 

HIST.-21* 


TBB  FlBOT. 

Aug.  1110  Q, 
1111  ^ 
1111 
1112 

1112 
1113 
1118 
U14 
1114 
U15 
1115 
1116 
1116 
1117 
1117 
1118 
1118 
1119 
1119 
U20 


ft 
ft 
ft 
ft 
tf 
ft 
ft 
tf 
tf 
ft 
t* 
ft 
ft 
If 
tf 
tf 
tt 
ff 
ff 


22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
80 


{ 


Aug. 


ft 
tf 
ft 
ft 
ft 
ft 
ff 
tf 
ft 
ft 
ft 
ft 
ff 
ft 
ft 
tt 
ft 
ft 
If 


1120 
1121 
1121 
1122 
1122 
1123 
1128 
1124 
1124 
1125 
1125 
1126 
1126 
1127 
1127 
1128 
1128 
1129 
1129 
1180 


32| 


Hekbt  the  Fibst  (continued). 


5 


Aug.  1130 1 

ff  1131 

ft  1131 

t.  1132 


33 


{I 


Aug. 


^(4 


ft 
If 


tf 


1132 
1133 
IL^ 
U34 


35 
36 


Aug. 


1134 
1135 
..   1185 
Dec.  1135 


ft 


Stephxh. 


HIbhbt  the  Seoobd. 


BiCHABD  thb  Fibst. 


,  (8  Sept.  1189 
11 2      „     1190 
^"  1190 

1191 
1191 
11^2 
1192 
1198 


24I 

8J2 
aJ3 


ri 
tf 
ft 
ft 
tf 
t» 
t» 


Ma 


Sept.  1198 
1194 
1194 
1195 
1195 
1106 


ft 
ft 
It 
ft 
It 


8 


{ 


Sept. 


t{» 


10 


{ 


1196 
1197 
1197 
1198 

It    iifle 

Apzil  1190 


ft 
»• 

tt 


6 


May  1199 
1200 
1200 
1201 
1201 
1202 
1202 
1208 
„     1203 

June  1204 

ft     120* 
MjBy  1205 


ft 
ft 


tf 
tf 


ft 
ft 


If 


JOHK. 

9(19  May 
5^110 
11 
30 
81 
'  14 
15 
■  6 
'  7 
'  26 

12]  *7 


8-! 

9 
10 
11 


If 
ft 
ff 
*t 
tt 
tt 
t» 

« 

ft 
It 
ft 


1206 
1206 
1206 
1207 
1207 
1206 
1206 
1209 
1209 
1210 
1210 
1211 


May  1211 
1212 
1212 
1218 
»  1218 
..  1214 
1214 
1215 
1215 
1216 

;;  1216 

Oct.  1216 


I* 
f> 
*f 


ff 
ff 
tf 


Hbkbt 


^{27 

"(27 
(28 
27 
28 
27 
si  28 
^127 


28  Oct. 


:i 


ft 
tf 
ff 
tt 
If 
ft 
ft 
tf 
tf 


1216 
1217 
1217 
1218 
1218 
1219 
1219 
1220 
1220 
1221 


THB  THIBD. 

Oct.  1221 
1222 
1222 
1223 
1223 
1224 
1224 
1225 
1225 
1226 


tf 
ft 


ft 
ft 


ft 
ff 


ft 
tf 


tf 


(  660  } 


HllTBT  THB  ThIKD 


(fiontinusd), 

1245 
1246 

46-<28 


Edwakd  trb  Thibo  (conttniMtQ. 


Edwaed  ths  Sboovd. 


July 


>> 
>t 
*> 
»t 
>* 
I* 
tt 
»» 
I* 
»i 
I* 
tt 
»t 


July  1814 
1315 
1815 
1816 
1316 
1317 
1317 
1318 
1318 
1319 
1319 
1320 
1320 
1321 


15 

16 

17{ 

18^ 

19 

20 


8 
7 
8 
7 
8 
7 
8 
7 
8 
7 
8 
20 


jiily  1321 
1322 
1322 
1323 
1323 
1324 
1324 
1325 
1325 
1326 
„     1326 

Jan.  1327 


•t 


91 


»t 


Edwabd  ths 


t  J  25  Jan. 
M24 

2J24 

^"124 

*t24 

*l24 


»* 
It 
»> 


1887 
1328 
1388 
1329 
1329 
1330 
1330 
1331 
1331 
1332 


Jan. 


Thzbd. 

1332; 

1333 

1333 

1334, 

1334' 

1335 

1335 

1336 

13361 


11 
12 
13 


14 


13371 


15 


as 

'  24 

^25 

(24 

(25 

24 

25 

)24 

25 

t24 


Jan. 


1337 
1388 
1388 
1389 
1389 
1340 
1840 
1341 
1341 
1342 


1410 
1410 
1411 
14U 
1418 
1418 
1413 


Hbmbt  THB  Fifth. 


Mar. 
>f 
ft 
t» 
>i 
$9 
It  ° 
ti 


1413 
1414 
1414 
1415 
1415 
1416 
1416 
1417 


Mar. 


t* 

n 


»t 
t« 


ft 


1417 
1418 
1418 
1419 
1419 
1420 


8 


CUMk 

lao    ,. 


1420 
1481 
1421 
1488 
1488 
Adg.  1488 


ft 


I* 


Hbvbt  THB  Sixth. 


1  Sept  1488 
31  Aug.  1423 
1  Sept.  1423 
31  Ang.  1424 
1  Sept.  1424 
31  Aug.  1425 
1  Sept.  1425 
31  Aug.  1426 
1  Sept  1426 
31Ang.  1427 
nj  1  Sept.  1427 
't  31  Aug.  1428 
7  C  1  Sept.  1428 
^131  Aug.  1489 
fij  1  Sept.  1429 
*'t31Aug.  1480 


2 
8 

4 


9 

lo- 
ll 


ISept. 
31  Aug. 

ISept 
81  Aug. 

ISept. 
81  Aug. 


,of  ISept. 

^^  1 31  Aug. 
laJ   ISept 

uf  ISept 
"1 31  Aug. 
15|^lSept 


16 


31  Aug.  1436 
1436 

31  Aug.  1487 
(  ISept.  1<IS7 
)  81  Aug.  1488 


1480 

1481 

1431 

1482 

1482  i 

1483 

1433 

1484  "^"i  31 

14S4|2i(    1 
1485^^)81 

1485  22|   1 


31 


31 


Sept  1488 
Aug.  14S9 
Sept  1489 
Aug.  1410 
SepL  1440 
Ax^.  1441 
Sept.  1441 
Aug.  1448 
Sept.  1418 
Aug.  1443 
Septl4tt 
Av^,  1441 
Septl4U 
Aug.  1446 
Sept  1445 
Aug.  1446 


(  661  ) 


Hbkbt  thb  Sixth  (contmiMdX 


Sept.  1446 1  Q^i  iSept. 
Aug.  l^?.**! 81  Aug. 
Sept.  1447  «,j  ISept. 
Aug.  1448  ^^(81  Aug. 
Sept.  1448  09  (  1  Sept. 
Aug.  l*©,""!  31  Aug. 
Sept.  144d!q«i  ISept. 
Aug.  14501^131  Aug. 
Sept.  1450' q.j  ISept. 
Aug.  1451 1 '**t  31  Aug. 


EOWAKD  THX  FOVBTH. 


^{1 
-{I 

At 
Ht 


Karoh  14611 
1462 
1462' 
1463 
1463' 
1464 
1464 
1465 
1465 
1466 
1466 
1467 
1467 
1468 
1468 
1469 


9 


t> 
t» 
t» 
ft 
>t 
t> 
t» 
ff 
>» 
» 

f* 

M 
l» 


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March  1469  ,9(4 
1470^' Is 

(4 


13- 
14- 
15 
16 


4 
3 
4 
3 

4 
3 

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1470 1 

14711 

1471' 

1472 

1472' 

1473 

1473 

1474 

1474 

1475 

1475 

1476 

1476 

1477 


18  { 
19 


3 

4 

.8 

4 
"3 

^{9 


21 


Sept.  1456 
Aug.  1457 
Sept.  1457 
Aug.  1458 
Sept.  1456 
Aug.  1459 
Sept.  1459 
Aug.  1460 
Sept.  1460 
Mar.  1461 


MarohUT? 
1478 
1478 
1479 
1479 
1480 
1480 
1461 
1481 
1482 
1482 
1483 
1483 

April  1488 


Edwasd  the  Fitth. 


(   9  April  1463 
1 25  June  1483 


{ 


BiCHABD  THE  ThX&D. 

26  June  14831  o  (26  June  1484|  . 


25 


tt 


1484 


2 


{ 


25 


tt 


1485 


{ 


J  (22  Aug. 


Hbkkt  thb  Ssventh. 


26  June  1486 
22  Aug.  1485 


Aug.  1501 
1502 
1502 
1503 
1503 
1504 
1504 
1506 
1505 
1506 
1506 
1507 
1607 
1506 
„     1508 

A]^1509 


Henrt  the  Exohth. 


22  April 
21 


tt 
tt 
tt 
tt 
tt 
tt 
tt 
tt 
tt 
tt 
tt 
It 
t* 
tt 
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ft 
tt 
ft 
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1522  «-( 

1523, '^^t 

1523'«, 

1524,*" 

1524 

1526 

1526|^( 
1506  „ 
1527^ 
1527 


22  April 
21  .. 


29 


1528 
1628 
1529 
1629 
1590 
1530 
1531 
1631 
1532 
1532 
riSS 
1533 
1534 
1534 
1535 


32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 


.38| 


21 
22 
21 
22 
21 
22 
21 
22 
21 
22 
21 
22 
21 
22 
21 
22 
21 
22 
21 

28  Jan. 


»t 

99 

tt 
It 
tt 
tt 
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tt 
tt 
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tt 
tt 
tt 
tt 
tt 
tt 
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II 
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1585 
1536 
1536 
1587 
1537 
1538 
1538 
1539 
1539 
1640 
1540 
1641 
1641 
1642 
1542 
1643 
1648 
1544 
1644 
LS45 
1645 
1546 
1646 
1647 


8{g 


Edward  the  Sixth* 


Jan. 


tt 
tt 
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Jul/ 


» 


1647 
1648 
1548 
1649 
1649 
1550 


1553 
1554 


Hi 


Jan, 
tt 
It 


ti 


1550 
1651 
1551 
1552 


6 


j  28  Jan.  1562 
(27  „  1558 
y(28  ..  1658 
't   6  July  1658 


hi 


Mabt. 

6  July  1564 
24     ..     1554 


tt 


Philip  ahd  Mart. 
(Th«  marriage  to^  place  25  July,  1554.) 


July 


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tt 


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1564 
1655 
1555 
1556 


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4J25 
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1557, 
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26  July  1566 
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426 
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17 
16 

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22 
23 


24- 


25 


27 
28 
29 
30 


Nov. 


16 

17 

116 


(17 


tie 

17 
1 16 
17 
16 
17 
16 
17 
16 
17 

,ie 

17 
il6 


Jaxes 


T^E  First. 

Mar.  1611  ,9  ( 
1612  ^'\ 


1612 

1613 

1613 

1614 

1614 

1615 

1615 

1616 

1616 

1617 1 

1617 

1618, 

1618 

1619 1 


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22 -j 
23 


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24  Mar. 

23 

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23 

24 

23 

24 

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23 

24 

23 

24 

27 


fi 
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fi 
It 
ti 
tt 
tt 
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It 


'Cbables  the  First. 


Mar.  1633 

„  1634 

ft  1634 

„  1«35 

„  1636 

,,  1636 

„  1«6 

,.  1637 

'ft  1638 

,.  1638 

„  1630 

„  leso 

..  1640 


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26 


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27 
26 


21 


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1640 
1641 


^{so 


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ft 
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ft 
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ft 
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It 
If 

Jan. 


1619 
1620 
1620 
1621 
1621 
1622 
1622 
1623 
1623 
1624 
1624 
1625 
1625 
1625 


1641 
1642 
1642 
1648 
1643 
1644 
1644 
1646 
1645 
1646 
1646 
1647 
1647 
1648 
1648 
1649 


(  652  ) 


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1652 

1652 

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1653 

1654 

1654 

1655 

1655 

1656 

1656 

1657 

1657 

1658 

1658 

1659 

1659 

1660 

1660 

1661J 


s 

o 
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Jaxss  the  Second. 


Feb. 


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1685 
1686 
1686 
1687 


i 


Feb. 


tt 


1687 
1688 


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WlLLUK  AVD  IKaET. 


8 

8 


13  Feb. 

12 

13 


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13 

13 
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13 
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ft 
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ft 
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Mar. 


f» 
ft 


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ft 


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ff 
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1689 
1690 
1690 
1691 
1691 
1692 
1692 
1693 
1693 
1694 


1702 
170B 
1703 
1704 
1704 
1705 
1705 
1706 
1706 
1707 


6 


{ 


18 
27 


Feb. 
Dec. 


1694 
1094 


William  III. 
yj28  Dec.  1694 


It 
It 


ft 

It 


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AlTKB. 

f8  Mar. 


8j7 
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ft 
ft 
ft 
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ti 
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1695 
1695 
1696 
1696 
1697 


1707 
1706 
1706 
1709 
1709 
1710 
1710 
17U 


Feb.  1688 
Deo.  1688 


Dec.  1697 
1696 
1698 
1609 
1699 
1700 
1700 
1701 

J*     1^ 
Mar.  1702 


10 
11 
12 
13- 


7 
8 
7 
8 
1 


Mar. 


If 
ft 


It 
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If 


It 
Aug. 


1711 
1712 
1712 
1713 
1713 
1714 
1714 
1714 


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»  (  1  Aug. 
*l81  July 
.(  1  Aug. 
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K  j  1  Aug. 
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1  ( 11  June 

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Kill 

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Oboeob 

1714 
1715 
1715 
1716 
1716 
1717 
1717 
1718 
1718 
1719 


THE  FIB8T. 

Aug.  1719 
July  1720 
Aug.  1720 
July  1721 
Aug.  1721 
July  1722 
Aug.  1722 
July  1723 


10. 
11 
12 
13 


Aug.  1723 
July  1724 
Aug.  1724 
July  1725 
Aug.  1785 
July  1726 
Aug.  1726 
June  1727 


Gbobob  the  Second. 


II 
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ft 
If 
ft 
t* 
ft 
ti 
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1727 

1728 

1728 

1729 

1729 

1730 

17301 

17311 

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1732, 

1732! 

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1733, 


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11  June 
10 


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1734 
1735 
1735 
1738 
1736 
1737 
1737 
1738 
1738 
1739 
1739 
1740 
1740 
1741 


11  June  1741 

10  „  1742 

11  „  1748 
1748 
1743 
1744 
1744 
1745 
1745 
1746 
1746 
1747 
1747 
1748 


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ft 


It 


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1751  r^ 


23 
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f  XV 

411 
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1752 
1753 


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1754 
1754 
1755 
1755 
1756 
1756 
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1812 
1812 
1813 
1813 
1814 
1814 
1815 


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P4 


29 

28 


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Jan. 
tf 
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1820 
1881 
1821 
1822 
1822 
1823 
1823 
1824 


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1826 
1826 
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25     „     1836 

86     „     1896 
80     ..     1837 


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1892 
1898 
1893 
1894 
1894 
1895 
1896 


,.  William  {b.  1660,  d.  1729),  Arch- 

'biahop  of  Dublin,  was  bom  at  Antrim,  and 
elected  Dean  of  St.  Patrick's  in  1688.  In 
1691  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Deny,  and 
in  1702  Archbishop  of  Dublin.  King  was  a 
^writer  of  philosophical  treatises,  and  his  work 
On  the  Origin  of  Evil  (1702)  gaVe  him  a 
European  reputation.  He  was  also  the  author 
•of  The  State  of  the  Froteetantt  in  Ireland 
under  King  James's  Goverttment  (1691),  which 
gives  much  useful  information  as  to  the 
condition  of  Ireland  at  the  period  of  the 
Bevolution. 


J,  Edwa&t)  {d.  1696),  was  a  Jacobite 
conspirator  in  the  reign  of  Wi]  jam  III. 
He  was  drawn  by  one  Enightley  into  the 
Assassination  Plot,  and  was  executed. 

X!ing-malcer,THB.  [Warwick ,  Eakl  of.] 
"King  never  dies,  Thb,*'  a  legal 

maxim,  according  to  which  the  accession  of 
•each  monarch  is  considered  as  having  taken 
place  at  the  very  moment  of  his  predecessor's 
decease.  This  theory  was  unknown  in  the 
•earlier  periods  of  our  history,  and  could  not 
have  been  held  so  long  as  the  right  of  succes- 
sion was  recognised  as  being  inalienably 
bound  up  in  a  strict  line  of  descent.  Accord- 
ingly, on  the  death  of  the  early  Norman  and 
Plantagenet  kings,  there  always  seems  to  have 
been  a  period  anterior  to  the  coronation  of 
the  new  sovereign,  in  which  the  lawless 
baron,  or  man  of  lower  degree,  felt  himself 
free  to  commit  whatever  outrages  he  would, 
on  the  plea  that  there  was  as  yet  no  higher 
potentate  to  whom  he  was  responsible.  "  From 
William  I.  to  Henrj'  III.  inclusive,  the  reign 
of  each  king  was  considered  only  to  com- 
iinence  at  his  coronation.    From  Edward  II. 


to  Henry  VIII.,  the  accession  is  ascribed 
to  the  day  following  the  death  or  deposition 
of  the  preceding  king ;  but  from  Edward  VI. 
to  the  present  day,  the  above*cited  maxim  has 
prevailed.** 

giwg  of  PoUy,  Thb,  was  a  title  given 
to  Roger  Mortimer,  by  hw  own  son,  on  ac- 
count of  his  reckless  affectation  of  more  than 
royal  state  and  splendour. 

King  of  the  Commons,  The,  was  the 

title  assumed  by  John  Litster,  the  leader  of 
the  Norfolk  insurgents  at  the  time  of  the 
Peasant  Revolt  in  1381.  James  V.  of  Scot- 
land was  also  called  King  of  the  Commons. 

King's  Benoh^  The  Covrt  of,  was  an 
offshoot  from  the  Curia  Regis.  Its  origin 
as  a  distinct  tribunal  is  attributed  by  Dr. 
Stubbs  to  the  arrangements  made  by  Henry 
II.,  in  1178,  by  which  five  iudges  in  the 
Curia  sat  constantly  to  hear  the  complaints 
of  the  people.  By  the  beginning  of  the  reign 
of  Henry  III.,  the  Curia  had  become  divided 
into  the  three  branches  of  the  Court  of  Com- 
mon Pleas,  the  Exchequer,  and  the  King's 
Bench,  the  two  first  entertaining  causes  con- 
cerned with  the  private  suits  of  subjects,  and 
with  the  revenue ;  and  the  last,  ail  suits  in 
which  the  king  was  concerned,  plaeita  coram 
regCf  as  tiiey  were  called,  which  practically 
embraced  the  rest  of  the  business  of  the  old 
Curia  Regis.  The  court  still  continued  to 
follow  the  king,  who  was  theoretically  sup- 
posed to  sit  in  banco,  and  this  practice  was 
continued  by  the  Articuli  super  Cartas  of  Ed- 
ward I.  Shortly  before  the  end  of  the  reign 
of  Henry  III.,  the  ofl5cc  of  Justiciar  became 
extinct,  and  the  King's  Bench  received  a  staff 
of  judges  of  its  own.  There  was  a  rogiilar 
succession  of  chief  justices  of  the  King's 
Bench  from  the  beginning  of  Edward  I.  The 
denomination  Curia  Regis  was  now  applied 
exclusively  to  this  court.  We  find  a  constant 
tendency  in  this  court,  as  well  as  in  the 
others,  to  enlarge  its  jurisdiction.  Thus  the 
King's  Bench,  having  cognisance  of  all  per- 
sonal actions  where  the  defendant  was  already 
under  custody  of  the  court,  used  a  legal 
fiction  by  which  persons  not  actually  in  cus- 
tody of  the  marshal  of  the  court  were 
assumed  to  .be  so,  in  order  that  the  lawyers  in 
that  court  might  have  more  practice.  This 
custom,  which  tended  to  confuse  the  system 
of  judicature,  was  frequently  legislated 
against,  but  without  success,  until  the  statutes 
2  Will.  IV.,  c.  39,  and  2  Vict.,  c.  110,  estab- 
lished one  form  of  process,  the  writ  of  sum- 
mons, for  all  the  courts.  The  justices  of  the 
King's  Bench  sat  with  the  Lord  Chancellor, 
the  Lord  Treasurer,  and  the  justices  of 
Common  Pleas,  in  the  Court  of  Exchequer 
Chamber,  which  was  created  by  statute  31 
Edw.  III.,  c.  12,  to  determine  errors  fi-oni  the 
common  law  side  of  the  Court  of  Exchequer. 
A  second  Court  of  Exchequer,  composed  of 
the  justices  of  Common  Pleas  and  the  barons 


(664  ) 


of  the  Coiirt  of  Exchequer,  was  created  hy 

27  Elizabeth,  c.  8,  to  determine  writs  of  error 

from  the  King's  Bench.  Both  these  courtswere 

abolished,  and  a  new  "  Court  of  Exchequer 

Chamber"  established  by  11  Geo.  IV.,  and 

1-  Will.  IV.,  c.  70.    The  luriadiction  of  this 

court  was,  however,  mergea  in  that  of  tho  new 

Court  of  Appeal  by  the  Judicature  Act  of 

1873,  by  which  great  Act  also  the  Court  of 

Queen's  (or  King's)  Bench  became  once  more 

a  part  of  one  Supreme  Court  of  Judicature, 

called  the  High  Court  of  Justice,  of  which 

the  judges  of  the  Queen's  Bench  formed  the 

first  division.     [Cusul  Regis.] 

Beeves,  Hist,  of  the  Englith  Lavo ;  Stephen, 
ComvMiitariet,  iii. ;  Stubbs^  Con$i,  Hist.,  u.  ch. 
XV. ;  Langmead,  Contt.  Hxat.,  ch.  v.  ;  96  &  87 
Vict.,  c.  66. 

Being's  Friencbl  was  the  name  given 
to  the  secret  oounsellors  and  supporters 
of  George  III.  in  his  attempt  to  restore  the 
royal  authority  to  its  old  power,  and  to 
govern  without  exclusive  reliance  on  either  of 
the  two  great  parties  of  the  State.  This 
movement,  in  its  practical  issue,  was  a  revolt 
against  the  oligarchy  of  the  great  Whig  fami- 
lies who  had  in  the  main  guided  the  destinies 
of  the  country  since  the  Revolution ;  and  the 
germs  of  the  principles  which  it  afterwards 
developed  are  to  be  traced  in  the  writings  of 
Bolingbroke,  who,  in  Mr.  Lecky's  words, 
"  strongly  urged  the  necessity  of  disregarding 
the  old  party  distinctions,  and  building  up 
the  royal  authority  on  their  decay."  But  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  "  King's  Friends,"  though 
drawn  from  both  tho  great  parties  of  the 
State,  were  in  the  main  recruited  from  the 
ranks  of  the  Tories.  George  III.,  however,  did 
not  accept  his  new  supporters  as  being  mem- 
bers of  either  party;  his  one  object  was  to 
create  a  body  of  men  faithful  to  himself,  and 
detached  from  either  of  the  great  sections  of 
political  life.  This  body  was  to  be  his  con- 
stant adviser,  and  to  carry  out  his  wilL  Of 
its  leaders  he  took  counsel  in  private,  and 
followed  its  advice  rather  than  that  of  his 
nominal  ministers.  It  is  this  state  of  affairs 
that  is  so  bitterly  sketched  in  Burke's 
Thoughts  on  the  Causes  of  the  Present  Discon^ 
tents.  It  has  been  sometimes  thought  that 
the  picture  drawn  by  the  great  statesman 
is  a  uttle  highly  coloured ;  but  of  the  general 
truth  of  his  assertions  there  can  be  no  question. 
It  was  due  to  a  knowledge  of  this  secret  power 
in  the  background  thatLord  Rockingham,  in 
1765,  would  only  accept  office  on  condition 
that  "  some  of  the  particular  friends  of  the  Earl 
of  Bute  should  not  either  publicly  or  priMitely, 
directly  or  indirectly,  have  any  concern  or 
interest  in  public  affairs."  For  the  Earl  of 
Bute  was  recognised  as  the  centre  of  this 
undue  influence.  But  even  after  this  protest 
the  same  condition  of  things  continued.  It 
was  by  means  of  this  undue  pressure  that 
George  III.  opposed  the  repeal  of  the  Stamp 
Act  while  pretending  to  support  his  ministers. 


and  Lord  Rockingham  had  to  obtain   hia 
written  consent  to  the  passing  of  his  measure 
of  repeal.    At  last,  in  1766,  the  king  suc- 
ceeded in  getting  rid  of  the  Whigs,  and  in 
forming  a  government,  under  the  Duke  of 
Grafton  and  Lord  Chatham,  that  should  be 
free  from  party  connections.    On  Lord  North's 
accession  to  pow6r  (1770),  the  king  consented 
to  identify  his  own  policy  with  that  of  his 
minister,  and  would  admit  none  to  power 
except  those  who  would  carry  out  his  wishes  to 
the  utmost.  When  Pitt  came  into  power  ( 1 784) 
this  great  minister  was  content  to   *<make 
common  cause  with  the  crown,"  and,  accord- 
ing to  Sir  Erskine  May,  the  royal  influence 
through  the  new  premier  was  greater  than  it 
had  been  before.    As  a  rule,  their  views  were 
identical ;  but  when  they  differed,  the  king  was 
ready  to  make  use  of  his  old  tactics.     So, 
on  the  Catholic  question  of  1801,  George  III. 
is    reported    to   have    said   that  he  should 
reckon  any  man  his  personal    enemy   who 
should  propose  any  such  measure.    On  Pitt's 
return  to  office  in  1804,  Mr.  Addington,  the 
late  Prime  Minister,  took  up  the  position  of 
leader  of  the  "  King's  Friends,"  a  party  whidi 
then  reckoned  some  sixty  or  seventy  membeis 
in  its  ranks.    The  sentiments  of  the   Port- 
land and  Liverpool  ministries  were  so  well  in 
acoord  with  those  of  the  crown  that  the  party 
of  the  *'  King's  Friends,"  though  still  exist- 
ing, had  no  cause  to  separate  itself  from  the 
ostensible  government. 

Burke,  Thoughts  on  the  Causes  of  the  Present 
Discontewts ;  Leckj,  Hutory  of  BngUind  m  ike 
Eighteefdh  Ceniury^  iii.  it.  ;  Massey,  Hiet.  of 
Eng. ;  Sir  E.  Mftj,  Const.  Hist,      [T.  A.  A.] 

Kinjfl^S  Evil  was  the  name  formerly  given 
to  scrofula,  which,  down  to  the  ^ifhteenth 
century,  was  supposed  to  be  cured  by  the 
king's  touch.  Edward  the  Confessor  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  king  who  touched  for 
the  king's  evil,  which  was  done  in  1058. 
The  custom  reached  its  height  under  the 
Stuarts,  and  Charles  I.  is  said  to  have  touched 
over  10,000  persons.  It  was  continued  under 
Anne,  but  was  dropped  by  George  I.,  and  not 
subsequently  revived. 

Kingflrton,  Sir  Anthony  {d.  1556),  was 
sent  to  Cornwall  as  Provost  Marshal  after 
the  rebellion  of  1549,  and  is  said  to  have 
behaved  with  great  cruelty  on  this  occasion. 
He  presided  at  the  execution  of  Bishop 
Hooper,  1555,  and  in  the  following  year  was 
implicated  in  the  plot  to  marry  the  Princess 
Elizabeth  to  the  Earl  of  Devon,  and  to 
proclaim  her  queen.  On  the  discovery  of  the 
conspiracy  Kingston  committed  suicide. 

Kingsweston,  The  Battle  of  (Aug., 
1549),  was  fought  between  a  party  of  the 
western  rebels  under  Mr.  Coffin  and  the  royal 
troops.  The  latter  were  completely  victorious. 

SUnsale,  The  Siege  of  (1601).  Five 
thousand    Spaniards,    commanded   by    Bod 


(  665  ) 


Juan  d'Aguila,  landed  in  the  har1)ouT  df 
Kinaale  in  September,  1601,  having  been 
despatched  to  support  Hugh  O^KeU's  re- 
belUon.  They  took  possession  of  the  castle 
of  Kincorain,  but  soon  lost  it  to  Lord 
Mountjoy.  That  nobleman,  being  shortly 
after  joined  by  the  Earl  of  Thomond  and 
some  1,000  men,  defeated  O'Neil's  attempt 
to  raise  the  siege  (Dec.  23).  Don  Juan,  who 
was  heartily  tired  of  Irish  warfare,  thereupon 
Burrendei'ed  Kinsale,  Castlehaven,  and  the 
other  towns  in  his  possession  in  return  for 
permission  to  sail  for  Corunna  with  all  his 
forces. 


Scottish.     [Scotland,  Church  of.] 

Kirk  of  Field  was  an  old  and  roofless 
church,  dedicated  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  which 
stood  just  without  the  walls  of  Edinburgh : 
close  by  this  was  a  building  which  had  for- 
merly belonged  to  the  Dominican  order.  It 
was  here  that  Damley  was  removed  by  Both- 
well's  orders ;  and  hero  that  he  was  murdered 
on  the  night  of  Feb.  9,  1567.    [Dabnley.] 

Kirkcaldy 9  Sir  William,  of  Granob 
{d.  1573),  was  one  of  the  murderers  of  Car- 
dinal Beaton  (1546).  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Reformed  faith,  and  on  his  capture  at 
St.  Andrews  by  the  French  in  1547,  he  was 
carried  to  France,  where  for  some  years  he 
worked  at  the  gaUeys  in  company  with  John 
Knox.  It  is  perhaps  to  this  event  that  his 
hatred  of  France  is  to  be  ascribed,  a  hatred 
which  caused  him,  in  1559,  to  advocate 
strongly  a  Scottish  alliance  with  England. 
He  was  a  leader  of  the  confederacy  against 
Queen  Maiy  in  1567,  and  to  him  it  was  that 
she  surrendered  after  the  battle  of  Carbeny 
Hill.  Appointed  Governor  of  Edinburgh 
Castle  in  the  same  year,  he  fought  for  Murray 
at  Langside  in  1568  ;  but  shortly  afterwards 
joined  the  queen's  party,  and  held  the  castle 
and  town  of  Edinburgh  against  the  regent 
Morton.  In  1573,  after  suffering  a  severe 
siege,  he  was  compelled  to  surrender  the 
place.  Morton  caused  him  to  be  hanged  as  a 
traitor  in  the  market-place  of  Edinburgh, 
Aug.  3,  1573.  Sir  James  Melville  says  of 
him  in  his  memoirs,  **  he  was  humble,  gentle, 
and  meek,  like  a  lamb  in  the  house,  but  like  a 
lion  in  the  faith ;  .  .  .  secret  and  prudent  in 
all  his  enterprises,  very  merciful,  naturally 
liberal.  .  .  Thus  he  was  as  mikel  envied  by 
them  that  were  of  a  vile  and  unworthy  nature 
as  he  was  beloved  by  all  honest  men." 

Melville,    Memnira;    Fronde,  Hist,  of  Eng.; 
Burton,  Hi»t.  of  ScoUar^d, 


,,  Colonel  Percy,  was  a  soldier 
who  had  served  for  some  years  at  Tangier, 
and  w£is  put  in  command  of  some  troops 
at  the  battle  of  Sedgemoor.  After  the 
defeat  of  Monmouth,  Kirke  and  his  troops, 
who  were  known  as  "  Kirke's  Lambs,"  com- 
mitted fearful  atrocities  in  the  west  of 
England  against  the  followers  of  Monmouth 


and  any  who  were  suspected  of  complicity  in 
the  rebellion.  Kirke  was  one  of  the  fii^  to 
join  William  in  1688,  and  subsequently  was 
put  in  command  of  some  troops  in  Ireland, 
with  which  he  raised  the  siege  of  Londonderry 
in  1689. 

S[it-Kat  Clnby  The,  was  a  well-known 
Whig  club,  instituted  in  1703  to  promote  the 
principles  of  the  Eevolution  and  the  Pro- 
testant succession.  It  consisfed  of  thirty-nine 
noblemen  and  gentlemen,  and  among  its 
members  were  Walpole,  Addison,  and  Steele. 
It  took  its  name  from  a  confectioner  in  West- 
minster named  Christopher  Kat,  at  whose 
house  the  members  used  to  dine. 

Xlnif  llty  Dr.,  was  one  of  Henry  YIII.'s 
secretaries,  and  employed  by  him  in  the 
summer  of  1527  at  Home  to  forward  the  ne- 
gotiations for  the  king's  divorce  from  Kathe- 
rine  of  Aragon.  Knight  obtained  more  than 
one  opportunity  of  seeing  Clement  in  Henry's 
interest;  and  when  the  Pope  escaped  to 
Orvieto  he  at  once  followed  him  thither,  and 
obtained  from  Clement  his  signature  to  two 
documents  granting  respectively  a  com- 
mission to  two  cardinals,  for  hearing  and 
determining  the  cause  in  England,  and  a  dis- 
pensation for  the  king  to  marry  another  wife. 
But,  while  afiixing  his  signature  to  the  docu- 
ments, Clement  had  b^n  careful  to  date 
them,  not  from  Orvieto,  where  he  then  was, 
but  from  his  prison  in  Bome. 
Brewer,  Beign  of  Henry  VIII, 

Knighty  Charles  {b,  1791,  ^.  1873),  com- 
menced business  as  a  publisher  in  London 
about  the  year  1823.  He  was  one  of  the 
earliest  members  of  the  Society  for  the  Dif- 
fusion of  Useful  Knowledge,  for  which  he 
published  The  Library  of  Entertaining  Know* 
ledge  (1832 — 45).  About  the  year  1844  he 
published  the  Fictoricd  History  of  Englandy 
a  very  useful  and  interesting  work,  and  some 
years  later  (1856 — 62)  his  Foptdar  History  of 
England,  Both  hold  a  high  place  among  our 
general  histories. 

Knigbitoily  Henrt,  lived  in  the  reign  of 

Henry    II.,  and  was  a  monk  of  Leicester 

Abbey.    He  was  the  author  of  a  Cmnpilatio  de 

Eventibtts  Anglia  a  tempore  Eegis  Endgari  usque 

ad  mortem  Eegis  Ricardi  Secundi.     The  earlier 

part  is  a  mere  compilation  from   previous 

chroniclers ;  but  the  portion  which  relates  to 

the  later  part  of  Edward  III.'s  reign  and  that 

of  Richard  II.  is  of  considerable  value. 

Kn^hton'a   work  is  printed    in  Twjaden, 
Scriptores  Decern. 

Knitflitliood*  The  word  knight  is  de- 
rivedwom  the  Anglo-Saxon  enihty  which, 
although  primarily  equivalent  to  servuSy  was, 
even  before  the  Conquest,  occasionally  used  as 
equivalent  to  miles.  It  is  necessary  to  dis- 
tinguish between  the  personal  distinction 
of  knighthood  and  the  legal  system  of 
knights*  fees.      In  its  wider  sense,  knight- 


(  656  ) 


Bliio 


hood  may  be  taken  as  nearly  e(|uiyalent  to 
chivalry  or  to  feudalism,  and  will  be  found 
treated  under  those  heads.  The  actual  cere- 
mony of  conferring  knighthood  does  not 
seem  to  have  been  known  in  England  before 
the  Conquest,  and  the  first  instance  of  it  we 
have  on  satisfactory  evidence  is  the  investi- 
ture of  the  Conqueror's  sons  by  their  father. 
After  the  Conquest,  the  extent  of  land  held 
by  a  knight,  or  the  knighVa  fee,  was  the  unit 
01  the  system  of  feudal  tenure.  The  system 
of  knight's  fee  was  not  invented  before  the 
compilation  of  Domesday,  though  it  was  regu- 
larly established  by  the  reign  of  Henry  II. 
What  the  exact  value  and  extent  of  a 
knight's  fee  were  is  hardly  ascertained.  It  is 
probable  that  the  five  hides  of  land  which 
constituted  a  thegn  before  the  Conquest 
formed  one  of  the  knight's  qualifications  after 
it ;  and  Dr.  Stubbs  thinks  that  the  extent  may' 
have  varied,  but  that  the  common  quantity 
was  expressed  in  the  twenty  pounds'  worth  of 
annual  value,  the  qualification  for  knight- 
hood. It  has  been  said  (on  the  authority 
of  Ordericus  Vitalis)  that  soon  after  the  Con- 
quest England  was  divided  into  60,000  knights' 
fees.  ThiSj  however,  is  imlikely,  and  the 
number  has  been  supposed' by  modem  author- 
ities to  have  been  between  eight  and  nine 
thousand.  Knighthood  was  made  compulsory 
on  all  freeholders  possessing  an  estate  of  £20, 
and  was  frequently  enforced ;  as,  for  instance, 
by  proclamation  to  the  sheriffs  in  the  nine- 
teenth of  Henry  III.,  and  by  Edward  I.  in 
1278.  Writs  for  distraint  of  knighthood 
were  issued  to  enforce  this  law,  and  continued 
to  be  issued  down  to  the  time  of  Charles  I., 
the  only  difference  being  that  the  estate 
for  which  knighthood  was  compulsory  was 
raised  from  £20  to  £40  per  annum.  Eliza- 
beth and  James  I.  issued  these  writs,  ap- 
parently, only  on  one  occasion  in  each  reign ; 
but  the  practice  was  revived  and  rigidly  en- 
forced by  Charles  I.  in  1629.  It  was  finally 
abolished,  with  all  feudal  tenures  and  customs, 
in  1661.  Knights  in  the  Middle  Ages,  from 
the  time  of  Edward  I.  (and  probably  before), 
were  either  knights  banneret,  who  were 
entitled  to  display  the  square  banneret,  and 
supposed  to  command  a  larger  force  in  the 
field ;  and  knights  bachelors,  who  carried  the 
triangular  pennon,  and  were  of  inferior  rank. 
In  England,  as  elsewhere,  knighthood  was 
purely  a  personal  distinction,  and  was  never 
hereditary.  Knights  bannerets  had  dis- 
appeared by  the  sixteenth  century,  and  were 
not  subsequently  created.  In  England  there 
are  now  seven  orders  of  knighthood :  the 
Garter  (founded  in  the  fourteenth-xrenturv), 
the  Thistle  (founded  1687),§t.  Patrick  (1788), 
the  Bath  (1725),  St  Michael  and  St.  George 
(1818),  Star  of  India  (1861),  Indian  Empire 
(1876). 

Knights  of  the    Shire.     [Pablia- 
ment:  Elections.] 


BblioUeSy  Sir  Bobbbt  {d,  1407),  was 
originally  a  leader  of  one  of  the  Free  Com- 
panies which  devastated  France  in  the  four- 
teenth century.  But  having  subsequently 
obtedned  a  regular  command  in  the  Englidk 
army,  he  greatly  distinguished  himself  by 
his  bravery  and  militaiy  skill.  When  the 
Peasants'  Rebellion  broke  out,  in  1381,  he 
was  instrumental  in  protecting  Kichard  II. 
from  the  insurgents. 

Xnoll3ri|»  3ni  Fbancis  {d.  1596),  "the 
sternest  Puritan  of  his  dinr,"  was  known  during 
the  reign  of  Edward  YI.  as  one  of  the  most 
zealous  of  the  advocates  of  the  Reformation. 
The  religious  persecution  of  Mar}''8  reign 
forced  him  to  seek  an  asylum  in  Germany; 
but  on  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  to  whom 
he  was  cousin  by  marriage,  he  returned  to 
England,  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  Puritanism 
more  than  ever.  Made  Vice -Chamberlain 
of  the  royal  household,  he  was  subsequently 
advanced  to  the  office  of  Lord  Tr^urer, 
whilst  immediately  after  his  arrival  in 
England  he  was  appointed  a  Privy  Coun- 
cillor. In  1566  he  was  sent  to  Ireland,  when 
he  recommended  the  Council  in  England  to 
approve  of  the  campaign  proposed  by  Sidney. 
Two  years  later  he  was  appointed  the 
custodian  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  whose 
charms  his  "  keen,  hard  sense  "  was  supposed 
to  despise.  It  was  he  who  suggest^  the 
plan  of  marrying  Mary  to  George  Carey,  son 
of  Lord  Hunsdon,  for,  *'  so  matched,  Elizabeth 
need  have  no  fear  of  her.*'  Knollys,  Hke  the 
rest  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  ministers,  was 
liable  to  have  his  course  of  action  repudiated 
by  his  mistress  if  she  found  it  convenient; 
and  in  his  dealings  with  Mary  Stuart  he 
foimd  himself  repeatedly  forced  to  act  upon 
his  own  responsibility,  with  the  danger  of  a 
subsequent  disavowal  of  his  proceedings. 
Notwithstanding  the  occasional  bad  treatment 
he  received  at  the  queen's  hands,  Sir  Francis 
remained  till  his  death  one  of  her  most  faith- 
ful ministers,  though  on  one  occasion  he 
exclaimed  that  he  doubted  whether  she  were 
any  longer  fit  to  rule. 


:,  John  [h.  1505,  d.  1572),  was  a 
native  of  Hadding^n,  and  educated  at  the 
grammar  school  of  that  town  and  at  Glasgow. 
He  seems  to  have  taken  orders  as  a  secular 
priest  in  1530,  and  to  have  had  some  connec- 
tion with  one  of  the  religious  establishments 
at  Haddington  for  some  years  after^'ards. 
In  1546  he  became  converted  to  the  Reformed 
faith,  and  placed  himself  under  the  protec- 
tion of  some  of  the  Protestant  gentry  of 
St.  Andrews.  In  June,  1547,  the  French  cap- 
tured St.  Andrews,  and  Knox  was  carried 
prisoner,  to  France,  and  sent  to  the  galleys. 
He  obtained  his  release  in  the  beginning  of 
1549,  and  came  to  England,  where  he  re- 
mained till  the  death  of  Edward  \1.  For 
two  yesrs  he  was  minister  of  Berwick,  where 
he  put  in  practice,  two  years  before  it 


Xol 


(657) 


authorifled  by  Edward  VI.'s  second  Prayer- 
book,  the  Babstitution  of  common  bread  for 
wafers  at  the  Communion,  and  allowed  sitting 
instead  of  kneeling.  Knox  was  appointed  one 
of  Edward's  chaplains,  and  was  consulted  on 
the  composition  of  Cianmer's  Forty-five 
Articles.  On  the  accession  of  Mary  he  re- 
tired to  Fiance,  and  subsequently  to  Geneva, 
where  he  remained  till  1659,  and  wrote 
•several  controversial  and  other  works,  in- 
cluding his  Blast  of  the  Trumpet  against  the 
Monstrous  Begiment  of  Women,  which  gave 
g^reat  ofEence  to  Queen  Elizabeth.  In  1559 
he  returned  to  Scotland,  and  immediately 
joined  the  party  of  the  Lords  of  the  Congre- 
gation. In  July  of  this  year  he  was  chosen 
minister  of  Edinburgh.  He  took  a  large 
share  in  the  proceedings  of  the  Protestant 
leaders  henceforth,  and  was  mainly  instru- 
mental in  drawing  up  the  Confessiofi  of  Faith, 
accepted  by  ParUament  in  1660.  On  the 
arrival  of  Mary  in  Scotland,  she  held  several 
conferences  with  Knox,  and  at  length,  in 
December,  1562,  ordered  him  to  be  tried  for 
treason  before  the  Council.  He  was,  how- 
ever, acquitted.  After  the  marriage  of  Mary 
and  Damley  in  1565,  he  preached  a  sermon 
which  gave  great  offence  to  the  royal  couple. 
He  was  called  before  the  Council,  and  in- 
hibited from  preaching.  He  preached  the 
coronation  sermon  when  the  infant  James  VI. 
was  crowned,  in  July,  1567.  After  the  death 
of  Murray  (January,  1569),  Knox,  who  had 
incurred  the  enmity  of  Kirkcaldy  of  Grange, 
left  Edinburgh,  and  retired  to  St.  Andrews. 
He  returned  to  Edinburgh  in  August,  1572, 
preached  twice  more  (once  when  the  news  of 
the  St.  Bartholomew  Massacre  arrived),  and 
died  Nov.  24, 1572.  Kn^^x  was  twice  married, 
first  to  Marjbry  Bowes  in  1555,  and  secondly 
to  Margaret  Stewart,  daughter  of  Lord 
Ochiltree.  Besides  numeious  epistles,  dis- 
courses, and  polemical  tracts,  Anox  wrote 
a  Historie  of  the  Beformatioun  of  Beligion 
within  the  Bealm  of  Scotland,  which  is  of 
considerable  historical  value. 

Knox's  ITorfcf,  ed.  by  D.  Lalng,  6  vols.,  Edin- 
burgh (1846—64) ;  McCrie,  Lift  of  John  Knox; 
Honoreiff,  Xnoc  and  the  Scottish  K^ormation; 
'  Frouda,  Tlu  Reformation  and  the  Scottish  Cha- 
racier;  Carljle,  Portraits  of  John  Knox  and 
Heroes  and  Hero  Worship;  Barton,  Hist,  of 
Scotland. 

XolaSy  Thb,  are  an  aboriginal  tribe  of 
"Western  BengaL  Having  come  under  the 
operation  of  laws  which  they  did  not  under- 
stand, they  were  excited  by  the  systematic  en- 
croachment of  Bengal  settlers  and  zemindars. 
In  1832  they  rose  in  arms,  and  the  insurrec- 
tion was  not  put  down  without  much  blood- 
shed. On  the  suppression  of  the  rebellion 
the  new  regulations  were  withdrawn,  and 
the  Koles  were  placed  under  a  special  com- 
xniraioncr.  Since  then  they  have  made 
considerable  advances  in  civilisation  and 
prosperity. 


JLOTygtyOBif  Thb  Battle  of  (Jan.  1, 
1818),  was  fought  during  Lord  Hastings's  war 
against  Holkar  and  the  Peishwa.  Captain 
Staunton,  who  had  been  summoned  to  Poonah 
with  his  division,  encountered  the  Mahratta 
army  of  the  Peishwa  Bajee  Kao,  25,000  strong, 
near  the  village  of  Korygaom.  The  Mah- 
rattas  immediately  crossed  the  river  to  attack 
the  English  troops,  and  the  combat  that 
ensued  was  most  arduous  and  brilliant. 
Captain  Staunton's  sepoys  fought  with  de- 
sperate valour  till  they  were  sinking  with 
exhaustion  and  frantic  with  thirst.  The  ap- 
proach of  General  Smith,  who  was  in  hot  pur- 
suit, so  alarmed  the  Peishwa,  that  he  retreated 
in  the  night,  and  thus  abandoned  a  contest 
which  Captain  Staunton's  band  of  heroes 
could  hardly  have  maintained  for  another 
day. 

Xotali,  Thb  Sibgb  of  (Mar.  22,  1858). 

Kotah   was    a    strongly    fortified    town    on 

the  Chumbul.    Its  Bajah  was  friendly  to  the 

English,  but  had  been  coerced  into  rebellion 

by  nis  followers.    General  Roberts,  therefore, 

found  there  were  two  parties  in  Kotah,  and 

was  immediately  joined  by  the  Rajah,  who 

was  in  possession  of  the  citadel  and  palace. 

The  rebels,  about  5,000  in  number,  held  the 

rest  of  the  town.    Batteries  were  erected  by 

General  Roberts  against  the  northern  end  of 

the  town,  a  reinforcement  was  sent  to  the 

citadel,  and  on  the  30th  the  place  was  easily 

carried  by  assault. 

ilnnual    Register,    1858;     Malloson,    Indian 
Mutiny, 

Xnrdlah    Campaign,    The     (1795). 

When  the  temporising  pohcy  of  Sir  John  Shore 
left  the  Mahrattas  free  to  attack  the  Nizam  in 
order  to  enforce  their  claims  for  choute  or 
tribute,  the  whole  Mahratta  Confederacy  as- 
sembled for  the  last  time  under  the  banner  of 
the  Peishwa,  commanded  by  Hurry  Punt. 
Title  Nizam,  deserted  by  the  English,  had 
thrown  himself  into  the  hands  of  a  fVench 
officer  named  Raymond,  who  had  organised 
for  him  a  disciplined  army  of  18,000  men, 
commanded  and  trained  by  European  officcn. 
The  Nizam  advanced  to  Beder,  and  the  two 
armies  met  at  Kurdlah  (March  11,  1795).  The 
Nizam's  cavalry  drove  the  entire  centre  divi- 
sion of  the  Mahrattas  from  the  field,  and 
Rajnmond's  infantry  stood  their  ground 
gallantly  against  Scindia's  disciplined  bat- 
talions. The  Nizam,  however,  was  persuaded 
by  his  favourite  sultana  to  retire  from  the 
field,  and  the  whole  army  followed  him  in 
headlong  rout.  Soon  afterwards  he  was  shut 
up  in  Kurdlah  and  captured.  To  secure  his 
liberty  he  had  to  make  teiritorial  cessions  to 
the  value  of  thirty-five  lacs  of  rupcos  a 
year,  besides  surrendering  his  chief  minister 
ilu8heer-ul-3klulk,  who  was  by  far  the  ablest 
man  at  his  court,  and  a  warm  partisan  of  the 
English. 

J.  Giant  Duff,  Hiie.  of  the  MahroXtas. 


lAb 


(  658  ) 


Iiabonrera,  Thb  Statutes  of,  were  first 
enacted  in  1349,  immediately  after  the  Black 
Peatli.  The  dearth  of  labourers  which  this 
plague  occasioned  altered  the  relations  between 
employer  and  employed,  and  the  latter  de- 
manded an  immeoiate  and  considerable  rise 
in  wages.  To  check  this,  two  statutes  were 
enacted  forbidding  the  men  to  receive  or  the 
masters  to  offer  higher  wages  than  before  the 
Black  Death;  labourers  were  to  be  compelled  to 
work,  and  were  forbidden  to  leave  their  employ- 
ment without  agreeing  with  their  masters. 
These  statutes  were  re-enacted  in  1357,  1361, 
1368,  and  1376,  but,  as  might  be  expected, 
they  proved  nugatory,  and  only  increased 
the  ill-feeling  between  masters  and  men,  and 
the  social  difficulties  which  culminated  in  the 
revolt  of  1381.     [Black  Death.] 

Bogen,  History  of  AifricuUurt:  Seebohm, 
Papers  on  The  Black  Death  in  the  Fortnightty 
RevievD. 

Zialirador  was  first  discovered  by  Sebas- 
tian Cabot  in  1496,  and  probably  visited  by 
him  again  in  1513.  It  was  explored  by 
Frobisher  in  1576,  but  seems  to  have  been 
lost  sight  of  till  it  was  rediscovered  by  Hud- 
son in  1610.  No  regular  settlements  were 
made  till  some  Moravian  colonies  were  formed 
about  1750.  It  was  not,  however,  constituted 
a  colony,  and  formed  merely  an  outlying  and 
neglected  portion  of  the  Hudson  Bay  torri- 
tor}',  till  the  cession  of  the  company's  territory 
to  the  crown  and  their  incorporation  with  the 
Dominion  of  Canada  in  1868. 

ZAbuaa,  an  island  in  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago, was  ceded  to  Great  Britain  by  the 
Sultan  of  Borneo  (1847),  owing  to  the  in- 
fiuence  of  Sir  James  Brooke,  the  Kajah  of 
Sarawak,  who  had  formed  a  settlement  there 
in  1846.  It  is  an  important  commercial  sta- 
tion, and  transmits  to  the  European  and  China 
markets  the  produce  of  Borneo  and  the  Ar- 
chipelago. Labuan,  which  is  a  crown  colony, 
is  ruled  by  a  governor  aided  by  a  legislative 
council  of  three  members. 

LacUand  (or,  Sansterre)  was  the  name 
by  which  King  John  was  commonly  known, 
from  his  not  receiving  any  great  fief  from  his 
father  as  his  brothers  had  done. 

Ziack-leaming  (or,  Unlearned)  Par- 
liament, The,  was  the  name  given  to 
the  Parliament  which  met  at  Coventry  in 
1404.  It  acquired  its  name  from  the  fact  that 
the  king,  acting  upon  an  ordinance  issued  by 
Edward  III.  in  1372,  directed  that  no  lawj-ers 
should  be  returned  as  memliers.  This  Parlia- 
ment is  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  proposal 
that  the  lands  of  the  clergy  should  for  one  year 
be  taken  into  the  king's  hands  for  the  pur- 
poses of  the  war  with  France. 

Lnnland  («.«.,  loanland)^  in  Anglo-Saxon 


times,  was  opposed  to  the  ethel  or  alod  by  virtue 
of  its  being  land  <<  whose  title  and  possession 
were  not  vested  in  the  same  j^erson.*'  That  is, 
in  other  words,  henland  was  land  held  and  cul- 
tivated, either  directly  or  indirectly,  by  one 
who  was  not  its  real  owner  in  point  of  law, 
and  who,  in  most  cases,  paid  rent  in  money, 
kind,  or  service  in  return  for  the  privileges 
he  enjoyed.  Lsens  were  of  two  descriptions 
— viz.,  **  unbooked  "  (which  was  of  course  the 
earlier  custom)  and  **  booked."  As  a  matter  of 
necessity  our  knowledge  of  unbooked  henland 
is  very  scanty,  and  is  for  the  most  part  due 
to  incidental  allusions  in  charters  drawn  up  at 
the  time  when  the  property  in  question  was 
passing  from  the  earlier  to  the  later  state ;  as, 
for  example,  in  Kemble  (cod.  617),  where 
Archbishop  Oswald  grants  Tidingfton  to 
^Ifsige  for  three  lives,  "  that  he  may  have  it 
as  fr^ly  for  bookknd  as  he  had  it  for 
henland"  (a.d.  977).  Under  the  head  of 
unbooked  Ipnland,  according  to  Mr.  Lodge's 
view,  would  be  comprised  those  parts  of  a 
lord's  estate  which  he  did  not  keep  in  his  own 
hands  (his  utland),  when  cultivated  by  free- 
men, and  all  estates  of  folkland.  It  is,  how- 
ever, to  be  noted  that,  in  common  usage, 
folkland  is  only  known  as  laenland  when  it  has 
been  once  more  let  out  by  the  original  g^iantee. 
From  the  above  instance  it  will  be  seen  that 
booked  Isenland  might  run  for  several  terms  of 
lives ;  but  it  is  probable  that  the  original  term 
of  unbooked  IsBnland  would  be  but  for  one. 
A  single  instance  may  suffice  to  show  that 
leenland  was  not  in  any  degree  looked  upon 
as  belonging  to  the  tenant.  A  certain 
Helmstan,  who  held  henland  of  Duke  Ordlaf, 
being  found  gruilty  of  theft,  forfeited  his 
chattels  to  the  king,  but  not  his  land,  which 
being  Ordlaf s  **he  could  not  forfeit"  It 
will  perhaps  be  interesting  to  give  in  conclu- 
sion one  or  two  examples  of  the  rents  by 
which  Isenland  was  held.  In  the  first  half  of 
the  ninth  century  the  estate  bequeathed  by 
Hereg}'th  of  Canterbury  was  bound  to  pay 
thirty  ambers  of  ale,  300  loaves  of  fine  an) 
coarse  bread,  an  ox,  a  hog,  wethers,  geese, 
honey,  butter,  and  salt.  Forty  hides  at 
Aires! ord  were,  perhaps  a  little  earlier,  rented 
at  four  and  a  half  shillings  the  hide.  The 
freemen  of  Hurstboum  in  Alfred's  days  had 
to  pay  forty  pence  per  hide,  with  a  certain 
quantity  of  ale  and  three  horseloads  of  white 
wheat ;  three  acres  of  their  lord's  lands  were 
to  be  ploughed  and  sown  by  the  tenants ;  hay 
was  to  be  mowed  and  gathered;  wood  cot 
and  stacked ;  at  Easter  they  had  to  make 
a  payment  of  lambs  and  ewes,  and  every 
week  in  the  year,  except  three,  they  were  to 
do  any  other  work  that  might  be  required. 
This  is  a  very  good  specimen  of  a  rent  of  a 
very  mixed  character. 

Lodge,  Esmyt  in  Anglo-Basevn  Late,  86—97 ; 
Eembie,  Saxon*  in  England^  i.  310— 3S6 ;  Stabbs. 
Cvn/A,  Higl.,  i.  88;  Kemble,  Codes  DiplomoHcwu 

[T.  A.  A.] 


L»t 


(  659  ) 


Lai 


;.  The  Isei  of  the  earliest  English 
laws  is  generally  accepted  as  being  the  equi- 
valent of  the  eolonut  in  Tacitus*  account 
of  the  Germanic  tribes,  the  litus  of  the 
capitularies  of  Charies  the  Great,  and  the  Lex 
Saxonum,  and  perhaps  the  Uuizi  or  Uusi  of  the 
Continental  Saxons  in  the  eighth  century. 
If  this  be  so,  the  last  is  not  to  be  considered 
as  a  mere  slave,  but,  in  Dr.  Stabbe*s  words,  is 
to  be  ^'  distinctly  recognised  as  a  member  of 
the  nation;  he  is  valued  for  the  wergild, 
summoned  to  the  placitum,  taxed  for  the 
Church,  allowed  the  right  of  compurgation, 
and  choice  in  mama^e."  According  to  the 
same  authority,  *'  he  is  free  to  every  ohe  but 
his  lord,  and  simply  unfree  in  cultivating 
land  of  which  he  is  not  the  owner.'*  The  last, 
then,  in  early  English  days  would  be  em- 
ployed on  the  estates  of  the  great  landowners 
or  on  the  folk-land,  and  mav  in  very  many 
cases  have  been  the  degraded  descendant  of  the 
earlier  British  possessor  of  the  soil,  who,  bv 
stress  of  circumstances,  was  now  forced  to  till 
for  a  stranger  lord  the  land  that  had  once 
been  his  own  or  his  father's,  and  served  his 
lord  **  for  hire  or  for  land,  though  not  yet  re- 
duced so  low  in  the  scale  as  the  th^ow  or 
wealh." 

Stabbs,  Cotut.  Ex$t. ;  Eemble,  Baxon*  in  Eny^ 
land. ;  waits,  DwUehii  Verfoiaungtgttehichte, 

Ziagos,  a  British  colony  on  the  coast  of 
the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  formerly  a  dependency  of 
the  Gold  Coast  Colony.  It  was  ceded  k> 
Elnglind  in  1861,  and  has  since  been  used 
as  a  station  for  the  suppression  of  the 
slave  trade.  Its  affairs  are  managed  by  a 
Governor,  assisted  by  Executive  and  Legisla- 
tive Councils.  The  population  is  about  a 
bundled  thousand. 

LaffOSy  Tub  Battle  of  (Aug.,  1759),  was 
one  o7  the  naval  victories  gained .  by  the 
ISnglish  during  the  Seven  Years'  War.  The 
French  ships  had  been  blockaded  in  their 
ports  during  the  year;  but  in  August  the 
Toulon  fleet  attempted  to  join  the  Brest 
squadron.  It  was  pursued  by  Admiral  Bos- 
cawen  from  Gibraltar,  and  attacked  ofE  Lagos 
in  Algarve,  when  of  its  largest  ships  two  were 
captured,  and  two  others  run  ashore.  The 
Portuguese  reasonably  complained  that  the 
nentr^ty  of  their  coast  had  been  violated. 

LaEogne,THB  Battle  of  (May  19, 1692). 
This  naval  victory  checked  a  threatened  in- 
vasion of  Eng^d.  Louis  XIV.,  in  support  of 
James,  had  collected  an  army  in  Normandy. 
Two  French  fleets,  amounting  together  to 
about  eighty  ships,  were  collected  at  Brest 
and  Toulon,  under  TourviUe  and  D'EstrSes. 
James,  misled  by  the  intrigues  of  Admiral 
HusseU,  believed  that  there  was  great  disaffec- 
tion in  the  English  fleet.  Meanwhile,  the 
combined  English  and  Dutch  fleet  of  ninety 
ships  swept  the  Channel  Tourville  had 
with  him  only  his  own  squadron,  consisting 
of  forty-four  ships  of  the  line.    Believing 


in  the  treachery  of  the  English  officers,  he 
thought  that  he  had  only  the  Dutch  to  deal 
with.  But  the  ill-judged  declaration,  where- 
by James  exemptea  whole  classes  of  English- 
men from  pardon,  and  a  stirring  despatch  on 
the  other  hand  from  Mary,  had  thoroughly 
roused  the  temper  of  the  English  fleet.  Rus- 
sell visited  all  his  ships  and  exhorted  his 
crews.  The  battle  lasted  till  four  in  the 
afternoon.  At  flrst  the  wind  was  in  favour 
of  the  French,  and  only  half  the  allied  fleet 
could  be  brought  into  action.  But  just  as 
the  French  had  r^ulved  to  retire  the  wind 
changed.  Their  reti^at  became  a  flight. 
Twelve  of  the  largest  ships  took  refuge  in  the 
bay  of  La  Hogue,  under  the  eyes  of  James. 
There  they  were  attacked  and  destroyed,  as 
they  lay  m  the  shallow  water,  during  two 
successive  days,  by  a  flotilla  of  boats  under 
Admiral  Rorke. 

Macaulay,  Uiri.  of  England. 

Lahore,  in  the  Punjaub,  was  the  capital 
of  the  independent  kingdom  of  Runieet  Singh 
from  1799.  It  was  occupied  by  the  British 
under  Sir  Hugh  Gough  in  Feb.,  1846,  and  the 
treaty  of  peace  between  the  English  and  Dhu- 
leep  Singh  was  signed  there  (Mar.,  1846). 

Laing,  David  (6.  1793,  d,  1878),  was  a 
learned  Scottish  antiquar>'  and  bibliographer. 
He  edited  very  many  works,  among  which  are 
Dunbar's  Foansy  Sir  David  Lyndesay's  Foetnt, 
and  Wyntoun'a  Chronicle.  He  also  published 
the  Life  and  Works  of  John  Knox  (1847—48). 

Laing,  Malcolm  (6. 1762,  d.  1819),  was  the 
author  o7  a  Hiatory  of  Scotland^  which  is  a 
work  showing,  considerable  research.  He  also 
wrote  the  concluding  volume  of  Henry's 
History  of  England. 

Lake.  Gebabd,  Viscount  {Jb.  1744,  d,  1808), 
entered  tne  army  at  an  early  age,  and  served 
during  the  Seven  Years'  War  in  Germany. 
He  went  through  the  American  War  under 
Comwallis,  and  earned  great  distinction.  In 
1793  he  was  in  the  campaign  in  Flanders,  and 
here  also  greatly  distinguished  himself.  In 
1800  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of 
the  army  in  In(&a.  In  this  capacity  he  bore  a 
chief  fillare  in  the  Mahratta  War  of  1803, 
and  enhanced  his  reputation  as  a  brilliant 
soldier.  He  defeated  Scindia  at  Laswaree 
(Nov.,  1803),  and  captured  Delhi.  He  re- 
ceived a  peerage  in  1804.  He  returned  to 
England  in*  1807,  and  was  appointed  Gover- 
nor of  Portsmouth. 

Iially,  Count  db,  arrived  in  India,  1767, 
as  commander  of  the  French.  A  dashing 
soldier,  but  harsh,  severe,  and  unconciliating, 
he  alienated  the  native  allies  as  much  as  Du- 
pleix  had  conciliated  them.  For  some  time 
he  maintained  the  war,  and  in  1759  besieged 
Madras.  The  siege  failed ;  Lally  was  defeated 
at  Wandewash,  £iven  out  of  Pondicherr>%and 
tiie  French  dominion  was  at  an  end  in  India. 
On  his  return  to  France  he  was  imprisoned 


(  660  ) 


for  eig^hteen  months,  tried,  and  condemned  to 
death.  He  was  convej'ed  to  the  scaffold  with 
a  large  gag  in  his  mouth,  to  prevent  his 
spealdng,  and  executed. 

Lambeth  Articles,  The  (1695),  were 

drawn  up  by  Archbishop  Whitgift,  assisted  by 
Fletcher,  Bishop  of  London ;  Vaughan,  Bishop 
of  Bangor ;  and  Tindal,  Dean  of  Ely.  They 
consist^  of  nine  articles,  embracing  all  the 
most  pronounced  doctrines  of  Calvinism,  and 
were  sent  to  Cambridge,  where  Calvinistic 
ideas  were  rife,  with  a  permission  from  the 
archbishop  that  they  should  be  adopted.  They 
were,  however,  disapproved  by  the  queen  and 
Lord  Burleigh,  and  as  they  were  not  accepted 
by  the  Parliament,  they  had  no  binding  force. 
iSiey  were  again  brought  forward  and  re- 
jected at  the  Hampton  Conference  (1604). 

Lambeth,  Treaty  of  (1217),  was  made 
after  the  Fair  of  Lincoln  by  the  regent, 
Earl  of  Pembroke,  acting  for  Henry  III.,  and 
the  French  prince,  Louis.  By  this  treaty  it 
was  agreed  that  Louis  should  at  once  evacuate 
Engluid,  that  the  prisoners  on  cither  side 
should  be  released,  and  that  a  general  amnesty 
should  be  granted.  It  also  seems  that  a  sum 
of  money,  amounting  to  10,000  marks,  was 
paid  to  Louis  as  the  price  of  his  departure. 

Lancaster  was  a  Roman  station  founded 
by  Agricola,  a.d.  79.  It  was  bestowed  by 
William  the  Conqueror  on  Roger  of  Poitou, 
who  built  the  castle.  It  was  burnt  by  the 
Scots  in  1322  and  1389.  In  the  Civil  War 
it  was  taken  by  the  Parliamentarians,  Feb., 
1643,  and  by  the  Royalists,  March,  1643. 
The  town  was  occupied  by  the  Scots  in  1648 
under  Hamilton.  It  was  occupied  by  the 
Jacobite  insurgents  for  two  days,  Nov.  7  and 
9, 1715,  and  by  Charles  Edward,  Nov.  24, 1746. 

Lancaster,  The  Duchy  and  County 
Palatine  of,  grew  out  of  the  honour  of  Lan- 
eastery  mentioned  in  Magna  Carta^  which, 
having  reverted  to  the  crown  on  the  death  of 
William  of  Blois,  brother  of  King  Stephen, 
had  been  granted  to  the  Earls  of  Chester,  and 
on  their  extinction  in  1232,  to  William  de 
Ferrers.  After  the  second  rebellion  of  Robert 
de  Ferrers,  Henry  III.  erected  the  honour 
into  an  earldom  in  favour  of  his  son  Edmund, 
afterwards  called  Crouchback.  The  Duchv 
was  created  by  Edward  III.  in  1361  in  favour 
of  Henry,  Edmund's  grandson,  and  in  his  patent 
of  creation  the  dignity  of  an  earl  palatine  was 
conferred  upon  him.  The  latter  title  was 
also  given  in  1377  to  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke 
of  Lancaster,  who  had  married  Henry  of 
Lancaster's  heiress.  Henry  IV.,  his  neir, 
being  conscious  of  the  weakness  of  his  title 
to  the  throne,  prevented  the  union  of  the 
Duchy  with  the  crown,  by  procuring  an  Act 
of  Parliament,  soon  after  his  accession,  pro- 
viding that  the  title  and  revenues  should 
remain  with  him  and  his  heirs  for  ever. 
Henry  V.  added  to  it  the  estates  inherited 


from  his  mother,  Mary  Bohun ;  but  a  latge 
part  of  it  had  to  be  put  into  the  hands  of 
trustees  for  the  payment  of  his  debts.  On  the 
attainder  of  Henry  VI.,  after  the  accession  of 
Edward  IV.,  the  Duchy  was  forfeited  to  the 
crown,  and  was  inseparably  united  to  it  by 
Act  of  Parliament,  the  County  Palatine, 
which  had  hitherto  been  kept  separate,  being 
incorporated  in  the  Duchy.  This  settlement 
was  confirmed  by  an  Act  passed  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  VII.  The  revenues  of  the  Duchy 
are  not  reckoned  among  the  hereditary  re- 
venues, in  place  of  which  the  Civil  List  was 
granted  to  William  IV.  in  1830,  but  are  paid 
over  to  the  Privy  Purse,  an  annual  account 
being  presented  to  Parliament.  Burke,  in 
1780,  reckoned  the  average  returns  at  £4,000 
a  year,  but  they  have  since  increased.  The 
Chancery  Court  of  the  County  Palatine  sat  at 
Preston:  the  Duchy  Court  being  held  at 
Westminster.  Their  functions  appear  to  have 
been  defined  by  Henry  IV.  The  Court  of  the 
Duchy  was  given  concurrent  jurisdiction 
with  the  Chancery  as  to  matters  in  equity 
relating  to  lands  holden  of  the  crown  in 
right  of  the  Duchy,  and  was  chiefly  concerned 
in  questions  of  revenue.  By  recent  Acts,  the 
administration  of  justice  has  been  assimi- 
lated to  that  of  the  rest  of  England,  the 
Court  of  the  County  having  been  abolished 
by  the  Judicature  Act  of  1873.  The  office 
of  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  is  now  a  political 
appointment,  and  is  frequently  held  by  a 
cabinet  minister.  Its  duties  are  nominal. 
The  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster, 
if  a  commoner,  takes  precedence  next  after 
the  Chancellor  of  the  £bcchequer. 

Selden,  Title*  of  Honowrj  Baines,  HUtory  of 
Lancashire ;  Beatson,  Book  of  Dignitit* ;  Stephen, 
CommuntarUe  on  ih*  Lowe  of  Bngland,  vol.  iiL, 
ch.  V.  [L.  C.  S.] 

l^anoaster.  The  Family  OF.  The  position 
of  the  royal  house  of  Lancaster  can  scarcely 
be  understood  without  some  regard  to  that 
earlier  family  to  whose  title  it  succeeded. 
Edmund,  the  younger  son  of  Henry  III.,  had 
been  given  the  earldoms  of  Lancaster  and 
Leicester ;  to  these  his  son  Thomas  had  added 
Derby,  and,  through  his  marriage,  Lincoln. 
When,  therefore,  this  Thomas  took  up  the 
position  of  leader  of  the  baronial  opposition 
to  Edward  II.,  he  was  supported  by  a  body 
of  vassals,  many  of  whom — those  of  Lancaster 
and  Lincoln  in  particular — ^were  accustomed 
to  war  against  the  crown.  With  Thomas  of 
Lancaster  we  can  have  no  sympathy.  He  was 
unscrupulous,  yet  quite  devoid  of  political 
ability;  selfi^  in  his  objects,  and  rebx)grade 
and  oligarchical  in  policy.  But  his  action 
associated  the  name  of  Lancaster  with  oppo- 
sition to  the  king  and  alliance  with  the 
clergy ;  and  his  violent  death  secured  for  him 
the  reputation  of  a  martjnr  to  the  popular 
cause.  His  son  Henry  assisted  in  the  deposi- 
tion of  Edward  II.,  but  also  in  the  ruin  of 


XiUI 


(661) 


Hortimer;  and  this  Henry  and  his  heir — 
another  Henry — showed  themselves  faithful 
servants  of  Edward  III.,  during  the  greater 
part  of  whose  reign  there  is  scant  tiuce  of 
any  baronial  opposition.  But  the  last  Henry's 
daughter,  Blanche,  married  John  of  Gaunt, 
and  carried  with  her  the  earldoms  of  her 
father ;  and  in  the  circumstances  of  Edward's 
latter  years  there  seemed  every  opportunity 
for  the  re-formation  of  an  opposition.   Gaunt, 
however,  preferred  to  act  the  part  of  court  leader 
against  the  bishops  and  the  constitutionalists 
in  the  House  of  Commons,  and  departed  still 
further  from  the  old  Lancastrian  tradition 
by  championing   and   accepting  the  aid  of 
Wycliffe.    It  was  left  for  his  son,  Henry 
of  Derby  rwho  had  married  one  of  the  co- 
heiresses 01  Bohun  of  Hereford,  a  name  also 
recalling  resistance  to  the  crown),  to  take  up 
the  position  assigned  by  tradition  to  the  Lan- 
castrian family.    In  conjunction  with  Thomas 
of   Gloucester  he  reorganised  the  baronial 
opposition,  and  though  for  a  time  he  made 
peace  with  the  court,  and  assisted  in  the  ruin 
of  the  Lords  Appellant,  his  banishment  and 
the  seizure  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster  made 
him  again  a  popular  hero ;  while  the  reaction 
against  Richara's  autocratic  measures  gave  to 
Henry's  accession  the  character  of  a  tnumph 
of  constitutionalism. 

But  Henry  lY.  knew  that  the  great  mass 
of  the  people  regarded  him  with  indifference, 
and  that  tiie  revolution  of  1399  had  been,  as 
a  contemporary  says — 

"  For  hatred  more  of  Eyng  Biohardes  defection, 
Than  for  the  love  of  Kyog  Henry." 

The  subsequent  conduct  of  the  Percies,  also, 
showed  with  what  motives  many  of  the  nobles 
had  supported  him.  The  ideas  of  legitimacy 
were  still  deeply  rooted  in  the  nation.  Henry 
must  have  shared  in  this  feeling,  and  must 
have  felt  his  own  position  to  be  doubtful. 
It  is  not  difficult  to  see  that  a  man  in  his 
situation  might  easily  become  the  cold  and 
calculating  monarch  whom  the  chroniclerfi 
of  his  reign  describe. 

Henry  V.  had  no  such  doubts.  He  believed 
himself  called  upon  to  realise  the  claims  of 
his  predecessors  to  the  French  throne,  to  re- 
store spiritual  unity  to  Christendom  by  alliance 
with  Sig^smund,  and  even  to  regain  the 
Holy  Land  from  the  infidel.  Like  lus  father, 
he  allied  himself  firmly  with  the  clergy,  and 
supported  them  in  their  efforts  to  put  down 
Lollardy ;  but  this  action  was  due,  not  to  a 
desire  to  gain  deiical  support,  but  to  a  sincere 
orthodoxy.  He  was  possessed  by  the  idea  of 
the  unity  of  the  Holy  Boman  Church,  and 
persecution  of  heretics  was,  according  to  the 
public  opinion  of  the  time,  its  natural  expres- 
sion. He  possessed  all  the  "  chivalric  "  vir- 
tues, but  he  was  more  than  a  Richard  I.  or 
Edward  III. ;  he  was  a  hardworking  and 
skilful  statesman,  and  it  is  scarcely  i>ossibl6 
to  decide  as  to  the  feasibility  of  the  great 
plans  which  his  early  death  interrupted. 


In  the  minority  of  Henry  VI.,  Bedford, 
Gloucester,  and  Beaufort  became  the  chief 
figures  in  the  drama,  Bedford  carrying  on 
the  work  of  Henry  V.  in  Erance,  Beaufort 
pursuing  at  home  the  constitutional  policy  of 
the  last  two  kings,  and  both  thwarted  by  the 
selfish  and  thoughtless  Gloucester.  When  he 
arrived  at  manhood,  Henry  VI.  showed  him- 
self incapablo  of  ruling  with  a  firm  hand 
either  in  England  or  France.  Overworked 
in  his  boyhood,  of  weak  health,  and  with  a 
tendency  to  insanity  inherited  from  his 
grandfather,  Charles  VI.,  he  became  a  mere 
tool  in  the  hands  of  opposing  factions.  The 
ill-success  of  the  French  War,  and  the  peace 
policy  which  followed  his  marriage,  gave  an 
opportunity  to  the  house  of  York  to  assert 
its  claims ;  and  with  the  beginning  of  the 
Wars  of  the  Roses,  the  great  Lancastrian  ex- 
periment of  governing  England  in  concert 
with  a  free  Parliament  broke  down. 

Stubbs,  Const,  Hist.,  ch.  zvi.  (for  Thomas  of 
Laaoaater),  and  zviii.  (wherein  is  to  be  noted 
the  discussion  of  Henry  IV.'s  allmed  claim 
through  Edmund  of  Lancaster);  Fauli,  Qs- 
schichte  von  England,  HI.,  especially  pp.  174— 180» 
on  Henry  V.  [;W:J.A.] 

Iiancajiter,  Edmvnd  Crouchback,  Earl. 
OF  (6.  1246,  d.  1296),  was  the  son  of  Henry 
III.  He  was  created  Earl  of  Lancaster  in 
1266,  and  acquired  large  estates  both  in 
England  and  on  the  Clontinent.  He  received 
the  cure  of  Sicily  from  the  Pope  in  1253,  but 
never  obtained  more  than  the  title.  He 
accompanied  Edward  I.  on  the  Crusades,  and 
died  fighting  bravely  in  Gascony.  He  mar- 
ried twice,  his  second  wife  being  Blanche, 
widow  of  the  King  of  Navarre.  He  was 
called  Crouchbeu^k  or  Crossback  from  having 
taken  the  Ooss,  though  in  later  times  the 
Lancastrians  pretended  that  he  was  in  reality 
the  eldest  son  of  Henry  III.,  but  was  set 
aside  as  a  cripple,  and  on  this  extraordinary 
fiction  was  partly  founded  Henry  IV.'s  claim 
to  the  throne. 

Laaeaster,  Thomas,  Earl  op  {d.  1322),. 
was  the  son  of  Edmund,  second  son  of  Henry 
III.,  and  titular  King  of  Sicily,  by  Blanche, 
queen-dowaffer  of  Navarre.  He  was  therefore 
cousin  to  Edward  II.,  and  uncle  to  his  queen 
Isabella.  He  was  Earl  of  Lancaster,  Leicester, 
and  Derby,  and  his  wife  the  heiress  to  the 
earldom  of  Lincoln.  He  came  forward  as  the 
leader  of  the  barons  against  Piers  Gaveston  at 
the  beginning  of  Edward  II.'s  reign.  He  was 
one  of  the  Ordainers  appointed  in  1310,  and  in 
1312  was  present  at  the  execution  of  Gaveston. 
In  1313  he  received  the  royal  pardon,  and  waa 
reconciled  with  the  king,  but  in  the  next  year 
he  refused  to  take  part  in  the  expedition  to 
Scotland.  In  1316  he  became  practically 
supreme  in  England,  but  his  rule  was  oppres- 
sive and  disastrous.  His  wife  was  carried  off 
from  him  by  Earl  Warenne,  and  private  war 
broke  out  between  the  two  earls.  His  popu- 
larity declined,  and  the  king,  aided  by  the 


Lan 


(  662  ) 


two  Despencers,  attempted  to  govern,  without 
him.  Once  more  Lancaster  came  forward  as 
the  leader  of  the  barons,  and  insisted  on  the 
banishment  of  the  favourites,  but  his  power 
was  shortlived.  His  forces  were  defeated  at 
Boroughbridge  (Mar.,  1322),  and  h^  was  taken 
prisoner.  On  the  22nd  he  was  tried  at  Ponte- 
fract,  and  being  found  guilty  of  treason  was 
forthwith  beheaded.  [Lancaster,  Family  of.] 

Lancajrber,  Hen&t,  Eabl  and  Duke  of 
(d.  1362),  was  the  son  of  Henry,  Earl  of  Lan- 
caster, and  grandson  of  Edmund,  titular  King 
of  Sicily.  He  served  in  the  Scotch  and  French 
wars  of  Edward  III.'s  reign,  and  in  1345  was 
made  governor  of  Aquitaine.  He  was  fre- 
quently employed  bv  the  king  on  diplomatic 
errands.  In  1351  ne  was  created  Duke  of 
Lancaster,  and  in  1362  he  died  of  the  black 
death.  His  daughter  and  heiress,  Blanche, 
married  John  of  Gaunt,  who  thus  obtained  all 
the  honours  and  claims  of  the  house  of  Lancaster. 

l^aacastery  John,  Duke  of,  oonmionly 
called  John  of  Gaunt  (*.  1339,  d.  1399),  was 
the  third  son  of  Edward  III.  He  weis  bom 
at  Ghent  during  his  father^s  visit  to  Flanders. 
In  1359  he  married  Blanche,  the  daughter 
of  Henry,  Duke  of  Lancaster,  and  thus 
became  possessed  of  the  estates  of  the  Lan- 
castrian family.  He  was  created  Duke  of 
Lancaster  in  1362.  In  1367  he  served  under 
his  brother  in  Spain,  and  distinguished  him- 
self at  Navarette.  His  wife  being  dead,-  he 
married  in  1370  Constance,  the  daughter  of 
Pedro  the  Cruel,  and  assumed  the  title  of 
King  of  Castile.  In  1373  he  marched  through 
France  from  Calais  to  Bordeaux.  On  his 
return  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  English 
politics,  and  was  at  the  heaid  of  the  court 
or  ministerial  party,  which  was  opposed  by 
the  Good  Parliament  under  the  auspices  of 
his  brother  the  Black  Prince.  At  the  same 
time  John  of  Gkiunt  patronised  Wycliffe, 
and  supported  WyclifEe  against  the  bishop 
and  the  Londoners  at  the  Council  of  London, 
1377.  In  1381  his  palace  in  the  Savoy  was 
burnt  by  Wat  Tyler's  mob.  In  the  first 
years  of  Richard  II. 's  reign  his  influence 
over  the  government  was  very  great,  but  in 
1384  he  was  accused  of  treason  by  Latimer, 
a  Carmelite  friar,  and  retired  from  court; 
and  though  he  was  reconciled,  and  returned 
the  same  year,  his  importance  in  English 
politics  diminished.  He  now  devoted  his 
attention  to  asserting  his  claim  to  Castile. 
He  formed  an  alliance  with  John  I.  of 
Portugal  and  led  an  army  into  Castile  in 
1386.  He  was  compelled  to  retire  to  Crascony 
the  next  year.  In  1388,  having  married  his 
daughter  Catherine  to  Henry  of  Castile,  he 
returned  to  England,  where  ho  succeeded  in 
effecting  a  formal  reconciliation  between  the 
Duke  of  Gloucester  and  the  king.  He  took 
no  prominent  part  in  politics  henceforth. 
After  his  death  (Feb.  3,  1399)  his  estates 
were  seized  by  Hichard,  and  this  was  one  of 


the  causes  which  led  to  the  return  of  his 
son,  Henry  of  Bolingbroke  (Henry  IV.),  and 
the  deposition  of  Hichard,  On  the  death  of 
his  second  wife  he  married,  in  1396,  his 
mistress,  Catherine  Swynford,  and  his  children 
by  her,  the  Beauforts,  were  legitimised  by 
patent  in  1397.  From  one  of  these,  John 
Beaufort,  Henry  III.  was  descended.  [Beau- 
FO&T,  Family  of  ;  Lancaster,  Family  of.] 

Land  Bank.    [Banking.] 

Land  Legislation,  Ibish.  The  prin- 
cipal penal  laws  rolating  to  land  have  been 
mentioned  in  the  article  on  Iroland.  The 
Irish  and  the  English  land  laws  were  in  other 
respects  practicaUy  identical  until  the  famine 
of  1846 — 48.  That  visitation  would  have  tried 
the  soundest  agricultural  economy.  But  the 
agricultural  economy  of  Iroland  was  not 
sound.  The  artificial  prosperity  caused  by 
the  great  war  had  led  to  improvident  charges 
upon  family  estates.  The  fall^  of  prices 
brought  embarrassment,  the  famine  ruin. 
Creditors  obtained  no  interest.  The  absence 
of  purchasers  made  it  impossible  to  en- 
force securities.  The  receivers  of  the  Court 
of  Chancery  held  property  with  a  nominal 
rental  of  £750,000.  The  insolvent  landlords 
could  neither  work  their  estates  nor  employ 
the  starving  labourers.  The  first  condition  A 
progress  was  to  replace  them  by  a  class  of 
weiuthy  proprietors.  With  this  object  a 
special  commission  was  created  by  statute 
(11  and  12  Vic,  c.  48)  to  facilitate  sales  of 
incumbered  estates.  Certain  incumbrancers 
on  land,  and  all  incumbered  owners,  including 
owners  of  any  limited  interest  which  was 
itself  charged  with  the  incumbrance,  were 
empowered  to  apply  to  the  commissioners  by 
petition  in  a  summary  way,  for  a  sale  of  the 
entiro  incumbered  interest.  The  petition  was 
referred  to  a  master,  who,  after  due  inquiry 
reported  to  the  court,  which  thereupon 
ordered  or  refused  a  sale.  Purchasers  ob- 
tained an  indefeasible  Parliamentary  title. 
The  purohase  money  was  distributed  amongst 
the  incumbrancers  by  the  court.  Twenty- 
three  millions- worth  of  land  was  sold  under 
this  Act  between  1850  and  1858.  It  did  much 
good,  and  some  lasting  evil.  Many  of  the 
purohasers  were  Englishmen  and  Scotchmen, 
rhey  raised  the  standard  of  farming,  and 
applied  badly  needed  capital  to  the  soil.  But 
their  ignorance  of  the  people,  and  their 
inclination  to  treat  their  occupying  tenants 
from  a  purely  commeroial  point  of  view, 
largely  fostered  agrarian  discontent.  In  1858 
the  commission  was  wound  up,  and  a  per- 
manent tribunal  with  extended  powers  created, 
under  the  name  of  the  Landed  Estates  Court. 
The  new  body  can  sell  on  the  petition  of  any 
incumbrancer,  or  of  any  owner  whether  in- 
cumbered or  not.  It  has  a  wide  discretion  in 
ordering  or  refusing  sales,  and  ample  powers 
for  effecting  them  upon  such  terms  and  con- 
ditions as  it  may  deem  most  advantageous  to 


(  668  ) 


the  parties  concerned  (21  and  22  Vic,  c.  72). 
Several  important  changes  were  introduced 
in  1860.  The  *'  Landlord  and  Tenant  Law 
Amendment  Act"  of  that  year  ^23  and  24 
Vic,  c  154)  is  founded  on  tJbie  principle  laid 
down  in  the  third  section,  that  the  relation 
between  landlord  and  tenant  is  one  of  con- 
tract, expressed  or  implied,  and  not  of  tenure. 
Jt  aims  at  simplifying  and  defining  the  rights 
of  both  parties  where  they  have  failed  or 
neglected  to  express  fully  the  terms  of  their 
agreement.  It  gives  the  landlord  and  his 
representatives  &e  same  remedy  against 
the  assignee  of  a  tenant  for  breach  of  the 
conditions  of  his  tenancy,  that  he  would  have 
had  against  the  original  tenant,  and  it  gives 
the  tenant  and  his  representatives  a  like 
remedy  in  like  circumstances  against  the 
assignee  of  the  landlord.  It  imports  certain 
covenants  into  leases,  entitles  tenants  to  remove 
certain  fixtures,  abolishes  the  doctrine  of  im- 
plied waiver,  limits  the  remedy  by  disb^ess  to  a 
single  year's  rent,  and  facilitates  the  remedy 
by  eiectment.  The  Act  of  1860  looked  pri- 
marily to  the  intention  of  the  parties.  Where 
they  had  expressed  their  meaning  f  uUy  and 
aptly  the  law  enforced  it.  Where  the  expres- 
sion was  technically  defective  it  suppliea  the 
defects.  Where  the  agreement  was  silent,  it 
annexed  to  it  terms  usual  in  similar  contracts, 
and  presumably  intended  by  the  parties. 

The  Land  Act  of  1870  reversed  this  policy. 
It  read  into  existing  contracts  provisions  not 
contemplated  by  the  makers,  and  it  disabled 
the  majority  of  tenants  from  making  certain 
ccAitracts  in  the  future.  The  chief  innova- 
tions were  compensation  for  ''disturbance," 
and  for  improvements.  Any  tenant  of 
any  holding  under  a  tenancy  created  after 
the  Act,  if  «  disturbed  *'  in  his  holding  by  the 
act  of  the  landlord,  and  any  tenant  from  year 
to  year  of  any  holding  under  a  tenancy 
created  before  the  Act,  rated  at  not  more  than 
£100  per  annum,  if  *'  disturbed*'  by  the  act 
of  his  immediate  landlord,  is  declared  to  be 
"  entitled  to  such  compensation  for  the  loss 
which  the  court  shall  &id  to  be  sustained  by 
him,  by  reason  of  quitting  his  holding,  as  the 
court  shall  think  fit."  The  maximum  is 
regulated  by  a  scale  in  the  Act  amended  in  the 
tenant's  interest  by  the  Act  of  1881.*  Eject- 
ment for  non-payment  of  rent,  or  for  breach  of 
conditions  against  sub-letting,  bankruptcy,  or 
insolvency,  is  not  an  act  of  disturbance  by 
the  landlord  (s.  9).  But  ejectment  for  non- 
XMvment  is  a  disturbance,  where  the  rent 
aoes  not  exceed  £16,  and  the  court  certifies 
that  the  non-payment  of  rent  causing  the 
eviction  has  arisen  from  the  rent  being  an 
exorbitant  rent.  No  claim  can  be  brought 
for  disturbance  where  the  tenant  has 
sub-let,  or  sub-divided,  or  assigned  his 
interest    without     authority    (3    and     13 : 

*  The  "  court "  is  the  eoiinty  court,  or  the  Land 
'  don,  since  1881. 


Sec.  13  was  repealed  by  the  Act  of  1881.) 
A  tenant  holding  under  a  lease  for  thirty -one 
years  or  upwards,  made  after  the  Act,  could 
claim  for  disturbance.  But  **any  tenant" 
might  claim  compensation  for  improvements 
made  by  himself  or  his  predecessors  in  title, 
subject  to  certain  limitations  laid  down  in  the 
Act  (amended  in  the  tenant's  interest  by  the 
Acl^of  1881),  and  all  improvements  were  pre- 
sumed to  be  the  tenant's  where  the  holding 
was  rated  at  or  under  £100  a  year.  Improve- 
ments (except  permanent  buildings  and  re- 
clamation) made  twenty  years  before  claim, 
did  not  entitle  to  compensation.  In  calculating 
the  amount  of  compensation  the  period  of  the 
tenant's  enjoyment  of  the  improvement  was 
to  be  taken  into  account.  "  Town  parks," 
labourers'  holdings,  cottage  allotments,  and 
some  other  small  lettings  were  excepted  alto- 
gether from  the  Act.  The  Act  contained 
provisions  for  enlarging  the  leasing  powers 
of  limited  owners,  facilitatinfip  sales  to  tenants, 
and  authorising  advances  for  that  purpose 
by  the  Board  of  Works.  Like  the  similar 
clauses  in  the  Act  of  1881,  these  have  proved 
for  the  most  part  inoperative. 

The  Land  Law  Act  of  1881  (44  and  45 
Vic,  c.  49)  further  limited  the  power  of 
regulating  the  incidents  of  Irish  tenancies 
by  contract,  and  completely  altered  the  terms 
01  most  subsisting  agreements.  It  divided 
tenants  into  two  classes — "  present "  tenants, 
whose  tenancies  existed  at  the  date  of  the 
Act;  and  "future"  tenants,  whose  tenan- 
cies should  be  created  after  Jan.  1,  1883. 
It  constituted  a  "Land  Commission"  with 
extensive  powers,  which  that  body  was  au- 
thorised to  delegate  to  sub-commissioners 
nominated  by  the  executive  (sec.  43).  Any 
'*  present "  tenant  might  apply  to  a  "  court  ' 
of  sub-commissioners  to  fix  the  **fair"  or 
"  judicial "  rent  of  his  holding  (sec.  8).  A 
**  statutory  term "  of  fifteen  years  is  created 
by  the  decree  fixing  the  "judicial"  rent. 
llie  rent  cannot  be  raised,  nor  can  the 
tenant  be  evicted  during  a  statutory  term 
except  for  non-payment  of  rent,  persiBtent 
waste,  sub-division,  or  sub-letting,  and  certain 
other  acts  specified  in  the  statute.  If  eject- 
ment was  brought  for  breach  of  these 
"  statutory  conditions,"  the  tenant  could  still 
sell  his  tenancy.  If  the  eviction  was  actually 
carried  out,  he  could  claim  compensation  for 
improvements  under  the  Act  of  1870.  The  Act 
practically  conferred  upon  every  "present" 
tenant  a  lease  for  fifteen  years,  renewable  for 
ever,  deprived  the  landlord  of  all  direct  right 
to  evic^  and  "invested  the  court  with  a 
discretionary  power  of  permitting  eviction 
in  the  cases  described."  A  statutory  term 
might  also  be  created  by  an  agreement  and 
declaration  between  the  parties,  fixing  tht 
"  fair  "  rent,  and  filed  in  court  (sec.  8,  ss.  6), 
or  by  the  acceptance  by  any  tenant,  present 
or  future,  of  an  increase  of  rent  demanded 
by  the  landlord  (s.  4).     The  covenant  to  sur- 


(664  ) 


render  was  avoided  by  the  Act  in  all  sub- 
sisting leases,  and  the  lessees  were  to  become 
present  tenants  on  their  expiration. 

Future  tenants  were  not  to  apply  to  have 
a  fair  rent  fixed.  If,  however,  the  landlord 
at  any  time  raised  the  rent  of  a  future 
tenant,  such  tenant  might  either  accept  the 
rise,  thereby  acquiring  a  statutory  term, 
or  sell  his  tenancy  subject  to  the  increased 
rent.  Upon  such  a  sale  he  might  apply  to 
the  court  to  decide  whether  the  value  of  his 
tenancy  had  been  depreciated  below  what  it 
would  have  been  at  a  fair  rent,  and  claim 
the  amoimt  of  such  depreciation  with  costs 
from  the  landlord.  If  the  future  tenant  should 
neither  accept  nor  sell,  he  could  claim  com- 
pensation for  disturbance  and'improvements 
under  the  Act  of  1870.  A  lease  for  thirty, 
one  years  or  upwards,  agreed  upon  between 
the  parties,  and  sanctioned  by  the  court 
(called  a  "judicial  lease"),  excluded  the 
operation  of  the  Act  during  its  continuance. 
It  the  lessee  were  a  future  tenant,  his  tenancy 
would  absolutely  determine  the  lease.  So, 
too,  if  he  were  a  present  tenant,  and  accepted 
such  a  lease  for  more  than  sixty  years.  But 
if  the  term  be  for  sixty  years  or  under,  the 
tenant  woyld  still  be  a  present  tenant  at  its 
expiration. 

Even  with  this  far-reaching  measure,  it 
was  not  found  that  finality  had  oeen  reached. 
In  1882  an  Arrears  Act  came  into  force, 
cancelling  all  arrears  up  to  date  on  payment 
of  one  year's  rent.  In  1885  the  *<  A&boume 
Act"  enabled  the  State  to  advance  the  full 
value  of  their  holdings  to  tenants  who  desired 
to  bay  from  landlords  who  were  willing 
to  sell.  The  amount  so  to  be  advanced, 
£5,000,000,  was  afterwards  greatly  extended. 
The  low  prices  of  1886-89  resulted  in  the 
tenants  acquiring  the  right  to  a  new  valua- 
tion,  and  judicial  rents  have  been  furUier 
reduced  according  to  a  scale  based  on  the 
prices  for  each  year. 

£aild  Teniiro.  The  origin  of  the  pecu- 
liaritieB  of  lemd  t^ure  in  England  is  ex- 
ceedingly obscure.  It  was  supposed  at  one 
time  that  while  the  so-called  higher  kinds  of 
tenure,  as  those  of  the  noble,  the  knight,  the 
churchman,  and  the  cultivating  freeholder, 
were  the  necessary  sub-divisions  of  feudal 
estates,  so  the  very  various  kinds  of  base 
tenure,  those  of  villeinage  and  copyhold,  were 
the  result  of  individual  caprice  on  the  part  of 
the  superior  lord ;  or  at  best,  relics,  mutilated 
or  distorted,  of  more  ancient  tenanciea.  Such 
was  the  view  of  the  early  writers  on  English 
tenancies,  as  the  author  of  the  Bialogut  de 
Seaccarioy  GlanviU,  Bracton  and  Fleta,  Lit- 
tleton, and  his  great  commentator,  Ck)ke. 
Eiatterly,  however,  minute  but  by  no  means 
exhaustive  inquiries  have  been  made  into 
this  subject  by  German  and  English  jurists, 
and  a  considerable  amount  of  information  as 
to  the  relation  of  the  people  to  the  soil  has 


been  collected  and  arranged  with  more  or 
less  success  by  many  writers.  A  difiiculty  in 
exactly  determining  on  the  facts  arises  be- 
cause nearly  all  the  information  which  can  be 
obtained  is  derived  from  documents,  the  date 
of  which,  however  early  it  may  be,  is  long 
posterior  to  influences  which,  as  we  know, 
might  have  modified,  and  almost  certainl}' 
did  modify,  the  original  tenures  to  which 
the  documents  refer.  Thus,  after  the 
Roman  period,  the  earliest  deeds  are  thoso 
which  belonged  to  monastic  and  other  eccle- 
siastical foundations.  But  such  foundations 
were  essentially  of  foreign  origin,  and  were 
the  product  of  a  more  or  less  lengthened  pro- 
cess, under  which  native  custom  was  brought 
into  collision  with  external  practice,  and 
was  naturally  altered  by  it.  It  is  probable, 
too,  that  many  of  the  peculiarities  of  what  we 
call  the  feudal  system  have  appealed  at  very 
different  times,  and  in  very  different  coontries, 
not  by  virtue  of  any  definite  law,  but  solely 
for  the  economical  reason  that  the  labour  of 
the  husbandman  alwa^'S  provides  more  than 
is  necessary  for  his  individual  wanta,  and  that, 
therefore,  it  becomes  possible  for  a  stronger 
man  to  extract  from  such  a  person  part  of  the 
produce  of  his  labours,  as  tax,  or  rent,  or 
customary  due.  In  return  for  such  a  tribute, 
the  superior  might  covenant  to  leave  the 
husbanaman  in  peace,  or  even  to  guarantee 
him  from  the  assaults  of  other  oppressors; 
and  thus  the  levy  of  black-mail,  practised 
from  the  davs  of  David  and  his  companions 
in  exile  to  those  of  Rob  Roy  and  his  tribes- 
men, becomes  the  type  of  those  dues  and 
duties  which,  in  theory  at  least,  were  always 
characteristic  of  the  feudal  system,  and  were 
supposed  to  be  reciprocal  between  lord  and 
tenant,  and,  it  may  be,  is  their  origin. 

It  is  clear  that  the  subjection  of  classes 
was  characteristic  of  the  times  which  pro- 
ceded  the  Norman  Conquest,  as  well  as  of 
those  which  followed  it.  There  were  serfs 
and  slaves,  inferior  or  dependent  tenants,  and 
military  vassals  on  the  estate  of  Earl  Grodwin, 
as  well  as  on  the  estate  of  Earl  Odo.  It  is 
probable  that  the  country  folk  were  no  better 
off,  and  no  worse  off,  under  the  rule  of  the 
descendants  of  William  the  Korman,  than 
they  were  under  that  of  the  descendants  of 
Alned  the  Great.  There  was  a  change  of 
masters,  of  landlords,  but  no  change  of 
system.  It  is  probable  that  the  g^dual  dis- 
continuance of  a  system  under  which  fines 
were  levied  for  offences,  with  the  alternative 
of  slaverj^  and  the  g^radual  establishment  of 
a  custom  under  whidi  outrages  were  deemed 
an  offence  against  the  king's  peace,  and 
punishable  by  his  judges,  may  have  assisted 
the  process  by  which  freemen  were  degraded 
from  their  condition,  and  forced  to  accept  a 
lower  status,  and  may  even  have  assisted  the 
counter-process  by  which  the  serf  gradually 
achieved  the  rights  of  the  freeman. 

When  we  are  in  view  of  the  actual  state  ol 


(  665  ) 


things  which    prevailed   in  England  when 
documentaiy  evidence  ib  clear  and  continuous, 
the  following  facts  are  obvious  and  universal. 
There  was  an  over-lord  in  every  manor,  the 
manor  being  generally,  but  not  always,  iden- 
tical in  its  boundaries  with  the  parish.    This 
over-lord  might  be  the  king,  or  a  noble,  or  an 
ecclesiastic,  or  a  corporation,  or  a  private 
individual    The  over-lord  who  was  a  subject, 
was  liable  to  certain  dues  to  the  king,  either 
fixed  by  custom,  or  granted  on  emergency  by 
Parliament,  and  his  estate  was  liable  to  for- 
feiture in  the  event  of  his  committing  certain 
offences,  or  to  escheat  in  case  he  died  having 
no  heirs  to  succeed  him.    It  was  important 
that  there   should   be  a  central  authority, 
and  no  means  were  more  ready  and  more 
certain  to  effect  this  result  than  to  inflict  the 
penalties  of  forfeiture  on  certain  acts  of  dis- 
obedience or  outrage.    Beneath  these  lords 
were  fred  and  serf  tenants,  all  of  whom  had  a 
sufficient  amount  of  arable  land  joined  to 
their  rights  in  the  common  pasture,  and  their 
use  Of  the  wood  for  fattening  their  hogs  for 
the  purpose  of  their  own  maintenance  and 
that  of  their  families.    The  free  tenants  had 
to  pay  a  rent  fixed  in  amount,  either  in  money 
or  kind,  sometimes  in  labour,  but  the  amount 
of  eitlker  was  unalterable ;  they  were  masters 
of  thexr  own  actions  as  soon  as  this  rent  was 
satisficsd,  or  they  could  transfer  their  holdings 
and  quit  the  manor.    The  serf  was  sometimes 
bound  to  a  money  rent.    But  his  liabilities 
were  generally  in  labour,  though  even  this 
could  be  commuted  for  money  from  a  very 
early  period,  and  constantly  was  commuted. 
When    his    labour     was    yielded,    or     its 
equivalent  was  paid,  he  was  free  to  employ 
himself   on  his  land,  or  for  the  matter  of 
that,  on  any  other  tenant's  land,  or  on  the 
lord's  land,  at  ordinary  wages.    But  he  could 
not   leave   the    manor  without  licence,  for 
which  h.e  paid  an  annual  sum ;  he  could  not 
give  his  daughter  in  marriage  without  paying 
a  fine,  or  send  his  son  to  school  in  view  of 
his  becoming  a  priest,  or  get  him  made  a 
monk,  without  similar  payments,  and  when 
his  occupancy  descended  to  his  heirs,  they 
paid  a  fine  on  admittanre,  and  were  brought 
under  his  liabilities,  while  sometimes  his  best 
chattel,  horse  or  ox,  or  article  of  'furniture, 
was  forfeited  to  the  lord  under  the  name  of  a 
heriot.     His  Kabilities  were  not  in  the  aggre- 
gate much  more  heary  than  those  of  the  free 
tenant ;  in  some  particulars  they  were  less,  for 
he  was  not  held  to  any  military  service,  but 
his  condition  was  degraded,  and  he  was  under 
social  disabilities. 

It  appears  that  in  early  times,  and  till  1290, 
the  tenants,  whether  lord  or  vassal,  could  not 
sell  or  alienate  their  estates.  But  they  had, 
it  is  well  known,  the  right  of  admitting  sub- 
tenants to  themselves,  though  probably  this 
right  was  not  exercised,  or  if  exercised  was 
difficult  for  the  inferior  tenant.  At  the  date 
above  referred  to,  every  tenant  was  permitted, 


by  the  statute  Quia  Emptoretf  to  alie^te 
his  estate  to  another,  under  the  condition 
that  the  new-comer  should  stand  in  exactly 
his  position.  This  law  made  a  great  change, 
in  that  it  put  an  end  to  the  creation  of 
new  manors.  Still  the  lord  was  allowed  to 
admit  new  tenants  to  his  own  domain,  serf  or 
free,  provided  that  the  new  tenant  held  on 
the  same  condition  as  the  old.  In  effect,  how- 
ever,  that  which  was  so  characteristic  of 
ancient  tenures,  ceased — the  subordination  of 
ranks  created  at  the  pleasure  of  the  lord. 
Whatever  distinction  existed  was  traditional, 
and  therefore  ceased  to  be  vital.  It  was 
certain  to  gradually  decay.  But  before  the 
change  referred  to  was  made  by  law,  the  lord 
was  permitted-to  create  a  new  kind  of  estate, 
the  form  of  which  was  exempted  from  the 
later  alteration.  This  was  the  ''estate  tail,"  an 
institution  the  significance  of  which  no  one 
foresaw,  as  it  was  not  employed  on  a  large 
scale  till  nearly  two  centuries  after  its  first 
establishment. 

Such  were  lay  estates.  They  were  all 
liable  to  obligations — the  higher,  that  of 
knight  service,  to  military  duties ;  the  next, 
that  of  a  socager,  to  rent ;  the  third,  that  of 
the  serf,  to  labour.  There  were  also  cottagers 
who  subsisted  by  their  labour,  who  had  a 
tenement  with  its  garden  or  curtilage,  and 
who  had  to  get  their  livelihood  by  hiring 
themselves  as  form  servants.  But  vast  estates 
were  held  by  the  clergy,  either  secular,  who 
correspond  to  the  parochial  clerg}'  and  the 
dignitaries  of  the  Church,  archbishops,  bishops, 
deans,  and  chapters,  who  generally  held  land 
beyond  the  tithes  with  which  they  had  im- 
memorially  been  endowed,  or  the  monks. 
It  is  said  that  before  the  Reformation  the 
monasteries  held  a  third  of  all  the  land  in  the 
kingdom.  In  theory  the  clergy  were  held  to 
satisfy  all  obligations  by  their  prayers,  or  by 
divine  service,  as  it  was  called,  and  were  said 
to  hold  their  land  by  free  alms.  But  in 
course  of  time,  though  not  without  riolent 
struggles  on  their  part,  they  were  made  to 
contribute  by  grants  to  the  necessities  of  the 
crown,  through  Parliament.  The  lands  of 
the  Church  were  thus  a  fourth  kind  of 
tenure ;  and  these  four  kinds  were  practically 
inclusive,  for  another  which  is  enumerated, 
that  in  ancient  demesne,  and  which  consisted 
of  land  which  had  been  once  the  estate  of  the 
Confessor,  or  of  the  Conqueror,  was  possessed 
of  certain  privileges  and  exemptions  only. 

But  the  expression  "  land  tenure  "  may  be 
also  taken  to  indicate  the  process  by  which 
these  lands  were  occupied  and  distributed 
among  the  several  tenants.  The  lord  always 
had    a    manor    house,    in    which    a    local 

J'udicature  was  held,  the  judge  being  thff* 
ord's  steward,  and  a  jury,  who  presented 
offenders,  the  court  leet  being  inhabitants  of 
the  manor  taken  from  all  ranks,  and  the 
homage,  of  freeholders  only,  who  registered 
the  inhabitants  on  the  court  roll.    The  lord 


Laa 


(  666  ) 


Laa 


■also  possessed  the  best  land  in  the  parish, 
the  water  meadow — always  of  great  value  in  a 
country  where  there  were  no  winter  roots  and 
no  artificial  grasses — and  the  most  convenient 
and  fertile  fields.  Each  homestead  also  had 
its  paddocks  and  curtilages  near  the  house 
and  farmyard.  But  the  principal  part  of  the 
tenant^B  holding  was  in  the  common  arable 
fields.  Hero  the  land  was  ploughed  in  strips, 
generally  each  an  acre  in  dimension,  a  **  balk '' 
-or  space  of  unploughod  land  being  left 
between  each  one  of  &ese  sets  of  strips.  In 
those  strips  the  lord,  the  parson,  the  monk, 
the  farmer  shared  in  varying  quantities.  On 
such  land  it  was  not  easy  to  induce  fertility, 
except  by  carrying  manure  to  it,  for  it  would 
not  be  possible  to  fold  sheep  on  such  plots, 
and  folding  sheep  was  then,  as  now,  the  best 
way  in  which  to  restore  exhausted  land.  This 
kind  of  cultivation,  which  Mr.  Seebohm  has 
■attempted  to  trace  back  to  very  remote  times, 
remained,  and  was  customary  in  many  parts 
of  England  down  to  very  modem  experience. 

The  first  great  change  in  the  Engfish  land 
tenures  were  from  the  consequences  of  the 
Black  Death  in  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  Such  was  the  scarcity  of  hands 
•that  wages  rapidly  doubled,  and  even  trebled, 
in  amount.  The  serfs  labour  had  been 
commuted  for  money  payments,  and  now  the 
lord  found  that  he  was  often  receiving  for 
labour  which  had  been  his  due  not  more  than 
a  third  of  its  present  market  value.  After 
trying  the  effect  of  proclamations,  laws,  and 
penalties,  he  attempted^  and,  as  the  facts 
prove,  simultaneously  over  England,  to  re- 
verse the  bargain.  The  serfs  resented  the 
action,  and  the  tremendous  insurrection  of 
Wat  Tyler,  which  involved  two-thirds  of  the 
coimtry  and  all  its  most  prosperous  districts, 
broke  out.  The  insurrection  collapsed,  but 
the  serfs  remained  masters  of  the  situation, 
•and  the  tenure  in  villeinage  was  rapidly  de- 
veloped into  copyhold  or  customary  tenancy. 
Within  less  than  a  century,  land  which  in 
previous  times  could  not  have  been  held 
without  social  degradation  was  freely  pur- 
•chasod  by  nobles  and  gentlemen. 

The  next  important  change  came  after  the 
great  Civil  War  of  Succession.  Up  to  this 
time,  entails  had  been  very  rare,  and  only  in 
small  estates.  Now,  however,  the  landowner, 
who  entered  the  fray  and  belonged  to  the 
beaten  party,  had  to  incur  the  risks  of  for- 
feiture. But  an  estate  tail  was  not  liable  to 
forfeiture  on  treason,  perhaps  not  even  to  a 
Parliamentary  attainder.  Hence  the  custom 
arose  of  entailing  the  g^eat  estates  as  a 
measure  of  precaution,  since  no  one  could 
forfeit  what  was  not  his,  and  the  estate  of  the 
descendant  would  survive  the  misconduct  of 
his  ancestors.  Henry  VIII.,  however,  framed 
a  statute  under  which  entails  were  made 
liable  to  the  penalties  of  treason. 

The  same  reign  saw  the  vast  estates  of  the 
monasteries,  and  not  a  few  of  those  belonging 


to  the  secular  clergy,  flung  upon  the  market, 
in  amount  perhaps  not  less  than  two-fifths  of 
the  whole  land  in  the  kingdom.  These  estates 
passed  from  the  crown  by  grant  or  purchase 
to  a  new,  and  generally  needy,  set  of  pro- 
prietors, and  great  distress  ensued.  But  there 
was  no  modification  in  the  nature  of  tenures. 
The  old  divisions  still  prevailed — ^knight 
service,  socage,  copyhold,  and  free  alms.  But 
what  had  once  been  honourable  had  now 
become  oppressive.  The  nobles  and  gentry 
would  have  gladly  commuted  their  liabilities 
to  the  crown  on  fair  terms,  and  strove  to 
make  a  bargain  with  James.  Bat  the 
scheme  broke  down,  and  the  policy  of  the 
king,  in  exacting  his  extreme  rights,  doubt- 
less led  to  the  formation  of  a  Parliamentary 
party  within  the  House  of  Lords,  which  gave 
some  weight  in  the  struggle  between  Charles 
and  the  House  of  Commons. 

The  Civil  War  between  king  and  Parlia- 
ment developed  a  new  kind  of  land  tenuis, 
which  has  continued  to  our  own  day,  and  has 
been  the  principal  instrument  by  which  land 
has  been  accumulated  into  few  hands.  The 
Koyalist  party  were,  after  their  defeat,  in 
great  danger  of  ruin.  They  knew  that  they 
had  to  bear  serious  and  heavy  fines,  and  they 
feared  that  a  sentence  of  forfeiture  might 
fall  upon  them.  Hence  they  employed  two 
lawyers.  Palmer  and  Bridgnian,  who  devised 
the  strict  settlement,  under  which  the  ancestor 
(say  the  father)  was  made  tenant  for  life, 
with  certain  powers,  and  his  descendants  (say 
his  sons)  were  nuide  succeeding  tenants  in 
tail.  The  conveyance,  according  to  Black- 
stone,  was  of  suspicious  validity,  and  was 
certainly  in  contravention  of  public  policy, 
as  it  practically  created  a  peipetoity.  But 
after  the  Restoration  the  two  lawyers  became 
crown  officers,  and  in  their  administrative 
capacity  gave  validity  to  the  devices  which 
they  had  invented  as  conveyancers.  During 
the  same  period  the  abolition  of  the  tenures 
in  chivalry  took  place.  The  Court  of  Wards 
and  all  feudal  incidents  were  abolished  by 
resolutions  of  both  Houses  in  February,  1646. 
These  resolutions  were  repeated  by  an  Act  of 
Parliament  in  1656,  and  confirmed  by  the 
act  of  the  Convention  Parliament  in  1660. 
The  crown  was  compensated  for  the  loss  of 
its  hereditary  revenue  from  the  feudal  inci- 
dents by  the  grant  of  half  the  excise,  a  tax 
established  by  the  Long  Parliament  two 
years  before  the  aboUtion  of  tenures  in 
chivalry,  and,  like  it,  confirmed  at  the  Resto- 
ration. 

Action  has  from  time  to  time  been  taken 
in  Parliament  with  the  view  of  getting  rid 
of  the  incidents  which  still  belong  to  copy- 
hold  tenures,  and  are  found  to  be  incon- 
venient and  capricious.  When  this  is  done, 
there  will  be  only  one  kind  of  tenure  recog- 
nised in  England.  But  the  power  of  settle- 
ment still  exists  among  us,  and  also  the  CAistom 
of  primogeniture,  the  former  being  to  some 


(  667  ) 


Lan 


extent  changed  from  its  strictnefls  by  late 
legiflktion,  and  the  latter  being  threatened  by 
several  caufies,  among  which  the  present  diffi- 
culties in  which  lanmords  and  tenants  stand, 
sie  probably  the  most  dominant.  The  dis- 
persion of  other  estates  will  probably  be 
hastened  by  the  contingency  which  is  far 
from  remote,  that  that  estate  in  matters  of 
succession  duties  will  be  soon  put  on  the  foot- 
ing of  personal  property.  * 

Maine,  Early  Hi»t.  of  InttUuHon* ;  Seebohm, 
The  Englith  VyXLaqt  Community;  Boot,  Teutonic 
Holdings;  Blaokstone,  CovMiientariee ;  Bigbv, 
RUi,  of  Lav>  of  Real  Property;  firodricK, 
Bnglieh  Land  and  Xandlorda. 

[J.  E.  T.  R] 

Laaden,  The  Battle  of  (July  19,  1693), 
or,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  the  battle  of 
Neerwinden,  resulted  in  the  •  defeat  of 
William  III.  by  Marshal  Luxemburg.  By 
-an  adroit  feint  on  Li^ge  the  French  general 
drew  the  king  towards  him.  William 
might  still  have  retreated,  but  he  resolved  to 
£ght.  The  allies  protected  their  line  by  a 
breastwork  and  a  series  of  entrenchments,  and 
a  hundred  pieces  of  cannon  were  placed  along 
it.  On  the  left  flank  was  the  village  of  Boms- 
dorff  and  the  little  stream  of  Landen,  and  on 
the  right  the  village  of  Neerwinden.  The 
fighting  began  about  eight  o'clock.  Two  de- 
sperate assaults  on  the  village  were  repulsed, 
in  the  first  of  which  Berwick,  who  led  the 
Trench,  was  taken  prisoner.  Luxemburg 
ordered  a  last  attack  to  be  made  by  the  house- 
hold troops,  which  was  also  unsuccessful.  But 
the  centre  and  left  of  the  allies  had  been 
thinned  to  support  the  conflict  at  Neerwinden, 
and  a  little  after  four  in  the  afternoon,  the 
whole  line  gave  way.  William  with  the  ut- 
most bravery  arrc^d  the  progress  of  the 
enemy,  and  made  the  retreat  less  disastrous. 
The  French  were  victorious,  but  they  had  lost 
10,000  of  their  best  men.  Luxemburg  did 
not  venture  to  molest  the  retreat,  and  William 
soon  reorganised  his  forces. 


ly  Richard  {b.  1584,  d.  1650),  an  emi- 
nent lawyer  of  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  chiefly 
became  known  by  the  able  way  in  which  he 
conducted  the  defence  of  Strafford.  He  joined 
the  king  on  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War, 
and  on  Lyttelton's  death  in  1645  was  made 
Lord  Keeper.  But  the  office  was  little  more 
than  nominal,  and  Lane  fled  to  Holland, 
where,  after  the  king's  death,  he  became  Lord 
Keeper  to  Charles  II. 

Xtaaercost  Chronicle,  The,  contains 

a  history  of  England  from  the  earliest  times 
to  the  year  1346.  It  received  its  name  from 
a  misapprehension  as  to  the  place  where  it 
was  compiled.  It  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  written  at  the  abbey  of  Lanercost,  in 
'Cumberland,  but  at  Carlisle.  Xb  is  a  most 
valuable  record  of  Border  history,  and  one 

*  A  long  Rtep  in  this  diiection  nos  taken  by  the 
Budget  of  lk9k~Ei>. 


of   the  most    interesting   of    the   northern 
chronicles. 

The  Lanereoat  Chronide  has  been  edited  by 

Mr.  Ste?en«>n  for  the  Bannatyne  and  Maitlaaa 

Clubs. 

Laufranc  (b.  1005,  d.  1089),  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  was  the  son  of  a 
wealtiiy  citizen  of  Favia.  After  studying  in 
various  schools,  he  in  1039  set  up  a  school  at 
Avranches,  Normandy.  In  1042  he  became 
a  monk  of  the  Benedictine  abbey  of  Bee,  of 
which  he  became  prior  in  1046.  Soon  after- 
wards he  was  engaged  in  the  controversy  on 
the  Beal  Presence  which  Berengarius  of 
Tours  had  started.  Brought  at  first  into 
hostile  contact  with  William  of  Normandy, 
owing  to  the  latter's  marriage  with  his  cousin, 
he  subsequently  became  closely  attached  to 
the  duke.  In  1062  he  became  abbot  of  the 
new  monastery  which  William  had  enabled 
him  to  found  at  Caen.  In  1070  he  was  ap- 
pointed Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  During 
the  years  of  his  primacy,  he  worked  closely  in 
accord  with  William.  He  was  able,  by  the 
king's  help,  to  gradually  fill  most  of  the 
English  sees  with  Normans,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  purifv  and  reform  the  national 
Church,  stampmg  out  simony  and  the  mar- 
riage  of  the  clergy.  One  result  of  his  policy 
was  to  bring  England  into  closer  relations 
with  the  Church  of  Western  Christendom, 
and  therefore  with  Rome;  but  Lanfranc, 
like  William,  aimed  at  keeping  up,  so  far  as 
the  altered  conditions  allowed,  the  old  in- 
dependence  of  the  insular  church,  and  when 
William  refused  to  do  homage  to  the  Pope, 
and  Lanfranc  was  sunmioned  to  Home,  he 
refused  to  obey. 

Ordericns  Titalis,  Hiet,  Eceles. ;  Hook.  ArcK- 
hUlwpt  <^f  Canterbury;  Freeman,  Norman  Con- 

Suet ;  Lanf  muc's  If  oi'ilu  have  been  published  at 
zf  ord  in  1844. 

LangcUda,  6ir  Marmadukb  {b.  1590,  d, 
1661),  was  a  gentleman  of  Yorkshire  who 
raised  troops  for  the  kinsf,  and  supported  his 
cause  with  unwavering  fidelity.  In  February, 
1646,  he  successfully  relieved  Pontefract, 
and  in  the  summer  of  the  same  year  he  com- 
manded the  king*s  left  wing  at  Naseby. 
After  the  battle  he  collected  fresh  troops,  and 
attempted,  on  the  king's  directions,  to  relieve 
Chester.  In  the  attempt  he  was  utterly  routed 
by  Colonel  Pointz  at  Rowton  Heath  (Sept. 
24,  1646).  In  the  second  Civil  War  he  took 
up  arms,  seized  Berwick,  and  formed  a  corps 
of  English  Cavaliers  auxiliary  to  Hamilton's 
army.  At  Preston,  where  his  corps  formed  the 
van,  he  was  taken  prisoner,  but  contrived  to 
escape  to  the  Continent.  Charles  II.  created 
him  a  baron,  and  at  the  Restoration  he  was 
appointed  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Yorkshire. 

Iiaagham,  Simon  {d.  1376),  was  made 
treasurer  of  the  kingdom  in  1360,  and  held 
this  office  till  1363,  when  he  was  promoted  to 
the  Chancellorship.  In  1366  he  was  appointed 
to    the   archbishopric    of    Canterbury',    and 


Laa 


(  668  ) 


remgned  the  Great  Seal.  During  his  primacy 
he  did  much  to  correct  ahuses  which  had 
crept  into  the  Church,  but  in  1368,  having 
been  made  a  cardinal,  he  was  compelled  by 
the  king  to  resign  his  archbishopric,  lie  soon 
regained  the  royal  favour,  and  was  made 
Dean  of  Lincoln,  though  on  the  death  of  Arch- 
bishop Whittlesey,  Edward  refused  to  allow 
Langham  to  be  re-elected  to  the  primacy. 

^angporty  Battle  of  (July  10,  1645). 
After  the  battle  of  Naseby  Fairfax  marchcxL 
into  the  west  to  attack  Goring's  army.  On 
July  11,  Fairfax,  advancing  from  Long 
Sutton  towards  Bridgewater,  found  Goring^s 
forces  strongly  posted  on  some  hills  on  the 
east  of  Langport,  with  a  brook  in  their  front, 
and  a  narrow  lane  the  only  approach.  Rains- 
borough,  with  the  Parliamentary  foot,  cleared 
the  hedges  on  each  side  of  the  lane,  after 
which  Desborough  and  the  cavah'y  charged 
down  the  lane,  and  attacked  Goring's  main 
body  posted  behind  it.  The  Royalists  were 
broken,  driven  through  Langport,  and  chased 
by  Cromwell  and  the  horse  to  within  two  miles 
of  Bridgewater.  The  Royalists  lost  300  killed 
and  1,400  prisoners,  and  the  victory  enabled 
Fairfax  to  besiege  and  capture  the  Somerset- 
shire fortresses. 

Sprigf^e,  Anglia  Rediviva;  Fairfax  Corregpond- 
ence;  Carlyle,  Cromwell;  Markhouip  Life  of 
Fairfax. 

Iiaagtoft.  Pierre  db,  was  probably  a 
canon  of  Bridlington,  in  Yorkshire,  and  lived 
in  the  reigns  of  Edward  I.  and  Edward  II. 
He  wrote  a  Chronicle  in  the  corrupt  Norman- 
French  of  Yorkshire,  the  principal  object  of 
which  was  to  show  the  justice  of  Edward^s 
Scotch  wars. 

Langrtoft'8  ChronicU  has  been  pabh'ahed  in  the 
Bolls  Series  under  the  editorship  of  Mr. 
Wright. 

Ziaiigton,  John  de  (d.  1337),  was  Chan- 
cellor  from  1292  to  1302,  during  which  period 
he  carried  on  successfully  the  work  of  Robert 
Bumel.  In  1305  he  was  made  Bishop  of 
Chichester,  and  shortly  after  the  accession  of 
Edward  II.  (1307)  was  re-appointed  to  the 
Chancellorship,  which  he  held  till  1310.  He 
had  at  first  supported  the  king,  but  the  in- 
fatuation of  Edward  for  Gavoston  drove 
Langton  to  side  with  the  barons,  and  he 
became  one  of  the  ordainers  appointed  in 
1310  to  regulate  the  royal  household  and 
realm.  The  rest  of  his  life  seems  to  have 
been  spent  in  attending  to  the  affairs  of  his 
biflhopric. 

Langton,  Stephen,  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury (rf.  1228),  is  supposed  to  have  been  bom  at 
Langton,  near  Spilsby,  but  of  his  parentage 
and  early  life  nothing  certain  is  known.  He 
studied  at  the  University  of  Paris,  where  ho 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Lothaire,  who,  on  his 
election  to  the  Papal  throne  as  Innocent  III., 
sent  for  Langton,  whose  reputation  as  a 
scholar  and  divine  was  very  great.     In  1206 


be  was  created  a  cardinal.  Shortly  after- 
wards Hubert  Walter,  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury,  died,  and  a  disputed  election  to  the 
primacy  followed.  The  younger  monks 
chose  Reginald,  their  sub-prior,  while  the 
elder,  and  the  sufEragan  bishops,  elected  John 
de  Gray,  Bishpp  of  Norwich,  the  king's 
nominee.  On  the  case  being  referred  to  the 
Pope,  Innocent  rejected  the  claims  of  both 
candidates,  and  caused  Langton  to  be  chosen. 
The  king  refused  to  accept  him,  and  regarded 
the  action  of  the  Pope  as  an  unjustifiable 
interference  with  the  rights  of  the  king  and 
the  English  Church.  For  six  years  (1207— 
13),  John  remained  obdurate,  various  pro- 
posals and  offers  were  made  by  Innocent, 
England  was  placed  under  an  interdict,  and 
the  king  himself  excommunicated,  and  it 
required  a  threat  of  deposition  to  induce  him 
to  yield.  But,  though  the  papal  nominee, 
Langton  soon  won  the  gratitude  of  the 
English  by  his  opposition  to  the  tyranny  of 
John.  It  was  he  who  produced  the  charter 
of  Henry  I.  before  the  baronial  council  at 
St.  Paul's  as  an  indication  of  the  claims  they 
ought  to  make ;  and  aU  through  the  struggle 
for  the  charter  he  was  the  soul  of  the  baronial 
party.  For  a  time  he  forfeited  the  Pope's 
favour  for  this  opposition  to  the  Pope's  new 
vassal.  But  his  great  personal  influence  with 
Innocent  ultimately  prevailed,  and  the  ac- 
cession of  Henry  III.  and  the  acceptance  of  the 
charter  by  the  papal  party  restored  him  to 
full  influence.  He  procured  the  recall  of  the 
papal  le^te  Pandulf,  and  a  promise  that 
during  his  lifetime  no  more  legates  should  be 
sent  from  Rome.  He  excommunicated  the 
mercenaries  and  feudalists.  His  death,  in 
1228,  was  soon  followed  by  the  quarrel  of 
Hubert  de  Burgh  and  the  king.  He  was  one 
of  the  ablest  of  the  medioBval  archbishops. 

Boger  of  Wendover  ;  Ma4ithew  Paris  ;  Hook» 
Live*  of  the  Archhiehops ;  Stubbe,  Corut.  Hiet. 

[F.  S.  P.] 

Lansdown,  Battle  of  (July  5,  1643). 
After  the  battle  of  Stratton,  Hopton  and  the 
Cornish  army  were  joined  by  the  king's  troops 
under  Lord  Hertford  and  Prince  Maurice. 
The  Parliamentary  troops,  defeated  at  Stratton, 
were  likewise  reinforced  by  the  army  of  Sir 
William  Waller,  who  took  up  his  head-quarters 
at  Bath.  Waller  enti'enched  himself  at  Lans- 
down,  where  he  was  attacked  by  Hopton's 
army  on  the  morning  of  July  5.  Hopton's 
Comishmen  stormed  Waller's  works,  and 
remained  masters  of  the  field.  But  the 
losses  of  the  conquerors  were  very  great ;  they 
included  Sir  Bevil  Grenville,  "whose  loss 
would  have  clouded  any  \ictory,"  and  many 
ofiicers.  Hopton  himself,  wounded  in  the 
battle,  was  nearly  killed  by  an  explosion  of 
gunpowder  the  next  day.  Sir  William  Waller's 
army  was  "  rather  sui'prised  and  discomforted 
with  the  incredible  boldness  of  the  Cornish 
foot,  than  much  weakened  by  the  number 


Laa 


(  669  ) 


Lat 


slam,  which  waa  not  greater  than  on  tho 
king^B  part." 

ClaTendon,    Hitt.    of    th€    lUMlion;    War- 
burton,  Prince  Bupert, 

lAasdowne,  William,  Marquis  of 
{b.  1737,  </.  1805),  waa  sprung  on  his  father's 
side  from  the  Fitzmaurices,  Earls  of  Kerry, 
one  of  the  oldest  houses  of  Ireland ;  while,  by 
female  descent,  he  inherited  the  name  and 
fortune  of  Sir  William  Pettjr.  Entering  the 
army  at  an  early  age,  he  distinguished  him- 
self at  the  battle  of  ^linden,  and  on  the 
accession  of  George  III.  was  appointed  an 
aide-de-camp  to  the  king.  The  next  year, 
after  representing  the  family  borough  of 
Wycombe  for  a  few  weeks,  he  was  called  up 
to  the  House  of  Peers  by  the  death  of  his 
father,  the  Earl  of  Shelbume.  In  his  new 
sphere.  Lord  Shelbume  at  once  attached  him- 
self to  Lord  Bute,  and  supported  the  peace 
negotiations  of  1762.  In  the  following  year 
he  was  appointed  a  Privy  Councillor  and 
President  of  the  Board  of  Trade.  But  in  a 
Tery  few  months  he  deserted  the  government, 
and  joined  the  Opposition  under  Pitt.  No 
place  was  found  for  him  in  the  Rockingham 
ministry,  but  on  its  fall  and  Lord  Chatham's 
succession  to  office  he  was  made  Secretanr  of 
State.  In  1768  the  Duke  of  Grafton  yielded 
to  '*thd  king's  daily  instigations  to  remove 
Lord  Shelbume."  During  the  long  period  of 
Lord  North's  administration.  Lord  Shelbume 
continued  to  act  firmly  with  the  Opposition, 
alike  on  the  subject  of  Wilkes  and  the 
Middlesex  Election,  and  on  the  policy  adopted 
towards  the  American  colonics.  On  the 
resignation  of  Lord  North,  Lord  Shelbume 
rejected  the  urgent  request  of  the  king  that 
he  would  form  a  cabinet,  and  refused  to  take 
the  place  which  was  due  to  the  Marauis  of 
Rockingham.  When  that  nobleman  did  be- 
•come  Prime  Minister,  Lord  Shelbume  was 
appointed  Home  Secretary,  Fox  being  Foreign 
Secretary  ;  and  between  these  two,  on  Rock- 
ingham's death,  ensued  a  disastrous  quarrel, 
which  split  up  the  Whigs,  and  resulted  in  the 
Coalition.  Lord  Shelbume  succeeded  as 
Prime  Minister  (July,  1782),  but  with  only 
half  of  the  Whigs  behind  him,  he  very  soon 
had  to  yield  to  the  imposing  strength  of  the 
CoaHtion  (Feb.,  1783).  In  1784  he  was 
created  Marquis  of  Lansdowne,  and  for  a 
time  retired  from  active  life.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  French  Revolution  he  joined  the 
Opposition.  But  he  had  sunk  into  compara- 
tive obscurity,  nor  ever  again  regained  his 
former  eminent  position.  Lord  Albemarle 
says  of  him  that  "  his  countenance  was  hand- 
some and  expressive ;  his  demeanour  digni- 
fied; his  insight  into  character  was  shrewd 
and  gonerally  accurate;  his  eloquence  was 
graceful  and  persuasive ;  his  knowledge  of 
business,  especially  that  which  relatS  to 
foreign  affairs,  was  extensive;  and  at  times 
he  was  capable  of  steady  application  to  his 


official  duties."  It  was  the  misfortune  of 
Lord  Shelbm-ne,  rather  than  his  fault,  that 
he  could  never  attain  a  reputation  for  sin- 
cerity. 

Chatham  Ccrretpondmce ;  Lord  E.  Fits- 
xnanrice,  Life  of  ShelhHrne  ;  Walpole,  Memoin 
of  George  III, ;  Jesse,  Memoire  of  Qeorge  III. ; 
Bockingham,  Uemoire;  Baasell,  Lih  of  Fox; 
Stanhope,  Life  of  Pitt ;  Stanhope,  Hut.  of  Eng, 

Ztansdowne,  Henut  Charles  Keith, 
5th  Makquis  of  {b,  1845),  eldest  son  of  the 
4th  Marquis,  was  Governor- General  of  Canada 
from  1883  to  1888,  and  of  India  from  1888  to 
1893.  In  1895  he  joined  I^rd  Salisbury's 
third  administration  as  War  Secretary. 

Large  Declaration,  Tub,  was  a  nar- 
rative of  Charles  I.'s  conduct  towards  the 
Scots,  published  to  justify  his  policy  during  the 
events  which  led  to  the  war.  It  was  the  work  of 
Walter  Balcanquall,  Dean  of  Durham.  The 
Scottish  General  Assembly  which  met  at  Edin- 
burgh in  August,  1639,  demanded  that  the 
king  should  suppress  the  book,  and  hand  the 
author  over  to  them  for  punishment. 
Burton,  Hiet.  ofSeotland. 


>,  The  Battle  op  (Nov.  1, 1803), 

was  fought  between  the  English,  commanded 

by    General    Lake,    and  fifteen    of  Dowlut 

"RsiO    Scindia's    disciplined  battalions.     The 

Mahrattas  were  formidably  entrenched  in  the 

village  of  Laswaree.    Lake  led  his  cavahy  up 

in  person  to  the  attack.    A  fearful  discharge 

of  grape  compelled  them  to  withdraw,  until 

the  infantry  came  up,  when,  after  a  short 

interval,  the  whole  army  was  launched  on 

the    enemy.      The    engagement    was    very 

severe    and    protracted.      Scindia's    sepoys 

fought  as  natives  had  never  fought  before, 

defending  their  position  to  the  last,  and  only 

retiring  when  all  their  guns  were  captured. 

On  the  British  side,  the  casualties  were  824 

men,  one-fourth  of  which  belonged  to  the 

76th  Begiment,  which  bore  the  brunt  of  the 

battle. 

WeOeeUy   Deapatchee;  Mill,  Hiet.  of  India; 
Grant  Dnff,  Hiet.  of  the  Mahrattae. 

Zrfttixaer,  Hugh,  Bishop  of  Worcester 
(b.  1470,  d.  1555),  was  the  son  of  a  prosperous 
Leicestershire  yeoman.  At  fourteen  years  of 
age  Latimer  proceeded  to  Clare  Hall,  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  threw  himself  with  con- 
spicuous energy  into  the  special  studies 
asected  by  the  favourers  of  the  New  Learn- 
ing. He  attracted  the  favourable  notice  of 
Thomas  Cromwell,  and,  on  finally  quitting 
Cambridge,  he  was  preferred  by  him  to  the 
living  of  West  Kington,  in  Wiltshire.  Bv 
this  time  Latimer  had  earned  for  himse& 
no  small  amount  of  fame  as  an  eloquent  and 
telling  preacher;  but  the  boldness  with 
which  he  proclaimed  his  religious  views,  and 
his  unsparing  denunciations  of  the  existing 
ecclesiastical  abuses,  frequently  placed  him  in 
positions  of  danger,  from  which  it  required  all 
his  own  native  address,  backed  up  by  powerf  al 


Zati 


(  670  ) 


Zau 


friendB  at  court,  to  successfully  extricate  hixa. 
In  1535,  his  own  favour  with  Henry  VIII., 
whose  chaplain  he  was,  together  with  the  in- 
fluence of  Thomas  Cromwell,  procured  his  ele- 
vatiou  to  the  see  of  Worcester.  But  after  the 
enactment  of  the  Six  Articles,  and  the  con- 
sequent persecution  of  the  Keformers,  Latimer 
was  at  once  made  an  example  of,  and  im- 
prisoned for  contumacy  (1541).  He  remained 
in  prison  during  the  &w  last  years  of  Henry 
Vlll.  (1541 — 1547) ;  but  on  the  accession  of 
Edward  VI.  he  was,  of  course,  immediately 
restored  to  liberty.  He  declined,  howeyer,  to 
again  undertake  the  responsibility  of  an  epis- 
copal charge,  occupying  himself  instead  with 
the  more  congenial  work  of  an  itinerant 
preacher.  In  this  character,  his  popular  preach- 
ing talents  exerted  a  much  wider  and  more  per- 
manent influence  in  the  spread  of  his  opinions 
than  the  most  vigorous  exercise  of  his  epis- 
copal authority  could  have  done ;  and  there  is 
no  doubt  that  his  enthusiastic  missionary 
labours  contributed  very  largely  to  fix  the 
doctrines  of  the  Beformation  in  the  minds  of 
the  people.  On  Edward  YI.'s  death,  Latimer's 
activity  was  promptly  checked  again.  He 
was  coat  into  prison,  whence  he  only  emerged 
to  suffer  mart}Tdom,  in  company  with  Ridley, 
at  Oxford  (Oct.  16,  1555). 

Bnmet,  Hid.  of  Hu  B^ormaiion;  Strroe, 
Cranmer;  Foxe,  Book  o/Martyn;  Froude,  SRd, 
of  Eng. ;  Latimer,  Sermont, 

ZrftTldy  William,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
{b.  1573,  d.  1645),  was  the  son  of  a  clothier 
of  Reading,  educated  at  Reading  School,  and 
St.  John's  College,  Oxford.     He  was  elected 
a  fellow  of  that  college  in  1593,  ordained 
in   1600,  and  became  one  of  the   principal 
opponents  of  the  Puritan  party  in  Oxford. 
In  the  year  1605  he  caused  groat  scandal 
by  performing  the  marriage  of  the  Earl  of 
Devonshire  to  Lady  Penelope  Dovereux,  who 
had  been  divorced  from  her  husband  on  account 
of  her  adultery  with  the  earL    In  spite  of  this 
he  was  in  1611  elected  President  of  St.  John's, 
made  one  of   the  king's  chaplains,  and  ap- 
pointed succossivelyArcndeacon  of  Huntingdon 
and  Dean  of  Gloucester.     In  1621  he  was 
further   promoted    to    the    bishopric  of   St. 
David's.     King  James,  it  is  said,  hesitated 
considerably  to    entrust  a   bishopric   to   so 
zealous  and  energetic  a  Churchman.    **  He 
hath  a  restless  spirit,  which  cannot  see  when 
things  are  well,  but  loves  to  toss  and  change, 
and  bring  matters  to  a  pitch  of  reformation 
floating  in  his  own  brain."    Laud  became  the 
friend  and  spiritual  adviser  of  Buckingham, 
and  it  was  in  order  to  convince  the  wavering 
mind  of  his  patron's  mother  that  he  entored 
into  controversy  with  the  Jesuit  Fisher  on 
the  questions  at  issue  between  the  English 
and  Roman  Churches.    With  the  accession  of 
Charles  his  influence  increased,  and  he  em- 
ployed it  to  promote  and  protect  Arminian 
divines.     "The  Commons  remonstrated  against 
his  influence  in  1628,  but  the  king  replied  by 


promoting  him  to  the  bishopric  of  London 
(July,  1628),  and  promising  him  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Canterbury.  But  it  was  not 
till  his  return  from  accompanying  the  king  in 
his  progress  to  Scotland  that  Laud  actually 
attained  the  archbishopric  (August,  1633). 
Therefore,  his  activity  during  the  years 
1628 — 33  was  mainly  confined  to  the  diocese 
of  London,  and  to  the  University  of  Oxford, 
of  which  ho  was  elected  chancellor  in  1630. 
But  his  infiuenoe  stretched  beyond  the  sphere- 
of  his  immediate  action,  and  inspired  the 
silencing  of  controversial  preaching,  the  sup- 
pression of  the  feoffees  for  impropriationB, 
and  other  important  steps  in  the  king's  eccle- 
siastical policy.  After  1633  he  was  able  to 
work  more  effectually.  "  I  laboured  nothing 
more,"  he  says  **  than  that  the  external  public 
worship  of  Gk>d — ^too  much  slighted  in  most 
parts  of  this  kingdom — ^might  be  preserved, 
and  that  with  as  much  decency  and  uioiformity 
as  might  be,  being  still  of  opinion  that  unity 
cannot  loh^  continue  in  the  Church  where 
uniformity  is  shut  out  at  the  Church  door.'* 
He  began  b^  reviving  the  custom  of  metro- 
political  visitation,  and  sending  officials  to 
inquire  into  the  condition  of  every  diocese  in 
his  province.  All  communion  tables  were  fixed 
at  the  east  end  of  the  church,  every  clergy- 
man was  obliged  to  conform  to  the  Prayer- 
book,  a  searching  inquiry  took  place  -into  the 
conduct  of  the  clergy,  and  uniformity  of  ritual 
was  generally  enforced.  In  the  Ooundl  lie 
quarrelled  with  Cottington  and  Windebank, 
raised  Juxon  to  the  Treasury,  supported  Went- 
worth  against  his  enemies,  ana  struggled  to 
contend  against  the  influence  the  queen  exer- 
cised in  favour  of  the  Catholics.  The  new 
canons  and  Prayer-book,  which  the  king  en- 
deavoured to  force  on  the  Scots,  were  submitted 
to  and  amended  by  laud.  That  the  "Rngliah 
Prayer-book  was  imposed  on  Scotland,  rather 
than  the  liturgy  prepared  by  the  Scotch 
bishops,  was  Laud's  doing.  Throughout  the 
two  Scotoh  wars  the  archbishop,  as  a  member 
of  the  Junto  for  Scotch  affairs,  supported 
Strafford  in  his  vigorous  policy.  Therefore, 
as  soon  as  the  Long  Parliament  met,  he  wa» 
involved  in  the  same  fate,  impeached  (Dec 
18,  1640),  committed  to  custody,  and,  after 
the  articles  against  him  had  been  passed  by 
the  unanimous  vote  of  the  Commons  (Feb.  24, 
1641),  imprisoned  in  the  Tower.  For  two 
and  a  half  years  the  archbishop  was  im- 
prisoned without  a  trial,  his  revenues  seque8-> 
trated,  his  goods  sold,  and  his  papers  s^zed. 
The  trial  began  at  last  in  November,  1643» 
the  main  charges  being  that  he  had  endea- 
voured to  subvert  the  laws,  and  overthrow 
the  Protestant  religion.  The  judges  whom 
the  Lords  consulted  declared  that  none  of  the 
charges  made  fell  within  the  legal  definition 
of  treason.  But  this  did  not  save  him  from 
the  hatred  of  the  Presbyterians,  and  he  was. 
condemned  to  death  by  an  ordinance  of  both. 
Houses,    His  execution  took  place  on  Jan.  10, 


lam. 


(671) 


1645.    The  purity  and  lofty  purpoee  of  his 

lifo  redeem  the  intolerance  ana  seyerity  with 

which  he  pursued  his  aim. 

Qaidiner,  Hitt.  of  Bng. ;  Hook,  ArchbUhopa  of 
Canterbury,  second  serieB,  vol.  tL  ;  Heylin,  Cy- 
yriauM  AngUcu» ;  Le  Bas,  Life  of  Laud;  Buah- 
worth,  Historical  CcXUeiicna.  Laud's  own  Works 
are  collected  in  the  Library  of  Anglo-CathoUo 
Theology.  [0.  H.  F.] 

Lander  Bridge,  The  Avfaib  of  (1482). 
During  an  expedition  against  England,  the 
Scotch  nobles,  exasperated  by  the  arrogance  of 
the  low-bom  favourites  and  ministers  of  James 
III.,  determined  to  put  them  to  death,  the 
Earl  of  Angus  offering  to  be  the  one  to  "  bell 
the  cat."  Accordingly  Robert  Cochrane,  Roger 
Torphichen,  a  fencing  master,  Hammel,  a  tailor, 
and  Leonard,  a  shoemaker,  were  seized,  and 
hanged  over  the  bridge  of  Lauder,  in  the  pre- 
sence of  James  III.,  who  was  himself  taken  to 
Edinburgh  Castle,  and  placed  under  restraint, 
Lauder  is  in  Berwickshire,  twenty-six  miles 
from  Edinburgh, 

Lauderdale.  John  Maitland,  Duke  of 
(b.  1616,  d.  1682),  bom  at  Lethington,  took  part 
with  the  Covenanters  against  the  king,  became 
one  of  the  Scotch  representatives  in  &e  West- 
minster Assembly,  and  commanded  a  Scotch 
infantry  re^ment  at  the  battle  of  Marston 
Moor.  In  December,  1647,  he  was  one  of  the 
Scotch  commissioners  who  signed  the  secret 
treaty  with  the  king  at  Carisbrooke,  and  took 
up  arms  with  Hamilton  and  the  Engagers. 
Obliged  to  fly  from  Scotlemd  when  Argyle  re- 
gained power,  he  returned  with  Charles  II.  in 
1650,  was  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of 
Worcester,  and  remained  in  confinement  till 
March,  1660.  He  was  rewarded  for  his  services 
by  being  made  Secretary  of  State  for  Scotland, 
opposed  the  re-establishment  of  Episoopaliant 
ism  in  that  country,  and  by  his  skilful  intrigues 
finally  succeeded  in  overthrowing  his  rival 
Middleton  ( 1 663) .  From  tiiis  moment  he  was 
■virtually  governor  of  Scotland,  which  he  ruled 
through  Lord  Rothes  and  Archbishop  Sharpe. 
"His  great  experience  in afibirs,"  says  Burnet, 
*'  his  ready  compliance  with  everything  that 
he  thought  would  please  the  king,  and  his  bold 
offering  at  the  most  desperate  counsels,  gained 
him  such  an  interest  with  the  king,  that  no 
attempt  against  him,  nor  complaint  of  him, 
could  ever  shake  it,  till  a  decay  of  strength 
and  understanding  forced  him  to  let  go  his 
hold.  He  was  in  his  principles  much  against 
popery  and  arbitrary  government,  and  yet,  by 
a  &tal  train  of  passions  and  interests,  he  made 
way  for  the  former,  and  had  almost  established 
the  latter.  Whereas  some  by  a  smooth  de- 
portment made  the  first  beginnings  of  tyranny 
less  discernible  and  tmacceptable,  he  by  the 
fury  of  his  behaviour  heightened  the  severity 
of  bis^  ministry,  which  was  liker  the  cruelty 
of  an  inquisition  than  the  legality  of  justice." 
His  great  object  was  to  exalt  the  power  of  the 
crown,  and  though  he  did  not  scruple  to  use 
the   greatest  seyerity    against   the   eealous 


Presbyterians  of  Fife  and  the  south-west,  ho 
aimed  at  preventing  the  Episcopalians  from 
becoming  too  strong,  and  maintaming  for  the 
king  the  preponderance  over  both  parties.  He 
instigated  the  decree  of  1669,  by  which  a 
large  number  of  expelled  Presbyterian  minis- 
ters were  reinstated.  He  obtained  for  the 
king  from  the  Parliament  of  1669  the  fullest 
possible  recognition  of  the  royal  supremacy, 
and  the  control  of  the  militia.  In  England 
he  exercised  a  great  infiuence  as  a  member  of 
the  Privy  Council,  and  was  one  of  the  persona 
to  whom  the  king's  treaty  against  Holland 
was  confided  ^1670).  He  was  credited  with 
advising  the  kmg  to  use  the  forces  of  Scotland 
against  the  English  Parliament,  which,  with 
other  causes,  led  the  Commons  to  demand  hi» 
removal  from  the  king's  service  (1674).  The 
king  created  him  Duke  of  Lauderdale  in  the 
Scottish  and  Earl  of  Guildford  in  the  English 
peerage  (1672).  In  spite  of  all  attaclu  be 
retained  his  power  until  the  Scotch  insurrec- 
tion of  1679.  According  to  Burnet,  ''the  king 
found  his  memory  failing  him,  and  so  he 
resolved  to  let  him  fall  gently,  and  bring  all 
the  Scotch  a£Eairs  into  the  Duke  of  Mon- 
mouth's hands."    He  died  on  August  4,  1682. 

Bumety  Hilt,  of  HU  Own  Time;  LaudsrdaU 
Papers  (Camden  Society);  Burton,  Hitt,  of 
SeoOand,  [C.  H.  F.] 

Lawfeldt,  The  Battle  op  (July  2, 1747), 
was  one  of  the  most  important  contests- 
during  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succes- 
sion in  which  British  troops  were  engaged. 
The  Duke  of  Cumberland  took  the  field  in 
February,  while  in  March  the  French  army, 
under  Marshal  Saxe,  invaded  the  Dutch 
Netherlands.  A  revolution  in  that  country 
promptly  placed  the  Prince  of  Orange  a& 
Stadtholder  at  the  head  of  the  army.  **Un- 
fortimately,  however,"  says  Lord  Stanhope, 
"  he  was  found  ignorant  of  tactics,  and  jealous 
of  his  more  experienced  but  not  less  over- 
bearing brother,  the  Duke  of  Cumberland." 
The  £sor«inised  forces  encoimtered  the 
French  at  Lawfeldt,  in  front  of  Maestricht. 
The  Dutdi  gave  way  and  fied ;  and  the  Aus- 
trians,  on  the  right,  remained  within  their 
fortified  position.  The  brunt  of  the  battle  fell 
upon  the  British  on  the  left.  The  English 
horse  advanced  too  far,  and  were  repulsed, 
their  commander,  Sir  John  Ligonier,  being 
taken  prisoner.  The  Duke  of  Cumberland 
could  not  long  maintain  his  ground ;  his  re- 
treat, however,  was  effected  in  good  order. 
The  English  lost  four  standards,  but  notwith- 
standing their  repulse,  they  captured  six,  and 
retired  to  a  strong  position  behind  the  Mouse. 
The  number  of  killed  and  wounded  on  Ix^th 
sides  was  great,  and  nearly  equal.  Both 
commanders  showed  great  personal  bravery. 

StBnhope,  Hut.  of  Eng, ;  Lecky,  Eui.  of  Eng, ; 
Ameth,  Maria  Theresia, 

Jmwvibsl  was  the  name  of  an  officer  of 
Danish  origin,  who  is  met  with  in  the  Five 


(  672  ) 


Boroughs  of  Mercia,  and  other  Dnnish  portions 
of  the  country.  lu  the  towns  of  Dftuish  origin 
there  were  usually  twelve  lawmen,  whoso 
function  it  was  to  expound  and  enforce  the 
law,  and,  in  some  oases,  to  act  as  a  town 
council  or  govciTiing;  body.  In  some  cases 
the  dignity  seems  to  have  been  hereditary. 

3jawr6X&Ce  (Laurentius),  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  (604 — 619),  wa«  one  of  the  com- 
panions of  St.  Augustine,  whom  he  succeeded. 
Christianity  flourished  in  Kent  during  the 
reign  of  Ethelbcrt ;  but  on  the  death  of  that 
king,  his  son  and  successor,  Eadbald,  threw 
himself  into  the  hands  of  the  heathen  party, 
and  threatened  persecution.  tfustus  and 
Mellitus  fled,  and  it  is  said  that  Lawrence 
was  about  to  follow  their  example,  when  he 
was  admonished  by  St.  Peter  to  remain. 
He  did  so.  Eadliald  was  ro-convcrted,  and 
Christianity  became  once  more  the  religion  of 
the  Kentish  kingdom. 

Bade,  Ecclesiaidical  Hut. ;  Florence  of  Wor- 
cester, Chronicle;  Hook,  ^rchbi«7u>jM  of  Canter- 
bury. 

Lawrence,  Sir  Henry  [h.  1806,  d.  1857), 
obtained  a  cadctship  in  the  Bengal  army  in 
1821.      Ho    served    in    the    Afghan    cam- 

faign  of  1843.  and  obtained  his  majority, 
n  1846,  aft(?r  the  first  Sikh  War,  Alajor 
Henry  Lawrence  was  appointed  British  re- 
presentative at  Lahore.  In  this  capacity,  he 
•extinguished  the  revolt  in  Cashmere,  under 
Isnam-ud-deen,  against  the  authority  of 
Golab  Singh.  In  1847  he  returned  to 
England,  for  his  health.  In  1849,  on  the 
annexation  of  the  Punjaub,  he  was  appointed 
one  of  the  Commissioners  of  the  Board  of 
Crovemment,  with  his  brother,  John  Law- 
rence, and  Mr.  Mansel.  Differing  with  his 
brother,  he  was  removed  to  Kajpootana 
by  Lord  Dalhousie.  He  was  on  the  point  of 
proceeding  to  Europe,  for  his  health,  in  1857, 
but,  at  the  earnest  request  of  Lord  Canning, 
he  assumed  the  Chief  Commissionership  of 
Oude  (Mar.  20).  He  saw  the  discontent  at 
the  new  revenue  settlement,  and  he  did  his 
best  to  remove  it  and  restore  confidence.  He 
fortified,  provisioned,  and  garrisoned  Luck- 
now,  as  well  as  he  could,  as  soon  as  he  per- 
ceived the  danger  from  the  caste  question. 
On  ^lay  19  he  asked  for,  and  obtained, 
plenary  military  and  civil  power.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  Mutiny,  on  the  30th,  his  energetic 
action  repressed  it,  and  expelled  the  mutmous 
^poys.  Hearing  of  the  faU  of  Cawnpore,  he 
marched  out,  and  attacked  the  army  of  Nana 
Sahib,  but  was  compelled  to  retreat.  On 
July  2  the  enemj'  besit^ged  Ijucknow,  and  in 
the  evening  Sir  Henry  was  killed  by  a  shell. 
Kaye,  Sejwy  War. 

Lawrence,  John  Laird  ^Iair,  Lord 
{h.  1811,  d.  1879),  younger  brother  of  Sir 
Henrv  Lawi-encp,  was  educated  at  Hailev- 
bury,  and  in  18*29  received  his  nomination  as 
a  liVTiter.    In  1831  he  w^as  api  ointed  Assistant 


to  the  Chief  Commissioner  and  Resident  at 
Delhi.  In  1833  he  became  an  officiating 
magistrate  and  collector.  In  1836  he  received 
the  post  of  joint  magistrate  and  deputy  col- 
lector of  the  southern  division  of  Delhi.  In 
1848  he  was  made  Commissioner  of  the  Trans- 
Sutlej  Provinces.  He  also  occasionally  acted 
as  Resident  at  Lahore.  At  the  end  of  the 
second  Sikh  War  he  was  appointed,  with  his 
brother  Henry  and  Mr.  Mansel,  Administrator 
for  the  Punjaub.  He  abolished  the  barbarous 
laws  of  the  Sikhs,  and  introduced  the  Indian 
Criminal  Code.  The  disarmament  of  the 
Punjaub  was  effected  mainly  through  his 
energy  and  courage.  In  1856  he  wtis  made  a 
K.C.B.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Mutiny,  he 
stamped  out  all  signs  of  revolt  in  the  Punjaub, 
at  once  diverted  every  available  soldier  to 
Delhi,  and  raised  from  the  military  popula- 
tion of  the  Punjaub,  troops  to  oppose  the 
sepoys.  For  his  share  in  suppressing  the 
Mutiny,  he  vrtis  created  a  baronet  and 
G.C.B.  He  then  retired  to  England,  and 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  Indian  Council. 
Five  years  later  ho  undertook  the  onerous 
duty  of  Governor-General.  On  Jan.  12, 
1864,  he  arrived,  and  found  India  at  peace. 
He  devoted  himself  to  improving  the  life  of 
English  soldiers  in  India.  He  proWdcd  for 
their  moral  and  physical  condition,  for  their 
religious  study  ana  improvement,  and  for 
sanitary  reform.  In  1864,  in  consequence  of 
the  ill-treatment  of  the  English  envoy,  the  Hon. 
Ashley  Eden,  war  was  declared  with  Bhotan. 
The  war  was  badly  conducted,  but  the  result 
was,  on  the  whole,  favourable  to  the  English. 
In  1865  peace  was  concluded.  In  1866  occurred 
the  great  famine  in  Orissa.  The  year  1867 
was  remarkable  for  the  completion  of  many 
railways.  During  the  struggle  between 
Shere  Ali  and  his  brothers  in  Afghanistan, 
Sir  J.  Lawrence  preserved  a  perfect  neutrality. 
At  the  end  of  the  year  1868,  Sir  J.  Lawrence 
returned  to  England.  On  March  27,  1869, 
he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  by  the  title  of 
Baron  Lawrence  of  the  Punjaub,  and  of 
Grately,  in  the  county  of  Southampton.  When 
the  London  School  Board  was  formed,  in  1870, 
he  became  its  first  chairman.  In  1879  he 
died,  having  to  the  last  taken  part  in  the 
Indian  debates  in  the  House  of  Lords. 

Kaye,  Sepoy  War;  B.  Bosworth  Smith,  !»/«  of 
Xord  Lairrenctf. 

Jjeake,  Sir  John  (h.  1650,  d.  1720),  was  a 
celebrated  English  admiral.  He  entend  the 
-DAxy  in  1677.  At  the  siege  of  Londonderry 
he  commanded  the  little  squadron  which  re- 
lieved the  town  by  breaking  the  boom  at  the 
entrance  of  Lough  Foyle.  Leake  also  distin- 
guished himself  at  the  battlt  of  La  Hogue  ( 1 692) . 
Soon  after  the  accession  of  Anne  he  was  made 
vice-admiral  (1705),  his  Whig  politics  being 
greatly  in  his  favour.  After  the  capture  of 
Gibraltar  Leake  was  left  with  eighteen  ships 
of  war  for  its  defence.  In  1705  he  overtook 
and  defeated  Marshal   Tesse,  who  with  the 


X«b 


(  673  ) 


Lee 


French  fleet,  bad  been  besieging  the  rock. 
Next  year  he  commanded  the  fleet  oft 
Barcelona.  He  declined  to  engage  the  Count 
of  Toulouse,  who  was  blockading  the  town, 
although  his  fleet  was  quite  as  strong  as  the 
Frenchman's;  and  was  superseded  by  Peter- 
borough. Soon  afterwards  a  fleet  oi  merchant 
vessels  fell  into  his  hands.  Leake  succeeded 
in  taking  the  island  of  Sardinia  with  little 
or  no  resistance;  and  in  conjunction  with 
General  Stanhope,  drove  the  enemy  out  of 
Minorca  (1 708) .  In  the  following  year  he  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  Admiralty  Board. 
When  the  Tory  ministry  came  into  oflSce, 
Leake,  on  the  resignation  of  Orford,  became 
First  Lord.  After  the  accession  of  George  I. 
he  ceased  to  take  any  part  in  politics.  **  The 
admiral,"  says  Mr.  Wyon,  "seems  to  have 
been  one  of  those  men,  who,  however  brave 
in  subordinate  positions,  seem  to  be  para- 
lysed by  the  responsibility  involved  in  a 
separate  command." 

W/oii»  Reign,  of  Quetn  Anne, 

Lebanon  Qneetion,  Tkb.    In  i860, 

broke  out  the  quarrel  between  the  Druses  and 
the  Maronites,  two  Syrian  sects,  which  led  to 
great  atrocities  and  cruelties  on  both  sides. 
The  Turkish  governor  of  Damascus  did  not 
attempt  to  interfere.  England  and  France 
therefore  took  strong  and  decisive  steps  to 
restore  tranquillity  in  the  Lebanon.  A  con- 
vention was  drawn  up,  to  which  all  the  great 
powers  of  Europe  agreed,  and  which  Turkey 
was  forced  to  accept.  Its  pro\'i8ions  were 
that  England  and  France  should  restore 
order ;  that  France  should  supply  the  troops 
in  the  first  instance,  and  that  other  require- 
ments should  be  such  as  the  powers  thought  fit. 
Lord  Dufferin  was  sent  out  as  English  com- 
missioner, and  order  was  soon  restored.  The 
representatives  of  the  g^reat  powers  assembled 
in  Constantinople,  then  agreed  that  a  Chris- 
tian governor  of  tiie  Lebuion  should  be  ap- 
pointed in  subordination  to  the  Sultan,  and 
the  Sultan  had  to  agree.  In  June,  1861,  the 
French  troops  evacuated  Sj^ia. 

Annual  Renieter,  1890;  Hansard,  1860—61. 

Leeds,  Thomas  Osbornb,  Duke  of  {b, 
1631,  d,  1712),  Viscount  Latimer  and  Baron 
Danby  (1673),  Earl  of  Danby  (1674),  Marquis 
of  Carmarthen  (168U),  and  Duke  of  Leeds 
(1694),  was  the  son  of  Sir  Thomas  Osborne,  of 
Yorkshire.  He  was  elected  member  for  York 
in  1661,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  prosecu- 
tion of  Clarendon.  His  official  career  began 
with  his  appointment  as  commissioner  for 
examining  uie  public  accounts  (1667),  and  he 
became  successively  Treasurer  of  the  Xavy 
(1671),  Privy  Councillor  (1672),  and  on  the 
fall  of  Clifford,  Lord  High  Treasurer  (1674;. 
"  He  founded  his  policy,"  says  North,  "  upon 
the  Protestant  Cavalier  interest  and  opposition 
to  the  French."  At  home  he  put  in  force 
the  laws  against  Catholics  and  Dissenters, 
endeavoured    to    impose    a    non-resistance 

HI8T.-22 


test  on  all  public  functionaries,  and  intro* 
duced  a  bill  to  give  securities  to  the  Church 
in  event  of  the  succession  of  a  CathoUc  king. 
Abroad  he  opposed  the  aggi-andisemcnt  of 
France,  so  far  as  the  king  allowed  him,  and 
contrived  to  bring  about  the  marriage  of  the 
Princess  Mary  to  William  of  Orange  (1677). 
But  he  corrupted  the  House  of  Commons, 
and  stooped  to  be  the  agent  of  Charles  II.  in 
his  bargains  with  Louis  XIV.  The  latter 
finding  Danby  the  opponent  of  French  policy, 
worked  his  overthrow  through  Balph  Mon- 
tagu, the  ambassador  at  Paris,  who  revealed 
the  secret  despatch  by  which  Danby,  at  the 
king's  command,  asked  payment  for  Eng- 
land's neutrality.  He  was  impeached  in  1678, 
and  though  not  tried,  confined  in  the  Tower 
till  1684.  It  was  decided  that  the  king's 
pardon  could  not  be  pleaded  in  bar  of  an 
impeachment  by  the  Conmions,  and  that  the 
dissolution  of  Parliament  did  not  put  an  end 
to  an  impeachment.  In  the  next  reign,  find- 
ing  that  the  measui^es  of  James  II.  threatened 
the  Church,  he  tUlied  himself  with  the  Whig 
lords,  signed  the  invitation  of  June  20,  1688, 
to  the  Prince  of  Orange,  and  secured  York 
for  the  Revolution.  Yet  though  he  did  not 
shrink  from  taking  up  arms,  he  scrupled  to 
declare  James  deposed,  and  headed  the  party 
which  argued  that  the  king  had  by  his  flight 
abdicated,  and  that  the  crown  had  thus  de- 
volved on  Mary.  In  the  discussions  between 
the  Lords  and  the  Commons  which  followed, 
it  was  mainly  owing  to  Danby  that  the  House 
of  Lords  consented  to  agree  with  the  Com* 
mons,  and  invite  William  to  ascend  the 
throne.  Therefore  he  naturally  obtained  a 
great  position  under  the  new  government. 
He  was  appointed  President  of  the  Council, 
and  became  in  1690  the  real  head  of  the 
ministry;  "as  nearly  IMme  Minister,"  says 
Macaulay,  **  as  any  English  subject  could  be 
under  a  prince  of  William's  character."  His 
second  administration,  like  his  first^  was 
stained  by  systematic  bribery,  nor  was  he 
free  from  corruption  himself.  In  1695  it 
was  proved  that  he  had  received  a  bribe  of 
5,500  guineas  from  the  East  India  Company, 
and  he  was  for  a  second  time  impeached.  He 
escaped  condemnation,  and  caused  the  sus- 
pension of  the  proceedings  by  contriving  the 
flight  of  the  principal  witness;  but  though 
he  retained  his  place  for  three  years  longer, 
he  completely  lost  his  power.  **  Though  his 
eloquence  and  knowledge  always  secured  him 
the  attention  of  his  hearers,  he  was  never 
again,  even  when  the  Tory  party  was  in 
power,  admitted  to  the  smallest  share  in  the 
direction  of  affairs.  In  1710  he  made  his  last 
important  appearance  in  debate  in  defence  of 
Sacheverell,  and  thus  explained  his  conduct 
in  1688."  He  had,  he  said,  a  great  share  in 
the  late  revolution,  but  he  never  thought  that 
things  "  would  have  gone  so  far  as  to  settle  the 
crown  on  the  Prince  of  Orange,  whom  he  bad 
often  heard  say  that  he  had  no  such  thoughts 


Lee 


(674) 


L6« 


himself.  That  they  ought  to  distinguish  be- 
tween  resistance  and  revolution,  for  vacancy 
or  abdication  was  the  thing  they  went  upon, 
and  therefore  resistance  was  to  be  forgot ;  for 
had  it  not  succeeded  it  had  certainly  been 
rebellion,  since  he  knew  of  no  other  but  here- 
ditar}'  right/'  But  though  he  disavowed  the 
principles  of  the  Revolution,  and  shrank  from 
the  logic  of  his  actions,  his  name  is  insepar- 
ably associated  with  that  event,  and  the  part 
he  played  then  is  his  best  title  to  remembrance. 
His  character  has  been  very  variously  judged ; 
he  was  bold,  ambitious,  and  unscrupulous, 
and  he  has  been  defined  as  "a  bourgeois 
Strafford," 

Banke,  Uittory  of  England;  Hallam,  Con- 
glitutianal  Hitlory ;  Macaulay,  History  of  Eng- 
land; Mtmoin  Belative  to  the  Impcachni«nt  of  the 
Earl  ofDanhy.  [C.  H.  F.] 

Zieot.  The  court  leet  is  one  of  the  most 
ancient  legal  institutions  of  the  realm,  though 
it  has  now  been  for  a  loxig  period  stripped  of  by 
far  the  greater  part  of  its  powers.  The  right 
of  holding  a  court  of  this  nature — which  is  in 
many  cases  incidental  to  the  tenure  of  a 
manor — appears  to  be  traceable  to  Anglo- 
Saxon  times ;  for  there  is  no  distinction  to  be 
made  between  the  courts-leet  of  the  Middle 
Ages  and  the  local  jurisdiction  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  thegn  who  had  "Sac  and  Soc"  in 
his  own  estate  apart  from  the  general  judicial 
machinery  of  the  hundred  or  the  shire.  The 
court  leet  in  theory  consisted  of  all  members 
of  the  jurisdiction  or  manor  between  the  ages 
of  twelve  and  sixty — even  women  and  servants 
being,  according  to  some  authorities,  bound 
to  attend ;  but  in  practice  all  the  upper  classes, 
from  earls,  bishops,  and  barons,  to  monks  and 
nuns,  were  by  the  Statute  of  Marlborough 
exempted  from  attendance.  The  steward  was 
bound  to  g^ve  from  six  to  fifteen  days'  notice 
of  the  projected  meeting  (which  was  to  be 
held  once  a  year  either  within  a  month  of 
Easter  or  Michaelmas)  to  '*all  manner  of 
X)ersons  which  are  resident  or  deciners  or  owe 
royal  suit  to  this  leet.**  Proclamation  having 
been  duly  made  by  the  bailiff,  excuses  or 
"  esso^'nes  "  were  then  made  for  those  who  were 
prevented  from  attending,  and  the  list  called 
over  to  ascertain  the  absentees  who  are  liable 
to  be  fined  by  the  jury,  which  must  consist  of 
at  least  twelve,  but  may  consist  of  more  per- 
sons. If  it  consist  of  a  larger  number  it  is 
sufficient  if  twelve  concur  in  any  present- 
ment; and  the  jury  of  a  court  leet  differs 
from  that  of  a  court  baron  in  that  the  latter 
may  be  comprised  of  less  than  twelve  members. 
When  the  former  has  been  sworn,  his  fellows 
follow  by  threes  and  fours,  asserting  that  they 
will  "  present  the  truth  and  nothing  but  the 
truth.'  The  business  of  the  court  is  then 
entered  upon,  viz.,  that  of  presenting  culprits. 
Of  culprits  there  were  two  classes :  (1)  Those 
whose  offences  might  be  inquired  into  here  but 
punishable  by  the  Justices  of  Assize  at  the 
next  gaol-deUvery ;  (2)  Offences  which  might 


be  punished  as  well  as  presented  at  the  court 
leet.     The  first  class  comprised  petty  treasons 
and  felonies,  e.ff.y  counterfeiting  the  king's  . 
seal,  forging  or  clipping  his  coin,  mutilation, 
various    forms    of    murder   prepense,   man* 
slaughter,  arson,  dove  or  pigeon  stealing,  the 
abetment  of  knaves,  and  theft  under  the  value 
of  twelve  pence.     The  second  class  included 
the  non-appearance  of  suitors  and  deciners 
(members  of  a  frank-pledge) :  neglect  of  any 
one  being  above  twelve  years  in  age  to  take  his 
oath  of  lealty  and  fealty  to  the  king,  or  to 
pay  his  due  manorial  services;   azmoyances 
caused  to  the  i)eople  of  the  manor  by  tamper- 
ing with  or  poUuting    roads,   ditches,  and 
hedges.     The  jury  might  also  present  and 
punish  notorious  scolds,  brawlers,  and  eaves- 
droppers ;  those  who  helped  in  a  rescue  or  kept 
houses  of  ill-fame;  vagabonds  and  conunon 
haunters  of  taverns ;  those  who  should  adul- 
terate anything  they  sold,  be  it  ale,  bread, 
lime,  or  fiax,  or  who  should  give  false  measure, 
or  sell  goods  at  above  the  fair  market  value. 
The  jury  were  likewise  bound  to  present  the 
officera  who  had  failed  to  do  \heir  duties— the 
constable,  ale-taster,  &c. ;  to  inquire  into  any 
abuse    of    purveyance,    into    questions    of 
treasure-trove,  abuse  of  commons,  and  ou^ 
lawry.    The  court  leet  had  likewise  to  see 
that  there  was  no  combination  of  labourers  or 
tradesmen  to  exact  excessive  wages  or  prices; 
to  insist  on  the  practice  of  the  long-bow,  and 
to  prevent  the  playing  of  such  unlawful  games 
as  dicing,  carding,  tennis,  or  bowls.   The  jun* 
of  court  leet  also  in  many  manors  chose  and 
swore  in  the  bailiff,  constables,  ale-oonners,  and 
hayward*  The  steward  was  to  be  considered  as 
judge  in  a  court  leet,  and  he  had  the  power 
to  detain  a  stranger  passing  by  if  the  full 
complement  of  his  jury  was  not  made  up.    He 
could  likewise  fine  for  contempt  of  court 
Such  were  the  early  powers  and  constitution 
of  the  court  leet,  an  institution  which,  after 
having  been  for  many  centuries  in  a  declining 
condition,  has  now  practically  vanished,  ex- 
cept from  an  antiquarian  point  of  view.    It 
takes  its  place  by  tiie  side  of  the  court  baron, 
both  courts  originally  consisting  of  the  same 
members.      The    court    leet,    however,   ha* 
tUways  been   considered  by  the  lawyers  as 
emphatically  one  of  the  king's  courts ;  whereas 
the  court  baron  had  more  particular  charge  of 
local  matters,  such  as  determining  serrices 
and  tenures,  admitting  new  tenants,  making 
new  by-laws,  &c. 

J.  Kitchin,  Court  Leet;  Scrivin,  Treatw  « 
Copyhold  (4th  ed.),  vol.  U. ;  T.  Cumdnfffaam,  Ia« 
Diet.  ;  Blackstono,  CommentartM  ;  J.  Stei^aOf 
CommentariM,  iv. :  Stnbbs,  Onut.  Hist, 

[T.  A,  A.] 

Leeward  IslaadB,  The.     In  1S71, 

Antigua  (with  Barbuda  and  Bedonda),  St. 
Kitts,  Anguilla,  Montserrat,  Nevis,  Dominica, 
and  the  Virgin  Islands,  were  formed  into  one 
colony,  under  the  title  of  the  Leeward  Islands. 
The  federation  was  placed  under  a  goTernor- 


Leg 


(675) 


Xeg 


in-chief,  residing  in  Antigua,  the  affairs  of 
the  various  islands  being  administered  hy 
preaideuts.  There  arQ  a  Federal  Executive 
Council  and  a  Federal  Legislative  Council 
for  the  Leeward  Islands,  consisting  of  ten 
nominated  and  ten  elective  members.  The 
population  numbers  about  127,000,  of  whom 
6,070  are  white.  23,000  coloured,  and  99,000 
black. 

IiegateB,  Papal,  were  the  mesaengers  or 
ambassadors  of  the  Pope,  the  recipients  of 
the  formal  delegation  of  the  papal  authority 
within  a  given  country.    Before  the  Norma^ 
Conquest  the  presence  of  a  papal  legate  in 
England    was  rare  and    exceptional.      The 
earliest  founders  of  Christianity  in  England 
were  indeed  in  such  close  relation  to  the 
Popes,   that  there  was  very  little  need  for 
other  than  direct  intercourse  with  them.    Ac- 
cordin^ly  there  is  no  trace  of  papal  legation 
between  the  mission  of  John  the  Precentor  to 
Theodore's  Council  at  Hatfield  in  680  and  the 
mission  of  George  and  Theophylact,  *'  to  renew 
the  faith  which  St.  Gregory  had  sent  us" 
(Anglo-Saxon  Chron.y  8.a.  786)  at  the  famous 
council  of  787.    During  the  next  three  cen- 
turies papal  legations  are  equally  rare.    The 
subordinate  position  of  Nothhelm  **praco  a 
domino  Eugenia  Fapa,''  at  the  Cloveeho  Synod 
of  824,  shows  the  legation  invested  with  few  of 
the  dignities  of  later  times.  Under  Edward  the 
Confessor  the  mission  of  an  envoy  of  Alex- 
ander II.  to  counteract  the  adhesion  of  Sti- 
gand  to  the  anti-Pope  marks  the  beginning 
of  a  new  period  which  the  Conquest  further 
developed.     But  while  admitting  the  papal 
delegates,  and  using  them  in  1070  to  reform 
the   Church   on    Norman  lines,  William   I. 
established  the  rule  that  no  legate  should  be 
admitted  into  England   unless  sent  at  the 
instance  of  the  king  and  Church.     Anselm 
claimed  for  the  see  of  Canterbury  a  prescrip* 
tive  right  to  represent  the  Pope  in  EngUmd. 
Archbishop  William  of    Corbeuil    obtained 
from  Honorius  11.  (1126)  a  formal  legatine 
oommisaion  over  the  whole  island  of  Britain. 
From  this  precedent  grew  the  ordinary  lega- 
tion of  the  archbishops,  which,  acceptable  by 
Church  and  nation  as  involving  less  prac- 
tical interference  with  the  ordinary  rule  of 
the  Church,  was  agreeable  to  the  Pope  as  im- 
plying^  that  the  mdependent  metropoUtical 
jurisdiction  of  Canterbury  was  the  result  of 
papal  delegation.    The  steps  in  the  process 
are   as    f  oUows :    on  William  of    Corbeuil's 
death,  Henry  of  Winchester  was  prefeired  to 
Th€K>hald,   the    new   archbishop,    who    ob- 
tained the  legation,  however,  after  the  death 
of      Henry's    patron,    Pope    Innocent    n. 
Henry   II.   for  a  time  got  Boger  of  York 
appointed   legate    instead    of  .  Becket ;    but 
during  the  quarrel  Becket  received  the  dele- 
gation.    The  next  two  archbishops  were  ap- 
pointed le^tes,  though  Longdiamp  of  Ely 
ijacceeded  Baldwin,  when  the  latter  went  on 


crusade,  and  Hubert  Walter  had  to  give  up 
the  title  on  the  death  of  Celestine  III.  The 
surrender  of  John  gave  opportunities  for 
extraordinary  foreign  legates,  such  as  Gualo 
and  Pandulf,  who  almost  ruled  England  in 
the  minority  of  Henry  III. ;  but  Lang^on 
obtained  their  recall,  and  the  appointment  of 
himself  as  legatus  natu»,  and  a  promise  that 
in  his  lifetime  no  other  legate  should  be  sent. 
Henceforth  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury 
were  regularly  recognised  as  ordinary  legates. 
In  1362  Thoresby  of  York  acquired  the 
same  privilege  for  the  northern  province. 
The  suspension  of  Chichele  by  Marti|i  V. 
because  he  could  not  get  the  Statute  of  Pro- 
visors  repealed,  seems  not  to  have  been  recog- 
nised ;  and  Beaufort  of  Winchester's  special 
delegation  did  not  superaede  the  ordinary 
jurisdiction  of  Canterbury.  But  legati  missi, 
legati  a  latere  were  still  sent  upon  occasion, 
llie  missions  of  Otho  and  Othobon,  and  of 
Guy,  Cardinal  Bishop  of  Sabina;  are  good 
instances  during  Henry  III.'s  time.  Wolsey 
combined  with  his  small  ordinary  jurisdiction 
as  Archbishop  of  York  an  extraordinary  com- 
mission as  legate,  which  became  the  excuse 
for  his  overthrow,  and  for  the  abolition  of  a 
power  which,  from  the  days  of  the  Statute  of 
Pratnunire^  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  had  any 
legal  basis  in  England,  however  conformable 
to  the  general  ecclesiastical  law.  Nothing 
but  the  compromise  of  the  legatue  natus  made 
the  position  of  the  legate  tolerable  to  the 
national  feelings  of  England.  It  involved  a 
subordination  to  an  alien  jurisdiction  anta^ 
nistic  to  the  imperial  claims  of  the  Enghsh 
crown.  One  of  the  earliest  steps  of  the  Re- 
formation was  to  ignore  the  claims  of  the 
papal  legates.  The  mission  of  Campeg^o  in 
1629  was,  but  for  the  revival  of  the  ordinary 
legation  of  Cardinal  Pole  and  his  superces- 
sion  by  Peto,  the  last  instance  of  papal  lega- 
tion in  England. 

Stubbs,  CoiMt.  Hx$t. ;  ColUer,  Church  Ritt. 

[T.  F.  T.] 

l^^^e^  Henky  Billsok  {h.  1708,  d.  1764), 
was  the  son  of  the  Earl  of  Dartmouth.  He 
became  Lord  of  the  Admiralty  in  1746,  and 
Lord  of  the  Treasury  in  1747.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  he  was  appointed  envoy  extra- 
ordinary to  the  court  of  Berlin,  and  in  1749 
became  Treasurer  of  the  Navy.  In  1764  he 
became  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  but  in 
1756  he  rebelled  against  Newcastle,  refusing 
to  sign  the  Treasury  warrants  necessary  for 
carrying  the  treaty  for  the  Hessian  sub- 
sidy to  a  conclusion.  He  was  accordingly 
dismissed.  He  again  assumed  office  as  Secre- 
tary of  State,  in  1766,  but  was  dismissed  in 
the  following  year,  to  be  shortly  afterwards 
reinstated  as  C&ancellor  of  the  Exchequer ;  he 
was,  however,  dismissed  in  1761,  owing  to  a 
quarrel  with  Bute.  He  continued,  until  his 
oeath,  to  adhere  to  Pitt  in  politics,  although 
bound  by  no  ties  of  friendship. 


iMBg 


(  «76  ) 


Log 


Legion  Memorial,  Thb  (1701),  was  a 

Whig  pamphlet,  written  to  express  the  public 
disgust  at  the  treatment  by  the  Commons  of 
the  Kentish  petitioners.  It  is  supposed  that 
its  author  was  Daniel  Defoe.  The  pamphlet 
takes  its  name  from  its  concluding  words, 
"  our  name  is  Legion,  and  we  are  many."  Its 
language  is  extremely  Tiolent,  and  it  contains 
not  only  questions  of  national  politics,  but  also 
a  bitter  attack  on  the  Unitarians,  and  on  John 
Howe,  a  speaker  against  the  Kentish  Petition. 
It  accurately  represented  the  temper  of  a  large 
section  of  the  population.  The  .Whigs  were 
delighted,  and  the  Tories  infiiriated  with  it. 

Legislation.  There  was  little  legis- 
lation, or  formal  enacting  of  new  laws,  before 
the  Norman  Conquest.  The  unwritten  customs 
and  rules  of  law  that  the  Angles  and  Saxons 
had  brought  to  Britain  were,  from  time 
to  time,  authoritatively  declared,  revised, 
amended,  added  to,  adapted  to  the  advancing 
experience  of  the  race,  or  even  reduced  to 
crudely  constructed  codes ;  and  the  result 
was  called  after  the  king  by  whom  or  at 
whose  instance  the  task  had  been  undertaken. 
This  moderate  measure  of  legislation  would 
seem  to  have  regularly  been  the  joint-work 
of  the  king  and  witan ;  the  successive  issues  of 
laws  profess  to  have  been  made  either  by  the 
king  and  his  witan,  or  by  the  king  "  wilh  his 
witan,"  or  "with  the  counsel  of  his  witan." 
Indeed  Alfred  tells  us  that  to  his  laws  the 
consent  of  his  witan  was  given;  and  the 
language  of  more  than  one  ordinance  of 
Ethelred  II.'s  reign  states  the  authority  of 
the  witan  alone.  Mr.  Kemble  would  rather 
"assert  that  they  possessed  the  legislative 
power  without  tiiie  king,  than  that  he  possessed 
it  without  them."  We  may  perhaps  assume 
that  their  practical  importance  to  this  function 
varied  with  the  character  of  the  king.  Very 
few  laws  were  made  in  the  reigns  of  the 
Norman  kings.  But  in  the  making  of  these 
few  the  sovereign's  will  is  believed  to  have 
been  the  sole  effective  force ;  the  voice  of  the 
great  and  wise  of  the  kingdom  declined  into 
an  influence  merely — ^perhaps  into  less.  Yet 
it  was  seldom  ignox^;  the  charters  and 
ordinances  of  WilHam  I.  and  Henry  I. 
generally  express  the  counsel  or  concurrence 
in  some  form  of  the  higher  clergy  and  barons, 
though  it  is  likely  that  their  approval  was 
often  taken  for  granted.  The  tendency,  how- 
ever,  of  the  succeeding  reigns  was  to  make 
the  share  of  the  Great  Council  in  the  work 
more  and  more  of  a  reality.  Even  the  strong- 
willed  Henry  II.  was  careful  to  gain  its 
assent  to  the  assizes  or  constitutions  he  drew 
up.  And  this  tendency  grew  until  this  body 
was  recognised  as  a  co-ordinate  power  with 
the  king  in  this  province.  In  one  or  two 
instances,  indeed,  notably  in  that  of  Magna 
Carta,  what  now  pass  for  laws  were  really 
treaties  concluded  between  conflicting  parties 
in  the  State.    As  yet  the  only  part  the  people 


had  in  legislation  was  to  hear  and  obey  tiie 
laws  that  were  declared  to  them  by  8heri&  or 
itinerant  justices.  "  Legislative  action,"  says 
Bishop  Stubbs,  "  belonged  only  to  the  wise, 
that  is,  to  the  royal  or  national  council."  The 
incorporation  of  the  Commons  with  this 
council  was  necessarily  followed  by  the  con- 
cession to  the  representatives  of  the  people 
of  a  right  to  a  share  in  this  action.  But  not 
at  once  to  an  important  share.  First  their 
participation  was  either  deemed  unnecessary 
or  assumed ;  then  it  was  admitted  to  be 
essential  to  the  repeal  of  a  law;  next,  laws 
were  enacted  on  their  petition ;  and  for  some 
time  this  last  remained  the  usual  practice. 
During  the  fourteenth  century  the  right 
of  the  Commons  to  present  petitions  and 
receive  answers  to  them  tended  steadily  tc 
become  the  exclusive  basis  of  legislation. 
There  were  exceptions,  certainly — ^more  than 
once  a  petition  to  the  clergy  led  to  the 
framing  of  a  statute ;  but  the  regular  course 
was  for  the  king  to  ordain  the  law  at  the 
request  of  the  Commons,  and  with  the  assent 
of  the  Lords.  And  to  several  laws  even 
the  assent  of  the  Commons  is  stated.  But 
the  king  was  still  largely  in  fact,  as  in 
form  he  has  always  been,  the  author  of  all 
legislation;  and  the  statutes  that  he  caused 
to  be  framed  on  the  petitions  of  Parliament 
were  often  inadequate,  evasive,  or  useless. 
To  make  sure  of  the  fulfilment  of  their 
desires,  therefore.  Parliament,  towards  the  end 
of  Henry  VI. *s  reign,  adopted  the  practice  of 
proceeding  by  bills  which  could  not  be  altered 
without  their  sanction,  but  might  originate 
in  either  House,  or  even  with  the  king.  The 
method  of  .petition  was  not  altogether  aban- 
doned; but  its  use  became  rare,  except  in 
private  legislation.  And  already  in  the 
fifteenth  century  the  course  of  procedure  was 
substantially  what  it  is  now.  The  three 
readings,  the  going  into  committee,  the  pro- 
posal of  amendments,  were  established  forms 
at  least  before  the  century  ended.  Then,  too, 
the  enacting  clause  of  statutes  had  taken  its 
final  form — "  be  it  enacted  by  the  king,  our 
sovereign  lord,  by  and  with  the  advice  of  the 
lords  spiritual  and  temporal  and  commons  in 
this  present  parliament  assembled,  and  by  the 
authority  of  the  same."  The  language  of 
our  legislation  has  varied.  It  was  generally 
Engli&,  but  sometimes  Latin,  before  the  Con- 
quest; was  almost  exclusively  Latin  from 
the  Conquest  till  the  Mad  Parliament,  when 
French  made  its  appearance.  French  did  not 
at  once  drive  out  Latin;  but  became  the 
fashion  in  Edward  I.*s  reign,  and  almost 
universal  after  it.  But  ever  since  1489  our 
laws  have  been  written  exclusively  in  English. 
French,  however,  still  lingers  in  a  few  phrases ; 
la  reyne  le  veult  is  the  expression  of  the  royal 
assent,  and  la  reyne  s^avisera  would  be  the  form 
of  royal  refusal  if  such  could  now  be  given. 

Stabbs,  Contt.  Riit. ;  May,  Imw  and  Pradict  of 
ParliarMnt.  [J.  B.] 


Lei 


(  677  ) 


IM 


Jjeicester,  The  Earldom  of,  which  had 
been  held  from  early  in  the  twelfth  centur}' 
by  the  Norman  &unily  of  Beaumont,  passed 
in  1207  to  Simon  of  Montfort,  the  crusader, 
who  was  son  (or,  as  some  accounts  say, 
husband)  of  Amicia,  sister  to  the  last  Beau- 
mont earl.  Simon,  however,  beems  never  to 
have  enjoyed  more  than  the  title,  and  when 
he  died,  his  eldest  son,  Amalric,  was  well 
content  to  surrender  his  rights  to  his  next 
brother,  Simon,  the  famous  national  leader,  on 
whose  death  at  Evesham,  in  1265,  all  his 
honours  became  forfeit.  Nine  years  later  the 
earldom  was  granted  to  Edmund,  Elarl  of 
Lancaster,  and  followed  the  fortunes  of  that 
title  until  the  death  of  Henry,  Duke  of  Lan- 
caster, in  1361,  when  the  honour  of  Leicester 
descended  to  William,  Count  of  Holland, 
husband  to  this  prince's  elder  daughter  and 
co«heiress,  and  then  to  John  of  Gaunt,  who 
married  the  second  daughter.  It  does  not 
appear  that  William  of  Holland  ever  bore  the 
title  of  earl;  but  John  of  Gaunt  is  at  least 
once  so  styled,  and  in  the  person  of  his  son, 
Henry  of  Bolingbroke,  the  honour  was  merged 
in  the  crown.  In  1563  the  earldom  was 
granted  to  Sir  Bobert  Dudley,  younger  son 
of  John,  Duke  of  Northumberland;  he  died 
without  legitimate  issue  in  1588,  and  the 
title  became  extinct.  In  1618  it  was  granted 
to  Sir  Robert  Sydney,  Viscount  Lisle,  in 
whose  family  it  continued  until  its  extinction 
in  1743.  In  the  following  year  Thomas 
Coke,  Baron  Level  of  "Mmster  Level,  was 
created  Earl  of  Leicester,  but  died  in  1759 
without  surviving  issue.  In  1784  George 
Townshend,  son  of  George,  Viscount  Towns- 
hend,  was  created  earl  of  the  coimty  of 
Leicester,  but  on  the  death  of  his  son  in  1855, 
this  title  also  became  extinct.  Meanwhile, 
in  1837,  Thomas  William  Coke,  a  great- 
nephew  of  the  Thomas  Coke  above  named, 
was  ennobled  by  the  singular  style  of  Earl  of 
Leicester  of  Holkham,  co.  Norfolk.  This  title 
still  exists. 

JjSicester,  Simon  db  Montfobt,  Earl 

OF.       [MOJTTFOKT.] 

Ii0iC68ter,  Robert  Dudley,  Earl  of 
(b.  1532,  rf.  1588),  was  the  fifth  son  of  John 
Dudley,  Duke  of  Northumberland.  Impli- 
cated to  some  extent  in  the  schemes  of  his 
father,  he  was  for  some  years  in  disgrace,  but 
was  ultimately  restored  in  blood  by  Mary. 
In  1549  he  married  Amy  (or  Anne)  Robsart, 
daughter  of  a  Devonshire  gentlemen,  aud 
is  said  to  have  procured  her  murder  at 
Cumnor  (1560).  The  charge  cannot  be 
absolutely  proved ;  but  she  certainly  perished 
at  a  time  most  convenient  for  Dudley's 
ambition.  The  probable  truth  is,  as  Mr. 
Froude  points  out,  that  she  was  murdered 
by  some  one  who  wished  to  see  Dudley 
married  to  Elizabeth.  He  had  not  been 
long  about  the  court  before  his  hand- 
some appearance  won  him  the  favour  of  the 


queen,  whose  relations  with  her  "  sweet 
Robin  **  were  so  peculiar  as  to  lend  colour  to 
the  worst  representations  of  her  enemies, 
though  the  rumours  were  probably  ground- 
less. The  queen's  fondness  for  Dudley, 
whom,  in  1564,  she  created  Earl  of  Leicester, 
caused  his  marriage  with  her  to  be  regarded 
as  a  matter  of  certainty.  But  Elizabeth,  fond 
as  she  was,  preferred  that  '*at  court  there 
should  be  no  master,  only  mistress."  The 
bitter  enemy  of  Cecil,  whom  he  regarded  as 
his  rival  in  influence  over  the  queen,  Leicester 
was  continually  trying  to  deprive  him  of  his 
office,  but  without  success.  His  arrogance 
and  his  influence  over  the  queen  made 
Leicester  an  object  of  almost  universal  de- 
testation ;  and  the  probabilitv  of  his  iHar- 
rifige  with  Elizabeth  called  forth  the  most 
violent  opposition.  When  the  queen,  in 
1562,  believed  herself  to  be  dying,  she  named 
the  earl  as  Protector  of  the  reahn ;  and  the 
following  year,  though  she  would  not  marry 
him  herself,  proposed  him.  as  a  suitor  for  the 
hand  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  that  he  might 
thus,  perhaps,  after  all,  obtain  the  throne  of 
England.  It  was  long,  however,  before 
Leicester  gave  up  all  hope  of  an  alliance  with 
the  queen ;  and  he  was  one  of  the  most  deter- 
mined opponents  of  the  projected  marriages 
with  the  Duke  of  Anjou  and  Charles  of  Austria. 
About  the  year  1567,  Leicester  assumed  the 
rdle  of  head  of  the  Puritan  party,  partly 
out  of  chagrin  with  the  Catholics,  who  re- 
fused him  support,  and  as  a  means  of  check- 
mating his  enemy  Cecil.  Twenty  years  later, 
when  in  the  Netherlands,  he  gained  many 
supporters  amongst  the  Reformers  by  his  pre- 
tence of  sincere  Protestantism.  In  1578  he 
secretly  married  the  Countess  of  Essex,  and 
incurred  the  severe  displeasure  of  the  queen, 
who  still  retained  her  partiality  for  her 
favourite.  In  1582  Elizabeth  again  quarrelled 
with  him ;  but  a  reconciliation  was  effected, 
and,  in  1585,  he  obtained  the  command  of  the 
English  troops  in  the  Low  Cotmtries ;  though 
his  appointment  only  served  to  bring  out  his 
incapacity  to  fill  a  responsible  position.  On 
his  arrival  at  Flushing,  Leicester  was  offered 
and  accepted  the  post  of  governor  by  the 
States,  a  fact  which  again  provoked  the  anger 
of  Eb'zabeth,  who  declared  that  the  earl  and 
the  States  had  treated  her  with  contempt. 
Before  Leicester  returned  to  England,  towards 
the  end  of  1586,  he^had  managed,  **  with  con- 
spicuous incapacity,"  to  throw  everj-thing 
into  confusion,  and  to  bring  the  Low  Countries 
to  the  verge  of  ruin.  Notwithstanding  this, 
the  States  again  offered  him  the  government, 
and  he  went  back  with  supplies  of  men  and 
money  in  1587,  though  he  only  retained  his 
post  a  few  months.  The  following  year,  in 
spite  of  the  incapacity  he  had  displayed  as  a 
general,  the  command  of  the  English  army  was 
entrusted  to  him  during  the  alarm  of  the  Spanish 
invasion;  and  he  was  about  to  be  created 
lieutenant-General  of  England  and  Ireland, 


Lm 


(  678  ) 


IM 


when  he  died  of  a  fever  (Sept.  4,  1588).  His 
characier  is  that  of  an  ambitious  and  unscru- 
pulous courtier.  "  Ho  combined  in  himself," 
says  Mr.  Froude,  "  the  worst  qualities  of  both 
sexes.  Without  courage,  without  talent, 
without  virtue,  he  was  the  handsome,  soft, 
polished,  and  attentive  minion  of  the  Court." 

Stowe ;  Strype,  iinnols,  *& ;  Proud©,  lfi*(.  of 
Etui.  ;  Lingard,  Hitt,  of  Enq. ;  Banke,  Hut.  of 
Eng.  [F.  S.  P.] 

Leigh,  Thomas  {d.  1601),  a  supporter  of 
the  E^  of  Essex,  formed  a  plot  to  obtain  his 
release  by  seizing  the  person  of  the  queen. 
It  is  said  that  the  discovery  of  Leigh's  inten- 
tion caused  Elizabeth  to  sign  the  death  war- 
rant of  the  earl  without  delay. 

Seitfhton,  Alexander  (&.  1587  ?  d.  1644), 
a  Scotcn  divine,  filled  the  chair  of  Moral 
Philosophy  at  Edinburgh  from  1603  to  1615. 
Tn  1629  he  published  two  works,  one  entitled 
Zion^s  Plea,  the  other  The  Looking-glass  of  the 
Holy  War,  in  which  he  violently  attacked  the 
bishops,  counselling  the  Parliament  '*  to  smite 
them  under  the  fifth  rib,"  and  spoke  of  the 
queen  as  a  Canaanite  and  an  idolatress.  For 
this  he  was  sentenced  by  the  Star  Chamber  to 
have  his  nose  slit,  his  ears  cut,  be  publicly 
whipped,  and  imprisoned  for  life.  In  1640  he 
was  released  bv  the  Long  Parliament,  and 
made  keeper  oi  the  state  prison  at  Lambeth 
Palace. 

Jjeinster,  The  Kingdom  and  Pkovince 
OF,  as  far  as  can  be  gathered  from  the  Irish 
legends,  was  first  colonised  by  the  Firbolgs,  a 
number  of  tribes  of  British  or  Belgian  origin, 
and  after  they  had  been  defeated  by  the 
Tuatha  De  Dananns,  it  was  the  starting  point 
from  which  the  Milesians  (Gauls  or  Spaniards) 
overran  the  country.  When  their  leader  Eri- 
mon  divided  the  country  he  is  said  to  have 
given  Leinster  to  Crimhthann,  a  descendant 
of  the  Firbolgs,  which  race  formed  the  bulk 
of  the  population.  About  the  time  of  the 
Christian  era  Leinster  was  occupied  by  a 
number  of  kinglets,  but  Tuathal  Techmar, 
who  was  a  member  of  the  dominant  tribe, 
the  Scoti,  broke  their  power,  imposed  upon 
them  a  fine  known  as  the  "boromoan,"  or  cow- 
tribute,  and  took  a  portion  of  their  territory, 
including  the  sacred  hill  of  Tara,  to  form,  with 
additions  from  the  other  kingdoms,  the  over- 
king's  kingdom  of  Meath.  His  grandson. 
Conn  "of  file  hundred  battles,"  however,  had 
little  hold  on  the  country,  and  the  King  of 
Leinster  joined  Mug  of  Munster  in  a  victorious 
struggle  against  the  over-king.  At  the  time 
of  the  mission  of  St.  Patrick  (432  a.d.)  Lein- 
ster, which  comprised  the  present  counties  of 
Wexford,  Wicklow,  Carlow,  Queen's  County, 
parts  of  Kilkenny,  King's  County,  and  KU- 
dare,  together  with  the  part  of  county  Dublin 
south  of  the  Liffev,  had  been  consolidated  into 
one  kingdom  under  the  Maelmordas,  or  Mac- 
Murroughs.  It  had  already  been  partially 
converted  to  Christianity  by  Palladius.    The 


Leinster  kings  seem  to  have  been  practically 
independent  of  the  over-kings  of  the  Hoi- 
Neill  dynasty  (438  and  onwards),  and  in  681 
they  obtained  an  abolition  of    the    "boro- 
mean"  tribute,  at  the  instance  of  St.  Moling. 
From  time  to  time,  however,  their  country 
was  invaded  from  Meath,  and  terrific  defeats 
inflicted  upon  them.     The  country  suffered 
also  ixom.  the  ravages  of  the  Northmen  and 
Danes,  the  latter  of  whom  took  from  them  a 
considerable  district  round  Dublin  (about  850). 
In  984  the  Kings  of  East  and  West  Leinster 
had  to  submit  to  Brian  Boru,  King  of  Munster, 
who  thus  became  king  of  the  southern  half  of 
Ireland.  With  the  aid  of  the  Danes  of  Dublin, 
Leinster  attempted  in   1000  to  cast  off  his 
yoke,  but  the  allies  were  completely  defeated 
at  Glen  Mama.   Maelmorda  was  placed  on  the 
throne  by  Brian  as  sole  king,  but  promptly 
began  to  intrigue  afresh  with  the  Danes  against 
him,  and  was  in  consequence  met  by  the  com- 
bined forces  of  Brian  Boru  and  Malachi,  King 
of  Meath.    The  battle  of  Qontarf  (1014)  re- 
sulted in  the  utter  overthrow  of  the  Kings  of 
Leinster  and  Dublin.     It  was  not  long,  how- 
ever, before  the  kingdom  recovered,  and  by 
the  middle  of  the  century  we  find  Diarmait 

g)ermot).  King  of  Leinster,  driving  out  the 
anish  King  of  Dublin,  and  his  son  Mur- 
chad  (Murtough),  making  the  Isle  of  Man 
tributary ;  but  these  acquisitions  were  not 
long  retained.  Dermot^s  g^eat-grandson, 
Dermot  MacMurrough,  having  been  deposed 
because  of  his  treacheries  and  cruelties,  re- 
paired to  Henry  II.  in  Aquitaine,  and  obtained 
permission  to  raise  forces  in  England  against 
Roderick  O'Connor.  Hence  began  the  Aiiglo- 
Norman  invasion,  which  speedily  resulted  in 
the  conquest  of  the  coast  towns,  and  victories 
over  the  tribes,  into  which  it  is  unnecessary 
to  enter  here.  On  the  death  of  Dermot  in 
1171,  Strongbow,  who  had  married  his  only 
child  Eva,  claimed  the  kingdom  of  Leinster, 
and  his  heiress  transferred  the  claim  to  her 
husband,  William  Marshal,  Earl  of  Pem- 
broke, who  left  five  co-heiresses.  These  ladies 
all  married  English  nobles,  whose  descendants 
drew  their  rents,  and  lived  away  in  England, 
the  estates  eventually  becoming  forfeited  to 
the  crown  under  the  statute  against  absentees. 
Large  tracts  of  land  were  also  given  by  Dermot 
to  others  of  the  invaders,  and  these  grants 
were  confirmed  by  Henry  on  his  visit  to  Ire- 
land in  1172.  Thus  the  Leinst«r  Fitzgeralds 
held  by  subinfeudation  under  the  De  Yescis, 
Earls  of  Kildare,  the  descendants  of  one  of 
Strongbow*s  daughters,  until  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  I.  the  De  Yesci  estates  were  forfeited, 
and  bestowed  on  the  Fitzgeralds,  who  soon 
became  of  great  importance  as  Earls  of  Kil- 
dare (1316)  and  Dukes  of  Leinster.  They 
maintained  a  long  and  arduous  struggle  with 
the  Irish  tribes,  the  MacMurroughs  and  the 
O'Tooles,  who  often  confined  them  to  their 
walled  towns.  In  1399  Richard  II.  came  to 
the  assistance  of  the  English  Pale,  but  the 


Lm 


{  679  ) 


MacMurroaghs  evaded  battle,  and  he  had  to 
retire ;  Kildare,  and  the  country  round  Dublin, 
was  now  all  that  was  left  in  Leinster  to  the 
English.  This  state  of  affairs  did  not  mend 
until  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  when  a  double 
policy  of  coercion  and  conciliation  was  pur- 
sued with  some  success ;  the  Gcraldines  were 
crushed;  the  estates  of  absentee  landlords 
were  confiscated;  MacMurrough,  who  now 
took  the  name  of  Kavanagh,  the  represen- 
tative of  King  Bermot,  was  pensioned,  and 
the  other  chieftains  won  over,  their  loyalty 
being  secured  by  g^fts  of  confiscated  Church 
lands.  Under  Mary,  Gerald  of  Kildare  was 
restored  to  his  earldom,  and  the  districts  of 
Leix  and  Offaly  were  planted  with  English 
colonists,  becoming  Queen's  County  and 
King*s  County  respectively.  During  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth  Leinster  suffered  compara- 
tively little  in  comparison  with  Ulster  and 
Munster,  the  scenes  of  the  O'Neill  and  Des- 
mond rebellions,  though  there  was  continual 
war  then  between  the  Geraldines  and  Butlers. 
In  this  reign  the  old  kingdom  of  Meath  was 
added  to  Leinster,  together  with  Louth,  for- 
merly a  part  of  Ulster.  James  I.,  true  to  his 
policy  of  governing  Ireland  by  English  ideas, 
determined  to  effect  the  Plantation  of  Leinster. 
By  means  of  a  commission  to  inquire  into 
defective  titles,  he  despoiled  the  natives,  and 
even  the  Anglo-Irish,  of  large  portions  of  their 
lands,which  were  transferred  to  '*  undertakers," 
who  speedily  formed  a  new  Irish  nobilitv. 
Charles  I.  declared  large  districts  of  land  m 
Wicklow  and  Wexford  to  be  forfeited  to  the 
crown,  but  such  was  the  outcry  against  the 
proceeding  that  it  had  to  be  abandoned.  Wlicn 
Cromwell  repaired  to  Ireland,  in  order  to  sub- 
due the  rebellion  which  had  broken  out  in 
1641,  his  stem  displeasure  fell  heavily  upon 
Leinster,  and  the  massacres  of  Drogheda  and 
Wexford  went  far  to  break  all  further  oppo- 
sition. In  the  settlement  that  followed,  the 
Irish  Catholic  gentry  were  transported  across 
the  Shannon,  and  their  lands  given  to  Crom- 
wellian  soldiers,  and  adventurers  who  had 
advanced  money,  but  after  the  Restoration 
about  one-third  of  their  estates  were  restored 
to  the  dispossessed  Catholics.  The  last  great 
Irish  land  settlement — that  which  followed 
the  Treaty  of  Limerick  (1691) — resulted  in  a 
further  forfeiture  of  Catholic  property,  but  it 
did  not  affect  Leinster  so  much  as  the  other 
provinces  of  Ireland,  and  its  history  as  a  sepa- 
rate province  may  be  said  to  have  ended  with 
the  Revolution. 

Keating,  Higt,  of  Ireland!  Prendergast,  Cro%n- 
ir«nuin  Settlement:  Carte.  Life  of  the  thike  of 
Ormonde;  "Fronde,  Higt.  of  Eng.;  Haverty,  JEfwt. 
of  Ireland;  Ctusack,  Hiet.  of  the  Irieh  Nation; 
King,  Butaie*  of  th$  ProteMante  of  Ireland  under 
James  II,;  Wfupole,  The  Kingdom  of  Ireland. 

[L.  C.  S.] 

Jjeinster,  Jambs,  Duke  of,  20th  Earl  of 
Kildare  (//.  Nov.  19,  1973),  was  in  1747  made 
Marquis  of  Leinster  in  the  English  peerage, 


in  1761  he  became  Marquis  of  Kildare,  and 
in  1766  Duke  of  Leinster  in  the  Irish  peerage. 
IndividujiUy  the  most  powerful  and  popular 
nobleman  in  Ireland,  he  refused  to  act  with 
any  other  party.  •  Hence  it  was  that  he  only 
once  was  Lord  Justice.  In  1769  he  joined 
the.  Patriots,  as  they  caUed  themselves.  He 
raised  and  commanded  the  first  regiment  of 
Volunteers;  when  the  trade  restrictions  were 
taken  away  ho  refused  to  embarrass  the  go- 
vernment, but  again  took  the  lead  against 
them  after  the  Mutiny  Bill  had  been  passed. 
He  was  one  of  the  deputation  to  the  Prince  of 
Wales  with  the  Regency  Bill.  He  signed 
the  "Round  Robin,"  but  refused  to  recede 
from  that  engagement;  in  consequence  he 
lost  the  Mastership  of  the  Rolls.  He  was 
father  of  Lord  Edward  Fitzgerald. 

Leith,  the  port  of  Edinburgh,  was  burnt 
by  Hertford,  May,  1644.  It  was  afterwards 
held  by  the  queen  regent,  ^lary  of  Guise, 
and  a  French  garrison  against  the  Lords  of 
Congregation,  and  in  1560  was  besieged  by 
a  combined  force  of  Scotch  and  EngliSi.  In 
1571  it  was  held  by  the  party  of  James  VI., 
who  nearly  fell  into  the  handis  of  Lord  Both- 
well  here  m  1594.  During  the  ascendancy  of 
Cromwell  it  was  occupied  by  Lambert  and 
Monk.  In  1715  it  was  for  a  time  in  the  hands 
of  the  Jacobite  insurgents. 

JjennoZy  Esm£  Stuart,  Duke  of  (i. 
1583),  the  son  of  John  d'Aubigne,  captain  of 
the  Scots  Guard  in  France,  and  the  nephew  of 
Matthew,  Earl  of  Lennox,  came  to  Scotland, 
1579,  where  his  polished  manners  soon  re- 
commended him  to  the  favour  of  James  VI., 
who  created  him  Duke  of  Lennox,  1581,  having 
previously  made  him  Governor  of  Dumbarton, 
captain  of  his  guard,  and  Earl  of  Lennox. 
Hated  by  the  Scotch  nobles  as  a  foreigner  and 
a  favourite,  Lennox  sought  to  increase  his 
popularity  by  becoming  a  Protestant,  and  to 
secure  his  power  by  the  ruin  of  Morton. 
He  became  an  object  of  dread  to  Elizabeth, 
who  imagined  that  he  would  set  himself  to 
draw  closer  the  connection  between  Scotland 
and  France.  Hurled  from  his  high  position 
by  the  Raid  of  Ruthven,  Lennox  was  com- 
pelled to  return  to  France,  where  he  died 
at  Paris,  May,  1583.  He  is  said,  in  spite  of 
his  vanity  and  love  of  ostentation,  to  have 
been  a  "  gentle,  humane,  and  candid  "  man. 

JjennoZf  Matthew  Stuart,  Earl  of  {d. 
1571),  was  a  member  of  the  French  house  of 
D'Aubigne.  On  his  marriage  with  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  Earl  of  Angus  and  Queen  Margaret, 
he  joined  the  party  of  Henr}'  VIII.  in  Scot- 
land, but  subsequently  threw  him  over  at  the 
same  time  as  the  Assured  Lords.  He  was  the 
father  of  Damley,  on  whose  murder  he  endea- 
voured without  avail  to  bring  Bothwell  to 
justice,  for  he  dared  not  appear  at  the  trial  as 
his  accuser.  In  1567,  on  Marj^'s  abdication,  he 
was  appointed  one  of  the  council  of  regency. 


Len 


(  680  ; 


and  the  following  year  collected  evidence 
against  the  Queen  of  Scots  at  the  York  com- 
mission. In  1570  he  was  elected  regent  of 
Scotland,  and  at  once  attacked  and  took  the 
castle  of  Dumbarton,  one  o'f  the  strongholds 
of  Marj'*8  party.  He  was  mortally  wounded 
by  a  bullet  in'  a  fray  at  Stirling  in  September, 
1571, 

.Lenthall,  Williab^  {b,  1591,  d.  1662), 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1616,  and,  having 
a  considerable  practice,  and  being  a  member 
of  an  ancient  county  family,  was  chosen 
Boeaker  of  the  Long  Parliament  in  1640. 
He  does  not  appear  to  have  been  equal  to 
this  important  position,  though  on  the 
attempted  arrest  of  the  Five  Members  by 
the  king  (Jan.  4,  1642),  he  showed  con- 
siderable spirit.  In  1643  the  Parliament 
made  him  Master  of  the  Bolls,  and  in  1646 
one  of  the  Commissioners  of  the  Great  Seal. 
In  1647,  fearing  the  mob  which  attempted 
to  overawe  Parliament,  he  withdrew  to  the 
army,  but  soon  after  returned  and  resumed 
his  office  of  Speaker,  which  he  continued 
to  hold  down  to  the  expulsion  of  the  Long 
Parliament  in  1653.  In  the  Parliament  of 
1654  he  was  again  chosen  Speaker,  and  in 
1656  was  made  one  of  Cromwell's  House  of 
Lords,  having  taken  a  prominent  part  in  favour 
of  the  Protector's  assuming  the  title  of  kin^. 
On  the  Restoration  he  was  deprived  of  his 
judicial  office,  but  was  one  of  those  who 
received  the  king's  pardon.  He  thereupon 
retired  into  private  life,  and  to  the  end 
remained  unmolested  by  the  new  govern- 
ment. 

Fox,  JudgeM  of  England. 

L60frio(<if.  1057)  was  the  son  of  Leofwine, 
Earl  of  Mercia.  In  1017  he  was  appointed  by 
Canute  Earl  of  Chester,  and  soon  after  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  the  earldom  of  Mercia. 
On  the  death  of  Canute  Lcofric  supported  the 
claims  of  Harold.  During  the  reign  of 
Edward  the  Confessor  Leofric  occupied  a 
middle  position  between  the  foreigners  and  the 
party  of  Godwin,  and  in  1051,  when  matters 
hod  come  to  a  crisis,  he  prevented  the  outbreak 
of  civil  war  by  mediation.  He  died  in  1057, 
and  was  succeeded  in  his  earldom  by  his  son 
Elfgar.  Leofric  and  his  wife  Godgifu  (the 
**  Lady  Godiva ''  of  legend)  were  especially 
celebrated  as  builders  of  churches  and  monas- 
teries, chief  among  them  being  the  great 
minster  of  Coventry.     [Coventry.] 

Florence  of  Worcester,  Chronicle;  Freeman, 
Norman  Conqumt,  vol.  ii. 

Leofnruie  (d-  1066)  was  the  fifth  son  of 
Earl  Godwin.  Probably  in  1057  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  an  earldom,  which  included  the 
shires  of  Kent,  Surrey,  l^Iiddlesex,  Essex, 
Hertford,  and  Buckingham.  He  was  slain  in 
the  battle  of  Hastings. 

Jjeslie,  David  {d.  1682),  nephew  of  Alex- 
ander Leslie,  Earl  of  Leven  (q.v.),  and  an  even 
more  able  commander,  accompanied  his  uncle 


to  England  (1644)  in  the  capacity  of  major- 
general.  He  was  present  at  the  battles  of 
Marston  Moor  and  Naseby,  and  in  1645 
defeated  Montrose  at  Philiphaugh.  In  1650 
he  was  opposed  to  Cromwell,  who  defeated 
him  at  Dunbar,  and  in  the  same  year  was 
taken  prisoner  at  Worcester,  and  sent  to  the 
Tower,  where  he  remained  until  the  Restora- 
tion. He  was  made  Lord  Newark  by  Charles 
II.  in  recognition  of  his  services  at  \V'orce8ter. 

Laslie,  NoBMAK,  Master  of  Rothes,  was 
one  of  the  Scotch  commanders  at  the  battle 
of  Ancrum.  In  1546  he  murdered  Cardinal 
Beaton  in  the  castle  of  St.  Andrews,  where  he 
was  himself  captured  by  a  French  force 
(1547),  and  sent  to  the  French  galleys  as  a 
heretic ;  he  subsequently  escaped. 

^athilifftoiiy  William  Maitlaxd  of, 
son  of  Sir  Kichard  Maitland,  well  known  as 
an  able  and  inscrutable  politician  at  an 
early  ago,  for  some  years  played  an 
almost  continuous  part  in  the  history  of 
Scotch  politics,  and  in  1558  was  appointed 
Secretary  of  State  to  Queen  Mary,  and  was 
continually  employed  as  her  enyoy  to  the 
English  court.  Although  he  joined  the  Lords 
of  Congregation,  he  was  neverthelees  in 
favour  of  extending  toleration  to  the  queen 
as  to  her  religion;  in  1565  he  yehemently 
opposed  the  marriage  with  Damley,  and 
a  year  later  persuaded  the  queen  to  sue 
for  a  divorce.  .  After  Damley*  s  murder  he 
accompanied  l^Iary  to  Seton  in  Haddington- 
shire, but  deserted  her  on  symptoms  of 
danger  appearing  in  1667,  and  joined  the 
Coiiederate  Loi^  on  Mary's  captivity  in 
England.  However,  he  openly  joined  her 
party,  and  in  1569  was  arrested  and  sent  to 
Edinburgh  as  one  of  Damley's  murderers, 
but  was  acquitted,  and  resumed  his  office 
of  Secretary  of  State,  and  remained  faithful 
to  Mary  until  the  surrender  of  Edinburgh 
Castle  placed  him  in  the  hands  of  his  enemies. 
He  poisoned  himself.  May  1573.  His  policy 
was  characterised  by  a  craft  and  depth  that 
made  him  no  bad  match  for  the  astute  Cecil, 
but  his  whole  course  of  action  is  steeped  in 
myster}'  as  to  its  motive  and  its  end. 

leonographia  Scotica ;  Burton,  Hist,  of  Scot- 
land. 

Lavellera.    [See  Appendix.] 

Jjerexiy  Leslie  Alexander,  Earl  op 
{d.  1662),  having  gained  considerable  military 
experience  in  the  Low  Countries  and  Sweden, 
returned  to  Scotland,  1638,  and  after  sen-ing 
as  lieutenant  to  Montrose,  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Covenanting  army. 
Feb.,  1639,  in  the  May  of  which  year  he  led 
the  Scotch  army  to  the  Borders,  encamping 
on  Dunse  Land  just  opposite  the  royal  forces. 
A  collision  was  for  the  time  averted,  but  in 
1640  Leslie  entered  England,  winning  the 
battle  of  Newbum  and  taking  Newcastle. 
On  a  treaty  being  concluded  at  Ripon,  Leslie 
was  created  Earl  of  Leven  by  Charles  I.,  who 


Lew 


(681  ) 


Lig 


hoped  to  win  him  over  to  his  side.  In  1644 
he  again  led  an  expedition  into  England,  and 
was  present  at  the  battle  of  Marston  Moor. 
After  the  murder  of  Charles  I.  Leven  sup- 
ported Charles  II.  against  Cromwell,  but 
being  captured  by  Monk  at  Angus  was  sent 
to  the  Tower.  On  his  release  he  went  to 
Sweden,  where  he  remained  till  after  the 
Restoration. 

Lewes,  The  Battle  of  (l^Iay  14,  1264), 
was  fought  between  Henry  III.  and  the  barons 
under  Simon  de  Montfort  (q.v.).  After  the 
failure  of  the  Mise  of  Amiens,  war  became 
certain,  though  negotiations  still  went  on  for 
a  while.  At  first  the  war  was  confined  to  the 
capture  of  a  few  castles  on  either  side,  but  in 
May  both  armies  found  themselves  in  Sussex, 
De  Montfort  marching  to  the  relief  of  the 
Cinque  Ports,  which  were  threatened  by  the 
king.  The  forces  met  at  Lewes  on  May  1 3,  when 
De  Montfort  made  one  last  attempt  to  avoid  an 
encounter  by  offering  the  king  50,000  marks 
if  he  would  engage  to  carry  out  the  Provisions 
of  Oxford.  Henry  returned  a  defiant  answer, 
and  De  Montfort  prepared  to  fight.  At  the 
break  of  day  he  suddenly  advanced,  and 
seized  the  heights  above  the  town,  and  in  this 
strong  position  forced  the  royal  army  to 
attack.  Prince  Edward  opened  the  battle, 
and  by  a  furious  charge  broke  through  the 
liondoners  .stationed  on  the  right  of  the 
baronial  army,  and  pursued  them  for  some 
miles  from  the  scene  of  action.  Meanwhile, 
however,  the  royalist  centre  and  left  crowded 
between  the  heights  and  the  river,  were  com- 
pletely defeated  by  De  Montfort.  The  king 
himself,  with  his  brother,  the  King  of  the 
Romans,  was  taken  prisoner.  Edward  cut 
his  way  into  the  midst  of  the  baronial  troops, 
and,  unable  to  retrieve  the  fortune  of  the  day, 
was  obliged  to  surrender  also. 

Bubanger,  Chronicle ;  Bobert  of  Gloucester ; 
Blaanir,  Bavontl'  War ;  Pauli,  Simon  von  Mont- 

Lewes,  Mise  of  (1264),  was  the  name 
given  to  the  truce  made  between  Henry  III. 
and  the  barons  after  the  victory  of  the  latter 
at  Lewes.  By  this  treaty  the  Provisions  of 
Oxford  were  confirmed,  a  new  body  of 
arbitrators  was  appointed  to  decide  disputed 
points,  and  to  choose  a  council  for  the  King, 
to  consist  entirely  of  Englishmen;  the  king 
was  to  act  by  the  advice  of  this  council  in 
administering  justice  and  choosing  ministers, 
to  observe  the  charters,  and  to  live  of 
his  own  without  oppressing  the  merchants 
or  the  poor ;  Prince  Edward  and  his  cousin 
Henry  of  Almayne  were  given  as  hostages; 
and  the  Earls  of  Leicester  aind  Gloucester 
were  to  be  indemnified;  and  a  court  of 
arbitration  to  settle  disputed  questions  was 
to  be  appointed,  consisting  of  two  French- 
men and  two  Englishmen. 

Bishanger,  Chronide;  Blaanw,  Baront^  War, 

Libel,  The  Law  of,  has  always  been  some- 


what  indefinite  in  England.  Before  the  Revo- 
lution of  1688  it  was  held,'*  says  Mr.  Hallam, 
"  that  no  man  might  publish  a  writing  re> 
fleeting  on  the  government,  nor  upon  the 
character,  or  even  capacity  and  fitness  of  any- 
one employed  in  it,"  even  though,  as  in  the 
c&se  of  Tutchin,  such  reflection  was  merely 
general.  Under  William  II  I.  and  A  nn  e,  prose- 
cutions for  libel  were  frequent,  while  it  became 
an  established  principle  that  falsehood  was 
not  essential  to  the  guilt  of  a  libel.  Under 
George  III.  the  law  became  still  further 
strained.  A  publisher  was  held  liable  for  the 
act  of  his  servant  conmiitted  without  his 
authority,  and  Lord  Mansfield,  in  the  case  of 
Woodfall,  the  printer  of  the  Letters  of  Junius, 
went  so  far  as  to  hold  that  the  jury  had  only 
to  determine  the  fact  of  publication;  the 
decision  of  the  criminality  of  the  libel  resting 
with  the  judge  alone.  The  hardship  with 
which  persons  accused  of  libel  were  treated 
led  to  Fox's  Libel  Act;  which  passed  in  1792, 
and  declared,  in  opposition  to  the  judges,  that 
the  jury  might  give  a  general  verdict  on  the 
whole  question  at  issue,  although  the  judges 
were  still  allowed  to  express  any  opinion  they 
pleased.  In  1817  Lora  Sidmouth's  circular 
to  the  lord-lieutenants  of  counties,  informing 
them  that  justices  of  the  peace  might  issue  a 
warrant  to  apprehend  any  person  charged 
on  oath  with  the  publication  of  a  blasphemous 
or  seditious  libel,  and  compel  him  to  give  bail 
to  answer  the  charge,  called  forth  great  oppo- 
sition, though  it  was  to  a  large  extent  acted 
upon.  In  1820  one  of  the  Six  Acts  in- 
creased the  punishments  for  libel.  In  1843 
the  law  of  libel  was  still  further  amended  by 
Lord  Campbeirs  Act,  which  allows  a  defendant 
to  plead  that  the  publication  was  without  his 
authority,  and  was  from  no  want  of  care  on 
his  part,  whilst  he  may  also  plead  that  a 
Hbel  is  txue  and  for  the  public  benefit.  In 
1839  the  decision  in  Stoekdale  v.  Hansard, 
that  the  House  of  Commons  cannot  legalise 
the  publication  of  libellous  matter,  by  order- 
ing it  to  be  printed  as  a  report,  led  to  an  Act 
in  the  following  year,  which  provides  that  no 
proceedings  can  be  taken  in  respect  of  any 
publications  ordered  by  either  House  of  Par- 
hament.  In  1868  it  was  held  by  Lord  Chief 
Justice  Cockbum,  in  an  action  brought  against 
the  proprietor  of  the  Times ^  that  "  Criticism 
of  the  Executive  is  at  the  present  time  so  im- 
portant that  individual  character  may  be 
sacrificed." 

Hallam,    Const,    Ht'sf. ;   Stay,    Const.    Hist.; 
Thomas,  Leading  Cases  ;  Broom,  Const,  Lav, 


Ligonier,  John,  Earl  {b.  1687,  d.  1770), 
belonged  to  a  family  of  French  Protestant 
refugees.  He  first  appears  as  a  volunteer  at 
the  storming  of  li^ge  (1702),  and  served  as  a 
soldier  of  fortune  under  Marlborough,  being 
present  at  the  battle  of  Blenheim.  He  was 
knighted  for  his  gallant  conduct  at  the  battle 


Zdl 


(  682  } 


Um 


of  Bettmgen  (1743).  An  commander-in-chief 
of  the  British  forces  in  Flanders,  he  greatly 
distinguished  himself  at  the  battle  of  Ban- 
coux  (1746) ;  but  in  the  following  year  he 
was  ttUcen  prisoner  at  Lawfeldt,  owing  to  (he 
extreme  ardour  of  the  English  horse,  of 
which  he  was  in  command.  It  is  said  that  he 
endeavoured  to  pass  off  as  one  of  the  enemy's 
officers  when  surrounded.  Marshal  Saxe 
availed  himself  of  the  capture  to  make  over- 
tures for  peace  through  Ligonier.  In  1748 
he  was  returned  for  Bath,  and  became  Liou- 
tenant-General  of  the  Ordnance,  and  subse- 
quently Govemor-Greneral  of  Plymouth  (1752). 
In  1757  he  was  removed  from  the  Ordnance, 
much  to  his  disgust,  but  created  Viscount 
Ligonier  of  Enniskillen  and  commander- 
in-chief,  although  no  longer  fit  for  active 
service.  He  was  created  an  English  peer 
in  1763,  and  an  earl  in  1766. 

Zdlbume,  Jolm  (b.  1618,  d.  1657),  of  a 
good  family,  in  the  county  of  Durham,  was 
apprenticed  to  a  tailor  in  the  city  of  London, 
became  engaged  in  the  circulation  of  the  pro- 
hibited books  of  Prynne  and  Bastwick,  was 
brought  before  the  Star  Chamber,  whipped, 
and  imprisoned  (1638).  On  the  meeting  of 
the  Long  Parliament  he  was  released,  and 
compensated  for  his  sufferings  (Nov.,  1640). 
When  the  war  broke  out  he  entered  the 
army  of  Essex,  fought  at  Edfehill,  was 
made  prisoner  at  Brentford  (Nov.,  1642^, 
tried  for  high  treason  before  a  council 
of  war  at  Oxford,  and  was  only  saved  from 
death  by  the  intervention  of  the  Parliament. 
Afterwards  he  escaped,  and  served  in  the  Earl 
of  Manchester's  army,  finally  attaining  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-colonel.  At  the  close  of 
the  war  he  took  to  writing  on  all  subjects, 
and  was  summoned  before  the  House  of  Lords 
for  attacking  the  Earl  of  Manchester,  sentenced 
to  pay  a  fine,  and  committed  to  prison.  When 
released,  in  1648,  he  became  one  of  the  leaders 
of  the  party  termed  Levellers,  and  wrote 
numerous  pamphlets  on  the  heads  of  the  Par- 
liament and  army.  In  February,  1649,  he 
presented  to  the  Commons  a  paper  called 
The  Serious  Apprehensions  of  a  Part  of  the 
People  on  behalf  of  the  Commontvealth,  On 
March  5  appeared  England's  New  Chains  Dis- 
covered f  and  before  the  end  of  the  month  it  was 
followed  by  The  Hunting  of  the  Foxes  from 
Newmarket  and  Triploe  Heath  to  JThitehalt 
by  Five  Small  Beagles,  For  this,  Lilbume 
was  committed  to  the  Tower,  where  he  found 
means  to  summarise  his  views  on  government 
in  a  new  pamphlet  called  The  Agreement  of 
the  People f  and,  after  six  monthB*  confine- 
ment, was  tried  for  high  treason.  The  jury 
acquitted  him,  and  he  was  released  in  Nov., 
1649.  In  1652  he  was  banished,  and  fined 
£7,000  for  a  libel  on  Sir  A.  Haselrig.  After 
the  expulsion  of  the  Long  Parliament  he 
ventured  to  return  to  England,  but  was 
arrested,  tried,  and  a  second  time  acquitted 


(Aug.,  1653).    In  spite  of  this  he  was  by  order 

of  the  Council  of  State  confined  in  the  island 

of  Jersey,  but  after  a  time  released  on  his 

promise  to  live  quietly. 

Guixot,  l^ortraiJtB  polttt^it  «s  d«s  IwmvMs  d«dt9cn 
IMrtu;  Maaaou,  lAj*  of  Milton,       vq^  q^  pi 

Ullibnllero  "^^^^  the  name  of  a  song 
satirising  James  11.  and  the  Catholics,  writtea 
by  Lord  Wharton  in  1686.  It  became  very 
popular,  and  added  in  no  slight  degree  to 
the  feeling  against  the  kinff.  Bishop  Burnet 
says  that  thu  **  foolish  baiUad  made  an  im- 
pression on  the  king's  army  that  cannot  be 
imagined  by  those  that  saw  it  not.  The 
whole  army,  and  at  last  the  people  both  in 
city  and  country,  were  singing  it  perpetually. 
And,  perhaps,  never  had  so  slight  a  thing  so 
great  an  effect."  There  was  some  justification 
for  Wharton's  boast  that  he  had  sung  the  king 
out  of  three  kingdoms.  "  Lillibullero  *'  and 
"  Bullen-e-lah  "  are  said  to  have  been  pass- 
words used  by  the  Irish  Catholics  in  their 
massacre  of  the  Protestants  in  1641. 

The  ballad  will  be  f  oand  in  the  Percy's  RAiquth 

in  Wilkins's  Political  BaOads,  and  in  W.  Scott's 

Irish  MinsireUy. 

ILimericky  Thb  Pacification  of  (Oct  3, 
1691),  was  the  result  of  negotiations  between 
the  English  and  Irish  commanders  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  second  siege  of  Limerick. 
The  articles  of  capitulation  were  divided  into 
two  parts — ^a  military  treaty  and  a  dvil 
treaty.  By  the  first  it  was  agreed  that  such 
Irish  officers  and  soldiers  as  should  declare 
they  wished  to  go  to  France  should  be  con- 
veyed thither.  French  vessels  were  to 
be  permitted  to  pass  and  repass  between 
Britanny  and  Munster.  The  civil  treaty 
granted  to  the  Irish  Catholics  such  re- 
ligious privileges  as  were  consistent  with 
law,  or  as  they  had  enjoyed  in  the  reign 
of  Charles  II.  To  all  who  took  the  oath  of 
allegiance,  a  perfect  amnesty  was  promised, 
their  lands  and  all  the  rights  and  privileges 
they  had  held  under  Charles  II.  were  to  be 
restored.  Of  the  Irish  army  eleven  thousand 
volunteered  for  the  French  service,  but  of 
these  many  afterwards  deserted;  three  thou- 
sand either  accepted  passes  from  Ginkell, 
the  English  commander,  or  returned  home. 
The  terms  of  the  civil  treaty  were  discussed 
in  the  English  Parliament.  A  bill  was  pre- 
pared in  the  Commons  providing  that  no 
person  should  sit  in  the  Irish  Parliament, 
enjoy  any  office  whatever,  or  practise  law  or 
medicine  in  Ireland  until  he  nad  taken  the 
Oaths  of  Allegiance  and  Supremacy,  and  sub- 
scribed the  Declaration  against  Transub- 
stantiation.  This  was,  however,  found  in- 
consistent with  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  ol 
Limerick.  The  bill  was  accordingly  amended 
by  Chief  Justice  Holt,  and  accepted  in  that 
form  by  the  Commons.  The  question  whether 
Boman  Catholics  could  be  admitted  to  Par- 
liament was  not  finally  settled  until  the  reign 
of  Ghsorge  lY.    The  Irish  legislation  under 


lim 


(  683  ) 


Xdn 


William  III.  and  Anne,  and  of  the  greater 

part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  was  completely 

opposed  to  the  spirit  of  the  Treaty  of  Limerick. 

[Ikbland.] 

Banke,  Hi§t,  ofEng,;  Maoaulay,  Hitt.  ofEng. ; 
Story,  Continuation, 

Untericky  Sieoes  of.  This  ancient  town 
was  long  a  stronghold  of  the  O'Briens.  In  1 65 1 
it  was  taken  b^  Ireton  after  six  months'  siege. 
In  1690  the  Irish  army,  defeated  at  the  Boyne, 
assembled  behind  its  ramparts.  Lauzun  and 
T}Tconnel  refused  to  defend  the  place,  and 
retired  to  Galway.  Sarstield  then  took  the 
command,  and  determined  to  hold  out.  The 
Irish  forces  left  in  the  place  amoimted  to 
20,000  men.  William  III.,  who  was  marching 
against  Sarsfield,  however,  setting  out  with 
all  his  cavalry,  surprised  the  English  siege 
train,  dispersed  the  escort,  and  blew  up  the 
guns.  The  English  troops,  nevertheless, 
attempted  the  siege  ;  on  August  27,  however, 
when  they  tried  to  storm  the  place,  they  were 
driven  back  with  fearful  loss,  and  the  rains 
setting  in,  the  king  thought  it  wiser  to  raise 
the  siege.  Limerick  continued  to  be  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Irish  army;  first  the  Buke 
of  Berwick,  then  Tyrconnel,  after  his  return 
from  France,  being  in  command.  Great 
scarcity  prevailed  in  the  army  till  St.  Ruth 
amved  with  a  French  fleet  in  1 69 1 .  After  the 
battle  of  Aghrim,  the  greater  portion  of  the 
Irish  forces,  15,000  foot  and  5,000  horse,  again 
-collected  in  Limerick.  D'Usson  and  Sarsfield 
were  in  command.  On  Aug.  11, 1691,  Ginkell 
appeared  before  the  walls  with  a  formidable 
train  of  artillery.  The  bridge  connecting/the 
part  of  the  town  situated  in  Clare  with  the 
Oonnaught  4)art  was  soon  stormed,  and  the 
people  clamouring  for  a  capitulation,  Sars- 
field had  to  negotiate  an  armistice,  and  on 
October  3  the  so-called  Articles  of  limerick, 
military  and  civil,  were  concluded.  The 
capture  of  Limerick  put  an  end  to  the  civil 
war  in  Ireland. 

Froude,  Eng.  in  Inland;  MJacaolay,  Hitt.  of 
Eng» ;  Macaria  Excidium  ;  Story,  Coniinuaiion, 

Linooln  was  a  Celtic  town  before  the 
coming  of  the  Romans,  and  afterwards  a 
Roman  colony.  The  name  (Lindum  Colonia) 
is  a  compound  of  Celtic  and  Latin.  The 
Roman  colony  was  founded  about  a.d.  100. 
It  was  besieged  by  the  Angles  in  518,  and 
became  an  English  town.  It  was  frequently 
ravaged  by  the  Banes,  and  became  one  of  the 
chief  cities  of  the  Danelagh.  It  was  recap- 
tured by  Edmund  in  1016.  The  castle  was 
begun  by  William  the  Conqueror  in  1068. 
The  cathedral  was  commenced  in  1086,  and 
built  chiefly  in  the  twelfth,  thirteenth,  and 
fourteenth  centuries. 

Lincoln,  The  Fair  of  (1217),  was  the 
name  given  to  the  battle  which  was  fought  in 
Lincoln  daring  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  be- 
tween the  Earl  of  Pembroke  and  the  ad- 


herents of  Louis  of  France.  The  battle  was 
fought  in  the  streets  of  Lincoln,  the  castle  of 
which  was  being  besieged  by  the  French. 
Pembroke  was  completely  victorious,  and  the 
leader  of  the  Fr^ch  army,  the  Count  of 
Perche,  fell  in  the  battle. 

Xdncoln,    John  db   la   Pole.  Earl  of 

id,  1487),  was  the  son  of  John  de  la  Pole, 
)uke  of  Suffolk,  by  Elizabeth,  eldest 
sister  of  Edward  IV.  On  the  strength  of 
the  attainder  of  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  and 
the  stigma  of  illegitimacy  cast  upon  Ed- 
ward IV.'s  children,  the  Earl  of  Lincoln  had 
cherished  hopes  of  an  eventual  succession  to 
the  crown  of  England,  and  was  recognised 
by  Richard  III.  as  his  lawful  successor. 
The  accession,  therefore,  of  Henry  VII.  to  the 
throne,  after  the  victory  of  Bosworth,  was 
especially  distasteful  to  him,  and  he  eagerly 
associated  himself  with  the  more  active  oppo- 
nents of  the  new  monarch.  The  imposture 
of  Simnel  appeared  so  peculiarly  adapted  to 
further  his  ambitious  projects,  that  he  lost  no 
time  in  giving  it  a  personal  and  most  cner- 

§etic  support,  crossing  over  himself  to  Plan- 
ers for  the  purpose  of  collecting  troops  and 
funds.  In  Ireland,  whither  he  went  from 
Flanders,  the  Earl  of  Lincoln  met  with  so  enthu- 
siastic a  reception,  that  he  was  encouraged  to 
transport  his  forces  with  all  speed  to  England. 
But  he  was  greeted  with  indifference  when  he 
appeared  at  Fouldsey,  in  Lancashire.  He 
pushed  rapidly  southwards  in  the  direction  of 
Newark,  with  a  mixed  force  of  Irish  and 
English,  a  regiment  of  ^'Almains,'*  2,000 
strong,  commanded  by  Martin  Swartz,  an 
officer  of  considerable  reputation.  The  king's 
forces  advanced  against  him,  and  a  bloody  and 
obstinate  battle  was  fought  at  Stoke,  near 
Newark  (June  16,  1487),  which  resulted  in 
the  complete  defeat  of  De  la  Pole's  forces, 
and  his  own  death. 

Bacon,  Hict.  of  Hmry  Til. ;  Gairdner,  Letttrt 
and  PapevB  qfHeniry  VIL  (Rolls  Series). 

Xiinoolnshiire    Insiirrection,    The 

(1536),  commenced  in  the  October  of  this 
year,  was  the  first  of  the  rebellious  move- 
ments set  on  foot  by  the  priesthood  after  the  * 
dissolution  of  the  lesser  monasteries.  It 
differed  strikingly  from  the  rising,  which 
immediately  followed  it,  in  Yorkshire,  in  the 
fact  that  it  proceeded  almost  entirely  from 
the  lower  onlers.  So  much  aloof,  indeed, 
did  the  countv  gentry  hold  themselves  from 
the  Lincolnshire  revolt,  that  the  insurgents 
regarded  them  as  opponents  rather  than  as 
sympathisers,  giving  unmistakable  evidence 
of  their  opinions  on  the  subject  by  holding 
a  large  number  of  the  gentry  in  a  state  of 
siege  in  the  close  at  Lincoln,  The  town, 
of  Louth  was  the  scone  of  the  first  distinct 
outbreak  of  local  discontent,  where  the  rumour, 
industriously  spread  about,  that  Heneage,  one 
of  the  clerical  commissioners,  who,  accom- 
panied by  the  Bishop  of  Lincoln's  chancellor. 


Lin 


(684) 


Xdv 


was  then  going  his  prescribed  rounds,  had 

instructions  to  carry  off  the  more  valuable 

contents  of  the  church  treasury,  was  quite 

sufficient,  in  the  then  state  of  public  feeling, 

to  excite  the  country  people  to  deeds  of  yio- 

lence.    Led  on  by  Dr.  IVIackerel,  the  Prior  of 

Barlings,  who  styled  himself  for  that  occasion 

Captain  Cobler,  the  people  of  Louth  locked 

and  guarded  the  menaced  church ;  and  then, 

carrying  away  with  them  its  great  cross  by 

way  of  standard,  set  forth  en  masse  to  raise 

the  neighbouring   towns  and  villages.     The 

speedy  arrival,  however,  of  the  king's  troops 

under  Sir  John  Kussell  and  the  Duke  of  Svd- 

folk,  prevented  any  very  violent  display  of 

hostility,  and  the  rebels  contented  themselves 

with  sending  a  humble  petition  to  the  king 

for  the  redress  of   their  grievances,   which 

they  enumerated  as  coming  under  five  heads, 

viz.  : — (1)  the  demolition  of  the  monasteries; 

(2)  the  employing  persons  of  mean  birth  as 

ministers  of  the  crown ;  (3)  levying  subsidies 

without  any  adequate  occasion;   (4)  taking 

away  four  of  the  seven  sacraments;  (5)  the 

subversion  of  the  ancient  faith  through  the 

instrumentality  of    several  of    the  bishops. 

Suffolk,    having    conferred   with    some  few 

gentlemen  who  had  joined  the  insurgent  ranks 

with  a  view  to  confusing  and  counteracting 

their  plans,  returned  an  absolute  refusal  to 

these  requests,  but  promised  a  general  pardon 

from  the  king  in  the  event  of  an  immediate 

submission  and  dispersal  of  the  rebels.    This 

had  all  the  desired  effect,  and  the  movement, 

BO  far  as  Lincolnshire  was  concerned,  came  to 

an  end  on  Oct.  19,  1536. 

Froude,  Hiat.  ofEng,;  Bnmet,  Hid.  of  the  Rt- 
fonnation, 

LindisfEuraSv  Thb,  were  an  Anglian 
tribe  occupying  the  part  of  Lincolnshire,  and 
having  their  centre  about  that  portion  of  the 
county  still  known  as  Lindsey. 

Lingard.  John  (3.  1771,  d.  1857),  was  a 
native  of  Winchester.  Educated  at  the 
English  Catholic  college  at  Douay,  he  was 
obhged  to  quit  it  in  1792,  when  the  college 
was  dispersed  at  the  French  Revolution. 
Some  of  the  refugees  f oimded  an  academy  at 
Crook  Hall,  near  Durham,  and  Lingard  was 
appointed  vice-president  and  professor  of 
philosophy.  In  1795  he  received  priest's 
orders.  In.  1811  he  removed  to  Hornby,  in 
Lancashire,  where  he  lived  till  his  death  at 
an  advanced  age.  Besides  numerous  tracts 
and  essays,  chiefly  controversial,  Dr.  Lingard 
published  in  1806  The  Antiquities  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Church,  and,  between  1819  and 
1830,  the  eight  volumes  of  his  History  of 
England,  The  last-named  work,  which  gained 
for  its  author  great  and  well-deserved  reputa- 
tion, is  one  of  our  standard  histories.  It 
extends  down  to  1688.  In  reading  the  later 
portion,  and  that  which  covers  the  Reformation 
period,  the  author's  standpoint  as  a  Roman 
Catholic  historian  has  to  be  carefully  borne 


in  mind.  But  the  general  accuracy  and  im- 
partiality of  Lingard  have  been  acknowledged. 
His  facts  have  been  collected  with  great 
industry,  and  are  stated  with  judgment  and 
clearness ;  and  his  work  is  entitled  to  a  high 
place  among  the  few  general  histories  of 
England  which  have  been  produced  by 
English  scholars. 

XanlitllgOWf  the  chief  town  of  the  shire 
of  that  name,  was  occupied  by  Edward  I.  in 
1298,  and  soon  afterwards  was  taken  by 
stratagem  by  Bruce.  It  contains  a  royal 
palace,  the  birthplace  of  Mary  Queen  of 
SScots  (1542),  and  the  scene  of  the  assassina- 
tion of  the  Kegent  Murray  (1570). 

Usle,  LiLDY  Alicia  {d.  Sept.  2,  1685], 
was  the  wife  of  John  Lisle,  one  of  Crom- 
weU^s  lords.  After  his  death  she  lived  a  re- 
tired life  near  Winchester.  She  was  accused 
before  Jeffreys  of  harbouring  fugitives  from 
Sedgomoor.  Being  reluctantly  found  guilty 
by  3io  jury,  she  was  sentenced  by  Jeffreys  to 
be  burned,  but  her  sentence  was  commuted^ 
and  she  was  beheaded  at  W^inchester. 

Utster,  John  (d,  1381),  was  a  native  of 
Norwich,  and,  as  his  name  implies,  a  dyer  by 
trade.  He  headed  the  insurgents  in  Norfolk^ 
during  the  peasants*  rising  of  Richard  II. 'a 
reign,  and  assumed  the  title  of  King  of  the 
Commons.  For  a  short  while  the  whole  country 
was  at  the  mercy  of  the  rebels ;  but  Bishop 
Spence,  of  Norwich,  having  raised  a  force, 
defeated  the  insurgents  at  North  Walsham, 
and  caused  Litster  to  be  hanged. 

Idverpooly  Cua&les  Jenkinsok,  Earl 
OF   {b.  1729,  d,  1808),  was  educated  at  the 
Charterhouse,    and   at    University'   College, 
Oxford,  and  first  came  into  notice  by  the 
lampoons  which  he  furnished  to  Sir  Edward 
Turner  in  his  contest  for  Oxfordshire.    By 
him  he  was  introduced  to  Lord  Bute,  whose 
private  secretary  he  soon  became.    La  1761 
he  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Cocker- 
mouth,  and  was  made  one  of  the  Under- 
Secretaries  of    State.     In   1763  he  became 
Joint  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.    He  was  dis- 
missed from  ail  his  appointments  on  the  acces- 
sion of  the  Kockingham  government.    I/)rd 
Chatham,  however,    recognising  his  talents 
for  business,  appointed  him  a  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty  in  1766,  and  he  was  soon  afterwards 
advanced  to  be  a  Lord  of  the  Treasury.    In 
this  capacity,  his  particular  form  of  ability 
had  room  for  display,  and  he  soon  became 
an  influential  aiitiiority  on  all  "matters  of 
finance.     In   1778  he  became  Secretary-at- 
War,  and  held  that  office  until  he  was  driven 
out  with  Lord  North.     He  then  travelled 
on   the    Continent,   and    only   returned   to 
Bhigland,  in  1784,  to  join  Pitt*s  government 
as  President  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  for  which 
place  he  was  admirably  adapted,   both  by 
nature  and  experience.    In  1786  he  was  ap- 
pointed Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster, 


(  ess ) 


Lol 


and    was    soon    afterwards    created    Baron 

Hawkesbury.     Ten  years  later,  while  still  at 

the  head  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  he  was  raised 

to  the  dignity  of  an  earl.    As  an  orator,  Lord 

Liverpool  never  laid  any  claim  to  eminence, 

and  he  wisely  refrained  from  speaking  in 

either    House    except    on    his    own    special 

subject.     For  that  particular  department  he 

showed  marked  ability. 

Stanhope,  Life  of  Pitt;  Jesse,  Mtm.  of 
Qeorge  in. 

Idverpooly  KoBEBT  Banks  Jenkinbon, 
2nd  Eakl  of  {b,  1770,  d,  1828),  son  of  the  first 
earl,  was  educated  at  the  Charterhouse  and 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  where  he  was  the  con- 
temporary and  friend  of  Canning.  He  entered 
political  life  under  Pitt's  auspices,  and  was 
returned  for  Rye,  before  he  had  attained 
his  majority.  On  his  father  being  created 
Earl  of  Liverpool,  he  became,  in  1796,  Lord 
Hawkesbury.  In  the  Addington  ministry 
he  was  Foreign  Secretary,  and  had  charge  of 
the  negotiations  which  ended  in  the  Treaty 
of  Amiens ;  but  when  Pitt  returned  to  office, 
in  1804,  Lord  Hawkesbury  went  to  the  Home 
Office.  On  Pitt's  death,  the  king  earnestly 
wished  kim  to  become  Premier,  but  he  very 
wisely  declined  the  troublesome  office,  as  he 
did  also  on  the  fall  of  Lord  Grenvillc*8 
ministry,  in  1807,  contenting  himself  T^dth 
being  Home  Secretary.  On  Perceval's  assassi- 
nation, he  imprudently  yielded  to  the  urgency 
of  the  Prince  Regent,  and  became  Premier. 
He  at  once  became  the  object  of  popular 
hatred  by  his  opposition  to  reform,  especially 
in  the  shape  of  Catholic  Emancipation,  and 
the  adoption  of  arbitrary  coercion  to  suppress 
the  violent  discontent,  which  gathered  head 
during  the  period  of  his  ministry.  His  tm- 
popularity  was  stiU  further  increased  by  his 
introduction  of  a  bill  of  pains  and  penalties 
against  Queen  Caroline,  which  he  afterwards 
withdrew.  He  was  struck  down  by  paralysis 
in  1827,  and  died  after  lingering  in  a  state 
of  imbecility  for  nearly  two  years.  It  has 
been  said  of  him  that  "in  honesty,  as  a 
minister,  he  has  never  been  surpassed ;  in 
prejudices,  he  has  rarely  been  equalled." 

Walpole,  England  from  1815  ;  Duke  of  Buck- 
SoKhum,  CourU  and  Cnhimtt  of  ilu  Begency]; 
Lord  Holland,  Mem.  of  the  Whigt» 

XJewelyn.    [Wales  ] 

Local    Ckyremiiient    Board,   The, 

established  in  1871,  is  a  committee  of  the 
Privy  Council,  and  superseded  the  old  Poor 
Law  Board.  It  is  concerned  with  sanitary 
arrangements,  with  the  public  health,  with 
highways,  municipal  improvements,  and  the 
like.  Its  members  are  a  President,  appointed 
by  the  crown,  the  President  of  the  Council, 
the  principal  Secretaries  of  State,  the  Lord 
Privy  Seal,  and  the  ChanceUor  of  the  Ex- 
chequer ;  but  it  is  a  Board  only  in  name,  and 
the  work  is  done  by  the  President  and  his 
staff.   His  signature  of  itself  can  give  validity 


to  a  regulation.  Its  functions  are  to  advise 
and  investigate  local  questions,  and  to  report 
on  private  bills:  to  control  the  poor  law 
administration,  and  less  completely  that  of 
the  sanitary  and  improvement  Acts,  to  sanc- 
tion loans  and  to  audit  accounts. 

94  &  35  Yiot.,  c.  70 ;  Chalmers,  Local  Qovemment 
in  the  Englieh  CUixen  Seriee. 

JaOidiM  was  a  small  British  kingdom, 
comprising  Leeds  and  the  district  immediately 
round.  It  retained  its  independence  till  it 
was  annexed  to  Northumbria  by  Edwin. 

ZiOUards.  The,  is  the  name  given  to  the 
followej;*  of  Wycliffe,  though  the  derivation 
of  it  is  somewhat  doubtf  uL  The  generally  re- 
ceived et}Tnology  is  from  a  German  wonL 
iollefif  to  sing,  from  their  habit  of  singing 
hymns,  but  it  has  also  been  derived  m>m 
hliUt  tares,  and  from  the  old  English  word, 
lolier,  an  idler.  Wycliffe  himself  organised  no 
band  of  followers,  but  only  sent  out  preachers 
known  as  '*  Poor  Priests,"  who  at  first  seem 
to  have  recognised  him  as  their  head,  though 
before  long  all  kinds  of  men  joined  the  new 
movement,  from  the  sincere  honest  reformer 
to  the  wild  socialist  visionary.  That  Lollardy 
was  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  Peasant 
Revolt  of  1381  is  certain,  and  it  must  alwa3r8 
be  remembered  that  the  Lollards  were  quite 
as  much  a  social  as  a  religious  party.  The 
doctrines  which  Wycliffe  had  advanced  as 
philosophical  positions  were  put  into  practice, 
and  in  many  instances  pushed  to  an  extreme 
which  must  have  astonished  their  author  him- 
self. The  rising  of  the  villeins  showed  what 
Lollardy  might  become  if  left  unchecked,  and 
as  usual,  the  more  moderate  men  were  made 
to  suffer  for  the  errors  and  crimes  of  the 
extreme  section  of  their  party.  The  first  Act 
against  the  Lollards  was  passed  in  1381,  but 
was  merely  the  work  of  the  Lords  and  the 
king.  By  this  statute  all  Lollards  were  to 
be  arrested  and  held  in  strong  prisons  till 
they  should  justify  themselves  according  to 
the  law  and  reason  of  Holy  Cliurch.  In  1382, 
and  again  in  1394,  the  Lollards  addressed  a 
remonstrance  to  Parliament,  in  which,  among 
other  points,  they  asserted  that  no  civil  lord 
or  bishop  had  any  power  so  long  as  he  was  in 
mortal  sin,  and  that  human  laws  not  founded 
on  the  Scriptures  ought  not  to  be  obeyed. 
Still  there  was  very  little  persecution,  and  it 
was  not  till  1401  that  the  Act  De  Ilaretico 
Combureudo  was  passed,  and  even  after  the 
passing  of  that  statute,  and  notwithstanding 
the  close  alliance  between  the  Lancastrian 
dynasty  and  the  Church,  only  two  persons 
were  executed  for  heresy  in  Henry  IV. 's 
reig^,  though  the  Lollards  boasted  that  they 
numbered  100,000.  It  is  probable  that  they 
intended  a  rising  under  the  leadership  of  Sir 
John  Oldcastle,  at  the  beginning  of  Henry  V.'s 
reign,  but  the  vigilance  of  the  government 
prevented  it,  and  for  complicity  in  the  pro- 
jected revolt,  some  forty  persons  were  put  to 


Lou 


(  686  ) 


Iton 


death.  In  1414  an  Act  was  passed  extending 
the  provisions  of  the  Ds  Hteretico  Cotnburendo 
statute,  and  several  Lollards  were  executed 
in  the  early  years  of  Henry  VI/s  reign.  By 
the  time  of  Jack  Cadets  rebellion  (1460),  the 
old  Lollard  idea  seems  to  have  died  out,  as  in 
the  complaints  of  the  insurgents  at  that  time 
we  do  not  find  any  mention  of  religious 
grievances.  The  success  of  LoUardy  as  a 
popular  movement  was  due  to  the  general 
discontent  which  prevailed  at  the  end  of 
the  fourteenth  century,  while  the  corruptions 
of  the  Church  gave  it  a  great  stimulus.  But 
the  gradual  emancipation  of  the  villeins  pre- 
vented its  continuance,  and  the  want  of  any 
great  leader  was  sufficient  to  prevent  the 
union  of  the  various  bodies  of  religious,  social, 
and  political  malcontents. 

Wright,  Poiaical  Sonm  (Bolls  SeriM) ;  Panli, 
Bngluclu  Geschtcfctfl ;  Wfulon,  Biehard  II. ;  Lewis, 
jj^t  of  Wiclifi  Shirley,  Pref.  to  ^(ueiculi  Ziso- 
ntorum  (Bolis  Series);  Brougham,  Eng.  vnd«r 
ih»  Houce  of  LanoaMter.  [F.  S.  P.] 

London.  Most  authorities  think  the 
name  is  Celtic,  and  points  to  the  existence  of 
an  early  Celtic  city;  though  some  modem 
inquirers  think  it  may  be  Teutonic.  For  nearly 
four  centuries  (43 — 409)  London  was  a  Koman 
settlement,  covering  the  mouth  of  the  Thames, 
which  was  not  then  far  off.  The  Roman  dty 
was  not  large,  and  lay  probably  between 
Chcapsidc,  Ludgate,  and  the  river.  After 
the  expulsion  of  the  Romans,  it  may  have 
remained  desolate  for  a  time.  In  604,  how- 
ever, Bede  tells  us  it  was  the  capital  of  the 
East  Saxons,  and  an  important  trading  town ; 
and  in  this  year  Ethelbert  gave  it  as  a  see  to 
the  Bishop  Mollitus,  consecrated  by  Augustine. 
A  church  dedicated  to  St.  Paul  was  also  built 
at  or  near  the  present  site.  In  851  London 
was  occupied  and  plundered  by  the  Danes. 
In  the  various  Danish  invasions  the  citizens 
of  London  always  held  out  stoutly.  It  was 
the  Witan  at  London  who,  in  1016,  elected 
Edmtmd  Ironside  king,  though  the  Witan 
outside  had  chosen  Canute.  The  abbey  of 
Westminster  was  built  by  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor, and  in  the  times  of  the  last  two  or 
three  Anglo-Saxon  kings,  London  was  recog- 
nised as  the  capital  or,  at  least,  the  most 
important  place  in  the  kingdom.  William 
the  Conqueror  began  the  building  of  the 
Tower,  and  granted  a  charter  to  the  Londoners, 
confirming  them  in  all  the  rights  they  had  held 
in  King  Edward*s  days.  Numerous  churches 
and  monasteries  were  built  during  the  Early 
Norman  period ;  and  in  1083  the  re-building 
of  the  cathedral  of  St.  Paul's  was  begun. 
In  1100  Henry  I.  issued  a  charter  to  London, 
which  marked  an  important  step  in  the  de- 
velopment of  local  self-government.  In  the 
war  between  Stephen  and  the  Empress  Af  aud 
the  Londoners  were  strongly  on  the  side  of 
the  former.  In  1176  a  stone  bridge  over  the 
Thames  was  commenced.  In  1191  London 
Was  recognised  as  a  communa  or  fully  or- 


ganised corporation.    In  the  reign  of  John  th» 
barons  were  much  assisted  by  tiie  Londoners 
in  the  contest  with  the  king,   and  in  the 
Magna  Charta  it  was  provided  that  London 
should  have  its  ancient  rights  and  customs. 
A  charter  of  John  had  previously  given  them 
the  right  of  electing  their  mayor.    In  the. 
Barons*  War  of  the  thirteenth  century  Londoa 
sided  with  the  barons.    An  important  feature 
in  the  fourteenth  century  history  of  London 
was  the  struggle  for  power    of   the    craft 
guilds,  and  their  ultimate  victory  over  the 
merchant  guild.   In  1 327  Edward  III.  granted 
it  a  new  charter.     In  1392  the  Londoners 
refused  a  loan  to  Richard  IL,  and  were  de- 
prived of  their  charters,  which,  however,  were 
restored  soon  after.     During  the  W^ars  of 
the    Roses   the    Londoners  were   generally 
Yorkist,  and  Edward  lY.  was  always  strongly 
supported  in  the  capitaL    In  the  Ciidl  War 
of  the  seventeenth  century  London  was  the 
centre  of  Presby  terianism  and  of  opposition  to 
the  king  at  the  beginning  of  the  war,  and  to 
the  army  afterwards.      It  was  occupied  by 
the  army  in  1648,  and  by  Monk  in  Feb.,, 
1660.    In  1665  London  was  ravaged  by  the 
Great  Plague,  and  the  following  year  (Sept. 
2 — 6,  1666)  a  large  part  of  the  city  was  de- 
stroyed  by  the  great  nre.    The  rebuilding  was 
begun  immediately,  and  Sir  Christ(^her  Wren 
was  employed  to  build  a  new  St.  Paul's,  and 
many  other  churches,  on  the  old  sites.    In 
James  IPs  reign  London  violently  opposed 
the  Romanist  tendencies  of  the  King.    Its 
charters  had  already  been  seized  (Jan.,  1683), 
and  violent  riots  occurred  towards  the  close  of 
the  king's  reign  (Oct.,  1688).    The  charters 
were  restored  Oct.  8.    In  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury' London  was  the  headquarters  of  advanced 
Whig  principles.  Serious  riote  occurred  owing 
to  the  arrest  of  Wilkes  (June,  1768).    In  1780 
London  was  distracted  by  tlie  Lord  George 
Gordon  riots  (q.v.).     During  the  present  cen- 
tury the  most  remarkable  circumstance  about 
London  has  been  its  growth,  which  has  caused 
it  to  extend  far  into  Uie  counties  of  Middlesex, 
Surrey,   Kent,  and  Essex.     The  Municipal 
Reform  Act  of  1835  did  not  apply  to  London, 
which,  so  far  as  regards  the  city,  was  allowed 
to  keep  ite  old    corporation,   ruled  by  the 
representatives  of  the  wards  and  the  liveries, 
while  the  portions  outside  form  various  inde- 
pendent parishes,  administered  by  the  vestries. 
In    1855    a   body  called  the    Metropolitan 
Board  of  Works  was  created  to  supervise  the 
general  sanitary  affairs  of  the    metropolis, 
and  this  has  been  superseded  by  the  London 
County  Council,  which  came  into  being  in 
January,  1889, and, unlike  the  Board  of  Works, 
is  elected  directly  by  the  ratepayers.    In  1 894 
a  Royal  Commission  reported  in  favour  of 
the  unification  of  London  government. 

Stow,  Swrve^  of  London  (1596),  continued  by 
J.  Strype  (1754) ;  Entick's  ed.  of  Maitland,  Hiti. 
of  hondfin  (3  vols.,  1775) ;  Peniunt,  L<m4om 
(1790) ;  J.  T.  Smitb,  AniiquiiiM  o/ London  (1791) ; 


iKm 


(  687  ) 


iKm 


T.  Allen,  Hid,  and  AnHmnlUa  of  London  (1SS7— 
89)-:  F.  Cunnioffham,  Handboofc  for  London; 
J.  Timbe,  Curiotitin  qf  London;  D.  Lysooa, 
Environa  of  London;  C.  Boach  Smith,  Roman 
London;  CosuIVm  Old  and  N^vs London;  Loftie, 
A  Hi»tory  of  London  (1883). 

London,  Thb  Contention  op  ^Oct.  22 , 
1832),  v/vLS  concluded  between  England  and 
France,  for  the  purpose  of  coercing  Holland. 
It  declared  that  unless  Holland  withdrew  all 
her  troops  from  Belgian  territory  by  Nov.  12, 
1832,  the  two  powers  would  place  an  embargo 
on  all  Dutch  shipping  in  their  ports,  would 
station  a  squadron  on  its  coasts,  would  move  a 
French  army  into  Belgium,  and  would  drive 
the  Dutch  garrison  from  the  citadel  of  Antwexp. 

,  Thb  Treaty  op  (July  6,  1827),  was 

concluded  between  England,  France,  and 
Russia ;  and  was  signed  by  Lord  Dudley, 
the  Duke  of  Polignac,  and  Count  Lieven.  Its 
provisions  were  that  self-government  under 
Turkey,  but  saddled  with  a  tribute,  should  be 
given  to  Greece ;  that  none  of  the  parties  to 
tile  treaty  desirod  territorial  acquisitions  or 
commercial  advantages.  There  were  also 
secret  articles  which  stipulated  that  if  the 
intervention  were  rejected,  more  stringent 
means  must  be  adopted  to  oblige  its  accept- 
ance both  by  one  party  and  the  other,  and 
that  it  would  be  necessary  to  show  coun- 
tenance to  Greece,  by  acknowledging  her  as  a 
belligerent  power,  and  establishing  consuls  at 
her  ports  ;  that  a  month  was  to  be  given  to 
the  rorte  for  consideration,  and  that  if  she 
refused  the  armistice,  the  allied  fleets  were  to 
unite,  and  intercept  all  ships  freighted  with 
men  or  arms,  destined  to  act  against  the 
Greeks,  whether  from  Turkey  or  Egypt ;  that 
at  the  same  time  all  hostilities  were  to  be 
carefully  avoided. 

,  The  Treaty  op  CNov.  15,  1831),  was 

concluded  between  the  nve  powers  for  the 
settlement  of  the  Belgian  question.  It  pre- 
scribed that  the  western  part  of  Luxemburg 
should  be  g^ven  to  Belgium,  the  rest  remain- 
ing part  of  the^Germanic  Empire,  and  that 
Holland  should  have  as  an  mdemnity  the 
eastern  part  of  Limburg;  that  each  country 
should  bear  its  own  debt  before  the  union, 
and  share  the  liabilities  contracted  since; 
that  Belg^ium  should  have  a  right  of  way 
through  Maestricht,  and  the  free  navigation 
of  the  Scheldt  and  all  waters  between  it  and 
the  Rhine.  This  treaty  fell  through  at  the 
conferences  held  in  London,  but  was  even- 
tually carried  out  by  force  after  the  capitula- 
tion of  Antwerp. 

,  The  Treaty  op  (1832J,  was  a  conven- 
tion between  France,  Englana,  and  Russia  on 
the  one  hand,  and  Bavaria  on  the  other.  The 
crown  of  Greece,  now  made  a  kingdom, 
was  offered,  with  the  authorisation  of  the 
Greek  nation,  to  the  King  of  Bavaria,  to  be 
worn  by  his  second  son,  Frederick  Otho,  and 
was  accepted.  The  limits  of  the  kingdom  were 
to  be  fixed  by  treaty  with  Turkey,  according  to 
a  protocol  of  Sept.  26, 1 83 1 .  A  loan  to  the  King 


of  Greece  was  guaranteed  by  Russia,  and  if  the 
consent  of  the  Chambers  and  of  the  Parliament 
could  be  obtained,  by  France  and  England. 

,  The  Treaty  of  (1841),  was  concluded 

between  England,  France,  Prussia,  Russia, 
Austria,  and  Turkey,  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
attempts  of  Mehemet  Ali  on  Egypt.  It  provided 
that  for  the  future  the  Sultan  would  not  allow 
any  foreign  ships  of  war  to  enter  the  straits 
of  the  Bosphorus  and  the  Dardanelles  in 
times  of  peace,  and  that  no  navy  might 
enter  them,  without  his  consent,  in  times 
of  war.  It  also  confirmed  the  Quadrilateral 
Treaty,  1840,  which  had  limited  Mehemet  Ali 
of  Egypt  to  Egypt  and  Acre. 

,  The  Treaty  op  (1847),  was  con- 
cluded between  the  representatives  of  England^ 
France,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  for  the  purpose 
of  averting  the  Portuguese  insurrection. 

,  The  Treaty  op  (Mar.  13,  1871).    By 

the  Treaty  of  Paris,  in  1856,  at  the  close 
of  the  Crimean  War,  the  Black  Sea  was 
neutralised,  and  Russia  resigned  the  right  of 
keeping  armed  vessels  on  its  waters,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  small  ones  for  police  pur- 
poses. In  October,  1870,  Russia  suddenly 
"denounced"  the  neutralisation  clauses  of 
the  treaty.  France  and  Germany  being  at 
that  time  at  war,  the  Western  Powers  thought 
it  advisable  to  accede  to  the  demand.  A  Con- 
ference assembled  at  London  (January,  1871), 
attended  by  representatives  of  the  signatory 
powers  of  1856,  and  the  Treaty  of  London 
(March  13)  de-neutralised  the  Black  Sea. 

London  Company.  The,  fonned  1606, 
obtained  a  charter  xrom  James  I.  to  colonise 
Virginia :  they  were*  to  have  the  southern 
half  of  the  territories  between  the  thirty- 
fourth  and  forty-fifth  degrees.  The  govern- 
ment of  the  new  colony  was  to  be  vested  in  a 
council  resident  in  England,  appointed  by  the 
king,  another  council  in  the  colony  being 
charged  with  the  duties  of  administration.  In 
1609  a  new  charter  was  obtained,  vesting  the 
appointment  of  the  council  in  the  share- 
holders, and  of  the  governor  in  the  council. 
In  1625,  the  company,  which  had  been  com- 
mercially a  failure,  was  dissolved. 

Jbondon,  Richard  op,  was  the  author  of 
a  history  of  Richard  I.*s  Crusade.  This 
Chronicle  (which  has  been  erroneously  attri- 
buted to  Geoffrey  Vinsauf)  is  printed  in  the 
Rolls  Series ;  there  is  also  a  translation  of  it 
in  Bohn's  Antiquarian  Library. 

Londonderry.  The  town  of  Derr}%  in 
Ulster,  was  the  seat  of  a  monastcr}*^  founded 
in  546.  It  was  made  a  bishopric  in  1158. 
During  Tyrone's  rebellion  of  1566  it  was 
garrisoned  by  the  English.  It  was  surprised 
by  Hugh  O'Neil,  and  burnt  to  the  ground 
during  his  rebellion  (1608).  The  corporation 
of  London  rebuilt  it,  getting  a  g^nt  of  the 
town  and  6,000  acres  adjoining  (1613—1630). 
In  the  rebellion  of  1646  it  held  out  against 
the  insurgents,  though,  in  1649,  it  was  only 


Lou 


(  688  ) 


Loii 


owing  to  Owen  Roe  CNeil's  assistance  that 
it  was  able  to  do  so.  In  December,  1688, 
Lord  Antrim,  with  a  regiment  of  1,200  men, 
was  sent  by  James  II.  to  garrison  the  town. 
Though  the  corporation  and  bishop  were 
willing  to  admit  them,  thirteen  young  appren- 
tices closed  the  gates  before  the  eyes  of  the 
troops,  and  they  had  to  retire.  The  citizens, 
however,  were  induced  to  admit  a  small  Pro- 
testant garrison,  \mder  Lieut.-Colonel  Limdy. 
That  officer  was,  however,  unable  to  prevent 
the  proclamation  of  William  and  Mary  in  1689. 
By  this  time  some  30,000  Protestants  of 
Ulster  had  fled  there  for  refuge.  Lundy  also 
sent  to  James,  who  was  now  (April,  1689) 
approaching,  and  promised  to  surrender. 
But  when  James  himself,  on  April  17th, 
had  got  to  within  a  hundred  yards  of 
the  gate,  the  inhabitants  rose,  and  shouting 
**  No  surrender!"  manned  the  walls, 
James  and  his  escort  fled  for  their  lives. 
Limdy  was  now  deposed,  and  in  the  night 
fled  from  the  town.  Major  Henry  Baker 
and  Mr.  George  Walker,  a  Protestant  clergy- 
man, were  appointed  governors.  Presby- 
terians and  Anglicans  uniting  heartily  against 
the  common  foe,  7,000  men  were  soon  under 
arms.  On  the  19th  all  terms  were  finally 
refused,  and  the  siege  began.  It  was  de- 
stined to  last  for  105  days — till  July  30.  In 
order  to  prevent  any  help  reaching  the  town 
from  the  sea,  a  boom  was  placed  by  the 
besiegers  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  leading 
into  Lough  Foyle,  and  batteries  were  erected 
to  protect  it.  At  last,  on  June  15,  Kirke  was 
sent  by  William  to  try  and  raise  the  siege. 
He,  however,  hesitated  for  some  time  to 
force  his  wav  througfi  the  works  of  the 
besiegers,  ^feanwhile  the  town  was  in  a 
state  of  famine,  and  its  surrender  was  a 
question  of  days.  Baker,  one  of  the  gover- 
nors, had  died.  Then  at  last  Kirke,  having 
received  positive  orders  to  force  the  boom 
on  July  30,  sent  off  the  Dartmouth  frigate, 
with  two  transports  laden  with  provisions, 
with  this  purpose.  They  succeeded  without 
much  difficulty,  and  by  ten  in  the  evening 
the  town  was  saved.  On  August  1  the  be- 
siegers withdrew  after  burning  their  camp. 
The  garrison  had  been  reduced  by  famine  and 
by  the  sword  to  3,000  men;  the  loss  of  the 
besiegers  is  said  to  have  exceeded  6,000  men. 
Macaulay  calls  the  siege  "  the  most  memorable 
in  the  annals  of  the  British  Isles." 

Walker,  True  Account  of  the  Siege  of  London- 
derry (1689);  London  Qaxette,  1689;  The  L&n- 
dei-iad;  Macaulay,  Hist,  of  Eng. 

Itondonderxy,  Kobeut  Stewart,  Vis- 
count, Earl  of  {d.  1769,  rf.'1822),  the  son  of 
the  first  Marquis  of  Londonderry,  was  bom 
in  Ireland,  and  received  his  education  at 
Armagh  and  at  St.  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge. On  coming  of  age,  he  stood  for  the 
county  of  Down,  and  was  returned  at  a  cost 
of  £30,000,  and  on  the  strength  of  a  pledge 
to  support  the  claims  of  the  Catholics  to  be 


represented  in  Parliament.  At  first  he 
showed  himself  a  good  friend  to  Ireland,  and 
in  fact  made  his  maiden  speech  on  behzdf  of 
Ireland's  right  to  trade  with  India  in  spite 
of  the  Company's  monopoly.  The  Ai\^ig8 
welcomed  the  new  member  as  a  valuable  addi- 
tion to  their  party ;  but  he  showed  his  true 
colours  when,  on  the  recall  of  Lord  Fitz- 
WiUiam,  he  supported  the  coercive  measures  of 
the  government.  In  1798  he  was  rewarded 
by  being  appointed  Chief  Secretary  for 
Ireland,  and  in  that  capacity  he  was  a  wann 
advocate  of  the  Union.  When  that  object 
was  consummated.  Lord  Castlereagh  sat  in 
the  united  Parliament  as  M.P.  for  Down 
county,  and  was  appointed  by  Pitt  P*resident 
of  the  Board  of  Control.  He  did  not,  how- 
ever,  follow  his  patron  out  of  office,  but  con- 
tinued to  hold  the  same  post  under  Addington. 
When  Pitt  again  came  in,  he  was  further 
advanced  to  the  position  of  Secretary  at  War, 
which  ho  resignea  on  Pitt's  death,  and  which 
he  again  obtained  on  the  fall  of  Grenville^s 
government  in  1807.  By  the  expedition  to 
Walcheren,  which  was  undertaken  at  his  advice 
and  ilnder  his  management,  he  became  most 
unpopular  with  the  nation,  nor  had  his  own 
colleagues  a  much  higher  opinion  of  him. 
Canning  especially  conceived  an  utter  con- 
tempt for  the  War  Secretary,  and  insisted  on 
his  being  dismissed  to  give  way  to  the  Marquis 
Wellesley.  Lord  Castlereagh  took  Canning's 
action  in  very  bad  })art,  said  he  had  b^n 
deceived,  and  challenge  his  opponent  to  a 
duel,  in  which  Canning  was  badly  wounded. 
The  result  of  this  encounter  was  the  resigna- 
tion of  both  of  them.  Lord  Castlereagh  re- 
mained unemployed  until  in  1812  he  was 
appointed  Foreign  Secretary,  in  which  office 
he  remained  during  the  rest  of  his  life,  though 
virtually  Prime  Minister.  In  Dec.,  1813,  he 
went  to  the  Continent  as  plenipot^tiary  to 
negotiate  a  general  peace.  The  overtures, 
however,  came  to  nothing.  Castlereagh  re- 
turned, to  again  act  as  English  minister  at 
the  Congress  of  Vienna.  His  conduct  there 
has  been  often  condemned,  bv  no  one  with 
greater  severity  than  by  Napoleon,  who 
attributed  all  the  miseries  of  England  to  his 
imbecility  and  ignorance,  and  to  his  general 
inattention  to  the  real  prosperity  of  his 
country.  His  unpopularity  was  increased 
by  his  behaviour  on  the  Continent,  and  was 
not  in  any  way  softened  down  by  the  vote 
of  thanks  with  which  Parliament  rewarded 
him  for  negotiating  a  peace  which  ^&  made 
regardless  of  the  interests  of  the  nation. 
In  1816  the  first  murmurs  were  heard  in 
Parliament  against  the  Holy  Alliance  of 
Bussia,  Austna,  and  Prussia.  This  con- 
federation received  the  support  of  Lord 
Castlereagh,  who  thereby  brought  upon  him- 
self the  almost  unanimous  attacks  of  the 
whole  House.  In  1822  he  was  much  worn 
out  by  the  labours  of  a  more  than  usually 
severe  session ;  his  mind  gave  way  beneath 


Loii 


(  689  ) 


Lou 


the  strain,  and  on  Aug.  9  he  put  an  end  to 
his  existence. 

Castltreagh  Corr§mondeno« ;  Walpole,  Hist, 
of^  Eng.  »ince  1815;  Waterloo  Detpatchea;  CaQ« 
xdogham,  Sminmt  EnglitihvMn, 

[W.  R.  S.] 

Lon^,  Thomas,  "a  very  indiscrete  and 
iinmeto  man,"  bribed  the  electors  of  the 
borough  of  Westbury  with  £4  to  return  him 
to  the  Parliament  of  1571.  A  fine  was  inflicted 
by  the  House  on  the  borough ;  but  Long,  who 
is  described  as  "  a  very  simple  man  and  of 
small  capacity  to  eerve  in  that  place,"  does 
not  seem  to  have  been  punished. 

Lonif  Parliamenty  Thb.  This  name 
is  that  which  has  been  commonly  applied  to 
the  Parliament  which  met  on  "Sov,  3,  1640. 
Out  of  a  total  of  493  members,  294  had 
sat  in  the  "Short  Parliament"  of  the 
previous  ApriL  They  came  together  now 
with  the  determination  to  remove  all  g^e- 
▼ances,  and  **pull  up  the  causes  of  them 
by  the  roots."  The  first  few  months  were 
occupied  by 'the  trial  of  Strafford  and  the 
impeachment  of  Laud  and  other  delinqipnts. 
The  attempt  which  was  made  to  use  the  army 
to  save  Strafford  caused  an  appeal  to  the 
people  called  the  Protestation,  and  was 
zollowed  by  a  bill  preventing  the  king  from 
dissolving  the  present  Parliament.  The 
meeting  of  future  Parliaments  had  already 
been  secured  by  the  Triennial  Bill  (Feb.  10, 
1641).  The  Star  Chamber,  and  other  special 
courts  were  aboli^ed,  and  by  the  votes  on 
ship-money,  and  the  Tonnage  and  Poundage 
BiU,  the  lev>'  of  taxes  without  consent  of 
Parliament  was  made  impossible.  On  these 
purely  political  questions  Parliament  was 
united,  and  its  work  was  permanent,  and 
became  part  of  the  constitution.  But  on 
ecdesiajstical  questions  a  division  arose  which 
made  the  Civil  War  possible.  One  party 
wished  to  abolish  the  bishops,  the  other 
merely  to  limit  their  power,  but  Presbyterians 
and  Episcopalians  both  strove  to  realise  their 
ideal  of  a  church,  and  neither  were  prepared 
to  accept  the  solution  of  toleration.  The 
Episcopalian  party  under  the  leadership  of 
Hyde  and  Falkland  rallied  round  the  king, 
and  formed  a  constitutional  Royalist  party. 
One  bill  for  removing  the  bishops  from  the 
House  of  Lords  had  been  rejected  by  the 
Lords  in  June.  A  second  bill  for  the  same 
purpose  was  sent  up  from  the  Commons  at  the 
end  of  October  (1641),  and  a  protest  on  the  part 
of  twelve  bishops  that  Parliament  was  not 
free,  directed  against  the  mobs  which  flocked 
to  Westminster,  was  used  to  suspend  them 
from  sitting,  and  commit  them  to  custody. 
At  the  same  time  the  Commons,  by  the  Grand 
Kemonstrance,  passed  a  vote  of  no  confidence 
in  the  king,  and  appealed  to  the  people  for 
support.  The  king  replied  by  impeaching 
and  attempting  to  arrest  six  of  the  Parlia- 
mentary leaders  (Jan.  b,  1642),  but  this  only 


brought  about  the  closer  union  of  the  two 
Houses.  The  House  of  Lords  passed  the 
Bishops  Exclusion  Bill,  and  united  with  the 
Commons  in  the  demand  that  the  king  should 
entrust  the  command  of  the  militia  and  for- 
tresses to  persons  in  whom  they  could  confide 
(Feb.  1,  1642).  The  king*s  attempt  to  get 
possession  of  HuU  (April  23),  the  intolerant 
treatment  of  the  Kentish  petitioners  by  the 
House  of  Commons  (March  28),  embittered  the 
quarrel.  Parliament  summed  up  the  guaran- 
tees it  demanded  in  the  Nineteen  Propositions 
(June  2),  and  after  their  refusal  by  the  king 
prepared  for  war.  The  Parliament  put  in 
force  its  ordinance  among  the  militia,  and  the 
king  his  commissions  of  array.  So  the 
Civil  War  began  oven  before  the  king  set  up 
his  standard  at  Nottingham.  Some  thirty  or 
forty  peers  took  part  for  the  Parliament,  and 
about  sixty  sided  with  the  king.  Of  the 
House  of  Commons  less  than  a  hundred  at 
first  joined  the  king,  and  though  their  number 
increased  in  the  next  two  years  it  never 
reached  two  hundred.  Parliament  entrusted 
the  conduct  of  the  war  to  a  Committee  of 
Safety  of  ten  commoners  and  five  lords  sitting 
at  Derby  House.  It  also  commenced  the 
nomination  of  an  assembly  of  divines  to  be 
consulted  on  the  proposed  ecclesiastical 
reforms.  The  ill-success  of  the  first  year's 
war  led  to  the  formation  of  a  peace  party, 
and  negotiations  were  opened  at  Oxfoixl  m 
March,  1643;  but  an  agreement  proved  im- 
possible. Again  in  August  the  House  of 
Lords  brought  forward  a  number  of  peace 
propositions,  which  passed  the  Commons  by  a 
sm^  majority,  but  the  tumults  which  the 
news  of  these  terms  caused  in  the  city  obliged 
Parliament  to  abandon  them  (Aug.  7).  The 
Parliamentary  leaders  turned  to  Scotland 
for  aid,  and  in  September  the  Parliament 
signed  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant  as 
the  price  of  a  Scotch  army.  Representatives 
of  Scotland  entered  the  Committee  of  Safety 
(which  now  took  the  name  of  the  Committee 
of  the  Two  Kingdoms),  and  joined  the 
EngUsh  divines  in  the  Westminster  Assembly. 
In  spite  of  their  reverses  the  Parliamentary 
leaders  remained  firm,  and  refused  to  treat  as 
equals  with  the  assembly  of  Royalist  members 
which  the  king  gathered  round  him  at  Oxford, 
and  dignified  with  the  name  of  a  Parliament 
(Feb.  to  April,  1644).  In  the  spring  of  1646 
the  position  of  the  Parliament  was  entirely 
altei^  by  the  Self-denying  Ordinance,  which 
obliged  ail  members  of  cither  House  holding 
military  commands  to  resign  them,  whilst  at 
the  same  time  the  reorganisation  of  the  army 
produced  what  soon  claimed  to  be  a  rival 
authority  (April,  1645).  During  the  autumn 
of  1645,  and  the  course  of  1646  the  com- 
position of  the  House  of  Commons  was 
seriously  changed  by  the  election  of  230  new 
members  to  supply  the  place  of  those  who 
had  deserted  or  been  expelled.  Thus  a 
strong  Independent  party  was  formed  in  the 


Lon 


(  690  ) 


House  sympathising  with  the  army  outside. 
The  vain  negotiations   carried  on  with  the 
king  during  the  winter    of  1646 — 46,  and 
during  his  presence  in  the  Scottish  camp, 
ended  in  January,  1647,  with  his  delivery  to 
the  commissioners  of  the  Parliament.   Whilst 
the  king  still  delayed  to  come  to  terms  with 
the  Preshyterian  majority  in  Parliament,  the 
conflict  between  the  army  and  that  assembly 
broke  out.    The  army  domanded  its  arrears 
of  pay  before  it  disbanded,  toleration  for  its 
religious  views,  and  a  voice  in  the  settlement 
of  the  country.    It  required  also  the  suspen- 
sion of  eleven  leading  Presbyterian  members 
charged  with  causing  the  misunderstanding 
between  the  Parliament  and  the  army.    The 
eleven  members  withdrew  voluntarily  to  save 
the  dignity  of  the  House  (June  26),  but  a 
few  weeks  later  a  riot  took  place,  and  the 
Londoners  restored  the  eleven  members  to 
their  seats.    Indignant  at  mob-dictation  the 
Speaker,  with    100  member  of    the  Lower 
House,  and    fourteen    of    the  Upper,   took 
refuge  with  the  army  (Aug.  3).    The  soldiers 
occupied  London,  and  the  eleven  members 
fled  or  were  impeached.     Seven  of  the  Lords 
shared  the  same  fate,  and  a  large  number  of 
Presbyterians  seceded  from  the  House.    Thus 
the  army  secured  in  Parliament  a  majority 
favourable  to  its  own  views,  which,  after  the 
king  had  refused  to  accept  the  Four  Bills  in 
which  the   terms  of  peace  were  comprised, 
declared  that  no  more  addresses  should  be 
made  to  him  (Jan.  3,  1648).    Three  months 
later  the  second  Civil  War  began,  the  seceding 
members  took  advantage  of  it  to  return  to 
their  places,  the  eleven  members  were  re- 
called, a  persecuting  ordinance  was  passed 
against  Sectarians,  and  negotiations  re-opened 
with  the  king.     On  Dec.  6  the  House,  by 
129   to   83,  voted  that  the  king's    answers 
were  sufficient  ground  to  proceed  upon  for 
the  settlement  of  the  kingdom.     A  second 
time  the  army  interfered  to  put  an  end  to 
Presbyterian  rule,  and   prevent  an  unsatis- 
factory settlement.    On  Dec.  6  and  7  a  couple 
of  regiments,  directed  by  Colonel  Pride,  sur- 
rounded the  House,  excluded  ninety-six  of 
the  leading  Presbyterians,  and  arrested  forty- 
seven  others.     The  attendance  in  the  House 
of  Lords  dwindled  to  six  or  seven,  that  in  the 
Commons  to  less  than  sixty  members,  but  the 
remainder  were  all  bound  to  work  in  accord- 
ance with  the  army.     On  Jan.    1,  1649,  the 
Commons  passed  a  resolution  defining  it  as 
treason  for  the  king  to  levy  war  against  the 
Parliament  and  kingdom,  and  an  ordinance 
appointing  a  High  Court  of  Justice  to  try 
Carles.    The  king*s  trial  lasted  from  Jan.  20 
to  27,  and  his  execution  took  place  on  the 
29th.     On  Feb.   6  the   Commons  proceeded 
to  vote  that  "  the  House  of  Peers  in  Parlia- 
ment is  useless,  dangerous,  and  ought  to  be 
abolished."      The    next    day  they  resolved 
"  that  it  hath  been  found  by  experience,  and 
that  this  House  doth  declare  that  the  office 


of  the  king  in  this  realm,  and  to  have  the 
pow^er  thereof  in  any  single  person  is  un- 
necessary, burdensome,  ana  dangerous  to  the 
liberty,  safety,  and  public  interest  of  this 
nation,  and  therefore  ought  to  be  abolished." 
These  resolutions  were  followed  by  Acts 
giving  effect  to  them,  and  crowned  on  May 
19  by  an  Act  declaring  and  constituting  the 
people  of  England  to  be  a  Commonwealth 
and  free  State.  At  the  same  time  a  resolu- 
tion was  passed  to  consider  the  constitution 
of  future  Parliaments,  and  this  question 
occupied  the  House  more  or  less  for  the  next 
six  years.  The  executive  power  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  Council  of  State  containing  all 
the  important  members  of  Parliament,  but 
the  committees  of  the  House,  and  the  House 
itself,  still  retained  great  power.  After  the 
consolidation  of  the  republic  by  Cromwell's 
victories,  the  members  present  in  the  House 
increased  considerably,  rising  on  some  occa- 
sions in  1652 — 53  to  as  many  as  120  members. 
After  Worcester,  Cromwell  succeeded  in  per- 
suading the  House  to  fix  Nov.,  1654,  as  the 
period  of  their  own  dissolution,  and  urged  on 
the  question  of  the  Reform  Bill.  But  when 
he  found  that  the  bill  they  proposed  would 
perpetuate  the  powers  of  the  Kump,  as  it  was 
called,  by  providing  that  they  should  keep 
their  places  without  re-election,  and  be  sole 
judges  of  the  election  of  new  members,  he 
endeavoured  to  stop  the  progress  of  the 
measure  by  a  private  arrangement.  When 
that  failed,  he  expelled  them  from  the  House 
by  force  (April  20) .  They  did  not  re-assemble 
till  six  years  later,  when  the  republicans,  who- 
had  allied  themselves  with  the  army  to  over- 
throw Richard  Cromwell,  procured  the  Re- 
storation of  the  Rump  (IMay  8,  1659).  The 
members  expelled  as  Royalists,  and  those  ex- 
cluded by  Pride's  Purge  were  still,  in  spite  of 
their  protests,  kept  out  of  the  House.  This 
assembly  consisted  of  sixty  or  seventy 
members,  and  continued  to  sit  till  Oct.  13, 
when  it  was  expelled  by  Lambert  in  con- 
sequence of  the  attempt  to  exercise  control 
over  the  army.  On  Dec.  26  it  was  restored 
again  in  consequence  of  the  divisions  in 
the  army,  and  the  advance  of  Monk.  Monk 
entered  London  on  Feb.  3,  1660,  just  as  the 
Rump  was  preparing  to  carry  out  the  scheme 
for  enlarging  its  numbers,  frustrated  by  Crom- 
well in  1653.  After  a  moment's  hesitation, 
the  resistance  of  the  city  emboldened  him  to 
declare  for  a  free  Parliament  (Feb.  10),  and 
to  reinstate  the  members  excluded  (Feb.  21). 
According  to  their  agreement  with  Monk,  these 
members  resolved  that  a  new  Parliament  should 
be  summoned  (Feb.  22),  and  proceeded  to  pass 
a  bill  summoning  it  for  April  25,  and  dis- 
solving themselves.  The  last  sitting  of  the 
Long  Parliament  took  place  on  March  16, 
1660.  The  Restoration  swept  away  most  of 
its  work,  but  the  abolitioh  of  the  Extraor- 
dinarj'  Courts,  and  of  the  king's  claim  to  lev}' 
taxes  without  Parliamentary  consent,  were 


Iton 


(691) 


ItOV 


solid  and  lasting  gains.  Two  of  its  later 
measures  also,  &e  institution  of  an  excise 
(1643),  and  the  abolition  of  feudal  tenures 
(1646),  were  maintained  and  re-enacted. 

Bushworth,  Hiriorical  CoUediona;  Joumob  of 
the  HouM  of  Lords  and  Roum  of  Commons;  Sir 
Baiph  Veruey,  Diary  (Camden  Soc.) ;  Sir  John 
Northoote,  JHary;  May,  Hid.  of  the  Long  Par- 
liament]  Clarendon,  Hitt.  of  the  Rebellion; 
FoTBter,  Five  Membere  and  Grand  Bemonatranoe  ; 
Carlyle,  Cromvell ;  Sanford,  Studw*  of  the  Qreat 
BdMHion.  Gardiner,  in  various  works,  and 
Maeaon.  Life  of  JftZton,  fgi^e  the  t)est  accounts 
id  the  Long  Parliament's  existence.  Lists  of 
4ts  members  are  given  by  Carlyle,  Sanford, 
and  Maason.  Mr.  Gardiner  supplies  an  elec- 
toral map  of  England  ^  1642,  showing  the 
local  distribution  of  parties. 

[C.  H.  F.] 

IiOnigoluuiip,  William  db  (<^.  1197),  was 
a  Norman  of  low  origin,  who  had  managed  to 
ingpratiate  himself  with  Richard  I.  before  his 
father's  death.  On  his  patron's  accession  to 
the  throne  Longchamp  was  at  once  made 
Bishop  of  Ely,  and  on  the  death  of  Greoffrey 
de  Mtmdeville  he  was,  in  1100,  appointed  co- 
Justiciar  of  England  with  Hugh  de  Pudsey, 
while,  to  add  to  his  greatness,  he  was  in  the 
next  year,  made  papal  legate.  He  very  soon 
quarrelled  with  Hugh,  ana  got  the  whole  power 
into  his  own  hands.  His  conduct  to  GeofErcy, 
Archbishop  of  York,  and  his  oppressive 
taxation,  combined  with  a  haughty  demeanour 
and  unpopular  manners,  brought  great  odium 
upon  him,  and,  despite  his  loyal  support  of 
Richard*s  interests  against  the  treasonable 
pretensions  of  John,  he  was,  in  1191,  removed 
irom  his  office,  and  compelled  to  return  to 
Normandy,  where  he  consoled  himself  by  ex- 
communicating his  enemies.  He  was  the  first 
to  find  out  where  the  king  was  imprisoned,  and 
assisted  in  raising  his  ransom.  On  Kichard*s 
release  Longchamp  returned  to  England,  and 
was  made  Chancellor,  which  office  he  seems 
to  have  held  till  his  death.  Longchamp*s 
character  was  a  curious  mixture.  **  He  was," 
says  Dr.  Stubbs,  "  very  ambitious  for  him- 
self and  his  relations,  very  arrogant,  priding 
himself  on  his  Norman  blood,  but  laughed  at 
as  a  parvenu  by  the  Norman  nobles,  disliking 
and  showing  contempt  in  the  coarsest  way  for 
the  English,  whose  language  he  would  not 
speak,  and  declared  that  he  did  not  under- 
stand.*' 

Hoveden,   Chronide  (BoUs  Series) ;  Stubbs, 
Const.  Hiet. 

JjOnff sword  (or,  Lokgespee),  William 
{b.  1196,  d.  1226),  was  the  natural  son  of 
Henry  II . ,  by  Rosamond  Clifford.  He  married 
Ella,  heiress  of  the  Earl  of  Salisbury,  and 
received  the  title  of  Earl  of  Salisbury  himself. 
He  fought  with  Kichard  in  the  Crusades,  as- 
sisted John  against  the  barons  and  the  French 
king,  and  was  taken  prisoner  in  the  battle  of 
Bouvines.  On  his  release  in  1219  he  again 
went  on  Crusade. 

jMngBWord  (or,  Lokgespbe),  William, 


was  the  son  of  the  above,  whom  he  suc^ 
ceeded  in  the  earldom  of  Salisbury.  Haying 
quarrelled  with  Henry  III.  he  was  deprived 
of  his  earldom,  and  joined  Richard  of  Com- 
wfdl*s  Crusade  in  1240.  In  1246  he  again 
took  the  cross,  and  went  with  St.  Louis  on  his 
expedition  to  Egypt,  where  he  was  slain,  in 
1250,  at  the  battle  of  Mansourah. 


Loose -ooat 


The  Battle   of 


(1470),  was  the  name  given  to  a  battle  fought 
near  Stamford  between  the  royal  forces  and 
the  Lincolnshire  insurgents  under  Sir  Richard 
Wells,  The  royal  troops  were  victorious,  and 
ttie  rebels,  in  their  anxiety  to  escape,  threw 
off  their  coats,  whence  the  battle  got  its 
name. 

LopeSy  Sir  Manasseu,  was  a  baronet  of 
Jewish  extraction,  who  was  elected  for 
Barnstaple  (1820).  The  election,  however, 
was  petitioned  against  on  the  ground  of  gross 
bribery.  The  committee  found  that  he  had 
expended  £3,000  on  the  election ;  that  out  of 
three  hundred  resident  electors  sixty-six  had 
received  £5  each ;  and  that  the  out-voters  had 
been  given  £20  a-piece.  The  House  of  Com- 
mons thereupon  unseated  Sir  Manasseh.  He 
was,  however,  indicted  the  same  year  for 
bribery  at  a  previous  election  at  Grampound. 
The  case  was  tried  at  Exeter,  and  it  was 
found  that  Sir  Manasseh  had  regularly  bar- 
gained with  one  of  the  electors  to  be  returned 
for  the  borough  for  the  sum  of  £2,000,  which 
was,  of  course,  distributed  among  the  voters. 
He  was  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine  of  £10,000, 
and  to  be  imprisoned  for  two  years. 

LopeZy  I^K-  RoDERioo  {d.  1595),  a  Jew  in 
the  service  of  Elizabeth,  was  charged  by  the 
Earl  of  Essex  with  being  in  the  pay  of  Spain. 
He  was  acquitted  once,  but  Essex  pursued 
his  investigations,  and  obtained  his  conviction 
on  the  evidence  of  two  Portuguese,  and  he 
was  executed.  It  must  still  remain  a  question 
whether  Lopez  was  really  guilty. 

Lord  CoUingwoocU  The  (1821-22). 
In  1821  a  Spanish  cruiser  captured  a  British 
merchant  vessel,  the  Lord  Collingwoody  and  had 
her  condemned  in  the  Spanish  courts  on  the 
ground  that  she  was  found  trading  with 
Buenos  Ajnres,  one  of  their  revolted  colonies, 
which  had  already  practically  obtained  in- 
dependence. The  owners  complained  to  their 
government,  and  the  latter  remonstrated  at 
Sladrid.  In  October,  1822,  Canning  succeeded 
Lord  Castlereagh  at  the  Foreign  Office, 
and  immediately  sent  a  firm  note  to  the 
Spanish  government.  The  latter  was  now 
informed  that  England  would  take  steps  to 
secure  her  commerce,  and  that  for  this 
purpose  a  squadron  would  be  ordered  to  Cuba 
to  destroy  the  stronghold^  of  these  pirates. 
The  Spanish  government,  who  depended  on 
England  at  the  Congress  of  Verona,  at  once 
gave  way.  A  decree  was  issued  recognising  the 
right  of  other  governments  to  trade  with  their 


Lor 


(  692  ) 


ZK>r 


former  colonies,  and  large  compensation  was 
awarded  to  the  plundered  British  merchants. 

Lords  of  the  Isles.      [Isles,  Lords 

OF   THE.] 

Lords,  House  of.  The  existing  consti- 
tution of  the  Lords  as  an  estate  of  the  realm 
and  of  Parliament  dates  from  the  thirteenth 
century.  At  that  time  their  status,  their 
single  essential  qualification,  and  their  office 
in  the  State  were  finally  fixed,  and  their  order 
received  that  impress  which  has  ever  since  dis- 
tinguished it  from  the  rest  of  the  conununity. 
But  the  Lords  may  be  traced  in  an  unbroken 
descent  to  the  Witenagemotj  which  indeed  in 
character  and  function  they  stiU  resemble. 
They  are  in  theory  the  noble  and  wise  of  the 
kingdom,  are  counsellors  of  the  sovereign,  are 
legislators  in  a  personal  or  ofiicial  capacity, 
and  are  an  august  court  of  justice.  The 
Conquest  converted  the  Witenagemot  into  a 
general  gathering  of  feudatories  holding  their 
lands  immediately  from  the  king,  and  thus 
brought  the  institution  a  step  nearer  to  its 
modem  character.  This,  however,  was  a 
large  and  unwieldy  body ;  a  process  of  selec- 
tion set  in,  and  in  time  the  tenants-in- chief 
of  larger  holdings  were  recogpriised  as  a 
special  class  more  closely  attached  to  the 
long,  and  entitled  to  certain  peculiar  marks 
of  consideration,  of  which  the  personal  sum- 
mons addressed  to  them  by  the  king  when 
their  services  were  required  was  the  most 
significant.  The  final  stage  of  their  develop- 
ment was  reached  when  this  personal  sum- 
mons had  given  the  person  summoned  and  his 
heirs  a  distinctiye  title  to  an  irrevocable  place 
in  the  order,  independent  of  any  other  quali- 
fication whatever.  Neither  tenure  of  land 
nor  nobility  of  birth,  however  extensive  the 
one  or  unblemished  the  other,  now  availed  to 
bestow  rank  in  the  favoured  class,  though  the 
vast  majority  were  great  feudal  landowners 
and  of  noble  birth;  it  was  henceforward 
simply  the  will  of  the  sovereign,  expressed  at 
first  in  a  personal  writ  of  summons,  that  alone 
had  this  virtue.  And  this  writ  afterwards 
was  taken  to  have  such  efficacy  as  to  extend 
the  rights  and  functions  that  were  its  outcome 
to  the  representatives  of  the  person  to  whom 
it  had  originally  been  sent,  for  ever.  Ijater 
on,  however,  patent  took  its  place  as  the 
regular  manner  of  expressing  the  will  of  the 
sovereign  in  the  creation  of  a  peer.  Thus  the 
historic  House  of  Lords  was  developed,  con- 
sisting "  of  the  hereditary  counsellors  of  the 
crown,  the  right  to  give  counsel  being  in- 
volved at  one  time  in  the  tenure  of  land, 
at  another  in  the  fact  of  summons,  at  another 
in  the  terms  of  a  patent The  noble- 
man is  the  person  who,  for  his  life,  holds  the 
hereditary  office  denoted  or  implied  in  the 
title."  (Stubbs.)  But  the  position  had  no 
legal  value  for  any  but  the  actual  holder ; 
all  his  children  were  commoners.  These 
formed  the  lay  element  in  the  Lords  when  the 


Parliamentary  system  split  into  separately- 
acting  Houses ;  and  with  them  were  associated 
as  a  spiritual  element  the  archbishpps,  bishops, 
and  summoned  abbots  and  priors.  These 
were  included  in  the  baronial  body,  either 
because  they  held  their  lands  on  the  baronial 
tenure,  or  from  the  reverence  naturally  due 
to  their  offices  and  learning.  Since  the  falling 
away  of  the  clerical  estate  from  Parliament, 
these  spiritual  peers  have  been  its  only 
representatives  in  the  legislature.  Among 
the  members  of  this  composite  body  there 
were  several  degrees  of  title  and  honorary 
rank,  but  equal  rights  and  powers.  The 
judges  also  were  called  to  the  assembly,  but 
never  became  full  peers ;  it  was  their  part  to 
guide  it  by  their  counsel,  not  to  vote.  The 
House  has  still  a  right  to  their  advice. 

During  mediseval  times  the  Lords  were 
the  more  powerful  di'i'ision  of  Parliament, 
and  generally  took  the  lead  in,  and  directed 
all  constitutional  struggles.  They  were  the  one 
effective  check  on  the  will  of  the  king,  and 
could  carry  most  points  that  they  deemed  vitaL 
Yet  their  numbers  dwindled.  The  decrease  was 
entirely  among  the  abbots  and  friars ;  these 
soon  sank  from  eight3'^  to  twenty-seven,  while 
the  bishops  were  constant  at  twenty,  and  the 
temporal  lords  never  varied  much  from  fifty. 
It  was  in  Henry  VI. *s  reign  that  the  practice 
of  making  peers  of  any  dignity  by  patent, 
hitherto  occasionally  used,  became  gencraL 
The  Wars  of  the  Hoses,  by  thinning  the 
ranks,  greatly  diminished  the  political  weight 
of  the  Lords ;  and  their  order  was  of  com- 
paratively small  account  in  Tudor  times. 
And  the  fall  of  the  monasteries  struck  nearly 
thirty  peers  off  their  roll  at  a  time  when  it  con- 
tained barely  ninety  names  in  all.  But  fifty 
temporal  peers  were  summoned  to  the  last  Par- 
liament of  Elizabeth.  The  rule  of  the  Stuarts 
added  to  both  their  numbers  and  considera- 
tion, though  the  advancing  pretensions  of  the 
Conmions  checked  the  growth  of  the  latter. 
More  than  120  temporal  lords  sat  in  the  liong 
Parh'ament,  of  whom  a  third  took  the  Round- 
head side  in  the  great  conflict.  Between  the 
Restoration  and  the  union  with  Scotland, 
their  history  is  marked  by  many  disputes 
with  the  Commons,  and  a  small  mcrease  in 
numbers  and  importance.  In  Charles  II.'s 
reign  they  established  their  right  to  act  as  a 
supremo  court  of  appeal  in  all  civil  causes, 
though  they  had  to  abandon  their  claim  to 
any  kind  of  original  jurisdiction.  Thsxt 
judicial  function,  which  they  inherit  from 
the  old  ewcUium  regis^  involved  them  in  an 
embittered  quarrel  with  the  Commons  in 
Anne's  reign,  when  a  disputed  question  re- 
garding the  rights  of  electors  at  Aylesbury, 
came  before  them  for  a  final  decision.  In 
1707  the  union  with  Scotland  added  sixteen 
representative  temporal  peers  to  their -num- 
bers, in  1801  that  with  Ireland  twenty-four 
temporal  and  four  spiritual,  which  last,  how- 
ever, have  since  been  taken  away  by  the  Izish 


Zk>t 


(  693  ) 


line 


Church  Act.  They  escaped  a  great  danger  by 
the  failure  of  the  Peerage  Bill  in  1719,  which 
would  have  limited  their  numbers  to  about 
200,  and  thus  kindled  against  them  vehe- 
ment envy  and  jealousy.  Their  political  im- 
portance reached  its  highest  point  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  in  the  last  years  of  which 
they  began  to  increase  rapidly  by  new  crea- 
tions. This  expansion  has  gone  on  steadily 
since ;  they  are  now  ten  times  as  numerous 
as  they  were  under  the  Tudors.  The  Lords 
cannot  originate  money  bills ;  but  the  mem- 
bers of  their  House  can  record  their  protest 
and  its  grounds  against  any  measure  they 
dislike.  Lately  the  crown  was  given  power 
to  create  a  few  life-peerages  to  strengthen  the 
legal  element  in  the  House.  Lord  Rosebery 
has  prominently  identified  himself  with  the 
movemen^or  reforming  the  Upx>er  House. 

The  XordB*  Rtpcrt  en  ihe  Dignity  of  a  P§gr: 
Conrthope,  Hutorio  P§0rage;  May,  PractiGal 
TreatUe;  Stubbs,  Coiut.  HUt.;  HaUam,  Conat. 
^^'  [J.R.] 

Lovat,  Simon  Frasek,  Lord  {b.  eirca  1676, 
d,  1747),  was  the  second  son  of  Thos.  Fraser, 
fourth  son  of  Hugh,  ninth  Lord  Lovat.  In- 
vested \pith  the  family  estates  for  supporting 
the  Grovemment  in  the  rebellion  of  1717,  he 
in  1745  sent  forth  his  clan  to  fight  for  the 
Pretender,  while  himself  posing  as  a  loyal 
subject.     For  this  treachery  he  was  beheaded. 

lovely  Fhancis,  ViscorNT  (rf.  1487  ?),  was 
one  of  Kichard  ni.*s  chief  favourites  and 
advisers,  and  was  made  Constable  of  the 
Household.  He  fought  in  the  battle  of  Bos- 
worth,  supported  the  claims  of  Liunbert  Sim- 
nel,  and  fought  also  in  the  battle  of  Stoke  in 
1487,  where  he  was  supposed  to  have  been 
slain.  But  the  discovery  of  a  skeleton  in  a 
secret  chamber  at  Minster  Level  makes  it 
probable  that  he  escaped  to  his  house,  where 
he  died,  perhaps  of  starvation. 

Bacon,  Biak.  of  Henry  VIL;  Lhigard,  Hut.  of 
Sng. 

iMUdna  (or  Lud),'Kino  (d.  eirea  180?),  is 
said  to  have  sent  an  embassy  to  Home  during 
the  papacy  of  Eleutherius,  entreating  that  he 
might  be  made  a  Christian.  He  is  described 
as  King  of  tlie  Britons,  and  it  is  said  that 
through  him  Britain  received  the  faith.  There 
is,  as  Oanon  Bright  says,  "  no  intrinsic  im- 
probability in  the  supposition  that  a  native 
prince  in  a  Roman  island  had  requested  in- 
strnction  from  the  Roman  Church  in  Christian 
belief."  The  earliest  mention  of  Lucius  is  in 
the  second  Catalogue  of  Roman  bishops,  which 
was  probably  compiled  about  a.d.  420. 

Bede,  BedMiagtieal  Hist. ;  Bright,  Early  Eng. 
Church  Hid. 

ZiUOlcnow,  The  Dbfencb  op  (1857),  was 
one  .of  the  most  remarkable  episodes  in  the 
Indian  Mutiny.  Owing  to  the  foresight  of 
Sir  Henry  Lawrence,  the  Residency  at  Luck- 
now  was  armed  and  provisioned  to  stand  a  siege. 


On  July  1  the  enemy  appeared  before  Lucknow, 
and  the  English  withdrew  to  the  Residency. 
On  July  2  they  lost  their  gallant  leader.  For 
three  months,  however,  without  hope  of  suc- 
cour, they  held  out.  Mines  were  sprung  by  the 
enemy,  and  their  breaches  were  defended ;  all 
attacks  were  driven  off,  and  heroic  sallies  made, 
and  counter-mines  pushed  to  anticipate  the 
enemy.  At  the  end  of  July  they  hojMsd  to  be 
relieved  by  Havelock,  but  this  proved  false. 
But  on  Sept.  19  and  20,  2,500  English  soldiers 
under  Campbell,  Outram,  Havelock,  and  Neill, 
crossed  the  Granges.  On  the  25th,  Neill  lead- 
ing, the  defences  of  Lucknow  were  attacked. 
These  consisted  of  at  least  two  miles  of 
narrow  lanes,  streets,  and  massive  buildings 
defended  with  sl^U  and  desperation,  and  the 
fire  poured  upon  the  assailants  was  tremen- 
dous, but  they  succeeded  in  making  their  way 
into  the  Residency.  Outram  now  assumed  the 
command  of  the  garrison.  The  rebel  forces, 
so  far  from  retiring  from  the  city,  now 
pressed  the  siege  more  closely  with  augmented 
numbers,  and  for  the  succeeding  two  months 
the  defence  rivalled  that  of  tihe  preceding. 
Licessant  mining  and  counter-mining  were 
carried  on.  It  had  been  impossible  either  to 
send  away  the  sick  and  wounded  of  the 
previous  siege,  or  to  retire  from  Lucknow, 
and  the  position  was  maintained.  On  Nov.  9 
Sir  Colin  Campbell  advanced  to  the  relief  of 
Lucknow,  and  on  the  19th  the  position  de- 
fended so  nobly  for  six  months  was  evacuated. 

,  SiBOB  OF  (Jan.  1— March  21,  1868). 

The  operations  for  the  recovery  of  Lucknow 
from  tbe  rebels  began  at  the  beginning  of  the 
year.  On  January  1  Brigadier  Hope  was  sent 
forward  by  Sir  Colin  Campbell  to  prevent  the 
destruction  of  the  iron  suspension  bridge  over 
the  Kallee  Middee.  This  was  done  success- 
fully, and  the  bridge  repaired.  Sir  Colin,  re- 
inforced by  .Greneral  Sir  Hope  Grant  and 
General  Walpole,  reached  Alumbagh,  March  1, 
and  entrenched  himself  strongly  in  the  Dil- 
koosha  Palace,  March  2,  vri&  his  right  on 
the  Goomtee,  his  left  on  Alumbagh.  Heavy 
guns  were  brought  up  and  a  bridge  of  boats 
thrown  across  ^e  Goomtee.  General  Outram 
on  March  6  crossed  the  Goomtee  and  attacked 
the  rebels  in  their  strong  position  in  the 
Kaiser  Bagh  on  the  9th,  and  drove  the  rebels 
before  him  till  he  could  occupy  the  Fyzabad 
road  and  plant  his  batteries  so  as  to  enfikide 
the  works  on  the  canal  and  the  iron  and  stone 
bridges.  On  the  1 1  th  Sir  Edward  Lingard  and 
his  mvision  stormed  the  large  block  of  build- 
ings called  the  Begfum  Kotce,  and  inflicted 
heavy  loss  on  the  enemy.  Brigadier-General 
Franks  on  the  14th  successfully  stormed 
the  Imambarrah,  while  the  Goorkha  army 
passed  the  canal  and  attacked  the  suburbs. 
The  enemy  now  began  to  evacuate  the  city. 
On  the  19th  a  combined  movement  inflicted 
great  loss  on  the  enemy.  On  the  21st  Sir 
Edward  Lingard  successfully  stormed  the  last 
rebel  stronghold  in  the  heart  of  the  city; 


Lnc 


(694) 


Imd 


Brigadier    Campbell    drove    the    retreating 

rebels  six  miles  from  the  city  with  heavy  loss, 

and  Lucknow  was  won. 

Annual  Register,  1857—^;  Kaje,  Sepoy  Wart 
Malleson,  Indian  Mutiny, 

JaTLCyt  Richard  be  (d.  1179),  one  of  Henry 
II/s  great  ministers,  was  a  supporter  of 
Stephen  against  Maud,  but  directly  Henry 
came  to  the  throne  he  was  appointed  Justiciar 
conjointly  with  Robert  de  Beaumont,  and 
after  the  deatii  of  the  latter,  De  Lucy  con- 
tinued to  hold  the  office  alone.  He  helped  to 
draw  up  the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon,  for 
which  he  was  excommunicated  by  Becket. 
In  1173  he  defeated  the  rebel  sons  of  Henry 
II.  at  Famham,  and  was  most  energetic 
in  suppressing  the  revolt.  He  appears  to 
have  been  a  remarkably  able  and  upright 
minister,  and  unswervingly  faithful  to 
Henry. 

Fobs,  JuAgea  of  England  ;  Stubbs,  Cotut.  Uiat, 

Lnddite  Riots,  The  (1811— 1816),  were 
the  expression  of  an  ignorant  notion  among 
the  workpeople,  especially  of  Yorkshire, 
Lancashire,  and  Nottinghamshire,  that  the 
-distress,  which  was  terrible  and  almost  uni- 
versal among  the  poor,  was  caused  by  the 
introduction  of  madiinery.  A  quarter  of  a 
century  before,  one  Ned  Ludd^  a  half-witted 
boy  in  a  Leicestershire  village,  made  him- 
self notorious  by  destroying  stocking-frames. 
The  Yorkshire  rioters  diose  to  take  a 
name  from  this  poor  creature.  The  distress 
was  widespread ;  there  was  little  work  to  be 
done;  prices  were  very  high;  the  Continental 
war  was  still  draining  the  resources  of  the 
country.  The  causes  of  the  trouble  were  not 
far  to  seek ;  yet  the  use  of  machinery,  which 
alone  kept  some  few  people  in  work,  was  set 
down  as  the  cause  of  all  the  mischief  : 
and  the  poor,  ignorant,  half-starved  crowds 
set  to  work  busily  to  destroy  all  the  machinery 
they  could  reach.  During  1811 — 12,  the 
northern  counties  were  in  a  perpetual  state  of 
disturbance ;  the  army  was  busily  employed 
in  the  Peninsula ;  and  except  where  here  and 
there  a  resolute  mill-owner  overawed  the 
rioters,  no  machinery  was  safe  from  the 
marauding  bands.  In  1816  the  riots  broke 
out  again.  The  conclusion  of  peace  was 
expected  to  bring  back  prosperity  imme- 
diately. The  expectation  was  not  fulfilled; 
and  disappointment  developed  quickly  into 
exasperation,  producing  constant  disturbances. 
The  government  of  Lord  Liverpool  was  not  of 
a  kind  to  deal  with  this  state  of  things ;  they 
made  no  attempt  to  go  to  the  root  of  the 
evil — which  was  the  utter  misery  of  the 
poor — but  on  the  contrary,  thought  only  of 
coercion.  If  the  riots  were  quelled  in  one 
place,  they  broke  out  in  another ;  and  the 
repressive  policy  of  the  government  only 
had  the  effect  of  manifesting  to  the  people 
the  necessity  of  union  among  themselves 
by  means  of  secret  societies.    With  the  return 


of  prosperity,  however,  the  riots  gradually 
died  out. 

BtaU  Trtab,  vol.  xxxi;  L^e  of  Lord  Sid- 
mouth ;  Liverpool  Memoin ;  Mrs.  Gaakell,  Lift 
of  Charlotte  Bronte. 

TaXtdloWf  in  Shropshire,  was  the  most 
important  stronghold  of  the  Middle  March  of 
Wales.  The  castle,  built  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, was  besieged  by  Stephen  in  1138.  It 
was  taken  by  De  Montfort  in  1264.  In  1459 
it  was  occupied  by  Henry  YI.,  and  subse- 
quently became  the  residence  of  Prince  Ed- 
ward, son  of  Edward  IV.,  and  of  Arthur,  son 
of  Henry  Vn.,  who  died  here  in  1634.  In 
1646  it  was  captured  by  the  Parliamentarians. 
From  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  to  1685  the 
Lord  President  of  the  Marches  officially  oc- 
cupied Ludlow,  when  the  office  was  abolished, 
and  the  castle  allowed  to  decay.  The  holding 
of  the  Council  of  the  Marches  there  made  it  in 
a  sense  the  capital  of  nearly  all  South  Wales. 

Ludlow,  Edmund  {b.  1620,  d.  1693),  mem- 
ber of  a  good  family  in  Wiltshire,  was,  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  a  student  in  the 
Temple,  entered  Essex's  Guards,  and  served 
under  Waller  and  Fairfax.    At  the  end  of 
1645  he  was  elected  member  for  Wiltshire, 
and  took  his  seat  amongst  the  Kepublicans. 
He  sat  in  the  High  Court  which  judged  the 
king,  and  becsone  a  member  of  the  Council  of 
State  of  the  Commonwealth.    In  1651  he  was 
sent  to  Ireland  as  Lieutenant-General  of  the 
Horse,  and,  after  Ireton's  death,  held  for  six 
months  the  supreme  command  until  superseded 
by  Fleetwood  (Nov.,  1651— July,  1652).    He 
remained  at  his  post  in  spite  of  CromwelVs 
expulsion  of  the  Long  Parliament,  but  opposed 
the  proclamation  of  the    Protectorate,    and 
resigned  his  share  in  the  civil  government  of 
the  country  m  order  not  to  recogfnise  the  new 
authority.     In   Bichard  CromwelFs  Parha- 
ment    he    vigorously    opposed    the  govern- 
ment,   and    urged     on    the    army    leaders 
the  restoration  of  the  Rump.    In  July,  1659, 
he  was   sent   again  to   Ireland  to  succeed 
Henry  Cromwell  as  head  of   the   govem- 
mentj  with  the  title  of   Lieutenant-General 
of  the  Horse.    In  October,  having  returned 
to  England,  he  was  nominated  by  Lambert 
one  of  the  Committee  of  Safety  established  by 
the  army,  but  steered  a  middle  course  between 
army  and  Parliament,  and  wished  for  the 
restoration  of  the  Rump.   After  Monk  restored 
the    secluded  members,    Ludlow   ceased  to 
attend  the  House,  but  still  continued  his  vain 
attempts  to  unite  the  remains  of  the  Republi- 
can party.     He  was  a  member  of  the  Con- 
vention   Parliament,    took    his    seat,    and 
surrendered  under  the  proclamation  ordering 
the   regicides  to  deliver    themselves  up  as 
prisoners,  but  remained  at  large  on  security. 
Thus,  when  he  found  his  life  in  danger,  he 
was  able  to  fly  to  Prance  (Sept.,  1660).    He 
fixed  his  residence  first  at  Geneva,  then  at 
Vevey,  where  he  remained  till  the  Revolution. 


Xml 


(  695  ) 


Xi^ 


Then  he  ventured  to  return  to  England,  but 

the  House  of  Ck>mmon8  presented  an  address 

to  the  king  requesting  his  arrest,  and  he  was 

obliged  again  to  fly.    He  died  at  Vevey  in 

1693. 

Ludlow's  Memoir*  describe  his  experiences 
from  1640  to  1068,  and  are  particularly  valuable 
for  the  history  of  the  Civil  War  iu  WUtshire, 
his  personal  relationB  with  Cromwell,  and  the 
events  of  the  year  1650.  They  were  first  pub- 
lished in  1698—99  (3  vols.  8vo),  and  reprinted  in 
1751  (1  VOL  foUo).  [C.  H.  F.] 

Iivlucll  'w&s  the  son  of  Gilcomgain,  Mor- 
xnaer  of  Moray.  On  the  death  of  Macbeth 
(1057),  he  was  declared  King  of  Scotland 
by  the  supporters  of  Macbeth.  After  a  reign 
of  a  few  months  he  was  slain  at  EssU,  in 
Htrathbogie  (March  17,  1058). 

ItuinlWy  John,  Lokd  {d,  1609),  the 
brother-in-law  of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk  (q.v.), 
was  restored  in  blood  by  an  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment, 1547,  his  father,  George,  Lord  Lumley, 
having  been  implicated  in  the  treason  of 
Sir  lliomas  Percy  and  Lord  Darcy.  In 
1569  he  was  arrested  and  placed  in  confine- 
ment at  Windsor  on  suspicion  of  being  favour- 
able  to  the  Catholic  loros  in  the  north.  After 
the  collapse  of  the  rebellion  Lumley  resumed 
his  treasonable  correspondence  with  Spain, 
and  speedily  became  involved  in  the  Ridolfi 
conspiracy,  on  the  discovery  of  which  he  was 
sent  to  the  Marshalsea.  He  was  subsequently 
pardoned,  and  acted  as  a  commissioner  at  the 
trials  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  and  the  Earl 
of  Essex. 

Iiimdy's  ^ane,  Thb  Battle  op  (July, 
1814^,  during  the  American  War  of  1812  was 
iougnt  near  Fort  George,  on  Lake  Ontario, 
lietween  the  British  troops,  xmder  Sir  G. 
Brummond  and  General  Rudl,  and  a  superior 
American  force  under  General  BA>wn.  The 
British  gained  a  complete  victory,  killing 
4,000  of  the  enemy. 

Iiiizombiirg  Qaestioii.    In  1830,  at 

the  Conference  of  London,  the  Belgian  ques- 
tion was  complicated  by  the  Luxemburg 
question.  Luxemburg  was  really  part  of 
the  Germanic  empire,  and  though  it  had 
been  ceded  to  the  King  of  Holland  (1814)  it 
formed  no  part  of  Holland.  Palmerston 
wished  it  to  be  united  with  Belgium ;  Talley- 
rand wijihed  it  to  be  handed  over  to  France. 
The  Conference  decided  that  it  should  remain 
part  of  the  Germanic  empire;  but  that  its 
western  part  should  be  ceded  to  Belgium 
[Tkbatt  op  London,  1831].  The  Conference 
eventually  separated  without  having  effected 
anything,  but  the  provisions  of  the  Treaty  of 
London  (November,  1831)  were  enforced  by 
England  and  France  (1832). 

Awn.  fi«0.;  Wslpole,  Hi$L  o/Eng.  from  281S. 

XiyndlLimrt,  ZK>rd  {b.  1772,  d,  1863). 

John  Singleton  Copley  was  the  son  of  the  emi- 
nent painter,  John  Singleton  Copley;  was  bom 
at  Boston  in  America,  then  an  Finglish  town ; 


was  educated  in  England,  at  first  by  a  private 
tutor,  and  afterwards  at  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge. He  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln  *8 
Inn,  1804 ;  was  made  serjeant-at-law,  1813, 
and  first  became  prominently  known  from  the 
ability  he  displayed  as  one  of  the  coxmsel  w^ho 
defended  Watson  and  Thistlewood  on  the 
charge  of  high  treason,  1817.  He  entered 
Parliament  as  member  for  Yarmouth,  Isle  of 
Wight,  1818,  having  in  the  same  year  become 
king's  Serjeant  and  Chief  Justice  of  Chester. 
He  afterwards  sat  for  Ashburton  and  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cambridge.  He  was  soon  looked 
on  as  the  most  rising  lawyer  of  the  Tory 
party,  and  a  convenient  opportunity  presenting 
itself  by  the  removal  of  Sir  Samuel  Shepherd 
to  the  Scotch  Bench,  Copley  was  appointed 
Solicitor-General  (1819)  and  knighted.  While 
holding  this  office  he  was  engaged,  in  1820, 
for  the  crown  in  two  memorable  cases ;  the 
trial  at  the  Old  Bailey  of  the  Cato  Street 
conspirators  and  their  ringleader,  his  former 
client  Thistlewood,  and  the  proceedings 
against  Queen  Caroline  in  the  House  of  Lords. 
In  both  afbirs  Sir  John  Copley  displayed 
remarkable  eloquence,  judgment,  and  forbear- 
ance. He  became  Attorney-General  in  1824, 
and  Mastei-  of  the  RoUs  in  1826.  He  at  first 
energetically  opposed  the  Catholic  claims,  but 
afterwards  sided  with  those  who  felt  the  abso- 
lute necessity  of  Catholic  Emancipation  being 
carried.  He  took  office  in  the  cabinet  formed 
by  Mr.  Canning  in  1827.  He  was  appointed 
Lord  Chancellor  for  the  first  time  (Apnl  20, 
1827),  and  created  Lord  Lyndhurst  on  the  25th 
of  the  same  month.  When  his  party  went  out  of 
office  in  1830  he  retired  with  them,  but  was 
appointed  Lord  Chief  Baron  of  the  Exchequer 
early  in  1831.  In  the  House  of  Lords  he  op- 
posed the  Reform  Bill  with  all  his  energies 
and  eloquence,  and  was  the  virtual  leader  of 
the  Tory  opposition.  He  declared  the  mea- 
sure to  be  detrimental  to  the  rights  of  the 
people,  and  inconsistent  with  the  prerogatives 
of  the  crown.  He  again  took  office  as  Lord 
Chancellor,  under  Sir  Kobert  Peel,  in  1834,  and 
retired  in  1835.  In  1841  Sir  Robert  Peel  again 
returned  to  power,  and  Lord  Lyndhurst 
to  the  Chancellorship  for  the  third  time.  He 
finally  resigned  in  1846.  He,  nevertheless, 
continued  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  debates 
of  the  House  of  Lords. 

Sir  Theodore  Martin,  Life  of  Lord  Lyndhuret ; 
Campbell,  Livee  of  the  Chancdlore. 

Lynedoch,  Thomas  Graham,  Lord  {b. 
1750,  d,  1843),  a  gentleman  of  fortune  in 
Perthshire,  served  as  a  volunteer,  under  Lord 
Mulgrave,  at  the  siege  of  Toulon,  in  1794, 
and  showed  such  military  genius  and  courage 
that  he  was  publicly  thanked  by  the  com- 
mander. Returning  to  England  he  raised  the 
90th  Regiment  in  Perthshire,  and  was  ap- 
pointed colonel  of  it.  For  the  next  few  years 
he  served  with  the  Austrian  army,  and  then 
returned  to  his  regiment  at  Gibraltar.    In; 


Iiyo 


(  696  ) 


liyt 


1808  he  accompanied  Sir  John  Moore  to 
Sweden  as  his  aide-de-camp,  and  afterwards 
followed  him  to  Spain.  On  the  return  to 
England  after  that  battle,  he  was  appointed 
to  command  a  division  at  the  siege  of 
Flushing;  hut  ho  was  soon  afterwards 
ordered  to  the  Peninsula,  where  he  was 
nominated  second  in  command.  During 
the  winter  of  1810  he  held  Cadiz ;  but  in  the 
spring  of  the  following  year,  by  a  series  of 
masterly  tactics,  he  brought  on  a  battle  with 
Victor,  whom  he  defeat^  in  a  hard-fought 
battle  at  Barosa.  He  then  joined  Wellington, 
and  was  present  with  him  at  the  siege  of 
Oiudad  Kodrigo,  after  which  he  went  to 
England  to  recruit  his  health.  He  returned 
to  Spain  in  time  to  take  part  in  the  campaign 
of  1813.  He  commanded  the  left  wing  of 
the  army  at  Vittoria,  and  to  him  was  con- 
fided the  whole  charge  of  the  siege  of  San 
Sebastian,  which,  after  two  partial  failures, 
his  firm  resolution  and  skilful  management  at 
length  reduced.  After  crossing  the  Bidassoa 
he  was  compelled  again  to  seek  rest ;  but  in 
the  following  year  was  appointed  to  command 
the  disastrous  expedition  to  the  Low  Coun- 
tries (1814).  The  expedition  was  a  failure, 
not,  however,  in  any  way  through  the  fault 
of  the  commander-in-chief.  In  May,  1814, 
he  was  raised  to  the  peerage. 

Lynodoch,  Memoirt ;  Napier,  Pfninf ular  Ifiar. 

Lyons,  Edmund,  Lokd  (d.  1791,  <;.  1858), 
was  the  son  of  Mr.  John  Lyons,  of  St.  Austin's, 
Hants.  He  went  to  sea  in  1801.  In  1828 
he  became  captain  of  the  Blonde^  in  which  he 
co-operated  with  the  French  in  expelling  the 
Turks  from  the  Morea.  In  1835  he  was 
appointed  minister  at  the  new  court  at 
Athens.  From  1849  to  1851  he  presided 
over  the  mission  at  Berne;  from  1851  to 
1853  he  resided  as  minister  at  Stock- 
holm. In  1853,  however,  he  was  appointed 
second  in  command  of  the  Mediterranean 
fleet.  In  the  Agamemnon  he  arranged,  super- 
intended, and  made  possible  the  embfirkation 
of  the  aUied  forces  at  Varna  and  the  Isle  of 
Serpents,  and  their  landing  near  Kupatoria. 
He  served  all  through  the  Crimean  War, 
materially  assisting  the  generals  by  his 
ready  co-operation,  and  inflicting  severe 
damage  on  the  Bussian  fleet.  In  June, 
1855,  he  became  commander-in-chief.  In 
1856  he  was  created  Baron  Lyons. 

Lyttelton,  Edward,  Lord  (b.  1589,  d. 
1645T,  was  a  member  of  a  distinguished  legal 
family  and  the  son  of  the  Chief  Justice  of 
North  Wales.  He  entered  Parliament  in  16*26, 
and  at  once  joined  the  popular  side,  taking 
a  leading  part  against  Buckingham.  In  the 
Parliament  of  1628  he  was  one  of  the  chief 
advocates  of  redress  of  grievances,  but  by 
1631  he  had  made  hie  peace  with  the  king, 
and  in  1634  he  was  appointed  Solicitor- 
General,  in  which  capacity  he  conducted  with 
great  ability  the  case  agsonst  Hampden.    In 


1641  he  was  made  Lord  Keeper  and  received 
a  peerage.  During  the  debates  with  the 
Long  Parliament,  Lyttelton  had  a  difficult 
part  to  play,  and  at  length  finding  that 
moderate  counsels  were  unavailing,  he  fled  to 
the  king  at  York,  taking  the  Great  Seal  with 
him.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  war  he  raised  a 
regiment  consisting  of  gentlemen  of  the  inns 
of  court  and  others,  and  acted  himself  as 
colonel.  But  being  unused  to  military  ser- 
vice, his  exertions  were  too  much  for  his 
strength,  and  he  died  before  y&cy  long.  *^  He 
was  a  man  of  great  reputation  in  the  profes- 
sion of  the  law,"  says  Clarendon,  "for 
learning  and  all  other  advantages  which 
attend  Uie  most  eminent  men  ....  and  was 
not  only  very  ready  and  expert  in  books,  but 
exceedingly  versed  in  records." 

Lyttelton,  George,  Lord  (h.  1709,  d, 
1773;,  entered  the  House  of  Commons  in  1730, 
when  he  joined  the  opposition  against  Walpole. 
He  was  made  secretary  to  Frederick,  Pnnoe 
of  Wales,  in  1 737,  and,  on  the  resignation  of 
Walpole,  a  Lord  of  the  Treasury  (1744).  In 
1755  he  was  made  Chancellor  of  the  Ex- 
chequer, and  in  1757  raised  to  the  peerage. 
Besides  writing  numerous  miscellaneous  and 
poetical  works,  he  was  the  author  of  a  His- 
tory  of  Henry  II,  (1764),  which,  though  now 
somewhat  out  of  date,  is  valuable  from  the 
materials  which  the  author  has  accumulated 
and  the  industry  with  which  he  worked  at 
the  original  and  later  authorities. 

Lyttelton  (or,  Littlbton),  Thoicas  {d. 

1481),  was  a  distinguished  lawyer,  appointed 

.one  of  the  judges  of  the  Common  Fleas  from 

1466  to  1481.     He  is  &imous  chiefly  for  his 

Treatise  on  Tmiuree, 

The  Treaiim  on  Ttnwret  was  printed  (in 
Normal)'-  French)  at  Bouen  about  1481,  and 
translated  into  Snsrlish  in  1539.  It  has  been 
edited  by  Mr.  H.  Boeooe,  in  182S.  Coke's 
ComnMntary,  called  Colte  wpon  Lttt«tton,  oir  ik# 
Fini  IneliiMie,  appeared  in  1626. 

btton,  Edward  Gborob  Eablb  Bulwea, 
IsT  Lord  (b,  1805,  d.  1873),  first  entered  Par- 
liament as  member  for  St.  Ives  in  1831.  He 
attached  himself  to  the  Whigs,  and  in  1835 
became  editor  of  a  Liberal  journal,  The  Crint. 
In  1832  he  was  returned  for  Lincoln,  and  re- 
presented that  borough  till  1841.  In  1843 
he  changed  his  name  to  Bulwer-Lytton.  In 
1852  he  re-entered  the  House  of  Commons  as 
a  Conservative,  and  on  the  accession  of  Lord 
Derby  to  power  (1858)  he  became  Secretary 
of  State  for  the  Colonies.  During  his  short 
period  of  office,  lasting  only  a  year,  he  called 
into  existence  two  new  colonies,  those  of 
British  Columbia  and  Queensland.  In  1866 
he  was  raised  to  the  peerage.  Lord  Lytton 
was  one  of  the  most  versatile  and  accom- 
plished writers  of  his  time,  and  was  the 
author  of  a  large  number  of  fictions,  poems, 
dramas,  and  miscellaneous  works. 

Lord  Lytton's  Memoin  have  been  oompilad 
by  his  son,  the  Earl  of  Lytton.  The  flist  two 
vols,  appeared  in  1888. 


(697) 


lEaoartney,  Gboroe,  Ist  Earl  of  {b. 
1737,  d.  1806),  after  a  dlBtinguished  diplomatic 
and  political  career,  was  in  1755  sent  out  as 
Governor  of  Grenada.  In  1779  he  was  taken 
prisoner  by  Count  d*£staing,  and  sent  to 
France.  Aom  1780  to  1786  he  was  Governor 
of  ^ladras,  and  in  1792  was  sent  to  Pekin  as 
ambassador.  In  1796  he  was  made  Governor 
'of  the  Cape  Colony,  where  his  first  act 
was  to  attempt  to  check  the  aggression  of  the 
colonists  by  the  proclamation  of  exact  boun- 
daries; during  his  tenure  of  this  office 
(1796 — 98)  he  managed  to  restrain  in  a  great 
degree  the  turbulence  of  the  Boers. 

Xaoaulay,  Thomas  Babinoton-,  Lokd 
lb,  1800,  d.  1859),  was  the  son  of  Zachary 
Macaiilay,  an  African  merchant,  and  a  leading 
mover  in  the  agitation  against   the  Slave 
Trade.     He  was  educated  at  Trinitv  College, 
Cambridge,  where,  in  1822,  he  obtained  a 
fellowship.    He  was  called  to    the  bar    in 
1826,  ana  in   1830  entered  Parliament  for 
Calne.     He  joined  the  Whig^  and  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  debates  on  the  Reform 
Bill,  making  some  brilliant  speeches.    Lord 
Grey  appoii^ted  him  Secretary  to  the  Board 
of  Control.    In  1834  he  went  to  India  as 
legal  member  of  Council,  and  assisted  to  draw 
up  the  Indian  penal  code.    In  1838  he  re- 
turned.    In  1839  he  was  appointed  Secretary 
for  War,  which  office  he  held  till  1841,  and  was 
Payma^er  of  the  Forces  from  1846  to  1848. 
In  1857  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  but  his 
health    would  not  allow  him  to  take  any 
further  part  in  public  afPairs.    He  died  Dec. 
28,    1859,   and  was  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey.     In  1843,  Macaulay's  EttayB^  contri- 
buted to  the  Edinburgh  £evi»w,  were  pub- 
lished in  a  collected  form.     These   essays, 
which  are  for  the  most  part  on  subjects  con- 
nected with  English  hterature  and  history, 
such  as   liord  Chatham,  Warren  Hastings, 
Bacon,  and  Addison,  are  remarkable  for  their 
brilliancy  and  vigour  of  style,  and  the  skill 
with  which  the  results  of  wide  reading  are 
presented  in  an  easy  and  interesting  form. 
They  have  been  extraordinarily  popukr.    In 
1848    appeared    the    first    two    volumes    of 
3rlacaulay*s  History  of  England;  the  third 
and  fourth  being  published  in  1855 ;  and  a 
fifth  compiled  from  the  historian's  papers  ap- 
peared in  1861.    Macaulay*s  History  was  left 
unfinished.     The  author  designed  to  bring  it 
down  to  a  period  within  the  memory  of  his 
own  generation.    As  it  stands  it  is  only  com- 
plete to  the  Peace  of  Ryswick  in  1697,  though 
the  final  volume,  which  was  in  part  compiled 
from   the  author*  s  papers,  takes  us  to  the 
death    of    William  IIL     After   a    general 
sketch   of  the  earlier  history,  the  historian 
narrates  in  detail  the  reigns  of  Charles  II., 
Barnes  II.,  and   William    III.    Macaulay's 


History  of  Etigland  has  been  more  popular 
and  more  widely  read  than  probably  any 
other  historical  work  ever  written.  It  is  ac- 
knowledged by  scholars  to  have  grave  defects. 
Tho  author*s  love  of  paradox  has  frequently 
led  him  to  mis-statements  and  exaggeration  ; 
he  is  a  pronounced  partisan,  and  over-praises 
some  of  his  characters  as  g^atly  as  he 
depreciates  others ;  and  he  is  constantly  un- 
able to  resist  the  temptation  to  sacrifice  im- 
partiality for  the  purpose  of  making  a  point, 
or  heightening  an  effect.  His  acquaint- 
ance with  the  literature  of  the  period  was 
extensive;  but  he  does  not  always  use  his 
materials  with  critical  judgment,  and  the 
statements  of  worthless  authorities  sometimes 
receive  an  undue  prominence.  His  want  of 
wide  sjTnpathy,  too,  and  of  real  insight  into 
human  nature,  has  prevented  his  appreciating 
great  men  with  whom  his  views  were  not  in 
accord ;  so  that  his  pictures  of  some  of  them  are 
inadequate  and  even  distorted.  But  with  these 
defects  the  merits  of  tho  history  are  conspi- 
cuous. It  remains  the  chief  modem  authority 
in  English  for  the  period  of  which  it  treats. 
Its  pictures  of  men  and  manners  have  hardly 
been  excelled  in  graphic  power,  and  bring 
home  the  subject  to  the  reader  in  a  manner 
attained  by  few  historians.  The  rigorous 
movement  of  the  narrative,  the  brilliancy  of 
the  stvle,  the  wit  and  point  with  which  the  took 
sparkles  all  through,  and  the  frequent  passages 
of  extraordinarily  rivid  descriptive  writing, 
suffice  to  give  it  a  permanent  place  in  EngliSi 
literature. 

Macaulay's  Life  and  Letters  have  been  pab- 
liflhed  by  bis  nephew.  Mr.  O.  O.  Treveljan. 
The  work  gives  a  pjeasing  account  of  his 
amiable  private  character. 

Macbeth,  son  of  Finlay  or  Finel,  Thane 
of  Glamis,  was  Mormaer  of  Ross  and  Moray, 
and  the    general  of   King   Duncan  against 
the  Norwegians  Thorfinn  and  Thorkcll.    In 
1040   he    went    over    to    the   enemy,    slew 
Duncan  by  treacher}'  in  a  smith's  hut  near 
Elgin,  and  divided  the  kingdom  with  Thor- 
finn, taking    to  himself   the  districts  south 
and  west  of  the  Tay,  with  the  central  district 
in  which    Scone  is    situated.     Although  it 
is  somewhat  difficult  to  separate  the  ^lacbeth 
of  history  from  the  Macbeth  of  Shakespeare 
and  tradition,  he  appears  to  have  ruled  Scotland 
well,  and  to  have  benefited  the  Churth  in  no 
small  degree.  Although  he  had  married  G  uroch, 
the  granddaughter  of  Kenneth  IV.,  Macbeth 
was  always  regarded  as  a   usurper,  and  in 
1045   we    find  Crinan.   Abbot  of    Dunkeld, 
making  an  imsuccessf  ul  effort  to  reinstate  his 
grandcnildren  on  the  throne.  In  1050  Macbeth 
made  a  journey  to  Rome,  being  the  first  King 
of  Scotland  who  entered  into  communication 
with  the  Papal  see,  and  on  his  return  was 
attacked  by  Si  ward,  Earl  of  North  umbria,  and 
defeated  (July  27,  1054).    Siward  succeeded 
in  establishing  Malcolm,  eon  of  Duncan,  as 
King  of  Cumbria.  In  1057,  on  the  death  of  his 


Mm 


(  698  ) 


Mad 


powerful  ally  Thorfinn,  Macbeth  was  again 
attacked  by  Malcolm,  and  slain  at  Lumpha- 
nan.  From  this  time  hereditary,  instead  of 
collateral,  succession  became  the  rule  in  Scot- 
land. The  reign  of  Macbeth  is  shrouded  in 
the  mysteries  of  legend  and  romance.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  the  well-known  stories  of 
Banquo,  the  march  of  Bimam  Wood,  and  the 
like,  are  mere  inventions  of  the  chroniclers. 

Skene,    Celtic   Scotland;   Holinshed  for  the 
legendary  histoiy. 

McCartlxy,  Jitstix  {h,  1830),  is  a  native 
of  Cork.  He  entered  Parliament  as  a  Nation- 
alist member  for  Longford  in  1879,  was 
chosen  vice-chairman  of  the  Ir^ih  Parlia- 
mentary party  in  1880,  and  ten  years  later 
was  elected  chairman  of  that  section  of  the 
party  which  repudiated  Mr.  Pamell.  Mr. 
McCarthy  is  also  a  journalist,  novelist,  and 
historian. 

Macdonald,  Flora,  {d.  1790),  was  a  lady 
of  South  Uist,  who  is  famous  for  the  help 
she  gave  the  Young  Pretender,  Charles  Ed- 
ward Stuart,  in  escaping  after  the  battle  of 
Culloden.  She  caused  the  prince  to  be 
dressed  in  woman's  clothes,  and  to  pass  as 
her  maidservant,  and  by  her  courage  and  re- 
source succeeded  in  bringing  him  safely  to 
the  Isle  of  Skye,  where  he  escaped  to  France. 
Flora  ^lacdonald  was  arrested  and  imprisoned 
in  the  Tower  till  July,  1747.  She  married  a 
relation,  also  named  Macdonald,  and  went 
with  him  to  America,  but  on  the  death  of  her 
husband  returned  to  Scotland. 

Macdonald  of  the  Isles.  Albxak- 

DBK,  was  one  of  the  Highland  chieftains  sum- 
moned by  James  I.  to  appear  at  Inverness  in 
1427.  He  was  there  thrown  into  prison,  but, 
having  made  his  submission,  was  released. 
His  first  act  was  to  bum  Inverness,  and  to 
invade  Lochabcr,  where,  however,  he  was 
compelled  to  surrender,  and  was  imprisoned 
at  Tantallon  Castle. 

Mackay,  General  Hugh  {d.  1692),  of 
Sconry,  in  Sutherlandshirc,  having  served 
abroad  for  thirty  years,  was  sent  by  William 
III.  to  Scotland  in  1689,  where  he  endeavoured 
to  bring  Claverhouse  to  bay,  fixing  his  head- 
quarters at  Inverness.  For  some  time  he 
was  unsuccessful,  but  at  length  forced  an  en- 
gagement at  Kiiliecrankie  (June  17,  1689), 
where,  although  he  suffered  defeat,  he  had  a 
more  than  counterbalancing  gain  in  the  death 
of  his  groat  opponent.  The  following  year 
Mackay,  built  Fort  William.  He  then  went 
to  Ireland,  where  he  served  under  Ginkell, 
and  was  present  at  Aghrim.  He  was  killed 
at  the  battle  of  Steinkirk,  in  1692.*  . 

MaoldntosllySiR  James  {b.  1765,<;.  1832), 
was  bom  at  Aldourie,  Inverness-shire,  educated 
at  King^s  College,  Aberdeen.  From  thence 
he  went  to  Edinburgh  to  study  medicine,  and 
became  a  member  of  the  Royal  Medical 
Society'  and  also  of  the  Speculative  Society. 


In   1789  he   published  a  pamphlet  on  the 
Regency  Question,  in  which  he  supported  the 
views  of  the  Whigs.     In   1791  he  became 
known  to  the  world  as  the  antagonist  of  Mr. 
Burke  in  his   Vindicia  Galliea.     The  talent 
he    displayed    made    him    many    illustrioua 
friends  in  the  Opposition,  but  he  was  soon 
converted  by  Burke  himself.    In  1795  he  waa 
called  to  the  bar.    In  1803  he  defended  the 
French  journalist  Peltier.    He  held  lor  some 
time  the  appointment  of  Professor  of  General 
Polity  and  of  Law  in  the  East  India  College  * 
at  Haileybury ;  from  that  situation  he  was  re- 
moved to  the  ofiice  of  Recorder  of  Bombay, 
on  which  occasion  he  received  the  honour  of 
knighthood  (Dec.  21,  1803).    He  returned  in 
1811,  and    was  elected  member  for   Xaim 
(1813).    In  1818  he  was  elected  for  Knares- 
borough  imder  the  influence  of  the  Duke  of 
Devonshire.     He  devoted  himself  during  his 
Parliamentary  career  to  the  improvement  of 
the  Penal  Code.    Among  other  works  Mack- 
intosh wTOte  a  Hittory  of  EngUmd,  extending 
down  to  1572,  and  a  History  of  the  Revolution 
of  1688. 

Macnaghten,  Sir  William  {d.  1840). 
Mr.  Macnaghten  was  for  several  years  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Madras  army  before  he  entered  the 
Bengal  Civil  Service.  He  gained  great  dis- 
tinction at  the  College  of  Fort  William,  and 
in  the  judicial  branch  of  the  service.  He 
entered  the  political  department  during  the 
administration  of  Loi'd  W.   Bentinck.      In 

1837  ho  was  Lord  Auckland's  secretary.    In 

1838  he  was  sent  to  Lahore  to  negotiate  the 
triple  alliance  with  Runjeet  Singh.  He  ac- 
companied the  Afghan  expedition  as  political 
envoy.  In  1840  he  was  made  a  baronet.  On 
Dec.  23  he  was  assassinated  at  Cabul  by 
Akbar  Khan. 

MaoqnariOy  Colonbl  Lachlax,  was,  in 
1810,  sent  out  as  Governor  of  New  South 
Wales,  an  office  which  he  filled  for  twelve 
years.  He  was  a  man  of  great  energy,  and  by 
nis  amelioration  of  the  condition  of  the  dis- 
charged convicts  did  much  to  develop  the 
colony,  whilst  his  employment  of  convict 
labour  in  the  construction  of  roads  had  the 
effect  of  opening  out  the  country  to  an  extent 
hitherto  unknown.  On  his  return  to  England, 
in  1822,  he  left  New  South  Wales  "four  times 
as  populous  and  twenty  times  as  large  as 
when  he  went  out." 

Mad  Parliament  [Henry  III.]. 


was  granted  to  the  English  as  a 
site  for  a  trading  factorj',  with  a  small  adja- 
cent factory,  by  the  Rajah  of  Bijnagur,  in 
1639.  A  fort,  called  Fort  St.  George,  was 
erected  here.  In  1664  it  was  croated  a  Plt*^ 
sidency.  It  speedily  grew  in  importance,  and 
became  almost  the  largest  trading  station  of 
the  English  in  India.  1a  1702  the  fort  was 
strong  enough  to  hold  out  successfully  against 


Mad 


(  G99  ) 


Mag 


the  besiegmg  army  of  the  Em|)eror  Aurung- 
zebe.  In  1746,  however,  it  was  captured  by 
the  French  general,  LabourdonnaiB  (Sept.  1), 
and  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  French  till 
restored  to  the  English  by  the  Peace  of  Aix- 
la-Chapelle  (1748).  In  the  Seven  Years'  War 
it  was  besieged  (Dec.,  1758)  by  Lally,  till 
relieved  by  Admiral  Pococke  (Feb.,  1769). 
In  1 769  it  was  threatened,  though  not  actually 
attacked,  by  Hyder  Ali.  In  1809  a  mutiny 
of  the  officers  took  place.  In  1817  the  town 
was  besieged  by  the  Pindarries.  In  1833  a 
bishopric  was  established  there. 


Mutiny,  The  (1809),  was  a 
serious  disturbance  among  the  European  offi- 
cers of  the  East  India  Company's  army.  The 
retrenching  theories  of  the  Directors  induced 
them  to  reduce  some  of  the  perquisites  of  the 
officers.  The  whole  army  broke  out  into 
mutiny.  A  hundred  and  fifty-eight  officers 
signed  an  address  to  government  demanding 
the  repeal  of  the  obnoxious  order  and  the 
restoration  of  the  officers.  Supported  by  the 
new  commander-in-chief  and  the  king's  regi- 
ments, Sir  George  Barlow  appealed  to  the 
sepoys  against  their  officers.  This  was  done 
so  successfully  that  only  in  Seringapatam  was 
there  any  disturbance,  where  the  native  regi- 
ments commanded  by  disaffected  officers  re- 
fused to  submit,  and  were  fired  upon  by  the 
king's  troops,  with  the  result  that  130  were 
killed  and  wounded.  The  officers,  alarmed  at 
the  energetic  measures  of  Sir  George  and  the 
intention  of  Lord  Minto  to  repair  at  once  to 
Madras,  paused  at  open  rebellion.  By  August 
16th  all  had  returned  to  their  duty.  On 
reaching  Madras,  Lord  Minto  issued  a  gene- 
ral order  of  such  considerate  and  anxious 
reprobation  that  all  were  conciliated,  and  the 
exception  of  twenty-one  ringleaders  from  the 
general  amnesty  was  received  with  equa- 
nimity. Of  these  twenty-one,  four  were 
cashiered,  one  acquitted,  and  the  rest  dis- 
missed ;  but  all  were  subsequently  restored 
to  the  service. 

Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  Case  of 
(1687 — 88),  was  one  of  the  causes  which  led 
to  the  downfall  of  James  II.  In  1687  the 
presidency  of  Magdalen  College  fell  vacant, 
when  James  II.  issued  a  letter  ordering  the 
election  of  one  Anthony  Farmer,  a  Roman 
Catholic,  as  president.  Farmer  was  not  only 
disqualified  technically  from  holding  the 
appointment,  but  was  a  man  of  notoriously 
immoral  life  and  bad  reputation.  In  spite  of 
the  royal  injunction,  the  fellows  elected  one 
of  their  number.  Dr.  Hough,  to  the  presi- 
dency, whereupon  they  were  cited  before  the 
Commission.  The  proofs  of  Farmer*s  dis- 
graceful conduct  were  indisputable,  and  the 
Commissaon  cancelled  his  nomination,  but 
insisted  on  the  election  of  Parker,  Bishop  of 
Oxford,  another  Catholic,  to  the  presidency. 
Afi^ain  the  fellows  refused,  and  for  this  all  the 
fellows  except  two,  who  }ielded  to  the  king^s 


wishes,  were  suspended,  and  eventually  de- 
prived of  their  feliowfihips,  and  in  a  few 
months  the  whole  revenues  of  the  college 
were  enjoyed  by  Catholics.  Parker  died  not 
long  after,  and  was  succeeded  by  Gifford,  a 
Romanist  bishoj);  but  in  1688  James,  being 
anxious  to  conciliate  his  subjects,  restored 
the  ejected  fellows,  and  accepted  Hough  as 
president. 

Magedano,  The  Battle  of  (750),  w^as  a 
victory'  for  the  Britons  of  Strathclyde  over 
Taloyan,  ^brother  of  Angus  MacFergus,  and 
the  Picts.  Magedauc  is  Mugdoch,  in  Dum- 
bartonshire. 

Magna  Carta.  The  Charter  that  is 
called  Great,  to  mark  its  prominent  value 
among  the  charters  granted  by  the  Norman 
and  Angevin  kings,  is  properly  a  treaty  made 
between  John  and  his  subjects,  and  was 
"  given  under  our  hand,'*  that  is,  scaled  with 
the  royal  seal,  on  June  15,  1215.  But  it  had 
still  to  undergo  several  changes.  As  originally 
g^nted,  it  contained  sixty-three  clauses, 
which,  among  other  provisions,  set  limits 
to  the  usuries  of  the  Jews,  pledged  the  king 
to  raise  no  scutage  or  aid  "  save  through  the 
common  council  of  the  realm,  or  on  the  three 
ordinary  feudal  occasions,"  prescribed  the 
forms  of  summoning  this  council,  forbade 
any  increase  of  the  customary  forms,  em- 
powered every  one  to  go  away  from  and  come 
back  to  the  realm  unhindered,  mitigated  the 
oppressiveness  of  the  Forest  Laws,  and 
banished  the  royal  mercenaries.  Wlien  first 
confirmed,  in  1216,  by  the  Earl  of  Pembroke, 
for  the  boy-king,  Henry  III.,  it  had  lost  all 
these  and  other  concessions;  and  thus  its 
clauses  were  abridged  to  forty-two.  At  its 
second  confirmation,  made  in  1217,  these 
fortj'-two  had  grown  to  forty-seven,  one  of 
which  settled  the  times  of  holding  the  county 
court  and  view  of  frank-pledge,  while  another 
restricted  grants  in  mortmain.  The  fifth 
confirmation,  made  in  1225,  reduced  the 
clauses  once  more,  to  thirty-seven  this  time, 
and  these  proved  the  final  and  accepted  legal 
version.  Even  in  this  form  it  is  a  most  com- 
prehensive document;  hardly  an  interest  is 
overlooked.  To  the  Church  it  guaranteed  the 
freedom  that  mainly  meant  full  liberty  to 
choose  its  prelates ;  to  tenants-in-chief  relief 
from  the  oppressive  enforcement  of  feudal 
obligations :  from  disparagement  of  heirs  and 
spoliation  of  widows;  to  mesne  tenants 
similar  securities  against  mesne  lords;  to 
London  and  other  cities  and  towns  all  their 
ancient  franchises ;  to  mcrchanta  full  licence 
to  go  about  buying  and  selling  from,  to, 
or  through  England  unfleoced;  to  villeins 
that  their  wainago  should  not  be  distrained 
to  pay  fines :  to  the  collective  community  that 
Conmion  Pleas  should  be  held  in  a  fixed 
place ;  that  fines  should  be  assessed  on  oath,  by 
upright  men  of  the  venue,  and  be  proportioned 
to  the  offence;    that  weights  and  measures 


(  700  ) 


shoiild  be  uniform,  and  that  the  sheriffs  should 
be  curbed  in  the  exercise  of  their  manifold 
authority.  But  the  highest  pitch  of  the 
Charter  is  reached  in  the  clauses  that  assure 
every  freeman  that  his  person  and  property 
are  absolutely  secure  from  every  kind  of 
damaging  process,  "  save  through  the  lawful 
judgpment  of  hispeera  or  the  law  of  the  land,*' 
and  pledge  the  king  not  to  sell,  refuse,  or 
postpone  the  doing  of  justice  to  any  one.  The 
later  confirmations  are  almost  beyond  reckon- 
ing; fifteen  are  found  in  Edward  III.'s 
reign  alone.  Never  has  law  been  held  in 
higher  esteem  ;  the  very  day  that  Charles  II. 
entered  London  as  a  restored  king,  the 
Commons  asked  him  to  confirm  Magna  Carta, 

Matthew  Paris,  p.  252.  fto. ;  Balph  of  Cogges- 
hall;  Blackstone,  Prtfact  to  M<mna  Carta t 
Stabbs,  Const.  Hut,,  ch.  xii.,  and  SAect  Charten, 

[J.  R.] 

Maharajpore.  The  Battle  of  (Dec.  29, 
1843),  took  place  auring  the  Gwalior  War. 
The  impossibility  of  restoring  order  to  the 
Gwalior  State  belonging  to  Scindia,  except 
by  an  appeal  to  arms,  determined  Lord  Ellen- 
borough  to  despatch  an  army  to  effect  thiB.  On 
Dec.  20  the  army  advanced  on  Gwalior.  Scin- 
dia's  troops  hud  taken  up  a  strong  position,  and 
during  the  night  seven  battalions  of  infantry 
entrenched  themselves  with  twenty  guns  of 
heavy  calibre  in  the  village  of  Maharajpore. 
Sir  Hugh  Gough,  despising  his  enemy,  made 
no  reconnaissance,  and  therefore  knew  nothing 
of  this  change  of  position.  The  discharge  of 
the  masked  batteries  gave  the  first  notice  of 
the  proximity  of  Scindia's  army.  The  heavy 
guns  had  been  left  behind,  and  so  Sir  Hugh 
Gough  at  once  launched  his  troops  on  the 
Mahratta  batteries,  which  were  served  with 
frantic  dc8i)eration  till  all  the  gunners  were 
shot  down  at  thcii*  posts.  After  the  guns 
were  captured,  the  infantry  maintained  their 
ground  with  great  determination,  and  the  vic- 
tor}*-  was  not  gained  till  1,000  of  the  British 
army  fell,  killed  and  wounded. 

Kahidporey  Tub  Battle  of  (Dec.  21, 
1817),  was  fought  during  the  war  against 
Holkar.  Sir  Thomas  Hislop  moved  up  to 
Mahidpore  to  bring  on  the  issue  of  a  battle. 
Holkar*s  army  was  protected  by  a  river  in 
front,  its  left  flank  resting  on  a  deep  morass 
and  its  front  lined  with  a  formidable  bat- 
ter}* of  seventy  g^ims.  Sir  Thomas  launched 
his'  men  across  the  difficult  river  by  a 
single  ferry,  in  the  face  of  a  terrific  fire,  to 
seize  the  guns  which  had  silenced  his  OTv-n 
light  infantry.  Holkar's  artillerymen  fought 
with  great  gallantry,  but  were  struck  down 
at  their  guns.  A  general  rout  took  place  and 
the  victory  was  complete  though  won  at  the 
expense  of  778  killed  and  wounded. 

Kahomet  ^^^  {d.  1795)  was  the  son  of 
Anwar-ud-deen,  Nabob  oif  tne  Camatic.  In 
1749  he  was  placed  on  the  throne  after 
the  recapture  oi  Arcot  from  the  French  and 


Chunda  Sahib.    He  was  shortly,    however, 
attacked  in  his  camp,  and  with  difficulty  es- 
caped to  Nazir  Jung.    He  now  made  overtures 
to  the  French,  but  Clivers  success  at  Arcot 
(1751)  confirmed  him  to  the  Ekiglish.     He 
now  entered  into  an  alliance   with  Mysore 
and  Tanjore,  and  raised  an  army  of  Mah- 
rattas  under  Morari  Rao.    The  Camatic  was 
gradually  reduced  by  the  English  and  native 
armies.    In  1756  a  suspension  of  arms  was 
agreed  to,  and  Mahomet  Ali  was  acknow- 
ledged Nabob  of  the  Camatic.    He  was  beset 
witi&  difficulties,  and  in  1757  required  the 
aid  of  a  British  detachment  to  put  down  the 
rebellion  of  his  brothers  and  collect  his  re- 
venue.   During  the  war  he  was  compelled  to 
pa^  tribute    to    the   Mahratta    Bajee    Kao. 
His  rebellious  subjects  gave  him  considerable 
trouble.     In   1769   he   quarrelled  with  Tan- 
jore.   The  result  of  the  war  which  followed 
was  the  conquest  of  Tanjore,  which  was  given 
to  Mahomet  Ali  by  the  English.     In  1776  he 
was  compelled  to  disgorge  it  again.     He  was 
an  object  of  peculiar  aversion  to  Hydcr  Ali, 
owing  to  the  malign  influence  he  was  sup- 
posed to  exercise  on  the  English  counsels. 
The  Camatic  became  the  scene  of  the  war 
again  on  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  in  1778. 
During  the  reign  of  Mahomet  Ali  the  Car- 
natic  gradually  assumed  a  position  of  com- 
plete dependence  on  England.    Its  defence 
was  guaranteed  in  return  for  tribute.    All 
its  foreign  relations  were  conducted  through 
the  English.    Its  contribution  was  liable  to 
be  raised  in  war  time.    Its  government  was- 
assumed  by  the  English  in  war  time. 
Mm,Hi«f.  o/InJia. 

Malion,  LoKD.    [Stakuope,  Lobo.] 

Kahrattafly  The,  consisted  of  several 
tribes  of  Hindoo  mountaineers  whose  origin 
and  early  history  is  obscure.  They  were 
brought  mto  prominence  towards  the  end  of 
the  seventeenth  century  by  the  chief  Sivaji. 
Beginning  with  a  smidl  estate  and  a  small 
army,  he  took  advantage  of  the  weakness  of 
the  Moguls,  and  the  wars  of  Aurungzebe,  to 
enlarge  his  army,  and  extend  his  dominions  at 
the  expense  of  his  neighbours.  His  head- 
quarters were  fixed  at  Satara,  from  which 
plundering  hordes  sallied  in  every  direction, 
until  the  whole  surface  of  India  was  studded 
with  their  possessions.  The  break  up  of  the 
Mogul  empire,  which  followed  the  invasion 
of  Nadir  Shah,  enabled  them  to  extend  their 
dominions  from  Delhi  in  the  north  to  the 
Toombuddra,  a  southern  tributary  of  the 
Kistna  on  the  south,  and  from  the  Bay  of 
Bengal  to  Gujerat  on  the  west  During  the 
reigns  of  Sivaji*s  weak  successors  all  autfao* 
rity  was  usurped  by  the  principal  officers  of 
State.  Two  powerful  kingdoms  were  formed, 
the  one  under  the  Peishwa,  or  prime  minister, 
whoso  capital  was  at  Poonah,  and  the  other 
under  the  commander-in-chief,  who  fixed  his 
capital  at  Nagpore,  and   is  known  as  iha 


(  701  ) 


Mai 


Bajah  of  Berar.    The  authority  of  the  Rajah 
of  Satara  became  merely  nominal,  and  all 
power  resided  in  the  Peishwa,  who  became 
head  of  the  Mahratta  Confederacy.     A  herds- 
man founded  a  sovereignty  in  Gujerat,  fixing 
his  court  at  Baroda,  and  was  known  by  the 
title  of  the  Guicowar.    Another  band  sallying 
south  founded  the  state  of  Taniore ;  all  tiiese 
chieftains,  including  the  Rajah  of  Berar,  or 
the  Bhonslah,  acknowledged,  the  supremacy 
of  the  Peishwa,  and  marched  to  battle  under 
his  standard.    This  ill-cemented  confederacy 
tended  to  split  up  owing  to  the  weakness  of 
successive  Peishwas  and  the  rise  of  other 
chieftains,  such  as  Scindia  and  Holkar,  who 
waged  almost  independent  wars  in  Rajpootana 
and  Malwa.     This  disintegrating   tendency 
was  shown  at  the  Peace  of  Salbhye,  when 
3Iahdajee  Scindia  assumed  an  almost  inde- 
pendent position  as  mediator    between  the 
Poonah  State  and  the  English  government. 
The  confederacy,  however,   still  held  toge- 
ther, and  in  1795,  for  the  last  time,  the  whole 
Mahratta  army  assembled  under  the  banner 
of  the  Peishwa,  to  crush  the  Nizam.    The 
civil  wars  and  disturbances  which  attended 
the  accession  of  Bajee  Rao  II.,  and  the  rivalry 
between  the  various  chiefs,  especially  Dowlut 
Rao  Scindia,  and  Jeswunt  Rao  Holkar,  caused 
the  total  break-up  of  the  confederacy  by  the 
Treaty  of  Bassein.    The  result  of  the  wars 
which  followed  was  to  reduce  the  Peishwa  to 
the  position  of  a  dependent  on  the  English 
government,  and  to  establish  Scindia,  Holkar, 
and    the    ^jjj^^  ot    Berar,  as   independent 
sovereigns.    Taniore  had  already  fallen  to 
the  English,  and  the  Guicowar  was  bound 
by  a  defensive  alliance  to  the  conquerors  of 
India.    The  dissatisfaction  of  the  Peishwa  at 
his    dependent  state,  and   his    attempts  to 
recover  independence,  in  which  he  was  aided 
by  the  Rajalx  of  Berar,  Appa  Sahib,  caused 
the  deposition  of  the  former,  the  annexation 
of  his  territories,  and  the  final  dissolution  of 
the  Mahratta  Confederacy  (1818). 

The  chief  members  of  the  Mahratta  Con- 
federacy were: — 

The  Sq/ah  of  Satara,  the  descendant  of 
Sivaii.  The  authority  of  this  prince,  long 
obsolete,  was  revived  in  1819,  on  the  down- 
fall of  the  Poonah  State.  A  portion  of  terri- 
tory was  restored  to  him  with  limited  political 
power.  This  re-organisation  was  dangerous 
HB  supplying  a  fresh  nucleus  for  Mahratta 
intrigue,  and  like  all  ill-judged  measures  was 
productive  of  disastrous  results.  In  1839  it 
was  discovered  that  the  Rajah  was  in  corre- 
spondence with  the  Portuguese  of  Goa,  with 
Appa  Sahib,  the  dethroned  Ralah  of  Nagpore, 
and  with  other  enemies  of  the  English 
government  with  the  object  of  exciting  a  con- 
federacy against  his  benefactors.  Lord  Auck- 
land, finding  the  Rajah  refused  to  conform 
to  the  treaty  of  1819,  which  had  restored 
him  to  power,  deposed  him  and  elevated  his 
brother  to  the  throne  on  the  same  conditions 


of  dependence.  The  latter  governed  the 
country  with  great  vigour  and  beneficence 
for  ten  years.  As  be  left  no  legitimate  heirs 
and  had  not  obtained  the  consent  of  the  Eng- 
lish to  adopt  a  son.  Lord  Balhousie  held  that 
as  the  Satara  State  existed  only  by  treaty 
with  England,  it  had  now  fairly  lapsed  to  the 
Company,  and  it  was  inexpedient  to  recon- 
stitute it.    It  was  therefore  annexed  (1848). 

The  I*eishwa,  resident  at  Poonah ;  ruling  in 
Poonah,  Khandeish,  the  Konkan,  and  Gujerat, 
with  a  nominal  supremacy  over  the  whole 
confederation.  His  territory  and  power  was 
greatly  diminished  by  the  Treaties  of  Bassein, 
and  the  rise  of  the  other  chieftains.  His 
dominions  were  finally  annexed  by  the 
treaties  of  1817  and  1818. 

The  Rqjah'  of  Berar,  resident  at  Xag- 
pore ;  ruling  what  now  constitutes  the  Central 
Provinces.  The  Berar  State  was  annexed  in 
1833,  on  the  death  of  the  last  Rajah,  leaving 
no  children,  on  the  same  principle  as  the  an- 
nexation of  Satara. 

The  Rajah  of  Tatyore,  ruling  at  Tanjore. 
[Taxjorb.] 

The  Ouieotoar,  ruling  at  Baroda.    [Gui- 

COWAK.] 

SeUiaiaf  ruling  at  Gwalior.  [Scindia.] 
Holkar,  ruling  at  Indore.  [Holkak.] 
The  Rajah  ^  Bundelkhund.  In  1786  two 
Mahratta  chiefs  during  the  Mogul  and  Mah- 
ratta wars  in  Rajpootana,  had  established  an 
insecure  throne  in  Bundellchund.  In  1 803  the 
Peishwa  Bajee  Rao,  as  head  of  the  Mahratta 
State,  ceded  his  claims  on  Bundelkhund  to 
England.  The  province  was  definitely  an- 
nexed, and  in  1817  the  Peishwa  formally 
gave  up  all  claims  on  it. 

The  Rqjah  of  Kolapore  was  the  possessor  of 
a  jaghire  in  the  Poonah  State.  This  small 
territory,  originally  in  conjunction  with  its 
neighbour,  Sawuntivaree,  a  piratical  State, 
has  survived  the  empire  of  the  Peishwas, 
and  exists  as  a  dependent  state  no  longer 
piratical. 

Of  these  chiefs,  Scindia,  Holkar,  the  Gui- 
cowar, and  the  RajiUi  of  Kolapore,  still  exist 
dependent  protected  princes. 

Grant  Dnif ,  Mahrattcu  ;  Elphinstone,  India ; 
Mill,  Htft.o/ India. 

MaJuratta  Ditch.    In  1742  the  Mah- 

rattas  invaded  Bengal.  The  inhabitants 
crowded  into  the  foreigfn  factories,  and  espe- 
cially Calcutta,  for  protection.  The  President 
sought  permission  of  the  Nabob  to  surround 
the  Company's  territory  with  an  entrench- 
ment. It  was  readily  conceded,  and  the  work 
was  commenced,  and  prosecuted  with  vigour, 
but  suspended  on  the  withdrawal  of  the  enemy. 
This  entrenchment  was  called  the  Mahratta 
Ditch. 

XaillteiiailOO  is  defined  in  the  law 
books  as  "  the  act  of  assisting  the  plaintiff  in 
any  legal  proceeding  in  which  the  person 
giving  the  assistance  has  no  valuable  interest, 


Mai 


(  702  ) 


or  in  which  he  acts  from  an  improper  motive ; " 
or,  less  technically,  it  is  simply  *'  interference 
with  the  due  course  ofiustice."  It  was  often 
found  easier  in  the  England  of  the  Middle 
Ages  for  a  man  to  have  recoui'se  to  some 
powerful  neighbour  who  would  "maintain" 
his  cause,  than  to  seek,  on  his  own  motion, 
for  the  expensive,  uncertain,  and  cumbrous 
remedies  oi  the  law  courts.  In  return  for 
help,  which  might  be  warrantable,  but 
which  was  more  commonly  a  gross  perversion 
of  the  course  of  justice,  the  person  assisted 
became  the  dependent  or  client  of  the  baron 
who  supported  him.  In  other  cases,  lawyers 
were  guilty  of  similar  acts  of  **  maintenance." 
Allied  with  maintenance  was  the  custom  of 
giving  livery,  which,  besides  its  more  direct 
political  result  in  exciting  aftd  stimulating 
dynastic  factions,  was  commonly  resorted  to 
as  giving  a  colourable  excuse  for  maintenance. 
In  conjunction  the  customs  of  livery  and 
maintenance  produced  a  *' chronic  organised 
anarchy,  strilang  at  all  law  and  government 
whatsoever."  Associations  were  formed  to 
maintain  the  suits  of  their  members.  Great 
lords  conferred  with  lavish  profusion  their 
liveries  on  all  who  would  wear  them,  and 
regarded  it  as  a  point  of  honour  to  **  main- 
tain" the  causes  of  their  clients.  A  long 
series  of  statutes  and  proclamations  were 
directed  against  these  evils,  but  to  very  little 
purpose.  By  the  Statute  of  Westminster  the 
First  it  was  ordered  that  no  sheriff  or  officer 
of  justice  should  maintain  parties  in  quarrels. 
Two  other  enactments  of  Edward  I.'s  reign, 
in  1285  and  1305,  were  to  the  same  effect. 
In  1327  and  1346  stronger  measures,  which  in 
themselves  were  evidences  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  custom,  wei-e  passed.  By  for- 
bidding the  return  to  Parliament  of  main- 
tainors of  false  suits,  an  indirect  but  effectual 
blow  was  aimed  against  the  practice.  But 
maintenance  was  never  more  flagrant  than 
when  Alice  Ferrers,  the  mistress  of  Edward 
III.'s  dotage,  took  her  seat  in  the  courts  of 
law  to  maintain  the  causes  of  her  friends,  or 
when  John  of  Gaunt  and  Percy  "  maintained" 
Wycliffe  when  attacked  for  heresy  by  the 
Bishop  of  London.  A  series  of  statutes  in 
the  rcig^  of  Richard  II.  had  little  effect,  and 
maintenance  flourished  during  the  weak 
government  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Mean- 
while the  practice  of  livery  had  increased 
also,  and  the  importance  laid  on  heraldry 
during  the  later  Middle  Ages  largely  brought 
this  about.  During  the  period  1377 — 1468  a 
long  series  of  Acts  of  Parliament  limited  the 
right  of  nobles  to  confer  liveries  as  well  as 
strengthened  the  laws  against  maintenance. 
But  tiieir  weakness  for  good  lay  in  the  fact 
that  there  was  no  efficient  court  to  carry  them 
out,  since  the  law  courts  were  themselves 
brought  into  contempt  by  the  custom  of 
maintenance.  A  famous  Act  of  Henry  VII. 
(the  Statute  of  Livery  and  Maintenance,  3 
Hen.  YII.,  cap.  i.)  remedied  this  defect  of  | 


preWous  legislation  by  constituting  a  court  of 
royal  officials,  who  were  by  their  position  free 
from  the  fear  of  violence  and  corruption  that 
beset  the  assizes.  This  measure,  in  conj  unc- 
tion with  the  stricter  government  of  the 
Tudors,  soon  brought  an  end  to  maintenance. 
An  Act  of  Henry  YIII.  passed  in  1540  was 
indeed  directed  against  maintenance,  but  its 
provisions  show  that  fraud,  not  force,  was  the 
means  then  sought  to  pervert  the  course  of 
justice;  and  the  offence  of  maintenance  in 
subsequent  periods  has  consisted  of  fraudulent 
rather  than  forcible  attempts  to  interfere  with 
the  due  course  of  justice. 

Stubbs,  Coiut.  Hut.,  vol.  ill. ;  Stephen,  History 
of  the  CriminiU  Law,  vol.  iii,  r«p   p^  rp  i 

Maitlaad,  Sir  John  {b.  154S,  d,  1595}, 
brother  of  Maitland  of  Lethington,  was  made 
Lord  Privy  Seal  (1667),  though  in  1570  he  was 
deprived  of  his  office  by  Act  of  Parliament 
In  1684  James  VI.  made  him  Secretar}'of 
State,  and  a  few  years  afterwards  Chancellor. 
He  was  a  great  enemy  of  the  second  Earl  of 
Bothwell,  who  attacked  Holyrood  House 
with  a  view  to  seizins  him.  In  1589  he  ac- 
companied James  to  Norway  to  fetch  his  bride, 
Anne  of  Denmark,  and  in  1590  was  create 
Lord  Maitland  of  Thirlestan. 

M^foiNOenerals.  In  1655,  after  the 
disagreement  with  his  first  Parliament,  and 
the  rising  under  Penruddock,  Cromwell  de- 
vised the  plan  of  dividing  England  into  militar}' 
districts,  to  be  governed  each  by  a  major- 
general,  responsible  only  to  the  Protector  and 
Council,  llie  major-generals  were  entrusted 
with  the  command  of  the  militia,  with  the 
duties  of  putting  down  all  attempted  insurrec- 
tions, carrying  out  the  Protector's  police  re- 
gulations, and  raising  the  ten  per  cent,  in- 
come tax  imposed  on  Royalists.  Thd  first 
appointed  was  Desborough,  in  May,  1655,  for 
the  six  south-western  counties;  but  the 
whole  organisation  was  officially  announced 
in  October.  Including  Wales,  there  were,  in 
all,  twelve  districts.  When  Cromwell's  second 
Parliament  met,  after  a  vigorous  defence  of 
his  "poor  little  invention,"  he  was  obhged 
to  abandon  it.  The  House  of  Commons,  on 
Jan.  29,  1667,  rejected  by  121  to  78,  the 
second  reading  of  a  "  Bill  for  the  continuing 
and  assessing  of  a  tax  for  the  paying  and 
maintaining  of  the  Militia  forces  in  Exigland 
and  Wales,"  and  thus  deprived  the  Protector 
of  the  machinery  by  which  the  system  of 
major-generals  was  maintained. 

Cromtp«ll's  Letters  and  Speechet ;  Hftaeon,  Life 
<if  Milton,  ffives  a  list  of  districts  aad  their  com- 
manders,  from  the  Order  Books  of  the  Coancil, 
vol.  v.,  p.  49. 

Malabar  Coast  is  the  coast  of  India 
west  of  the  Western  Ghauts,  south  of  Caoara, 
and  north  of  Travancore. 

Xalaccay  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  was  held  by  the  Portuguese  until 
1640 ;  it  then  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Dutch, 


Xal 


(  703  ) 


Mai 


who  kept  it  until  it  was  taken  by  the  English 
in  1795.  In  1801  it  was  restored  to  the  Dutch 
by  the  Peace  of  Amiens,  and  did  not  finally 
como  into  the  possession  of  the  British  until 
1825,  when  it  was  obtained  in  exchange  for 
the  island  of  Sumatra.  In  1867  Malacca  was 
separated  from  the  Indian  government,  and 
together  with  the  other  Straits  Settlements, 
came  under  the  Colonial  Office.  Its  local 
affairs  are  now  administered  by  a  Resident, 
who  is  under  the  Governor  of  Smgapore. 

Malcolm  I.,  King  of  Scotland  (943 — 
954),  son  of  Donald,  succeeded  to  the  throne 
of  Alban  on  the  resignation  of  Constantinell. 
(943).  One  of  his  first  acts  was  to  attack  and 
slay  t^ellach,  the  provincial  King  of  Moray. 
In  945  Edmund  of  England  made  over  to  him 
the  province  of  Cumberland,  on  condition 
that  he  should  give  him  aid  both  by  land  and 
sea,  a  compact  which  was  renewed  by  Ed- 
mund's successor,  Eadred.  In  949,  however, 
3Ialcolni,  having  brokenthe  condition,  ravaged 
Northumbria  as  far  as  the  Tecs ;  he  was  slain 
(954),  either  at  Alwin,  near  Forres,  by  the  men 
of  Moray,  in  revenge  for  the  death  of  their 
king,  Cellach,  or  at  Fettercsso. 

Malcolm  II.,  King  of  Scotland  (1005 
— 1034),  son  of  Kenneth  II.,  came  to  the 
throne  of  Scotland  as  the  successor  of 
Kenneth  III.  (1005),  and  at  once  attacked 
Northumbria,  besieging  Durham  with  a 
large  army.  He  was,  however,  defeated  by 
Uchtred,  son-in-law  of  Aldun,  Bishop  of  Dur- 
ham. TJnsuccessf  ul  in  his  attempts  to  wrest 
Caithness  from  the  Norwegian  earls,  he  con- 
cluded an  alliance  with  Sigurd,  giving  him 
Ms  daughter  in  marriage,  whose  son,  Thorfinn, 
he  made  Earl  of  Sutherland  and  Caithness.  In 
1018,  >Ialcolm  retrieved  his  former  defeat  by 
a  brilliant  victory  at  Carham  over  Eadulf , 
who  was  forced  to  cede  Lothian  to  the  Scot- 
tish king  as  the  price  of  peace.  In  1031, 
]^Ialcolm  submitted  to  Canute  and  became 
"his  man."  In  1034  he  was  assassinated 
at  Glamis.  In  him  the  direct  male  line  of 
Kenneth  MacAlpin  came  to  an  end.  During 
his  reign  Strathclyde  finally  became  part  of 
the  Scotch  kingdom.  IMalcolm  was  the  first 
king  who  was  called  King  of  Scotia;  his 
successful  policy  of  consolidation  obtained  for 
him  the  title  of  **  the  Lord  and  Father  of  the 
West" 

BoberiBOn,  Early  Kings  of  Scotland;  Skene, 
CeUic  Scotland. 

Malcolm  III.,  King  of  Scotland  (1058 
— 1093),  Bumamed  Canmore  (Great  Head), 
was  the  eldest  son  of  King  Duncan,  some 
say  by  a  miller's  daughter,  but  more  probably 
by  the  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Northumbria. 
On  his  father's  death,  Malcolm  and  his 
brother  Donaldbane,  who  were  mere  infants, 
were  protected  for  a  time  by  their  grandfather, 
CimaQ.    Malcolm  afterwards  sought  aid  from 


his  uncle,  Siward  of  Northumbria,  who  de- 
feated Macbeth  near  Dunsinane  (1054),  and 
on  his  death,  from  Tostig,  son  of  Earl  God- 
wine.  The  cause  of  the  young  prince  was 
also  espoused  by  Edward  the  Confessor,  with 
the  result  that  Macbeth  was  slain  at  Lum- 
phanan  (1057),  and  that  Malcolm  obtained 
undisputed  i>ossession  of  the  throne  a  few 
months  later,  being  crowned  at  Scone  (April 
25,  1058).  In  1061  the  king  broke  his  alliance 
with  Tostig,  and  ravaged  I^orthumbria,  but 
became  reconciled  to  him,  and  gave  him  shelter 
on  his  defeat  by  Morcar  (1065).  In  1068, 
Edgar  Atheling,  his  mother  and  two  sisters, 
with  a  number  of  Saxon  exiles,  took  refuge  at 
the  Scottish  court,  and  were  well  received  by 
Malcolm,  out  of  gratitude  for  the  aid  formerly 
received  from  the  Confessor.  In  1070  the 
Scottish  king  married  Margaret,  Edgar's 
sister,  as  his  second  wife  (his  first  having  been 
Ingebiorga,  widow  of  Thorfinn  of  Caithness), 
a  marriage  which,  in  conjunction  with  the 
asylum  granted  to  Saxon  refugees,  had  a  most 
important  effect  in  improving  the  condition  of 
the  country",  both  by  promoting  civilisation 
and  education.  Malcolm,  in  1070,  bound  by 
his  alliance  with  Edgar,  harried  the  northern 
districts  of  England,  upon  which  William  re- 
taliated by  penetrating  as  far  as  Fife,  in  1072, 
where,  at  Abemethy,  the  Scottish  king  swore 
fealty  to  him,  and  surrendered  his  son  Duncan 
as  a  hostage,  receiving  in  return  the  grant  of 
certain  lands  in  England.  In  1075,  Malcolm 
succeeded  in  persuading  Edgar  to  renounce 
his  claim  to  the  English  throne.  In  1079,  on 
William's  absence  in  Normandy,  Malcolm 
ravaged  England  as  far  as  the  Tyne,  drawing 
down  by  this  act  an  invasion  of  Scotland  by 
Prince  Bobert  in  the  following  year.  In  1091, 
Malcolm  again  espoused  the  cause  of  Edgar 
Atheling,  and  invaded  England,  meeting  Wil- 
liam Kufus near  Leeds;  here,  however,  a  peace 
was  concluded  by  the  exertions  of  Hobert  and 
Edgar,  Malcolm  swearing  fealty  to  the  King  of 
England.  In  August,  1093,  the  Scottish  long 
was  summoned  to  Gloucester  for  the  comple- 
tion of  the  treaty,  but  was  there  threatened 
with  so  much  arrogance  by  William  that  he 
asserted  his  independence  and  hurried  back  to 
Scotland,  where  he  collected  an  army  with 
which  he  invaded  England.  He  was  slain  in 
battle  on  the  banks  of  the  Alne,  by  the  hand 
of  Morel  of  Bamborough  (November  13th, 
1093),  and  buried  at  T>iiemouth.  His  son 
Edward  perished  at  the  same  time.  **  An  able 
king,  and  a  bold  and  fearless  warrior,"  says 
Mr.  Robertson,  "the  traits  that  have  been 
preserved  of  his  private  character  eviijpe  the 
kindliness  of  disposition  and  frank  generosity 
which  not  unfrequently  adorn  so  gracefully 
the  character  of  a  brave  man."  Malcolm  had 
six  sons  and  two  daughters,  the  eldest  of  whom, 
Maud,  married  Henry  I.  of  England ;  the 
younger,  Mary,  Eustace,  Count  of  Boulogne. 
The  reign  of  Malcolm,  from  its  effects  in 
civilising  and  consolidating  Scotltmd,   is  a 


Mai 


(  704) 


most  important  epoch  in  the  history  of  that 

country. 

Bobertson,  Early  Kingt  of  Scotland ;  Burtoiij 
Hist,  of  Scotland. 

Maloolm  IV.  (the  Maiden)  y  King  of  Scot- 
land (1153 — 1165),  son  of  Prixice  Henry  and 
Ada  de  Warenne,  succeeded  hisr  grandfather, 
David  I.  (1153).  A  few  months  after  his 
succession,  an  attempt  was  made  to  wrest  the 
kingdom  from  him  by  Somerled  of  Argyle 
and  the  sons  of  Wvmund.  In  1157  he  sir- 
rendered  to  his  cousin,  Henry  II.  of  England, 
the  counties  of  Northumberland  and  Cum- 
berland, an  act  which  excited  much  opposi- 
tion in  Scotland,  and  led,  in  1160,  to  a 
rebellion  headed  by  six  Scottish  earls. 
3Ialcolm,  who  was  with  Henry  in  France,  on 
the  Toulouse  expedition,  hurried  back  to 
Scotland,  and  succeeded  in  quieting  the 
rebels.  He  also  subjected  Galloway  and 
Moray  in  the  same  year.  In  1164  Malcolm 
again  defeated  Somerled,  who  was  invading 
his  territory.  He  died  at  Jedburgh,  at  the 
early  age  of  twenty-four  (December,  1165). 

Malcolaif  natural  son  of  Alexander  I., 
conceived  the  idea  of  making  himself  king  of 
the  country  north  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde,  in 
place  of  David  I.  In  this  project  he  was 
aided  by  Angus  of  Moray.  He  was,  how- 
ever, defeated  in  1130,  and  finally  reduced  to 
subjection  (1134). 

Malcolm,  Sir  John  (b.  1769,  d,  1833), 
was  bom  at  Langholm,  in  Dumfriesshire.  In 
1783  he  went  to  India  as  a  cadet.  He  was 
present  during  the  second  Mj-soreWar  (q.v.), 
and  was  appointed  Persian  interpreter  in  the 
camp  of  the  Nizam.  In  1798  he  was  assLstant 
to  the  Resident  at  Hyderabad.  He  was  present 
at  the  third  Mysore  War  (q.v.),  and  at  its 
termination  was  appointed  secretary  to  the 
commission  which  was  to  arrange  the  settle- 
ment of  Mysore.  When  the  commission  had 
done  its  work,  Malcolm  was  sent  to  the 
Persian  court  (1799),  where  he  successfully 
concluded  a  treaty  of  alliance  against  the 
French.  He  acted  as  private  secretary  to 
Lord  Wellesley  in  1801—2.  Ho  acted  as 
political  agent  in  Lord  Lake's  camp  during 
the  Holkar  War,  and  negotiated  the  Treaty 
of  Raipoor  Ghaut  (1806).  In  1806—7  he 
returned  to  Mysore,  to  act  as  Resident.  In 
1808  he  was  despatched  on  a  second  mission 
to  Persia,  in  which  he  was  totally  unsuccess- 
ful. In  1810  he  was  again  sent  to  Persia, 
and  was  well  received.  In  1814  his  History 
of  Persia  was  published.  He  was  present  as 
Madiyis  political  agent  and  general  during 
the  Mahratta  War  (1817—18).  He  fought 
^vith  great  courage  at  ^Iahid{)ore,  and  nego- 
tiated the  treaties  with  Holkar  and  Bajee 
Kao.  He  was  prominent  in  the  settlement  of 
Central  India  (1818 — 19),  and  was  appointed 
political  agent.  In  1821  he  returned  to 
England.  He  was  created  G.C.B.  In  1827 
he  returned  to  India  as  Governor  of  Bombay. 


In  1830  he  returned  to  England;  and  in 
1833  he  died.  Iklalcohn's  Folitical  History  of 
India  from  t/84  to  1823  is  a  very  valuable 
work.  He  also  wrote  a  Sketch  of  the  Sikhs^  a 
Memoir  of  Central  India,  and  a  Life  of  Lord 
Clive, 

Kaye,  Indtan  Officers, 

Maldon,  The  Battle  of  (991 ) ,  was  fought 

between  the  English,  under  Bnhtnoth,  and 

the  Danes,  led  by  Guthmund,  and  Olaf  Trygg- 

vesson.    The  invaders  were  boldly  resisted, 

but  proved  victorious,  and  Brithnoth  and  a 

large  number    of   the  English    fell.     This 

battle  owes  its  chief  importance  to  the  grand 

song  which  was  written  in  commemoration 

of  it. 

The  story  of  DCaldon  may  be  read  in  Sweet's 
Anglo-Saxon  Reader,  A'nne  transUtion  is 
given  by  Mr.  Freeman  in  his  Old  Enf/lish  Htr 
tory. 

Mali^aats,  The.  A  phrase  used  b^ 
the  Parliament  to  describe  the  king's  evil 
advisers.  It  occurs  frequently  in  the  Grand 
Remonstrance.  '*  All  the  fault  is  laid  upon  ill 
ministers,  who  are  there  called  a  malig- 
nant patty  **  (May).  The  Commons  began 
by  saying  that  for  the  last  twelve  months 
they  have  laboured  to  reform  the  evils  which 
afflict  the  kin^om,  and  **do  yet  find  an 
abounding  mahgnity  and  opposition  in  those 
parties  and  Actions,  who  have  been  the  CAuae 
of  those  evils."  The^  go  on  to  say  that  "the 
root  of  all  this  mischief  "  is  "a  malignant  and 
pernicious  design  of  subverting  the  funda« 
mental  laws  and  principles  of  government, 
upon  which  the  religion  and  justice  of  this 
kmgdom  are  firmly  established.'*  Strafford 
and  Laud  were  the  heads  of  this  <*  malignant 
party,"  who  were  **  the  actors  and  promoters 
of  all  our  misery."  This  party,  they  con- 
clude, still  exists,  hinders  the  work  of  refor- 
mation, and  sows  discord  between  king  and 
Parliament,  and  between  Parliament  and 
people.  The  name  came  to  be  applied  after- 
wards to  all  who  supported  the  king  against 
the  Parliament.  The  Xord  Mayor  of  London, 
Sir  Kichard  Goumey,  says  Clarendon,  "  grew 
to  bo  reckoned  in  the  first  form  of  the  malig- 
nants,  which  was  the  term  they  imposed  upon 
all  those  they  meant  to  render  odious  to  the 
people." 

May,  Long  Parliament;  Clarendon,  S«beZIton. 

Malmesbnry,  William  op  {h.  eirea 
1196),  is  one  of  the  greatest  of  our  media»Tal 
chroniclers.  His  uneventful  life  was  spent  in 
the  abbey  of  Malmesbur}\  of  which  he  was 
librarian  and  precentor.  His  most  important 
historical  works  are.  The  Gesta  Regum,  The 
Gesta  Fontijieum,  The  Life  of  St.  pHnstan, 
The  History  of  Glastonbury ,  and  the  Histori* 
Novella.  The  Gesta  Regum  extends  from  the 
vear  449  to  1128.  **  Considering  the  age  in 
which  he  lived,"  says  Sir  T.  Hardy,  *'the 
sources  whence  he  has  drawn  his  materials 
are   surprisingly  numerous.    .    .    .     Little 


(  706  ) 


Mai 


seems  to  have  escaped  him,  and  his  skill  and 

judgment  in  arranging  them  have  so  kept 

pace  with  his  industry,  that  more  information 

relating  to  manners  and  customs  is,  perhaps, 

to  be  gathered  from  him  than  from  all  those 

who  preceded  him."     The  Hittoria  Novella 

extends  from  the  year  1126  to  1142,  where  it 

endB  abruptly. 

An  edition  of  the  Hiat.  NoveUa  and  Ge$ia 
Regum  waa  published  bj  the  Eng.  Hist.  8oc., 
and  there  is  a  translation  in  Bohn^  Antiquarian 
Library.  The  Qetta  Pontificwm  has  been  pub- 
Usbed  in  fheAolls  Series. 

Malowilv  The  Siboe  of  (April  16, 
1815),  occurred  during  the  Goorkha  War. 
After  an  extremely  arduous  service  amid  the 
hills  of  the  Upper  Sutlej,  General  Ochterlony 
succeeded  in  confining  Umur  Singh,  the 
Goorkha  general,  to  ^e  fort  of  Malown, 
which  was  situated  on  a  mountain  ridge,  with 
a  ,steep  declivity  of  2,000  feet  on  two  sides. 
On  April  16  a  sally  wajs  made  upon  the 
British  works  by  the  whole  Goorkha  force, 
which,  hoyevor,  was  obliged  to  retire,  with 
the  loss  of  600  men.  The  occupation  of 
Almorah  (April  27)  isolated  the  Goorkha  force 
in  Malown,  and,  as  Umur  Singh  refused  to 
come  to  terms,  the  greater  part  of  his  force 
deserted  to  the  English.  He  himself  retired 
into  the  fort,  with  about  200  men,  who  still 
clung  to  him.  But  when  the  English  batteries 
were  about  to  open,  he  felt  unwilling  to 
saci^ifice  in  a  forlorn  conflict  the  lives  of  the 
brave  men  who  had  generously  adhered  to 
him  to  the  last,  and  accepted  the  terms 
offered  to  him,  thus  ceding  the  whole  of  the 
conquests  which  the  Nepaulese  had  made 
west  of  the  Kalee.  Gez^ral  Ochterlony 
allowed  him  to  march  out  with  his  arms  and 
accoutrements,  his  colours,  two  guns,  and  all 
his  personal  property,  *'in  consideration  of 
the  skill,  bravery,  and  fidelity  with  which  he 
had  defended  the  country  committed  to  his 
charge."     [Goorkha  Wah.] 

Xalplaqnet,  The  Battle  of  (Sept.  11, 

1709),  was  fought  during  the  War   of  the 

Spanish  Succession,  between  the  English  and 

the  troops  of  the  Empire,  under  the  Duke  of 

Marlborough  and  IVince  Eugene,  and   the 

French,  under  Marshal  Villars.    The  battle 

was  the  most  bloody  and  obstinately  contested 

of  the  whole  war.    The  French  fought  with  a 

determination  such  as  they  had  not  shown  in 

the  earlier    battles  of  the  war,    and    their 

desperate    resistance     made    the    battle    a 

slaughter.    Twelve  thousand  of  the  French 

were  slain,  but  the  loss  of  the  allies  was  even 

greater,   and  has  been    put    at    double  the 

number.     The  object  of  Marlborough  and 

Eugene  was  gained,  however,  and  the  strong 

town  of  Mens  was  forced  to  surrender. 

Martin,  Histoire  d«  France  j  Coze,  Marlborough ; 
Marlborough  Begpatchea;  Stanhope,  Beign  of 
Qu«en  Anne. 


JOhtailf  "King  of  Moray,"  was 
the  son  of  Lulach.     In  1077    he    rebelled 
HIST.-23 


against,  and  was  defeated  by,  >lalcolm  Can* 
more.  He  died  in  1085,  having  obtained  a 
partial  independence. 

Tff^-^trft,  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  has  been  well  known  in  history  ever  since 
the  fifth  century  before  Christ.  In  1070  the 
Arabs,  who  had  held  the  island  since  870, 
'were  driven  out  by  the  Norman  lords  of 
Sicily,  1090.  Henceforth  it  followed  the 
forttmes  of  the  Sicilian  kingdom  until  1530, 
when  it  was  made  over  to  the  Knigllts  of 
St.  John  by  Charles  V.,  who  had  inherited  it 
in  1516  together  with  the  crown  of  Aragon; 
in  1665  the  island  was  attacked  by  the  Turks, 
but  was  successfully  defended,  and  in  spite  of 
subsequent  attacks  by  various  nations,  re- 
mained in  possession  of  the  Hospitallers  until 
1798,  when  it  capitulated  to  the  French.  The 
Maltese,  however,  speedily  revolted  against 
their  new  masters,  and  endeavoured  to  drive 
the  French  out  while  the  island  was  blockaded 
from  1798  to  1800  by  a  combined  fleet  of 
Portuguese,  Sicilian,  and  English  vessels. 
The  Maltese  were  also  assisted  on  land  by 
English  troops,  and  in  September,  1800,  the 
French,  who  were  commanded  by  General 
Vaubois,  were  compelled  to  surrender  to 
General  Pigot.  By  the  Peace  of  Amiens 
(1802)  it  was  proposed  that  Malta  should  be 
restored  to  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  but  this 
was  never  done,  and  in  1814  the  island  was 
finally  annexed  to  England  by  the  Treaty 
of  Paris,  to  the  great  joy  of  the  Maltese. 
The  island  is  now  most  important  as  an 
arsenal  and  dockyard,  and  is  the  head- 
qiiarters  of  the  Mediterranean  fleet,  whilst  its 
value  as  a  milita^'  station  is  great.  The 
capital  of  Malta  is  LaValetta,  founded  (1666) 
by  La  Valette,  the  Grand  Master  of  the 
Knights  of  St.  John.  The  government  of  the 
island  is  vested  in  a  governor,  who  is  also  the 
commander-in-chief,  and  a  council  of  twenty- 
two  members,  six  of  them  official  and  fourteen 
elected.  The  government  of  Malta  also  in- 
cludes the  neighbouring  islands  of  Gozo  and 
Comino. 

Martin,  ColontM. 

Malthus,  Thomas  {b.  1766,  d.  1834), 
studied  at  Jesus  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
obtained  a  fellowship  and  took  orders.  In 
1804  he  was  appointed  professor  of  history  at 
Haileybury  College.  He  wrote  several  works 
on  political  economy,  including  the  famous 
Treatise  on  PopulatioH  (1798),  an  Inquiry  into 
the  Nature  and  Froffress  of  Bent  (1815),  and 
Principle*  of  Political  Economy  (1820).  The 
leading  principle  which  Malthus  lays  down  in 
his  economical  writings  is  that  of  the  misery 
caused  by  over-population,  and  of  the  ten- 
dency of  the  population  everywhere  to  increase 
faster  than  the  means  of  subsistence.  Hence 
he  argues  that  unless  the  population  is  kept 
down,  the  time  must  at  length  come  when 
it  will  be  no  longer  possible  to  find  food 
for  it.    His  theories  are  not  accepted  com- 


Mai 


(  706  ) 


pletely  by  modem  economists ;  but  their  effects 
on  the  economical  speculation  and  the  poli- 
tical thought  of  the  present  century  have 
been  unequalled. 

Maltote,  or  Malatolta,  meaning 
literally  "  an  evil  tax,"  was  the  term  gene- 
rally applied  to  the  unjust  tax  upon  wool 
levied  by  Edward  I.,  and  other  kings,  tt- 
was  abolished  by  art.  vii.  of  the  Con/lrmatio 
Cartarum  of  Edward  I. 

Millf  The  Isle  op,  was  in  early  times  in- 
habited by  a  Celtic  population  belonging  to 
the  Goidelic  stock.    According  to  Bede,  it  was 
included  in  the  Empire  of  Edwin  of  North- 
umbria.      Subsequently,  it   was   settled   by 
Norse  pirates,  and  its  political  institutions  have 
since  been  mainly  of  the  Norse  type,  the  bulk 
of  the  population  and  the  language  remaining 
Celtic.   On  its  conversion  to  Christianity  it  be- 
came the  seat  of  a  bishopric  called  the  Bishopric 
of  Sodor  {i.e.j  the  Southern  Isles,  Sudreyjar) 
and  31aii,  which  first  depended  on  Trondhjem, 
but  ultimately  on  York.    In  1264  Alexander 
III.  of  Scotland  acquired  the  Southern  Isles 
by  purchase  from  Iklagnus  of  Norway,  and  in 
1275  finally  subdued  the  Manx  men.    Shortly 
afterwards  the  island  came  into  the  hands  of 
the  English,   and  in  1290  was  granted  by 
Edward  I.  to  John  BaHoL    In  1307  Piers 
Gaveston  was  made  lord  of  the   island  by 
Edward  II.,  though  he  did  not  retain  his 
territory  for  long.    Man  now  passed  succes- 
sively through  the  hands  of  the  Montagues, 
Scropes,  and  Percys  until  it  was  given  in 
1406  to  Sir  John  Stanley,  who  became  Lord 
or  King  of  Man ;  the  island  remained  in  the 
possession  of  the  Stanley  family  (Earls  of 
Derby)    until    1735,    when    it    became   the 
property  of  the  Dukes  of  Athole ;  it  was  partly 
sold    to    the  crown   in   1765,    and    entirely 
given  up  by  its  owner  in  1829.      In  1651 
Castle  Rushen,  at  Castletown  the  capital,  was 
bravely  defended  by  Charlotte  de  la  Tre- 
mouille.    Countess    of    Derby,    against  the 
Parliamentary   forces,    and    was    only  sur- 
rendered at    last    owing  to    the    treachery*' 
of  the  governor.  Christian.     The  island  was 
given  back  to  the  Stanleys  at  the  Restoration. 
During  the  last  oentury  it  was  notorious  as 
the  resort  of  smuggleis.     The  government  of 
the  island  is  independent,   and  is  adminis- 
tered by  a  governor  and  the  Tynwald,  which 
is  compcMiea  of  two   houses  —  namely,  the 
Upper  House,  or  Council,  consisting  of  cer- 
tain officials  (usually  ten  in  number^,  and  the 
House  of  Keys,  which  consists  oi  twenty- 
four  of  the  principal   islanders.    There  are 
two  deemsters,  or  judges,  who  try  civil  and 
criminal  cases  ;  there  are  courts  of  exchequer 
and  chancery  besides  common  law  courts. 

Munch,    Chrtmieon   £«gum  Mannia;   Saohe- 
verel,  Hiti.  of  Man, 

Xaaoliester  was  a  small  Roman  settle- 
ment, first  occupied  in  a.d.  79.  It  was  re- 
duced by  Edwin  of  Northumbria  in  620,  and 


seems  to  have  been  occasionalljr  one  of  Jthe 
residences    of    the    Northumbrian    princes. 
One  of  Edward  the  Elder's    fortresses  was 
built  here  in  923.   It  was  made  a  market  town 
in    1301,  and  was  an  important  seat  of  the 
woollen  manufacture  early  in  the  foui%eenth 
century.    In  the  Civil  War  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  >Ianchester  declared  for  the 
Parliament.     It  was  unsuccessfully  besieged 
by  Lord  Strange,  September,  1642,  and  occu- 
pied by  Fairfax,  January,  1643.     In  the  re- 
bellion of  1745  it  was  occupied  for  a  few  days 
by    Prince   Charles    Edward.      During  the 
American   War  the  citizens    of  Manchester 
(where  by  this  time  a  cotton  manufacture  was 
flourishing)  were  very  hostile  to  the  colonists, 
and   equipped  a  regiment    to    serve  against 
them.     Serious  riots  against  the  introduction 
of  machinery  took  place  October  9,  1779.     In 
March,    1817,    a    meeting    of   the    "  Blan- 
keteer"  riotera  took  place,  and  preparations 
were  made  for  a  march  on  London.     In  1819 
(August  16)  occurred  the  so-called  "  Peterloo" 
Massacre,  when  a  large  meeting  of  reformer! 
was  dispersed  by  the  yeomanry.    Manchester 
was  made  a  Parliamentary'  borough  by  the 
Reform  Bill  of  1832,  with  two  members,  re- 
ceived a  third  in  1869,  and  now  returns  six. 
In  1847  Manchester  was  made  the  seat  of  a 
bishopric,  the  collegiate  church  built  in  1422 
being  constituted  the  cathedral. 

Maaohester,  Edward  Moxtagu,  2nd 
Earl  op  (6.  1602,  d.  1671),  eldest  son  of 
Henry,  first  earl,  educated  at  Sidney  Sussex 
College,  Cambridge,  accompanied  Prince 
Charles  to  Spain,  represented  Huntingdon- 
shire in  the  first  two  Parliaments  of  Charles 
II.,  and  was  summoned  to  the  Upper  House 
in  May,  1626,  as  Baron  Montai^u,  of  Kim- 
bolton.  He  succeeded  his  father  as  Eari 
of  Manchester,  Nov.  7,  1642.  In  1640  Lord 
Kimbolton  was  one  of  the  peers  who  uiged 
Charles  to  call  a  Parliament ;  he  also  actedfas 
one  of  the  commissioners  to  treat  with  the 
Scots,  and  his  name  was  amongst  those  used 
by  Lord  Saville  in  the  forged  invitation  to  the 
Scots.  In  the  Long  Parliaunent  he  was  one  of 
the  leaders  of  the  Puritans  in  the  House  of 
Lords,  and  his  importance  was  shown  by  his 
being  the  only  peer  joined  with  the  five 
members  impeached  by  the  king.  He  raised 
a  regiment  and  fought  under  E^x  at  Edge- 
hill.  In  Aug.,  1643,  Manchester  was  ap- 
pointed Serjeant-major-general  of  the  six 
associated  counties,  in  which  capacity  he 
reconquered  Lincolnshire,  and  took  part  in 
the  little  of  Marston  Moor.  His  subor- 
dinate, Cromwell,  to  whom  most  of  these  sac- 
cesses  were  due,  blamed  him  for  the  slowness 
of  his  movements  after  that  battle,  and  the 
little  use  he  made  of  the  victory.  Manches- 
ter, with  the  army  of  the  Aissociation,  was 
summoned  south  to  oppose  the  king  after  his 
viftory  over  Essex,  in  ComwalL  But  he 
showed  at  t^e  second  battle  of  Newbury,  and 


(  707  ) 


after  it,  the  same  hesitation  to  make  use  of  a 
success,  or  an  opportunity.  Cromwell  ac- 
cused him  to  the  House  of  Commons,  and  a 
lively  quarrel  took  place.  A  committee  of 
the  Commons  was  appointed  which  heard 
witnesses,  and  collected  evidence  against  the 
earl;  but  the  charge  was  dropped  when 
Manchester  had  been  removed  from  command 
by  the  Self-denying  Ordinance.  The  earl 
remained,  however,  one  of  the  B^b}'  House 
Committee,  and  became  Speaker  of  the  House 
of  Lords,  and  one  of  the  Keepers  of  the  Great 
Seal.  He  also  became  Chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Cambridge,  and  conducted  the 
visitation  and  reform  of  that  university. 
Manchester  resisted  the  trial  of  the  king  and 
the  foundation  of  the  Commonwealth,  re- 
fused to  sit  in  Cromwell*s  House  of  Lords, 
and  helped  to  bring  about  the  Restoration. 
Charles  II.  appointed  him  Lord  Chamberlain 
in  order  to  prove  his  reconciliation  with  the 
Presbyterians. 

Mcuaeheater'a  Qtiarr«U  with  Cromvtll  (Camden 
Society) ;  Camden  Mitcellany,  vol.  viii. ;  Cltreu- 
don,  Jlitt.  o/th4  Rebellion  and  Life. 

[0.  H,  F.] 

Manchester,  Charles  Montagu,  Eaul 
and  DuKS  of  {d.  1722),  succeeded  to  his 
father's  earldom  in  1682.  At  the  Revolution 
he  joined  the  northern  rising  in  favour  of 
the  rrince  of  Orange.  He  accompanied  Wil- 
liam III.  to  Ireland.  In  1696  he  was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  Venice.  In  the  following  year 
Manchester  went  as  envoy  to  Paris,  where  he 
shortly  was  informed  that  Louis  had  accepted 
the  Spanish  crown  for  his  grandson.  He  sent 
news  to  William  of  the  proclamation  of  James 
III.  as  King  of  England,  and  was  at  once  re- 
called. His  correroondencc  at  the  time  reveals 
feelings  of  despondency.  He  became  Secretary 
of  State,  but  on  the  accession  of  Anne  was 
dismissed  from  office.  In  1707  he  was  sent  as 
ambassador  to  Venice,  but  was  instructed  to 
stop  at  Vienna,  in  order  to  try  and  dissuade 
the  Emperor  from  sending  troops  to  Naples. 
On  the  death  of  Anne,  Manchester  declared 
for  the  house  of  Hanover.  He  was  created 
Duke  of  Manchester  in  1719. 

Xaaderille,  William  db  {d.  1189), 
Earl  of  Essex  and  Albemarle,  was  one  of  the 
commanders  in  Henr^''  II.' s  French  wars,  and 
was  frequently  employed  by  that  king  on  di- 
plomatic business.  On  Bichard*s  accession 
Mandeville  was  appointed  Justiciar  and  regent 
of  the  kingdom  in  the  king's  absence  on  the 
Crusade  conjointly  with  Hugh  de  Pudsey,  but 
he  held  this  office  only  two  months,  when  he 
suddenly  died. 

Xaadti'bratiiui  ^as  the  son  of  a  chief  of 
the  Trinobantes,  who  had  been  murdered  by 
CassivellaunuB.  On  Caesar's  second  invasion 
]VIandubratius  joined  the  Romans,  and  assisted 
them  against  Cassivellaunus  as  a  reward  for 
his  help      Caesax  restored  him  to  his  chief- 


tainship, ana  compelled  Cassivellaunus    to 
promise  not  to  make  war  upon  him. 

Mangalore,  Tkbatt  of  (May  ll,  1784), 
was  cone  uded  between  the  English  and  Tip- 
poo.  It  was  based  on  a  mutual  restitution  of 
conquests,  but  no  compensation  was  obtained 
for  the  atrocious  treatment  of  the  English 
prisoners  by  Tippoo.  Tippoo  was  recognised 
soveireign  of  the  Camatic  Balaghaut,  which 
he  haa  conquered  from  the  Nizam.  The 
kingdom  of  Travancore  was  declared  to  be 
under  English  protection. 

MAllitolia»  a  province  of  Canada  (q.v.), 
formerly  known  as  the  Red  River  Settlement, 
with  an  area  of  73,956  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  162,606.  The  Lieutenant- 
Governor,  appoipted  by  the  Gtovemor-Greneral 
of  the  Dominion,  has  an  Executive  Council 
of  five  members,  and  there  is  a  Legislative 
Assembly  of  forty  members,  who  are  elected 
for  a  period  of  four  years.  Manitoba  has 
four  representatives  in  the  Senate,  and  seven 
in  the  House  of  Commons  of  the  Dominion. 
The  capital  is  Winnipeg,  at  the  junction  of 
the  Assiniboine  and  the  Red  River.  The 
province  is  traversed  by  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway. 


I,  Lord  John.   [Rutland,  John 
Jambs  Robiuit  Manners.] 

Xaimy  (or  Db  Mannay),  Sir  Waxtb& 
{d,  1372),  was  a  native  of  Hainault,  and  came 
over  to  England  in  the  train  of  Queen  Phil- 
ippa.  He  took  a  very  prominent  part  in 
ue  French  wars  of  Edwaxd  III.'s  reign.  In 
1344  he  commanded  in  Gaacony  under  the 
Earl  of  Derby.  In  1347,  despite  a  safe-conduct 
he  had  obtained,  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  the 
French,  and  King  Philip  would  have  put  him 
to  death  but  for  the  remonstrances  of  the  Duke 
of  Normandy.  He  served  in  France  again  in 
1360  and  1369,  and  founded  the  Charterhouse 
in  London  shortly  before  his  death. 


"Manor*'  wa«  the  Norman 
name  for  the  Saxon  township :  "  Villas  quas  a 
manendo  manerios  vulgo  vocamus,"  Ordericus 
Vitalis  quaintly  says,  out  it  differed  from  the 
township,  as  ordinarily  regarded,  in  that,  to 
use  the  phrase  of  Sir  H.  Maine,  it  was  not  a 
group  of  households  democratically  organised 
and  governed,  but  a  group  of  tetutfttt  auto- 
cratically organised  and  governed.  It  is, 
however,  clear  that  this  change  had  largely 
tak^i  place  before  the  Norman  invasion  ;  the 
Conquest  did  little  more  than  organise  and 
extend  a  system  which  had  already  grown 
up,  and  give  it  a  new  name.  Many 
causes,  as  yet  but  imperfectly  understood, 
brought  many  originally  free  townships  into 
a  condition  of  dependence.  Every  freeman 
had  to  find  someone  who  would  act  as  a  per- 
manent surety  for  him,  or  borh,  and  be 
answerable  for  his  appearance  in  courts  of 
law;  and  such  a  borh  would  naturally  be 
fouyd  in  the  most  important  men  of    the 


(  708  ) 


village.     The  burden  of  military  service,  also, 
caused  men  to  comtnetid  themselves  to  others. 
As  this  protection  would  only  be  given  in  re- 
turn for  services  of  some  kind,  there  was  "  a 
constant  assimilation  going  on  between  the 
poor  landowner  and  the  mere  cultivator  of  his 
lord's  land  "  (Stubbs) .     The  state  of  things  at 
the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century  is  illus- 
trated by  the  Rectitudinea  SingtUarum  FersO' 
narutn.    This  begins  with  two  general  sections 
as  to  the  duties  of  thegns  and  geneata.    While 
the  thegn  is  subject  to  the  trinoda  neeeMxtaa, 
the  geneat  is  not  only  to  pay  gafol  or  rent, 
but  to  ^*  ride  and  carry  and  leaid  loads,  work 
and  support  his  lord,  reap  and  mow,  cut  the 
hedge  and  keep  it  up  ...  .   and  go  errands 
far  and  near  wherever  he  is  directed.*'    A 
distinction  is  drawn  between  irwo  classes  of 
geneats,  the  cottiers  and  the  geburs.     The 
service  of  the  latter  is  fixed  at  two  days  a 
week,  with  some  slight  additions,  and  he  holds 
a  gardlatid  {yirgate  in  the  twelfth  century 
Latin  translation).    His  position  seems,  in- 
deed, to  have  been  the  same  as  that  of  the 
ordinary  villein  of  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth 
century.    Soon  after  the  Conquest  the  whole 
country  is  found  to  be  divided  into  "  manors," 
which  are  regarded  as  the  imits  of  the  feudal 
organisation  of  society.      For  the  first  two 
centuries  the  evidence  as  to  village  life  is  scanty 
and  of  doubtful  import,  but  for  the  thirteenth 
and  fourteenth  centuries  there  are  abundant 
sources  of  information.     Of  these  the  chief 
are  the  Hundred  Rolls  of  Edward  I. — a  sur- 
vey of  five  midland  counties  in  1279,  Fleta 
{circa  Ed.  I.),  and  the  Rolls  of  the  Manor  of 
"Winslow  for  the  reign  of  Edward  III.    The 
conclusions  drawn  from  these  may  be  thus 
summarised: — A    manor   was    divided    into 
demesne  land   and    land   in  villetiage.      The 
former  included  the  home-farm  of  the  lord, 
and  portions  held  hy  "free  tenants"  either 
by  socage  or  by  military  service.    The  land 
in  villenage  was  occupied  by  persons  of  two 
classes  ( as  in  the  JReet  itudinea) .     Two-thirds  or 
more  of  the  soil  were  usually  held  in  virgates 
or  half -virgates,  by  a  virgate  ( =  Northum- 
brian htuband'land)  being  understood  a  house 
and  messuage  in  the  viUage  and  some  thirty 
acres  of  arable  land,  held  in  acre  or  half -acre 
pieces  scattered  over  the  three  common  fields 
and  cultivated  according  to  a  common  plan ; 
to  these  must,  of  course,  bq  added  a  share  in 
the  pasture.     Inferior  to  these   virgarii  or 
yardlings  were  the  cottiers  who  tilled  only 
some  five  to  ten  acres.    The  services  rendered 
by  both  classes  may  be  divided  into  week  work 
(ploughing,  reaping,  &c.,  usually  for  two  or 
three  days  a  week,  or  at  fixed  times),  pre- 
eariae  or  boon  days  (special  services),  and  fixed 
pajrmonts  in  money    or    kind.      Oxen    and 
ploughs  for  labour  on  the  lord's  demesne  were 
provided    sometimes    by  the  villeins  alone, 
sometimes  by  villeins  and  lords  jointly ;  the 
cottiers,   however,   having  neither,   took  no 
part  in  the  work  of  ploughing.    These  ser- 


vices were  often  commuted  for  money  pay- 
ments, though  local  usage  varied  oonsidetably. 
For  instance,  in  Bedfordshire  and  Bucking- 
hamshire, under  Edward  I.,  commutation  was 
general,  while  in  Huntingdonshire  and  Ox- 
fordshire it  seems  to  have  been  the  exception. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  the  villeins  were 
also  subject  to  such  servile  "incidents"  of 
their  tenure  as  the  marriage-fine  and  the 
like.  The  chief  officials  of  the  manor  were 
the  seneschal  or  steward  who  represented  the 
lord,  sometimes  over  several  manors,  held 
the  courts  and  arranged  the  ploughing;  the 

ErsBpositus  or  reeve,  representing  and  elected 
y  the  villeins,  and  responsible  for  the  per- 
formance of  the  due  services ;  and  the  baiM 
or  farm  manager.  In  all  manors  were  two 
courts,  confused  somewhat  in  practice  though 
separate  in  legal  theory :  the  court  baron^  re- 
presenting the  old  mark  moot  or  assembly  of 
the  villagers,  to  make  by-laws  for  the  culti^'a- 
tion  of  the  common  fields;  and  the  court 
customary f  for  business  arising  out  of  the 
villein  tenure.  Many  manors  had  also  a 
court  leet  or  criminal  jurisdiction,  •.«.,  an 
exemption  from  the  hundred  courts  by  grants 
of  sac  and  soc,  and  to  this  was  often  added 
view  of  frankpledge,  which  freed  the  tenants 
from  the  necessity  of  attending  at  the  Greater 
Court  of  the  Hundred,  or  Sheriffs  Toura. 
Such  was  the  medieeval  constitution  of  the 
Manor,  and  such  through  the  changes  of 
English  political  history  is  what  it  has  since 
remained  to  a  large  extent  in  theory ;  though 
the  functions  of  the  manorial  courts  and 
officers  have  altogether  lost  their  importance. 

The  chief  original  authorities  besides  those 
mentioned  above  are  Domesday ^  the  LQter  Kiger 
of  Peterborough,  The  Bolden  Book,  the  Kew- 
minster,  Kelso,  Worcester  and  Olonoester 
Cartularies,  the  DomMday  ofS.  PatiTs,  andFiU- 
Herbert,  Bcke  of  Surveying  (1599):  Stubbs, 
Const.  Jffwt.,  ch.  vii. ;  Seebohm,  Engl.  Ftllag* 
Community ;  Maine,  ViUage  Commvnities,  lect.  v. ; 
and  Cnrnifngham,  GroKth  o/Engliih  Industry. 

[W.  J.  A.] 

Mansfield,  William  Muiiray,  Earl  op 
(b.  1705,  e/.1793),  was  the  fourth  son  of  Darid, 
Earl  of  Stormont,  and  was  bom  at  Scone, 
near  Perth.  He  was  educated  at  Westminster 
and  Oxford,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1730.  In  1740  he  was  made  a  king's 
counsel,  and  two  years  later  Solicitor- 
General,  with  a  seat  in  Parliament  for 
Boroughbridge.  In  the  following  year  he 
increased  ms  reputation  by  his  defence 
of  the  city  of  Edinburgh  against  the 
proceedings  taken  in  Parliament  with  refer- 
ence to  the  Porteous  mob.  In  1754  he 
succeeded  to  the  place  of  Attomey-Geneinl, 
and  two  years  later  he  became  Lord  Chief 
Justice  of  England,  with  the  title  of  Baron 
^lansfield.  In  his  new  position  he  at  once 
proceeded  to  reform  the  slow  and  tedious 
practice  of  the  court.  In  1767  he  vas 
induced  to  accept  the  office  of  Chancellor 
of  the  Exchequer,  which  he  held  for  only 


(  709  ) 


three  months,  and  in  the  same  year  he  was 
for  the  second  time  offered  the  Great  Seal 
and  again  refused  to  take  it.  Unfortunately, 
Lord  Mansfield  accepted  a  seat  in  the  cabinet, 
and  so  assumed  the  character  of  a  political 
judge,  nor  was  the  popular  suspicion  re- 
assured by  his  growing  coldness  to  Chatham 
on  the  death  of  Greorge  II.  and  the  rise 
of  Lord  Bute.  On  the  question  of  general 
warrants,  though  still  a  member  of  the 
cabinet,  he  supported  Pratt's  judgment 
and  affirmed  their  illegality.  On  the  fall  of 
the  Grenville  ministry,  Lord  Mansfield  I'e- 
tired  from  the  cabinet,  and  now  for  the  first 
time  encountered  Lord  Camden  in  the  House 
of  Lords.  On  the  subject  of  America  the 
two  great  judges  were  opposed,  Lord  Mans- 
field holding  Uie  absolute  dominion  of  Eng- 
land over  the  colonies.  When  Chatham  re- 
fdgned  in  1768,  the  Duke  of  Grafton  called  in 
the  advice  of  Lord  Mansfield;  but  when  it 
became  necessary  to  appoint  a  successor  to 
Camden,  he  again  refused  the  Great  Seal. 
On  Yorke's  death  the  seal  was  put  into  com- 
mission, and  Lord  Mansfield  virtually  acted  as 
Xiord  Chancellor.  On  Lord  North's  accession 
to  power  began  a  series  of  encounters  be- 
tween Mansfield  and  Chatham  on  the  subject 
of  Wilkes's  election  for  Middlesex ;  the  cause 
of  the  former  was  thoroughly  bad,  and  he 
came  but  feebly  out  of  the  fray.  Nor  did 
the  Chief  Justice  add  to  his  reputation  by  his 
charges  to  the  iuiy  on  the  law  of  libel,  which 
«o  often  occupied  the  courts  in  consequence 
of  the  prosecution  of  Woodfall  and  other 
printers;  cliarges  which  exposed  him  to  the 
attacks  of  Junius.  In  October,  1776,  he  was 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  an  earl.  During  the 
later  years  of  his  career  ho  confined  himself 
almost  entirely  to  the  exorcise  of  his  judicial 
functions,  and  took  but  little  part  in  politics. 
In  1788  "the  increasing  infirmities  of  Lord 
Mansfield  induced  him  to  retire  from  his 
office,  after  having  presided  with  distin- 
^ished  lustre  as  head  of  the  common  law 
for  upwards  of  thirty-two  years."  After  this 
he  lived  almost  entirely  in  retirement,  taking 
little  or  no  pai*t  in  politics,  until  his  death,  in 
March,  1793,  at  the  venerable  age  of  eighty- 
nine.  His  reputation  has  been  established 
beyond  all  dispute  ;  and  he  lives  for  posterity 
as  the  greatest  common  law  judge  of  modem 
times,  and  as  the  founder  of  our  commercial  law. 

Camplwll,  Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices ;  Macaa- 
lay,  Enays  on  Chatham;  Stanhope,  Hist,  of 
England  f  Chatham  Correimondence ;  Maflsey, 
Ui$t.  of  Eng. ;   Trevelyan,  JSarly  Yean  of  Fox ; 

Lord  Waldegrave,  Memoirs.  

[W.  R.  S.] 

Maanfactxires.  The  rise  and  progress 
of  manufacture  in  England  may  be  said  to  be, 
after  the  political  development  of  English 
institutions,  the  most  striking  fact  in  the 
history  of  modem  civilisation.  It  will  be 
quite  obvious  that  no  community  can  spare 
labour  for  any   other  process  than  that  of 


I 


supplying  food,  and  other  bare  necessaries  of 
life,  as  long  as  all  the  labour  of  those  who 
constitute  the  community  is  needed  for  the 
acquisition  of  such  necessaries.  In  utterly 
inhospitable  climates,  and  among  peoples  who 
have  emerged  from  barbarism,  there  is  no 
room  for  that  division  of  employments  which 
enables  persons  to  devote  themselves  to  call- 
ings destined  to  supply  the  products  which 
can  be  exchanged  regularly  for  food  and 
similar  necessaries.  Even  after  agriculture 
is  practised,  and  the  labour  of  the  husband- 
man can  supply  him  with  more  food  than  is 
needful  for  his  own  wants  and  the  wants  of 
his  family,  manufactures  proper,  as  opposed 
to  domestic  industry,  grow  very  slowly.  The 
husbandman's  labour  is  fruitful,  but  is  exposed 
to  risks,  and  it  is  found  that  in  the  early  history 
of  communities  the  reality  or  pretence  of  defend- 
ing him  in  his  calling  is  the  first  division  of 
employments  which  is  developed,  andforms  the 
excuse  for  the  first  charge  which  is  put  on  his 
resources.  The  history  of  modem  Europe,  as 
illustrated  by  its  most  ancient  documents,  is 
quite  conclusive  on  this  subject.  The  change 
of  government,  the  establishment  of  a  reci- 
procal obligation  between  superior  and  in- 
ferior, whidi  is  the  essence  of  that  which  we 
know  as  the  feudal  system,  was  affirmed  and 
justified  on  the  plea  that  the  king's  peace 
and  the  lord's  protection  were  a  real  boon  to 
the  husbandman,  and,  therefore,  should  be 
paid  for. 

In  the  earlier  Middle  Ages,  and  long  before 
the  English  manufactures  had  developed, 
Venice,  the  Hanseatic  towns,  and  those  of  the 
Low  Countries  had  become  important  seats  of 
industry.  In  the  histor}^  of  manufactures,  it 
is  found  to  be  almost  invariably  the  case  that 
the  supply  of  a  surplus  of  agricultural  pro- 
ducts, other  than  food,  precedes  the  local  de- 
velopment of  manufacture  from  other  products. 
The  English  people  supplied  wool  for  the 
Flemish  manufacturers  long  before  they  be- 
came the  rivals  of  the  Flemings  in  woollen 
goods,  just  as  the  Australian  English  do  now. 

Manufacturing  countries  have  always  deve- 
loped at  a  very  early  stage  of  their  existence 
free  institutions,  and  impatience  at  despotism, 
whether  it  was  over  action  or  over  thought. 
This  has  been  seen  in  all  European  experience. 
Resistance  to  arbitrary-  authority  was  deve- 
loped with  more  or  less  energy  in  the  manu- 
facturing towns  of  southern  iVance,  of  Italy, 
of  the  Low  Countries,  and  in  those  parts  of 
England  which  were  especially  the  cradle  of 
manufacturing  industry.  These  districts  also 
are  characterised  by  opposition  to  Papal 
authority,  and  by  the  dissemination  of  opinions 
which  the  hierarchy  of  the  age  called  hereti- 
cal. The  struggle  of  the  Flemish  Nether- 
lands with  the  dukes  of  the  house  of 
Burgundj',  and  their  descendants,  the  princes 
of  the  house  of  Austria,  was  continued  for 
centuries.  The  States  were  at  last  subdued, 
and  their  manufactures  were  ruined  when 


(710) 


Man 


ihey  became  obedient.  The  same  facta  apply 
to  the  tree  cities  of  the  Grerman  Empire,  to 
those  of  Italy,  northern  Spain,  and  other 
regions.  Political  freedom  and  religioufi 
lil^rty  are  conditions  almost  absolute  of 
manufiicturing  energy  and  success. 

The  opportunity  for  early  manufacture  is 
aided  or  even  caused  by  advantages  of  situ- 
ation, cUmute,  and  natuial  products.  In  past 
times  the  first  two  were  all-important.  Manu- 
facture implies  trade,  and  neither  could  be 
conveniently  carried  on  in  countries  where 
harbours  are  periodically  blocked  with  ice,  or 
were  remote  from  other  centres  of  commerce. 
Hence  the  great  marts  of  early  Europe,  and  by 
implication  the  chief  manufacturing  centres, 
were  situated  on  the  routes  of  ancient  com- 
merce. The  cities  of  Italy  received  the  eastern 
produce  of  the  world,  and  conveyed  them 
across  the  Alps  and  down  the  Rhine,  all  the 
localities  on  the  route  becoming  rich  by  trade, 
and  the  exchange  of  their  own  products.  When 
the  roads  through  Central  Asia  were  blocked 
by  Turkish  hordes,  and  when,  finally,  the  last 
remaining  route  was  blocked  by  the  conquest 
of  Egypt  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  Italy  was  impoverished,  and  the 
German  cities  with  them.  Amsterdam  and 
the  cities  of  the  Netherlands  became  opulent 
partly  because  they  were  on  the  highway 
of  the  Rhine,  partly  because  they  absorbed 
and  distributed  the  produce  of  Scandinavia 
and  the  Baltic.  But  some  of  the  advantages 
of  climate  were  not  yet  discovered,  or  had  not 
yet  become  important.  In  the  manufacture 
of  textile  fabrics,  a  moist  and  equable  climate 
has  been  found  to  be  of  the  highest  value ; 
but  in  those  days  it  was  of  little  importance, 
for  the  texture  of  the  product  was  coarse,  and 
its  quality  was  low.  Similarly,  as  all  weaving 
was  done  by  hand,  and  in  rude  looms,  the 
presence  of  such  materials  as  would  save 
human  labour  by  mechanical  appliances  was 
undiscovered,  and  its  absence  was  therefore 
not  appreciated. 

Five  centuries  ago  England  was,  in  con- 
trast with  other  European  nations,  opulent,  on 
the  way  te  free  institutions,  and  on  the  whole 
possessed  of  an  effective  and  vigorous  police 
over  offenders  against  the  king's  peace.  It 
had  a  considerable  export  trade  in  wool,  by 
which  the  Flemish  weavdrt,  as  yet  under  the 
mild  rule  of  their  native  counts,  grew  rich. 
Inferior  to  this  trade,  but  still  important,  was 
that  in  hides,  which  were  also  exported  to  the 
Flemish  tanneries.  But  domestic  manufac- 
tures were  few,  and  these  were  nearly  all 
centred  in  the  eastern  counties,  particularly 
in  Norfolk.  For  fine  linens  and  the  better 
kinds  of  cloth,  England  depended  on  the  Low 
Countries.  Notwithstanding  her  enormous 
deposits  of  iron,  she  relied  for  the  better  kinds 
on  the  Baltic  trade,  especially  on  that  from 
Scandina V La.  She  manufactured  a  little  glass, 
but  most  of  what  was  needed  for  churches 
and  castles  came  from  Normandy.     The  use 


of  coal  for  smelting  purposes  was  unknown. 
It  was  merely  employed  for  domestic  use  in 
London  and  a  few  porte  on  the  eastern  and 
southern  coaste.  For  salt,  a  most  important 
article  in  mediaeval  economy,  England  relied 
almost  entirely  on  the  south-west  of  France, 
where  indeed  the  English  king  had  long  ruled 
over  a  wide  and  opulent  district.  The  few 
articles  of  luxury  which  were  purchased  by 
the  king,  his  nobles,  and  the  great  ecclesiastics 
came  from  Italy,  such  as  silk  goods  and  the 
best  kinds  of  armour.  Even  the  better  breeds 
of  horses  were  imported  into  England,  and  all 
these  articles  were  paid  for,  in  the  main,  by 
wool,  in  which  England  had  a  monopoly  of 
the  most  characteristic  kind. 

Gradually,  and  particularly  during  the 
prosperous  period  of  the  first  half  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  the  cloth  manufacture 
which  had  been  greatly  improved  by  the 
frequent  immigration  of  Flemings  into  eastern 
England,  spread  southwards  and  westwards. 
The  reason  for  this  migration  was  undoubtedly 
the  discovery  that  a  finer  and  stronger  jium 
can  be  twisted  in  a  damp  climate.  Now, 
Norfolk,  the  original  home  of  the  woollen 
manufacture,  is  the  driest  county  in  England, 
and  Devonshire,  te  which  the  manufacture 
gradually  spread,  is  one  of  the  wettest.  Here 
it  remained  till  the  discovery  of  steam  power, 
when  it  naturally  went  to  the  district  where 
coal  is  cheap  and  the  climate  is  moist.  This 
is  especially  the  characteristic  of  Lancashire 
and  Yorkfliiire,  where  the  industry  finally 
settled.  The  same  causes  led  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  linen  and,  lastly,  the  cotton 
industry  in  England.  But  the  climate  is  not 
equally  favourable  te  silk  weaving  and 
dyeing,  for  which  a  clear  sky  and  bright  sun 
are  special  requisites.  The  growth  of  theae 
manufactures  was  materially  aided  by  the 
wars  of  religion,  as  a  consequence  of  which 
numerous  exiles,  from  the  Reformation  to  the 
Revolution,  migrated  to  England,  bringing 
with  them  the  appliances  and  the  skill  with 
which  they  had  so  long  been  familiar,  of 
which  persecution  could  not  deprive  them. 
But  for  a  verj^  long  period,  English  manu- 
factures could  ill  bear  the  competition  of 
foreign  manufacture,  and  while  the  Parlia- 
ment and  government  exercised  a  very 
vigorous  police  over  the  quality  of  the  articles 
produced,  they  were  importuned  constantly 
tor  protection  to  English  industry,  a  claim  to 
which  they  gave  little  heed,  till  after  the 
Revolution  the  administration  of  alEairs  passed 
from  the  king  and  his  agents  to  a  Parliainent 
of  landowners  and  traders,  and  an  administra- 
tion dependent  on  their  good- will. 

The  manufacture  of  iron  was  chiefly  carried 
on  in  Derbyshire,  Sussex,  Surrey,  and  the 
Sheffield  district,  the  produce  of  the  former 
being  far  inferior  to  that  of  the  latter,  and 
both  being  greatly  so  to  that  of  Spain  and 
Sweden.  The  art  of  producing  cast-iron  from 
pit-coal  is  commonly  said  to  have  been  a 


(711, 


discovery  of  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
oentiuy.  This  is  an  error,  for  it  was  known 
a  century  before ;  many  of  Elizabeth's  pieces 
of  ordnance  having  been  made  from  oast- 
iron.  But  smelting  with  pit  coal  was  not 
extensively  practised  till  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  It  is  probable  that 
Dudley,  who  is  credited  with  the  invention, 
did  no  more  than  make  considerable  improve- 
ments in  the  process.  It  is  certain  that  great 
progress  was  made  in  manufactures  during 
the  seventeenth  centur}%  and  as  usual  a  great 
development  of  trade  took  place,  for  whatever 
may  be  the  course  of  tnide  in  a  country 
where  commerce  is  firmly  developed,  it  is 
exceedingly  difficult  to  establish  trade  except 
domestic  manufacture  is  first  fairly  started. 
At  the  latter  end  of  the  seventeenth  century 
the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  was 
followed  by  a  considerable  immigration  of  silk 
weavers  into  England,  especially  into  London, 
and  the  establiuiment  of  a  silk  industry  in 
this  country,  after  man^^  attempts  had  been 
made  to  introduce  this  manufacture,  the 
earliest  being  in  the  fifteenth  century. 

But  the  beginning  of  England's  real  pre- 
eminence in  manufacture  dates  from  the  dis- 
covery of  steam,  and  of  the  simultaneous  inven- 
tion of  those  mechanical  processes  by  which  the 
labour  of  man  is  saved  and  force  is  regulated 
and  multiplied.  The  former  was  the  work  of 
"Watt  and  others,  the  latter  of  Arkwright  and 
his  rivals.  England  possesses  the  largest 
deposits  of  coal  and  iron  in  proximity  to  each 
other  and  to  the  market.  The  coal  and  iron 
fields  of  the  United  States  are  infinitely 
more  extensive,  but  they  are  distant  from 
the  seaboard.  There  are  deposits  of  coal 
and  iron  in  Belgium,  but  the  field  is 
mnall,  and  the  produce  may  soon  be  ex- 
liausted.  Hence  England,  were  trade  free 
with  other  parts  of  Europe  and  the  world, 
could  for  a  long  period,  the  length  of  which 
is  rather  guessea  at  than  measured,  supply 
the  wants  of  the  civilised  world,  at  least  in 
the  most  important  particulars.  She  has  also 
the  enormous  advantage  of  a  moist  and 
equable  climate,  a  condition  which  is  likely  to 
endure,  even  if  the  other  advantages  are 
lessened,  and  to  make  this  country  the  per- 
manent home  of  the  higher  and  finer  textile 
fieibrics. 

English  industry  has  not  only  had  to  over- 
come the  ordinary  difficulties  which  beset  all 
industries,  and  the  rivalry  of  other  com- 
munities, natural  obstacles  to  ^  all  industry, 
but  the  jealous  and  watchful  energy  of 
foreigpQ  protection.  Undoubtedly  English 
goods  are  excluded  from,  or  only  grudgingly 
admitted  into  countries  where  they  might 
advantageously  compete  on  fair  grounds. 
But  it  will  be  notic^  that  even  when  thus 
weighted  they  do  overleap  these  barriers ;  and 
it  may  be  safelv  concluded  that  invention  and 
intelligence  being  invariably  developed  under 
difficulties,  the  training  which  both  factors  in 


the  result,  employers  and  workmen,  have  had, 
has  rendered  them  peculiarly  ready  for  the 
adoption  of  more  generous  tariffs  by  foreigpn 
countries,  and  for  the  occurrence  of  those  emer- 
gencies which  arise  in  the  political  history  of 
all  countries,  when  an  exceptional  demand 
levels,  for  a  time  at  least,  the  barriers  which 
a  protective  policy  has  raised. 

See  for  the  Middle  Ages  wad  oontempomry  his- 
tozy,  Bogen's  Higlory  of  Agricultur§  and  Prion; 
Th«  Centvry  of  Invmtiona;  Porter,  Progress  of 
the  Nation  ;  McCulloch,  Dictionary  of  CotavM^-ce ; 
Cuxuiiixgham,  Mitiory  of  Commerce.  (The  mono- 
graphs on  particular  trades  are  too  numerous 
tor  insertion.)  [-j.  £.  T..  R.] 


i  Wars.  After  the  transfer  of 
the  sovereignty  of  New  Zealand  to  the  crown 
by  the  Treaty  of  Waitangi,  1840,  the  settlers 
were  engaged  in  constant  disputes  with  the 
natives  reroecting  land.  The  first  Maori 
War  took  place.  1843 — 47,  and  resulted  in  the 
definition  of  boundaries.  In  1863,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  encroachments  of  the  whites, 
war  broke  out  again,  and  was  ended  by  the 
submission  of  tiie  natives,  Aug.,  1864. 
In  1868  there  were  renewed  disturbances, 
and  a  massacre  of  the  aettlers  at  Poverty 
Bay  and  Mohaka.  The  third  war  broke  out 
in  consequence  in  July,  1869,  and  lasted  till 
January,  1870,  when  the  natives  submitted. 

[ArSTBALIA.] 


^,    Donald,  Eakl    of,    the    son    of 

Christian,  sister  of  Bobert  Bruce,  had  passed 
most  of  his  youth  in  captivity  at  the  English 
court,  and  was  therefore  singularly  ignorant 
of  his  native  country,  when  in  1332  he  was 
elected  regent  in  the  place  of  Randolph. 
Soon  after  his  election  to  tlus  responsible 
office,  he  was  completely  beaten  at  Duplin  by 
Edward  Baliol. 

Xar,  Alexander,  Eaul  of,  the  natural 
son  of  Alexander  of  Ross,  sumamed  the 
Wolf  of  Badenoch,  was  in  his  youth  a  sort  of 
Highland  robber;  in  1392  he  defeated  the 
Lowlanders,  whose  lands  he  was  about  to 
ravage  at  Gasklunc,  and  in  1404,  carried  off 
the  Countess  of  Mar  from  her  castle  of 
Kildrummy ;  having  married  her,  he  became 
Earl  of  Mar,  and  in  that  capacity  led  the 
royal  troops  at  Harlaw  (q.v.).  In  1431  he 
was  defeated  at  Lochaber  by  a  Highland  force 
under  Donald  Baloch. 


»,  John,  Earl  of,  was  a  brother  of 
Alexander,  Duke  of  Albany,  and  James 
III.  He  is  described  as  "comelie  in  all 
his  behavioures,"  and  as  a  bold  warrior  and 
skilful  politician.  His  popularity  aroused  the 
jealousv  of  Cochrane,  the  favourite  of 
James  III.,  who  persuaded  the  king  to  give 
orders  for  his  murder. 


•,  John  Erskine,  Earl  of  (d.  1672), 

tho  uncle  of  Murray,  Regent  of  Scotland, 
was  Governor  of  Stirling  Castle,  where  he 
had  the  charge  of  the  infant  James  VI.    In 


(  712) 


1571,  he  repulsed  an  attack  upon  Stirling  by 
the  queen's  party,  and  in  &e  same  year, 
on  Uie  death  of  Lennox,  he  was  elected 
regent,  an  office  which  he  filled  with 
moderation  and  ability  until  his  death  (Oct. 
28,  1572).  '*  He  was  perhaps  the  only  person 
in  the  kingdom,'*  says  Mr.  Robertson,  "  who 
could  have  enjoyed  tiio  office  of  regent  with- 
out envy,  and  have  kept  it  without  loss  of 
reputation." 


%  John,  Earl  of  {d.  1634),  son  of  the 
regent,  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  (1578) 
to  obtain  possession  of  the  young  king 
James  VI.  In  1582,  he  was  one  of  the 
leadera  of  the  Ruthven  Raid  (q.v.),  and  had  in 
consequence  to  take  refuge  in  England,  whore 
he  resided  for  some  time  at  Newcastle,  in 
company  with  other  **  banished  lords."  He 
was  one  of  those  who  attempted  to  go  to  the 
rescue  of  the  king  at  the  Gowrie  tragedy 
(q.v.).  In  1601  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Elizabeth ;  he  accompanied  James  YI.  to 
England,  and  became  one  of  his  Privy 
Councillors  and  Lord  High  Treasurer  of 
Scotland  (1615). 


John    Erskine,    11th    Eakl    of 

(d.  1732),  entered,  public  life  early  in  Queen 
Anne's  reign  as  a  Whig,  but  soon  joined  the 
Tory  party.  His  trimming  policy  obtained 
for  him  the  nickname  of  "  Bobbing  John." 
He  joined  the  Whigs  in  advocating  the 
Scotch  Union,  and  in  1706  was  Secretly  of 
State  to  the  Duke  of  Queensberry  at  the  last 
session  of  the  Scotch  Parliament.  In  1710, 
he  became  Secretary  of  State  and  Manager 
for  Scotland  under  the  Tory  administration. 
On  the  accession  of  George  L  he  was  de- 
prived of  office,  and  at  once  plunged  into 
Jacobite  intrigues.  The  Pretender^s  standard 
was  raised  by  him  at  Braemar  on  Sep- 
tember 6th.  He  was  at  once  joined  by 
Tullibardine,  heir  of  the  Duke  of  Athole,  the 
Gordons  and  other  clans,  and  was  at  the  head 
of  12,000  badly-armed  men.  A  detachment 
under  Brigadier  Macintosh  was  sent  to 
surprise  Edinburgh,  and  was  ultimately 
defeated  at  Preston.  At  Shenffmuir  he  en- 
countered the  royal  troops  under  Argyle,  and 
after  an  imdecided  battle  Argj-lo  withdrew 
from  the  field.  In  January,  the  Pretender, 
after  long  delay,  appeared  in  Scotland.  But 
his  presence  infused  no  energy  in  the  army. 
They  withdrew  from  Perth  to  Montrose,  and 
from  thence  Mar  and  James  Edward  stole  off 
to  France,  deserting  their  followers.  He 
continued  in  favour  with  the  Pretender,  and 
succeeded  in  inducing  him  to  dismiss  Bol- 
ingbroke  from  his  councils  [St.  John],  In 
1719,  Mar  was  arrested,  by  orders  of  the 
English  government,  at  Geneva. 

March,  The  Peerage  of.  (1)  English: 
The  earldom  of  March  was  granted  (1328) 
to  Roger  Mortimer,  who,  however,  whs  at- 
tainted   in    1330.       His    grandson,    Roger, 


was  restored  to  the  earldom,  and  transmitted 
it  through  three  generations.  Edmund,  the 
last  of  this  line,  died  childless  in  1424.  His 
sister  Ann  was  the  mother  of  Richaixi,  Duke 
of  York,  whose  son  Edward,  afterwards  King 
Edward  IV.,  bore  the  title  of  Earl  of  March 
in  his  father's  lifetime.  In  1478  the  king 
conferred  th^  earldom  on  his  son,  the  f utare 
King  Edward  Y.,  on  whose  accession  it  be- 
came merged  in  the  crown.  (2)  Scottish: 
In  1619  James  I.  created  Esme  Stuart,  after- 
wards Duke  of  Lennox,  Earl  of  March ;  bat 
this  creation  became  extinct  at  the  death  of 
his  grandson  Charles,  third  Duke  of  Rich- 
mond, in  1672.  Three  years  afterwards  the 
Lennox  titles  were  granted  to  Charles  Lennox, 
natural  son  of  Charles  II.,  by  whose  descen- 
dants they  have  been  since  held. 

Xarolly  Agnes,  Countess  of,  was  a 
daughter  of  Randolph,  Earl  of  Murray, 
and  from  her  dark  complexion  was  known  as 
Black  Agnes  of  Dunbar.  In  1338,  in  the 
absence  of  her  husband  the  Earl  of 'l^Iarch, 
she  gallantly  and  successfully  defended  the 
castle  of  Dunbar  against  an  English  force 
under  the  Earl  of  Salisbury. 

Marohy  Edwabd  Mortimsk,  Eakl  op 
{d.  1381),  son  of  Roger,  second  Earl  of  March, 
married  Philippa,  daughter  and  heiress  of 
Lionel,  Duke  of  Clarence.  In  1380,  he  was 
made  Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and  lar^ 
possessions  in  that  country  given  to  him. 

Marollv  Edmund  ^Iortimsr,  Eakl  op 
(d,  1424),  was  the  heir  to  the  thi'one  on  the 
abdication  of  Richard  II.,  and  hid  claims  were 
unsuccessfully  advanced  by  Archbishop  Scrope 
and  others  in  1405,  and  again  by  Cambridge 
in  1415.  He,  however,  submitted  to  Henry 
and  fought  in  the  French  wars.  He  whs  snb* 
Boqucntly  appointed  Lieutenant  of  Ireland, 
and  died  of  the  plague  in  the  castle  of  Trim. 
He  married  Anne,  daughter  of  the  Earl  of 
Staffoixi,  but  left  no  issue. 


L,  Roger  Mortimer,  Earl  op  (d. 
1398),  was  the  son  of  Edmund,  third  Earl  of 
March.  He  married  Eleanor,  daughter  of 
Thomas  Holand,  Earl  of  Kent,  and  was  de- 
clared heir  to  the  throne  by  Richard  II.  in 
1386.  He  was  appointed  Lieutenant  of  Ire- 
land, where  he  was  killed  in  a  skirmish  at 
Kenlys,  in  Ossory. 

Marches  of  Wales.  The.    [Wales: 

Borders.]      i 

Margaret,Q,uBEN  (b,  l2Sl,d,  1317),  second 
wife  of  Edwai-d  I.,  was  the  daughter  of  Philip 
III.  of  France,  and  was  nuurried  to  Edward  I. 
in  1298.  Her  character  is  highly  praised  hy 
contemporary  writers:  "she  was  good  with- 
outen  lack,"  says  Peter  Langtoft;  and  she 
seems  to  have  been  a  worthy  successor  to 
Eleanor  of  CJastile.  After  her  husbaniTi 
death  she  lived  in  retirement,  and  devoted 
her  time  and  her  wealth  to  acts  of  charity. 


(  713  ) 


OF  Akjou,   Qubbn   (b.  Mar. 
24,  1429,  d.  Aug.  25,  1482),  wife  of  Henry 
VI.,  was  the  daughter  of  B^n6,  Coimt  of 
Guiae,   afterwards   Duke   of   Lorraine   and 
Anjou,  and  titular  King  of  Naples,  Sicily, 
and  Jerusalem.    It  was  her  relationdiip  to  the 
French  king,  whom  her  Other's  sister,  Mary 
of  Anjou,  had  married,  that  caused  her  to 
he  selected  hy  Suffolk  and  Beaufort  as  the 
wife  of  Henry  YI.     Her  marriage,  which 
took  place  on  April  22,  1445,  was  to  be  ac- 
ooixmamed  hy  the  cession  of  Aiijou  and  Maine 
to  King  B6nii§,  and  it  was  hoped  to  found  on 
it  a  permanent  peace.    The  queen  became  a 
violent  political  partisan,  and  strong  supporter 
of  Suffolk  and  Somerset,  and  a  hitter  enemy 
to  Gloucester  (whose  death  has  been  with 
very  little  evidence  attributed  to  her)  and  to 
the  Duke  of  York.    Margaret's  first  child, 
Edward,  was  bom  on  Oct.  13,  1453,  during 
the  king's  insanity,  and  this  event  placed  her 
in  immediate  competition  with  the  Duke  of 
York  for  the  regency.    The  death  of  the 
Duke  of  Somerset,  at  the  first  battle  of  St. 
Albans,   deprived    her  of  her  most  trusted 
counsellor,  and  forced  her  still  more   into 
the  foreground.     Her  preponderance  helped 
to  ruin  the  cause  of  her  son  tmd  her  husband. 
From  the  beginning  she  represented  an  un- 
popular policy,  and  her  strong  partisanship  in 
domestic  affairs  and  her  foreign  connection, 
increased  that  unpopularity.     She  had  no 
scruples    about  intriguing   with   the  native 
Irish,  tlie  Scots,  or  the  French  to  damage  the 
Duke  of  York,  nor  did  she  shrink  from  making 
Galais  tihe  price  of  French  aid.    When  the 
three  emrlB  landed  in  Kent  in  1460  she  was 
in  the  north  of  England,  and  their  victory 
at  NortJiampton  (June,  1460)  obliged  her  to 
take  refuge  in  Scotland.    She  raised  in  the 
north  a  new  army,  defeated  and  slew  the 
Duke  of  York  at  Wakefield  (Dec.,  1460),  and 
marched  south  to  beat  Warwick  at  St.  Albans. 
But  the  battle  of  Towton  (March  28—29, 
1 46 1)  forced  her  to  fly  again  to  Scotland.    She 
contrived  by  French  and  Scotch  help  to  main- 
tain war  on  the  Border  until  in  1464  the  battles 
of  Hedgel^  and  Hexham  put  an  end  to  the 
struggle.    For  the  next  six  years  she  lived  in 
exile,  mainly  at  Bar,  in  Lorraine.    In  1470 
Warwick  was  forced  to  fly  from  England,  and 
Louis  XI.  brought  about  a  reconciliation  be- 
tween the  earl  and  Margaret,  and  an  interview 
took  place  at  Angers,  in  which  it  was  agreed 
that  Prince  Edward  should  be  restored  by 
Warwick's  arms  and  marry  his  daughter.   But 
the  queen  and  the  prince  did  not  land  at 
Weymouth  till  the  day  on  which  the  battle 
of  Bamet  had  destroyed  all  hopes  of  their 
restoration   (April   13,    1471).      The    prince 
was  taken  and  killed  at  the  battie  of  Tewkes- 
l>ury  (Ma^  4,  1471),  and  the  queen  herself 
i^mained  m  prison  till  1476.    Louis  XI.  ran- 
somed her  by  the  payment  of  50,000  crowns 
of  gold,  but  she  was  obliged  to  renounce  in 
favour  of  Edward  IV.  all  her  dauns  to  the 
Hut— 23* 


English  throne,  and  to  cede  to  Louis  her 
rights  in  the  inheritance  of  her  father  and 
mother  (Bar,  Lorraine,  Anjou,  and  Provence). 
She  was  handed  over  to  the  officers  of  Louis 
on  Jan.  29,  1476,  and  spent  the  remainder 
of  her  life  in  poverty  and  retirement. 

Stttbbs,  ConaL  Hiri. ;  Giurdner,  Patton  Ldien  ; 
L.  de  la  Marehe»  he  Roi  Bine ;  Freer,  Life  of 
Margaret  of  Anjovk.  fC   H   F  1 


Systam  is  the  name  applied  by 
modem  German  historians  to  a  social  system 
based  on  the  tenure  and  cultivation  of  the 
land  in  common  by  groups  of  individuals  or 
families,  organised  into  small  self-governing 
communities.  The  Marky  strictly  speaking, 
is  the  land  held  in  common  by  the  community 
in  question.  The  primitive  Ai^an  community, 
which  either  was,  or  supposed  itself  to  be, 
constituted  by  the  descenoants  of  a  conunon, 
ancestor,  is  regarded  as  having  cleared  for 
itself  a  settlement  in  the  dense  primteval 
forest,  sepazated  from  all  other  similar  settle- 
ments by  a  thick  border  of  woodland,  to  which 
properly  the  word  mark  (i.^.,  boundary,  march) 
belongs.  Within  the  limits  of  the  mark  was 
raised  the  primitive  village,  where  each  of 
the  members  of  the  community  had  his  home- 
stead and  farm  buildings  in  severalty.  Every 
owner  of  such  a  homestead  had  a  right  to  the 
usufruct  of  a  portion  of  the  land,  which  was 
the  general  property  of  the  whole  community. 
This  land  was  roughly  divided  into  three 
portions.  Firstly,  there  was  the  mark  itself, 
the  forest  or  waste,  including  the  rough  natural 
pastures,  which  were  never  endosed,  and  into 
which  each  of  the  markmen  could  turn  a  fixed 
number  of  cattle.  Secondly,  there  was  the 
meadow  land,  which  was  sometimes  enclosed, 
but  sometimes  open.  During  the  open  period 
it  was  treated  like  the  waste,  but  when  the 
gprass  began  to  grow  in  the  spring  it  was 
divided  into  the  same  number  of  allotaients  as 
there  were  households  in  the  village.  Each 
markman  looked  after  his  own  hay,  and 
gathered  and  housed  his  crop  of  it  for  winter 
use.  When  this  was  done  the  fences  were 
thrown  down  again,  and  the  pasture  remained 
in  common  until  the  following  spring,  when 
a  fresh  apportionment  occurred.  Thirdly,  the 
arable  land  was  divided  in  much  the  same 
way  as  the  pasture.  A  system  of  rotation  of 
crops  gradually  sprang  up,  and  from  three  to 
six  groups  of  fields  were  required  to  allow  of 
this.  In  each  of  these  the  markman  would 
have  his  share.  All  the  shares  may  originally 
have  been  equal,  but  constantiy  tended  to 
become  unequal. 

The  mai  k,  besides  its  social  and  economical 
importance,  was  also  the  political  unit  of  the 
early  state.  Every  markman  was  a  member 
of  the  markmoot,  which  reguhited  the  partition 
of  land,  the  rotation  of  crops,  the  admission 
of  new  members,  and  the  transferrence  of  pro- 
perty among  the  old  members.  In  early  times 
it  is  possible  that  the  marks  were  judicial 


(714) 


aasemblies  as  well,  but  in  historical  times 
these  functions  belonged  to  the  lai^er  organi- 
sations into  which  the  marks  were  combmed. 
The  extent  to  which  the  mark  system  actually 
existed  is  difficult  to  define.  It  is  safest  to 
regard  it  as  a  stage  in  the  development  of  the 
German  peoples,  and  not  as  the  one  principle 
to  which  their  whole  ptinutire  policy  may  be 
referred.  In  England,  as  in  Germany,  the 
traces  of  its  existence  are  still  abundant.  The 
commons,  still  so  numerous,  despite  a  multitude 
of  Enclosure  Acts ;  the  common  fields,  which 
xmtil  very  recently  were  allotted  from  year 
to  year  to  the  commoners  of  the  parish ;  the 
"  three-fold  system  of  tillage ; "  the  place- 
names  ending  in  '*ing,"  suggesting,  as 
it  does,  the  primitive  fkmily  settlement 
which  the  mark  system  involved,  and  the 
importance  of  the  kindred  in  Anglo-Saxon 

{'urieprudence,  are  among  its  many  suryivals. 
)ut  Dr.  Stubbs  has  pointed  out  that  the  mark 
system  by  itself  will  not  account  for  all  the 
complex  phenomena  of  primitive  English 
society.  Perhaps  this  is  true  of  Germany 
as  well.  Neither  the  vicus,  nor  the  town- 
ship, nor  the  villa^  community,  can  be 
directly  affiliated  to  it ;  but  as  involving  the 
"  two  radical  principles  of  German  antiquity, 
the  kindred  and  the  community  of  land,'*  the 
investigation  of  the  mark  system  has  thrown 
new  light  on  the  study  of  early  institutions. 

The  greatest  authority  on  the  mark  syBtemiB 
O.  L.  von  Manrer,  esp.  in  his  0«$ehickt9  der 
Markenv0rfa»nL%g  in  i)fut«eklaii<l.  See  alao 
Nasse,  On  the  Agricultural  CommunUv  qf  th§ 
MiddU  Agn  (Cobden  Clab),  Laveleye,  PrimiHv 
Property;  Maine,  VULags  CommunttiM,  and 
Seebohm*  The  BngliOi  VuUt^e  Community.  ]>r. 
Stnbba  in  his  Ccnet.  Hi$t.  sivea  a  aaccinct  sum- 
mary of  the  system,  with  valuable  observations  on 
its  Illation  to  English  history,      f  T  F  T  1 

Marlborongh.^  The  Pa&liambnt  of 
(1267),  was  held  for  the  purpose  of  restoring 
order  and  good  government  aftei*  the  Baron? 
War.  It  re-enacted  as  a  statute  of  the  realm 
the  Provisions  of  1259  with  very  few  altera- 
tions, the  most  important  being' that  the  ap- 
pointment of  the  royal  ministers,  and  the 
sheriffs,  was  now  left  in  the  hands  of  the  king. 

Marlboroiigliy  Sakah,  DrcHBss  of  (b. 
1660,  d,  1744),  at  an  early  age  entered  the 
household  of  the  Duchess  of  York.  There 
she  became  the  companion  and  fiiend  of  the 
Princess  Anne,  who  became  passionately  at- 
tached to  her.  So  intimate  were  they 
that  they  afterwards,  as  is  well  known, 
ctorresponded  under  the  names  of  Mrs.  Morley 
and  Mrs.  Freeman.  In  1678  Sarah  Jennings 
married  Colonel  John  Churchill,  afterwards 
Duke  of  Marlborough.  Owing  to  the  influence 
of  the  Churchills,  Anne  desert^  her  father,  and 
joined  the  party  of  the  Prince  of  Orange.  In 
1692,  on  her  husband's  disgrace,  Anne  refused 
to  dismiss  Lady  Alarlborough  from  her  em- 
ploymwit.  The  result  was  a  quarrel  between 
the  queen  and  the  princess,  and  the  latter  set 
«p  an  opposition  court  at  Berkeley  House. 


On  the  accession  of  Queen  Anne,  she  reoeivea 
the  rangership  of  Windsor  Park  and  the 
offices  of  Groom  of  the  Stole  and  Mistress  of 
the  Robes.  The  duchess  soon  proved  henelf 
a  violent  Whig,  having  been  converted  to 
these  principles  bv  the  Dowager  Lady  Sun- 
derland. Hence  uie  often  had  disputes  with 
her  mistress,  in  which  Marlborough  was  not 
unfrequently  involved.  In  1703  &e  lost  her 
only  son.  Her  violenttemperhad  already  caused 
the  friendship  of  the  queen  to  cool  towards 
her.  She  gradually  found  herself  supplanted 
in  the  royal  favour  by  Mrs.  Abigail  Hill,  a  poor 
relation  of  her  own,  whom  she  had  introduced 
into  the  household.  She  found  that  Harley 
was  employing  this  lady  as  an  instrument 
whereby  to  undermine  the  adnunistration  of 
her  husband  and  Grodolphin.  In  1708  Marl- 
borough threatened  to  resign,  and  the  ducbeae 
implored  Anne  to  confer  her  places  on  her 
daughters.  A  temporary  reconciliation  took 
place  on  the  death  of  the  queen's  husband; 
but  on  the  departure  of  the  duke  for  the  Conti- 
nent the  friendship  cooled  again.  It  was  in  thU 
year  that  she  is  said  to  have  spilled  the  myth- 
ical glass  of  water  on  Mrs.  Maaham's  gown, 
which,  aocording  to  Voltaire,  *'  chang^  the 
face  of  all  Europe."  She  several  times  forced 
herself  into  the  queen's  presence.  In  April, 
1710,  she  saw  Anne  for  the  last  time.  Eiarly 
in  171 1  Anne  demanded  her  key  of  office,  nor 
were  the  personal  entreaties  of  the  duke  of 
any  avail.  The  duchess  promptly  began  to 
lampoon  the  queen  and  the  Tory  ministry. 
She  also  sent  in  a  claim  for  the  payment  of 
sums  she  would  have  received  had*  she  ac- 
cepted the  queen's  offer  of  an  additional  pen- 
sion as  Keeper  of  the  Privy  Purae.  In  1712 
she  joined  the  duke  on  the  Gontineot.  She 
prayed  him  not  to  accept  employment  under 
the  Hanoverian  regime.  In  1720  she  was 
accused  by  Sunderland  of  having  f umishAd 
money  to  the  Pretender,  but  she  disprored 
the  charge  in  a  series  of  letters  to  the  king. 
On  the  death  of  Marlboroup^h  ( 1 722),  the  Dnke 
of  Somerset  and  Lord  Coningsby  were  smitten 
by  her  mature  charms,  but  both  were  rejected. 
Her  last  years  were  occupied  in  drawing  up 
the  celebrated  Vindication  of  her  husband's 
character  and  her  own.  Of  the  numerous 
sketches  of  her  character  the  most  famous  is 
Pope's,  in  his  moral  essay,  On  the  Ckaraden 
of  WomeHf  where  she  is  satirised  under  the 
name  of  *'  Atossa."    [MABLBoaoooH ;  Aktte.] 

Burnet,  Hitt.  of  Hit  (hm  Time;  Vindieatiim 
of  ditf  Ihiekeae  of  Marlkorouch ;  Mn.  Thommoi, 
Memoirt  of  the  Duch«»e  of  Mai'lhorough ;  Frivol* 
Correepondenee  of  the  Dvckeea  of  Mar^horeu^k 
(1838) ;  Coxe,  MarUnmrngli ;  Wjon,  Reifn  cfQeet^ 
A  nne ;  Stanhope,  Reign  ^(^HMnAnne  ;  MScaahjr. 
Hiet.ofSng, 

Marlborongliy  John  Churchill,  Dru 
op  {b.  1650,  </.  1722),  was  the  eldest  son  of 
Sir  Winston  Churchill.  He  became  a  page  of 
the  Duke  of  York.  In  the  year  1672  he 
fought  under  the  Duke  of  Monmouth,  and 
with  the  French  against  HoUand.    He  gnstly 


{  715  ) 


diwtiTigniHhed  himnelf  at  the  siege  of  Maen- 
tricht,  and  sabaeqiiently  ivent  through  several 
campaigns    under    Turenne.      In    1678    he 
married  Sarah  Jennings,  and  shortly  after- 
wards became  colonel  in  the  Life  Guards. 
(>n  the  accession  of  James  he  was  raised  to 
the  peerage.    In  1685  his  skill  repaired  the 
mistakes    of  the  commander-in-chief,   Lord 
Feversbflm,  and  crushed  Monmouth's  rebellion 
at  Sedgemoor.     He  opened  communications 
with  William  of  Orange  in  1687.     On  the 
arrival  of  William    in    England,   Churchill 
deserted  James  at  Warminster,  leaving  be- 
hind him  a  polite  letter  of  regret.    In  the 
discussion  on  the    disposal    of    the    crown, 
Churchill  voted  for  a  regency ;  but,  finding  that 
his  friends  were  in  a  minority,  he  absented 
himself  from  the  House.     On  uie  accession  of 
William  and  Mary,  he  was  sworn  of  the  Privy 
Council,  made  Lord  of  the  Bedchamber,  and 
created  Earl  of  Marlborough.    In  1689,  on 
the  outbreak  of  war  with  France,  he  com- 
manded the  English  brigade  under  the  Prince 
of  Waldeck,   and  defeated    the    French    at 
Walcourt.     On  the  departure  of  William  for 
Ireland,    he    was  appointed    one    of   Queen 
Mary's  Council  of  Nine.     When  William  re- 
turned to  England,  ho  landed  in  the  south'  of 
Ireland,  and  in  five  weeks  took  Cork  and 
Kinsale    (1690).      He    began    in   this   year 
to  correspond  with  James.     His  professions 
of  repentance  were  rewarded  by  a  written 
pardon.     On    William's    departure    for    the 
Continent,    Marlborough    accompanied    him. 
The  Jacobites  expected  him  to  desert  at  the 
head  of  his  troops.    It  appears  that  his  plot 
was  to  work  on  tiie  dislike  entertained  by  the 
Fjngliah  towards  the  Dutch,  in  order  to  induce 
Parliament  to  petition  the  king  to  discharge 
all  foreign  forces.    He  Uien  hoped  to  ^^t 
the  English  army  to  further  his  views.    &e 
Princess  Anne  was  persuaded  to  write  re- 
pentant   letters  to  her  father.     But  Marl- 
borough -was  hated  and  mistrusted  by  the 
Jacobites,  who  thought  that  he  would  declare, 
not  for  James,  but  for  the  Princess  Anne. 
They    disclosed    the    scheme    to    Portland. 
William  deprived  Marlborough    of  all    his 
offices  (1692).    As  the  real  state  of  the  case 
was    unknown,    his    fate    excited    general 
sjrmpathy.     In  this  year  he  was  sent  to  the 
Tower  on  account  of  false  accusation  given 
to  government  against  him  by  an  informer 
called  Young;  but  was  soon  released.    He 
passed  into  opposition,  exciting  the  aristocracy 
against  tho  Ihitch ;  and  vigorously  supported 
the  Place  Bill.    In  1694  he  betrayed  to  the 
Jacobites  an  intended  expedition  against  Brest 
commanded  by   Talmash.      So    thoroughly 
^aa  he  now   mistrusted,  that  William  re- 
^wcd  to  entrust  the  regency  to  Anne  on  his 
departure  for  the  Continent.    The  death  of 
Jklary  (1694)  was  followed  by  a  recrimination 
o^een  William  and  Princess  Anne.    Mari- 
borough's  designs  were  now  changed,  and  he 
^ww  content  to  wait  till  the  death  of  William 


for  his  own  aggrandisement.  Ho  became 
governor  to  the  Duke  of  Gloucester.  In 
1696  he  was  implicated  in  Sir  John  Fenwick's 
confession,  but  William  ignored  the  accuna- 
tion.  He  took  a  neutral  part  in  the  debates 
on  the  Hesumption  Bill,  and  declared  v^gaini^t 
the  reduction  of  the  army.  In  1701,  when 
the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  was  im- 
minent, he  was  sent  to  Holland  as  commander- 
in-chief;  and  negotiations  for  the  grand 
alliance  were  entruuBted  to  him.  William,  on 
his  deathbed,  recommended  him  to  Anne  as 
the  fittest  general  to  carry  on  his  projects.  On 
the  accession  of  Anne,  he  assumed  a  position 
quite  unique.  *'  He  was  at  once  general, 
diplomatist,  and  minister."  He  occupied 
the  same  position  which  William  III.  had 
held  as  the  leader  of  the  European  opposi- 
tion to  Louis  XIV.  His  voice  was  for 
war,  and  it  was  chiefly  by  his  influence  that 
the  wish  of  the  Tory  party,  that  England 
should  merely  act  as  an  auxiUar}',  was  over- 
come. War  was  declared  in  March,  1 702,  and 
Marlborou^  was  made  commander-in-chief  of 
the  English  and  Dutch  forces.  A  sketdi  of 
Marlborough's  milita:!^  operations  is  given 
elsewhere  [Spanish  Succession,  Wak  of]. 
On  his  return  from  his  first  campaign  he  l)c- 
came  Marquis  of  Blandford  and  Duke  of  Mni-1- 
borough.  At  home  his  design  to  rely  on  a 
mixed  government  had  not  been  cairied  out, 
but  an  almost  entirely  Tory  ministry  was 
formed,  of  which  his  friend  Godolphin  was 
chief.  But  the  dismissal  of  Rochester  (1703) 
was  followed  by  that  of  the  extreme  Tories 
in  1704,  and  a  moderate  section  of  that  paity 
were  placed  in  office.  After  the  campaign  of 
1706,  Marlborough  visited  Vienna,  Bei-lin, 
and  Hanover,  where  he  reconciled  the  differ- 
ences between  the  English  and  Hanoverian 
courts.  In  1706  he  .with  difficulty  persuaded 
his  friend  Heinsius,  Pensionary  of  Holland,  to 
reject  the  French  terms  of  peace.  In  1707  he 
visited  the  camp  of  Charles  XII.  of  S\iedcn, 
and  dissuaded  that  monarch  from  joining 
the  French  alliance,  whereby  the  cau.se  of 
'the  allies  would  probablv  have  been  ruined. 
Meanwhile,  at  home  Marlborough's  afFairs 
were  not  progressing  favourably.  The  nation 
was  getting  weary  of  the  war,  and  the  duke's 
Tory  followers  would  not  support  his  polii^y. 
He  determined  to  complete  his  idea  of  a  eoui- 
posite  ministry  by  admitting  a  section  of  the 
Whigs  to  office.  But  the  plein  was  doomed  to 
failure.  Harley,  seeing  tne  weakness  of  the 
coalition,  began  to  intrigue  against  it,  through 
the  queen's  new  favourite,  Mrs.  !Masham,  by 
arousing  in  Anne  a  dread  of  the  subveraiun  of 
Church  interests.  The  Whig  party  de- 
termined  to  make  their  power  felt,  and  joined 
the  High  Tories  in  an  attack  on  the  duke's 
foreign  policy.  Marlborough  and  Uudolphin 
were,  .therefore,  obliged  to  dismiss  Harley  and 
his  followers,  and  admit  the  Whigs  to  offie(> 
(1708).  Marlborough  has  been  accused  of 
wishing  to  continue  the  war  from  purely  selfish 


(716) 


motives.  He  was  sent  as  plenipotentiaiy  to 
the  Hague,  and  seemed  to  have  strongly  but 
ineffectually  urged  upon  his  colleagues  to  ac- 
cept the  terms  offered  by  the  French  in  1709. 
He  made  two  desperate  attempts  to  obtain  a 
position  independent  of  home  politics.  He 
demanded  from  the  Archduke  Charles  the 
office  of  Governor  of  the  Low  Countries,  worth 
about  £60,000  a  year,  and  he  demanded  from 
Anne  the  post  of  Captain-General  for  Ufe. 
Both  requests  were  refused.  In  Englemd  the 
violent  temper  of  the  duchess  had  alienated 
the  good- will  of  Queen  Anne.  On  the  fall  of 
the  Whigs  (1710),  Marlborough  at  once  made 
overtures  to  the  Tories.  He  seems  to  have 
done  his  best  to  further  the  negotiations  of 
Gertruydenberg.  But  the  fall  of  the  duchess 
already  foreshadowed  his  own.  Harley  se- 
cretly pushed  on  negotiations  for  peace.  When 
the  duke  returned  m>m  the  campaign  of  1710, 
he  entered  into  communication  with  his  old 
friends  the  Whigs,  who  had  joined  a  section 
of  the  Tories  under  Nottingham.  Harley  and 
St.  John  determined  to  ruin  Marlborough. 
He  was  accused  of  having  received  large  sums 
of  money,  amounting  to  £63,000,  on  &e  con- 
tracts for  supplying  the  army  wititi  bread,  and 
also  of  having  received  2^  per  cent,  on  all 
subsidies  for  foreign  troops,  amounting  to 
£177,000.  Marlborough's  defence  was  that 
the  bread  money  had  been  habitually  received 
bv  every  commander-in-chief  and  was  em- 
ployed as  secret-service  money ;  and  that  the 
percentage  on  the  subsidies  was  a  free^  gift 
from  the  allies.  He  was,  however,  deprived 
of  all  his  offices  on  Dec.  31.  On  the  death  of 
his  friend  Godolphin  (1711),  Marlborough  re- 
turned to  the  Continent,  and  resided  first  at 
Frankfort,  then  at  Antwerp.  He  corresponded 
frequently  with  the  Hanoverian  court,  for 
which  he  displayed  great  zeal,  advising  the 
Elector  to  go  over  to  England  with  a  body  of 
troops.  At  the  same  time  he  continued  the 
intrigues  with  the  Jacobite  court  that  he  had 
begun  before  his  fall.  On  the  dismissal  of 
Oxford  [Habley],  he  resolved  to  return  to 
England,  perhaps  at  the  instigation  of  that 
pohtician,  perhaps  hoping  to  play  a  part  in 
the  crisis  that  was  at  hand.  He  arrived  in 
England  on  the  day  of  Anne's  death.  Much 
to  his  disgust,  he  was  omitted  from  the  list  of 
lords  justices  who  were  to  act  until  the 
accession  of  George.  Later  on  in  the  year, 
he  was  reappointed  commander-in-chief; 
but  his  power  was  gone,  and  he  was  dis- 
trusted by  the  king.  We  find  him  sending 
money  to  the  Pretender  just  before  the  in- 
vasion of  1715.  Next  year  an  attack  of 
paial^'sis  greatl}''  impaired  his  faculties.  He 
lived  in  retirement  and  partial  insanity  at 
Blenheim  until  his  death.  *'He  was,"  says 
Ranke,  <*  a  true  child  of  the  years  of  the  Re- 
storation, of  their  social  training  and  lax 
morality,  their  restless  activity  in  Church  and 
State,  in  which  each  individual  hoped  to  turn 
his  natural  gifts  to  account  free  from  the 


trammels  of  any  thought  of  consequences,  and 
to  attain  everything  which  in  the  eyes  of  men 
seems  desirable.  .  .  His  father's  motto  had 
been  *  &ithf ul,  but  unfortunate.'  He,  on  the 
dontrar}",  had  the  favour  of  fortune  in  all  he 
undertook  :  he  belonged  to  those  men  whose 
special  property  it  is,  men  suppose,  to  be  fortu- 
nate ;  but  of  his  fidelity  to  his  sovereign  he  him- 
self could  not  have  boasted. .  .  The  organisation 
of  the  English  army  after  the  Bevolution  wa^i 
in  the  main  his  work.  ...  In  conducting 
public  affairs,  Marlborough  by  no  means  lost 
sight  of  his  own  interests.  .  .  His  cupidity 
may  have  had  in  it  an  element  of  ambition 
that  the  family  which  he  was  to  found  might 
take  an  equal  place  with  aU  that  was  wealQiy 
and  aristocratic  in  England;  but  over  the 
brilliancy  of  his  success  and  fame  it  cast  a 
shade  which  made  the  contrast  all  the  more 
painful." 

Coxa,  Marlborough;  Marlhorough  DetpatcKn; 
Burnet,  Hitt.  o/Hu  Own  Tinu;  Maeanlwy,  Hut. 
o/Eng. ;  Stanhope,  Wyon,  and  Barton's  Histories 
of  Queen  Anne's  reigrn ;  Ameth,  JPrins  Ev^t% 
ton  Bavoyen;  Martin,  Hist,  da  Franco;  Banke, 
SiMt,  qf  Eng. ;  Wolseloy,  lA/o.         pg   j.  L.  ] 

Mkrauu  was  in  early  times  used  to 
denote  the  Marchers  or  lords  of  the  borders. 
It  was  first  used  in  its  later  sense  as  a  title  of 
nobUity  in  England  by  Richard  II.,  who  created 
DeVere,  Marquis  of  Dublin.  The  etjinology  of 
the  word  was  entirely  forgotten,  and  it  was 
simply  used  as  a  title  of  honour,  superior  to 
that  of  earl,  and  inferior  to  that  of  duke.  It 
has  always  been  sparingly  given  in  England. 


_  In  the  Middle  AgM 

the  marriage  fines  exacted  by  the  king  and 
other  lords  from  wards,  and  the  widows  of 
their  tenants,  formed  one  of  the  most  oppres- 
sive of  feudal  incidents.  This  is  shown  from 
the  fact  that  though  a  lord  could  bestow 
his  female — ^and,  by  the  time  of  Henry 
III.,  his  male — ward  in  marriage,  yet  the 
king's  licence  was  necessary :  and  that 
the  abuse  of  giving  widows  in  marriage 
against  their  will  had  to  be  guarded  against 
in  Henty  I.'s  Charter  of  Liberties  and  in 
Magna  Charta.  The  civil  disabilities  of 
marriage  were  for  the  most  part  inoorporaied 
into  the  common  law  from  the  canonical  law, 
the  prohibited  degrees  being  regulated  by 
32  Hen.  VIII.,  c.  88;  and  2  &  3  Ed.  VI., 
c.  23.  Gradually  the  law  drifted  into  an 
uncertain  state.  The  number  of  forms  which 
constituted  a  pre-contract  multiplied,  so  that 
subsequent  marriages  were  liable  to  be 
suddenly  dissolved;  and  the  consent  of 
parents  and  guardians  was  evaded  by  the 
aid  of  Fleet  parsons.  The  Act  commonly 
called  Lord  Hardwicke*s  Act  (1753)  provided 
therefore  that  marriages  must  be  performed 
in  the  parish  church  (those  of  Jews  and 
Quakers  alone  being  excepted)  after  the  pab- 
lication  of  banns,  or  by  special  licence  granted 
by  the  archbishop.  Any  clergj'man  breaking 
these  restrictions  was  liable  to  tran^ortstioa 


(717) 


for  seven  yean.  Further  regulationB  for 
marriages  within  the  Church  of  England 
were  provided  by  the  Act  of  4  Geo.  IV. ,  c.  76. 
The  hardships  inflicted  npon  Dissenters 
under  these  Acts  occupied  for  some  time  the 
attention  both  of  Lord  John  Russell  and 
of  Sir  JEtobert  Peel.  In  1836  the  latter 
carried  the  Dissenters'  Marriage  Bill,  by  which 
marriage  by  notice  to  the  Kegistrar  of  a 
district  was  legalised,  as  well  as  the  publica- 
tion of  banns  or  licence,  and  marriages  of 
Dissenters  might  be  solemnised  in  their  own 
chapels ;  or,  if  they  preferred  it,  they  mi^ht 
enter  into  a  civil  contract  before  the  Superm- 
tendent-Reg^istrar.  In  the  previous  year  all 
marriages  thereafter  celebrated  between 
persons  within  the  prohibited  degrees  were 
made  absolutely  void  instead  of  being  valid 
nntil  annulled  by  sentence  of  the  eccle- 
siastical court.  The  marriages  of  members 
of  the  royal  family  are  regulated  by  the  Royal 
Marriag^e  Act  of  1772  (amended  by  the 
Act  3  &  4  Vict.,  c.  32),  by  which  the  consent 
of  the  sovereign  is  required  for  the  marriage 
of  the  heir  to  the  throne.  In  Scotland  the  law 
is  considerably  more  lax  with  regard  to  the 
recognition  of  irregular  marriages,  and  in  other 
respects  the  law  remains  in  the  state  in  which 
it  was  in  England  before  Lord  Hardwicke*s 
Act.  In  Ireland  cruel  and  unnecessary  re- 
strictions were  imposed  under  the  penal  laws 
on  the  marriages  between  Protestants  and 
Catholics.  These,  however,  have  since  been 
repealed,  and  in  1844  the  law  relating  to 
marriages  in  Ireland  was  practically  assimi- 
lated to  that  existing  in  England  and 
Wales. 

Phillimore,  EeeUiictitical  Lair,  vol.  i. :  Maj, 
Hint.  o/Eng.,  vol.  ii.,  ch.  xiv.  ;  Stanhope,  Hwt.  of 
Eng.,  VOL  iv.,  cb.  xxxi. ;  26  Geo.  II.,  c.  23 ;  4  Geo. 
IV.,  c.  76;  5  A  6  Will.  IV.,  c.  54 ;  6  A  7  Will. 
IV.,  c.  85 ;  7  A  8  Vict.,  c.  81.  n,^  C.  S.] 

Marskal,  The,  was  one  of  the  great 
offices  of  the  household  of  the  Norman  and 
Plantagexiet  kings,  holding  equal  or  slightly 
inferior  rank  to  the  Constable  and  the  Clian- 
cellor.  His  special  function  was  that  of 
blaster  of  the  Horse;  but  he  came  to  be 
also  charged  with  a  superintendence  over 
the  practice  of  chivalry  and  the  laws  of 
honour.  The  Marshal,  together  with  the 
Constable,  was  the  judge  of  the  court  of 
honour.  The  office  of  Earl  Marshal  was 
made  hereditary  in  the  family  of  the  Earls  of 
Pembroke  at  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century. 
It  passed  by  female  descent  to  the  Bigods, 
Earls  of  Jforfolk,  and  was  held  by  the 
Mowbrays,  the  Howards,  and  the  Arundols.  It 
was  made  perpetual  in  the  descendants  of 
Henry  Howard,  Earl  of  Norwich,  and  has 
since  continued  in  his  descendants,  the  Dukes 
of  Norfolk.  The  Earl  Marshal  is  still  head  of 
the  Heralds'  College  and  appoints  officers  of 
arms.  In  Scotland  the  office  of  Marischal 
Wame  hereditary  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
in  the  family  of  the  Earls  of  Keith.     The 


Marischal  was  made  an  earl  in  1458.  The 
dignity  came  to  an  end  in  1716,  when 
G^rge,  the  tenth  earl,  was  attainted  for  his 
share  in  the  Jacobite  rising. 

ICarslialy  Richard  {d.  1234),  was  the  son 
of  the  great  William  Marshal,  Ea^l  of 
Pembroke.  He  succeeded  to  the  earldom 
on  his  brother's  death  in  1231,  and  soon  came 
forward  as  the  champion  of  the  English 
against  Peter  des  Roches  and  the  foreign 
courtiers.  For  this  he  was  declared  a  traitor, 
and  the  king  marched  against  him.  The  earl 
allied  himself  with  the  Welsh,  and  defeated 
the  royal  troops.  Des  Roches  now  had  re- 
course to  treachery,  and  ha\ang  induced  him 
to  go  over  to  Ireland  to  defend  his  possessions, 
took  care  that  he  should  be  betrayed.  He 
fell  mortally  wounded  at  Kildare,  having 
been  drawn  into  a  battle  by  the  agents  of  Dos 
Roches.  Mr.  Pearson  calls  him  "the  first 
gentleman  of  his  day,  with  as  much  learning 
as  a  knight  needed,  and  with  all  his  father's 
loyalty  of  nature." 

Karslial,  or  Kareschal,  William, 
Eakl  of  Pexbbokb  {d.  1219),  first  appears 
as  one  of  the  judges  in  Richard  I.'s  time, 
and  one  of  the  council  appointed  to  advise 
the  justiciars  during  the  king's  absence 
from  England.  He  upheld  John's  claim  to 
the  throne,  and  during  that  king's  struggle 
with  the  barons  was  one  of  his  chief  sup- 
porters. By  his  marriage  with  the  daughter 
of  Strongbow  he  became  Earl  of  Pem- 
broke, and  received  besides  many  valuable 
grants  from  the  king.  On  the  death  of 
John,  he  was  at  once  appointed  regent,  and 
by  his  wisdom  and  ability  secured  the  throne 
to  the  young  king,  Henry  III.  He  defeated 
Louis,  of  France,  and  compelled  him  to  quit 
England,  and  confirmed  the  Great  Charter. 

Karston  Koor,  The  Battle  of  (July  2, 
1644),  was  fought  during  the  Great  Rebellion. 
York  was  laid  siege  to  on  May  20,  1644,  by 
the  Scotch  army  imder  the  Earl  of  Leven, 
and  the  Yorkshire  army  under  the  command 
of  the  Fairfaxes.  They  wore  joined  on 
June  2  b}'  the  army  of  the  Eastern  Associa- 
tion under  the  Earl  of  Manchester.  ()n  July 
1  the  combined  armies  raised  the  siege  at 
the  news  of  the  approach  of  Prince  Rupert, 
who  by  skilful  mana?uvring  contrived  to 
enter  the  city  without  a  battle.  Against 
the  advice  of  the  Marquis  of  Newcustie  he 
determined  to  offer  battle,  and  pursued  the 
Parliamentary  army  for  that  purpose.  The 
allied  army,  numbering  in  all  about  15,000 
foot  and  9,000  horse,  was  posted  between 
the  villages  of  Long  Marston  and  Tockwith. 
The  Roj'alists,  about  22,000  strong,  were 
ranged  on  Marston  Moor  itself.  The  battle 
began  about  seven  in  the  evening  with  a 
general  attack  on  the  part  of  the  allies.  On 
the  left  Cromwell  and  David  Leslie  routed 
Prince  Rupert's  horse,  and,  aided  by  the  Earl 


(  718) 


of  Manchester's  foot,  put  to  flight  a  portion  of 
the  Royalist  in^intry.  Meanwhile  the  whole 
right  wing  was  utterly  defeated,  with  the 
exception  of  Fairfax's  own  regiment,  which 
succeeded  in  joining  Manchester's  horse  on 
the  left.  A  desperate  struggle  now  took  place 
in  the  centre.  The  Scotch  infantry  were 
attacked  in  front  hy  Newcastle's  foot,  in  the 
flank  by  Goring's  v-ictorious  cavalrj-,  and  at 
the  third  charge  the  regiments  of  the  reserve 
broke  and  fled.  But  the  greater  part  main- 
tained their  ground,  and  their  resistance 
g;ive  time  for  Manchester's  foot,  and  the 
caval^  of  the  left  wing  under  Cromwell 
and  David  Leslie,  to  come  to  their  help. 
Thia  decided  the  day.  Goring's  horse  were 
driven  from  the  field,  the  Royalist  foot 
scattered,  and  ^Newcastle's  own  regiment  of 
white-coats,  which  made  the  most  desperate 
resistance,  cut  to  pieces.  The  pursuit  was 
continued  by  moonlight  to  within  three  miles 
df  York.  The  losses  on  both  sides  were 
heavy.  The  killed  alone  numbered  4,150  of 
whom  3,000  were  Royalists.  The  whole  of 
the  artillery  and  baggage  of  the  conquered 
army  was  captured,  with  100  colours  and 
lOyOOO  arms. 

Sanford,  Studiis  and  lUustrationa  of  the  Qrmit 
RehellUm  ;  MarkbAm,  Life  of  Fairfax  ;  BaHXie'e 
Letiere ;  HoUee'  Memoin ;  OromvelTe  Lettere;  Sir 
Thomas  Fairfax's  Short  Memorial;  Boshworth's 
CoUfctions ;  Clarendon,  Hiet,  oftheRehMi&n ;  Sir 
Ueury  Slingsby's  Diary,  [C  H   F  1 


'-Prelate,  Works  of, 
were  certain  publications  by  various  authors 
containing  attacks  on  the  bishops  and  Queen 
Klizabeth.  They  were  supposed  to  be  the 
composition  of  John  Penry,  who  was  executed 
in  ld93,  but  were  in  reality  the  work  of  more 
hands  than  one,  and  consisted  of  *'  the  most 
coarHc\  scurrilous,  and  indecent  pasquinades  " 
agtiinst  the  episcopal  8\'stem.  They  had  a 
very  injurious  effect,  and  were  the  means  of 
bringing  on  the  controversy  between  Thomas 
C5artwright  and  Archbishop  Whitgift. 
Burnet,  Hwt.  of  the  Reforvfyaiion. 


Jt  QiEEN  (*.  Feb.  18,  1516,  *.  July 

19,  15.53 ;  (i.  Nov.  17,  1658),  was  the  daughter 
of  Henr}-  VIII.  and  Catherine  of  Aragon. 
Several  marriage  alliances  were  arranged  for 
her  in  childhood.  In  1518  a  treaty  was  con- 
cluded for  her  marriage  with  the  Dauphin 
Fnincis,  and  when  this  was  broken  off  it  was 
ammged  that  she  should  marr>'  Charles  V. 
(1522),  atid  the  project  of  marrying  her  to 
Francis  I.  of  France  was  also  discussed  (1527). 
8ho  was  carefully  educated,  and  was  an  ac- 
complished and  precocious  child.  On  the 
riK<>  of  Anne  Boleyn  the  young  princess  was 
titrated  with  great  harshness.  By  an  Act  of 
1534  she  was  declared  illegitimate,  and  she 
Wits  refused  permission  to  see  her  mother. 
8he  was  compelled  to  subscribe  a  document 
ill  which  she  declared  her  own  illegitimacy, 
and  the  invalidity  of  her  mother's  marriage. 


She  was  again  declared  illegitimate  in  1536, 
but  by  an  Act  of  1544  (35  Hen.  Vin.,  c.  i.) 
the  succession  was  secured  on  her.    In  the 
reign  of  Edward  VI.  she  refused  to  obey  the 
Act  of  Uniformity ;  but  the  Council,  though 
they  threatened  her,  were  afraid  to  proceed 
to  violent  measures  with  her  because  of  her 
popularity  with  the  people ;  and  though  she 
felt  in  such  danger  that  she  attempted  to 
escape     to  the    Continent,    she   was  never- 
theless able  to    resist   all   the   attempts  of 
the  Coimcil  to  compel  her  to  accept  the  New 
Service  Book  (1551).    On  the  death  of  Ed- 
ward she  laid  claim  to  the  crown  (July  9, 
1653).      Lady  Jane    Grey    was    proclaimed 
queen  in  London  on  the  following  day.    But 
^e  was  absolutely  destitute  of  support ;  and 
^lary,  advancing  from  the  eastern  counties, 
was  joined  by  considerable  numbers  of  the 
gentry  and  nobles,  and  found  herself  at  the 
head  of  a  large  body    of  followers.      The 
Duke  of    Northumberland's    forces    melted 
away,  and  he  proclaimed  Mary  at  Cambridge 
(July  20).    On  August  3  she  entered  London, 
and  her  reign  began.    She  was  a  firm  and 
sincere  Roman  Catholic,  and  to  her  uncle, 
Charles  V.  of  Spain,  she  looked  for  assistance 
and  support.    Her  first  act  was  to  liberate 
the  Catholic  bishops  imprisoned  during  her 
brother's  reign,   and   to   prohibit   preaching 
without  a  licence ;  while  some  of  the  promi- 
nent    Reformers,     Hooper,     Cranmer,    and 
Latimer  were  imprisoned.    She  was  declared 
legitimate  by  Act  of  Parliament,  and  crowned 
by  Gkirdiner,    Bishop  of  Winchester   (Oct., 
1553).     In  Jan.,    1554,  much  to  the  disap- 
pointment of  her  subjects,  she  concluded  a 
marriage  treaty  with  Philip  of  Spain,  son  of 
Charles  V.     Henceforward  her  reign,  which 
had  opened  well,  was  unhappy  and  disastrous. 
The  insurrection  of  Wyatt  in  Kent  followed, 
and  though  this  was  put  down  without  much 
difiiculty,  it  led  to  the  execution  of  Lady 
Jane  Grey  (Fob.  12, 1554),  who  had  been  tried 
and  found  guilty  in  the  previous  November, 
together  with  her  husband  and  father.    In 
July  the  marriage  took  place.    Cardinal  Pole 
came  to  England,  and  the  Catholic  reaction 
was  pushed  on.    All  statutes  against  the  Pope 
since  the  twentieth  year  of  Henry  VIII.  were 
repealed,  though  the  monastic  Urnds  were  not 
resumed.    The  following  year  the  persecuting 
statutes  of  Henry  IV.  and  V.  were  revived, 
and  under  them  Hooper,  and  many  other 
eminent  Reformers,  were  burnt.     Under  the 
investigation  of  Pole  and  the  Spanish  court 
the  persecution  continued  during  1556,  and 
Cranmer,  with  Latimer,  Ridley,  and  a  large 
number  of  clergymen  and  others  were  put  to 
death  as  heretics.    In  the  midst  of  the  gloom 
and    distress    caused    by    this    persecution. 
Philip  persuaded  Marj'  to  declare  war  against 
the  f^^ch.    The  Spaniards  and  English  won 
a  brilliant  victory  at  St.  Quentin  (1657) ;  hot 
the  campaign    was    disastrous  to  England, 
since  it  resulted  in  the  capture  of  Calais  by 


(  719) 


the  Duke  of  Guise  (Jan.,  1568).  The  queen, 
who  had  long  been  sinking  under  the  per- 
plexity and  stiain  of  public  atfairs,  and  the 
failure  of  her  measures,  never  recovered  from 
this  last  blow.  She  died  a  few  months  after 
it  (Nov.,  1658).  Mary's  character  has  been 
indelibly  stained  in  popular  opinion  by  the 
sanguinary  persecution  of  her  reign.  Yet  it  is 
probable  that  the  fuU  extent  of  the  martyrdom 
was  hardly  known  to  her,  for  during  a  great 
part  of  the  time  she  was  in  a  state  of  depres- 
sion and  inaction  owing  to  mental  and  bodily 
ill-health.  She  seems  to  have  been  by  no 
means  harsh  or  cruel  in  her  disposition,  and 
conscientiously  anxious  for  the  welfare  of  her 
country,  as  well  as  for  the  good  of  the  Church 
to  which  she  was  devotedly  attached.  The 
unfortunate  Spanish  marriage  was  responsible 
for  the  worst  evils  of  her  reign. 

Foza,  AiA  and  Monwnanta;  Bnmet,  Hut.  of  the 
R0formaiMn ;  Froude,  SM.  qf  Eng. ;  Lineard, 
Hwt.  of  Eng.  ;  Tytler,  Edvcard  VL  and  Mary; 
Cal4mdar»  of  ^ate  Papers  ;  Noailles,  Amba$9aae» 
en  AngleUrre  ;  CkrontcU  of  Queen  Jane  and  Qumii 
Jfary  (Camden  See.).  [S.  J.  L.] 

Kiury  ZX.,  Quben  (b.  1662,  «.  1688,  d, 
1694),  wife  of  William  III.,  was  the  daughter 
of  the  Duke  of  York,  afterwards  James  II.,  and 
Anne  Hyde.  By  the  command  of  Charles  II., 
she  was  educated  in  the  Protestant  religion. 
At  the  age  of  fifteen  she  was  betrothed  to 
William  of  Orange,  and  married  to  him  1677. 
In  1687  they  sent  a  joint  expression  of  their 
opinion  to  James,  condemnatory  of  the  Declara- 
tion of  Indulgence.  Maryapprovedof  William's 
expedition  to  England.    She  probably  never 
cared  for  her  father,  who  had  established  a 
system  of  espionage  at  the  Hague,  and  had  re- 
fused her  peoimiary  assistance.     In  company 
with  the  rest  of  the  world,  she  believed  the 
Prince  of  Wales  to  be  supposititious.    A  large 
section  of  English  statesmen  determined,  on 
the  flight  of  James  II.,  to  proclaim  her  as 
queen.     She  might,  they  thought,  make  her 
husband  Prime  Minister,  or  even  gfive  him 
the  title  of  king.   The  leader  of  the  party  was 
Danby,  while  Halifax  was  the  chief  supporter 
of  William's  interests.  At  length,  in  February, 
1689,  Burnet  (q.v.)  thought  it  right  to  de- 
clare her  views,  that  she  would  surrender  her 
power,  with  the  consent  of  Parliament,  into 
the  hands  of  her  husband.     At  the  same  time 
she  wrote  an  earnest  letter  to  the  same  effect 
to  Danby.    She  arrived  that  month  in  Lon- 
don.   Before  her  arrival  the  dispute  had  been 
settled.    The  crown  was  tendered  to  William 
and  Mary  jointly,  and  accepted  by  them. 
They  were  prochumed  in  London  on  Feb.  14, 
1689.    Mary  immediately,  from  her  amiable 
qualities,  gained  deserved  popularity.     The 
<»urt,  owing  to  William's  infirmities,  was  re- 
moved from  Whitehall  to  Hampton  Court, 
i^d  from  thence  to  Kensington  House.    On 
April  U,  1689,  she  was  crowned  with  her 
husband.    In  the  'same  month  they  received 
the  crown  of   Scotland.     During   William's 
<*njpaign   in   Ireland,   lilarj',  aided  [by  the 


steady  friendship  of  Burnet,  acted  with  ad- 
mirable decision.  Clarendon,  her  uncle,  and 
several  other  suspected  Jacobites,  were  lodged 
in  the  Tower.  On  receiving  the  news  of  the 
battle  of  the  Boyne,  she  wrote  to  William, 
imploring  that  no  harm  should  happen  to 
her  father.  In  1692  the  treacher}'  of  Marl- 
borough was  discovered,  and  he  was  dismissed 
from  his  employments,  much  to  the  anger  of 
the  Princess  Anne.  The  quarrel  between  the 
two  sisters  was  final.  The  guard  of-  honour 
previously  allotted  to  the  princess  was  taken 
away ;  the  king  and  queen  went  to  unjustifi- 
able lengths  in  their  resentment.  But  Mary 
soon  regained  her  lost  popularity.  Once  more 
William  left  England,  and  the  French  fleet 
was  known  to  be  about  to  escort  a  French  in- 
vading army  across  the  Channel.  The  English 
navy  was  understood  to  be  disaffected.  The 
queen  sent  a  despatch,  written  by  Notting- 
ham, in  which  she  refused  to  believe  the  re- 
ports in  circulation,  and  placed  her  entire 
confidence  in  her  naval  officers.  All  disaffec- 
tion was  checked  at  once,  and  the  battle  of 
La  Hogue  (1692)  resulted  in  a  glorious  victory 
over  the  enemy.  By  the  queen's  order,  those 
wounded  in  the  engu^ment  were  relieved  at 
the  public  charge.  £i  1694  she  sickened  of 
the  smallpox,  and  it  was  evident  that  her  end 
was  near.  William  remained  day  and  night 
at  her  bedside.  Before  she  died  she  received 
a  letter  of  reconciliation  from  the  Princess 
Anne.  Her  death,  to  which  she  submitted 
with  noble  resignation,  took  place  on  Dec.  28. 

Bamet,  Hi^.  of  hie  Own  Time  ;  Echard,  Hiet. 
of  the  RevolvHon;  Coxe,  Marlhn%-ough ;  Marl- 
'wi-ough  IkejwUhee;  LattreljL  BelatUm  <if  State 
.iffaire;  Macauloy,  Hiet.  of  Eny.  ;  Banke,  Siet. 


r,  QuBEN  OP  Scots  (b.  Dec.  7,  1642  •, 
*.  Dec.  l4,  1642 ;  d.  Feb.  8,  1687),  was  the 
daughter  of  James  Y.  and  Mary  of  Guise, 
and  was  bom  at  Linlithgow,  a  week  only 
before  her  father's  death.  In  1643  a  treaty 
with  England  arranged  for  a  marriage  be- 
tween the  young  princess  and  Prince  Edward 
of  England.  In  Aug.,  1648,  Mary  was 
taken  to  France  for  greater  security,  a 
marriage  being  arranged  between  her  and  the 
Dauphm.  This  marriage  took  place  on  April 
24,  1668,  the  Dauphin  receiving  the  title  of 
Kin^  of  Scots  from  the  Scottish  Com- 
missioners. The  following  year,  on  the  death 
of  Henry  II.,  Mary  became  Queen  of  France 
(as  the  granddaughter  of  Margaret,  sister  of 
Henr}'  VIII.),  being  also  declared  Queen  of 
England  by  the  French  and  Spanish  courts. 
In  Dec.,  1660,  her  husband,  Frsmcis  II.,  died, 
an  event  which  seems  to  have  caused  the 
young  queen  deep  grief,  and  the  following 
year  (Aug.,  1661)  £e  returned  to  Scotland. 
Here  her  devotion  to  the  Homish  Church  at 
once  brought  her  into  collision  with  Knox 
and  the  Reformers.  But  the  lavish  splendour 
of  Mar}''s  court,  her  beauty,  and  her  accom- 
plished wit,  soon  rendered  her  exceedingly 


(  720  ) 


popular  amongst  her  people.  The  first  years 
of  her  rule  in  Sootlaiid  were  taken  up  with 
overcoming  the  disaffection  of  the  Catholic 
lords  of  the  north,  finding  a  modu»  vivendi 
with  the  Reformers,  and  discussing  various 
projects  for  the  queen's  marriage,  in  all  which 
transactions  Mary's  adroitness  and  courage 
were  conspicuous.  In  1663  a  marriage  with 
Don  Carlos,  son  of  Philip  II.,  was  proposed 
by  the  Guises,  and  in  1564  fruitless  negotia- 
tions took  place  for  her  marriage  with 
Elizabeth's  favourite,  Bobert  Dudley.  In 
July,  1565,  however,  she  married  Henry 
Damley  (q.v.),  to  the  great  disgust  of  most  of 
her  friends.  A  force  quickly  collected  by  the 
discontented  lords  was  scattered  at  the  ap- 
proach of  Mary  and  her  husband  at  the  head 
of  the  loyal  army,  the  confederates  taking 
refuge  at  the  court  of  Elizabeth,  who,  in 
consideration  of  their  efforts  to  r^tore  Pro- 
testantism in  Scotland,  aided  them  with 
money.  Meanwhile  the  vice  and  folly  of  her 
husbuid  rendered  it  impossible  for  Mary's 
domestic  life  to  be  a  happy  one.  The  murder 
of  her  favourite,  Bizzio  (Mar.  9,  1566),  in 
her  presence  at  Damley's  instigation,  is  only 
one  of  the  many  insults  she  endured  at  his 
hands.  This  murder  was,  however,  followed 
by  a  feigned  reconciliation,  the  queen  escaping 
from  the  Confederate  Lords  in  her  husbuid's 
company  to  Dunbar  Castle.  Here  a  force 
raised  for  her  protection  by  Bothwell  caused 
her  enemies  to  fall  back.  After  the  birth  of 
her  son  (afterwards  James  YI.)  on  July  19, 
1566,  Mary  became  reconciled  to  many  of  the 
rebellious  lords,  reserving  all  her  resentment 
for  her  husband,  to  whose  murder  at  Kirk  of 
Field  she  was  almost  certainly  privy.  After 
the  acquittal  of  Bothwell  for  the  murder. 
Mar}'  was  carried  off  by  him  to  Dunbar 
Castle,  and  on  his  obtaining  a  divorce  from 
his  wife,  Lady  Jane  Gordon,  married  him 
(Mav  1»5,  1567).  She  was  not,  however, 
destined  to  remain  undisturbed  for  long. 
A  month  later  a  combination  of  discon- 
tented lords  against  Bothwell  and  the  queen 
led  to  his  flight  and  to  her  surrender  to 
Kirkcaldy  of  Grange  at  Carberrj'  Hill  (June, 
1667).  Insulted  at  Edinburgh  by  the  people, 
she  was  removed  to  Lochleven  Castle,  where, 
on  July  23,  1567,  she  was  forced  to  sign  a 
deed  of  abdication  and  to  appoint  Murray 
regent  of  the  kingdom  during  the  minority  of 
her  son.  Queen  Elizabeth's  interference  on 
her  behalf  was  of  no  avail,  bat  by  degrees 
the  remnants  of  her  party  collected,  and  on 
her  escape  in  May,  1568,  she  found  herself 
under  the  protection  of  the  Hamiltons  and 
other  nobles,  and  at  the  head  of  6,000  men. 
Her  abdication  was  at  once  revoked,  and  aid 
sought  from  England  and  France ;  but  her 
triumph  was  of  short  duration,  for  on  the 
defeat  of  her  army  at  Langside  (May  13, 
1568),  she  was  compelled  to  take  refuge  in 
England,  where  she  hoped  to  find  a  friend  in 
Elizabeth.     Having  landed  at  Workington, 


in  Cumberland,  she  was  escorted  to  CazUsle^ 
and  thence  to  Bolton  Castle.  Ehzabeth, 
however,  refused  to  grant  her  a  perxmal 
interview,  and  also  renised  to  allow  her  to 
return  to  Scotland,  alleging  the  danger  to 
which  she  would  be  exposed  as  the  excuse  for 
detaining  her.  In  Oct,  1568,  a  commission 
sat  at  York  to  settle  the  differences  between 
Mary  and  her  subjects;  to  consider  the 
charges  brought  against  her;  to  pronounce 
on  the  authenticity  of  the  Casket  Letters 
(q.v.),  and  to  provide  for  the  abandonment  on 
the  part  of  the  iScottish  Queen  of  all  claim  to 
the  English  crown  "  during  the  life  of  Queen 
Elizabeth  or  her  descenduits.'J  This  com- 
mission was  afterwards  remov^  to  London, 
where,  on  Nov.  26,  the  charge  of  murder  was 
sprung  upon  the  Queen  of  Scots.  There- 
upon, her  oommissionerSi  acting  under  Mary's 
instructions,  demanded  instant  admittance 
to  Elizabeth's  presence,  and  on  this  being 
refused,  withdrew  from  the  proceedings. 
On  Jan.  10,  1569,  judgment  was  given  to  the 
effect  that  Murray  had  not  been  proved  guilty 
of  disloyalty,  nei&er  had  there  been  anything 
produced  or  shown  against  Mary,  *'  whereby 
the  Queen  of  Engluid  should  conceive  or 
take  any  evil  opinion  of  the  queen,  her  good 
sister,  for  anything  yet  seen."  Elizabetli 
still  kept  possession  of  her  rival.  Plots 
against  the  English  queen,  proposed  rebel- 
lions, and  the  papal  bull  which  excommuni- 
cated Elizabeth  followed,  and  it  is  certain 
that  England  was  in  considerable  danger  from 
France,  Spain,  and  Bome.  In  1570  Mary, 
having  been  removed  to  Tutbury  and  Chats- 
worth,  was  imprisoned  in  Sheffield  Castle,  till 
1585,  when  she  was  taken  back  to  Tutbun*, 
and  thence  to  Chartley.  Detected  by  the 
espionage  of  Walsingham  in  the  concoction  of 
Babington's  plot  against  the  queen's  life  (Sept., 
1586),  she  was  sent  to  Fotheringay  Castle,  in 
Nottinghamshire,  tried,  and  found  g^ty  (Oct 
25,  1586^.  She  was  sentenced  to  death  and 
beheaded  at  Fotheringay  (Feb.  8,  1587).  Con- 
cerning her  character  the  most  divergent 
views  have  been  taken.  These  can  hardly  be 
discussed  here,  nor  is  the  evidence  such  as  to 
make  any  decisive  verdict  possible. 

Anderson,  Collect.  rAating  to  Mary,  QMemnf 
Scotland  (1717)^  fittrltfigli  State  Paper*  i  Kdth, 
Hist,  of  Affair*  vn  Scotland  Jrom  R^ormation  to 
l&es  (Spottiswoode  See.) ;  Hoeack,  Life  of  Mary 
Qu00n  0/  Soots;  Labanoff,  Mim.  de  MarU  Shuirt; 
Gauthier,  Marie  Stuart;  Mjgrat,  J£an«  Stuart ; 
Strickland,  Qveena  qf  Scotland ;  Buxton,  Hut  o/ 
Scotland ;  Froude,  Hut.  of  Eng.  ;  Schiern, 
Bothxcell;  Mr.  Swinburne's  article  in  Sncf- 
dopadia  Britanniea  {9tb.  ed.). 

Mary  of  Modena,   Quebk,  wife  of 

James  ll.  (b.  1658,  d.  1718),  was  the 
daughter  of  Alfonso,  Duke  of  Modeoa, 
and  was  married  to  James  in  1673.  She  vas 
unpopular  in  England  owing  to  her  religion. 
By  James  she  had  six  sons,  of  whom  Jaine« 
Edward,  the  "Old  Pretender,"  was  one. 
After  her  husband's  death  she  retired  to  the 
nunnery  of  Chaillot. 


'(  721  ) 


MMierflelct  Battle  of  (642),  was  fought 
between  Oswald  of  Northumbiia  and  Penda 
of  Mercia,  and  resulted  in  the  defeat  and 
death  of  ^e  former.  Mr.  Ingram  identifies 
Maserfield  with  Mirfield  in  Yorkshire.  It  is 
more  likely  to  have  been  near  Oswestry,  a  town 
taking  its  name  from  Oswald. 


Abigail  {d.  1734),  afterwards 
Lady  Masham,  was  a  favourite  of  Queen  Anne. 
Uer  father  was  a  London  merchant  who  be- 
came a  bankrupt,  her  mother  was  the  aunt  of 
Sarah  Jennings,  Duchess  of   Marlborough. 
Mrs.  Hill  ent^^  the  house  of  Lady  Rivers, 
and  afterwards  that  of  Lady  Marlborough, 
who  obtained  for  her  the  post  of  beachamber 
woman  to  the  queen.    In  1707  she  was  pri- 
vately married,  in  the  queen's  presence,  to 
Mr.  Samuel  Masham,  one  of  Prince  George's 
gentlemen.     This  roused  the  suspicions  of 
the  duchess,  who  soon  discovered  that  Mrs. 
Masham's    cousin  Harley,   afterwards  Lord 
Oxford,  was  using  her  as  a  means  of  further- 
ing  his  interests  with  the  queen.    It  was 
thought   to   be    owing  to  the  influence  of 
Harley  and  Mrs.  Masham  that  Anne  created 
two    new    bishops    without    consulting   the 
minister  Godolphin.    In  spite  of  her  violence 
the    duchess   found  herself    gradually  sup- 
planted  by  her  former  dependent.    On  the 
downfall    of    Godolphin's    ministry    (1710), 
Mrs.  Masham  introduced  Harley,  now  vir- 
tually Prime  Minister,  to  the  queen.     She 
received  the  Privy  Purse  after  her  rival  the 
duchess  had  been  dismissed,  and  her  husband 
was  raised  to  the  peerage,  apparently  against 
the  wish  of  Anne.    Harley  quarrelled  with 
her,  probably  about  some  money  he  had  pro- 
mised her  out  of  the  Asiento  Contract,  and 
now  relied  on  the  rival  favourite,  the  Duchess 
of  Somerset.  Lady  Masham  joined  the  Boling- 
broke  faction,  although  Swift  attempted  a 
reconciliation  between  the  two  ministers  at  her 
house.      In   fact,  there  is  some   reason  to 
believe  that  it  was  through  her  and  Ormonde 
that  the  Jacobites  at  St.  Germains  induced 
the  queen  to  dismiss  Harley,  and  she  had 
certainly  reproached  him  for  his  uselessness 
shortly  before  that  event  took  place  (July, 
1714).    Of  the  remainder  of  her  life  nothing  is 
known.    From  this  time  Lady  Masham's  name 
disappears  from  history.    Her  influence  over 
Queen  Anne  is  to  be  ascribed,  first,  to  her 
political  and  Church  principles,  which  were 
in  almost  exact  accord  with  those  of   her 
mistress,  and,  secondly,  to  that  "  suppleness 
of  temper"  which  formed   so  great  a  con- 
trast to  the  violent  character  of  the  Duchess 
of  ^larlborough. 

Stanhope,  Higt.  of  Eng. ;  J.  H.  Burton,  Hitt, 
of  Qnun  Anne. 

Ma4M)lI,  Sir  John  (d,  1566),  was  distin- 
guished during  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII., 
Edward  VI.,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth,  as  a 
■titesman  and  as  a  diplomatist,  fie  was  sent 
in  1550  to  France  to  discuss  the  possession  of 


Boulogne  with  the  French  commissioners.  He 
subsequently  sided  with  Northumberland, 
but  was  employed  on  various  missions  under 
Mary.  After  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  he, 
in  conjunction  with  Lord  Paget,  opposed 
Cecil,  and  warmly  advocated  a  Spanish  policy. 
Mason  was  said  to  have  brought  back  from 
his  various  embassies  "  the  Italian's  quickness, 
the  Spaniard's  staidness,  the  Frenchman's  air, 
the  Gferman's  resolution,  and  the  Dutchman's 
industry."  Mason  himself  accounts  for  his 
success  in  gaining  the  favour  of  four  sove- 
reigns by  his  "speaking  little,  and  writing 
less,"  and  by  *^  attaining  to  something  which 
each  party  esteemed  serviceable  to  them,  and 
being  so  moderate  that  all  thought  him  their 


own. 


Tytlor,  Edward  VI.  and  Mary. 


Matilda  {d.  1083),  wife  of  William  the 
Conqueror,  was  the  daughter  of  Baldwin  V., 
Count  of  Flanders.  She  was  married  to 
William  in  1053,  but,  being  near  relations, 
and  not  having  obtained  the  papal  dispen- 
sation, they  were  placed  under  excommuni- 
cation. By  Lanfranc's  intercession  this  ban 
was  removed  subsequently.  Her  fame  chiefly 
rests  on  the  Bayeux  tapestry  (q.v.),  which 
there  is  great  reason  for  believing  to  be  her 
own  handiwork.  Of  her  personal  character 
little  is  known,  but  the  story  of  her  having 
vindictively  deprived  Brihtric — a  Saxon  noble 
who  rejected  her  advances  in  the  days  when 
she  was  at  her  father's  court — of  all  his  lands, 
if  true,  is  unfavourable  to  her  character. 

Matilda,  or  Maud  (d.  1118),  the  first 
wife  of  Henry  I.,  was  the  daughter  of  Malcolm 
of  Scotland  and  Margaret,  sister  of  Edgar 
Atheling.  Her  original  name  was  Edith,  but 
on  £er  marriage  the  Saxon  appellation  was 
discarded  for  &e  Norman  one  of  Matilda  or 
Maud.  She  had  been  brought  up  in  the 
convent  of  Komsey  by  her  aunt  Christine, 
but  never  took  the  veil.  Her  title,  "  Good 
Queen  ISIaud,"  seems  to  have  been  well 
deserved.  She  ministered  to  the  poor  with 
her  own  hands,  and  was  a  great  supporter  of 
Ansebn,  and  the  Church.  Her  later  years 
were  passed  in  pious  seclusion. 

Matilda,  or  Maud  («.  1103,  d.  1167), 

was  the  only  daughter  of  Henry  I.  In  1 1 14 
she  was  married  to  the  Emperor  Henr^  V.,  by 
whom  she  had  no  issue.  Henry  died  m  1125, 
and  her  brother  William  having  been  drowned, 
Maud  was  summoned  to  England,  and  homage 
was  done  to  her  as  the  future  queen  (1126). 
In  1128,  contrar}'  to  the  wishes  of  many  of 
the  barons,  she  was  married  .to  Geoffrey  of 
Anjou.  The  unpopularity  of  this  mateh  gave 
an  opportunity  to  Stephen  to  seize  the  crown 
on  the  death  of  Henry  I.,  but  his  misgovern- 
ment  quickly  alienated  a  large  number  of  his 
subjects,  and  in  1139  Maud  (or  the  Empress, 
as  she  was  usually  styled)  landed  in  England, 
and    the    country  was    practically   divided. 


Mat 


(  722  ) 


Stephen  being  in  possession  of  the  eastern 
part,  Maud  of  the  western.  A  period  of  civil 
war  ensued  with  varying  success  till  1147, 
when  the  death  of  Robert  of  Gloucester,  her 
great  partisan,  induced  Maud  to  quit  the 
country,  and  content  herself  with  attempting 
to  establish  her  authority  in  Normandy.  Her 
want  of  success  is  to  be  attributed  partly  to 
her  own  overbearing  and  tyrannical  conduct, 
and  partly  to  the  inveterate  dislike  of  the 
Normans  ior  the  Angevins.  She  lived,  how* 
ever,  to  see  her  son  Henry  crowned  King  of 
England. 

Matilda,  or  Maud  {d.  1151),  wife  of 

King  Stephen,  was  the  daughter  and  heiress 
of  the  Count  of  Boulogne,  and  the  niece  of 
Henry  I.'s  queen.  She  was  extremely  popular, 
and  deservedly  so,  as  she  followed  in  the  foot- 
steps of  her  aunt,  the  "  Good  Queen  Maud." 
She  seems  to  have  energetically  supported 
her  husband  in  his  wars  with  the  Empress. 

MauritilUI  (or  the  IsLB  OF  France),  an 
island  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  lying  to  the  east 
of  Madagascar,  was  discovered  in  1507,  by  a 
Portuguese  navigator  named  Pedro  Masca- 
renhas,  who  named  his  disoovenr  Ceme.  In 
1598  the  island  was  occupied  by  a  Dutch 
expedition  under  Van  Neck,  and  caUed  Mau- 
ritius in  honour  of  Maurice,  Prince  of  Orange ; 
but  no  settlement  was  made  untU  1644.  In 
1712  the  island  was  abandoned  by  the  Dutch 
only  to  be  occupicni  three  years  later  by  the 
Fi'ench,  by  whom  it  was  held  until  1810, 
when  it  was  taken  by  an  English  expedition 
under  Sir  Balph  Abercromby.  Mauritius 
has  ever  since  remained  imder  British  rule, 
having  been  finally  ceded  to  England  by  the 
Treaty-  of  Paris  (1814).  In  1825  a  reduction 
of  ten  shillings  per  cwt.  on  Mauritian  sugar 
caused  the  island  to  make  rapid  progress  in 
civilisation ;  and  at  the  present  day  the  ex- 
ports of  sugar,  rum,  and  vanilla,  are  ver}' 
considerable.  The  government  is  vested  in  a 
governor,  assisted  by  an  executive  council  of 
seven  members,  including  the  Colonial  Secre- 
tary, the  Procureur-general,  and  the  Receiver- 
general.  There  is  also  a  legislative  council, 
consisting  of  twenty -seven  members,  ten 
of  them  elective.  The  Seychelles  and 
Rodriguez  Islands  are  dependencies  of  Mau- 
ritius. 

Maadma  CfMarianns  ^hs  one  of  the 

Roman  districts  of  Britain.  Of  its  situation 
nothing  is  known. 

MaadmuSf  Roman  commander  in  Britain, 
was  in  the  year  383  proclaimed  Emperor.  He 
established  his  power  in  Britain  and  Gaul, 
and  in  387  invaded  Italy  with  an  army  largely 
composed  of  British  troops.  He  expelled 
Yalentinian,  but  in  a.d.  388  he  was  hunself 
defeated  and  slain. 

May,  Thomas  {b.  1595,  d.  1650),  belonged  to 
a  good  family  in  Sussex,  and  was  educated  at 
Cambridge.  He  was  one  of  the  most  successful 


and  popular  authors  of  the  time  of  Charles  L 
He  wrote  five  plays  and  two  historical  poems, 
besides  translating  the  Georgiet,  and  some 
of  MartiaPs  Epigrama,  His  failure  to  obtain 
the  Jaureateship  in  1637  is  said  to  be  the  cause 
which  made  him  seek  the  patronage  of  the 
Parliament,  and  become  its  historian  and 
apologist.  His  History  of  ths  I*arliament  was 
published  in  May,  1647,  and  chronicled  events 
as  far  as  the  battle  of  Newbury  (Sept,  1643). 
He  also  wrote,  first  in  Latin  and  then  in 
English,  a  Breviary  of  the  History  of  tht 
Parliament  of  Englandy  which  extended  to  the 
end  of  the  second  Civil  Wai-.  In  November, 
1650,  he  died,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey.  At  the  Restoration  his  body  was 
exhumed  and  removed  to  the  burial-gfround  of 
St.  Margaret's  Church.  Chatham  praises  his 
** hone8ty,"andWarburtonhis "candour."  Bnt 
within  a  few  years  after  his  death,  Marvell 
characterises  him  as  a  *'  most  servile  wit  and 
mercenary  pen."  He  was  by  no  means  im- 
partial, but  being  a  skilful  advocate  strove  to 
avoid  the  appearance  of  partialit}% 

May,  Hi«t.  of  eKe  Loimi  Parltammt  (Preface 
to  the  edition  of  1854).  Clarendon,  lAf»  ;  Gnkot, 
Portraits  polttiQWM  dM  fcomiMs  des  dtv«n  yvriia. 


was 


Maynard.  Sir  John  {h,  1602,  d,  1690), 
^  bom  at  Tavistock,  earn 


lucated  at  Exeter 
College,  Oxford,  entered  the  Middle  Temple 
in    1619,  and   represented    Chippenham   in 
the    first    Parliament   of    Charles    I.     He 
speedily    obtained    eminence  as    a    lawyer, 
and  was  in  consequence  appointed  by  the 
Long    Parliament    one  of  the  managers  in 
the  prosecution  of    Strafford,    and  also   of 
I^u(L    In  1648  he  vehemently  opposed  the 
vote  of  non-addresses,  and  when  it  passed  in 
spite  of  his  opposition,  for  a  time  seceded 
from   Parliament.    Thus   he   took  no   part 
in  the  measures  which  led  to    the    king's 
execution  and  the  foundation  of  the  Republic, 
nor  did  he  again  sit  in  a  Parliament  until 
1656.      During  the    Protectorate,    Maynaid 
was  committed  to  tiio  Tower  by  Cromwell  for 
his  argument  in  Conj'*s  case,  showing  the 
illegality  of  the  customs*  duties  levied  by  the 
Protector.      To    obtain  his  release  he  was 
compelled  to  sign  a  submission  acknowledging 
his  fault.    In  spite  of  this  incident  Majnard 
was  offered  and  consented  to   accept  from 
Cromwell  in  ^lay,  1 658,  the  post  of  Seigeant  to 
the  Commonwealth.  In  1659  Mayxiard  steered 
his  course  with  great  skill;  he  did  not  take 
his  seat  in  the  first  restoration  of  the  Rump, 
but  waited  till  the  second,  and  then  used 
his  infiuence  to  pave  the  way  for  the  re- 
turn of  the  king.    Thus  he  easily  made  his 
peace,  was  knighted,  and  appointed  one  of 
the  king's  sergeants.    In  that  capacity  he 
frequently  took  part  in  the  Stat©  trials,  and 
he  also  acted  as  principal  manager  for  the 
Commons  in  the  trial  of  Lord  Stafford.    In 
the  solitary  Parliament  of  James  II.,  May- 
nard opposed  the  encroachment  of  the  king. 
and    he    refused  to  appear  for   the   crown 


May 


(  723  ) 


against  the  Seven  Bishops.  In  the  Conven- 
tion Parliament  Maynaitl  took  a  prominent 
part,  conducted  the  conference  with  the 
Lords  on  the  question  of  the  **  abdication  "  of 
James,  and  was  nominated  the  first  of  the 
Conunissionera  of  the  Great  Seal. 
Foos,  Judyet  o/  Sngland. 

]Cayii0j  CuTHBERT,  a  Catholic  priest,  was 
executed  >iOV.,  1577,  for  having  acnied  the 
queen's  supremacy,  and  celebrated  mass. 
The  trial  is  remarkable  for  the  fact  that  no 
proof  was  obtained,  and  the  prisoner  was 
actually  convicted  on  the  ground  of  strong 
vrefumption  only. 

JCayOf  RiCHABD  Southwbll  Bourke,  6th 
LoKoTlft.  1822,  d.  1872),  eldest  son  of  the  fifth 
Lord  Mayo,  entered  Parliament  in  1847,  as 
member  for  Kildiire.  He  was  Chief  Secretary 
for  Ireland  under  Lord  Derby  in  1852,  and 
again  in  1858  and  1866.  In  1868  he  was 
appointed  Grovemor-General  of  India.  His 
reign  was  a  period  of  peace,  and  was  marked 
by  the  inauguration  of  numerous  enterprises 
for  the  improvement  of  the  social  and  mate- 
rial condition  of  the  natives.  Lord  Mayo 
was  assassinated  Feb.  8, 1872,  by  a  Mohamme- 
dan fanatic  at  Port  Blair,  in  the  Andaman 
Islands. 

Mayor.    The  title  <* Mayor*' symbolises 
municipal  self-government — the  possession  of 
those  nghts  which  were  implied  m  the  recog- 
nition of  a  town  as  a  **  communa.*'    The  first 
certain  instance  qf  its  use  appears  to  be  in 
London.  Here  the  conoessioo  of  the  communa 
by  Earl  John  and  Walter  of  Rouen  in  1191  is 
followed  at  once  by  the  appearance  of  a  mayor, 
Henry  Fitz-Alwyn.     Three  years  after  the 
death  of  Henr^'  Fitz-Alwyn,  who  had  retained 
the  office  for  life,  John  in  1215,  in  order  to  win 
the  support  of  the  citizens,  conceded  to  the 
barons  of  London  by  charter  the  right  of  an- 
nually choosing  their  mayor.     The  person 
elected  was,  however,  to  be  approved  by  the 
king.    Though  chosen  only  for  a  year  it  was 
iisaal  until  1 319  to  re-elect  the  same  person  for 
several  years ;  from  that  year  dates  the  prac- 
tice of  an  annual  election.    According  to  the 
evidence  of  the  Rolls,  it  is  to  the  reign  of  John 
that  the  possession  of  a  mayor  in  the  oth^r 
great  towns,  such  as  Bristol,  York,  Norwich, 
Lincoln,  and  Winchester  is  due.     Local  lists 
of  mayors  giving  earlier  dates  are  scarcely 
trustworthy.     During  the  thirteenth  centurj' 
town  politics  turn   chiefly  on  the  question 
who  was  to  elect  the  mayor — ^the  aldermen, 
representing    the    propertied    class,    or    the 
populace.    This  struggle  is  particularly  im- 
portant in  London  during  the  Barons'  War, 
when  the  commons  sided  with  De  Montfort's 
party,  the    magnates  with  the  king.    The 
popular  party  were  successful,  and  secured  the 
election  of  their  own  candidate  in  1263—66. 
but  the  royal  victory  in  1266  brought  with  it 
a  Bospensicm  of  the  city  constitution  altogether, 


and  the  town  remained  under  a  '*  custos,"  and 
not  a  mayor,  till  1270.*  The  contest  was 
renewed  in  1272,  but  in  1273  the  aldermen, 
supported  by  the  Royal  Council,  regained  their 
power.  The  suspension  of  the  town  consti> 
tution  was  the  penalty  not  only  for  popular 
violence,  but  also  for  attempts  of  the  magis- 
tracy to  extend  its  power.  Thus  London 
was  without  a  mayor,  and  under  a  custos, 
from  1285  to  1298,  because  the  mayor  had 
endeavoured  to  gain  exemption  for  the  city 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  justices  in  eyre. 
The  fourteenth  century  sees  the  rise  of  the 
craft  gpiilds,  and  their  efforts  to  gain  control 
of  the  administration,  including  the  election 
of  the  mayor.  In  these  efforts  they  are 
entirely  successful  in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV. 
The  same  general  lines  of  development  are 
seen  in  the  other  great  towns;  the  struggle 
of  the  magnates  against  the  commons  for  the 
election  of  the  mayor,  against  royal  inter- 
ference, the  occasional  nomination  of  a  custos, 
and  the  increasing  importance  of  the  trade 
societies.  The  struggle  between  the  aldermen 
and  the  people  of  York  happened  curiously 
enough  in  1381 :  whether  it  had  any  connec- 
tion with  the  Peasant  Rising  has  not  been 
ascertained.  In  conferring  a  new  charter  in 
1389  Richard  II.  gave  the  mayor  his  own 
sword:  after  this  he  assumes  the  title  of  Lord 
Mayor,  hitherto  only  borne  by  the  mayor  of 
London.  Another  point  of  interest  is  offered 
in  the  conflicts  between  the  mayors,  repre- 
senting town  self-government,  and  the  lords 
of  such  towns  as  were  in  the  demesnes 
of  prelates.  The  most  notable  instance  is 
that  of  Reading,  when  in  the  thirteenth 
centur}'  mayor  and  abbot  struggle  concerning 
the  merchant  guild,  and  in  the  fourteenth 
concerning  the  nomination  of  constables,  and 
when  as  late  as  the  fifteenth  century  the 
abbots  claimed  a  voice  in  the  choice  of  the 
mayor. 

Stabbs,  C&Mi.  Higt.,  c.  11, 13. 21. 

[W.  J.  A.] 

Keal-Tnb  Plot,  The  (1679),  was  a 
pretended  conspiracy  fabricated  by  the  in- 
former Dangerfield,  who  hoped  thereby  to 
emulate  Gates  and  Bedloe.  Ho  declared  that 
the  Presbj^rians  were  conspiring  to  raise 
an  army  and  establish  a  republic.  At  first  he 
was  believed,  but  his  imposture  being  dis- 
covered, he  was  committed  to  Newgate,  when 
he  suddenly  turned  round  and  declared  that 
the  pretended  conspiracy  was  an  im{)Osture 
concocted  by  the  Papists  to  hide  a  real  Popish 
Plot,  which  had  for  its  object  the  murder  of 
the  king.  The  papers  relating  to  this  plot 
were,  he  declared,  concealed  in  a  Meal-tub  in 
the  house  of  Mrs.  Cellier,  a  Roman  Catholic 
lady,  who  was  tried  i^-ith  Lady  Powj-s  for  the 
alleged  plot,  but  acquitted. 


I,  The  Assize  of  (1197),  was 
issued  for  the  purpose  of  securing  the  uni- 
formity of  weights  and  measures  throughout 


(724) 


the  kinffdom.  But  it  was  found  impossible  to 
break  down  local  custom,  and  even  Magna 
Cbarta  was  not  obeyed  in  tiiis  respect.  Indeed, 
it  is  only  just  now  that  any  serious  attempt  is 
being  made  to  secure  that  uniformity  which 
would  be  80  beneficial. 

Keathy  The  Kingdom  of,  is  said  to  have 
been  formed  about  150  a.d.,  by  Tuathal 
Techmar,  a  chieftain  of  the  Scoti  tribe 
(probably  allied  to  the  Brigantian  Grauls) 
as  the  demesne  land  of  the  ard  ri,  or 
over*king  of  Ireland.  For  this  purpose  he 
took  pieces  of  land  from  each  of  the  four 
kingdoms;  from  Connaught  the  hill  of  Us- 
noch,  the  old  religious  centre  of  the  Irish, 
from  Munster  the  mound  of  Tlaehtga,  from 
Ulster,  Tailti  (Teltown),  and  from  Leinster 
thel  hill  of  Tara.  The  last  became  his  prin- 
cipal residence,  and  the  place  of  assembly  of 
the  under-kings  of  Ireland,  while  each  of 
those  places  became  a  religious  centre  where 
great  festivals  were  held.  Meath  now  com- 
prised the  present  county  of  Meath,  West- 
meath,  and  parts  of  Longford  and  King's 
County.  Tuathal  made  Leinster  completely 
subsenient,  and  is  said  to  have  created 
a  standing  army,  which  afterwards  became 
celebrated  as  the  Fenians.  The  power 
of  the  ard  ri  was  soon  menaced  by  that 
of  the  rival  kingdom  of  Munster,  and 
Tuathul's  grandson,  Conn,  **  of  the  hundred 
battles,"  was  forced  by  Mug  of  Munster 
to  divide  Ireland  into  two  piuts,  the  north 
being  Conn's  half,  the  south  Mug's  half. 
The  power  of  the  ard  ri  seems  to  have  been 
precarious,  and  the  over-kings  were  chosen 
from  various  branches  of  the  Milesian  race, 
until  in  the  fifth  century  Miall  "  of  the 
nine  hostages,"  of  the  race  of  Elimon,  founded 
the  Hui-Neill  dynasty,  which  from  483 — when 
Lugaid,  the  son  of  Laeghaire,  established 
himself  upon  the  throne — was  dominant  in 
Ireland  for  five  hundred  years,  the  sovereignty 
alternating  between  the  two  branches.  In 
658  the  ard  ri  deserted  Tara  in  consequence 
of  a  curse  pronounced  upon  it  by  St.  Rodanus, 
or  Kuadan,  because  of  the  violation  of  his 
sanctuary  by  King  Diarmaid  (Dermot),  and 
their  residence  became  unsettlea,  the  kings  of 
the  southern  Hui-Neill  dynasty,  whoso  settle- 
ments were  in  Meath,  living  in  Westmeath, 
those  of  the  northern  race,  whose  possessions 
were  in  Ulster,  establishing  themselves  in 
Deny.  There  was  therefore  no  central  power, 
and  hence  the  weak  resistance  offered  to  the 
Teutonic  invaders  of  whom  the  Fingals,  or 
Norwegians,  founded  a  considerable  colony  in 
Meath,  and  by  whom  a  tribute  was  imposed 
upon  the  southern  Hui-Neills.  In  980,  how- 
ever, Malachi  II.,  of  the  clan  Colmain,  King 
of  Meath,  became  ard  rt,  on  the  extinction 
of  the  direct  branches  of  the  Hui-Neills  or 
O'Neills  as  they  now  called  themselves,  and  he 
was  the  last  of  his  race  who  held  that  dignity 
without  dispute.    During  his  lifetime  it  was 


usurped  for  a  time  by  Brian  Bora,  and  after 
his  aeath  it  was  assumed  more  than  once  by 
the  Kings  of  Leinster,  and  by  the  O'Loughlins 
of  Ailech.  In  fact,  from  the  beginning  of  the 
eleventh  century,  the  power  of  the  O'Melach- 
lins  (sons  of  Malachi)  of  Meath  was,  as  a  rule, 
at  a  low  ebb,  and  after  the  Anglo-Norman 
invasion  the  province  was  bestowed  on 
Hugh  de  Lacy,  through  whose  great-grand- 
daughters it  passed  into  the  families  of  De 
Ctennerville,  lords  of  Trim,  and  of  De  Verdon, 
barons  of  Dundalk.  The  lordships  of  Trim 
passed  by  marriage  into  the  hands  of  Mor- 
timer, Earl  of  March,  and  vested  in  the 
crown,  while  the  De  Verdon  property  went 
to  the  Talbots,  Earls  of  Shrewsbury,  by  whom 
it  was  forfeited  to  the  crown  under  the 
statute  against  absentees.  In  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth,  Meath,  now  reduced  to  its  present 
dimensions,  was  added  to  the  province  of 
Leinster.  It  received  a  large  English  colony 
during  James  I.'s  later  plantations,  and  again 
during  the  Cromwellian  settlement.  The 
ancient  tumuli  with  which  Meath  is  covered 
are  thought  to  be  relics  of  the  Tuatha  de 
Danarus  (tribes  of  Dia  and  Ara],  the  fourth  of 
the  invading  tribes,  a  branch  of  the  Nemi- 
dians,  who  were  probably  of  Gaulish  origin. 

Eeatinff.  Hiat.  of  Ireland ;  Haverty,  Hist,  of 
Trfland ;  O'Halloran,  HUt  <if  Ireland ;  Walpole, 
The  Kingdom  of  Irdand:  Cnaack,  Hist,  of  tk» 
Irifh  Nation ;  Lodge,  Jriah  Peerage. 

[L.  C.  S.] 

KaailZ,  Annals  of,  is  the  name  given  to 
the  records  of  the  Cistercian  abbey  of  Meaux, 
in  Yorkshire,  which  extend  from  U  50  to  1406, 
and  were  collected  by  Thomas  de  Bnrton,  the 
nineteenth  abbot.  They  have  been  published 
in  the  Rolls  Series. 

lC00r  CoBSim  '^&8  the  son-in-law  of  Meer 
Jaffier.  Eaised  to  the  musnud  of  Moorsheda- 
bad  by  Mr.  Vansittart  on  the  deposition  of 
Meer  Jaffier  (1760),  he  quarrelled  with  the 
English  about  the  revenue  laws,  and  mur- 
dered an  embassy  sent  to  effect  a  pacification. 
War  was  declared ;  Moorshedabad  was  taken, 
and  the  Nabob  was  compelled  to  fly.  Before 
he  fled  he  caused  the  whole  of  the  English  resi- 
dents in  the  Patna  factory  ( 1 50  in  number)  to  be 
imprisoned,  shot  do^wn,  and  cut  to  pieces,  their 
mangled  remains  being  thro^ii  into  wells, 
^leer  Cossim  fled  to  Oude.  Sujah  Dowlah, 
the  vizier,  received  him  with  favour ;  but  the 
tcirible  defeat  of  Buxar,  and  the  return  of 
Clive  to  India,  so  alarmed  the  vizier  that  he 
compelled  Meer  Cossim  to  leave  the  countr}' 
(1765). 


Jafier  was  appointed  Nabob  of 
Moorshedabad,  or  Bengal,  by  Clive  after 
Plassey  (1757)t  and  granted  the  zemindary  of 
Calcutta  to  the  English.  On  the  death  of  his 
son  Meerun,  during  the  Mogul  invasion,  he 
lost  his  reason,  and  his  affairs  fell  into 
anarchy.  His  son-in-law,  Meer  Cossim,  took 
advantage  of  this  to  obtain  the  throne  from 


(725) 


l^ir.  Vanaittart,  Grovemor  of  Bengal,  at  the 
price  of  the  cession  of  Midnapore,  Chittagong, 
and  Burdwan,  to  the  Company,  and  a  gra- 
tuity of  twenty  lacs  to  his  benefactors. 

Xeetinify  The  Right  of  Public,  as  op- 
posed to  rioting,  first  became  important  m 
1768,  when  the  Middlesex  electors,  supported 
by  the  most  prominent  politicians  of  we  day, 
assembled  to  protest  against  the  infringe- 
ment of  their  rights  by  the  House  of  Com- 
mons.     Meetings  were  also    held    in    their 
support  in  no  less  than  seventeen  counties. 
The  question,  which  became  intimately  con- 
nected  with    that    of   petition,    was    again 
raised  in  1779 — 80,  when  an  agitation  began 
in  Yorkshire  and  spread  over  England,  in 
favour  of  economical  and  Parliamentary  re- 
form.    The  House  of  Commons  at  this  time 
protested   against    the    practice   of  sending 
delegates  to  London  with  petitions,  but  were 
unable  to  prevent  it.    The  right  of  meeting 
was  grievously  abused  by  the  Protestant  asso- 
ciations which  led  to  the  Lord  George  Gordon 
riots  of    1780;    but   the    Anti-Slave  Trade 
Association  of    1787    carefully  kept  within 
the  law".     Hbe  terror  caused  by  the  French 
Revolution  at  length   determined  ministers 
to    have    recourse    to    repressive    measures. 
Several    societies  already  established,  chief 
among  which  were  the  Kevolution  Society, 
the    Society    for    Constitutional    Informa- 
tion, and  the  London  Corresponding  Society, 
had  received  a  fresh  impulse  from  events 
occurring*  on  the  other  side  of  the  Channel, 
and  members  of  the  latter  especially  had  in- 
dulged in  violent  language.    This  was  met 
by  several  trials  for  sedition  both  in  England 
and  Scotland,  in  which  the  sentences  imposed, 
especially  in  the  northern  country,  were  of 
terrible  severity,  and  the  cases    invariably 
j^ judged.     The  acquittal  of  Home  Tooke, 
Thomas  Hardy,  and  other  members  of  the 
great  societies  on  the  charge  of  treason,  in 
1794,  was,   however,  a  severe  blow  to  the 
government,  which    nevertheless    continued 
the  suspension  of  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act,  and 
procured  the  conviction  of  Henry  Bedhead 
Yorke    on    a    charge  of   conspiracy.     The 
London  Corresponding  Society  continued  to 
hold  meetings,  one  of  which,  being  followed 
by  an  attack  on  the  person  of  the  king  (1795), 
resulted  in  the  passing,  in  company  with  a 
Treason  Practices  Bill,  of  a  Seditious  Meetings 
BiU^  which  provided  that  no  political  meetii^ 
of  more  than  fifty  persons  could    be   held 
without  previous  notice  to  a  magistrate,  who 
was  to  attend  in  person,  and  might  disperse 
them  according  to  the  Eiot  Act  if  he  thought 
them  dangerous.     Li  spite  of  the  vehement 
oppotdtion  of  Fox  and  Ids  friends,  these  bills 
became  law  by  large  majorities.    The  only 
result  was  that  the  societies  had  resort  to 
^cret  conspiracy  in  conjunction   with  the 
French  clubs  and  the  United  Lishmen,  and 
were   in   consequence    suppressed    by    the 


stringent  Corresponding  Societies  Bill  (1799). 
In  1817y  when  discontent,  want,  and  zeal  for 
Reform  had  caused  riots  in  various  parts  of 
the  countr}^  and  an  attack  on  the  Prince 
Regent,  the  Acts  of  1795  and  1799  against 
corresponding  societies  were  extended  to  other 
associations,  such  as  the  Hampden  and 
Spencean  dubs.  Meetings,  however,  only 
became  larger  and  more  revolutioqioy,  espe- 
cially in  the  manufacturing  districts ;  and 
the  rash  action  of  the  military  resulted  in  the 
<'  Manchester  Massacre "  of  1819,  and  that 
criminal  blunder  was  followed  by  the  **  Six 
Acts,*'  one  of  which  placed  rigorous  restric- 
tions on  all  meetings  of  more  than  fifty 
persons,  and  entrusted  magistrates  with  the 
amplest  powers  for  their  suppression  and 
adjournment.  In  the  following  year,  Orator 
Hunt,  Sir  C.  Wolseley,  the  Rev.  Joseph 
Harrison,  and  others,  were  tried  for  unlaw- 
fuUv  meeting  together,  and  sentenced  to 
various  periods  of  imprisonment.  From  that 
time  onwards  the  right  of  meeting  has  been 

generally  recognised  by  government,  and 
Lwf ul  agitation  is  no  longer  confounded  with 
riotous  and  disorderly  assemblies.  The 
Catholic  Association  in  Ireland  was  allowed 
to  continue,  restrictions  being  placed  alone  on 
the  proposal  to  appoint  managers  of  petitions 
as  being  a  violation  of  the  Irish  Convention 
Act  of  1793,  imtil  it  threatened  to  supersede 
Parliament.  It  was  thereupon  suppressed 
(1825),  but  continued  in  another  form;  and, 
being  revived  on  the  expiration  of  the  Act, 
was  again  suppressed,  but  not  imtil  its  objects 
had  b(Ben  completely  gained  (1829).  The 
great  Reform  Bill  was  ushered  in  by  the 
agitation  of  political  unions  throughout  the 
country,  and  on  the  rejection  of  that  measure 
by  the  House  of  Lords,  these  organisations 
exceeded  their  lawful  limits  by  sending 
delegates  to  a  national  union  in  London. 
They  were  in  consequence  proclaimed,  but 
continued  nevertheless ;  and  the  surrender  of 
the  Lords  alone  prevented  much  violence  and 
consequent  coercion.  The  agitation  for  the 
Repeal  of  the  Irish  Union  produced  some 
monstet  meetings,  such  as  that  on  the  Hill  of 
Tara  (1843),  wMch  were  so  dangerous  to  the 
peace  that  the  government  had  to  repress 
them.  A  similar  fate  attended  the  Orange 
lodges,  which,  established  about  1795  in 
opposition  to  the  Catholic  Association,  spread 
into  England,  especially  into  the  army,  and 
dabbled  in  plots  for  placing  the  Duke  of 
Cumberland  on  the  throne  (1835).  The  trades 
unions*  procession,  the  object  of  which  was 
the  release  of  the  Dorchester  labourers,  dis- 
persed upon  the  refusal  of  Iiord  Melbourne  to 
receive  a  deputation  which  relied  to  some 
extent  on  the  exhibition  of  physical  forpe 
(1834).  A  similar  attitude  was  adopted 
towards  the  Chartists,  who  were  not  allowed 
to  appear  in  large  numbers  at  Westminster 
under  pretence  of  presenting  their  huge 
petition,  but  whose  meetings  were  tolerated 


(  726  ) 


as  long  as  they  were  orderly.  In  Ireland  the 
Land  Agitation  of  1880  and  the  sabaequent 
years  compelled  the  government  to  place  re- 
strictions on  the  right  of  public  meeting.  The 
Land  League  was  suppressed  in  October, 
1881,  and  the  Prevention  of  Grimes  Act  of 
the  following  year  empowered  the  Lord- 
Lieutenant  to  disperse  assemblies  calculated 
to  disturb  the  'peaxse  ;  which  power  was  fre- 
miently  exercised  in  ^e  case  of  Land  League, 
Nationalist,  and  Orange  assemblies.  By  the 
Crimes  Act  of  1887 — a  permanent  statute — 
the  Lord- lieutenant  may  suppress  any  asso- 
ciation which,  in  his  ^'udgment,  is  engaged  in 
the  commission  of  crimes,  or  in  incitement  to 
violence  or  intimidation.    [Riot  Act.] 

Stanhope,  Life <tfPitt ;  Pari  Hist.,  zxi.,  xzxiii., 
and  zzxiv. ;  State  TrtoU,  xxii. ;  Enkme,  Spuohn  ; 
Hist,  q/*  the  Two  AcU;  Lord  SidmoaWs  Life; 
Wyse,  Catholie  Auociaiion;  Courts  and  Cab- 
inets of  Wiaiam  IV. ;  Martineau,  Hist,  of 
England;  PrenUoe,  Hist,  of  AntirCom  Law 
League;  Maj,  Const.  Hist,  of  England,  vol.  ii., 
chB.il.  and  X.  [L.  C.  8.] 


_  I,  The,  were  a  Saxon  tribe 

occupying  the  present  county  of  Hereford. 

KeUitllS,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (619 
— 624),  was  aent  over  by  Gregory  in  601  to 
assist  Augustine  in  the  conversion  of  the 
English.  He  preached  the  Gospel  in  Essex, 
baptised  King  Sebert,  and  became  the  first 
Bishop  of  London.  On  the  death  of  Sebert, 
his  sons  re-established  Paganism,  and  Mellitua 
fled  to  France,  but  returned  to  England  in 
618.  On  the  death  of  Laurence  in  619, 
Mellitus  succeeded  him,  and  held  the  arch- 
bishopric five  years. 

Kelim,  Treaty  of  (1693),  was  concluded 
between  Elizabeth  and  Henry  IV.  of  France 
(after  the  latter  had  embraced  the  Catholic 
faith),  and  bound  both  sovereigns  to  maintain 
an  offensive  and  defensive  war  against  Philip 
as  long  as  he  should  remain  in  hostility  to 
either  England  or  France. 

MelTDle,  AxDRBW  {b,  1545,  d.  1622), 
entered  the  University  c  St.  Ajidrews  in 
1560,  and  subsequently  studied  at  Paris  and 
Poitiers.  In  1569  he  was  appointed  I^- 
feesor  of  Humanity  at  Geneva,  and  held  that 
appointment  '.ill  1 574 .  In  the  latter  year  he  re- 
turned to  his  own  coimtry  and  was  appointed 
Principal  of  Glasgow  University  (1574), 
and  subsequently  Principal  of  St.  Mary's 
College,  St.  Andrews  (1580),  and  Rector  of 
the  University  in  1590.  He  was  moderator 
of  the  General  Assembly,  1587—94.  In  1606 
he  was  summoned  to  London  in  company 
with  seven  other  of  the  leading  Scotti^ 
ministers  to  discuss  the  question  at  issue  be- 
tween the  Iring  and  the  Scotch  Church.  A 
conference  took  place,  which  ended  in  an  ex- 
plosion of  rage  on  Melville's  part  against  the 
Primate.  He  was  ordered  to  be  imprisoned 
in  the  Tower  and  kept  there  for  four  years. 
In  1611  he  was  released  at  the  request  of  the 
Duke  of  Bouillon.    He  passed  the  remaining 


years  of  his  life  as  P^f essor  of  Divinity  at 
Sedan. 

MelTUle,  Sib  James  {b.  1530,  d,  1606),  a 
gentleman  of  Halhill  in  Fife,  entered  the 
service  of  the  Elector  Palatine,  and  was  em- 
ployed in  several  diplomatic  missions.  In 
1531  he  returned  to  Scotland,  and  was  ap- 
pointed a  privy  councillor  and  gentleman  of 
the  bedchamber  to  Mary  Queen  of  Soots. 
He  was  continued  in  his  employment  about 
the  court  by  James  YI.  His  Memoirs,  first 
printed  in  1683,  are  of  much  value,  and  ex- 
ceedingly interesting. 

Members  of  Parliament.  The  House 

of  Commons  has  no  right  to  decide  the  eligi- 
bility of  members ;  it  can  merely  insist  on 
the  performance  of  those  conditions  under 
which  alone  it  is  lawful  to  sit  and  vote.    In 
1769  Wilkes,  having  been  expelled  the  House, 
was  declared   **  incapable  of  being  elected  a 
member  to  serve  in  this  present  Parliament," 
and  Colonel  Luttrdl,  though  defeated  by  him  at 
the  poll,  was  admitted  as  member  for  Middle- 
sex, but  in  1782  the  resolution  against  Wilkes 
was,  on  his  own  motion,  expunged  f^m  the 
journals  of  the  House  as  subversive  of  the 
rights  of  the  whole  body  of  electors.    This 
principle  was  not  acknowledged  in  earher 
times,    for   in    1711    Sir    Robert   Walpole 
was  declared  ineligible  in  consequence  of  a 
previous  expulsion.    Neverthck«S|  a  member 
though  duly  returned  could  not  sit  and  vote 
until  he  had  taken  the  oath  provided  by  31 
and  32  Vict.,  c  72,  though  Quakers,  Mora- 
vians, and  Separatists  were  allowed  to  aflirm 
instead.     On  May  3,  1880,  Mr.  Bradlaug^ 
claimed  to  affirm,  and  his  claim  being  rejecUed 
by  a  Select  Committee,  offered  to  take  the 
oath.    As  he  had  declared  that  an  oath  was 
not  binding  on  his  conscience,  the  House  re- 
fused to  flJlow  him  to  do  so.    His  claim  to 
affirm  was  referred  to  t)iie  law  courts,  and  the 
High  Court  of  Justice  decided  that  it  was 
in^ralid.    In  1888,  however,  a   statute  was 
passed  giving  to  members  the  right  of  choice 
between  the  oath  and  the  affirmation.    Any 
member  sitting  or  voting  before  taldng  the 
oath  or  affirming,  incurs  a  penalty  of  '£500 
for  each  offence  besides  vacating  his  scat 
But  though  a  member  in  this  case  may  not 
take  his  seat,  he  does  not  cease  to  be  a  mem- 
ber of  the  House ;  he  may  even  sit  witiiin 
its  walls,  though  he  must  take  care  that  hii 
seat  is  below  the  bar,  which  for  this  purpoee 
is  held  to  be  \vLthout  the  House ;  and  he  rosy, 
like  Baron  Rothschild  in  1858,  be  called  on 
to  serve  on  committees.    A  member  having 
been   sworn,    or   made   affirmation,    as    he 
may  prefer,  is  presented  to  the  Speaker  by 
the  Clerk  of  the  House.    The  personal  priri- 
lege  of  members  formerly  extended  to  freedom 
from  arrest  or  molestation  for  themselves 
their  servants,  and  their  goods.  This  privily 
was  founded  on  a  law  of  iEIthelberht,  and  wst 
recognised  by  statute  (5  Hen.  lY.,  c  6)  in  the 


(  727  ) 


case  of  Chedder.  For  thfl  reign  of  George  III. 
this  privilege  was  dropped  as  regards  servaxitB, 
and  now  extends  only  to  tJ^e  person  of 
members  for  forty  days  before,  during,  and 
for  forty  days  i^r  a  session.  It  never 
covered  treason,  murder,  felony,  or  breach  of 
the  peace,  and  since  the  House  in  1753  took 
a  less  liberal  view  of  its  own  privileg^es — by 
refusing  in  Wilkes's  case  to  extend  Uiem  to 
seditious  libel — than  was  held  by  the  Court  of 
Common  Pleas,  it  has  not  covered  any  indict- 
able offence.  It  is  the  duty  of  a  judge  on 
committing  a  member  to  prison  to  inform  the 
House  of  the  fact,  that  it  may  satisfy  itself  as 
to  the  question  of  privilege.  A  member  is 
not  exempted  from  punishment  for  contempt  of 
court,  for  in  1831  Lord  Chancellor  Brougham 
committed  Mr*  liOng  Wellesley  for  contempt, 
and  the  House  refused  to  interfere  in  his  behalf. 
More  lately,  in  1882,  Mr.  Gray,  member  for 
Dublin,  was  imprisoned  for  contempt  at  the 
end  of  the  session.  His  imprisonment  ended 
before  the  next  meeting  of  Parliament,  and  a 
Select  Committee  reputed  that  the  case  did 
not  demand  the  attoc^tion  of  th.e  House.  A 
member  may  be  expelled,  and  expulsion  may 
be  said  to  follow  such  ill*conduct  as  would 
render  a  man  unfit  to  sit  in  the  House,  while 
it  is  also  inflicted  on  any  member  absconding 
from  justice,  as  in  the  case  of  Sadleir  in  1857. 
By  a  standing  order  of  1880  suspension  is 
incurred  by  wilful  obstruction  of  the  business 
of  the  House.    All  members  are  bound  by 

5  Rich.^  II.,  c.  4,  to  render  personal  service 
in  Parliament,  and  their  attendance  may  be 
enforced  by  a  call  of  the  House,  though  there 
has  been  no  instance  of  such  a  proceeding 
since  1836.  When,  therefore,  a  member 
wishes  to  remain  in  the  country  he  should 
obtain  leave  of  absence.  A  member  vacates 
his  seat  by  elevation  to  the  peerage,  and  since 

6  Anne,  c.  7,  bv  the  acceptance  of  a  lucrative 

office  under  tne   crown.      If,  however,  he 

has  already  vacated  his  seat  bv  taking  office, 

and  has  been  re-elected,  he  does  not  a^dn 

vacate  it  by  the  acceptance  of  a  new  office. 

No  member  can  relinquish  his  seat,  and  since 

1750  the  custom  has  obtained  that  a  member 

wishing   to  retire  from   Parliament  should 

apply  to  the  crown  for  a  nominal  office,  such 

as   Uie   Stewardship   of   one  of   the   three 

Ghiltem  Hundreds.     These  offices  are  in  the 

gift  of  the  Treasuiy.    They  are  generally 

granted  to  all  members  applying  for  them, 

and  are  surrendered  as  soon  as  they  have 

worked  the  desired  end.    The  grant  of  these 

offices,  howbver,  is  in  the  discretion  of  the 

minister,  and  in  1775  Lord  North  did  not 

scruple  to  refuse  the  Chiltem  Stewardship 

to  a  member  wishing  to  be  relieved  of  hu 

Beat  in  order  that  he  might  stand  against  a 

ministerial  candidate  at  Abingdon.     [Par- 

UAMBKT.] 

llsj,  Procedttre  o/ Parliament,  9th  edition. 

Xepehanif  Simon  (or  Simon  of  Msop- 


HAx),  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (1328>- 
1333),  was  a  canon  of  Chidiester,  and  was 
elected  to  the  primacy  by  the  influence  of 
Queen  Isabella,  whose  chaplain  he  probably 
was.  His  flve  years*  tenure  of  office  was  un- 
eventful. 

Merohant  Advantureni,  The,  were 
a  trading  guild  established  in  Brabant  in 
1296,  and  having  numerous  branches  in  Eng- 
land. In  the  latter  coimtry  they  received 
the  title  by  patent  of  Henry  VII.  in  1505. 
In  1564  the  Merchant  Adventurers  were  in- 
corporated by  Elizabeth,  and  received  some 
extensive  privileges  of  trade  to  the  East. 

KereluUltSy  The  CuAaTSB  OF  THB 
Q303),  was  granted  by  Edward  I.  to  the 
loreign  mercl^uits,  and  gave  them  certain  im- 
portant privileges,  in  return  for  which  he 
received  from  them  a  considerable  sum  of 
money  in  the  shape  of  duties  on  wool  and 
other  articles. 

Merehante,  Thb  Statuti  of  (1283), 

known  also  as  the  Statute  of  Acton  Bumell, 
from  the  place  where  the  Parliament  which 
enacted  it  was  held,  was  one  of  Edward  I.'s 
important  commercial  measures.  It  provided 
for  the  registration  of  merchants'  debts,  their 
recovery  by  distraint,  and  the  debtors'  im- 
prisonment. 

Kercia  was  the  great  Anglian  kingdom  of 
central  England.  Originally  the  term  seems 
to  have  been  confined  to  that  particular  Anglian 
settlement  which  occupied  the  district  round 
Tamworth  and  Lichfield,  and  the  Upper  Trent 
Valley.  West  of  this  a  range  of  moorlands 
checked  the  progress  of  the  invaders  for  a 
considerable  period.  Their  proximity  to  the 
unoonquered  Welsh  gave  them  Ihe  title 
of  Mercians,  or  Men  of  the  March.  Nothing 
definite  can  be  determined  as  to  the  date  of 
this  original  Mercian  settlement,  but  it  must 
have  been  later  than  that  of  the  more  eastern 
Ax%lian  settlements  in  mid  England.  It 
was,  however,  probably  made  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  sixth  century.  Nothing  is  known 
of  its  first  king,  CMdIa,  who  died  in  600; 
Wybba  (600-v^lO)  andCeorl  (610—626)  were 
of  equal  insignificance.  But  in  626  a  great 
king,  Penda,  son  of  Wybba,  began  to  reign. 
He  found  Middle  England  spUt  up  into  a 
large  number  of  independent  Anglian  settle- 
ments. These  had,  perhaps,  been  already 
dependent  on  Ethelbert  of  Kent  and  Rsadwald 
of  East  Anglia.  Penda  reduced  them  to  a 
permanent  dependence  on  the  men  of  the 
March.  Henceforth  Lindiswaras  and  Gymas, 
Middle  English  and  South  English,  Pecsaetan, 
Hwiocas,  Hecanas,  and  Megasastas  were  but 
under-kingdoms  of  the  Mercian  monarch. 
They  were  still  centres  of  local  feeling.  Lines 
of  subreguli,  or  hereditary  ealdormen,  con- 
tinued to  reign  in  them.  But  for  great 
political  purposes,  Mercia  is  henceforth 
synonymous  with  Middle  England.  Penda, 
the  creator  of  this  greater  Mercia,  was  also 


(728) 


the  representatiYe  of  the  heathen  re-action 
which  lollowed  Augustine's  mission.  He  was, 
moreover,  the  imcompromising  foe  of  the 
rising  power  of  Northumbria.  In  alliance 
with  the  Welshmen  he  defeated  and  slew 
Edwin  the  Bretwalda.  Oswald,  the  sainted 
king,  was  equally  unable  to  withstand  him. 
But  at  last  Oswiu,  his  successor,  destroyed 
the  power  of  Merda  at  the  battle  of  Winwood 
(655).  Penda  fell  on  the  field.  Oswiu  gave 
law  to  all  England.  The  greater  Mercia 
began  to  break  up,  and  some  parts  were  even 
conquered  by  Oswiu.  But  in  659,  on  the  death 
of  Peada,  the  next  king,  the  Mercians  seized 
arms  in  despair,  and  led  by  Wulfhere,  nephew 
of  Penda,  (&ove  out  the  Northumbrians,  and 
effectually  consolidated  the  greater  Mercia. 
It  may  nave  been  now  that  the  Mercian 
boundary  was  pushed  southward  to  the 
Thames.  Meanwhile  Christianity  had  silently 
become  the  religion  of  Mercia,  and  Theodore 
of  Tarsus  found  in  Wulfhere  and  his  brother 
and  successor,  Ethelred  (675 — ^704),  active  and 
powerful  auxiliaries.  In  704  Ethelred  with- 
drew to  a  monastery.  His  nephew  Oenred, 
son  of  Wulfhere,  reigned  over  the  Mercians 
till  709,  when  Ceolrea,  son  of  Ethelred,  suc- 
ceeded, and  in  715  sustained  the  great  defeat 
of  Wanborough  from  Ine  of  Wessex.  He 
died  in  716.  His  successor,  Ethelbald,  son  of 
Alweo,  brother  of  Penda  (716—755),  took 
advantage  of  Ine*s  abdication,  and  the  growing 
anarchy  of  Northumbria,  to  establish  that 
Mercian  overlordship  that  was  to  endure  for 
folly  a  century.  A  series  of  successful  wars 
subdued  all  the  neighbouring  States,  and 
Ethelbald  with  good  reason  claimed  to  be 
rex  non  solum  Mereensium  $ed  et  omnium  popu^ 
lorum  qui  generali  nomine  Sutangli  dieuntur. 
But  the  end  of  his  reign  was  unfortunate.  In 
754  the  revolt  of  the  conquered  people  was 
followed  by  the  defeat  and  flight  of  Ethel- 
bald at  Burford.  Next  year  he  died,  and 
even  the  genius  of  OfKa  (757 — 795),  who,  after 
a  year  of  anarchy,  became  King  of  the 
Mercians,  could  not  wholly  undo  this  groat 
disaster.  Yet  OfEa  became  the  greatest  king 
of  his  day.  He  put  his  dependents  in  the 
neighbouring  kingdoms,  and  established  a 
series  of  alliances  that  made  his  power  irre- 
sistible; conquered  eastern  Powis  from  the 
Welsh,  and  built  the  dyke  that  goes  by  his 
name  to  protect  his  western  frontier :  ^tab- 
lished  at  Lichfield  a  short-lived  archbishopric 
that  made  Merda  ecdcsiastically  independent, 
and  corresponded  on  equal  terms  with  Charles 
the  Great  himsdf.  Cenwulf,  a  successor  (796 
— 819),  was  hardly  less  powerful.  But  soon 
af  ter  hu  death  the  collapse  of  the  Mercian  power 
at  EUandun — ^where  Beomwulf  was  defeated 
by  Egbert — handed  over  the  supremacy  of 
Britain  to  Wessex.  The  power  of  Mercia  had 
been  based  on  nothing  but  the  prowess  of  its 
kings.  It  retained  that  want  of  centralisation 
which  flowed  naturally  from  its  origin;  and 
if  remarkable  for  military  ability',  was  behind- 


hand in  culture  and  civilisation.  The  fsilure 
of  the  ro^'al  house,  tombined  with  the  great 
invasion  of  the  Banes,  completed  the  Mercian 
overthrow.  Ludecan  and  Wiglaf  were  mere 
puppet  kings.  When  the  struggle  was  over, 
haU  Mercia  was  regularly  settled  by  Norse 
Vikings ;  the  other  half,  that  to  the  west  and 
south  of  Watling  Street,  was  a  mere  ealdor- 
nianshipundertheWest  Saxon  kings.  Ethelred, 
the  new  ealdorman  of  the  Mercians,  and  after 
his  death  his  wife  Ethdflaed,  "  Lady  of  the 
Mercians,"  the  daughter  of  Alfred  the  Great, 
were  strong  and  vigorous  rulers;  but  they 
ruled  in  the  West  Saxon  interest.  On  the 
latter's  death,  Mercia,  enlarged  by  the  gradual 
re-conquest  of  the  Danish  portion,  ceased  to 
have  a  ruler  of  its  own.  Yet  it  retained  for 
many  generations  its  local  patriotism.  The 
policy  of  Dunstan  may  have  conciliated  it ; 
the  policy  of  Edwy  led  to  its  revolt,  and  the 
setting  up  a  king  for  itself  in  Edgar.  But  on 
Edwy*s  death  conquered  Mercia  gave  a  king 
to  the  victorious  West  Saxons.  The  estab- 
lishment of  the  great  earldoms  revived  local 
Mercian  feeling.  Elfgar,  Leofric,  Edwin, 
and  Morcar  became  in  a  sense  new  rulers  of 
Merda.  Had  not  the  Norman  Conquest  inter- 
vened they  might  have  re-established  Mercian 
independence.  But  the  Norman  administra- 
tive system  for  ever  put  an  end  to  dreams  of 
TOurticularism.  Despite  the  schemes  of  Earls 
Kalph  and  Roger  to  revive  the  Heptarchy  in 
the  interests  of  feudalism,  despite  the  dis- 
tinction of  law  that  surrdved  down  to  the 
days  of  the  Dialogue  De  Soaeeario,  Mercia 
ends  its  political  existence  with  the  Norman 
Conquest  [T.  F.  T.) 

Kivos  OP  Mebcia. 

Cieodii(?) eOO 

Wybba(P) 600-610 

Ceorl(P) 610>-6as 

Penda 686—655 

Peada 655-650 

Wnlfheve 659—675 

Ethelrod 675—704 

Genred 704— 709 

Ceolred 709-716 

Ethelbald 716-755 

Beomred 757 

OflBft 757-796 

Egf 6rth  .....    796 

Cenwulf 796—819 

Ceolwnlf 819-6S1 

Ladecan 8S5 

Wiglaf 838 

There  axe  no  pecnliarlj  Metclan  Cbroniclea  <^ 
early  date,  ao  that  ita  early  history  is  rery 
obscure.  It  has  to  be  pieced  togeuier  from 
oasunl  leferenoea  in  West  Saxon  and  Noithum- 
Inriaa  Chronicles,  and  from  chartera  and  lawi. 
J.  B.  Oreen,  Malnny  and  ConquMl  of  fnylowi, 
and  Palgrave's  Bngliek  Commonveattfc  may  be 
referred  to  for  modran  aoooont. 

KercilSMy  or  Wonderful  Parliament, 
Thb  (1388),  was  summoned  by  the  Lords 
Appellant  after  the  defeat  of  De  Vere  and 
the  royalist  party,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
a  sanction  to  their  acts.  Gloucester  declared 
his  innocence  of  any  attempt  to  depose  the 
king ;  the  judges  who  had  declned  the  com- 


(  729  ) 


miflsioxi  of  regency  illegal  were  arrested  and 
banifllied  to  Ireland ;  the  royol  ministers  were 
impeached  and  sentenced  to  death,  and  other 
offenders  were  punished^  and  £20,000  was 
voted  to  the  Lords  Appellant.  The  leois- 
lative  worjc  was  undertaken  hy^  this  Fania- 
ment,  and  its  acts,  as  Dr.  Stabbs  says,  **  fully 
establish  its  right  to  the  title  [of  "  merciless  "J, 
and  stamp  with  infamy  the  men  who, 
whether  their  poHtical  crimes  were  or  were 
not  salutary  to  the  constitution,  disgraced  the 
cause  by  excessive  and  vindictive  cruelty.** 

Mertony  The  Statutb  of  (123<),  was 
enacted  by  the  barons  in  a  great  oouncH  as- 
sembled at  Merton,  January  23,  1236,  shortly 
after  the  marriage  of  Henry  III.  and  Eleanor 
'  of  !f*rovence.  The  barons  declared  in  it  that 
they  were  unwilling  to  change  the  laws  of 
England,  which  would  seem  to  intimate  a 
fear  on  their  part  of  the  foreign  influences 
which  might  be  expected  from  the  marriage. 

Ketcalfe,    CHAaLES,    Lord    {b,    1784, 
d.  1846),  entered  the  East  India  Company*s 
service,  and  was  trained  up  in  the  school  of 
Lord  Wellesley  (q.v.V    In  1808,  at  the  early 
age  of  twenty-four,  he  was  selected  by  Lord 
Minto  to  negotiate  the  alliance  with  Runjeet 
Singh.  He  carried  out  his  mission  successfully, 
and  succeeded  in  concluding  the  treaty  of 
Umritsur  ( 1 809) .    SubscquenUy  he  negotuited 
the  treaty  with  Ameer  Khan  in  1817  during 
the  Mahratta  War,  and  conducted  the  delicate 
negotiations  with  Toolsye  Bhye,  the  regent 
of  the  Holkar  State,  during  the  same  war.  In 
1820  he  was  appointe(l  Resident  at  Hydera- 
bad.   On  the  rcsignoation  of  Sir  David  Och- 
terlony   (18 2d),   Sir    Charles    Metcalfe    was 
appointed  Resident  at  Delhi  for  Rajpootana. 
In  1834  he  was  appointed  Grovemor  of  the 
newly •^•reated  Presidency  of  the  North- West 
Provinces,  and  in  1835,  in  consequence  of  the 
premature  departure  of  Lord  William  Ben- 
tinck,  he  was  obliged  to  return  to  Calcutta, 
and  assume  the  provisional  Governor-General- 
ship, which  he  continued  to  hold  for  a  year. 
On  the  arrival  of  Lord  Auckland  he  proceeded 
to  Agra.     Soon  after  his  arrival  (1836),  he 
learned  that  the  press  law  carried  by  him  dur- 
ing his  Governor-Generalship  had  exasperated 
the  India  House,  and  that  in  consequence  his 
name  had  not  even  been  mentioned  in  con- 
nection  with    the   vacant    governorship    of 
Madras.     He  resigned  his  appointment.     His 
services  were  fully  appreciated  by  the  crown. 
He  was  appointed  Governor  of  Jamaica  (1839 
--41),  and  Canada  (1842 — 45)   successively, 
and  for  his  eminent  serWces  was  raised  to  the 
peerage  as   Lord  Metcalfe    in    1845.      The 
difficulties  which  he  experienced  from  factious 
opposition,  and  his  own  ill-health,  produced 
his  resignation  (1845),  and  he  returned  to 
England  to  die  in  1846. 

Methodists. — The  name  was  first  given 
m  derision  to  the  society  formed  for  religious 
study  and  conversation  by  John  and  Charles 


Wesley  at  Oxford  in  1729.  Wesley,  in  1739, 
began  to  hold  great  evangelical  meetings  in 
London  and  elsewhere.  In  the  same  year  he 
formed  the  first  regular  Wesleyan  Methodist 
society.  The  society  was  divided  into 
*' classes"  with  ''leaders"  and  "stewards." 
Two  years  bef ord,  Wesley  had  begun  to  in- 
stitute lay  preachers  to  his  various  local 
societies.  In  1744  the  first  Conference  was 
held;  but  it  was  not  till  1784  that  Wesley 
constituted  the  Conference  the  supreme  au- 
thority of  the  sect,  and  vested  the  property  of 
the  society  in  trustees  under  its  jurisdiction. 
In  1784  Wesley  gave  letters  of  ordination  to 
Dr.  Coke,  and  constituted  him  "  bishop "  of 
the  American  Methodist  body,  thus  beginning 
the  American  Episcopal  Methodist  Church. 
It  was  not,  however,  till  1788  that  Wesley 
ordained  preachers  to  assLst  him  in  adminis- 
tering the  sacraments  to  the  societies  in  Eng- 
land. Wesley  died  in  1791.  After  his  dea& 
the  Connexion  was  distracted  by  disputes, 
which  ended  in  the  *'  plan  of  pacification  "  in 
1796.  In  1796  Alexander  Kilham  separated 
from  the  society  and  founded  the  "  New 
Connexion,"  the  ^vemment  of  which  was 
of  a  more  repubhcan  and  less  sacerdotal 
character  than  that  of  the  older  body. 
There  have  been  several  secessions  since 
— notably  those  of  the  *'  Protestant  Metho- 
dists "  in  1798  (who  subsequently  were 
joined  by  another  body  of  seceders  and 
became  the  "Methodist  Free  Churches"), 
and  the  "Primitive  Methodists"  in  1807. 
Many  now  look  forward  to  a  reunion  of 
the  various  Methodist  bodies  in  a  not  distant 
future. 

Methuen  Treaty,  The,  was  a  com. 

mercial  convention  between  England  and 
Portugal,  concluded  on  Dec.  27, 1703,  by  Paul 
Methuen.  Portugal  bound  itself  to  admit 
English  woollen  manufactures  on  the  same 
terms  as  before  the  late  prohibition  of  them. 
England  agreed  to  admit  Portuguese  wines  on 
payment  of  two-thirds  of  the  duty  imposed  on 
French  wines.  It  was  annulled  by  the  supple- 
mentary treaty  of  1835. 

Smith,  W«4iUh  of  Nation$,  book  iv.,  chap.  vL 

Military  Bjwteia.  In  the  earliest 
times,  the  military  system  of  the  Teutonic 
races  reposed  on  the  broadest  and  most 
national  basis.  Ruled  over  by  elective  duces, 
encouraged  to  valour  by  the  presence  of 
kindred  and  neighbours,  the  old  Teutonic 
host,  described  by  Tacitus,  was  in  a  very 
intimate  sense  the  army  of  the  poople.  Yet 
even  in  those  days  the  eomitatM  of  the  prin- 
cept^  which,  by  devoting  its  whole  energies 
to  fighting,  was  probably  the  most  efficient 
military  force,  was  of  other  than  popular 
origin.  It  was  the  body-guard,  the  personal 
following  of  the  king  or  leader,  Aiter  the 
migration  to  England,  the  same  system  con- 
tinued. It  was  a  primary  principle  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  jurisprudence  that  every  landholder 


(  730  ) 


was  obliged  to  servo  in  the  fyrdy  as  the 
popular  host  was  now  called.  Fyrdbot  was 
pc^  of  the  trinoda  neceuitaa.  Arranged  by 
the  sheriff,  the  l>Td  was  simply  the  county 
court  in  arms.  But  want  of  cohesion  between 
Yarious  localities  made  its  operations  uncer- 
tain,  and  the  want  of  disdpUne  in  a  citizen 
militia  frequently  rendered  it  ineffective. 
The  glorious  fight  of  Brihtnoth  and  the  East 
Anglian  fyrd  against  the  Danes  at  Maldon, 
shows  what  the  fyrd  of  a  limited  district  could 
do ;  but  attempts  to  ag^fregate  the  national 
militia  of  the  whole  nation  in  a  single  body 
were  in  those  early  times  nearly  impossible. 
Yet,  when  well  led,  the  fyrd  fought  well,  and 
its  national  character  was  of  great  political 
importance  as  keeping  alive  national  feeling. 
Stul  the  West  Stixon  kings  would  hardly  have 
attained  to  their  imperial  position,  if,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  forces  of  the  edlodial  system,  they 
had  not  also  to  rely  upon  the  services  of  their 
gesiths  and  thegns.  These  personal  retainers 
of  the  monarch,  the  comitea  in  a  developed 
form,  formed  a  body-guard  of  trained  soldiers, 
always  at  hand.  But  as  time  went  on,  the 
thegn  became  more  of  a  feudal  noble,  dwelling 
on  his  estate,  and  only  serving  his  lord  on 
occasion.  Thus  the  &egnhood  became  un- 
trustworthy also,  until  its  revival  in  a  more 
primitive  form,  in  the  hutearh  of  Cnut,  gave 
the  long  again  the  services  of  a  standing 
body-guard  of  highly-trained  professional 
sol(tier8. 

Such  was  in  outline  the  old  English  mili- 
tary system.  In  it  we  have  the  germ  of  most 
of  the  later  developments  of  the  English 
army,  the  national  militia,  the  feudal  IcNies, 
and  oven  permanent  mercenary  troops.  The 
Norman  Conquest  largely  developed  the  feudal 
element  by  the  wholesale  introduction  of 
tenure  by  military  service,  and  by  gradually 
dividing  the  land  of  England  into  *^  knights' 
fees,"  held  by  the  tenure  of  providing  and 
equipping  a  neavy-armed  horseman  to  serve 
his  lord  for  forty  days  in  the  year.  William 
the  Conqueror  himself  saw  clearly  the  consti- 
tutional danger  and  the  military  worthlessness 
of  the  feudal  army.  In  want  of  discipline, 
irregularity,  and  incapacity  for  development, 
it  surpassed  the  fyra.  It  was,  moreover, 
largely  composed  of  the  disloyal  party  of  the 
feudal  baronage,  ever  anxious  to  destroy  the 
royal  power,  and  consequently  a  source  of 
weakness  more  than  of  strength.  Henry  II. 
saw  this,  and  by  the  institution  of  scutage, 
largely  superseded  the  direct  service  of  the 
feudal  array  by  a  money  composition.  This 
enabled  him  to  carry  out  still  farther  the  policy 
of  the  Norman  kings,  and  depend  for  the  most 
part  on  Flemish  or  Braban^on  mercenaries, 
who,  bound  to  their  lord  by  no  tie  but  good 
pay  and  the  rough  loyalty  of  a  soldier  to  his 
general,  and  often  composed  of  the  very  scum 
of  society,  were  yet  efficient  military  instru- 
ments. 

But  mercenaries  were  expensive,  impopular, 


and  frequently  treacherous.  They  were  un- 
pleasant necessities,  rather  than  welcome  ones. 
The  Norman  and  Angevin  monarchs  conse- 
quently sought,  by  the  maintenance  of  the 
f}Td-system,  to  retain  the  services  of  a  body 
which  always  supported  the  crown  again^ 
the  feudal  party.  The  history  of  the  national 
militia  subsequently  to  the  Conquest,  strongly 
illustrates  the  continuity  of  English  oonstitu- 
tional  development.  William  I.  exacted 
from  every  freeman  the  old  national  oath  to 

i'oiii  in  defending  the  king,  his  lands  and  his 
Lonomr  both  at  home  and  beyond  sea.  In 
1073  the  fyrd  took  a  prominent  share  in  the 
conquest  oi  Maine.  William  II.  cheated  the 
fyrd  out  of  the  ten  shillings  a-piece  which 
the  shires  had  gfiven  them  for  their  mainte-* 
nance.  Yet  it  was  always  faithful  to  the 
crown  in  its  struggle  against  the  feudalists 
The  defeat  of  Robert  of  Belesme,  the  repulfse 
of  David  of  Scotland  at  Northallerton,  the 
suppression  of  the  feudal  revolt  of  1173  were 
largely  due  to  its  valour  and  patriotism. 

Still,  the  heavy  cavalry  of  the  barons  wa£, 
from  the  military  point  of  view,  a  neccssazr 
supplement  to  the  infantry  of  tiie  fyrd,  and 
with  the  political  importance  of  feudalism 
annihilated,  there  was  less  danger  in  the  feudal 
array.  Yet  Henry  II.,  while  relying  for 
foreign  service  mainly  on  mercenaries  paid  for 
by  the  scutages  of  the  barons,  trustea  to  the 
fyrd  for  home  defence.  His  Assize  of  Arms 
(1181)  revived  and  reorganised  that  ancient 
body,  and  devised  an  excellent  machinery  for 
compelling  every  citizen  {iota  eonwmna  libero- 
rttm  hominum)  to  possess  the  arms  appropriate 
to  his  station  in  life.  The  increased  dread  of 
mercenaries,  through  their  misuse  by  John, 
and  their  attempts  to  control  the  destinies  of 
the  kingdom  during  his  son*s  minoritj',  gave 
an  increased  importance  to  the  re-issue  of  the 
Assize  of  Arms  by  Henry  III.  in  close  con- 
nection with  the  system  of  Watch  and  Ward. 
In  the  Statute  of  Winchester,  Edward  I. 
(1285)  still  further  developed  the  same  system, 
which  a  series  of  later  measures  of  Henry  IV., 
Philip  and  Mary,  and  James  I.  has  brought 
down  to  our  own  6&yB, 

The  vague  power,  never  perhaps  formally 
taken  away  from  the  sheriff,  of  summoning 
the  posse  eomitatus,  was  from  the  fourteenth  to 
the  sixteenth  centur}'  supplemented  by  more 
definite  commissions  of  array,  empowering 
those  addressed  to  muster  and  train  all  men 
able  to  bear  arms  within  the  counties  incladed 
in  the  commission:  , while  in  the  reign  of 
Philip  and  Mary  the  institution  of  lord-lieu- 
tenants in  every  county  practically  dep^i^•e<^ 
the  sheriff  of  his  command  of  the  national 
forces.  Henceforth,  the  lord-lieutenant  was 
the  deputy  of  the  crown  for  all  militan*  mat- 
ters, and  the  ultimate  custodian  of  law  and 
order.  But  the- Act  of  1  Jac.  I.,  c.  25,  had  to 
some  extent  repealed  the  long  series  of  statutes 
which  enforc<xl  the  obligation  of  keeping 
sufficient  arms  on  each  citizen.    The  ArtiUeiy 


Kil 


(781  ) 


Company  of  London,  which  still  continues 
to  exist,  sprang  from  a  voluntary  association 
during  Henry  VIII/s  reign,  and  the  '*  train 
bands  "  of  the  seventeenth  century,  which  the 
Act  of  James  I.  substituted  for  the  mediaeval 
system,  though  in  a  sense  the  continuation  of 
the  f  yrd,  were  also  largely  of  voluntary'  origin. 
The  difficulties  caused  by  the  militia  question 
in  1642,  between  C'hArles  I.  and  his  Parlia- 
ment, the  prominent  part  taken  by  the  train 
bands  in  the  Great  Rebellion,  rendered  it 
necessary  for  the  Restoration  Parliament  to 
reorganise  the  national  forces,  and  reconstitute 
the  militia  under  the  headship  of  the  crown. 
Up  to  1757  this  force  was,  however,  quite 
neglected,  when  the  absence  of  the  regular 
army  on  the  Continent  caused  it  to  be  re- 
vived as  a  local  organisation  for  internal 
defence.  Its  importance  as  a  recruiting 
ground  for  the  army  was  also  a  great  reason 
for  its  revivaL  Under  George  III.  and  Vic- 
toria a  series  of  Acts  of  Parliament  have  modi- 
fied the  militia  laws.  During  these  reigns  army 
reforms  were  effected  that  brought  the  militia 
into  organic  relation  with  the  standing  army, 
without  destroying  its  local  basis.  F^vious 
to  these  reforms,  service  was  nominally  com- 
pulsor}^  though  a  Militia  Ballot  Suspension 
Act  made  it  practically  voluntary.  As  a 
means  of  national  defence,  the  militia  has  been 
at  various  times  supplemented  by  a  volunteer 
system,  self-supporting  and  unpaid.  The 
Artillery  Company  is  an  early  example  of 
such  a  force.  In  1803  the  fear  of  R^nch 
in\'asion  caused  nearly  half  a  million  of  men 
to  enrol  themselves  into  volunteer  regiments  ; 
but  the  cessation  of  the  panic  led  to  the 
gradual  dying  out  of  the  movement.  In  1859 
u  more  permanent  volunteer  organisation  was 
started,  which  has  continued  to  flourish  until 
the  present  day,  and  which  now  includes 
nearly  200,000  effective  citizen  soldiers.  An 
Act  of  1863  gave  this  organisation  a  legal 
status,  and  the  tendency  of  recent  military  re- 
form is  to  connect  them  more  closely  with 
the  militia  and  the  regular  army,  as  essential 
factors  of  the  British  military  system. 

Thus  far  the  non-profeasional  and  irregular 
military  forces  have  mainly  been  dealt  with. 
But  even  in  medisBval  times  the  national 
militia  became  gradually  both  unfit  and 
unwilling  for  foreign  service,  for  which  the 
shortness  of  the  service  of  the  feudal  levies 
still  more  disqualified  them.  The  mercenary 
system  of  the  Normans  and  Angevins  became 
impossible  with  the  development  of  constitu- 
tional government.  The  need  of  regular 
forces  became  greater  with  the  development 
of  the  political  power  of  England.  During 
the  Middle  Ages  the  feudal  tenants,  or  the 
militia  of  the  neighbouring  shires,  were 
enough  to  repel  a  Scotch  or  Welsh  inroad ; 
but  the  systematic  wars  with  France  which 
the  fourteenth  century  witnessed  required 
more  systematic  forcec.  The  armies  which 
fought  in  the  Hundixxl  Years'  War,  though 


I 


to  a  small  extent  composed  of  feudal  tenants 
and  of  forced  levies  of  pressed  men,  were 
mainly  raised  by  indentures  or  contracts 
made  with  some  great  noble  or  experienced 
general,  who  agreed  to  serve  the  king  abroad 
with  a  certain  nimiber  of  men  at  a  fixed  rate. 
The  pay  was  very  high,  and  there  was  never 
any  (ufliculty  in  raising  the  men.  The  con- 
tract generally  ended  with  the  war,  so  that 
these  armies,  though  composed  of  trained 
troops,  were  not  permanent.  Penalties  for 
desertion  and  disobedience  were  inflicted  by 
statutes  which  anticipated  the  later  Mutiny 
Acts. 

The  germ  of  a  standing  army  is  found  in 
the  Yeomen  of  the  Guard  instituted  by  Henry      | 
YII.,  and  in  the  small  garrisons  of  Calais, 
Berwick,  and  Dover.    In  the  reign  of  Elisa- 
beth there  were  anticipations,  in  the  reign  of  > 
Charles  I.  the  beginnings,  of  a  lar^r  standing  I 
force.    The  complaints  of  martial  law  and          i 
illegal  impressment  now  became  general.  The 
struggle  of  the  crown  for  the  right  of  main- 
taining a  standing  army  had  now  begun.     It 
was  to  last  until  the  principle  was  unwillingly 
accepted    at    the    end    of    the    seventeenth 
century. 

The'  abortive  armies  of  Charles  I.  and  the 
commencement  of  a  military  law  that  marked 
his  reign  were  soon  eclipsed  by  the  great 
army  le-^ned  by  Parliament  PNew  Model], 
which  the  genius  of  Cromwell  moulded  into 
the  most  efficient  fighting  machine  kno\«ii  in 
English  history-.  Under  the  Restoration  several 
regiments  of  (>omwell*s  army  were  still  main- 
tained. At  first,  these  numbered  only  3,000 
men,  but  during  Charles  II.*s  reign  not 
only  were  temporary  armies  levied  for  emer- 
gencies, but  several  new  regiments  added  to 
the  permanent  forces.  The  abolition  of  the 
feudal  levies  by  the  Act  12  Car.  II.,  long  after 
they  had  ceased  to  be  of  any  gi'cat  value, 
though  they  were  summoned  so  late  as  1640, 
made  a  standing  army  the  more  necessary'. 
James  II.  largely  increased  these  troops,  and 
the  French  war,  which  the  Revolution  in- 
volved, prevented  their  disbandment.  But  a 
standing  army  was  very  unpopular  with  all 
parties.  To  the  WTiigs  it  suggested  t^Tanny 
and  popery,  to  the  Tories  the  military 
despotism  of  CromweU.  Only  after  a  great 
struggle  was  an  army  of  7,000  men  retained 
after  the  Peace  of  Ryswick.  But  those 
debates  practically  decided  the  question. 
Henceforth  England  has  always  had  a  stand- 
ing army.  The  constitutional  difficulty  had 
been  got  over  by  passing  an  annual  Mutiny 
Act,  which'  alone  empowered  the  sovereign  to 
govern  the  troops  by  martial  law.  Despite 
popular  jealonsy,  the  numbers  of  the  army 
have  steadily  risen.  After  the  Peace  of 
Utrecht  the  army  numbered  8,000.  In  1760 
it  was  nearly  19,000.  In  1792  it  had  decreased 
to  17,000  in  time  of  peace,  though  in  1777  it 
had  been  90,000 ;  and  in  1812  nearly  a  quarter 
of  a  million  of  men  were  under  arms.    The 


Mil 


(  732  ) 


Min 


East  India  Company  had  been  allowed  to 
levy  a  separate  army  for  the  defence  of  the 
Indies.  After  the  Indian  Mutiny  it  was 
incorporated  with  the  royal  forces.  In  the 
years  1871  and  1872  important  changes  were 
made  which  had  the  effect  of  joining  together 
all  the  various  branches  of  the  English  military 
system  into  a  single  whole.  In  1871  the  pur- 
chase of  commissions  by  of&cers  was  abolished 
by  royal  warrant. 

The  modem  standing  army  of  England  has 
always  been  mainly  raised  by  voluntary 
enlistment.  But  so  late  as  the  American 
War  "idle  and  disorderly  persons*'  were 
impressed  for  the  army  as  well  as  for  the 
navy.  Difficulties  in  the  way  of  recruiting 
were  often  felt.  Perhaps  this  partly  accounts 
for  the  survival  of  the  contract  system  of  the 
Edwards  as  late  as  the  eighteenth  centurj'. 
So  great  was  the  constitutional  difficulty  sug- 
gested by  the  standing  army  that  only  5,000 
men  were  allowed  to  live  in  barracks  at  the 
beginning  of  this  century. 

Up  to  the  Crimean  War  the  military  sys- 
tem was  extraordinarily  cumbersome.  The 
Commander-in-chief,  responsible  to  the 
crown  ;  the  **  Secretary  of  State  for  War  and 
the  Colonies,"  whose  power  was  limited  to 
war  time ;  the  "  Secretary  at  War,"  the  Par- 
liamentary representative  of  the  army ;  the 
Treasury,  which  controlled  the  Commissariat  ; 
the  Home  Office,  which  governed  the  Militia 
--all  exercised  clashing  jurisdictions.  The 
piecemeal  growth  of  our  military  system  is  in 
no  way  better  illustrated.  All  modern  re- 
forms have  tended  towards  simplicity  ;  and  in 
1896,  when  the  Duke  of  Cambridge  resigned 
his  post  as  Commander-in-Chief,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Viscount  Wolseley,  important 
changes  in  this  direction  were  made. 

Stubbs,  Const.  HiHory;  Hallam,  Const.  Hist.  ; 
May,  Const.  Hist.;  Grose,  Military  Antiquities; 
CLode,  Military  Forces  oj  the  Crown;  Kncyclo- 
pcBdia  Britannica  (ninth  ed.),  art.  Army. 

Mill,  James  {b.  1773,  d.  1836),  was  li- 
censed a  preacher  in  the  Scotch  Church,  but 
came  to  London  and  devoted  himself  to  litera- 
ture. He  received  an  appointment  in  the 
India  Office,  and  rose  to  be  head  of  the  revenue 
department.  Mill  was  one  of  the  most 
prominent  of  those  who  understood  and  deve- 
loped the  views  of  Bentham  on  government 
and  legislation.  [Bentham.]  Besides  nu- 
merous works  on  metaphysics,  economics, 
and  jpolitical  theory,  which  have  exerted 
great  influence  on  the  thought  of  the  century, 
Mill  wrote  a  History  of  British  India  (1817— 
18),  which,  though  somewhat  unhappy  in  point 
of  style,  and  coloured  by  the  author's  desire  to 
illustrate  his  own  theories,  is  a  A'ery  valuable 
work,  compiled  with  great  industry  and  re- 
search. 

Prof.  A.  Bain,  B%ogra\ihy  ofJarnes  MUl. 

Mill,  John  Stuakt  (b.  1806,  d.  1873),  son 
of  the  aoove,  after  a  very  careful  education 
by  his  feither,  entered  the  India  House  in 


1823,  and  in  1856  became  head  of  the  Ex- 
aminer's  department,  from  which  he  retired  in 
1858.  In  1865  he  was  elected  member  for 
Westminster,  but  was  defeated  in  1868.  In 
Parliament  he  was  an  advanced  Liberal,  and 
supported  with  much  earnestness  Woman^s 
Suffrage.  "Mi.  Mill  wrote  numerous  works, 
including  A  System  of  Logic,  1843  ;  Tluf  Prin- 
eiples  of  Political  Economy,  1848  ;  On  Liberty, 
1859  ;  Dissertations  and  Discussumt,  1859—75; 
TJie  Subjection  of  Women,  1869 ;  Three  Essatfs 
ofi  Religion,  1874.  In  almost  all  departments 
of  political,  social,  and  moral  philosophy,  Mr. 
Mill's  influence  has  been  very  great.  As  the 
thinker  who  attempted  to  develop  and  adapt 
the  utilitarianism  of  Bentham  to  the  compli- 
cated needs  of  modem  society,  his  place  i£ 
specially  important;  while  as  a  political 
economist  he  forms  one  in  the  line  of  succes- 
sion of  great  Knglish  writers  on  the  subject, 
which  began  with  Adam  Smith. 

mill's  Autohiogra'phv,  an  interesti]^  and  fasci- 
nating work,  appeared  after  hia  death  in  ISTi. 

Milton,  John  [b.  1608,  d.  1674),  claims  a 
place  in  the  present  work  owing  to  his  con- 
nection with  the  movement  known  as  the 
Great  Rebellion.     In  May,    1641,   he   came 
forward  as  one  of  the  literar}'  champions  of  the 
Puritan  party,  and  wrote  a  pamphlet  Of  Re- 
formation touching  Church  Discipline  in  Eng- 
land, followed  by  four  others  directed  against 
the  Dioderate  Episcopalians.     The  most  im- 
portant is  The  Reason  of  Church  Goremment 
(1641—2).     In  1644  he  published  his  famous 
Areopagitica.      Within  a    fortnight    of    the 
king^s  execution  he   published  a   pamphlet 
justifying  the  act.     In  March,  1649,  he  was 
made   secretary  for  foreign  tongues  to  the 
Council  of  State.     In  this  year  he  published 
his  Eikonoklastesj  in  reply  to  Eikon  BasUike, 
and  Pt^  Populo  Anglicana  Defensio.     In  1652 
he  became  quite  blind,  and  practically  gave 
up  the  work  of  his  secretaryship.    'In  May, 
1664,  he  published  his  Pro  Populo  Anglicana 
Defensio  Seeundn.     He  continued  to  assist  in 
the  foreign  correspondence  of  the  HepubUc  till 
the    Restoration,   and    tried    by  a  series  of 
vehement  pamphlets  to  prevent  that  event. 
After  May,  1 660,  ho  lived  for  some  months  in 
hiding,  but  he  was  not  molested  by  the  new 
government,  and  passed  the  remainder  of  his 
life  quietly. 

Masson,  Life  (^MiUon,  6  vols.,  1859— 18S0. 

Minden,  The  Battle  of  (Aug.  1,  1759), 
was  fought  during  the  Seven  Years'  War.  Fer- 
dinand of  Brunswick,  the  commander  of  the 
allies,  had  under  him  10,000  or  12,000  British 
soldiers,  imder  Lord  Ghx>rge  Sackvilie.  He 
had  previously  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
to  recapture  Frankfort  from  the  French.  The 
French  commanders,  De  Bro^lie  and  Contades, 
pushed  after  him,  and  rapidly  took  Oassel, 
Miinster,  and  Minden.  Ferdinand  main- 
tained his  position  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Weser,  and  left  a  detachment  of  5,000  men. 


(  733  ) 


M'Ld 


seemingly  unguarded,  to  lure  Contades  from 
his  strong  position  at  Minden.  The  Buke  de 
Broglie  was  despatched  to  attack  this  body  of 
men,  but  he  was  compelled  to  summon  Con- 
tades to  his  assistance.  The  French  generals, 
thus  obliged  to  accept  battle  on  unfavourable 
ground,  wei«  compelled  to  retreat.  Orders  were 
sent  from  Ferdinand  to  Lord  George  Sackville, 
who  was  with  the  cavalry  on  the  right  of  the 
aUies,  to  charge,  and  annihilate  the  enemy ;  but 
he  declined  to  obey.  A  vigorous  charge  was, 
however,  made  by  the  Marquis  of  Granby 
with  the  second  line  of  cavalry ;  and  though 
this  was  now  too  late  to  be  effectual,  the  re- 
treating Rrendi  were  broken  by  a  body  of 
10,000  men,  whom  Ferdinand  had  despatched 
to  cut  off  t^eir  communications. 

Stanhope.  HUL  <]fBng, ;  Lecky,  Hist,  of  Bng. 
during  ths  Mighiunih  Century, 


was  taken  (1708)  during  the 
War  of  the  Succession  in  Spain.  The  ob- 
ject of  the  English  commanders  was  to 
acquire  a  harbour  in  which  the  fleet  could 
pass  the  winter.  Stanhope  prevailed  on  Sir 
John  Leake,  much  against  his  will,  to  join 
h\m  in  the  enterprise.  The  natives  were 
found  to  be  well  disposed,  and  though  con- 
siderable difficulty  was  experienced  in  drag- 
ging the  guns  up  the  rocks,  the  walls  were 
soon  battered  down,  and  the  Spanish  gar- 
rison surrendered.  The  island  was  ceded 
to  England  by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht. 
Li  1756  it  was  recaptured  by  the  French. 
Although,  it  was  known  that  the  French  were 
meditating  an  expedition  against  the  island, 
no  adequate  measures  were  taken  to  defend  it. 
When  16,000  troops  under  the  Due  de  Riche- 
lieu arrived  at  the  island,  General  Blakeney, 
with  his  2,800  men,  withdrew  into  the  citadel 
of  St.  Philip.  Admiral  Byng,  after  a  feeble 
attempt  to  relieve  the  town,  left  it  to  its  fate. 
The  island  was  restored  to  England  by  the 
Treaty  of  Paris  (1762).  La  1781  it  was  again 
rec^iptured  by  12,000  French  and  Spaniards, 
although  General  Murray  and  his  men,  re- 
duced by  sickness  to  700,  made  a  resolute 
defence.  In  the  following  year  it  was  ceded 
to  Spain,  and  in  1783  formally  given  up  to 
her.  In  1798,  in  the  midst  of  the  struggle 
with  Napoleon,  it  was  re-taken  by  General 
Stuart,  but  finally  given  up  to  Spain  by  the 
Treaty  of  Amiens  (1802). 

Mahon,  War  of  Succetnon  in  Axim;  Wyon, 
Reign  of  QiMtn  Anne  ;  Stanhope,  JSfut  of  Eng, 

MinoritieSv  Rsfrssentation  of.  Pro- 
vision was  made  for  the  representation  of 
minorities  in  large  constituencies  by  the  inser- 
tion into  the  Reform  Bill  of  1867  of  two 
clauses  declaring  that  in  three-cornered  con- 
stituencies no  elector  should  be  allowed  more 
than  iMO  votes;  and  that  no  elector  of  the 
city  of  London  should  be  allowed  more  than 
three  votes.  It  was  found  possible,  how- 
ever,  for  one  party  to  carry  three  members 


in  a  three-cornered  borou^,  and  the  system 
came  to  an  end  with  the  Redistribution  Bill 
of  1886.  On  the  formation  of  School  Boards, 
minority  representation  was  secured  by  the 
system  of  cumulative  voting.  In  1884  a 
society,  including  members  of  Parliament  of 
both  parties,  was  formed  to  promote  the 
representation  of  minorities  by  a  system  of 
proportional  representation. 

ICinto,  Lord  (b,  1751,  d.  1814).  after 
having  filled  the  office  of  President  of  the 
Board  of  Control,  was  appointed  Gk>vemor- 
General  of  India  in  1806.  His  first  task 
was  to  deal  with  the  Yellore  Mutiny,  and 
punish  the  mutineers.  He  then  devoted  him- 
self to  the  establishing  of  order  in  India,  and 
to  securing  the  frontiers  of  the  Company's 
territories  by  treaties  with  foreign  x>ow6rs. 
Marching  an  army  into  Nagpore,  he  com- 
pelled Ameer  Khan  to  retire.  The  pirates  of 
^olapore  and  Sawuntwarree  were  attacked 
and  overawed.  The  growth  of  the  power 
of  Rimjeet  Singh  now  attracted  his  atten- 
tion. Lord  Minto  was  desirous  (1 808)  at  once  to 
check  the  power  of  that  chief  in  the  east,  and 
to  form  an  alliance  with  him.  He  sent  an 
embassy  to  Lahore,  under  Mr.  Metcalfe,  who, 
after  some  difficulty,  succeeded  in  concluding 
with  Rimjeet  the  Treaty  of  Umritsir,  of 
perpetual  amity  between  the  British  govern- 
ment and  the  State  of  Lahore.  About  the 
same  time  Sir  Harford  Jones  reached  Persia 
in  the  character  of  a  plenipotentiary  of  the 
British  crown,  and  by  him  (1810)  a  treaty 
was  concluded  binding  the  sovereign  of  Persia 
to  resist  the  passage  of  any  European  force 
through  his  country  to  India,  and  the 
government  of  England  to  furnish  aid  in 
case  Persia  should  be  invaded  from  Europe. 
Having  thus  established  order  and  security'  at 
home.  Lord  Minto  turned  his  attention  to  the 
hostile  colonies  of  the  enemy  or  his  allies. 
Macao  and  the  Chinese  colonies  of  Portu- 
gal were  occupied  (1809),  but  were  subse- 
quently abandoned,  owing  to  the  firmness  and 
threats  of  the  Chinese  government.  The 
islands  of  Mauritius  and  Bourbon  were 
captured  (1809),  thus  catting  off  a  great 
resort  for  French  privateers.  The  Dutch 
colonies  in  the  Spice  Islands  and  Java  were 
captured  after  a  gallant  defence  (1811).  In 
1812,  on  his  return  from  Java,  Lord  Minto 
learned  that  he  had  been  superseded  in  the 
government.  He  was  raised  to  an  earldom, 
and  recalled,  and  in  October,  1813,  returned 
to  England.  His  death  took  place  within  a 
few  months  of  his  return. 
Lord  Minto  in  India. 

M'Leod  Affair,  Thb  (1841).  During 
the  Canadian  Rebellion  an  American  steamer 
called  the  Caroline,  which  had  been  engaged 
in  carrying  arms  to  the  rebels,  was  b(mded 
in  the  night  by  a  party  of  loyalists,  set  on 
fire,  and  driven  over  the  Falls  of  Niagara. 
She  was  lying  at  that  time  within  the  terri- 


:od 


(784) 


KOB 


tonal  jurisdiction  of  {he  State  of  New  York, 
and  an  American  citizen  lost  hifi  life  in  the 
struggle.  The  matter  caused  some  excite- 
ment in  the  United  States ;  and  in  January, 
1841,  Alexander  M'Leod,  a  British  subject, 
was  arrosted  in  the  State  of  New  York  on  a 
charge  of  murder,  for  being  concerned  in  the 
attack  on  the  Caroline.  The  British  govern- 
ment at  once  demanded  his  release,  asserting 
that  he  was  acting  under  and  within  his 
orders,  and  that  in  consequence  the  responsi- 
bility rested  solely  with  them.  The  United 
States  govemment  replied  to  this  conmiuni- 
cation  that  the}'  could  not  interfere  with 
the  internal  affairs  of  the  State  of  New 
York.  Lord  Pahnerston  replied  that  the 
execution  of  M^Leod  would  be  followed  by 
war.  M'Leod  was  tried  at  UUca  in  October, 
and  was  declared  "  Not  Guilty."  This  was  a 
simple  solution  of  what  seemed  likely  to  prove 
a  very  disastrous  a£Eair. 

Xodna  Tenendi  Farliamentiim  is 

a  document  containing  a  sketch  of  the  con- 
stitution  and  manner  of  holding  Parliament. 
It  pretends  to  give  an  acooimt  of  Parliament 
as  it  existed  i^  the  time  of  William  the  Con- 
queror, but  it  would  seem  to  have  been 
written  about  the  reign  of  Richard  II.,  and  in 
many  particulars  to  describe  rather  the  au- 
thor s  idea  of  what  Parliament  should  be, 
than  the  actual  condition  of  that  assembly  in 
the  fourteenth  century. 

The  document  is  to  be  found  in  Dr.  Stubbe's 
Select  Chartere. 

Xognlf  Thb  Great,  was  the  name  com- 
monly given  to  the  Indian  prince  who  was 
the  descendant  of  Timour  the  Tartar,  **the 
firebrand  of  the  universe."  Baber,  one  of  his 
successors,  established  himself  as  Emperor  of 
India  at  Delhi,  and  transmitted  his  dignity 
to  his  posterity.  The  invasion  of  Nadir  Shah, 
and  the  sack  of  Delhi,  1739,  struck  a  fatal 
blow  at  the  grandeur  of  the  Mogul  Empire. 
Already  the  Deccan  had  split  off  under  a 
powerful  chief,  the  Nizam-ool-Moolk.  The 
govemment  of  Oud«  was  usurped  by  another ; 
and  the  conquests  of  the  Mahrattas  tended 
to  reduce  the  imperial  authority  to  a  shadow. 
In  1788  Delhi  was  sacked  again ;  the  wretched 
emperor  was  blinded  by  a  ruffian,  and  his  wives 
and  daughters  exposed  and  dishonoured.  After 
the  battle  of  Patun  (1790),  the  emperor  feU 
wholly  into  the  power  of  Scindia.  After 
the  battle  of  Delhi  he  became  a  British 
pensioner,  with  a  large  and  liberal  pension 
and  his  residence  in  Delhi.  On  the  outbreak 
of  the  Indian  Mutiny  in  1857,  after  a  bloody 
masitticre,  the  descendant  of  Timour  was  pro- 
claimed King  of  Delhi.  But  after  the  siege 
and  capture  of  Delhi  by  Archdale  Wilson,  he 
surrendered,  and  his  two  murderous  sons  were 
shot  in  the  midst  of  their  attendants  by  Cap- 
tain Hodson.  The  Mogul  himself  was  tried, 
fbund  guilty  of  treason   and   murder,    and 


transported  to  Tounghoo  in  Bunnah,  with  his 
favourite  wife  and  son. 

Elphinstone,  India ;  Malleeon,  Indian  Mutiny  ; 
Grant  Buff,  Mahrattas. 

XohamralL,  Tke,  a  strong  Persian  for- 
tress on  the  river  Karoon,  a  branch  of  the 
Euphrates,  was  stormed  by  the  English 
during  the  Persian  Campaign  (March  26, 
1867). 

Townaend,  Persian  Campaigu, 

Xolllin,  Lord  {d.  1714), "  the  bully  of  the 
Whig  faction,"  was  a  nobleman  of  bad  cha- 
racter, conspicuous  at  intervals  during  the 
reigns  of  William  III.  and  Anne.  In  1692  he 
was  tried  for  aiding  his  friend  Captain  Hill 
in  the  murder  of  the  actor,  William  Mount- 
ford,  before  the  court  of  the  Lord  High 
Steward.  Although  palpably  guilty,  he  was 
acquitted.  He  behaved  with  great  bravery 
wlule  serving  as  a  volunteer  in  the  expedition 
against  Brest  (1694).  In  Anne's  reign  he 
was  chiefly  conspicuous  for  his  uncompro- 
mising Whiggism.  He  spoke  against  Not- 
tingham's Occasional  Conformity  BiU,  and 
wished  to  have  him  sent  to  the  Tower  for 
an  imputation  on  the  memory  of  King  Wil- 
liam. He  warmly  defended  the  Godolphin 
ministry  after  its  fall  (1710).  Marlborough 
chose  him  as  his  second  in  a  duel  arranged 
with  Lord  Powlett,  which  was  stopped,  how- 
ever, by  royal  authority.  Mohun  was  him- 
self slain  in  a  duel  with  the  Duke  of  Hamil- 
ton, not,  however  before  he  had  mortaUy 
wounded  his  adversary.  The  quarrel  was  of 
a  private  nature ;  but  as  Hamilton  was  about 
to  be  sent  to  France,  it  was  believed  with 
favourable  messages  to  the  Pretender,  his 
death  was  regarded  by  the  Tories  as  a  poli- 
tical murder. 

Xoleyns,  or   Xolineiuc,   Adax   {d, 

1450),  Bishop  of  Chichester,  was  one  of  the 
negotiators  of  the  marriage  betweeD>  Henry 
yi.  and  Margaret  of  Anjou,  and  also  assisted 
in  arranging  a  ti-uce  with  France,  both  of 
which  acts  made  him  very  unpopular.  He 
was  one  of  the  victims  of  Jack  CWe*s  rebel- 
lion, being  murdered  by  the  insurgents  as  he 
was  on  the  poiiit  of  escaping  to  France. 

Monastioimi.     Monks  were  bodies  of 
men,  living  together  apart  from  the  world,  for 
the  purpose  of  leading  a  religious  life.  Monas- 
ticism  first  sprang  up  in  ti^e  East,  where  it 
assumed  a  solitary  and  contemplative  cha- 
racter; as  it  spread  in  the  West  its  oi^gani- 
sation  becanie  more  practical.  The  first  monks 
who  exercised  any  mfluence  on  Great  Britain 
were  the.  Celtic  monks    of    Ireland,  where 
Christianity  early  assumed   a   monastic  and 
tribal  character.     The  Irish  Church  was  not 
so  much  organised  round  the  bishops  as  round 
the  monastery.    The  tribe  was  reproduced  in 
the  monastic  brotherhood,  of  which  the  abbot 
was  father  and  head.     Celtic  Christianity  ^"tf 
poetical  and  imaginative.    It  sent  forth  mis- 


(786) 


Lon 


nonaries  amongst  the  Britons  and  the  Ficts. 
In  the  fotirth  century  Ninian  established  a 
monastery  at  Candida  Casa,  or  Whithem,  in 
Galloway.  Soon  afterwards  two  bishops  of 
Gaul  dotted  along  the  Wye  settlements,  which 
rapidly  spread.  Columbians  monastery  at  lona 
was  the  source  whence  Christianity  was  carried 
into  the  Northumbrian  kingdom  (635),  and 
Lindisfarne  became  the  great  missionary  station 
whence  the  conversion  of  the  north  of  England 
was  carried  on.  When  the  Roman  monk  Au- 
gustine converted  the  Kentis^  kingdom  he  like- 
wise established  a  monast^  at  Canterbury 
(598).  The  Roman  and  the  Celtic  Church  ad- 
vanced in  their  work  of  conversion  till  thev  came 
into  collision.  When  in  664  it  was  agreed  at  the 
Synod  of  Whitby  that  the  Roman  use  should 
prevail  in  the  Northumbrian  kingdom,  the 
downfall  of  Celtic  monasticism  followed.  Such 
monks  as  remained  conformed  to  the  Roman 
rule;  those  who  refused  returned  to  lona. 
Before  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century  Celtic 
monasticism  died  away,  and  the  more  vigorous 
system  of  Rome  had  taken  its  place.  There 
was  no  great  difference  between  the  objects 
which  l£e  two  systems  proposed.  Prayer, 
work,  and  reading  were  alike  the  aims  of  the 
communitios.  The  monks  settled  on  unoccu- 
pied lands,  and  by  their  labour  brought  them 
under  cultivation.  They  taught  the  neigh- 
bouring folk,  and  by  their  active  lives  gave  a 
standing  protest  against  the  prevalent  sen- 
suality of  a  rude  people.  The  monasteries 
were  the  homes  of  peace  and  learning,  and 
were  the  means  of  spreading  civilisation.  The 
Northumbrian  thegn,  BenedictBiscop,  founded 
his  monasteries  of  Wearmouth  (674)  and  Jar- 
row  (682),  where  rose  a  band  of  English 
scholars,  of  whom  Bede  is  the  chief.  But 
even  before  his  death,  Bede  saw  the  decline  of 
the  great  days  of  monastidsm.  His  letter  to 
£gWht>  Archbishop  of  York,  compUdns  of 
the  excessive  number  of  monasteries  founded 
from  a  desire  to  obtain  from  the  king  grants 
offolkland.  The  monks  were  ^le  mere 
creatures  of  the  thegns  who  put  them  there ; 
they  lived  idle  and  useless  lives ;  they  set  a 
bad  example,  and  impoverished  the  State. 
Bedels  warnings  ware  unheeded,  and  punish- 
ment was  not  long  in  coming.  The  NortWen 
attacked  the  monasteries,  which  were  near  the 
sea,  and  whose  treasures  offered  them  a  rich 
booty.  The  ninth  century  saw  the  overthrow 
by  the  heathen  of  most  of  the  renowned  monas- 
teries of  England.  The  rule  of  life,  such  as  it 
was,  seems  aiter  this  to  have  fallen  into  disuse, 
and  they  were  mostly  left  in  the  possession  of 
secular  clerks.  In  the  middle  of  the  tenth 
century  a  monastic  revival  spread  from  the 
abbeys  of  Glastonbury  and  Abingdon.  Dun- 
stan  and  Ethelwolf  laboured  to  restore  a  system 
which  alone  could  repair  in  English  society  the 
ravages  wrought  by  the  Danes.  They  pursued 
two  objects,  the  substitution  of  monks  for 
secular  canons,  and  the  introduction  of  the 
rule  of  St.  Benedict  for  the  vaguer  and  less 


organised  rules  which  had  been  previously 
adopted.  Their  efforts  met  with  great  success. 
Kings  and  nobles  again  endowed  monasteries, 
and  monasticism  became  once  more  a  greai 
influence  in  the  progress  of  English  society. 

The  Norman  Conquest  brought  still  stronger 
and  more  definite  organisation.  The  great 
monastic  reform  on  the  Continent,  which  had 
begun  at  Cluny,  was  steadily  pursued  in 
Normandy  at  Bee.  From  Bee  came  the  two 
archbishops,  Lanfranc  and  Anselm..  Not  only 
were  the  fhaglish  monasteries  more  rigidly 
ruled  by  Norman  abbots,  but  in  cases  where 
cathedrals  had  been  originally  of  monastic 
foundation,  Lanfranc  replaced  the  secular 
canons  by  regulars.  [Cathbdkals.]  By  means 
of  the  monasteries  especially  the  superior  civili- 
sation of  the  Normans  was  spr^ui  through 
England.  But  the  institution  of  monasticism 
itsdf  had  well-nigh  spent  its  streng^.  The 
eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  witnessed  the 
foimation  of  a  number  of  new  orders,  all 
following  the  Benedictine  rule  in  its  main 
features,  but  each  striving  to  give  it  greater 
reality. 

Each  of  the  monastic  movements  which  led 
to  the  formation  of  the  Carthusians,  Premon- 
stratenaians,  Austin  Canons,  and,  above  all, 
Cistercians,  found  its  echo  in  England. 
Amongst  the  founders  of  the  Cistercian  order 
was  an  Englishman,  Stephen  Harding,  and 
the  Cistenaans  were  a  favourite  order  in 
England,  as  the  remains  of  their  great  abbeys 
in  Yorkshire  sufficiently  show.  The  Crusades 
created  a  new  kind  of  monasticism — ^the  mili- 
tary orders  of  the  Knights  Templars  and  the 
Knights  of  St.  John.  One  order  only  was 
n)ecially  English,  the  GKlbertines,  founded  by 
Gilbert  of  Sempringham,  in  Lincolnshire,  about 
1135,  which  is  remarkable  for  double  monas- 
teries of  men  and  women,  side  by  side. 

This  feverish  growth  of  new  orders  was  a 
sign  of  weakness  rather  than  of  strength. 
Monasticism  could  not  save  itself  from  de- 
generacy, and  in  the  b^inning  of  the 
thirteenth  century  a  new  efrort  was  made  by 
St.  Francis  and  St.  Dominic,  who  established 
the  mendicant  orders.  [Friabs.]  Hie  friars 
rapidly  increased  in  numbers  and  in  popular 
estimation,  and  the  glory  of  the  old  orders 
paled  before  them ;  but  in  spite  of  their  greater 
activity,  the  friars  also  rapidly  ran  their 
course.  The  fourteenth  century  saw  the 
gradual  growth  of  a  feeling  against  reli- 
gious orders.  The  Templars,  through  their 
pride  and  wealth,  and  the  mystery  which 
surrounded  their  doings,  were  the  first  to  £^1. 
They  were  dissolved  in  1310.  In  England 
the  royal  power  showed  great  jealousy  of 
**  alien  priories,"  or  houses  depending  on 
foreign  monasteries.  Edward  I.  and  Edward 
III.  both  confiscated  their  lands  and  posses- 
sions. Finally,  in  1416,  Parliament  dissolved 
these  **  alien  priories,"  and  vested  their  lands 
in  the  crown. 

The  feeling  against  monastic  institutioisi 


Loa 


(  736  ) 


ion 


was  largely  increased  by  the  Lollard  move- 
ment ;  but  on  many  sides  it  was  felt  that  their 
usefulness  had  really  gone.  In  early  times 
the  monks  had  been  settlers  and  reclaimers  of 
barren  land ;  later  they  had  been  good  farmers, 
who  had  not  dealt  hardly  with  those  who  worked 
under  them.  The  Cistercians  in  Yorkshire  espe- 
cially were  the  chief  merchants  in  the  wool  trade 
with  Flanders.  But  monasteries,  like  all  cor- 
porations, though  easy  masters,  were  tenacious 
of  their  rights.  They  were  often  involved  in 
quarrels  with  the  rising  spirit  of  municipal 
freedom.  At  St.  Albans,  for  instance,  the 
monks  and  the  burghers  were  in  constant 
strife  about  trifling  matters.  The  enfranchise- 
ment of  villeins,  and  the  gradual  extinction 
of  villeinage  in  the  fourteenth  century,  brought 
economic  changes,  which  were  unmvourable 
to  the  tenure  of  lands  by  corporations.  The 
land  was  more  and  more  let  to  tenants,  and 
not  worked  by  the  monks  themselves.  Luxury 
and  idleness  went  hand  in  hand.  It  became 
clear  that  any  reform  in  the  Church  must 
begin  wi^  the  monasteries.  In  1523  Wolsey 
obtained  bulls  from  the  Pope  suppressing 
forty  of  the  smaller  monasteries,  and  autho- 
rising the  application  of  their  revenues  to 
educational  purposes.  The  Renaissance  had 
made  men  feel  that  a  learned  clergy  was 
necessary,  instead  of  indolent  monks. 

The  example  set  by  Wolsey  was  rapidly 
followed  when  Henry  VIII.  threw  off  from 
the  Church  of  England  the  papal  headship. 
The  monasteries  were  particularly  obnoxious 
to  the  king  as  harbouring  those  who  were  dis- 
contented with  his  changes.  Their  weakness 
and  their  wealth  made  them  a  tempting 
object  of  attack.  A  visitation  of  the  monas- 
teries was  followed  by  an  Act  of  Parliament 
authorising  the  suppression  of  the  smaller 
monasteries  whose  incomes  were  below  £200 
a  year  (1 636) .  Their  fall  was  quickly  followed 
by  that  of  the  largfer  monasteries  also  (1539). 
The  monastic  system  was  swept  out  of  England. 
The  monasteries  themselves  were  cast  down. 
Their  lands  were  granted  to  nobles,  or  were  sold, 
and  the  result  was  a  sudden  change  in  social 
conditions  which  was  not  for  the  better.  The 
easy-going  monks  were  replaced  by  capitalists. 
The  old-fashioned  farming  of  the  monks  was 
superseded.  Arable  land  was  turned  into 
pasture  for  the  more  profitable  purpose  of 
growing  wool.  Many  peasants  were  thrown 
out  of  work,  and  the  doors  of  the  monasteries 
no  longer  stood  open  for  the  relief  of  destitu- 
tion. There  was  great  distress,  and  much 
discontent,  which  caused  the  popular  risings 
under  the  Tudors,  and  the  legislation  of 
Henry  VIII.  against  *  *  sturdy  beggars."  Ulti- 
mately the  Poor  Law  of  Elizabeth  adopted 
the  principle  of  distributing  alms  to  those  in 
want,  and  replaced  the  charity  of  the  monks 
by  the  legal  contributions  of  the  community. 
In  constitutional  matters  the  suppression  of 
the  monasteries  largely  diminished  the  mem- 
bers of  the  House  of  Lords.    The  greater  | 


abbots  ceased  to  exist,  and  the  character  of 
the  Upper  House  was  changed  by  Uie  loss  of 
the  preponderance  of  spiritual  peers.  [Abbot.] 
The  general  character  of  English  religious 
orders  may  be  shown  by  the  number  of  their 
houses  at  the  time  of  tibe  dissolution.  There 
were  186  Benedictines,  173  Augustinians, 
101  Cistercians,  33  of  the  four  orders  of  fnars, 
32  Premonstratensians,  28  of  the  Knights 
Hospitallers,  25  G-ilbertines,  20  Cluniacs, 
9  Carthusians,  and  a  few  other  orders.  The 
total  number  of ,  monasteries  was  616,  and 
their  revenues  were  approximately  valued  at 
£142,914  yearly. 

A  full  accoimt  of  English  monasteries  is  giren 
in  Dnvdale's   Monaaticon;    of   monajBticicm  in 

Senerad  a  popular  aooount  is  in  MJontalembert's 
tonkt  of  th«  W9!tt.  For  the  dissolution  of  the 
monasteries  Dixon's  History  of  the  Church  oj 
Btttfland.  [M.  C] 

Monk,  Geo&gb.    [Albeka&lb.] 

Xonmoiith,  James,  Buks  op  (h.  1649, 
d,  1685),  was  the  natural  son  of  Charles  II.  by 
Lucy  Walters,  and  was  bom  at  Rotterdam. 
During  the  king's  exile  he    was   generally 
known  as  James  Crofts,  but  in  1662  he  was 
brought  over  to  England,  and  created  Buke  of 
Monmouth  and  Orlmey,  recognised  by  Charles 
as  his  son,  and  apartments  in  Whitehall  given 
to  him.     In  1663  he  was  married  to  Ladr 
Anne  Scott,  daughter  and  heiress  of  the  I>uke 
of  Buccleugh.  In  1665  he  took  part  in  a  na^-al 
engagement  with  the  Dutch,  and  in  1668  he 
was. made  captain  of  the  first  troop  of  life 
Guards.    In  1672  he  was  appointed  to  an  im- 
portant military  command  in  the  Dutch  War, 
and  distinguished  himself  by  his  bravery  and 
discretion.     In  1678  ho  fought  in  the  army  of 
the  Prince  of  Orange,  from  whom  he  earaed 
high  praise.     In  1679  he  was  sent  to  Scotland 
to  repress  the  Covenanters,  whom  he  defeated 
at  Bothwell  Bridge,  but  earned  a  name  for 
humanity  by  preventing  the  indiscriminate 
slaughter  of   the    insurgents.      About  this 
period  dates  his  great  popularity  and   his 
friendship  with  Shaftesbur}'  and  other  leaders 
of  the  Protestant  or  Presbyterian  party,  and  a 
design  was  formed  whereby  Monmouth  shoold 
succeed  to  the  throne.    But  Charles  sternly 
refused  to  countenance  such  an  idea,  and  ex- 
pressly declared  that  Monmouth  was  not  his 
legitimate  son,  while,  to  prevent  these  in- 
trigues from  being  carried  on  any  longer,  he 
banished  Monmouth  to  Holland  in  1679.    In 
1680  he  returned,  was  received  by  the  people 
with  the  greatest  enthusiasm,   and  made  a 
progress  through  England,  being  hailed  even- 
where  with  demonstrations  of  popular  joy.  In 
the  midst  of  his  progress  he  was  airested  at 
Stafford  by  the  king's  orders.    He  quickly 
made  his  peace  with  his  father,  and  lived 
quietly  in  London  till  1683,  when  he  joined 
in    the    Revolution    plot,    though   probably 
not  in  the  Rye  House  conspiracy.    Charles, 
however,  treated  Monmouth  with  the  utmost 


Xoii 


{  W) 


kindness,  but  finding  that  he  still  consorted 
with  men  who  were  suspected  of  designs 
against  the  government,  he  was  compeUed 
to  banish  him  once  more  to  Holland.  Here 
he  remained  till  the  accession  of  James  II., 
when  he  was  expelled  from  Holland  by 
William  of  Orangpe,  and  returned  to  Brussels, 
where  the  invasion  of  England  was  planned. 
On  June  11  (1685)  he  landed  at  Lyme  Begis 
in  Dorsetshire,  where  he  issued  a  proclamation 
against  *'the  Duke  of  York,''  as  he  termed 
James  II.,  asserting  his  own  legitimacy,  but, 
at  the  same  time  promising  that  he  would 
leave  his  claims  to  be  decided  by  a  free  Par- 
liament. From  Lyme  he  marched  to  Taunton, 
Bridgewater,  Wells,  and  Frome,  at  all  of 
whic^  places  he  was  solemnly  proclaimed. 
The  royal  troops  under  Feversham  and 
Churchill  encountered  his  levies  at  the  battle 
of  Sedgemoor,  and  Monmoath  was  utterly 
routed  (July  6,  1685).  After  wandering 
about  for  some  days,  he  was  discovered  near 
Holtbridge,  in  Dorsetshire,  in  a  dry  ditch, 
covered  with  fern.  He  now  exhibited  the 
g^atest  cowardice  and  terror,  and  entreated 
James  to  grant  him  an  interview,  which  the 
king  did,  but,  finding  that  he  would  not  betray 
his  accomplices,  rejected  all  his  appeals  for 
mercy,  and  Monmouth  was  executed  on  Tower 
Hill  on  Jiily  loth.  He  left  three  children — 
James,  Earl  of  Dalkeith,  Henry,  Earl  of 
Beloraine,  and  Anne,  who  died  from  g^ef 
shortly  after  her  father. 

Boberts,  Life  of  Monmouth;  Macaalay,  Hitt,  of 
Bug. ;  Gbristie,  Life  of  Shaftethwry, 

[F.  S.  P.] 

XoilOpoli68.  The  first  attack  upon  the 
power  of  the  crown  to  issue  patents  confer- 
ring exclusive  rights  of  carrying  on  certain 
trades,  was  made  in  1597.  According  to  the 
common  law  every  man  was  entitled  freely 
to  exercise  his  trade,  but  the  principle  was 
generally  recognised  that  exceptions  might 
be  made  to  this  rule  in  the  case  of  any  process 
newly  invented  or  introduced  from  abroad. 
Anxious  to  gain  a  control  over  the  increasing 
commerce  of  the  countiy,  the  government 
was  likely  to  stretch  this  principle  farther 
than  it  would  bear,  and  the  grant  of  patents 
to  courtiers  was  among  the  r^diest  means  of 
satisfying  their  demands.  In  1597  the  Com- 
mons sent  up  an  address  to  Elizabeth  against 
the  abuse  of  monopolies,  but  an  evasive  reply 
was  given,  and  in  1601  a  bitter  debate  of  four 
days  took  place  on  the  subject.  The  queen 
thought  it  wise  to  yield,  promised  that  all  in- 
jurious grants  should  be  repealed,  and  caused 
most  of  the  patents  to  be  revoked.  Their 
number  increased  again  under  James  I. : 
"  whereas,  at  the  king's  coming  in,"  says  a 
contemporary, "  tiiere  were  complaints  of  some 
eight  or  nine  monopolies  then  m  being,  they 
are  now  said  to  be  multiplied  by  so  many 
scores."  A  detailed  examination  of  the  most 
important  cases  has  been  made  by  l^lr.  Gar- 
diner, who  declares  that  they  were  not  open 
Hm^24 


to  the  usual  charges  brought  against  them. 
"They  were  not  made  with  the  object  of 
filling  the  Exchequer.  They  were  not  made, 
piimarily  at  least,  with  the  object  of  filling^ 
the  pockets  of  the  courtiers.  Ihey  were,  it 
is  impossible  to  doubt,  the  result  of  a  desire 
on  the  part  of  oflSdal  persons  to  encourage 
commerce,  and  to  promote  the  welfare  of  the 
State,  though  it  cannot  be  denied  that  their 
zeal  was  often  greater  than  their  knowledge, 
and  that  their  best  efforts  were  not  unfre- 
quently  tainted  by  ...  .  favouritism  and 
corruption.  Take,.for  example,  the  commis- 
sion for  gold  and  silver  thread.  Such  thread 
had  been  made  before  in  England,  but  on  a 
small  scale;  in  1611  and  1616  patents  were 
granted  to  certain  persons,  including  several 
courtiers,  on  two  grounds:  first,  tnat  they 
would  establish  a  manufacture  large  enough 
to  compete  with  the  Continent ;  and  secondly, 
that  they  would  import  bullion,  and  not  uso 
English  coin,  the  sinews  and  strength  of  our 
state."  In  1618  the  monopoly  was  taken 
into  the  kjng's  hands,  and  a  proclamation 
issued  forbidding  the  manufacture  of  gold 
and  silver  thread  by  private  persons,  while 
a  commission  was  issued  for  the  punishment 
of  ofFenders.  The  commissioners  caused  dis- 
obedient workmen  to  be  arrested,  tools 
seized,  and  goldsmiths  and  silkmen  impri- 
soned upon  refusal  to  enter  into  bonds  not 
to  sell  to  unlicensed  persons.  The  harshness 
with  which  the  monopolies  were  enforced, 
together  with  the  fact  that  the  chief  monopo- 
lists were  also  profiting  by  patents  for  the 
control  of  alehouses  and  inns,  and  shame- 
fully abusing  their  power,  caused  a  storm  of 
indignation  which  broke  in  the  Parliament  of 
1621.  On  Feb.  19,  Noy  moved  for  an  inquiry, 
and  his  proposal  was  seconded  by  Coke.  A 
committee  of  the  whole  House  investigated 
the  patents  for  inns,  and  also  those  confer- 
ring monopolies.  The  king  yielded  to  the 
storm,  and  Buckingham,  on  the  advice  of 
Dean  Williams,  declared  he  would  not  even 
protect  his  brother.  Sir  Giles  Mompes- 
son  and  Sir  Francis  Mitehell  were  accused 
by  the  Commons  before  the  Lords  (a  meastire 
usually  regarded  as  the  revival  of  the  power  of 
impeachment,  though  not  technically  such), 
and  heavy  penalties  were  imposed.  Finally, 
in  the  Parliament  of  1624,  an  Act  was  passed 
abolishing  most  of  the  monopolies.  Some 
few,  however,  were  specially  retained  as  for 
the  public  advantage.  A  few  5'ear8  later 
the  Lord  Treasurer  Weston  endeavoured  to 
raise  money  by  creating  chartered  companies, 
which  escaped  the  Act  of  1624  by  being  open 
to  all  merchants  who  cared  to  pay  certain 
fees.  Much  discontent  was  caused  among 
those  traders  who  were  unable  to  join,  and 
the  grants  were  all  revoked  in  1639. 

Oardiner,  Uisi,  of  England,,  iv. ;  Hallam,  Convf. 
ff«*-  [W.  J.  A.] 

]Koiitagll6,    John    Neville,    Mabqvis 


ton 


(738} 


OF  {d.  1471),  was  the  son  of  Richard,  Earl  of 
^Salisbury,  and  the  younger  brother  of  the 
Earl  of  Warwick.  He  joined  his  father  and 
■  brother  in  espousing  the  cause  of  York,  and  on 
the  accession  of  Edward  IV.  was  made  Warden 
y)f  the  East  Marches.  In  1464  he  defeated 
the  Lancastrians  at  Hedgeley  Moor  and 
Hexham.  In  1467  he  was  created  Earl  of 
Northumberland,  and  the  estates  of  the 
Percies  were  granted  to  him.  He  resigned 
this  position  in  two  years  in  order  that 
Percy  might  be  restored,  and  received  in  lieu 
the  title  of  Marquis  of  Montague.  He  joined 
Warwick  in  his  intrigues  against  Edward, 
shared  in  Henry  YI.^s  restoration,  and  fell 
with  his  brother  in  the  battle  of  BarneL 

Montajniey  Anthony  Bkownb,  Vis- 
corNT  («/.  lo93),  "a  man  of  great  wisdom, 
prudence,  and  loyalty/'  was  son  of  Sir 
Anthony  Browne,  Master  of  the  Horse  to 
Henry  VIII.,  and  as  a  staunch  Koman 
Catholic  was  high  in  favour  with  Mar}',  by 
whom  ho  was  created  a  peer  (September,  1653). 
He  was  lieutenant  of  the  English  forces  at  the 
siege  of  St.  Qucntin,  and  in  15^0,  in  spite  of 
his  vigorous  opposition  to  the  Acts  of  Uni- 
formity and  Supremacy,  was  sent  by  Elizabeth 
on  a  mission  to  the  court  of  Spain.  His  reli- 
gion caused  him  to  be  suspected  of  s^nnpathy 
with  the  northern  rebels  in  1569,  but  ho. 
nevertheless  contrived  to  retain  the  favour  of 
the  queen.  Lord  Montague  was  one  of  the 
commissioners  at  the  trial  of  the  Queen  of 
Scots  in  1586. 

Xontey  Robert  de  {d.  1186),  was  a  monk 
of  Mont  St.  Michel,  in  Normandy.  He  wrote 
a  Chronicle,  extending  to  the  year  of  his 
death,  and  a  History  of  Henry  /.,  which  is 
generally  considered  the  eighth  book  of  Wil- 
liam of  Jumi^ges*  Chronicle.  "  His  Chroniclcy** 
says  Sir  T.  Hardy,  **is  the  most  important 
authority  we  possess  for  the  history  of  the 
Continental  actions  of  our  later  Norman 
kings  and  the  earlier  monarchs  of  the  house 
of  I'lantagenet." 

This  work  will  be  found  in  Pertz,  and  a  trans- 
lation in  the  Church  Histor%an$  of  England. 

Montfort.  Simon  db  {b.  1208).  The 
marriage  of  Simon,  lord  of  Montfort  and 
Evreux,  wi£h  the  sister  and  co-heiress  of  the 
Earl  of  Leicester, 'in  the  reign  of  Henry  II., 
was  the  origin  of  the  connection  of  the 
Montforts  with  England.  Their  second  son, 
Simon,  the  leader  of  the  Albigensian  crusade, 
to  whom  fell  the  title  and  half  the  estates 
of  the  earldom  of  Leicester,  married  Alice  de 
Montmorency,  and  of  this  marriage,  Simon, 
the  great  Earl  of  Leicester,  was  the  fourth 
and  youngest  son.  His  father  was  deprived  of 
his  English  estates  in  1210,  and  died  in  1218, 
leaving  to  his  sons— of  whom  only  two, 
Almeric  or  Amaury,  and  Simon,  now  re- 
mained— nothing  more  than  his  ancestral  ter- 
ritories and  his  claims  in  England.  Amaury 
resigned  his  rights  to  his  younger  brother, 


who  came  to  England  in  1230  to  try  his  fcr* 
tune.     He  at  once  became  a  royal  favourite, 
was  given  a  pension  of  400  marks  ;  and  in  the 
year  1238  was  secretly  married  to  the  king's 
sister,  Eleanor,  widow  of  William  Marshall. 
In  1239  he  was  invested  with  the  earldom  of 
Leicester,  and  soon  after  acted  as  godfather 
at  Prince  Edward's  christening.      Up  to  this 
date,  then,  there  had  been  nothing  to  dis- 
tinguish him  from  the  crowd  of  foreign  ad- 
venturers who  haunted  the  court  of  Henr\'. 
Political  causes  precipitated  the  first  quarrel. 
In  1239  Frederick  II.  was  excommunicated 
by  the  Pope ;  after  some  hesitation  the  Eng- 
lish king  made  up  his  mind  to  side  with  the 
pontifF,  and  determined  to  get  rid  of  a  man 
whom  he  knew  greatly  admired  the  Pope's 
enemy.    When  next  he  came  to  court,  Heavy 
greeted  him  with  coarse  and  causeless  abuse, 
and  ordered  him  to  depart.     With  his  wife 
he  hastened  to  France,  cheered  in  his  exik 
by  a  letter  from  Grosseteste  of  Lincoln,  whom 
he  had  made  his  friend.    In  less  than  a  year, 
however,  the  king  was  reconciled,  but  Sunon 
was  glad  to  take  refuge  from  the  annoyances 
of  the  English  court  in  the  excitement  of  a 
crusade  (1240 — 41).  In  Palestine  he  could  do 
little,  though  his  ability  so  impressed  the 
barons  of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  that  they 
begged  the  £mi)eror  to  appoint  him  governor 
of  the  land.    In  1242 — 43  Henry's  miserable 
camjMiign  in  Poitou  engaged  him ;  and  then 
for  five  Years  he  Uved  quietly  on  his  Leicester 
estates,  in  the  enjoyment  of  the  friendship  of 
Grosseteste  and  Adam  de  Marisco.     In  1248 
he  was  summoned  from  his  retirement  to  be- 
come Lieutenant  of  Gascon^'.  Into  the  detailsof 
his  five  years'  administration  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  enter.     Possibly  he  occasionally  acted 
with    ill-timed    severity,  and    the   pleasure 
which  a   strong  man  has  in  the  sense  of 
master}'  may  have  led  him  into  indiscretions. 
But  it  is  clear  that  his  administration  wa«  on 
the  whole  successful,  and  also  that  he  vas 
again  and  again  shamefully  abandoned  by  his 
weak  master,  who    seemed  to  welcome  the 
complaints  made  against  him.     On  his  return 
Simon  again  retired  to  his  own  estates,  and 
watched  the  com-se  of  events,  and  it  is  not 
till  the  ^lad  Parliament  of  12d8  that  he  again 
becomes  prominent.      But  from  this  time  to 
his  death  he  is  the  foremost  figure  in  the  op- 
position, and  it  was  during  this  period  that  hv 
made    so  powerful  an  impression  upon  the 
popular  mind  by  his  political  measures  and 
personal  qualities.    Avoiding  details,  his  sub- 
sequent action  may  bo  thus  summarised  :  He 
was  one  of  the  twenty-four  who  drew  up  the 
Pro\dsions  of  Oxford,  and  a  member  of  the 
I)ermanent    Council    of    fifteen ;    negotiated 
"pesLCG  ^ith  Louis  IX. :  quarrelled  with  Glou- 
cester in  the  Parliament  of  Februar}*,  12o9, 
according  to  popular  belief  because  the  latter 
was    content    with    getting  power  into  the 
hands  of  the  barons,  and  objected  to  further 
reform;   he    joined    with    the    Bishop    of 


[on 


(  739  ) 


Mon 


WoKsester  in  summoning  tlie  Pai*liament  of 
1261,  in  which  knights  of  the  shire  were 
present ;  on  the  death  of  the  elder  Gloucester 
he  practically  governed  England  for  some 
mouths  at  the  end  of  1262  and  beginning  of 
1263 ;  rejected  the  Mise  of  Amiens  ;  took  up 
arms  and  won  the  battle  of  Lewes  (1264),  which 
put  the  king  into  his  hands;  established  a 
standing  CouncU  of  nine  instead  of  the 
elaborate  constitution  of  1208;  and  brought 
to  the  support  of  this  a  Parliament  to  which 
knights  of  the  shire  were  simmioned,  and  in 
1265  representatives  of  the  towns  for  the  first 
time.  He  was  killed  at  Evesham,  Aug.  4, 
126o. 

Simon  has  long  enjoyed  the  reputation  of 
being  the  creator  of  the  English  House  of 
Commons.  It  has,  however,  been  pointed 
out  that  the  writs  of  1265  for  borough  repre- 
sentation were  not  sent  through  the  sheriff, 
but  to  the  mayors  direct ;  ana  thus  Simon's 
action  stands  outside  the  regular  development 
of  Parliament,  which  consisted  in  bringing 
the  county  courts  into  contact  with  the  Ureat 
CounciL  It  cannot,  however,  be  doubted  that 
the  precedent  of  1265  was  of  the  utmost  sub- 
sequent importance.  It  may  fairly  be  argued 
that  the  constitution  of  1258  does  not  repre- 
sent Simon^s  own  policy,  but  that  of  the 
barons  with  whom  he  was  forced  to  associate ; 
while  that  of  1264,  arranged  at  a  time  when 
the  had  broken  with  the  oligarchical  party, 
represents  his  own  ideas  as  to  what  was 
fitting  in  the  existing  state  of  things.  Simon 
in  1264 — 65  showed  his  confidence  in  the 
knights  and  burghers  by  summoning  them  to 
a  Parliament  which  was  to  have  a  permanent 
place  in  the  constitution. 

MtUthmo  Parts  ;  Annalt  of  Burttm  ;  ITotthmo  of 
Wettminater ;  Monumenta  Franciscaiia;  Qrou9- 
teate'B  lMter»,  and  Royal  Letten  of  Henry  Ill.'s 
Rrign  (aU  in  Bolls  Series) ;  Wright's  Political 
Songs  (Camden  Soc.).  Blaanw,  Baront'  War, 
and  Panli,  Simon  de  Jiontfort^  are  good  modem 
books  on  the  period.  Especial  reference  should 
be  made  to  Stubbs,  Const.  Hiat.,  ii.,  ch.  14,  and 
to  the  documents  in  his  Select  Charters^ 

[W.  J.  A.] 

Montfort,  Henry  db  {d,  1265),  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Simon  de  Montfort.  He  took 
part  with  his  father  in  his  opposition  to 
Henry  III.,  and  commanded  the  right  wing 
of  the  baronial  army  at  Lewes,  and,  after  the 
victor}',  took  charge  of  Prince  Edward.  The 
conduct  of  Henry  and  his  brothers  during 
the  period  between  the  battles  of  Lewes  and 
Evesham  was  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  their 
father's  fate.  Henrj'  seized  all  the  wool  in 
England,  and  sold  it  for  his  own  profit,  while 
he  quarrelled  with  and  estranged  tiie  powerful 
I>e  Clares.  He  fought  bravely  at  the  battle 
of  Evesham,  and  fell  in  a  vain  attempt  to 
rally  the  baronial  forces  after  his  father's 
death. 

Montfort.  Simon  de  {d.  1273?),  second 
son  of  Simon  de  Montfort,  first  distinguished 


himself  in  the  year  1264  by  defending 
Northampton  against  the  royalists.  ,  He 
was,  however,  defeated,  taken  prisoner,  and 
his  life  only  saved  by  the  personal  inter- 
vention of  Prince  Edward.  He  was  not 
released  till  after  the  battle  of  Lewes,  when 
he  was  appointed  by  his  father  Warden  of 
Surrey  and  Sussex.  After  the  battle  lof 
Eveslumi,  he  field  out  in  the  castle  of  Kenil- 
worth,  and  through  his  intercession  the  lives 
of  the  King  of  the  Romans  and  his  son  were 
epaxed.  After  the  capture  of  the  castle,  he 
retired  to  the  sea-coast,  where  he  put  himself 
at  the  head  of  a  body  of  pirates,  and  subse- 
quently fled  to  Italy,  where,  in  conjunction 
with  his  brother  Guy,  he  barbarously  mur- 
dered Henry  of  Almayne,  at  Viterbo,  in 
1269.  For  this  crime  he  was  excommunicated, 
and,  "after  a  brief  wandering  on  the  earth 
with  the  curse  of  Cain  upon  him,''  he  died  in 
a  castle  near  Sienna. 

Xoiltforty  Almbric  de,  was  the  third 
son  of  Simon  de  Montfort.  He  was  ap- 
pointed Treasurer  of  York,  but,  after  lus 
father's  death,  was  deprived  of  his  office,  and 
fled  abroad.  Being  supposed  to  have  been 
privy  to  the  Viterbo  miurder,  he  was  taken 
prisoner  by  Edward  I.  in  1276,  but  in  1281, 
at  the  Pope's  intercession,, he  was  released, 
and  repaired  to  Rome,  where  he  remained  tiU 
his  death. 

Xoiltforty  CrVY  DS,  was  the  fourth 
son  of  Simon  de  Montfort,  and  took  part 
with  his  father  in  the  Barons'  War,  com- 
manding the  right  wing  at  the  battle  of 
Lewes.  He  subsequently  brought  great 
odium  on  himself  by  his  plunder  of  the 
merchant-ships  in  the  Channel,  and  by  his 
turbulence  contributed  to  his  father's  down- 
fall. Wounded  at  the  battle  of  Evesham,  he 
fled  to  Italy,  where  in  1270  he  murdered 
Henr)'  of  Alxna^e  at  Viterbo.  For  this  he 
was  excommunicated,  but  was  subsequently 
Allowed  to  do  penance,  and  fought  bravely  in 
the  Papal  army,  but  in  1288  was  takcq. 
prisoner  by  the  Sicilians,  and  ended  his  days' 
in  prison. 

Montsorraty  one  of  the  Leeward  Islands 
south-west  of  Antigua,  was  discovci-cd  by 
Columbus  in  1493,  and  so  called  by  him  from 
its  supposed  resemblance  to  a  mountain  of 
this  name  near  Barcelona.  In  1632  it  was 
colonised  by  a  party  of  English  settlers  from 
St.  Kitts,  and  remained  in  British  hands  until 
1782,  when  it  was  taken  by  the  Fi*eneh,  and 
kept  by  them  until  the  close  of  the  war.  Its 
affairs  were  formerly  administered  by  a  lieu- 
tenant-governor, an  executive  and  legislative 
coundl  of  seven  members,  and  a  house  of 
assembly  of  twelve.  In  1871,  however,  it 
joined  the  federation  of  the  Leeward  Islands, 
of  which  it  forms  a  Presidency,  with  a 
nominated  legislative  council. 

£dwards,  Wut  Indiet, 


Lon 


(740) 


LOO 


Monmiieiita  Franeiscana  is  the  title 

of  a  work  published  in  the  BoUb  Series, 
imder  the  editorship  of  Mr.  Brewer,  which 
contains  valuable  original  materials  for  the 
history  of  the  arrival  and  settlement  of  the 
Franciscans  in  England,  the  letters  of  Adam 
Harsh,  and  other  documents  connected  with 
the  foundation  and  diffusion  of  this  great 
body.  Mr.  Brewer's  preface  throws  a  flood 
of  light  on  the  early  history  of  the  mendicant 
orders  in  England. 

XoodkeOf  The  Battle  of  (Dec.  18, 
1845),  was  fought  during  the  Sikh  War. 
After  a  fatiguing  march  of  twenty-one  miles 
over  sm  arid  plain,  Sir  Hugh  Gbugh 
found  himself  face  to  face  with  the  army  of 
Lai  Sing.  He  was  taken  completely  by  sur- 
prise. 'Die  enemy's  horse  endeavoured  to  out- 
flank our  force,  but  were  gallantly  repulsed. 
In  this  first  conflict  between  the  English 
and  the  Kha-lwa  soldiers,  the  superiority 
of  the  latter  in  discipline  and  musketry  was 
very  apparent.  The  commander-in-chief  had 
himself  to  rally  a  flying  native  rejB^ment,  and 
in  the  confusion  one  of  our  regiments  fired 
into  anoUier.  Lai  Sing  was  the  first  to  fly, 
with  his  cavalry,  and  he  was  at  length  followed 
b^  the  infantry,  who  withdrew  under  cover  of 
night,  leaving  seventeen  guns  in  the  hands  of 
the  English.  The  British  loss  amounted  to 
872  killed  and  wounded. 

Xoolr^jy  iNsuRRBcnoir  of.  Moolzaj, 
the  Governor  of  Mooltan,  a  strong  fort  in  the 
Punjaub,  was  the  son  of  Sawan  Mull,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  1844.  In  March  of  1848, 
after  some  differences  with  the  Durbar,  he 
offered  to  resign  the  fort  and  government. 
This  was  accepted,  and  Khan  Singh  was  sent 
to  assume  the  government,  accompanied  by 
Mr.  Agnew,  as  political  agent,  and  an  escort 
of  360  Sikh  troops.  On  the  morning  of  the 
19th,  there  was  a  stormy  interview  with 
Moolraj,  who  was  ordered  to  produce  the 
accounts  of  the  last  six  years.  On  the  20th 
an  attempt  was  made  to  assassinate  Mr. 
Agnew.  On  the  2l8t  a  brisk  fire  was  opened 
on  the  encampment  from  the  citadel.  The 
Sikh  escort  proved  treacherous,  stnd  deserted 
to  the  enemy;  a  crew  of  howling  savages 
rushed  in  and  murdered  Mr.  Agnew  and  his 
companion,  Lieutenant  Anderson,  with  the 
greatest  brutality.  On  the  22nd  Moolraj  issued 
a  proclamation  of  a  religious  war  against  the 
English.  Lieutenant  Edwazdes,  who  was  em- 
ployed in  the  revenue  settlement  at  Bunnoo, 
across  the  Indus,  without  waiting  for  orders, 
crossed  the  Indus  with  1,200  infantry,  350 
horse,  and  two  guns.  The  Nabob  of  Bhawul- 
pore  was  requested  by  the  Resident  to 
advance.  Lieutenant  Edwardes  joined  him 
at  Kineyree.  Timely  reinforcements  enabled 
him  to  win  the  battles  of  Kineyree  and 
Sudoosain,  and  to  shut  Mooh«j  up  in  Mool- 
tan, when  the  outbreak  of  Shere  Sing  merged 
these  operations  in  the  second  Sikh  War. 


Xooltaily  Siege  of  (1848).  This  was 
beg^un  in- July,  1848,  by  Lieutenant  Edwardes 
with  a  British  force,  supported  by  one  troop 
of  the  friendly  Nabob  of  Bhawulpore.  The 
investment  continued  till  Sept.  12,  when  the 
town  was  ineffectually  bombarded.  The 
siege  was  raised  Sept.  22.  Greneral  Whish, 
witii  17,000  men  and  sixty-four  heavy  guns, 
re-oi)ened  the  siege  (Dec.  27),  and  pushed  it 
with  great  vi^ur.  For  five  days,  in  spite  of 
desperate  saUies,  the  batteries  played  on  the 
town.  On  the  third  day  an  enoimous  powder 
magazine  exploded  in  the  town,  doing  im- 
mense damage.  On  January  2,  1849,  the 
town  was  carried  by  assault.  The  siege  of 
the  citadel  was  now  pushed  on.  After  a  con- 
tinuous fire  from  the  English  batteries  for 
several  days,  Moolraj  endeavoured  to  treat, 
but  was  informed  that  no  terms  would  be 
granted  -  short  of  unconditional  surrender. 
He  therefore  continued  to  defend  the  fort, 
till  his  garrison  insisted  on  surrender  or  an 
attempt  to  cut  their  way  out.  On  Jan.  22, 
therefore,  he  surrendered,  and  the  fort  was 
placed  in  charge  of  Lieutenant  Edwardes. 

Xoore,  Sir  John  (b,  1761,  d.  1809),  was 
the  son  of  a  Glasgow  physician.  His  education 
was  chiefiy  acauired  on  the  Ck)ntinent,  till  in 
1776  he  entered  the  army.    Two  years  later 
he  was  ordered  to  Newfoundland,  where  he  re- 
mained almost  inactive  during  the  American 
War.    On  the  conclusion  of  peace  in  1783, 
he  was  placed  on  half  pay,  and  was  returned 
to  Parliament  for  a  district  of  Scotch  burghs. 
In  1 790  he  became  lieutenant-colonel  of  the  51  st 
Begiment.    Five  years  later  he  saw  almost 
his  first  active  service  at  the  siege  of  Calri,  in 
Corsica,  where  he  led  the  storming  party  of 
grenadiers  into  the  chief  fort.    He  was  ap- 
pointed adjutant-general  of  the  island,  but  he 
Boon  threw  it  up,  and,  returning  to  £bigland, 
was  ordered  to  the  West  Indies  under  Sir 
Ralph  Abercromby.  In  the  expedition  against 
St.  Lucia,  he  distinguished  himself  by  his  won- 
derful courage  and  energy,  and  was  rewarded 
by  being  appointed  governor  of  the  island. 
In  this    position  his  continuous   exertions, 
combined  with  the  malarious  character  of  the 
climate,  twice  laid  him  low,  and  in  the  summer 
of  1797  he  went  to  England  with  Abercromby, 
whom  he  followed  to  Ireland.    He  was  en- 
gaged against  the  rebels  at  New  Ross  and 
defeated  them  at  Wexford.    In  1799  he  was 
sent  to  Holland,  whence  he  returned  severely 
wounded.    In  1800  he  was  again  employed 
under   Abercromby    in    the     expedition  to 
Egypt.    At  the  landing  of  the  troops  Hooie 
signalised  himself  by  his  prompt  decision  in 
bringing  up  the  reserves  at  the  crisis  of  the 
battle,    and    so    gaining   the    victory.     At 
Aboukir  he  was  again  conspicuous,  and  again 
wounded.    While  the  Peace  of  Amiens  la^ed, 
he  romained  at  home  on  staff  employment, 
but  on  the  renewal  of  the  war  was  placed  as 
second  in  command  of   the  troops  in  the 


LOT 


(741) 


Mediterranean.  In  1807  he  was  sent  to 
Sweden  in  command  of  10,000  men  to  help  the 
king.  Some  difference  occurring  between  them, 
Moore  was  placed  under  arrest,  and  on  freeing 
himself,  returned  at  once  with  his  troops  to 
England.  He  had  no  sooner  arrived  than  he 
was  sent  off  to  the  Peninsula  to  act  under 
Burrard  and  Dalrjmple ;  but  on  their  recall 
after  the  Convention  of  Cintra  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  the  command  in  chief  (Oct.  6, 1808). 
At  last  he  had  an  opportunity  of  displaying 
his  great  military  talents,  and  he  did  not 
throw-the  chance  away.  He  advanced  up  the 
country,  but  was  compelled  to  retreat  to  Co- 
runna  under  terrible  difficulties,  before  Soult. 
On  Jan.  16,  1809,  he  won  a  great  victory  at 
Corunna,  and  covered  the  embarkation  of  his 
army,  but  was  himself  killed  in  the  action. 

MmMir  of  Sir  Johti  "Moor^ ;  Napier,  P«ntn«ttlar 
War;  Alison,  HiiC.  ofBurvp; 

Xoray.    [Murkat,  in  Appbndxx.] 

Xore,  Sir  Thomas  (h.  1480,  d,  1535), 
was  the  son  of  Sir  John  More,  a  judge  of  the 
King's  Bench.  At  an  early  age  he  entered 
the  household  of  Cardinal  Morton.  In  1497 
he  went  to  Oxford,  and  in  1499  entered  Ian- 
coin's  Inn ;  already  before  this  time  he  had 
become  acquainted  with  Erasmus  and  other 
eminent  scholars.  In  1501  he  entered  the 
House  of  Commons,  and  speedily  became  a 
prominent  member  of  what  mav  be  called 
the  popular  party,  opposing  Henry  VII. 's 
demand  for  subsidies.  In  1508  he  was  made 
a  judge  of  the  sheriff's  court,  and  in  1510  be- 
came under-sheriff  of  London.  In  1514  and 
1515  he  was  employed  as  envoy  to  the  Low 
Countries,  and  soon  after  he  was  made  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Privy  Council,  and  in  1521  knighted. 
He  became  closely  connected  with  Henrv 
Vm.,  and  assisted  the  king  in  his  book 
against  Luther.  In  1523  he  was  appointed 
Speaker  of  th^  House  of  Commons  at  Wol« 
sey*s  request,  but  he  nevertheless  opposed  the 
grant  which  the  cardinal  tried  to  obtain  from 
the  House.  He,  however,  was  reconciled  to 
Wolsey,  and  in  1527  accompanied  him  on  a 
mission  to  France.  In  1525  he  had  been 
made  Chancellor  of  the  Buchy  of  Lancaster, 
and  in  Oct.,  1529,  he  became  liord  Chancellor. 
Conspicuous  as  he  had  been  all  his  life  as  one 
of  the  party  of  Church  Reform,  More  was 
altogether  opposed  to  the  assumption  of  su- 
premacy by  Henry  VIII.  In  May,  1532,  he 
was  deprived  of  the  seals,  and  in  1534  (April 
17),  committed  to  the  Tower.  He  declined 
to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy,  and  was  in- 
dicted for  misprision  of  treason,  Nov.,  1634. 
More's  noble  and  beautiful  character  was 
acknowledged  by  all  his  contemporaries.  As 
the  most  distinguished  of  the  English  expo- 
nents of  the  "New  Learning,"  he  has  an 
interest  beyond  that  of  his  historical  position. 
In  addition  to  a  HUtortf  of  Richard  Iff.  and 
other  works,  he  wrote  the  Utopia  (1526),  one 


of  the  most  remarkable  political  romances  in 
.this  or  any  language. 

Boper,  JX/e  of  Mort ;  Jorten,  Lt/«  of  Etobvmui 
Seebohm,  Th«  Oxford  Rtformen  ;  Brewer,  Rti^ 
<^  Henry  YIII. ;  Burnet,  Uxti.  of  the  iZf/ormafton. 

]KorOVill6f  Hugh  de,  one  of  the  murderers 
of  Becket  (q.v.),  had  been  one  of  the  itinerant 
justices.  After  the  murder  he  fled  to  his 
castle  of  ICnarcsborough,  and  is  said  to  have 
undertaken  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  in 
expiation  of  his  crime.  From  a  charter  we 
leam  that  he  was  living  at  the  accession  of 
King  John,  and  he  seems  to  have  died  shortly 
afterwards. 

Xorgan,  Sir  Hbnry,  one  of  the  chief 
buccaneers  of  Jamaica,  was  frequently  em- 
ployed by  Charles  II.  to  harass  the  shipping 
of  the  Spaniards  in  the  West  Indies.  In 
1670  he  plundered  and  burnt  Panama,  and  as 
a  reward  was  created  a  knight,  and  Governor 
of  Jamaica. 

Xorgaily  Thomas,  a  Welshman,  and  a 
devoted  adherent  of  the  Queen  of  Scots,  was 
imprisoned  on  a  charge  of  complicity  in  the 
Ridolfi  Conspiracy.  On  his  release  he  went 
abroad,  and  became  Mary's  chief  agent  in 
corresponding  with  her  friends.  He  was 
declared  by  Dr.  Parry  to  have  instigated  him 
to  assassinate  Elizabeth,  and  his  arrest  was  ac- 
cordingly demanded  from  Henry  III.  of  France, 
but  refused.  In  1585  he  formed  a  fresh  plot 
against  the  life  of  the  queen,  and  was  im- 
plicated in  the  Babington  conspiracy. 

Morioe.  Jambs  {d,  1596),  attorney  of  the 
Court  of  Wards,  moved  in  the  Parliament  of 
1593  that  the  abuses  of  the  bishops'  courts 
should  be  reformed.  On  this  the  queen  for- 
bade the  House  to  consider  <*  any  bill  touching 
matters  of  state  or  reformation  of  causes 
ecclesiastical,''  and  Morice  himself  was  kept 
in  confinement  for  some  years. 

Xorice,  Sir  William  (6.  1602,  d,  1676), 
a  Devonshire  gentleman  of  somewhat  retired 
life,  phived  an  important  part  in  the  Hestora- 
tion.  He  was  the  first  person  to  whom  Monk 
entrusted  the  secret  of  his  design  to  restore 
Charles,  and  lie  was  used  as  a  go-between 
between  Monk  and  Sir  John  GrenviUe,  who 
was  sent  over  to  Charles.  The  king  appointed 
him  one  of  the  Secretaries  of  State  in  1660, 
which  oflSce  he  continued  to  hold  till  1668. 

Xorley,  John,  LL.D.,  was  bom  at  Black- 
bum  on  the  24th  of  December,  1838,  and 
graduated  at  Lincoln  College,  Oxford,  in  1859. 
After  acquiring  great  distinction  as  a  man  of 
letters  and  journalist,  he  entered  Parliament 
as  a  member  for  Newcastle-on-Tyne  in  1883, 
and  continued  to  represent  that  constituency 
until  1895.  In  1886  he  was  Secretfury  for 
Ireland  in  the  first  Home  Rule  Ministry,  and 
held  the  same  office  from  1892  to  1896. 

Xprtim6r,THE  Family  op,  was  one  of  the 
most  important  families  of  the  Welsh  Marches. 
Soger  Mortimer,  the    paramour    of    Qaeen 


Kor 


(742) 


IsaboUa,  was  created  Earl  of  March,  with  con- 
sidcrable  estates  and  influence  on  the  Welsh 
border.  He  was  attainted  in  1330,  but  the 
attainder  was  reversed,  and  the  title  and 
estates  restored  to  his  grandson  (1354).  His 
great-grandson,  Edmund  Mortimer,  married 
Philippa,  daughter  of  Lionel  of  Clarence,  son 
of  Edward  III.  Their  grandson,  the  Earl 
of  March,  was  heir  presumptive  to  the 
crown  in  Henry  IV. *s  reign,  and  the  un- 
successful conspiracy  of  the  Earl  of  Cam- 
bridge and  Lord  Scrope  (1416)  was  intended 
to  place  him  on  the  throne.  His  sister  Anne 
miirried  Richard,  Earl  of  Cambridge,  son  of 
Edmund  of  Langley,  Duke  of  York,  son  of 
Edward  III.  Their  son  was  Richard,  Duke 
of  York  (killed  at  Wakefield,  1460),  who  thus 
united  the  claims  of  the  houses  of  York  and 
Mortimer,  and  was  descended  directly  from 
two  sons  of  Edward  III. 

Mortimer,  Roger  {b.  1287,  d.  1330),  was 
a  ward  of  Piers  Gaveston,  and  held  many 
important  offices  in  the  reign  of  Edward  II., 
being  appointed  Lieutenant  of  Ireland  in 
1317.  He  sided  with  Lancaster  in  his  op- 
position to  the  king,  was  taken  prisoner  m 
1322,  and  condemned  to  perpetual  captivity. 
Escaping  in  1324  he  fled  to  France.  In  1325 
Queen  Isabella  being  sent  over  to  the  French 
court,  Mortimer  formed  an  intrigue  with  her, 
and  in  the  next  year  accompanied  her  to 
England.  The  king  fled,  and  was  sub- 
sequently deposed,  and  in  1327  Mortimer  was 
master  of  the  situation.  For  nearly  four 
years  the  queen  and  Mortimer  ruled  the 
country.  All  attempts  to  upset  or  curtail  their 
power  were  defeated ;  the  Earl  of  Lancaster, 
who  endeavoured  to  rival  Mortimer,  was 
compelled  to  submit  in  1328,  and  a  plot  set 
on  foot  by  the  king's  uncle,  Edmund,  Earl  of 
Kent,  which,  had  for  its  object  the  restoration 
of  Edward  II.,  who  was  supposed  to  be  still 
alive,  failed  utterly,  and  Kent  was  executed 
(1330).  But  this  was  Mortimer's  last  act, 
for  the  young  king  had  determined  to  rid 
himself  of  the  intolerable  yoke  he  had  borne 
so  long.  Mortimer  was  surprised  in  Notting- 
ham Ciistle,  arraigned  as  a  traitor,  accused  of 
the  death,  of  Edward  II.  and  the  Earl  of  Kent, 
and  hanged,  to  the  universal  joy  of  the  nation. 
His  arrogance  and  vindictiveness  recalled  the 
worst  featui*es  of  the  Despencers,  and  his 
adulter^'  with  the  queen  rendered  him  still 
more  odious  in  the  eyes  of  the  people. 

Mortimer'fl  Cross,  Tub  Battle  of 
(1461),  was  fought  between  Edward,  Duke  of 
York  (Ed  w  aid  IV?) ,  and  theLancastrians,  under 
the  Earl  of  Pembroke.  In  1460,  while  Richard, 
Duke  of  York,  marched  to  the  north  against 
Queen  Margaret,  Edward  was  despatched  to 
raise  forces  in  the  Welsh  Marches.  With 
these  troops,  he  marched  to  Gloucester,  where 
news  reached  him  of  his  father^s  defeat  and 
death  at  Wakefield  (q.v.),  and  he  prepared  to 
march   against    Queen    Alargaret,  when    he 


learnt  that  the  Earls  of  Wiltshire  and  Pern- 
broke  had  assembled  a  large  army  of  Welsh 
and  Irish  in  order  to  attack  him.  Accor- 
dingly he  turned  round,  and  met  them  at 
Mortimer's  Cross,  in  Herefordshire,  between 
Leominster  and  Wigmore,  and  totally  routed 
them.  Pembroke  and  Wiltshire  escaped,  but 
Owen  Tudor  was  captured  and  beheaded. 
Edward  then  proceeded  with  his  army  to  join 
the  Earl  of  Warwick,  who  had  just  been 
defeated  by  the  Lancastrians  at  the  second 
battle  of  St.  Albans.  They  effected  a  junc- 
tion at  Chipping  Norton,  in  Oxfordshire,  and, 
with  their  united  armies,  marched  towards 
London,  where  Edward  was  proclaimed  king. 

lEortllUUn.  The  abuse  which  the  Statute 
of  Mortmain  (De  Beligiosui)  (Nov.  16,  1279) 
was  designed  to  remedy  was  by  no  means  one 
of  late  origin  at  the  time  of  the  passing  of 
this  Act.  Five  hundred  and  fifty  years  earlier 
Bedo  had  complained  of  the  way  in  which 
pretended  monks  secured  to  themselves  large 
srants  of  the  public  land,  and  on  their  pro- 
duce, which  ought  to    have  supported  the 
king's  warriors,  lived  a  life  of  ease  and  de- 
baucher}'.     But  however  great  this  evil  may 
have  been  in  the  intervening  centuries,  it 
does  not  seem  to  have  called  for  legal  inter- 
ference till  the  daj's  of  Magna  Charta.    By 
chapter  36  of  the 'Magna  Charta,  confirmed 
d  Henry  III.,  "  It  was  ordained  that  it  should 
not  for.  the  future  be  lawful  for  any  one  to 
give  his  land  to  a  religious  house,  and  to  take 
the  same  land  to  hold  of  that  house."  The  ob- 
ject of  this  enactment  was  to  prevent  any  more 
of  the  land  from  passing  into  the  hands  of 
the  Church,  and  so  ceasing  to  owe  military'  ser- 
vice to  the  king,  while  at  the  same  time  the 
overlord  lost  aU  chance  of  ever  recovering  an 
estate  so  alienated  by  escheat ;  for  by  feudal 
law  on  the  failure  of  the  heirs  of  the  grantee 
lands  lapsed  back  to  the  grantor,  and  of  couise 
there  could  be  no  failure  of  heirs  when  lands 
were  held  by  a  corporation  such  as  an  abbey 
or  church.     Some  thirty-four  years  later  the 
Provisions  of  Westminster  enacted  in  a  some- 
what similar  spirit  that  no  men  of  religion 
should  enter  into  any  man's  fee  without  the 
licence  of  Uie  chief  lord  of  whom  the  fee  is 
immediately  holden.    But  this  may  well  have 
been  treated  as  a  dead  letter,  for  it  was  not 
re-enacted  in  the  Statute   of    ^farlborough 
(1267).    Edward  I.,  the  whole  bent  of  whose 
mind  seems  to  have  been  towards  definiteness 
and  order,  soon  saw  with  disp^ust  how  much 
of  the  land  was  steadily  freeing  itself  from 
the  duty  of  military   service,  and  securing 
itself  against  ever  lapsing  into  the  royal  hands. 
To  remedy  this  defect  he  issued  the  famous 
Statute  of  Mortmain,  or  Statutum  de  Religiosu 
(1279).    This  enactment  forbids  "any  per- 
son whatsoever,  religious  or  other,  to  buy  or 
sell,  or  under  colour  of  any  gift,  term,  or 
other  title,  to  receive  from  any  ono  any  Unds 
or  tenements  in  such  a  way  that  such  lands 


LOU 


(748) 


Kim 


and  tenements  should  come  into  mort  main." 
The  penalty  aflBlxed  to  breaking  this  enact- 
ment was  forfeiture  to  the  next  superior  lord, 
and  if  he  failed  to  insist  on  this  forfeiture 
within  a  year,  the  right  lapsed  to  Am  over- 
lord, and  so  on  to  the  kmg.  But  clerical 
cunning  was  not  long  in  finding  a  means  of 
evading  even  this  law,  and  some  six  years 
later  &e  long  had  to  issue  a  fresh  statute 
to  check  this  new  abuse.  As  might  be  ex- 
pected, the  great  body  of  the  clergy  strongly 
disapproved  of  the  king's  measures,  and 
in  1294,  when  Edward  demanded  half  their 
revenue  for  the  year,  offered  to  grant  it  if  he 
would  only  repeal  the  statute  "  I^  Seligiotis.** 
This,  however,  Edward  was  by  no  means 
prepared  to  do.  We  must  not,  however,  sup- 
pose that  all  gifts  of  landed  property  to  eccle- 
siastical foundations  were  cut  short  by  this 
Statute  of  Mortmain.  Passing  by  the  system 
of  "  Trusts  and  uses,"  by  which  the  monks 
attempted  to  evade  its  stringency,  **  the  kings 
never  withheld  their  licence  from  the  endow- 
ment of  any  valuable  newfoundation."  Another 
device,  that  of  bringing  land  into  the  posses- 
sion of  .the  Church,  under  pretence  of  pur- 
chasing it  as  a  burial-ground,  was  forbidden 
by  another  Statute  of  Mortmain  imder 
Richard  II.  (1391),  a  statute  which  at  the 
stime  time  specially  declares  the  provisions 
and  penalties  of  Edward*s  Act  to  extend  to 
guilds  and  fraternities,  and  even  to  the 
"Mayors,  BailifEs,  and  Commons  of  Cities, 
Boroughs  and  other  Towns,  which  have  a  per- 
petual Commonalty,"  and  so  could  hold  land  in 
perpetuity  without  any  chance  of  its  lapsing. 

Of  later  Acts  dealing  with  the  alienation 
of  land  in  mortmain,  we  may  notice  7  &  8 
Will,  III,,  c.  37,  whiwJ  empowered  the  king 
**  to  grant  any  person  or  persons,  corporate  or 
not,  licence  to  alien  in  mortmain  without  ren- 
dering the  lands  liable  to  forfeiture."  Again, 
Qie  statute  of  George  II.  specified  the  condi- 
tions under  lands  which  alone,  &c.,  could  be 
devised  for  charitable  purposes.  Oxfoixi  and 
Cambridge,  Eton,  Winchester,  and  West- 
minster, were  excepted  from  the  operation  of 
this  Act,  and  by  the  5th  of  Otoo,  IV.,  the 
British  Museum  was  likewise  excepted  from 
the  Statutes  of  Mortmain,  as  other  religious, 
educational,  and  charitable  bodies  have  been 
in  later  times  by  Act  of  Parliament. 

^'^Mortmain  [Fr.  morte^  dead ;  main,  hand] 
is,'*  says  Dr.  Lathom,  "  such  a  state  of  pos- 
ton  as  makes  property  inalienable ;  whence 
it  is  said  to  be  in  a  dead  handf  in  a  hand  that 
cannot  shift  away  the  property."  In  the 
later  of  the  statutes  the  phrase  runs  lest  lands 
*'  deveniant  ad  manum  mortuam ; "  and  in  the 
French  equivalent  it  is ''  devenir  a  mortmayn." 

Reeves,  Hid.  of  Bngli$h  Law;  Stabbe,  C&ngt. 
^^-  [T.  A.  A.] 

Xorton,  JoHK,  Cardinal  {b.  1410,  d. 
1600),  studied  at  BaUiol  College,  Oxford,  and 
became  a  preboidary  of  Salisbury  in  1458. 


In  1474  he  was  appointed  Archdeacon  of 
Winchester,  and  in  1478  was  made  Bishop  of 
Ely  and  Chancellor  by  Edward  IV.  He 
was  regarded  with  suspicion  by  Richard  III., 
and  given  into  the  custody  of  the  Duke  of 
Buclnngham.  He  escaped  to  Henry  Tudor, 
on  the  Continent,  and  became  one  of  his  chief 
advisers.  When  H^ry  came  to  the  throne, 
Morton  became  one  of  tiie  Privy  Council,  and 
on  the  death  of  Bourchier  in  1486,  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  and  in  1487  he  again  became 
Chancellor.  In  1493  he  was  created  s 
Cardinal.  During  the  remainder  of  his  life 
he  was  Henry  VII*s  chief  minister,  and  in- 
curred much  of  the  odium  of  that  king's 
measures.  But  he  seems  to  have  been  a  wise 
and  enlightened  prelate,  and  a  friend  to  learn- 
ing and  education.  His  character  is  eulogised 
by  More  in  the  Utopia. 

Mounljoyy  Wiluam  Stewart,  Viscount 
{d,  1 692) ,  was  one  of  the  few  members  of  the  Es- 
tablished Church  who  held  office  in  Tyrconnel's 
Jacobite  administration  (1689).  Master  of 
the  Ordnance  and  colonel  of  an  Irish 
regiment,  he  was  also  president  of  a  royal 
society,  formed  in  imitation  of  the  Rojiil 
Society  of  London.  When  it  was  seen  that 
Ulster  was  determined  to  hold  out  for 
William  III.,  he  was  sent  there  to  win  them 
over.  The  inhabitants  of  Londonderry  per- 
mitted him  to  leave  a  portion  of  his  regiment 
there,  but  the  EnniskiUeners  declined  to  listen 
to  his  proposal.  Shortly  afterwards,  Tyr- 
connel,  wishing  him  out  of  the  w^y,  sent  him  on 
a  mission  to  St.  Germains,  with  Rice,  who  was 
to  tell  James  that  he  (Mountjoy)  was  a  traitor 
at  heart.  He  was  accordingly  thrown  into  the 
Bastile.  After  three  years'  miprisonment  he 
was  exchanged  for  Richard  Hamilton,  and,  con- 
verted by  his  wrongs  to  Whigg^ism,  volun- 
teered in  William's  army.  He  fell  at  Stein- 
kirk. 

Maoaulay,  Hist.  ofBng.     " 

MunrOy  Sir  Thomas  {d.  1827),  entered  the 
militar}'  service  of  the  East  India  Company. 
He  was  present  at  the  first  march  on  Seringa- 
patam,  and  the  battle  of  Arikera,  and  sub- 
sequently took  part  in  the  more  successful 
inarch  of  1792.  In  1799  he  was  included 
in  the  commission  appointed  to  complete 
the  organisation  of  Mysore  after  the  fall 
of  the  Mohammedan  dynasty.  In  1813, 
having  seen  the-  disadvantages  of  the  zemin- 
dary  system  of  land  settlement  in  Ben- 
gal and  Mysore,  he  instituted  the  ryot- 
warj*  system 

Munster,  The  Kingdom  and  Provincb 
OF,  is  believed  by  modem  authorities  to  have 
been  peopled  chiefly  by  the  Milesians,  a  group 
of  tribes  of  Gaulisn  or  Spanish  origin.  The 
Irish  legends  represent  Munster  as  ha\'ing 
been  divided  between  the  Milesian  chiefs  Eber 
and  his  brother  Lugaid,  of  whom  the  former 
prevailed,  and  drove  the  latter  into  the  souths 


Xiin 


(744) 


Xim 


western  comer.  President  W.  K.  8ullivan 
thinks  that  the  tribes  of  £ber  are  to  be  identi- 
fied with  the  Scoti,  or  Brigantian  GaulS)  who 
invaded  Ireland  from  Meath,  and  appears  to 
throw  some  doubt  on  the  theory  of  an  invajsion 
from  Spain.  The  tribes  of  Eber  were  in  turn 
subdued  by  the  tribe  of  Degaid,  probably  of 
the  rival  Milesian  race  ^f  Erimon,  but  the 
former,  under  the  famous  Mug  of  Munster, 
having  recovered  their  strength,  drove  out 
the  Degaidian  tribe.  Mug  further  defeated  the 
ard  ri,  or  over-king  Conn  "  of  the  hundred 
battles,"  and  compelled  him  to  consent  to  a  divi- 
sion of  Ireland,  by  which  the  former  received 
the  southern  part,  Loth  Moga  or  Mug's  half 
{circa  a.d.  130).  Munster  now  comprised  the 
modem  counties  of  Tipperary,Waterf  ord,  Cork, 
Kerry,  Limerick,  part  of  Kilkenny,  and  Clare, 
which  had  orignally  belonged  to  Connaught. 
It  was  divided  into  the  districts  of  Thomond, 
Desmond,  and  Ormonde.  The  kings  of  these 
districts  formed  a  confederacy  under  the  King 
of  Cashel,  who,  according  to  the  old  Irish  custom, 
was  chosen  alternately  from  the  Eoghamists 
(afterwards  the  0't)onovans  and  the  Mac- 
Carthys)  of  Desmond,  and  the  Dalcasians 
(the  O'Briens)  of  Thomond.  It  seems  that 
Munster  was  partly  converted  to  Christianity, 
probably  through  the  Irish  colonies  in  Wales, 
before  the  arrival  of  St.  Patrick  in  431,  but 
even  after  the  coming  of  that  saint  it  would 
seem,  from  the  fact  that  Queen  Ethne  the 
Tenible  was  still  a  heathen,  that  the  new 
faith  gained  groimd  but  slowly.  The  Munster 
kings  were  throughout  this  period  the  rivals 
of  the  ard  rU  of  the  Hui-Neill  dynasty,  and 
disputed  the  supremacy  of  Ireland  with  them, 
often  not  without  success.  They  seized  the 
opportunity  of  the  Scandinavian  invasions 
(795 — 1014),  to  revive  their  claim  to  the 
over-kingship,  and  unpatriotically  ravaged 
the  territories  of  the  Hui-NeUlA.  From  915, 
however,  there  was  an  interval  of  comparative 
peace  throughout  Ireland  for  forty  years, 
during  whicli  time  Cormac  l^IacCullinan,  the 
king-bishop  of  Cashel,  is  a  prominent  figure 
in  Irish  history,  one  of  his  feats  being  the 
defeat  of  the  joint  forces  of  the  King  of  Con- 
naught  and  of  Flann,  the  ard  r»,  in  battle. 
He  is  said  to  have  re-established  the  system 
of  alternate  succession  which  had  fallen  into 
disuse  in  consequence  of  the  weakness  of  the 
Thomond  dynasty,  and  thus  Mahoun,  brother 
of  the  famous  Brian  Boru,  was  seated  on  the 
throne  of  Cashel.  After  his  death  (976) 
Brian  slew  the  king  of  the  rival  clan,  and 
speedily  made  Munster  as  powerful  as  it  had 
been  in  the  days  of  Mug.  In  998,  after  a 
protracted  struggle,  he  obtained  from  the 
over-king  Malachi  the  acknowledgpnent  of 
his  authority  over  Mug's  half  of  Ireland ;  in 
1002  he  wrested  from  him  the  title  of  ard  ri, 
and  in  1014,  in  alliance  with*]^falachi,  he 
defeated  the  King  of  Leinater  and  the  Danes 
of  Dublin  at  Clontarf.  After  his  death,  how- 
ever, Munster  again  fell  into  anarchy  until 


1060,  when  Donnchad  O'Brien  Boooeededin 
reducing  the  country  to  order  by  peaceful 
means.    During  the  period  of  ruthless  inter- 
provincial  war  which  followed,  the  O'Briens 
frequently  got  the  upper  hand  in  Ireland, 
and  assumed  the  title  of  ard  ru    Moreover, 
they  administered  their  kingdom  well,  and 
cared  for  the  Church,  amongst  other  good 
deeds  elevating  Cashel  into  an  archbishopric. 
They  also  entertained  relations  more  or  less 
friendly  with  the  Norman  kings.     After  the 
Anglo-Danish  invasion,  the  kings  and  chiefs 
of  Munster,  headed  by  MacCarthy  of  Desmond, 
*'  came  in  "  readily  to  Henry  and  surrendered 
their  strongholds.    The  Finglish  king  retained 
Cork  and  Limerick  for  himself,  but  gave  the 
greater  part  of  Cork  county  to  Fit£-8tephai 
and  De  Cogan,  while  Limerick  went  to  De 
Braose,  and  the  Decies  to  De  la  Poer.    Their 
families  were,  however,  speedily  supplanted 
by  the  Munster  Fitzgeralds,  who  had  received 
grants  of  land  in  Limerick,  Cork,  and  Kerr}-, 
and  who  founded  the  Desmond  line  together 
with  the  younger  branches  of  the  Knights  of 
Kerry,  and  the  Knights  of  Glyn.    The  Fitz- 
geralds,  after  a  prolonged  struggle  with  the 
MacCarthys  and  O'Briens,  intermarried  with 
them,  smd  established  a  generally  recognised 
authority.    Ormonde,  or  East  Munster,  was 
occupied  by  the  Butlers,  who  spread  thence 
over  Kilkenny  and  Tipperary.     During  the 
invasion  of  Ireland  by  Edward  Bruce  (1315) 
the  Geraldines  and  Butlers  suffered  severely 
at  the  hands  of  the  O'Briens,  and  Edward 
III.,   in  order   to  strengthen    their  power, 
created  the  great  earldoms  of  Desmond  and 
Ormonde.    These  two  houses  were  weakened 
further  by  the  Wars  of  *he  Roses ;  the  Butlen, 
moreover,   becoming    ..ivolved  in  a  deadly 
feud  with    the    Kildares,  which  lasted  for 
generations.    Through  these  dissensions  the 
O'Briens    and    MacCarthys   again    obtaiDed 
power,   though    the    cautaous  policy  of  the 
Tudors  kept  them  under.     Thomond  became 
county  Glare,  and  was  added  to  Connaught 
In  the  reign  of  Elisabeth  occurred  the  Des- 
mond rebellions.    Wishing  to  put  a  stop  to 
the  anarchy  in  Desmond,  Elizabeth,  and  her 
governor.  Sir  Henry  Sydney,  in  1614,  deter- 
mined to  colonise  Mimster  with  gentlemen 
from  the  west  of  England,  headed  by  Sir 
Peter  Carew,  who  claimed  the  old  Fits-Stephen 
estates.     Moreover,  the  longfStanding  quarrel 
between  the  Desmonds  and  Ormondes  was 
decided  in  the  law  (courts  in  favour  of  the 
latter ;  and  Desmond,  who  had  been  sent  to 
London  on  a  charge  of  high  treason,  thought 
it  necessary  to  surrender  large  portions  of  his 
lands  whidi  it  was  proposed  to  plant  ^th 
other  colonists.    However,  the  barbarities  of 
Sir  Peter  Carew  soon  drove  the  whole  country 
into    a    wild    and    bloody    rebellion,    the 
MacCarthys,  and  even  Ormonde's  brothers 
joining  the  Desmonds  in  the  revolt,  which 
was  led  by  Sir  Maurice  Fitzgerald,  a  cousin 
of  the  earl.    The  Ardibiahop  of  Cashel  was 


(746) 


Bont  to  Spain  for  help.  Ormonde,  however, 
pacified  his  brothers,  and  Sir  Henry  Sydney 
crushed  the  rebels,  bei^  succeeded  after  his 
recall  by  Sir  John  Perrott  (1671),  who, 
through  the  most  brutal  measures  succeeded 
in  reducing  the  district  to  order.  Munster 
became  an  English  presidency.  The  English 
government  was,  however,  exhausted  by  the 
effort,  and  thought  it  necessary  to  have  re- 
course to  the  most  terrible  severity,  Sir 
William  Drury  hanging  four  hundred  persons 
in  one  year.  Thereupon  the  second  Desmond 
rebellion  broke  out  (1579),  which,  owing  to 
the  cowardice  of  the  earl,  who  had  escaped 
from  prison,  the  early  death  of  the  brave  Sir 
Maurice  Fitzgerald,  and  the  tardy  arrival  of 
assistance  from  Spain,  was  broken  without 
much  difficulty  by  the  loyal  Duke  of  Ormonde. 
The  estates  of  the  Fitzgeralds  and  their  allies 
were  confiscated  and  granted  to  English  adven- 
turers. In  1598  James  Fitzthomas  Fitzgerald 
assumed  the  title  of  Earl  of  Desmond,  and  in 
conjunction  with  O'Neil,  Earl  of  Tyrone, 
raised  the  last  of  the  Munster  rebellions.  After 
Essex  had  failed  to  cope  with  it.  Sir  G^rge 
Carew  suppressed  it  in  1600,  and  but  little  more 
is  heard  of  the  Geraldines.  Munster,  except 
Kerry,  which  was  reserved  for  the  govern- 
ment, was  finally  colonised  by  Cromwell  with 
soldiers  and  adventurers ;  these  were  promptly 
absorbed  by  the  Irish  population,  and  thougn 
the  Catholic  gentry  received  back  small  por- 
tions of  their  estates  at  the  Restoration,  they 
lost  most  of  them  again  under  the  *'  broken 
treaty  of  Limerick.*'  fVom  that  last  settle- 
ment the  history  of  Munster  has  varied  but 
little  from  that  of  the  rest  of  Catholic  Ireland. 

O'I>onovaD/ilnnaZso/fh0  F<mr  Masttrt;  Keat- 
ing, Hist,  of  Ireland;  Prendergast,  CromviMian 
SMtUm^nt;  Haverty,  Hist,  o^  Ireland;  Ciuack, 
Hitt.  of  Irith  Nati4m :  Walpole,  Th»  Kingdom  of 
Ireland;  Hingt  EttaUs ^  w  Protntant$  qf  Ire- 
land vmder  Jamee  II. ;  Oardiuer,  Hiet.  ofEng. 

[L.  C.  S.] 

Knrdrnxu  is  defined  in  the  Dialogus  de 
Scaccario  as  "mors  occulta  alicujus,  cujus  in- 
terfector  ignoratur."  The  term  was,  however, 
often  extended  to  the  murder  fine  exacted 
from  the  hundred  by  the  law  of  William  I. 
when  the  murdered  man  could  not  be  proved 
to  be  an  Englishman.  This  process  of  proof 
was  called  "  Presentment  of  Engli8h^5^"  It 
was,  however,  obsolete  so  early  as  the  reign 
of  Henry  II.,  owing  to  the  way  in  which 
English  and  Normans  were  mixed  up. 

Ihalogtts  de  Soaeomrio,  in  Stubbs's  Select  Charters. 

XCurimiLth,  Adah,  a  canon  of  St.  Paul's 
in  the  time  of  Hichard  II.,  wrote  a  Chronicle 
from  1303  to  1336,  which  was  continued  sub- 
sequently to  the  year  1380.  It  has  been  pub- 
lished by  the  English  Historical  Society. 

BEnrrayy  Earl  of.    [See  Appbndix.] 

KlL'tixiy  Aety  The,  was  first  enacted  in 

1697,  and  waa  fs^itated  by  the  mutiny  at 

Ipswich  of  a  Scotch  regiment.    Before  this  a 

person  guUty  of  desertion  or  other  military 

HI8T.-24* 


offences  had  ranked  as  an  ordinary  felon. 
'*  It  was  then  enacted,"  says  Macaulay,  '*  that, 
on  account  of  the  extreme  perils  impending  at 
that  moment  over  the  State,  no  man  mustered 
on  pay  in  the  service  of  the  crown  should,  on 
pain  of  death,  or  of  such  lighter  punishment 
as  a  court-martial  should  deem  sufficient, 
desert  his  colours  or  mutiny  against  his  com- 
manding officers.  This  statute  was  to  be 
in  force  only  six  months.  .  .  :  Six  months 
passed  and  still  the  public  danger  continued. 
By  slow  degrees  familiarity  reconciled  the 
public  mind  to  the  names,  once  so  odious,  of  a 
standing  army  and  a  court-martial.  ...  To 
this  day,  however,  the  Estates  of  the  Bealm 
.  .  .  S'^.^mnly  assert  every  year  the  doctrine 
laid  down  by  the  Declaration  of  Right ;  ana 
they  then  grant  to  the  sovereign  an  extra- 
ordinary power  to  govern  a  certain  number 
of  soldiers  according  to  certain  rules  during 
•twelve  months  more."  The  bill  was  frequently 
attacked  by  the  Tory  party;  since  the 
reign  of  (>eorge  I.,  however,  it  has  been 
usual  to  pass  it  without  discussion,  and  it  is 
now  annually  brought  in  and  read  as  a  matter 
of  form.  From  1713  to  1715  the  court- 
martial  had  no  power  to  award  capital  punish- 
ment. Since  1748  it  has  been  provided  that 
no  sentence  touching  life  or  limb  could  be  im- 
posed except  for  offences  enumerated  in  the 
Act;  and  in  the  same  year  members  of  the 
court-martial  were  forbidden  to  divulge  the 
sentence  until  approved,  or  the  votes  of  any 
member  unless  required  by  Parliament.  In 
1754  the  operation  of  the  Act  was  extended 
to  troops  serving  in  India  and  North  America. 
In  1756  the  militia  were  brought  under  its 
provisions,  and  in  1785  half«pay  officers  were 
exempted  from  it.     [Milttary  System.] 

Xyiiors.  The  Mohammedan  kingdom 
of  the  Deccan  was  fotmded  by  Hyder  Ali 
on  the  wrecks  of  the  southern  principalities. 
It  included,  when  at  its  greatest  power,  not 
only  Mysore  proper,  but  also  the  whole  of 
Malabar,  Cochin,  and  Calicut,  and  extended 
north  into  the  Poonah  and  Hyderabad 
States ;  while  to  the  east  and  south  it  included 
the  Cunatic  Balaghaut,  the  Baramahal,  and 
the  provinces  of  Coimbatoor  and  Dendigul. 
These  outlying  possessions  were  gradually 
shorn  off  by  Engliish  conquest,  and  in  1799  the 
Mohammedan  State  of  Mysore  came  to  an  end  at 
the  second  siege  of  Seringapatam  and  the  death 
of  Tippoo.  The  Hindoo  State  of  Mysore  was 
thereupon  created,  deprived  of  all  the  outlpng 
provinces  and  Seringapatam,  for  the  descen- 
dants of  the  old  Hindoo  rajahs.  A  strictly 
personal  settlement  was  made  ^dth  the  rajah, 
leaving  the  Company  the  right  of  assuming  the 
management  if  necessary.  The  insufferable 
rule  of  the  rajah,  culminating  in  rebellion,  com* 
pelled  Lord  William  Bentinck,  in  1831,  to 
assume  the  entire  management.  But  in  1867 
the  native  sovereignty  was  re-established, 
and  orders  were  issued  by  the  Secretary  for 


•Nag 


(746  ) 


Vap 


India  that  the  country  should  be  surrendered 

to  the  rai'aVs  adopted  son  on  his  coming  of 

age.    This  was  done  in  1881. 

WcUedey  Destpatchet;    Wilks,  Myton;   Mill, 
Hist,  of  India, 


Nagpore,  The  Town  of,  was  captured 
by  the  Knglish,  Nov.  26,  1807,  after  a  severe 
defeat  inflicted  on  the  rajah's  troops.  In 
1833,  on  the  death  of  the  rajah,  the  town 
and  territory  of  Nagpore  were  annexed  by 
the  English. 

Nana  Sallib.  Bhoondoo  Punt,  a  Mah- 
ratta  Brahmin,  was  the  adopted  son  of  Bajce 
Hao,  the  last  of  the  Pcishwas.  On  the  death  of 
the  latter  the  Nana  petitioned  the  Lieutenant-^ 
Governor  of  Agra  to  continue  the  Peishwa's 
pension  to  him.  The  petition  was  rejected 
by  Lord  Balhousie  and  the  Directors, 
though  the  jaghire  of  Bithoor  was  granted 
him  rent  free  for  life  (1853).  In  revenge  he 
devoted  himself  to  plots  against  the  English 
government.  His  agents  were  employed 
in  all  the  discontented  portions  of  India, 
and  his  agent  in  England,  Azim  Bella  Khan, 
on  his  return  encouraged  him  with  ex- 
aggerated tales  of  English  disasters  in  the 
Crimea.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Indian 
Mutiny  he  became  the  chief  instigator  of  the 
carnage.  It  was  his  object  at  once  to  revive 
the  old  empire  of  the  Peishwas  in  his  own 
person,  and  to  sacrifice  as  many  Europeans 
as  possible  to  his  revenge.  It  was  by  his 
orders  that  the  sepoys  fired  on  the  garrison 
of  Cawnpore  after  they  had  surrendered,  and 
that  the  final  massacre  of  Cawnpore  was  per- 
petrated. At  the  end  of  the  Mutiny  the 
Nana  escaped  to  the  Terrai  jungles  of  Nepaul, 
where  he  is  supposed  to  have  died.  In  1874, 
however,  the  Maharajah  Scindia  delivered 
up  to  the  English  government  a  prisoner, 
who  represented  that  he  was  the  Nana. 
He  turned  out  to  bo  an  impostor;  the 
reason  for  this  imposture  has  never  been 
discovered,  nor  is  it  certain  whether  the 
Maharajah  was  himself  deceived. 

Eaye,  Sejtoy  Wari  Malleaon,  Indian  Mutiny; 
Annual  Regitter, 

Napier,  Lieutenant-General  Sir  Wil- 
liam (b.  1785,  rf.  1860),  was  the  brother  of  Sir 
Charles  and  Sir  George  Napier,  and  the  cousin 
of  the  admiral.  His  military  services,  unlike 
those  of  his  brothers,  were  confined  to  the 
period  of  the  great  French  War  between 
1807  and  1814.  He  served  at  the  attack  on 
Copenhagen,  and  in  all  the  Peninsular  cam- 
paigns down  to  Orthes.  He  was  severely 
wounded  at  the  bridge  of  Almeida  (1810) ; 
received  three  other  wounds  during  five 
years ;  obtained  seven  decorations ;  and  at 
the  close  of  the  war  was  made  a  Commander 


of  the  Bath,  though  he  had  attained  no  higher 
rank  than  that  of  lieutenant-colonel.  In 
1819  he  retired  on  half -pay;  and  from  1824 
to  1840  he  was  unremittingly  engaged  on  his 
JHittort/  of  the  Feninsular  War,  which  is  one 
of  the  masterpieces  of  military  history.  In 
1842  he  was  appointed  lieutenant-Goveinor 
of  Guernsey,  being  now  a  major-general.  In 
1848  he  became  a  E.C.B.  In  1848  he  pub- 
Ushed  his  Conquest  of  Seinde,  a  defence  of  his 
brother.  Sir  Charles. 

Haxtiueaa,  Bioffraphical  SlctftcTiet. 

Napier  of  Kagdala,  Lord  {b.  1810, 

d.  1 890) .  Sir  Robert  Oomeliuiy  Napier,  the  son 
of  MGtjor  C.  F.  Napier,  was  educated  at  the 
Militarj''  College',  Addiscombe.  He  entered  the 
corps  of  Royal  Engineers  (1828),  and  served 
with  distinction  in  the  Sutlcj  campaign,  at 
the  conclusion  of  which  he  was  appointed 
engineer  to  the  Burbar  of  Lahore.  He  was 
present  at  the  siege  of  Mooltan  and  the  battle 
of  Gujerat.  He  was  named  chief  engineer 
under  the  new  Punjaub  administration,  and  for 
some  time  was  engaged  in  building  roads  and 
cutting  canals  to  open  up  that  province.  In 
1857  he  served  as  chief  engineer  in  the  army 
of  Sir  Colin  Campbell,  and  the  part  he  played 
in  the  suppression  of  the  rebellion  greatly  en- 
hanced his  reputation.  He  also  distinguished 
himself  in  China  as  second  to  Sir  Hope  Grant, 
and  was  rewarded  by  being  made  a  K.C.B.,  a 
major-general,  and  a  member  of  the  Coimcil 
of  India.  In  1865  he  became  commander-in- 
chief  at  Bombay.  In  1867  he  received  the 
appointment  to  command  the  Abyssinian 
expedition,  and  was  made  a  K.G.C.  of  the 
Star  of  India.  While  he  was  in  Abyssinia  he 
achieved  a  brilliant  success.  King  Theodore 
on  his  defeat  committed  suicide,  the  captives 
were  restored,  andMagdaJabesieged  and  burnt 
On  his  return  Sir  Robert  received  the  thanks 
of  Parliament,  the  sum  of  £2,000  per  annum 
was  settled  on  him  and  his  next  heir,  and  he 
was  elevated  to  the  peerage  by  the  title  of 
Baron  Napier  of  Magoala. 

Napier,  Sir  Charles  {b.  1782,  d,  1853), 
eldest  son  of  Colonel  George  Napi^,  was 
educated  at  home,  and  sent  into  the  army 
(1794).  He  was  employed  in  Ireland  during 
the  insurrection;  he  was  at  Corunna  with 
Sir  John  Moore,  and  fought  under  the 
Buke  of  Wellington  at  Fuentes  B^Onoro 
and  Badajos.  Later  he  was  employed  in  a 
fighting  cruise  off  the  Chesapeake,  and  re- 
turned in  time  to  accompany  the  English 
army  to  Paris,  though  he  was  not  pre- 
sent at  Waterloo.  A  period  of  military 
inactivity  followed;  but  in  1841  he  was  ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of 
Bombay.  His  first  and  greatest  exploit  was 
the  conquest  and  annexation  of  Sonde,  of 
which  he  was  constituted  governor  by  Lord 
Ellenborough.  The  general  proceeaed  to 
subjugate  the  hill  tribeis  and  all  the  warlike 
population.    He  completely  reorganised  the 


Nap 


(747) 


Vat 


whole  physical  and  moral  condition  of  the 
district,  and  gained  the  respect  and  reverence 
of  the  inhabitants — even  of  the  Beloochees. 
His  proceedings,  however,  highly  offended  the 
Directors,  and  a  quarrel  ensued,  in  which  Sir 
Charles  treated  them  with  very  slight  cere- 
mony. His  plans  for  the  termination  of  the 
Sikh  War  (q.v.)  were  not  ripe  when  the 
battle  of  Sobraon  ended  it.  Before  leaving 
Scinde  he  succeeded  in  changing  the  feudal 
system  of  landholding  into  a  landlord  and 
tenant  system,  which  he  considered  the  best 
means  of  forming  loyal  subjects,  by  raising  a 
race  of  independent  farmers  attached  to  tiie 
government.  In  1847  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land and  lived  in  semi-retirement  until  the 
disasters  of  the  second  Sikh  War  (q.v.)  made 
everyone  look  around  for  a  general.  Sir 
Charles  started  (March,  1849),  but  found  on 
his  arrival  at  Bombay  that  the  Sikhs  had 
been  finally  routed.  He  now  devoted  himself 
to  military  reform ;  but  after  two  years  re- 
turned to  England,  where  he  died. 

Napier,  Vice- Admiral  Sib  Charles 
{b.  1786,  d.  I860},  was  the  cousin  of  the  three 
Napier  brothers,  Charles,  George,  and  William. 
He  went  to  sea  1799;  was  employed  all 
through  the  French  War  in  the  colonies  and 
the  Heditorranean.  He  .served  on  shore  in 
the  Peninsula,  and  was  present  at  Busaco. 
At  the  close  of  the  war  he  had  a  long 
interval  of  rest,  but  on  his  return  in  1829  he 
was  employed  o£F  the  coast  of  Portugal  in  the 
Galatea.  He  supported  the  Constitutionalists ; 
defeated  the  fleet  of  Don  Miguel,  and  settled 
Donna  Maria  on  the  throne.  Don  Pedro  was 
unbounded  in  his  gratitude;  created  him 
Viscount  of  Cape  St.  Vincent;  gave  him  all 
the  Portuguese  orders,  and  named  him  admiral- 
in-chief.  He  proceeded  to  remodel  the  corrupt 
Portuguese  na\'y;  was  thwarted  by  the 
officials,  and  threw  up  the  appointment.  In 
1840  he  was  employed  in  the  Mediterranean 
against  Mehemet  Ali  as  commodore,  and  con- 
cluded a  convention  -with  him.  For  his  services 
he  was  made  K.C.B.,  and  received  the  thanks 
of  both  Houses.  In  1841  he  was  elected  for 
Marylebone.  In  1847  ho  received  the  com- 
mand of  the  Channel  fleet,  and  compelled  the 
Emperor  of  Morocco  to  make  compensation  for 
injuries  done  to  the  British  commerce.  During 
the  Russian  War  he  was  nominated  to  the 
command  of  the  Baltic  fleet,  but  had  little 
opportunity  of  earning  distinction.  On  his 
return  he  quarrelled  with  the  government  on 
the  subject,  and  mutual  recriminations  were 
interchanged.  In  1855  he  was  returned  for 
Southwark,  and  cleared  himself  in  the  eyes 
of  Parliament  and  the  nation.  From  tbia 
time  he  devoted  himself  to  attacking  the 
abuses  in  the  navy,  until  his  failing  heal^ 
required  him  to  withdraw  altogether  from 
public  life. 

Napiemrillev  The  Battle  of  (1839),  was 
fought  near  Montreal  between  the  British  troops 


under  Sir  James  McDonnell  and  the  Canadian 
rebels,  who  were  completely  defeated. 

Naseby,  The  Battle  of  (July  14, 1645), 
was  fought  during  the  Great  Bebellion. 
Both  armies  took  the  field  in  May,  1645. 
Charles  I.  marched  northwards,  ana,  whilst 
Fairfax  was  besieging  Oxford,  the  king 
stormed  Leicester.  Leaving  Leicester,  Charles 
established  himself  at  Daventry,  collecting 
provisions  to  revictual  Oxford,  and  threaten- 
ing to  attack  the  eastern  counties.  Fairfax, 
who  left  Oxford  on  July  5,  overtook  the 
king  on  the  Pith.  The  king  resolved  to  give 
battle,  and  took  up  his  position  on  un  eminence 
called  Dust  Hill,  about  two  miles  north  of 
the  village  of  Naseby.  Thd  army  of  Fairfax 
was  drawn  up  on  Ked  Pitt  Hill,  about  a  mile 
from  Naseby.  The  two  armies  were  both 
about  1 1,000  strong,  the  Royalists  being  rather 
the  stfonger  in  cavalry.  The  Royalist  right, 
commanded  bv  Kupert,  commenced  the 
attack,  and,  after  a  hard  fight,  routed  the 
Parliamentaxy  left,  under  Ireton,  and  at- 
tacked the  baggage  of  the  Parliamentary 
army  behind  the  Ime  of  battle.  Meanwhile 
the  Parliamentary  right  wing,  led  by  Fairfax 
and  Cromwell,  charged  and  broke  the  divisipn 
commanded  by  Sir  Marmaduko  Langdale, 
which  formed  the  left  of  the  king's  army. 
Fairfax  and  his  g^rds  returned  from  tins 
charge  to  take  part  in  the  8#uggle  between 
the  foot  of  the  two  armies  in  the  centre. 
For  this  decisive  struggle  Fairfax  brought  up 
all  his  reserves,  and  was  aided  by  part  of 
Cromwell's  horse  and  what  remained  of 
Ireton's  division.  Under  their  combined 
attack  the  Royalist  centre  was  utterly  routed. 
Rupert  returned  too  late  to  the  field  to  tiim 
the  fortune  of  the  battle.  The  king,  at  the 
head  of  his  reserve  of  horse,  was  resolved  to 
charge  in  the  hope  of  recovering  the  day, 
when  a  courtier  seizing  his  bridle  caused  a 
confusion,  which  effectually  prevented  an 
attack.  The  cavalry  of  the  Parliament  pur- 
aued  the  flying  Royalists  to  within  two  miles 
of  Leicester,  and  the  slaughter  during  the 
flight  was  very  great.  The  Parliamentariaiis 
lost  about  200  men ;  the  Royalists,  1,000  killed 
and  about  5,000  prisoners,  besides  all  their 
guns  and  baggage  and  the  king's  private 
correspondence. 

The  best  aooount  of  the  battle  is  in  Sprigge's 
AngUa  JScdmva.  The  letters  of  Fairfax,  Crom- 
weU,  and  the  Parliamentary  Commisiiionen 
addressed  to  the  Speaker  give  the  ofKcial  report 
of  the  battle,  wnitelooke's  and  Clarendon's 
accounts  contain  valuable  details.  Markbam's 
1^0  Ojf  Fairfax  contains  a  list  of  authorities,  and 
a  criticiBm  of  their  valne.  rQ^  }£,  f*  1 

National  Dellt,  The.  The  kings  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  and  notably  the  later  Planta- 
genets,  had  frequently  borrowed  large  sums  (A 
money  on  their  own  credit  on  the  security  of 
the  crown  property  and  estates:  but  the 
modem  nationtd  debt  was  originated  in  the 
reign  of  William  III.  by  Montague,  in  1692« 


Vat 


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NaT 


when    Chancellor    of    the    Exchequer.      In 
order  to  defray  part  of  the  military  expenses, 
Montague  borrowed  a  million  sterling,  the  in- 
terest of  which — at  first  at  ten,  and,  after  the 
year  1700,  at  seven  per  cent. — was  secured  on 
new  duties  on  liquors.    These  duties  were  to 
form  a  fund,  and  on  the  credit  of  this  fund  the 
loan  was  to  be  raised  by  life  annuities,  which 
were  to  be  extinguished  when  the  survivors 
were  reduced  to  seven.   In  the  following  year 
another  loan  was   obtained,   in    the   shape 
of   the  capital  of   the  newly-created    Bank 
of  England,  which  amounted  to  £1,200,000. 
By  the  date  of  the  Treaty  of  Eyswick  (1697) 
the  national  debt  exceeded  20  millions;  by 
that  of  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  it  was  more  than 
50  millions.    This  rapid  increase    was    the 
cause  of  great  alarm  to  the  Tory  party,  and 
it  was  tile  fear  of  the  Whigs  that  the  Pre- 
tender would   come  **with  a  sponge  *'  and 
wipe  out  the  national  debt.    Its  gradual  ex- 
tinction was  one  of  the  objects  of  statesmen. 
In  1711  Harley  founded  a  floating  debt  (a 
debt  payable  on  degaand)   of  ten  millions, 
which  became  the  capital  of  the  South  Sea 
Company,  who  in  return  were  allowed  the 
monopoly  of  the  privileges  of  the  Assiento 
(q.v.)  contract  with  Spain.    In  1717  Walpole 
established  the  first  sinking  fund,  borrowing 
£600,000  at  four  per  cent,  only,  to  extinguish 
liabilities  bearing  a  higher  rate  of  interest. 
The  high  rated  interest,  and  the  confusion 
caused  by  the  fact  that  some  of  the  annuities 
by  which  the  various  loans  had  been  raised 
were    redeemaUe    and  others  irredeemable, 
induced  the  government  in  1720  to  accept  the 
proposal  of  &e  South  Sea  Company  that  thev 
should  add  the  national  debt  to  their  capital, 
and  should  in  return  make  the  fund  uniform 
and    redeemable,  paying  at  first   five,  and 
after  1727  four  per  cent. ;  but  the  failure  of 
the  company  caused  the  plan  to  fall  to  the 
ground.     Pelham  was  more  successful  in  his 
measures,  carrying  out  in   1750  a  uniform 
arrangement,  «dled  the  Consolidated  Fund, 
and  TOducing  the  interest  to  three  per  cent., 
paying  off  those  who  were  unwilling  to  accept 
the  terms.     Meanwhile  the  debt  increased  by 
leaps  and  bounds.    At  the  Peace  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  (1748)  it  was  over  78  millions ;  at  the 
Peace  of  Paris  (1763),  over  138  millions ;  and 
at  the  conclusion  of  the  American  War  (1784), 
249  millions.    In  1786  the  younger  Pitt  pro- 
posed a  new  wmlnng  fund,  by  which  schenLe 
the  sum  of  one  million  was  annually  set  apart 
from  the  income  of  the  country  for  the  re- 
duction   of    the    debt.    The    fallacy  of  the 
sj'stem  became  evident  when  times  of  diffioiilty 
•arose  ;  and  the  nation  was  forced  to  borrow, 
often  at  a  higher  interest  than  it  gained,  in 
order    to    meet    current    expenses.      It  was 
gradually  abandoned,  being  finally  laid  aside 
by   Lord   GrenviUe  in   1828.    The  struggle 
with  Xapoleon  was  a  fearful  strain  on  the 
national  resources,   and  in   1817,   when  the 
English  and  Irish  exchequers  were  consoli- 


dated, the  capital  was  over  840  millions,  and 

the  annual  charee  exceeded  32  millions.   Since 

that  date  it  has  been  gradually  reduced,  partly 

by  arrangements  of  economy,  such  as  that  by 

which,  under  the  Bank  Charter  Act  of  1833, 

the  Bank  of  England  was  to  receive  £120,000 

less  than  before  for  the  management  of  the 

debt ;  partly,  as  in  1868  and  onwiutte,  by  the 

conversion  of  stock  into  tenninable  annuities. 

In  1875  a  new  and  permanent  sinking  fund 

was  established,  which  was  to  be  maintained 

by  annual  votes  of  the  legislature.    In  1883  a 

groat  scheme  in  connection  with  the  national 

debt    was    foimed    by    Mr.    Childers,    by 

which,  through  the  creation  of  new  annuities 

terminable  in  twenty  years,   £70,000,000  of 

debt  could  be  immediately  extinguished,  and 

£173,300,000  in  twenty  years.     The  national 

debt  in  this  year  amounted  to  £756,376,519. 

In  1884  Mr.  Childers  carried  an  Act  by  which 

a  portion  of  the  debt  was  to  be  converted 

from  three  per  cent,  to  two  and  a  half  per 

cent,  stock ;  and  Mr.  Goschen  in  1888  passed 

a    large     conversion    measure.    [Ban kino; 

South  Sea  Cokfany.] 

Macaula^  gives  a  clear  aooonnt  of  the  origin 
of  the  deDt,  and  Lord  Stanhope  of  its  oon- 
nectioa  with  the  South  Sea  Company.  See  also 
Kasaey,  Hitt  ^  Eng. ;  Martinean,  Hut  <^f  tkt 
Ptac9;  McCmloch»  Oommereud  Sicfumery; 
SCatcam^n't  Ttar-Book.  [L.  C.  S.] 

Vavanrete,  or  Vojara.  Tub  Battlb 

of  (April  3,  1367),  was  fought  during  the 
alliance  between  the  Black  Pnnce  and  Pedro 
the  Cruel,  King  of  Castile.  Pedro  had  been 
expelled  from  his  kingdom  by  his  natural 
brother,  Henry  of  Trastamare,  who  was  sup- 
ported by  a  considerable  French  force,  com- 
manded  by  the  Breton  hero,  Du  Gueechii. 
Pedro  applied  for  assistance  to  the  Black 
Prince,  who  after  some  hesitation  agpneed  to 
march  into  Spain  to  his  aid,  on  condition  that 
the  expenses  of  the  campaign  should  be  de- 
frayed by  Pedro,  and  certain  Spanish  towns 
ceded  to  England.  Accordingly  he  crossed  the 
Pyrenees  with  an  army  of  24,000  men,  and  met 
the  combined  force  of  the  French  and  Snanish, 
numbering  60,000  men,  on  the  plain  of  Nivar- 
rete  just  beyond  the  Ebro  near  the  town  of 
Logrono.  This  victory  was  almost  equal  in  the 
importance  of  its  results  to  Crecy  and  PoitierB. 
The  English  archers  won  the  day,  the  loss  of 
the  enemy  being  very  considerable,  and  among 
the  prisoners  was  Du  Guesdin  himself. 

Navarmo,  Battlb  of  (Oct  20,  1827). 
In  1827,  on  the  refusal  of  Turkey  to  grant  the 
armistice  to  the  Greeks  demanded  by  the 
powers,  the  French,  English,  and  Russian 
fleets  entered  the  Eastern  Mediterranean,  and 
appeared  before  Navarino  Bay,  where  twenty- 
eight  Turkish  and  Egyptian  ships-of-war  lay 
waiting  fresh  reinforcements  from  Europe. 
The  allies  explained  the  negotiations,  and 
declared  they  should  not  sail.  Ibrahim  Pasha 
agreed,  but  sailed  in  spite  of  this.  The  allies 
returned,   and  drove  the  Turkish  fleet  into 


VaT 


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VaT 


Navarino.  Ibrahim  now  ordered  a  general 
massacre  on  shore.  On  the  20th,  Sir  Edward 
Oodrington,  the  English  admiral,  sailed  in  to 
say  that  he  would  convoy  the  Turkish  and 
Egyptian  ships  hack  to  their  respective  coun- 
tries. Codrington  went  on  parleying  till  the 
Turks  opened  fire  upon  him  and  the  French. 
The  battle  then  began,  and  in  four  hours  the 
Turkish  fleet  was  entirely  destroyed  by  the 
allies. 

Navigation  Laws,  Thb,  regulated  the 

privileges  of  British  ships,  and  the  conditions 
under  which  foreign  ships  were  admitted  to 
the  trade  of  this  country'.  Legislation  of  this 
kind  was  naturally  of  early  development ;  we 
find  instances  of  it  under  the  later  Angevin 
kings,  and  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  YII.  and 
Eli^bcth  laws  were  passed  excluding  foreign 
ships  from  our  coasting  trade.  Cromwell 
was,  however^  the  first  to  adopt  the  naviga- 
tion system  as  a  policy ;  in  1650  he  exduded 
all  foreign  ships  without  a  licence  from 
trading  with  the  plantations  of  America,  and 
in  1651  the  famous  Navigation  Act  was  passed, 
which  forbade  the  importation  of  goods  into 
England  except  in  English  ships,  or  in  the 
ships  of  the  nation  which  produced  the  goods. 
This  measure  was  levelled  at  the  Dutch  carrv- 
ing  trade :  it  forced  the  Butch  into  war,  but 
in  the  end  they  accepted  it  The  mercantile 
system,  as  it  was  called,  was  continued  after 
the  Bestoration.  In  1660  an  Act  was  passed 
providing  that  all  colonial  produce  should  be 
exported  in  English  vessels;  that  no  man 
might  establish  himself  as  a  factor  in  the 
colonies,  and  that  various  sorts  of  colonial 
produce  could  only  be  exported  to  England 
and  her  dependencies.  In  1663  it  was  enacted 
that  the  colonies  should  receive  no  goods 
whatever  in  foreign  vessels.  In  1672  came 
the  Navigation  Act  of  Charles  II.,  based 
on  that  of  Cromwell,  under  which  the  pro- 
hibition against  introducing  goods,  except 
in  English  ships  manned  by  a  crew  of  which 
at  least  three-fourths  were  English,  applied 
to  all  the  principal  articles  of  commerce 
known  as  the  ''enumerated  articles.'*  This 
Act  ruined  the  Buteh  mercliant  navy,  and  the 
cruel  restrictions  of  the  narigation  laws 
were  one  of  the  main  causes  of  the  American 
rebellion.  After  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, the  United  States  were  placed  on 
the  footing  of  a  foreign  nation,  and  hence 
came  under  the  operation  of  the  Act  of 
Charles  II.  They  promptly  retaliated  by 
excluding  our  ships,  and  in  1814  the  Treaty  of 
Ghent  was  concluded,  by  which  discriminating 
duties  were  mutually  abolished.  Long  since 
the  folly  of  these  restrictions  on  commerce 
had  been  pointed  out  by  political  economists, 
and  Mr.  Wallace  and  Mr.  Huskisson  began 
from  1821  and  onwards,  introducing  a  series 
of  measures  of  which  the  object  was  to  place 
England  and  the  foreign  nations  with  which 
she  was  at  peace  on  the  same  footing.    The 


most  important  of  these  was  the  Reciprocity 
of  Duties  Act  of  1823,  which  was  directed 
against  Prussia,  the  Netherlands,  and  Por- 
tugal, all  of  whom  had  raised  their  duties  on 
English  vessels;  and  the  Act  of  1826,  by 
which  the  Navigation  Act  was  repealed,  atM. 
a  new  set  of  regulations  established  of  a  more 
liberal  character,  though  the  goods  of  Asia, 
Africa,  and  America  were  still  restricted  to 
English  vessels,  or  those  of  the  producing 
country.  The  free-trade  legislation  of  1842, 
1846,  and  1849  finally  abolished  a  most 
vexatious  system.  Lastly,  in  1854,  the  coatft- 
ing  trade  of  England  was  thrown  open  to 
foreign  vessels. 

The  eifeots  of  the  Navigation  Aot  on  Amcirioa 
are  mentioned  in  Doyle,  The  Engli»h  in  Amerioa, 
and  Bancroft,  HUtory  of  the  Uaittd  Statet.  See 
alflo  Adam  Smith,  Wetdtli  of  Nations ;  and  12  Car. 
II.,  c.  18  i  8  Geo.  IV.,  o.  42,  43.  44,  45 ;  12  A;  13 
Vict.,  c.  29.  For  the  inoreaae  of  English  com* 
merce  since  the  repeal  of  the  AcU  see  Hr. 
Gladntone's  speech  at  Leeds,  Oct.,  1881. 

[L.  S.  C] 

Vavy.  The.  According  to  the  strict 
sense  of  the  word,  the  navy  did  not  come  into 
existence  until  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
Before  that  period  the  King  of  England  had 
the  power  of  calling  upon  a  certain  part  of 
the  people  to  serve  against  his  enemies  at  sea, 
and  to  supply  ships  and  arms ;  but  there  was 
no  permanent  naval  force,  although  some  of 
the  sovereigns  had  ships  which  were  their 
personal  property.  It  seems,  however,  to 
have  been  the  custom  to  pay  the  crews  of 
these  ships  when  on  active  serWce  out  of 
the  national  treasury.  The  Cinque  Ports 
were  endowed  with  privileges  on  considera- 
tion of  rendering  especial  service  at  sea,  but 
the  obligation  to  serve  was  common  to  the 
whole  coast.  Until  the  end  of  the  thirteenth 
century  the  general  control  of  the  navy  was 
left  to  oflScers  called  leaders,  governors,  or 
justiciaries  of  the  king's  fleet.  In  the  reign 
of  John  the  office  was  held  by  an  ecclesiastic, 
the  Archdeacon  of  Taunton.  In  1303  the 
title  of  admiral  was  already  in  use.  Gervade 
Alard  is  stated  to  be  *' captain  and  admiral 
of  the  fleet  of  ships  of  the  Cinque  Ports, 
and  of  all  other  ports  from  the  port  of  Dover, 
and  of  the  whole  county  of  Cornwall." 
Admirals  for  parts  of  the  coast,  or  for 
different  seas,  •were  appointed  on  varying 
conditions  until  the  office  of  Lord  High 
Admiral  g^w  out  of  the  older  "  captain  and 
admiral "  of  particular  districts.  [Admiral.] 
From  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
turj*,  the  navy  has  always  been  governed, 
nominally  at  least,  by  a  Lord  High  Admiral, 
either  in  person  or  by  commissioners  ap- 
pointed to  discharge  the  office.  Its  powers 
were  very  great,  including  the  commandership- 
in-chief  at  sea,  the  authoritj'  of  the  present 
Lords  of  the  Admiralty,  with  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  Admiralty  Court  in  peace,  and  the 
prize  courts  in  war.    [Aumikalty.]    The  last 


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Lord  High  Admiral  who  really  exercised  the 
powera  of  the  office  was  James  II.  when  Duke 
of  York.  Henrj'  VIII.  began  the  modem 
^lavy  by  the  appointment  of  a  comptroller, 
and  by  setting  aside  a  portion  of  his  revenue 
every  year  to  meet  the  expenses  of  building 
new  vessels  and  of  keeping  his  ships  in  fight- 
ing order.  .It  was,  however,  long  before  an 
organised  body  of  naval  officers  was  formed. 
Until  the  reign  of  James  II.  it  was  the 
custom  to  appoint  a  captain  who  might  or 
might  not  he  a  seaman,  and  who  had  a 
master  to  navigate  for  each  voyage.  The 
captain  then  collected  his  crew  by  voluntary 
enlistment  or  press.  When  the  special  service 
£or  which  the  ship  had  been  commissioned 
was  performed,  the  whole  crew  was  paid  off, 
and  ceased  to  have  any  further  necessary 
connection  with  the  royal  service.  The  pay 
of  the  captains  was  largely  made  up  by  fees 
for  convo}'ing,  &c.,  until  the  abuses  of  the 
system  induced  James  II.  to  a^Ush  it,  and 
compensate  the  captains  by  the  large  increase 
of  sea-pay,  known  as  service-and-table  money. 
James  II.  also  established  the  system  of  giving 
half-pay  to  officers  not  on  active  service.  It 
seems  to  have  been  regarded  as  a  species  of 
retaining  fee,  and  even  until  the  beg^inning 
of  the  eighteenth  century  naval  officers  in 
the  intervals  of  active  service  commanded 
merchant  ships,  and  traded  on  their  own 
account.  There  are  well-known  cases  of 
merchant  skippers  appointed  to  command 
war  ships  as  late  as  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  Captain  Cook  is  an  example  of  a 
man  who  worked  his  way  to  command  through 
the  r^mk  of  sailing-master  from  before  me 
mast.  Step  by  step,  however,  our  organisa- 
tion has  become  more  strict,  and  to-day  naval 
officers  are  a  highly  trained  professional  body. 
The  inateriel  of  the  navy  has  gone  through  a 
process  of  development  very  similar  to  that  of 
the  personnel.  Under  the  Tudors,  the  first 
two  Stuart  princes,  and  the  Commonwealth, 
the  navy  consisted  of  a  nucleus  of  roval  ships 
(or  national,  as  the  case  might  be),  which 
was  joined  in  war  time,  or  whenever  the  king 
thought  fit  to  make  an  imposing  demonstra- 
tion m  the  Channel,  by  a  crowd  of  merchant 
vessels.  Scarcely  a  fifth  of  the  ships  col- 
lected against  the  Armada  belonged  to  the 
queen,  and  the  pi*oportion  in  ^^ambledon's 
fleet  which  sailed  against  C%4iz  in  1625,  and 
in  Buckingham's  at  the  Isle  of  Ith6,  1626, 
was  about  the  same.  Even  the  great  fleet 
which  fought  the  three  days'  fight  with 
Tromp  in  the  Channel  contained  many  armed 
merchant  ships.  By  that  time,  however,  the 
armed  merchant  ships  had  become  a  mere 
nuisance  to  the  fighting  vessels.  What  had 
done  well  enough  in  1588,  though  even  then 
the  queen's  officers  did  not  think  the  ships 
from  the  ports  good  for  much  except  to  make 
a  show,  had  become  completely  useless  fifty 
years  later.  The  causes  of  this  change  were  two. 
In  the  first  place  the  heroic  enthusiasm  of  the 


Elizabethan  days  passed  away  with  the  Eliza- 
bethan heroes.  In  1625  it  was  found  impossible 
to  get  obedience  from  pressed  crews  and 
merchant  skippers,  and  the  English  flag  was 
disgraced  by  insubordination  and  cowardice 
before  the  enemy.  In  the  second  place 
Phineas  Pett,  James  I.'s  builder,  had  begun 
to  make  the  war  ship  something  far  more 
different  from  the  merchant  vessel  than  it 
had  been  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The 
progress  of  the  seventeenth  century  in  ship- 
building was  as  rapid  as  anything  seen  in 
our  time.  When  James  I.  ascended  the 
throne  a  ship  of  five  hundred  tons  was  a 
match  for  anything ;  the  liners  of  his  grand- 
sons were  vessels  of  from  1,500  to  1,600  tons. 
Their  superiority  in  build  and  rigging  was 
enormous.  As  the  war  ship  therefore  became 
a  special  instrument,  it  was  found  impossible 
to  improvise  it  out  of  a  merchant  ship  any 
longer.  Accordingly  the  number  of  ro>'al 
ships  had  to  be  increased  very  rapidly. 
James  I.  left  only  thirty-three ;  Charles  raised 
the  number  to  sixty-seven;  under  the 
Commonwealth  it  rose  to  150,  and  at  the 
Hevolution  it  was  234.  At  one  period  since 
then  it  has  reached  upwards  of  900.  The 
beg^inning  of  the  eighteenth  century  may  be 
considered  as  the  period  at  which  the  navy 
became  fully  developed. 

Since  then  the  organisation  of  the  navy  has 
remained  almost  the  same  in  form,  though 
it  has  undergone  innumerable  modifications 
in    points    of    detail.      The    administrative 
machinery,  the  rank  and  status  of  officers, 
the  code  of  laws  by  which  naval  discipline 
was  preseri'ed,  and  the  duties  of  the  various 
branches  of  the  service  were  fixed  at  the 
beginning  of  the  last  century;  and  though 
the  changes  in  the  construction  and  manage- 
ment of  ships  has  been  enormous,  the  attempt 
has    constantly    been    made   to    adapt    tins 
organisation  to  it,  without  departing  from  it 
inessentials.  Great  progress  was  made  in  ship- 
building and  naval  tactics  in  the  eighteenth 
century.      In   1745    *' first-rates "    were  or- 
dinarily ships  of  2,000  tons ;  in  the  American 
War  they  were  2,100 ;  and  in  1808  there  was 
a  ship  of   2,616.    The  results  of  the  great 
war  with  France  from  1793  to  1815  was  that 
the  navies  of  the  chief  Continental  States 
were  almost  annihilated,  and  that  of  England 
obtained  an  enormous  preponderance.     Crreat 
improvements  in  the  construction  of  the  vessek 
were  made  after  the  close  of  the  war;  and  the 
English  ships  of  the  line  reached  their  per* 
f ection  between  the  years  1 820  and  1 845.    But 
in  1838  steam  was  applied  to  war  vessels,  and 
by  the  time  of  the  Crimean  War  many  Eog* 
lish  liners  were  fitted  with  auxiliary  screws. 
Shortly  afterwards  armour-plated  ships  were 
introduced,  and  since  then  change  has  suc- 
ceeded  change  with    bewildering    rapidity. 
Wooden    ships    of   the    line    have    become 
quite  obsolete,   and  during  the  last  thirty 
years  the  English  navy  has  been  completely 


I 

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Vai 


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Nel 


reconstructed,  and  ships  of  size  far  exceeding 

the  largest  vessel  of  the  past,  and  carrying 

ordnance    of   enormous   powers    have   been 

built.    The  old  system  of  "rating"  is  still 

nominally  kept  up,  and  ^nerally  speaking 

the  names,  ranks,  and  duties  are  assigned  to 

the  fighting  part  of  the  service;  but  each 

ship  now  carries  a  large  number  of  engineers, 

artificers,  and  scientific  officers.   Of  late  years 

the  Navy  has  been  greatly  strengthened,  and 

brought  more   into  touch   with  the  army. 

[Abmiraltt.] 

Derrick,  Sim  and  Progrsn  of  the  Boyal  Navy ; 
James,  Man<U  History;  Tonge,  Hiot.  of  tiu 
Navy;  Braasey,  T^  Britisk  Navy.      r£)   H  1 

Vanr  Jimg  was  the  second  son  of 
Nizam- ool-Moolk,  on  whose  death  (1749)  he 
seized  the  royal  treasure  and  the  throne,  and 
called  in  the  aid  of  the  English  to  resist  the 
confederation  formed  against  him  by  Dupleix 
to  support  Mozufier  Jung,  the  grandson  of 
Nizam-ool-Moolk.  The  alliance  <&d  not,  how- 
ever,  last  long,  and  Nazir  Jung  was  unable 
to  cope  with  the  intrigues  of  Dupleix.  In 
1750  he  was  assassinated. 

Neehtan's  Kere,  The  Battle  of 
(May  20,  686),  was  fought  between  Brude, 
the  Pictish  king,  and  Ecgfrith  of  Northum- 
bria,  his  cousin,  who  had  crossed  the  Forth  to 
subdue  the  Picts.  The  result  of  this  battle 
was  most  important.  The  Picts  at  once 
shook  off  the  Northumbrian  yoke,  and  the 
Northumbrian  overlordship  itself  came  to  an 
end.  Nechtansmere  is  the  modem  Dunnichen, 
about  four  miles  south-east  of  Forfar. 

N6Ck-T«rse,  The.  [BsNEFrr  of  Clerqy.] 

Nectan   Korbet  {d.  481),  King  of 

the  Picts,  was  banished  to  Ireland  by 
his  brother  and  predecessor,  Talorgan,  on 
whose  death,  however,  he  returned.  He  is 
said  to  have  founded  the  church  of  Abemethy, 
and  to  have  given  his  name  to  Drum-nec^tan 
or  Dunnichen  in  Forfarshire. 

Vectaa  {d.  732),  son  of  Berili,  succeeded 
his  brother  Brude  as  King  of  the  Picts  in  706. 
In  710  the  king  and  nation  were  persuaded  by 
St.  Boniface  to  conform  to  the  Koman  Church, 
and  to  adopt  Boman  usages  instead  of  the 
Columban.  The  Columbia  clergy  were  con- 
sequently in  717  expelled,  and  driven  into 
Balriada;  this  had  the  effect  of  stirring 
into  antagonism  the  latent  hostility  between 
the  Soots  and  Picts.  In  724  Nectan  ab- 
dicated  and  entered  a  monastery,  which, 
however,  he  subsequently  left,  and  after  a 
victory  over  Alpin,  the  reigning  king  at 
Scone,  recovered  his  kingdom.  He  was 
very  shortly  afterwards  defeated  by  Angus 
HacFerg^. 

Velsony  HoBATio,  Viscount  {b,  1768,  d. 
1805),  was  the  son  of  the  Rector  of  Bum- 
ham  Thorpe  in  Norfolk.  He  went  to 
school  first  at  Norwich,  and  afterwards 
at  North  Walsham.     In  1771  he  went  to  | 


sea  with  his  uncle  in  the  Maiionnabley  but 
soon  returned,  and  was  comnussioned  to  the 
Triumph  at  Chatham.     In  1773  his  uncle's 
influence  obtained   a  place  for  him  in  an 
expedition  to  the  Arctic  Seas.    The  expedition 
was  at  one  time  in  great  danger,  but  eventually 
returned  in  safety.    He  was  then  ordered  to 
the  East  Indies,  where,  after  serving  eighteen 
months,  he  was  invalided  home.    Li  1777  he 
received  his  commission  as  second  lieutenant 
of  the  Lowetioffey  ordered  to  Jamaica.    In  the 
West  Indies  he  soon  became  noticeable  for 
his  bravery  and  application,  and  in  December, 
1778,  he  was   appointed    to  command   the 
Badger,  from  which  he  was  transferred  in  the 
following  June  as  post-captain  to  the  Min^ 
ehinbrook.      In  the   spring  of  1780  he  was 
appointed  to  command  an  expedition  against 
San  Juan  in  the  isthmus  of  Panama.    The 
expedition  ended  in  failure,  not  through  any 
fault  of  Nelson's,  but  on  account  of  the  deadly 
nature  of  the  climate,  against  which  only  380 
out  of  1,800  men  were  proof.    Nelson  himself 
was  so  Ottered  by  the  exertions  he  had  gone 
through  that  he  had  to  go  to  England  to  recruit 
his  health.    In  1783  he  was  appointed  to  the 
Bcre<u  bound  for  the  West  Incues,  where  he 
found  himself  senior  captain.    In  this  position 
he    became  involved   m   some    troublesome 
disputes,  and  finally  in  a  law-suit,  owing  to 
his  determination  to  enforce  the  Navigation 
Act.     On  the  breaking  out  of  the  French 
War    in    1793   he    was    appointed    to    the 
Agamemnon  of  sixty-four  guns  to  proceed  to 
the  Mediterranean.    In  1796  Sir  John  Jervis 
took  the  command  in  the  Mediterranean,  and 
Nelson  became  at  the  same  time  commodore. 
After  various  encounters  with  Spanish  and 
French  ships,  he  joined  the  main  fleet  off 
Cape  St.  Vincent,  where,  on  Feb.  14,  1797, 
he  took  a  conspicuous  part   in    the    great 
battle,  and  contributed  much  to  the  victory. 
Nelson  was  now  advanced  to  the  rank  of 
rear-admiral,    and    commanded    the    inner 
squadron  at  the  blockade  of  Cadiz.    In  July 
he  conducted  a  night  attack  on  Santa  Cruz, 
which  failed  through  the  darkness;  Nelson 
himself  lost  his  right  arm.      Early  in  the 
following  year  he  rejoined  Lord  St.  Vincent 
in    the     Vanguard,    and    was    immediately 
despatched  in  command  of  a  small  squadron 
to  watch-  the  movements  of  the  French  fleet 
in   the    Mediterranean.      On    Aug.    1    he 
came  in  sight  of  them  anchored  in  Aboukir 
Bay,  near  Alexandria.    He  at  once  attacked 
with  such  fury  and  skill  that,  after  the  battle 
had  raged  all  night,  the  whole  French  fleet, 
with  the  exception  of  four  ships,  was  either 
taken  or  destroyed.    The  victory  was  hailed 
with  delight  in  England,  where  honours  were 
showered  upon  Nelson  from  all  sides,  and  he 
was  created  Baron  Nelson.    There  was  work 
for  him  next  to  do  at  Naples  in  trying  to 
strengthen  that  kingdom  to  resist  France.  At 
Naples  Nelson's  infatuation  for  Lady  Hamilton 
led  him  to  bolster  up  the  decaying  monarchy 


Ven 


(762) 


Veu 


of  the  Bourbons,  and  to  commit  the  only  act 
of  injustioe  recorded  of  him — the  execution 
of  Caraccioli.  In  the  spring  of  the  year 
1800  Nelson  returned  to  England,  and  in 
the  following  year  he  was  sent  as  second  in 
command  under  Sir  Hyde  Parker  to  the 
Baltic,  and  on  April  2  bore  the  chief  part  in 
the  bombardment  of  Copenhagen.  Nelson  was 
made  a  viscount,  and  on  the  recall  of  Sir 
Hyde  Parker  was  left  in  sole  command. 
On  his  return  to  England  he  was  at  once 
appointed  to  a  command  extending  from 
(Mordness  to  Beachy  Head.  He  organised 
an  attack  on  the  flotilla  lying  at  Boulogne, 
but  the  expedition  failed  in  its  immediate 
object,  though  it  had  the  effect  of  terrifying 
the  French.  On  the  war  breaking  out  afresh  in 
1803  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
Mediterranean  fleet,  and  took  his  station  off 
Toulon.  From  May,  1803,  to  August,  1805, 
Nelson  left  his  ship  only  three  times,  so  constant 
was  his  watch  for  an  opportunity  of  engaging 
the  enemy.  But  when  the  aUiance  of  Spain  and 
France  was  concluded  Napoleon  determined 
to  carry  out  his  long*intended  invasion  of 
England.  The  combined  fleets  put  out  of 
port.  Nelson  went  in  search  of  them.  From 
January'  to  April,  1805,  he  beat  about  the 
Mediterranean;  then  pursued  them  to  the 
West  Indies.  Here  they  were  in  advance  of 
him ;  and  he  was  baffled  by  conflicting 
accounts  of  their  movements.  At  length  he 
followed  them  northwards,  and  on  July  19 
anchored  off  Gibraltar,  but  could  hear  no 
tidings  of  them.  Unrelentingly  he  resumed 
his  search  round  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and  the 
coast  of  Ireland,  and  returning,  joined 
Admiral  Comwallis  off  Ushant  on  August 
15,  where  he  received  orders  to  proceed  to 
Portsmouth.  There  he  learnt  that  Admiral 
Calder  had  fallen  in  with  them  off  Cape 
Finisterre  on  July  22,  and  that  they  had  put 
into  Vigo  to  refit.  He  again  offered  his 
services,  which  were  eagerly  accepted;  and 
on  Sept.  29  he  was  off  Cadiz.  Villeneuve 
hesitated  to  obey  peremptory  orders  to  put  to 
sea ;  but  at  length  he  ventured  out,  and  on 
Oct.  21  gave  Nelson  his  long-wishcd-for 
opportunity.  The  fleets  met  off  Trafalgar, 
and  in  the  battle  which  ensued  the  fVcnch 
and  Spanish  fleets  were  utterly  destroyed. 
The  victory  was,  however,  only  obtained  at  the 
cost  of  Nelson's  life.  He  died  at  the  early 
age  of  forty-seven.  "  Yet,"  as  Southey  says, 
*'he  cannot  be  said,  to  have  fallen  prema- 
turely,  whose  work  was  done." 

Southey,  Life  of  Nelson ;  Pettifrrew,  Ifemmm 
of^  Nelaon ;  NeUcn  Dmpatckeas  Jamea,^  Naval 
UUt.i  kliaoHf  Hi»t,  of  Europe,     r-^  R.  S  1 

If  ennilUI  is  the  supposed  author  of  the 
collection  of  chronicles  and  genealogies  of 
very  different  date  and  value  which  is  styled 
Hist&ria  £rit<mum.  Very  different  ^'iews 
have  been  held  as  to  the  authenticity,  author- 
snip,  and  historical  usefulness  of  Nennius. 


Manv  have  agreed  with  Milton's  description 

of  him  as  a  *'  very  trivial  writer,"  and  one 

recent  author  speaks  of  "the  stuff  called 

Nennius."    Mr.  Skene,  however,  has  fonned 

a  higher  opinion  of  his  value. 

Nemuna  has  been  published  hj  the  Edk.  Hist. 
8oc.,  and  in  th«  If  on.  HtJit.  Brit.  There  is  a 
translation  in  Bohn's  Antiq-uarian  Library.  The 
best  aocount  of  him  will  be  found  in  Ifr. 
Skene's  CtUio  Scotland,  voL  i. 

Nepaill.  About  the  middle  of  the 
fourteenth  century  it  was  colonised  by 
JEiajpoots,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  la^ 
century,  a  chief  of  the  Goorkha  tribe  united 
all  the  small  principalities  and  founded  the 
military  dynasty  of  Katmandoo.  The  at- 
tempts of  ih.e  Nepaul  princes  to  extend  their 
dominions  north  ended  in  a  collision  with 
China,  which  resulted  in  their  being  com- 
pelled to  pay  tribute.  Foiled  in  the  northt 
they  turned  south.  Their  greatest  general, 
Ulmur  Singh,  who  acted  almost  indepen- 
dently, carried  their  arms  west  beyond  the 
Kalee  to  the  Upper  Sutlej,  coming  in  contact 
with  the  rising  power  of  Runjeet  Singh. 
Not  content  with  this,  they  pushed  their 
encroachments  to  the  British  frontier  and 
beyond,  until  their  aggressions  ended  in  the 
Goorkha  War  (q.v.),  which  effectually  re- 
pressed their  attempts  in  the  south  and  west. 
The  .treaty  which  ended  the  war  has  never 
been  violated,  and  the  Goorkhas,  infltead  of 
taking  advantage  of  our  exigencies  in  the 
Mutiny  of  1857,  sent  a  Jaiige  force  to  assist 
in  quelUng  it.  The  barren  region  whidi 
was  the  scene  of  the  war  has  proved  an 
invaluable  acquisition.  It  has  furnished  sites 
for  sanatoria  at  Simla,  Mussooree,  Landour, 
and  Nynee-thal,  where  the  rulers  of  British 
India  can  recruit  their  strength  during  the 
heat  of  summer.  The  distance  between  Cal- 
cutta and  Simla  is  abridged  by  a  railway, 
and  to  this  beautiful  place  the  Governor 
General,  the  commander-in-chief,  and  the 
chief  officials,  fly  during  the  intense  heat  of 
summer. 

If  61ltrality  may  be  either  perfect  or  con- 
ventional, independent  of,  or  affected  by, 
treaty.  Examples  of  conventional  neutrality 
are  afforded  by  the  perpetual  neutrality"  and 
inviolability  of  the  Swiss  cantons  declared  in 
1815,  and  by  the  neutrality  of  Belgium  declared 
in  1 8 33.  In  some  cases  also  neutrality  has  been 
qualified  by  a  pre-existing  alliance  with  one 
of  the  belligerents.  Thus,  in  the  war  between 
Russia  and  Sweden  in  1788,  Denmark,  thoug*!! 
supplying  the  Empress  Catherine  with  certain 
aid,  as  arranged  by  previous  treaty,  was  yet 
held  to  be  neutral.  Such  a  limited  neutrality, 
however,  would  scarcely  be  recognised  in  these 
days.  No  hostilities  are  lawful  on  neutral 
territory,  nor  may  troops  pass  through  sach 
territory  for  the  purposes  of  war.  "Ulthin 
the  limits  of  the  maritime  jurisdiction  of  a 
neutral  state  all  captures  are  invalid,  and 
every  belligerent  act  is  unlawfuL    In  1863 


Ven 


(  763  ) 


Var 


the  crew  of  the  American  merchantman  the 
Chesapeake  mutinied,  seized  the  ship,  and  de- 
clared her  a  Confederate  man-of-war.  The 
United  States  government  took  the  ship  with 
three  of  the  «rew  in  British  waters,  but  Mr. 
Seward  considered  the  capture  a  violation  of 
the  law  of  nations,  and  aelivered  ship  and 
men  to  the  British  authorities.  Such  viola- 
tion of  territorial  right  is  a  matter  which 
lies  between  the  neutral  state  and  the  captor. 
A  neutral  state  is  bound  not  to  afford  any 
kind  of  warlike  help  to  either  of  two  bellige- 
rents, and  not  to  refuse  to  one  what  she  grants 
to  the  other.  Acting  on  these  principles, 
Washington,  on  the  outbteak  of  the  European 
war  of  1793,  issued  a  proclamation  of  neutra- 
lity,with  instructions  to  prevent  the  equipment 
of  belligerent  vessels  in  the  ports  of  the  United 
States.  No  legislative  effort  in  this  direction 
was  made  by  Great  Britain  until  the  Foreign 
Enlistment  Act  of  1819,  which  followed  the 
linos  laid  down  in  America.  This  Act  was 
relaxed  in  1835  in  respect  of  troops  levied  to 
uphold  tha  claim  of  Queen  Isabella  to  the 
throne  of  Spain.  During  the  civil  war  in 
America,  1861 — 65,  much  dispute  arose  con- 
cerning our  duty  as  a  neutral.  ]^Iany  cruisers, 
such  as  the  Alabama,  the  Florida^  and  the 
Shenandoah,  were  built  at  Liverpool  for  the 
Confederate  States,  and  were  received  in  British 
ports.  These  ships  did  immense  damage  to 
the  shipping  and  trade  of  the  Federal  States. 
The  most  &mous  of  them,  tlie  Alabama,  'was 
built  in  Liverpool  in  1862,  received  her  crew 
from  that  port,  and  sailed  thence  to  the  Azores, 
where  she  put  on  board  her  armament,  which 
had  been  sent  out  from  Liverpool  for  that  pur- 
pose. During  the  next  two  years  she  took  sixty- 
five  vessels,  before  she  was  herself  destroyed. 
As  she  and  her  fellows  left  our  ports  without 
warlike  equipment,  the  law  was  evaded  rather 
than  broken.  Since,  however,  it  was  at  least 
doubtful  how  far  we  had  exorcised  due  vigi- 
lance in  the  matter,  we  submitted  the  American 
claims  to  arbitration,  and,  in  1872,  were  con- 
demned to  pay  £3,000,000  damages.  As  regards 
the  rights  of  neutrals  in  trading  and  carrying, 
primitive  law  allows  the  capture  of  an  enemy's 
goods  in  any  place  save  the  territory  of  a 
neutral  state;  public  ships,  being  reckoned  as 
such  territory',  are  not  subject  to  visitation  or 
capture  of  goods.  This  does  not  apply  to 
private  vessels.  In  respect  of  these,  however, 
primitive  law  has  been  modified  by  treaty  in 
favour  of  the  rule  that  free,  or  neutral  ships, 
make  the  goods  they  carry  free  also.  Treaties 
to  this  effect  were  made  by  Holland,  a  great 
trading  and  carrying  coimtry,  with  Spain  in 
1650,  with  France  in  1652,  and  again  at  the 
Peace  of  Ryswick  in  1697.  Though  the  maxim 
^  free  ships,  free  goods,"  does  not  imply  the 
other  maxim,  "  enemy's  ships,  enemy's  goods" 
(for  the  one  is  founded  on  the  principle  »uum 
euique,  while  neutral  goods,  since  they  belong 
to  a  friend,  should  not  be  subject  to  capture), 
yet  they  have  often  been  joined  together,  as  in 


the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1713.  The  parties  to 
the  Armeid  Neutrality  of  the  Baltic,  in  1780,  in- 
sisted on  "  free  ships,  free  goods,"  which  was 
contrary  to  British  custom.  This  rule  has  been 
established  by  the  Declaration  of  Paris,  made 
in  1856,  with  the  exception  of  contraband  of 
war,  a  term  including  such  goods  as  are  of 
primary  importance  in  war,  together  with  such 
-as  are  of  doubtful  use,  as navsu  stores  and  coal, 
if  they  are  rendered  contrabrand  by  circum- 
stances. A  neutral  ship  is  subject  to  capture 
when  carrying  militiuy  persons  or  despatches, 
or  contraband  goods,  when  they  belong  to  the 
owner  of  the  ship,  or  when  fraud  is  practised. 
The  right  of  neutrals  to  carry  persons  was  in- 
volved in  the  Trent  a&ir.  In  November,  1 861, 
the  TrefU,  a  British  mail  steamer,  was  stopped 
by  a  United  States  ship,  and  two  Confederate 
commissioners,  Messra.  SUdell  and  Mason, 
with  their  secretaries,  were  taken  from  her. 
Earl  Eussell  declared  that  these  persons  were 
not  contraband,  and  finally  they  were  delivered 
up  to  us,  the  question  of  their  character  being 
left  imsettled.  Neutral  rights  are  further 
limited  by  blockade.  The  right  to  blockade 
by  proclamation  was  asserted  by  Bonaparte, 
when,  in  1806,  withouc  a  ship  to  enforce  his 
decree,  he  declared  the  blockade  of  the  British 
Isles,  and  the  same  assertion  was  involved  in 
our  retaliatory  Ordera  in  Council  It  has  now 
been  settled  by  the  Declaration  of  Paris  that 
a  blockade  to  be  binding  on  a  neutral  must  bo 
'^effective."  These  restraints  on  neutrals 
imply  the  belligerent  right  of  search  and 
capture,  and  a  neutral  ship  resisting  this  right 
is  thereby  rendered  subject  to  confiscation. 

Wheaton,  InUmatiotud  Law,  ed.  Dana,  pp. 
412-587.  1^   g  ■] 

Neville,  Thb  Familt  or.  The  Nevilles 
were  lords  of  Baby  from  the  early  part  of  the 
thirteenth  century.  In  1397  Ralph  de  Neville 
of  Haby  was  created  Earl  of  Westmorland. 
Tlie  title  was  forfeited  in  1570.  Kalph's 
younger  sons,  Richard,  William,  and  Edward, 
became  respectively,  through  his  marriage, 
"Earl  of  Salisbury,  Baron  Fauconberg,  and 
Abergavenny  (with  the  titles  of  Despencer 
and  Burghersh).  Another  son*  George, 
was  created  Lord  Latimer.  Richard,  Earl 
of  Salisbury,  was  the  father  of  Richard, 
the  famous  Earl  of  Warwick  (by  marriage 
with  Ann,  sister  and  heiress  of  Henry  Beau- 
champ,  Earl  and  ultimately  Duke  of  Warwick), 
whose  daughter,  Isabel,  married  George,  Duke 
of  Clarence,  created  Earl  of  Warwick  and  of 
Salisbury  (1472).  John  Neville,  a  younger 
brother  of  the  "  King-maker,"  was  created 
Marquis  of  Montagu  (1470),  and  his  son, 
Geoi^,  Duke  of  Bedford,  in  1469.  The  latter 
was  degraded  from  all  his  dignities  in  1477, 
but  a  descendant  in  the  female  line,  Anthony 
Browne,  was  created  Viscount  Monta^gu  (1564). 
Returning  to  the  generation  next  subsequent 
to  Ralph,  fint  Earl  of  Westmorland,  Geor^ 
Lord  Latimer's  title  fell  into  abeyance  in 


VeT 


(754) 


New 


1577,  while  that  of  Edward,  Lord  Aberga- 
Texmy,  still  remains.  It  was  raised  to  an 
earldom  (with  the  Tiscoimty  of  Neville  of 
Birling  in  Kent)  in  1784,  and  to  a  marquisate 
(with  the  earldom  of  Lewes)  in  1876.  Between 
1698,  however,  and  1604  there  was  a  dispute 
between  the  heir  general  and  the  heir  male 
of  the  title,  which  ended  in  the  latter  holding 
only  the  barony  of  Abergavenny,  while  the 
former  received  that  of  Despencer.  The  son 
of  the  holder  of  the  Despencer  title  was  in 
1624  raised  to  the  barony  of  Burghersh  and 
earldom  of  Westmorland,  and  the  title  still 
remains  with  his  descendants. 

Neville,  Alexander  {d.  1392),  was  elected 
Archbishop  of  York  in  1373,  and  on  the  ac- 
cession of  Richard  IL  became  one  of  his 
chief  advisers.  The  barons  were  determined 
to  get  rid  of  all  the  royal  ministers,  and  in 
1387  Neville  was  impeached  of  treason.  The 
Merdless  Parliament  declared  him  guilty 
of  treason,  and  the  Pope  was  induced  to 
translate  him  to  the  see  of  St.  Andrews, 
which  act,  as  Scotland  acknowledged  the  rival 
Pope,  was  a  mere  mockery.  Neville  retired 
to  Flanders,  where  he  obtained  a  benefice, 
which  he  held  till  his  death. 

Neville,  George,  Bishop  of  Exeter  {d. 
1476),  was  the  youngest  son  of  the  Earl  of 
Salisbury,  and  brother  to  Warwick,  the 
*'  King-maker."  In  1456  he  was  made  Bishop 
of  Exeter,  and  on  the  triumph  of  the  Yorkists 
in  1460,  received  the  (jrreat  Seal.  In  1465 
he  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  York;  but 
on*  the  breaking  out  of  a  quarrel  between  the 
Earl  of  Warwick  and  the  king  in  1467,  he 
was  deprived  of  the  chancellorsUp.  In  1470 
he  joined  his  brothers  in  their  restoration  of 
Henry  VI.,  by  whom  he  was  appointed  dhan- 
cellor ;  but  after  Edward's  victories  at  Bamet 
and  Tewkesbury,  his  goods  were  seized  and 
he  himself  was  imprisoned  for  three  years. 
He  took  no  further  part  in  public  affairs,  and 
died  not  long  after  lus  release. 

Neville's  Crose,  The  Battle  of 
(Oct.  17,  1346),  was  fought  near  Durham, 
between  an  invading  army  of  the  Scotch, 
under  David  II.,  the  Steward  and  the  Knight 
of  Liddesdale,  and  the  northern  militia 
under  Henry  Percy  and  Ralph  Neville.  The 
Scotch  were  completely  defeated,  owing  to 
their  inability  to  cope  with  the  English 
archers;  David  himself  was  captured,  to- 
gether with  many  of  the  chief  men  in  the 
Scottish  army,  and  it  is  said  that  15,000  men 
were  slain. 

Nevui,  one  of  the  Leeward  Islands,  was 
discovered  by  Columbus  (1493),  and  colonised 
by  English  settlers  from  St.  Kitt's  (1628). 
The  progress  of  the  island  made  rapid  strides 
until  1706,  when  a  French  invasion  carried 
off  most  of  the  slaves;  and  for  some  time 
after  this  attack,  the  colonists  had  consider- 
able difficulty  in  supporting  themselves.    In 


1871  Nevis  joined  the  Federation  of  the 
Leeward  Islands.  Previous  to  this  time  the 
government  was  vested  in  a  president,  a 
council  of  seven  members,  and  a  representa- 
tive assembly  of  nine.  # 

New  Bmiuiwick  at  first  formed  part 
of  Nova  Scotia,  and,  like  that  country,  was 
discovered  first  by  Cabot  in  1497.  In  1639 
and  1672  it  was  partially  colonised  by  the 
French,  and  was  by  them  held  as  a  fishing 
and  hunting  station  until  1760,  when  it  was 
taken  by  the  British.  Shortly  afterwards 
English  colonists  began  to  arrive  in  large 
numbers,  and  the  fisheries  were  found  to  be 
extremely  valuable.  In  1783  the  country  wa^ 
still  further  colonised  by  a  number  of  disbanded 
troops,  who  were  sent  from  New  England, 
and  in  the  following  year  New  Brunswick 
was  separated  from  Nova  Scotia,  and  made 
an  independent  province,  with  a  consti- 
tution similar  to  those  of  Nova  Scotia  and 
Canada.  In  1837,  in  consequence  of  repre- 
sentations made  to  the  home  government, 
the  entire  control  of  taxation  was  vested  in 
the  legislative  assembly.  In  1867,  under  the 
Briti£  North  American  Act,  New  Brunswick 
was  incorporated  with  other  provinces  imder 
the  title  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  Its 
government,  which  is  now  subject  to  the 
central  authority  at  Ottawa,  consists  of  a 
lieutenant-governor,  an  executive  and  a  legis- 
lative assembly,  llie  capital  of  New  Bruns- 
wick is  St.  John's,  and  its  wealth  is  derived 
from  fisheries,  coal,  and  iron,  besides  other 
minerals.    [Canada.] 

B.  li.  Martin,  BriiWh  Colonics ;  Creftsy,  TK$ 
Imp.  anS,  Col.  Const*,  of  the  Bfiiannic  Emyire  , 
Qegner,  Nwo  Brunmetck. 

New  England.   [Colonibs,  Am£rica>'.] 

New  BEodel  was  the  name  given  to  the 
army  of  the  Parliament  as  new  modelled  in 
April,  1645.  The  term  referred  at  first  to  the 
plan  on  which  the  army  was  reor^ianised,  but 
soon  came  to  signify  the  arm^  itself.  The 
Lords  re j  ected  the  first  Self-denying  Ordinance, 
because  they  did  not  know  **  what  shape  the 
army  would  suddenly  take."  The  Commons 
produced  a  scheme  for  the  reconstruction  of 
the  army  on  the  following  plan.  The  new 
force  was  to  consist  of  22,000  men,  divided 
into  6,600  horse,  1,000  dragoons,  and  14,400 
foot,  the  horse  to  be  formed  into  eleven  regi- 
ments of  600  men  each,  the  dragoons  into  ten 
companies  of  100  men,  and  the  foot  into 
twelve  reg^ents  of  1,200  men  each  in  ten 
companies.  The  army  was  to  cost  £44,956  a 
month,  to  be  raised  by  assessment  throughout 
the  kingdom.  On  January  21  it  was  resolved 
that  this  force  should  be  commanded  b^  Sir 
Thomas  Fairfax,  with  Skippon  as  major- 
general.  The  officers  were  to  be  nominated 
by  the  commander-in-chief,  subject  to  the 
approval  of  the  two  Houses,  lliis  schone, 
and  these  appointments,  were  confirmed  by 
the  House  of  Lords  on  February  15, 1645.  The 


Vanr 


(765) 


Vew 


new  anny  contained  a  large  number  of  In- 
dependents, for  Fairfax  was  empowered  to 
dispense 'with  the  signature  of  the  Covenant 
in  the  case  of  religious  men.  Several  of  its 
officers  had  risen  from  the  ranks,  and  had 
originally  filled  very  humble  stations.  Lieu- 
tenant-Colonels Pride  and  Hewson  had  been, 
the  one  a  drayman  and  the  other  a  cobbler. 
But  the  assertions  made  at  the  time  by  oppo- 
nents of  the  new  scheme  that  most  of  the 
colonels  were  "tradesmen,  brewers,  tailors, 
goldsmiths,  shoemakers,  and  the  like,"  were 
entirely  untrue.  Out  of  thirty-seven  generals 
and  colonels  it  is  computed  that  twenty-one 
were  commoners  of  good  families,  nine  mem- 
bers of  noble  families,  and  only  seven  not 
gentlemen  by  birth.  It  deserves  notice  that 
a  large  number  of  these  officers  were  Crom- 
weirs  kinsmen  and  connections.  Clarendon 
in  1660  described  the  army  thus  founded  as 
'^an  army  whose  sobriety  and  manners,  whose 
courage  and  success,  have  made  it  famous  and 
terrible  all  over  the  world." 

Markham,  L(/«  of  Fairfax;  Peocook,  Army 
Litis  ntf  Cavaiien  ana  fiouiuUMOcU. 

[C.  H.  F.] 

Now  SoSB,  Thb  Battle  of  (June  6, 
1799),  was  fought  during  the  Irish  Rebellion 
between  Geneial  Johnstone,  with  some  1,400 
men,  and  no  less  than  30,000  rebels,  under 
Father  Roche  and  Bagenal  Harvey.  The 
rebels  were  at  first  successful,  and  reached 
even  the  market-place ;  here,  however,  John- 
stone rallied  his  men,  and,  charging  with  the 
bayonet,  drove  them  out  of  the  town  with 
fearful  carnage.  The  troops,  enraged  to 
frenzy,  gave  no  quarter,  and  after  eleven 
hours'  fighting,  no  less  than  2,600  rebel 
corpses  were  left  on  the  field.  This  defeat 
prevented  the  rebels  from  marching  on 
Dublin. 

Vew  South  Wales.    [Australasia.] 
Vew  Zealand,    [Atjstralasia.] 

Vewlraxghy  William  op  {b.  1135  ?  d. 

1200  P),  wrote  a  history  covering  the  period 

11 84—11 98.     It  is  particularly  interesting 

from  its  anecdotes  of  disting^shed  persons. 

The  writer's  style  is  dear  and  sedate,  while 

his  observations'  are  acute  and  sensible.    All 

that  is  known  of  the  author  is  that  he  was  an 

Augustinian  canon. 

_An  edition  of  his  work  is  pablished  by  the 
Eni^ish  Historical  Society. 

Vewlram^  Battlb  of  (Aug.  28,  1640). 
At  the  openmg  of  the  second  war  be- 
tween Charles  1.  and  the  Scots,  Viscount 
Conway,  with  about  12,000  men,  was 
charged  to  hold  the  line  of  the  Tyne. 
Leaving  two-thirds  of  his  forces  in  Newcastle, 
^nway,  with  8,000  foot  and  1,600  horse, 
posted  himself  at  the  ford  of  Newbum,  four 
imles  above  the  town.  There  he  threw  up 
■ome  hasty  entrenchments,  but  they  were 
<»nunanded  by  the  higher  ground  on  the 


opposite  bank,  and,  after  a  three  hours' 
cannonade,  the  raw  levies  who  defended  them 
took  to  fiight.  The  Scots  now  crossed  the 
rive^,  and  after  a  couple  of  charges,  routed 
the  English  cavalry.  This  defeat  forced 
Conway  to  evacuate  Newcastle,  which  the 
Scots  occupied  on  the  following  day. 
Oardiner,  Hi$t,  ofSng.,  1603-1842. 

Newbury,  The  First  Battlb  of  (Sept. 
20,  1643),  ^-as  fought  during  the  Great  Be- 
bellion.  The  Earl  of  Essex  raised  the  siege 
of  Gloucester  (Sept.  8),  and  managed  to  evade 
purstut  during  the  first  portion  of  his  march 
back  to  London.  But  rrinco  Bupert,  with 
the  royal  cavalry,  overtook  him  and  delayed 
his  progress,  so  that  the  king  was  enabled  to 
occupy  Newbury,  and  bar  the  road  to  London. 
The  royal  army  was  advantageously  posted 
on  a  hill  to  the  south  of  Newbury  with  its 
right  resting  on  the  river  Kennet.  Charles 
was  resolved  to  maintain  a  defensive  attitude, 
but  the  rash  attack  of  some  of  his  horse  ^e- 
vented  this  resolution  being  carried  out.  The 
battle  was  decided  by  the  Parliamentary*^ 
infantry,  led  by  Essex  in  person,  who  stoimed 
the  hill  by  sheer  hard  fighting.  "  The  trained 
bands  of  the  city  of  London,"  writes  an  officer 

S resent,  "  endured  the  chiefest  heat  of  the 
ay,  and  had  the  honour  to  win  it."  "  They 
behaved  themselves  to  wonder,"  says  Claren- 
don ;  "  standing  as  a  bulwark  and  rampart  to 
defend  the  rest."  The  kin^  lost  many  noble- 
men and  officers,  including  the  'Eaxl  of 
Carnarvon,  the'Earl  of  Sunderland,  and  Lord 
Falkland.  "Essex  inarched  on  to  Beading, 
unopposed,  the  next  morning. 

May,  Histcry  of  the  Long  Parliamfnt ;  Claren- 
don, Mi$t.  of  tht  MebMion;  Forster,  Britith 
Btatemnent  toI.  vi. 

Newbnzy^  The  Second  Battle  of  (Oct. 
27,  1644).  After  the  surrender  of  the  Earl  of 
Essex  in  Cornwall  (Sept.,  1644),  Charles 
marched  back  towards  Oxfordshire.  He 
found  that  the  Parliament  had  united  a  new 
army  of  about  16,000  men  from  the  armies 
of  Waller  and  Manchester,  and  the  remains 
of  that  of  Essex.  The  king,  with  little  more 
than  8,000  men,  took  up  his  position  to  the 
north  of  Newbury  between  Shaw  and  Speen, 
with  his  front  protected  by  the  river  Lam- 
borne,  with  Donnington  Castle,  and  a  house 
called  Doleman*s  House,  serving  as  outworks. 
Here  the  king  was  attacked  on  Oct.  27.  On 
the  king's  left,  round  Speen,  the  Boyalists  lost 
that  village  and  several  guns,  but  they  held 
their  ground  in  the  fields  between  Donning- 
ton and  Newbury.  On  the  right,  at  Shaw, 
the  earthworks  rotmd  Doleman's  House 
were  successfully  defended,  and  the  Parlia- 
mentary troops  were  repulsed  with  groat 
loss.  Nevertheless  the  loss  of  ground  on  the 
left  obliged  the  king  to  abandon  his  position, 
and  he  withdrew  the  same  night  by  Bon- 
nington  Castle  to  Wallingford.  Cromwell 
declared  that  this  Imperfect  victory  might  have 


New 


(766) 


Vew 


been  turned  into  a  decisive  success  had  the 

Earl  of  Manchester  been  willing.    '*  I  showed 

him  evidently,"  says  Cromwdl,  "how^this 

success  might  be  obtained,  and  only  desired 

leave  with  my  own  brigade  of  horse  to  charge 

the  king's  army  in  their  retreat,  leaving  it  to 

the    earl's  choice  if  he  thought  proper  to 

remain  neutral  with  the  rest  of  his  forces. 

But  he  positively  refused  his  consent.*'     So 

far  did  the  inactivity  of  the  Parliamentary 

general  go,  that  the  king  was  allowed  twelve 

atiys  later  to  return  and  remove  his  artillery 

and  stores  from  Donnington. 

Ludlow,  Memoin;  Clareudon,  Hitt,  of  the 
Rebellion;  Sir  E.  Walker,  Historical  DiseountB; 
Simeon  Ash,  A  Trvs  Relation  of  the  Mo$t  Chi^f 
Occurrences  at  and  einoe  the  Baitle  of  Nevhury  ; 
"Warhwctan.  Prince  Rupert ;  Mancheeter's  Quarrel 
with  Cromwell  (Camden  Soc.).       tq^  jj^  p  "i 

Vowcaatle,  Thomas  Holles,  Brxs  of 
{b.  1693,  d.  1768),  succeeded  to  his  uncle's 
property  in  1711.  He  attached  himself  to  the 
Whigs.  On  the  accession  of  George  I.  he 
became  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Middlesex,  and 
was  created  Duke  of  Newcastle  in  1716.  In 
that  year  he  displayed  great  zeal  in  suppress- 
ing the  Jacobite  rebellion.  He  was  made 
Lord  Chamberlain,  and  sworn  of  the  Privy 
Council.  He  followed  Sunderland  and  Stan- 
hope when  the  schism  took  place  in  the  Whig 
ministry,  but  on  their  deaths  in  1720  he 
joined  Townshend  andW^alpole.  In  1724,  on 
the  dismissal  of  Carteret,  he  became  Secretary 
of  State.  For  many  years  he  continued 
to  be  a  follower  of  Walpole.  At  length,  in 
1738,  seeing  that  Walpole  was  deprived  of  the 
friendship  of  Queen  Caroline,  and  that  the 
king  was  opposed  to  his  peace  policy,  New- 
castle began  to  intrigue  against  him.  The 
king  was  encouraged  in  his  wish  for  war; 
angry  despatches  were  sent  lo  the  English 
ambassador  in  Spain.  Walpole's  appointment 
of  Lord  Hervey  as  Lord  Pri-vy  Seal  further 
alienated  him.  In  1742  his  intrigues  were 
successful ;  Walpole  resigned.  Wilmington 
was  made  premier,  and  on  his  death  (1743) 
Newcastle's  brother,  Henry  Pelham,  became 
leader  of  the  ministry.  All  opposition  in 
Parliament  had  ceased,  but  the  Pelhams  were 
jealous  of  Carteret.  They  brought  matters  to 
a  crisis  by  demanding  the  admission  of  Pitt 
and  Chesterfield  to  the  cabinet.  The  king  re- 
fused, and  they  resigned.  Carteret  was  com- 
missioned to  form  a  ministry,  but  he  failed, 
and  the  Pelhams  returned  to  power.  In  1747 
Newcastle  succeeded  in  getting  rid  of  Chester- 
field. Contrary  to  the  wish  of  Henry  Pelham, 
he  still  promoted  the  war.  '  Chesterfield, 
finding  his  peace  policy  disregarded,  resigned. 
Shortly  afterwards  Newcastle  (1748)  con- 
cluded the  Peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  In 
1751  an  estrangement  took  place,  between 
the  two  brothers.  On  the  deatli  i  of  Pel- 
ham, Newcastle  took  his  brother's  •  place 
as  head  of  the  Treasury.  He  was  at  a  loss 
for  a  leader  in  the  Commons.    Sir  Thomas 


Robinson,  a  weak  man,  was  appointed  to  lead 
the  House.  Pitt  and  Fox  contrived  to 
torment  him,  but  Fox  making  terms  with 
Newcastle,  he  contrived  to  get  through  the 
year.  It  was  evident  that  war  was  at  hand. 
Newcastle  was  quite  incapable.  He  gave  con- 
tradictory orders  to  the  English  admirals,  and 
on  the  failure  of  Admiral  Byng  the  popular  out- 
cry against  him  was  so  great  that  he  was  com- 
pelled to  resign  ( 1 7d6) .  He  immediately  bq^ 
to  intrigue  for  ofiioe.  On  the  failure  of  Pitt's 
administration,  a  complicated  series  of  nego- 
tiations  ensued.  During  eleven  weeks  there 
was  no  Parliament.  For  a  brief  period  Lord 
Waldegrave  attempted  to  form  a  ministry. 
At  length  Pitt  and  Newcastle  came  to  tenns, 
and  that  strong  government  so  gloriouslj 
known  as  Pitt*s  ministry  was  formed.  "  Mr. 
Pitt,"  said  Horace  Walpole, "  does  everything ; 
the  duke  g^ves  everything."  On  the  death  of 
Greorge  II.,  Newcastle  sent  abject  messages  to 
Bute,  offering  to  serve  not  only  with  him  but 
under  him.  But  patronage  and  the  manage- 
ment of  elections  were  taken  out  of  his  hands. 
In  1761  he  deserted  Pitt,  and  spoke  against 
the  Spanish  War.  But  lus  position  was  un- 
tenable, and  in  1762  he  resigned.  In  1763 
he  was  dismissed  from  his  lord-lieutenanrr 
for  censuring  the  terms  of  the  peace.  In  l76o 
he  received  the  Privy  Seal  in  Rockingham's 
administration.  In  1768  he  died,  intngning 
to  the  last.  "His  peculiarities,"  says  liord 
Stanhope,  '^were  so  glaring  and  ridiculouf 
that  the  most  careless  glance  could  not  mis- 
take, nor  the  most  bitter  enmity*  exaggerate 
them.  Extremel}"^  timorous,  and  moved  to 
tears  on  the  slightest  occasions,  be  abounded 
in  childish  caresses  and  empty  protestations. 
Fretful  and  peevish  with  his  dependants, 
always  distrusting  his  friends,  and  always 
ready  to  betray  them,  he  lived  in  a  continual 
turmoil  of  harassing  affairs,  vexatious  oppo- 
sition, and  burning  jealousies.  What  chidy 
maintained  him  in  power  was  his  court-ciaft, 
his  indefatigable  perseverance,  his  devoting 
every  energy  of  his  mind  to  discover  and 
attach  himi^f  to  the  winning  side." 

Horace  Walpole;  Smollett,  Hist  of  Bm-J 
Stanhope,  Hiat.  of  Bng, :  ICacaulay,  fswy  t« 
Chatham ;  Leoky,  Hiet,  of  the  SighUenth  Centvri: 
Coxe,  Felham, 

Neweaotle,  William  Cavendish,  Dvkb 
OF  {b.  1592,  d.  1676),  son  of  Charles  Cavendish 
and  Katherine,  Lady  Ogle,  was  created  snc- 
cessively  Baron  Ogle  (1620),  Earl  of  Newcastle 
(1628),  Marquis  of  Newcastle  (1643),  and 
Duke  of  Newcastle  (1664).  He  took  up  aims 
for  the  king  during  the  Civil  War,  and  seiied 
Newcastle,  thus  securing  forCliarles  the  com- 
munication he  needed  with  the  Continent 
At  the  close  of  1642  he  marched  into  York- 
shire, recovered  York,  defeating  after  a  six 
months'  campaign  the  army  of  Lord  Faiihi, 
and  forcing  him  to  take  refuge  in  Hull.  But 
the  siege  of  H\ill  was  unsuccessful  (Sept.  i^ 
Oct   27;,  and  in   the   next   campaign  the 


New 


(767) 


New 


advance  of  the  Soots,  and  their  jimotion 
with  Fain^,  forced  him  to  shut  himBelf  up 
in  York.  The  city  was  relieved  by  Prince 
Rapert,  who,  against  the  advice  of  the  Marquis 
of  Newcastle,  gave  battle  at  Marston  Moor 
(July  2,  1644).  After  this  defeat  the  marquis 
took  ship  at  Scarborough,  and  retired  to  the 
Continent,  where  he  lived  until  the  Restora- 
tion. At  Paris  he  married,  in  1645,  Margaret 
Lucas,  celebrated  for  her  learning  and  eccen- 
tricity, and  author  of  a  life  of  her  husband. 
She  estimates  the  losses  sustained  by  the 
duke  in  consequence  of  his  loyalty,  and  his 
services  to  the  king,  at  £940,000.  As  com- 
pensation for  these  losses  he  was,  in  1664, 
made  Duke  of  Newcastle.  Clarendon  describes 
the  duke  as  "  a  very  fine  gentleman,"  "  active 
and  full  of  courage,"  "  amorous  in  poetry  and 
music,"  but  '<  the  substantial  part,  and  fatigue 
of  a  general,  he  did  not  in  any  degree  under- 
stand, nor  could  submit  to." 

Lt/«  o/  the  Duke  of  NeuscaetU,  by  Margaret, 
I>aohes8  of  Newcaatle ;  Clarendon,  Hiri.  of  the 
BeheUion ;  Warwick,  Jkf emoirs  ;  Markham,  Life  of 
Fairfax. 

Newfoundland    is   an    island    at  the 
entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.   It  was 
discovered  and  colonised  at  a  very  early  period 
by  the  Norwegians,  and  rediscovered  by  Cabot 
in  1497.      Its  valuable  fisheries  made  it  the 
resort  of  traders  of  all  nations,  and  although 
always    claimed   by  the  English,  since    ti^ 
attempt    to   colonise  it   by  Sir  Humphrey 
Gilbert  in  1583,  it  was  not  until  the  Treaty 
of  Utrecht  in  1713  that  it  was  finally  created 
a  crown   colony.      In   1583  Sir  Humphrey 
Gilbert     headed   an    expedition    to    x^ew- 
foundland,  and  two  years  later  Sir  Francis 
Drake    claimed    the  island  in  the  name  of 
Queen    Elizabeth.      In    1623  a  colony  was 
established  in  the  south  of    the  island  by 
Lord  Baltimore  and  another  by  Lord  Falk- 
land, in  1635.    Throughout  the  seventeenth 
century    quarrels    were    continually    taking 
place  between  the  English  and  French  fishing 
companies ;  and  when  the  island  was  finally 
surrendCTed  to  England  in  1713,  certain  fish- 
ing  rights    were    reserved   to   the  French, 
which  enabled  them  to  impair  considerably 
the    English   trade.       The    value    of    the 
fisheries,    however,    continued     tp     attract 
numerous  settlers,  and  in  1724  Newfoundland 
was  separated  from  Nova  Scotia  and  made  a 
distinct  province,  with  a  governor.    In  1762 
Newfoundland  was    again    attacked  by  the 
French,  but  the  towns  taken  by  them  were 
restored  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris  in  the  follow- 
ing year.      Up   to    1832    tiie    country  was 
governed  by  a  system  of  local  jurisprudence, 
but  in  that  year  a  constitution  was  granted, 
and  its  representative  house  of  assembly  es- 
tablished. Besponsible  government  was  estab  - 
Hshed  in  1855.     It  has  a  governor  appointed 
by  the  crown,  an  executive  council  of  seven 
members,  a  liegislative  co\mcil  of  fifteen,  and 
a  house  of  assembly  of  thirty-six  elected  by 


household  sufiErage.  It  was  made  a  bishopric 
in  1839.  Newfoundland  is  now  the  only  part 
of  British  North  America  which  is  not  incor- 
porated under  the  title  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada.  Its  fisheries  axe  still  the  cause  of 
disputes  between  the  English  and  other 
fishing  companies.  Attached  to  it  is  a  portioh 
of  Labrador. 

Creasy,  Britannie  Empire ;    B.  M.  Martin, 
British  Coloniee, 

Newport,  Thb  Treaty  of  (1648).  In  spite 
of  the  vote  that  no  more  addresses  should  be 
made  to  the  king  ^Jan.  15,  1648),  the  Pres- 
byterian majority  m  Parliament  seized  the 
opportunity  of  the  second  Civil  War  to  open 
fr^  negotiations.  On  July  3  the  resolutions  of 
January  were  rescinded,  and  it  was  agreed 
(July  28)  that  efforts  should  be  made  to  enter 
into  a  general  and  open  treaty  with  Charles,  and 
that  the  place  of  negotiation  should  be  Newport 
in  the  Isle  of  Wight  (Aug.  10).  The  Parlia- 
mentary commissioners,  five  lords  and  ten  com- 
moners, arrived  in  the  island  on  Sept.  15,  and 
the  negotiations  began  three  days  later.  The 
negotiations  continued  till  Nov.  27,  as  the 
king  argued  every  point,  and  delayed  to  give 
decided  answers  in  the  hopes  of  escaping,  or 
being  freed  by  help  from  France  or  Ireland. 
He  offered  to  consent  to  the  establishment 
of  Presbyterianism  for  throe  years,  but  would 
not  agree  to  the  abolition  of  bie^ops.  His 
answers  on  the  Church  question,  and  the 
question  of  the  "delinquents,"  were  both  voted 
imsatisfactory  (Oct.  26 — 30).  Nevertheless, 
on  Bee.  5  the  House  of  Commons,  by  129  to 
83  voices,  voted  "  that  the  answers  of  the  king 
to  the  propositions  of  both  Houses  are  a  ground 
for  the  House  to  proceed  upon  for  the  settle- 
ment of  the  peace  of  the  kingdom." 
Masaon,  Life  of  Milton, 

Newtown  Banry,  in  Wexford  (June 
1,  1798),  was  the  scene  of  a  skirmish  in  the 
Irish  Bebellion.  Colonel  L'Estrange,  with 
400  militia  and  some  guns,  here  defeated  the 
rebels,  400  of  whom  were  killed. 

Newtown   Butler,   The   Battle   op 

(Aug.  2,  1689),  was  a  victory  gained  by  the 
defenders  of  Enniskillen  over  the  Irish  ad- 
herents of  James  11.  It  had  been  determined 
to  attack  the  city  from  several  quarters  at 
once.  The  Enniskilleners  applied  to  Colonel 
Kirke  for  assistance,  and  received  some 
arms,  ammunition,  and  experienced  officers, 
chief  of  whom  were  Colonel  Wolselej-  and 
Lieutenant-Colonel  Berry.  The  royal  troops, 
already  dispirited  by  a  reverse  at  Linaskea, 
were  thrown  into  utter  confusion  by  a  word  of 
command  incorrectly  given.  Berry,  who  com- 
manded the  advanced  troops,  drove  back  Ma- 
carthy's  dragoons,  under  Anthony  Hamilton. 
Macarthy  soon  came  up  to  support  Hamilton, 
and  Wolseley  to  support  Berry.  The  armies 
were  now  face  to  face.  l^Iacarthy  had  above 
6,000  men  and  several  pieces  of  artillery, 
Wolseley  under   3,000.      The  Catholics  re- 


Vil 


(  768  J 


Vis 


treats  in  good  order  through  the  little  town 
of  Newtown  Butler.  About  a  mile  from  the 
town  they  made  a  stand.  The  battle  was, 
however,  soon  over.  Wolseley's  infantry 
struggled  through  the  bog  and  cut  down  the 
Irish  cannoneers.  The  Ezmiskillen  horse  came 
along  the  causeway.  The  Irish  dragoons  were 
again  seized  with  panic,  and  the  infantry,  find- 
ing themselves  deserted,  fled  for  their  lives. 
Nearly  1,500  were  put  to  the  sword,  while 
about  500  more  were  drowned  in  Lough  Erne. 
Mocaulay,  Hitt.  of  Bng, 

Vilev  The  Battle  op  the  (or  Battle  op  . 
A«ouKiR  Bay),  was  iought  August  1,  1798. 
Nelson,  who  had  followed  and  passed  the 
French  fleet  which  convoyed  Bonaparte*s 
army  to  Egypt,  had  arrived  at  Alexandria 
two  days  before  the  French  squadron.  Not 
finding  them  there  he  set  sail  immediately 
for  Candia,  and  spent  the  next  four  weeks 
searching  the  Mediterranean  for  them.  On 
the  morning  of  the  1st  of  August  his  fleet 
came  in  sight  of  that  of  the  fVench,  imder 
Admiral  Brueys,  which  was  lying  off  Alex- 
andria. The  French  ships  lay  just  outside 
the  harbour  in  a  curve,  extending  from  the 
shoal  on  the  north-west  on  the. left  to  near 
the  batteries  of  Aboukir  on  the  right.  The 
English  advanced  to  the  attack  sailing  in  two 
lines,  one  of  which  passed  between  the  French 
and  the  shore,  while  the  other,  led  by  Nelson 
in  the  Vanauard,  anchored  outside  the  French 
line,  the  nme  first  vessels  of  which  were  thus 
taken  between  two  fires.  The  action  began 
about  half-past  six  in  the  afternoon,  and 
before  nine  five  of  the  French  ships  had 
struck,  or  were  rendered  helpless.  Shortly 
after  this  the  gigantic  Orient  caught  fire  and 
blew  up.  The  battle  continued  till  midnight, 
by  which  time  nearly  all  the  French  ships 
were  too  shattered  to  reply.  At  daybreak  it 
was  seen  that  tiie  whole  French  line,  with 
the  exception  of  two  ships  which  cut  their 
cables  and  stood  out  to  sea,  had  either  sunk 
or  struck  their  colours.  The  victory  was 
in  g^eat  part  due  to  Nelson's  admirable 
manoeuvre  of  enveloping  a  portion  of  the 
French  fleet  between  the  two  divisions  of  his 
own.  The  effects  of  the  battle  were  very 
important.  Bonaparte's  army  was  entirely 
isolated,  and  the  ultimate  failure  of  the 
Egyptian  expedition  ensured.  The  French 
had  m  all  nineteen  ships,  with  1,196  guns  and 
11,230  men.  The  English  fleet  consisted  of 
fourteen  ships, with  1,012  guns,  and  8,068  men. 
The  British  loss  was  895  killed  and  wounded. 
Among  the  latter  was  Nelson,  who  sustained 
a  severe  wound  in  the  head.  Two  of  the 
French  ships  of  the  line  were  destroyed  and 
nine  were  captured.  Their  total  loss  in 
killed,  wounded^  and  prisoners  was  9,830. 
Admiral  Brueys  was  among  those  who 
perished  in  the  action. 

Nelson  DespaichUt  ii.  49  ««<]. ;  James,  "SaxaX 
Hititoryj  Soutbey,  Life  of  Nelion ;  Alison,  HtsL 
o/Eurofie,  iy.  M7,  mqj    ' 


Vifli  PriUi  was  a  name  given  to  a  writ 
first  issued  in  1285,  by  which  the  juries  em- 

relled  in  any  ordinaiy  civil  cause  were  to 
presented  by  the  sheriff  at  Westminster 
on  a  certain  day,  unless  before  that  day  {nin 
prius)  the  justices  of  assize  came  into  the 
county,  in  which  case  the  trial  was  to  be 
before  the  justices,  and  not  at  Westminster. 

NiTeUe^  The  Passage  of  the  (Nov. 
10,  1813),  was  one  of  the  great  successes  of 
the  closing  period  of  the  Peninsular  War. 
The  river  was  strongly  defended  by  Sonlt, 
but  Wellington  found  a  weak  point  in  hid 
defences,  and  introduced  through  it  the  light 
division  into  the  heart  of  the  French  position. 
This  mistake  of  Soult's  resulted  in  his  com- 
plete defeat,  after  a  long  and  severe  struggle. 
Soon  after,  Soult  withdrew  to  Bayonne. 
The  loss  of  the  allies  was  heavy,  but  small 
compared  with  that  of  the  French,  who,  in 
addition  to  4,300  men,  abandoned  fifty-one 
guns  and  all  the  field  magazines  at  St.  Jean 
de  Luz  and  Espelette. 

Napier,  Penintvlar  War;  Clinton,  Peninsniar 
War;  WelUiigton  Despatchea, 

Visam,  The.  On  the  break-up  of  the 
Mogul  Empire  the  Nizam-ul-Moolk,  Viceroy  of 
the  Deccan  and  feudal  lord  of  the  Camatic, 
became  almost  independent  of  the  court  of 
Delhi.  He  was  the  ruler  of  a  vast  territon' 
between  the  Kistna  and  the  Nerbudda,  with 
35,000,000  inhabitants.  On  his  death  (1749) 
a  struggle  for  the  throne  aroae  between 
Nazir  Jung,  his  son,  and  HozuflTer  Junsr, 
his  grandson,  the  former  being  supported 
by  tibe  English,  the  latter  by  the  French. 
The  deaths  of  Nazir  and  Mozuffer,  the  one 
by  treachery,  the  other  in  battle  (1750), 
made  way  for  Salabut  Jung  and  Nizam  Ali, 
brothers  of  Nazir  Jung.  The  former  suc- 
ceeded to  Mozuffer,  the  latter,  out  of  hatred 
towards  Bussy,  became  the  English  candidate 
against  his  brother.  Nizam  Ali  {d.  1803) 
eventually  captured  and  murdered  Salabut, 
and  obtained  the  chief  power  in  the  Deocan. 
In  1765 — 66  the  English  obtained  &om  him 
the  Northern  Circars,  which  had  been  granted 
to  the  Company  by  the  Emperor.  In  1 786 — 87 
he  became  engaged  in  war  with  Tippoo  ui 
alliance  with  the  Mahrattas,  in  which  he  was 
not  very  successful.  The  feebleness  of  the 
Nizam,  and  his  hatred  and  fear  of  Tippoo, 
made  him  very  eager  to  join  the  Triple  Alliance 
of  1 790,  but  his  fear  of  the  Mahrattas,  who 
had  claims  of  ehoute  on  him,  induced  him 
to  try  and  get  a  guarantee  against  the  latter. 
This,  however,  was  refused.  His  swrices 
during  the  war  were  not  of  much  value,  bat 
in  spite  of  this  he  gained  a  large  accession  of 
territory  by  the  Treaty  of  Seringapatanu  In 
1794,  seeing  a  Mahratta  war  was  ineritablf, 
he  endeavoured  to  get  English  help,  which 
was  refused  by  Sir  John  Shore.  Deserted  bv 
the  English,  he  was  beaten  in  the  Kurdish 
campaign.    He  now  fell  into  tiie  hands  cf  a 


Voa 


(769) 


Von 


French  officer,  Raymond,  who  organised  a 
disciplined  corps,  which  was  at  first  intended 
as  a  protection  against  the  Mahrattas,  but 
eventually  absorbed  the  whole  power  of  the 
country,  so  that  the  Nizam  himself  became 
alarmed,  and  accepted  with  alacrity  Lord 
Wellesley^s  proposal  to  disband  them,  and 
renew  the  English  alliance.  The  treaty  of 
1798  stipulated  that  the  corps  of  British 
troops  in  the  Nizam's  pay  should  be  aug- 
mented to  6,000  with  a  proper  complement  of 
artillery,  on  condition  that  a  provision  of 
twenty-four  lacs  of  rupees  a  year  should  be 
made  for  their  support.  In  1800,  fearing 
the  rapacity  of  the  ]V(ahratta8,  the  Nizam 
proposed  that  the  subsidiary  force  should 
be  augmented,  and  that  territory  should 
be  substituted  for  the  subsidy  in  money; 
a  treaty  was  therefore  concluded  by  which 
the  districts  the  Nizam  had  obtained  from 
Mysore  (1793 — 99)  should  be  ceded  as  a  com- 
mutation for  subsidy,  and  that  the  English 
in  return  should  guarantee  the  defence  of  his 
kingdom  against  all  enemies.  Thus  Nizam 
Ali's  long^  reign  ended  in  making  the 
Hyderabad  State  completely  dependent  on 
the  English.  In  consequence,  the  Hyderabad 
State  has  survived  the  wreck  of  the  other 
native  principalities,  and  exists  still  as  a 
dependent  protected  State. 

No  AddreMes,  Vote  of.  In  December, 
1647,  after  the  king's  flight  to  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  the  Parliament  summed  up  their 
demands  in  four  bills.  The  king  on  Dec.  28 
declined  to  assent  to  these  bills,  having  on 
the  26th  come  to  an  arrangement  with  the 
Scots.  On  the  king's  refusal  the  House  of 
Commons  resolved,  by  a  majority  of  141  to 
92,  that  no  further  addresses  should  be 
made  to  the  king  by  that  House;  that  no 
addresses  or  applications  to  him  by  any 
person  whatsoever  should  be  made  without 
leave  of  the  Houses  under  the  penalties  of 
high  treason ;  that  no  messages  from  the  king 
should  be  received,  and  that  no  one  should 
presume  to  bring  or  carry  such  messages  (Jan. 
3, 1648).  The  Lords  agreed  to  these  resolu- 
tions with  only  two  dissentients  (Warwick  and 
Manchester)  out  of  sixteen  present  (Jan.  15). 

Vominees,  Thb  Assembly  of,  is  the 
name  given  by  some  historians  to  the  Parlia- 
ment which  met  in  16d3,  and  is  generally 
known  as  "  Barebones'  Parliament." 

Von-Compoiindera,  The,  who  gained 
their  name  about  1692,  were  a  section  of  the 
Jacobite  party  who  were  willing  to  aid  in 
the  restoration  of  James  II.  without  imposing 
any  conditions  on  him  whatever.  They  oon- 
Bisted  chiefly  of  Roman  Catholics,  with  some 
Protestant  Non- jurors,  such  as  Kettlewell 
and  Hickes.  They  were  all-powerful  in 
the  court  of  St.  Grermains  during  the 
years  that  followed  the  Revolution,  and 
their  leader,  Melfort,  ruled  the  councils  of 
James.    We  find  them  much  disgusted  by 


the  Second  Declaration  which  James  issued 
in  1693  by  the  advice  of  Middleton,  the  leader 
of  the  Compounders.  On  the  dismissal  of 
his  rival,  Melfort  and  his  party  guided  the 
Jacobite  councils  abroad.  As  tiie  parties 
ceased  after  some  years  to  come  into  coUision, 
the  title  was  gradually  dropped. 

Vonconfbmiists  is  a  name  generally 
given  to  all  Protestants  who  refuse  to  conform 
to  the  doctrine,  discipline,  or  worship  imposed 
by  law  on  the  Church  of  England,  and  who 
have  organised  religious  associations  of  their 
own  on  a  different  basis.  The  mediaeval 
Church  system,  more  intolerant  of  schism 
than  even  of  heresy,  was  incompatible  with 
the  existence  of  Nonconformity.  The  Re- 
formation necessarily  gave  scope  for  freedom 
of  discussion  and  difference  of  opinion.  At 
the  accession  of  Queen  Elizabeth  the  consti- 
tution of  the  English  Church  was  definitely 
settled.  The  followers  of  the  Continental 
Reformers  found  much  in  the  Reformed  Church 
to  which  they  took  very  strong  exception. 
[Puritans.]  But  the  early  Puritans  were 
discontented  Conformists,  and  not  Noncon- 
formists. The  laxness  of  the  ecclesiastical 
administration  during  the  early  part  of  the 
reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  allowed  many  who 
objected  decidedly  to  the  Act  of  Uniformity  to 
retain  their  cures  without  really  carrying  out 
the  Act.  Even  Cartwright,  who  attempted 
to  superimpose  a  presbyterial  organisation 
on  the  existing  ecclesiastical  system,  was 
in  full  communion  with  the  Church.  The 
attempt  to  enforce  discipline  which  was 
marked  by  the  publication  of  Parker's  Ad- 
vertisements in  1566  was  followed  by  the 
first  definite  secession.  Thirty-seven  out  of 
one  hundred  and  forty  beneficed  clergy  in 
London  were  driven  from  their  cures  for 
refusing  to  wear  the  suiplice.  Two  deans  and 
many  country  clergy  were  similarly  deprived. 
Despite  the  exhoiteitions  of  Knox,  Beza,  and 
Bullinger,  a  large  number  of  these  "  assembled 
as  they  had  opportunity,  in  private  houses 
and  elsewhere,  to  worship  God  in  a  manner 
which  might  not  offend  against  the  light  of 
their  consciences."  Others  took  refuge  in 
Holland.  Those  who  remained  in  England 
formed  separate  congregations  of  the  Inde- 

gsndent  t3ri)e.  From  their  leader,  Robert 
rown,  they  received  the  name  of  Brownists. 
From  another  leader  they  were  called  the 
Barrowists.  [Independents.]  They  re- 
mained the  omy  important  Nonconforming 
body  for  nearly  a  century.  Practically  the 
only  other  Nonconformists  were  the  Ana- 
baptisto.  Stray  foreign  members  of  this  re- 
volutionary sect  had  atoned  for  their  opinions 
at  the  stake  between  the  reigns  of  Henry 
YIII.  and  James  I.  But  neither  they  nor  the 
Family  of  Love,  a  mystical  breuich  of  the 
same  communion,  were  at  all  numerous. 
The  constant  emigration,  especially  of  the 
Independento,  to  New  England,  kept  down 


Van, 


(  760) 


Von 


their  numbers;  yet  it  ia  remarkable  that, 
despite  the  constant  irritation  to  which  they 
were  subjected,  but  few  of  the  Puritans 
seceded.  Down  to  the  Civil  War,  they  con- 
tinued, as  a  whole,  members  of  the  Church ; 
and,  though  the  high  monarchist  doctrines  of 
the  Caroline  bishops  and  the  need  of  the 
Scottish  alliance  forced  the  biQk  of  the 
Parliamentary  leaders  to  accept  Presbytery, 
the  Book  oi  Discipline,  and  the  G^eral 
Assembly,  the  flux  of  opinion  during  the  whole 
of  the  period  of  the  Civil  War  makes  it  hard 
to  draw  the  line  between  Conformist  and 
Nonconformist.  Presb^rterians,  Independents, 
and  Baptists,  along  with  the  old  clergy  who 
accepted  the  "Engagements,"  could  he  Con- 
formists imder  the  Established  Church  of 
CromVrell ;  while  Quakers,  Fifth  Monarchists, 
and  rigid  Anglicans  were  united  in. a  Non- 
conformity that  was  haidly  tolerated.  The 
Hestoration  destroyed  a  system  which  the 
historian  of  Puritanism  admits  "to  have 
never  been  to  the  satisfaction  of  any  body  of 
Christians.  The  Act  of  Uniformity  (May  17, 
1662)  imposed  on  all  tiie  beneficed  clergy 
the  duty  of  reading  publicly  the  amended 
Book  of  Common  Prayer,  and  of  declaring 
their  unfeigned  ai^nt  to  everything  con- 
tained in  it ;  to  receive  episcopal  ordina- 
tion if  they  had  it  not  already;  and  to 
abjure  the  Covenant.  Nearly  two  thousand 
ministers  gave  up  their  cures  rather  than 
submit  to  such  conditions.  With  their 
secession  the  history  of  Nonconformity  in 
England  really  begins.  Despite  the  series  of 
stringent  statutes  by  which  Clarendon  and 
the  High  Church  Parliament  made  Non- 
conformity penal,  the  chief  Dissenting 
Churches  now  received  their  orffanisation. 
The  older  bodies,  the  Independents  and 
Baptists,  simply  returned  with  augmented 
membership  to  their  former  condition.  A 
powerful  Presb^-terian  Church  was  added  to 
the  Nonconforming  bodies,  which  included 
not  only  the  zealots  of  the  Covenant,  but 
liberal  Low  Churchmen  like  Baxter,  whom 
a  conciliatory  policy  would  have  easily  re- 
tained. The  swarm  of  minor  sects  which  the 
religious  anarchy  of  the  Commonwealth  had 
created  still  continued.  The  Quakers  were 
the  most  important  of  these  who  did  not 
ultimately  become  extinct.  A  few  Socinian 
congregations  had  already  been  established, 
despite  the  ban  of  all  parties  alike. 

In  1662  the  Corporation  Act  deprived  the 
Dissenters  of  some  of  their  most  valued  rights 
as  citizens.  In  1664  the  First  Conventicle 
Act  made  the  meeting  of  five  Nonconformists 
for  religious  worship  an  offence  punishable, 
for  the  first  time  by  fine  and  imprisonment, 
and  for  the  third  by  slavery  in  the  American 
plantations.  In  1665  the  Five  Mile  Act  strove 
to  make  it  impossible  for  Nonconforming 
ministers  to  earn  a  living,  and  hard  for  them 
to  escape  being  sent  to  gaol.  In  1673  the  Test 
Act  imposed  a  sacramental  qualification  on  all 


officials,  which  most  Nonconfonnists  could 
not  conscientiously  take.  Still,  even  in 
this  black  period,  when  the  gaols  were  foil 
of  men  like  Baxter  and  Bunyan,  traces  of 
more  liberal  feeling,  such  as  Bidiop  Wilkins's 
abortive  attempts  at  comprehension,  were  not 
wanting.  The  politic  attempt  of  the  crown 
to  unite  the  Nonconformists  with  the  Catholics 
against  the  Church — which  marked  the  various 
Declarations  of  Indulgence — signally  failed. 
Nearly  successful  with  the  Exclusion  Bill, 
the  Nonconformists — ^this  time  in  alliance 
with  the  whole  Church  party — signally 
triumphed  in  the  Revolution  of  1688.  Their 
period  of  direct  persecution  was  now  over. 
The  Comprehension  Bill  indeed,  which  was 
to  do  justice  to  the  descendants  of  the  ejected 
of  1 662,  was  a  feilure.  But  the  Toleration  Act 
gave  ''ease  to  scrupulous  consciences"  by 
allowing  those  who  took  new  oaths  of  alle- 
giance and  supremacy,  and  a  declaration 
against  popery,  to  worship  freely  after  their 
own  manner,  and  exempted  th^  from  the 
penalties  for  absenting  themselves  from  church, 
and  holding  illegal  conventicles,  and  even  per- 
mitted Quakers  to  affirm  instead  of  swearing. 
But  meetings  were  to  be  held  with  open 
doors,  ministers  were  to  approve  the  thirty- 
six  out  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  which  con- 
cerned doctrine,  and  Papists  and  Socinians 
were  excluded  from  the  Act.  This  imperfect 
measure  of  toleration,  in  conjunction  with  the 
practice  of  occasional  conformity,  which  opened 
up  municipal  and  other  offices,  were  at  the  time 
enough  for  practical  purposes.  The  attempts 
of  the  High  Churchmen  under  Anne  to  're- 
voke  its  benefits  were  not  successful.  The 
Schism  Act,  and  the  Act  against  Occasional 
Conformity, were  with  difficult}'  passed.  But  on 
the  accession  of  George  I.  began  the  long  reign 
of  Latitudinarian  Low  Churchmanship  tluit 
saw  in  the  Nonconformist  a  strong  support  of 
the  Whig  party.  Though  Walpole  refused 
to  stir  up  High  Church  hostility  by  repealing 
the  Acts  of  Charles  XI.,  it  became  the  custom 
from  the  accession  of  George  II.  to  pass  an 
annual  Act  of  Indemnity  to  those  who  had 
broken  the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts,  which 
made  them  partially  inoperative.  In  1718 
the  repeal  of  the  Occasional  Conformity  and 
Schism  Acts,  and  failure  to  repeal  parts  of  the 
Test  and  Corporation  Acts,  marks  the  spirit 
of  the  compromise.  In  1727  the  Pl^sbyterians, 
Independents,  and  Baptists  were  loosely  or- 
ganised into  a  body  known  as  the  Three 
Denominations,  which  enjoyed  some  legal 
recognition  and  exceptional  privileges.  But 
the  general  decay  of  religious  fervour  which 
marked  the  eighteenth  century  fully  affected 
the  Nonconformists.  The  Presbyterians 
gradually  drifted  into  Unitarianism  in  doc- 
trine, and  almost  into  Congre^tionalism 
in  organisation.  Nearly  all  missionary  fer- 
vour had  abated  when  the  Wesleyan  move- 
ment arose  during  the  reign  of  George  ITL 
The  ecclesiastical  connections  and  Anninisn 


Hon 


(761  ) 


Hon 


theology  of  Wesley  retarded  his  influence  upon 
the  Nonconformist  bodies  for  a  long  time ; 
and  it  was  not  till  after  his  death  that  the 
*'  people  called  Methodists  "  could  be  regarded 
as  distinct  from  the  Oh)irch  from  which  they 
sprang.  The  influence  of  Whitefield  was 
perhaps  more  direct.  But  before  the  end  of 
the  century  the  Evangelical  movement  had 
given  new  life  to  the  Nonconformist  churches. 
The  increased  interest  in  reli^ous  matters, 
and  the  spread  of  the  habit  of  churchgoing 
largely  increased  the  numbers  of  all  the 
great  religious  bodies;  a  process  which  has 
been  continued  during  the  present  century. 
Another  remarkable  feature  of  the  religious 
history  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  the  vast 
growth  of  Nonconformity  in  Wales,  not  only 
through  the  Methodist  movement,  which  de- 
veloped independently  the  similar  movement  in 
England,  but  also  through  the  enormous  in- 
crease of  the  older  Nonconformist  communions 
in  that  country.  The  growth  of  a  strong  body  of 
Presbyterian  Nonconiormists  from  the  Church 
of  Scotland,  as  the  result  of  a  series  of  schisms 
on  the  question  of  church  patronage,  must 
also  be  mentioned.  In  Ireluid  alone,  where 
the  two  Protestant  denominations — the  Irish 
Church  and  the  Presbyterians — correspond 
roughly  to  the  English  and  Scotch  settlers, 
was  there  s,  comparatively  slight  development 
of  Nonconformity. 

Side  by  side  with  the  numerical  increase  of 
Nonconformity,  a  series  of  remedial  laws 
gradually  removed  the  disabilities  and  in- 
equalities which  stiU  attended  Dissent,  even 
after  the  days  of  the  Toleration  Act.  In 
1779  the  subscriptibn  imposed  by  the  Tolera- 
tion Act  on  Uie  Dissenting  clergy  was 
abolished.  In  1792  the  Scottish  Episco- 
palians were  relieved  from  the  severe  restraints 
in  which  their  disloyalty  had  involved  them. 
But  Fox*8  attempt  to  relieve  the  Unitarians 
in  the  same  year  failed.  At  last,  in  1828, 
the  Test  and  Corporation  Acts  were  repealed. 
The  Dissenters*  Marriage  Act  of  1836  allowed 
the  solemnisation  of  Nonconf onmst  marriages 
in  their  own  chapels.  In  1868,  after  a  long 
agitation,  compulse^'  Church  rates  were 
abolished.  In  1869  the  Irish  Church  was 
disestablished.  In  1870  the  University  Tests 
Acts  opened  to  the  whole  nation  the  old 
umversities.  In  1880  the  Burials  Act  allowed 
Nonconformist  burials  in  the  parish  diurch- 
yards.  It  was  only  after  so  lon^  a  series  of 
struggles  that  the  religious  liberties  of  the 
Nonconformists  were  finally  established. 
[Puritans  ;  Methodists,  &c.] 

Neal,  Htttory  of  tTu  Pwriiaiu;  CaliunT,  N&n 
conformiati^  Memorial ;  Bofrne,  Hi*tory  o/lHuen- 
Un ;  Dr.  Stonghton,  ReligUm  in  England;  Bees, 
Hi»tory  of  WiAth  Noneofformity :  Abbey  and 
Orerton,  Tk«  Bnglieh  Church  in  the  EighUmth 
Cmiwry;  Tjenuoi,  Life  of  WmUy;  HaUam, 
Onut.  Hisl. ;  May.  Conrf.  Hid. ;  Lecky,  Ri$t.  of 
A19.  m  ike  Eiohtemth  Cnttury.  For  the  early 
MonoonfonDista  see  also  the  article  PtnuTAKs. 

[T  F.  T.] 


Von-Jlirors,  The,  comprised  a  consider- 
able minority  of  the  clergy  of  the  Church  of 
England  who  refused  to  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance  to  William  and  Mary  at  the  Revo- 
lution. They  were  about  four  hundred  in 
nimiber,  and  included  the  Primate  Bancroft, 
and  four  others  of  the  "  Seven  Bishops,"  Ken, 
of  Bath  and  Wells,  White,  of  Peterborough, 
Lloyd,  of  St.  Asaph,  Turner,  of  Ely,  and 
several  eminent  divines,  of  whom  Jeremy  Col- 
lier and  Charles  Leslie  were  perhaps  the  most 
celebrated.  They  based  their  objections  on 
the  doctrine  of  non-resistance,  maintaining 
that  by  the  "  powers  that  be  "  St.  Paul  meant 
the  powers  that  "  ought  to  be ; "  but  their 
writings  were  more  numerous  than  solid,  and 
Dr.  Johnson  entertained  no  unfounded  con- 
tempt for  their  reasoning  powers.  Very  few 
of  tihe  laity  followed  them,  as  the  Protestant 
Jacobites  were  not  required  to  take  the  oath  of 
allegiance  as  a  qualification  for  attending  di- 
vine service,  and,  being  in  the  position  of  shep- 
herds without  sheep,  the  non-juring  clergy  sank 
into  idle  habits,  or  took  to  secular  professions. 
In  1690  the  issue  of  a  form  of  prayer  and 
humiliation  by  the  Jacobite  press,  at  a  time 
when  a  French  invasion  was  daily  expected, 
aroused  the  utmost  indignation  against  the 
non-juring  bishops,  but  they  issued  a  reply 
solemnly  denying  any  knowledge  of  the  pub- 
lication. In  the  following  year,  after  Bishop 
Burnet  had  made  an  ineffectual  attempt  to 
conciliate  them  on  dangerously  liberal  terms, 
the  sees  of  these  bishops  were  filled  up,  San- 
croft  being  superseded  by  Tillotson.  The 
ex-Primate,  who  bore  his  deprivation  with 
far  less  dignity  than  Bishop  Ken,  thereupon 
drew  up  a  list  of  divines  which  he  sent  to 
James  with  a  request  that  two  might  be 
nominated  to  keep  up  the  succession.  James 
chose  Hickes  and  Wagstaffe.  T^s  hierarchy 
at  first  caused  some  alarm  to  the  government, 
especially  when  the  Non- jurors  were  found  to 
be  imphcated  in  the  various  Jacobite  con- 
spiracies, and  they  suffered  considerably  both 
after  1715  and  1745.  Soon,  however,  schisms 
broke  out  within  the  little  body,  some  having 
leanings  towards  the  Greek  Church,  some 
towards  Rome,  others  beingrig^dly  orthodox  in 
their  Anglicanism.  By  1720  the  communion 
had  broken  into  two  main  sections,  of  which 
that  headed  by  Spinkes  dissented  only  on  the 
question  of  the  oaths  and  prayers  for  the  reign- 
ing sovereign,  while  Collier  introduced  a  new 
communion  office  of  Roman  Catholic  tendencies. 
There  were  also  minor  divisions.  Neverthe- 
less the  Non-iurors,  who  counted  among  their 
numbers  William  Law,  tiie  author  of  The 
Serious  Call,  and  Carte  the  historian,  were 
not  finally  extinguished  until  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  Gordon,  the  last 
bishop  of  the  regular  body,  dying  in  1779, 
and  Borthe,  the  last  of  the  Si?paratists,  in  1806. 
There  were  also  Presbj'terian  Non- jurors  in 
Scotland.  These  declined  to  acknowledge 
William  and  Mary,  first  because  they  were 


Vor 


(  762  ) 


Nor 


not  of  their  covenant,  secondly,  because  they 

had  spared  King  James.    Calling  themselves 

the  Keformed  Presbytery,  they  continued  to 

thunder  against  William  and  his  successors ; 

and,  though  they  split  up  into  factions,  there 

was  still  in  1780  a  considerable  number  who 

resolutely  declined  to  own  the  government  by 

pa}'ing  taxes  or  accepting  municipal  offices. 

At  length  they  became  so  few  as  to  be  unable 

to  keep  up  meeting-houses,  and  wore  called 

Non-hearers.     [jACOBrrss;  Sancropt.] 

Lathbary,  Huft.  of  th§  N<m-Juron  ;  Maoaulay. 
iii,  ch.  xiv.  and  xvi. ;  and  iv.,  oh.  xvii. ;  and 
Lecky,  L,  ch.  i.  [L,  q.  S.] 

Norfolk,  Peerage  of.  [Howard,  Family 

of.] 

NotdEblk,  Thomas  Mowbray,  Duke  of 
(d.  1400),  was  the  son  of  John  Mowbray  and 
Elizabeth,  granddaughter  and  heiress  of 
Thomas  of  Brotherton,  Earl  of  Norfolk.  He 
was  created  Earl  of  Nottingham  in  1383,  and 
Earl  Marshal  in  1386.  He  was  one  of  the 
Lords  Appellant  of  1387,  but  afterwards  joined 
the  king  and  helped  to  execute  his  father-in- 
law,  the  Earl  of  ArundeL  He  was  Governor 
of  Calais,  and  to  his  charge  Gloucester  was 
entrusted  in  1397,  where  he  died,  probably 
murdered  by  Mowbray,  who  in  the  same  year 
was  created  Duke  of  Norfolk.  In  the  next 
year  he  quarrelled  with  the  Duke  of  Hereford, 
and  each  accused  the  other  of  treason.  It 
was  decided  that  the  matter  should  be  fought 
out  at  Coventry,  but  before  the  duel  com- 
menced, the  kmg  stopped  the  proceedings 
and  banished  both  the  combatants,  Norfolk 
for  life,  and  Hereford  for  six  years.  Norfolk 
set  out  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  and 
died  at  Venice. 

Norfolk.  John  Howard,  Ist  Duke  of  (d. 
1485),  was  the  son  of  Sir  Hobert  Howard  by 
Margaret,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Thomas 
Mowbray,  Duke  of  Norfolk.  He  took  part  in 
Talbot's  expedition  to  Gascony,  and  fought 
in  the  battle  of  Castillon.  He  was  much 
favoured  by  Edward  IV.,  who  made  him 
treasurer  of  the  household,  and  in  1478  cap- 
tain-general at  sea.  He  accompanied  the 
Duke  of  Gloucester  in  his  expedition  to  Scot- 
land in  1482,  and  on  Richard  III.^s  accession 
to  the  throne  was  made  Duke  of  Norfolk 
and  Earl  Marshal.  He  steadily  adhered  to 
Richard,  and  was  killed  whilst  fighting  for 
him  at  Bosworth.  Norfolk  was  warned  of 
treacherj'  the  night  before  the  battle  by  a 
paper  which  he  found  pinned  to  his  tent  with 
the  following  rhyme  upon  it : — 

"  Jockey  of  Norfolk,  be  not  too  bold. 
For  Pickon  thy  master  is  bought  and  sold." 

Norfolk,  Thomas  Howard,  2xd  Dukb 
OF  (d.  1524),  was  the  son  of  John  Howard, 
Duke  of  Norfolk,  who  was  killed  at  Bosworth 
Field  while  fighting  on  the  side  of  Richard 
III.  like  his  father,  he  fought  under 
Richard's  banner  at  Bosworth,  %n.d,  being 


taken  prisoner,  was  lodged  for  a  period  in  the 
Tower,  his  newly-acquired  title  of  Earl  of 
Surrey  being  declared  forfeited.    He  trans- 
ferred his  allegiance  to  Henry  YII.;  and  he 
was  entrusted  as  the  king's  lieutenant  with  the 
important  duty  of  tranquilUsing  the  northern 
districts  of  £kigland.     In  1497  Surrey  wai^ 
directed   to    provide   against   the   expected 
Scottish    inroads.      His    rapid    march    to 
Norham,  undertaken  at  the  request  of  Fox. 
Bishop  of    Durham,   compelled  James  IV. 
to    make   a    hasty   retreat    into    his    own 
kingdom.      Under    Henry    "VTII.,     Surrey 
became    a    trusted    member   of   the    royal 
ministry ;  he  also  still  further  distinguished 
himself  in  the  field  by  his  decisive  victoiy 
over  James  IV.  at  Flodden  (q.v.)  in  1513; 
and  by  the  complete  check  he  succeeded  in 
giving  in  1523  to  the  Scotch  invasion  under 
Albany,  the  consequence  of  which  last  suc- 
cess was  a  peace  of  eighteen  years  between 
the  two  countries.     In  1522  he  was  placed 
in  command  of  the  English  expedition  de- 
spatched to  France  for  the  purpose  of  act- 
ing   against    that  kingdom  in    conjunction 
with  the  Imperialist  forces.     Circumstances 
were,  however,  not  favourable  to  any  decisive 
engagement,  and  Surrey's  hostile  proceedings 
were  limited  to  a  general  ravaging  of  th^ 
coast  of  Britanny.     Surrey  had  his  dukedom 
and  the  earl-marshalship  restored  to  him  in 
1514,  and  was   made  Lord  Treasurer    and 
Knight  of  the  Garter. 

Norfolk,  Thomas  Howard,  3rd  Di-ki 
OF  {b.  1473,  d,  1554),  was  a  distinguished 
soldier  and  statesman  under  Henry  VIII. 
and  his  two  immediate  successors.  His 
first  public  appearance  in  the  field  was  at 
Flodden,  where  he  fought  under  his  father. 
Subsequently,  on  becoming  Duke  of  Nor- 
folk in  1524,  he  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  proceedings  of  the  king's  Ck>uiicil  as 
the  political  opponent  of  Wolsey,  and  the 
acknowledged  leader  of  the  English  nobility. 
His  tact  and  firmness  enabled  him  to  pat 
down  the  Suffolk  riots  in  1525.  On  Wolseys 
fall  in  1530,  Norfolk  became  Heniy's  chief 
minister.  As  the  recognised  head  of  the 
conservative  part^  in  Church  matters,  and  the 
chief  repi-csentative  of  the  older  nobilit}%  he 
was  deputed  b^  Henry  to  negotiate  witK  the 
rebel  leaders  m  the  Pilgrimage  of  Grace. 
He  was  instrumental  in  passing  the  statute 
known  as  the  Six  Articles.  In  October,  1542, 
he  was  in  command  of  the  English  army  in 
Scotland,  on  the  occasion  of  the  hostilities 
between  the  two  countries  which  ended  in  the 
Scottish  disaster  of  Solway  Moss.  In  Decem- 
ber, 1546,  however,  the  influence  of  the  king^s 
brother-in-law,  Lord  Hertford,  who  had  taken 
Cromwell's  place  as  leader  of  the  reforming 
party,  was  strong  enough  to  bring  aboat 
Norfolk's  arrest  on  a  chu:^  of  treuon.  A 
suspicion  of  pretensions  to  the  throne  wa^^  a 
&tal  one  for  Henry  to  conceive  of  any  of  his 


Nor 


(  763  ) 


Nor 


nobles,  and  Norfolk  would  have  shared  the 
fate  of  his  gifted  son,  the  young  Earl  of 
Surrey,  who  was  executed  on  the  same 
groundlesB  charge  of  treason  (Jan.  21,  1547), 
had  not  the  king's  own  death  preceded  the 
day  appointed  for  his  execution.  All  through 
the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  however,  he  was 
kept  a  close  prisoner,  and  was  only  restored 
to  liberty  on  the  accession  of  Muy  to  the 
throne.  lie  presided  at  the  trial  of  the  Duke 
of  Northumberland,  and  took  an  active  part 
in  the  suppression  of  the  rising  under  Sir 
Thomas  Wyatt. 

Norfolky  Thomas,  4th  Dvkx  or  {b.  1536, 
d.  1572),  grandson  of  the  third  duke,  was  one 
of  the  most  powerful  nobles  in  England 
during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  a  Ca3iolic 
in  poUtics,  though  in  creed  he  professed  him- 
self an  Anglican.  Whilst  in  command  of  the 
Army  of  the  North,  durinff  the  Scotch  cam- 
paign of  1660,  he  incurred  the  suspicion  of 
the  queen,  who  feared  his  popularity.  In 
1568  Norfolk  was  appointed  president  of  the 
commission  of  inquiry  at  York  to  examine 
the  charges  brought  against  Mary  of  Scot- 
land. It  was  at  this  time  that  the  idea  first 
arose  amongst  the  Catholic  nobles  of  a 
marriage  between  the  duke  and  the  Queen  of 
Scots.  This  marriage,  urged  on  by  Murray 
and  Maitland,  was  extremely  distasteful  to 
Elizabeth,  to  whom  Norfolk  declared  that 
nothing  would  induce  him  to  marry  one  who 
had  been  a  competitor  for  the  crown.  He  sub- 
sequently,  however,  gave  his  adhesion  to  the 
scbome,  and,  in  conjunction  with  others  of 
the  queen*s  Council,  such  as  Leicester,  Sussex, 
And  Throgmorton,  he  joined  the  plan  of 
marrying  Mary  on  condition  that  she  out- 
wardly conformed  to  the  rites  of  the  Church 
of  England.  Elizabeth,  however,  remained 
averse  to  the  match.  A  plot  formed  against 
Cecil  was  discovered,  and  Norfolk,  who  had 
been  intrig^ng  with  Spain  for  an  attack  on 
the  commercial  interests  of  England,  re- 
nounced Protestantism,  and  threw  himself 
into  the  arms  of  the  Catholic  lords  in  the 
north.  In  October,  1569,  however,  Norfolk 
was  arrested  and  sent  to  the  Tower,  but  re- 
gained his  liberty  the  following  year  by 
giving  a  written  promise  not  to  pursue  the 
scheme  of  the  marriage.  The  duke,  however, 
quickly  found  himself  involved  in  a  fresh 
CathoUc  conspiracy,  known  as  the  Ridolfi  Plot 
(q.v.).  In  Sept.,  1571,  some  letters  which  fell 
into  Cecil's  hands  caused  Norfolk  to  be  lodged 
in  the  Tower,  being  brought  to  trial  in  the 
following  January.  The  charge  against  him 
was  that  of  compassing  the  queen's  death — 

(1)  by  seeking  to  marry  the  Queen  of  Scots ; 

(2)  by  soliciting  foreign  powers  to  invade  the 
reahu ;  (3)  by  sending  money  to  the  aid  of  the 
English  who  were  rebels,  and  of  the  Scotch 
who  were  enemies  to  the  queen.  The  duke 
deniod  all  the  charges,  but  was  found  gfuilty 
of  high  treason,  &a%  after  some  delay  caused 


by  the  unwillingness  of  Elizabeth  to  sign  the 

warrant,  was  executed  June  2,  1572. 

Burleigh  PapetM;    Lingard,    Hist,  of  Eny.  ; 
Stowe,  An%uiU;  Fronde,  If  tat.  o/Eng. 

Norham.  Thb  Cokferencb  of  (Jime, 
1291),  took  place  at  Norham,  on  the  Tweed, 
between  Edward  I.  and  the  En^Ush  barons 
on  the  one  side,  and  the  competitors  for  the 
crown  of  Scotland,  together  with  some  of  the 
representatives  of  the  Scotch  Estates,  on  the 
other.  Edward  offered  to  settle  the  dispute 
for  the  Scottish  crown,  only  asking  as  a 
reward  for  his  services  the  acknowledgment 
of  his  overlordship  on  the  part  of  the  Scotch. 
The  conference  was  dissolved  for  three  weeks 
in  order  that  the  Scotch  representatives  might 
consult  the  rest  of  the  nation,  and,  at  the  end 
of  that  time,  reassembled  at  the  same  place. 
Edward's  title  to  the  superiority  over  Scot- 
land was  not  disputed;  the  competitors 
all  acknowledged  lus  authority,  and,  after 
some  inquiry  into  their  various  claims,  the 
conference  was  adjourned  for  a  year,  the 
question  not  being  settled  until  Nov.,  1292. 

Norman  Conquest,  The.    It  might, 

perhaps,  be  more  accurate  to  describe  the 
passage  of  history  that  goes  by  this  name  as 
the  conquest  of  the  English  crown  by  a 
Norman  duke,  whom  a  curious  train  of  acci- 
dents and  circumstances  had  tempted  into  the 
position  of  a  candidate  for  the  regal  dignity, 
but  who  had  to  assert  the  right  to  offer  him- 
self, not,  strictly  speaking,  against  the  men  of 
England,  but  agamst  a  rival  candidate  that 
had  stolen  a  march  upon  him.  It  was  cer- 
tainly an  event  that  involved  several  conse- 
quences galling  to  the  national  temper,  as 
well  as  ruinous  to  some  and  injurious  to 
many  of  the  inhabitants ;  but  it  was  not  a 
conquest  of  the  country  in  the  ordinary  sense 
— ^the  land  and  people  were  not  conquered 
by  a  single  alien  race,  and  made  subject 
to  another  land  and  people,  as  was  Ire- 
land in  earlier  and  India  in  later  times. 
A  splendid  foreign  adventurer  brought 
the  country  to  such  a  pass  that  its  chief 
men  had  no  choice  but  to  elect  him  king. 
This  event  does  not  essentially  differ  in  its  one 
radical  characteristic  from  that  of  the  ascent 
of  William  of  Orange  to  the  throne — ^in  degree, 
in  circumstances,  in  nature  and  extent  of  con- 
sequences it  is  in  marked  contrast  to  the  later 
conquest  of  the  crown,  but  it  is  not  without 
strong  features  of  resemblance.  The  conditions 
of  which  this  conquest  was  the  outcome  were 
the  usual  historical  mixture  of  seeming  acci- 
dent and  personal  character;  these  began  to 
combine  towards  the  event  that  was  to  be 
their  product  about  1052.  In  that  year  the 
royal  stock  of  Cerdic  and  of  Egbert — from 
which  the  unforced  choice  of  the  nation  had 
hitherto  never  swerved — appeared  to  be  ap- 
proaching extinction ;  it  was  as  good  as 
certain  &at  the  reigning  king,  the  saintly 
Edward,  would  die  childless,  whilst  the  only 


Nov 


(764) 


Nor 


other  immediate  scion  ol  the  stock  that  might 
be  available,  Edward,  called  the  Outlaw — 
Edmund  Ironside's  sole  surviving  son — was 
an  exile  in  Hungary.  Moreover,  the  lately 
all-powerful  fanuly  of  Godwin,  which  might 
possibly  have  supplied  material  for  a  new 
royal  house,  had  just,  to  its  last  male  member, 
been  disgraced  and  driven  from  the  kingdom. 
The  ordinary  and  extraordinary  possibilities 
were  apparently  exhausted.  !Now,  in  the 
eleventh  century  such  a  conjuncturo  could 
hardly  fail  to  breed  ambitious  thoughts  in  an 
able  and  enterprising  kinsman — ^albeit  by  the 
female  and  alien  side  only — of  the  existing 
king's,  a  young  man  whose  spirit  was  up- 
lifted by  great  achievements  at  home,  and 
who  knew  that  King  Edward  had,  from  early 
associations,  a  preference  for  the  stranger 
race  to  which  he  belonged.  This  kinsman 
was  William  the  Bastard.  At  the  end  of  the 
second  of  two  wars  that  Ethelred  the  Un- 
ready had  waged  with  a  Norman  duke,  the 
English  king  had  ^1002)  married  Emma, 
daughter  of  Duke  Ricnard  I.  King  Edward 
was  an  offspring  of  this  marriage.  Thus,  not 
only  did  the  ruling  houses  of  England  and 
i^ormandy  become  connected,  but  also  the 
fugitive  Athelings  of  the  former  found  an 
asylum  with  the  latter,  and  the  one  of  them 
that  lived  to  be  chosen  king  learned  to  love 
the  ways  and  men  of  the  land  of  his  educa- 
tion better  than  those  of  the  land  of  his  birth. 
His  eye,  therefore,  must  have  fallen  with 
favour  on  the  foremost  man  of  the  race  he 
cherished,  the  great-grandson  of  his  Norman 
grand&ther.  And  under  Edward's  fostering 
care  a  puroly  Norman  interest  was  already 
fast  growing  up  in  England :  Norman  adven- 
turers in  considerable  numbers  were  settling 
in  the  kingdom  and  reaping  an  abundant 
harvest  of  Jands  and  proferments,  ecclesias- 
tical and  civil.  Canute's  success,  too,  had 
shown  that  the  great  prize  was  not  beyond 
the  reach  of  an  utter  stranger.  l^ved 
doubtless  by  such  considerations,  in  1052 
William  seized  the  occasion  of  the  expulsion 
of  the  family  of  Grodwin  to  cross  the  Qiannel 
on  a  visit  to  his  cousin  Edward,  who  pro- 
bably then  gave  him  the  assurances  of  sup- 
port which  William  afterwards  ropresented 
as  a  promise  of  the  succession  to  the  crown. 
The  crown  was  not  Edward's  to  bestow,  but 
his  persuasions  and  influence  might  do  much 
towards  fixing  the  choice  of  the  Wise  Men 
after  his  deaUi.  Yet,  if  we  aro  to  take  the 
word  of  the  ChronicUy  when  Edward  came 
near  his  d3ring  hour,  he  recommended 
another  can(Udate,  Harold,  the  eldest  living 
son  of  Godwin;  for  William  was  not  long 
returned  home  when  Godwin  and  his  sons 
forced  their  restoration.  The  Norman  in- 
terest in  England  was  depressed,  and  in 
course  of  time  Harold  had  made  him- 
self the  first  man  of  the  Englinh  people. 
In  him,  too,  ambitious  thoughts  must 
have  arisen.      What  looks  like  an  effort  on 


Edward's  part  to  avert  the  conflict,  failed; 
in    1057   he   recalled  Edward  the  Outlaw, 
only  to  enable  him  to  die  in  England.      And 
the  Outlaw's  only  son,  Edgar,    though  not 
too  young  to  be  elected  at  a  less  critical  time, 
appears  for  the  moment  to  have  been  lost  in 
the  shadow  of  the  two  mighty  antagonists. 
About  1064  a  misadventuro  of  Harold's  gaTv 
William  a  decided  advantage  over  his  fotore 
rival.    Cast  ashoro  on  the  territory  of  Guy  of 
Ponthieu,   Harold   was  delivered   from    tht 
captivity  that    necessarily  followed  by  the 
interf eronce    of    William,   who    was    Guy's 
immediate  lord,  and  was  obliged  to  share  his 
deliverer's  hospitality  till  he  had  complied 
with  the  con(utions  that  his  host  exacted. 
These  aro  not  certainly  known;    but  pro- 
bably wero  that  Harold  should  marry  Wil- 
liam's daughter,  and  support  his  claim  to  the 
English  crown.     It  is  said — and  the  stery 
may  be  true — that  to  add  a  greater  awful- 
ness    to    liarold's  oath,    a    heap    of    relics 
had  been  secroted  under  the  saicred  things 
on  which  Harold  was  made  to  swear.     But 
the  oath  had  no  power  to  bind  the  aspiring 
Englishman.    Within  two  years  Edward  died 
(Jan.  5,  1066),  and  on  the  next  day  Harold, 
presumably  aiter  some  form  of  election,  was 
crowned  king  by  Aldred,  Archbishop  of  York, 
in  the  newly-consecrated  abbey  church  ol 
Westminster.     A  few  days  later  tidings  of 
this  event  came  to  William,  who  at  once  ro- 
solved  to  dispute  the  possession  of  the  great 

Srize  with  the  man  that  had  sworn  to  befrieni 
im  in  his  suit,  but  had  now  snatched  it  from 
him.  He  first  challenged  Harold  to  fulfil  th« 
alleged  compact;  and  receiving  either  no 
answer  at  all  or  an  answer  that  pleaded  seve- 
ral excuses  for  non-f ulfihnent,  he  set  about 
making  extensive  proparations  for  an  exp^ 
dition  against  the  new  king.  At  Lillebanne 
he  won  his  somewhat  roluctant  barons  to  a 
participation  in  the  enterprise ;  he  gained  the 
willing  assistance  of  the  trading  class  aznon^ 
his  subjects ;  he  denounced  Harold  as  a  pcr- 

J'uror  over  Europe  ;  by  pledging  himself 
iberally  he  securod  the  sympathies  and  in  a 
sense  the  apostolic  benediction  for  his  und€r- 
taking  of  Pope  Alexander  II.,  who  even  sent 
him  a  consecrated  banner  and  a  ring  with  a 
hair  of  St.  Peter ;  he  invited  volunteers  from 
other  hmds ;  and  from  Flanders,  Anjou, 
Touraine,  and  Britanny  men  thronged  to  his 
standard.  The  north-western  comer  of  Europe 
was  awakened  to  an  imwonted  enthusiasm  by 
his  ardour  and  loud  trumpeting  of  the  merit'^ 
of  his  cause.  In  forwarding  his  design, 
Lanfrano  of  Pavia,  and  Willum,  the  son  rf 
the  self-sacrificing  Osbem,  wero  eepecially 
helpful.  Forests  wero  felled  to  build  him 
innumerable  ships.  By  these  exertions  a 
great  host  of  nuxed  composition,  gi^'en,  at 
the  highest,  as  60,000,  at  the  lowest  a5 
14,000,  was,  while  it  was  yet  summer,  ccJ- 
lected,  first  at  the  mouth  of  Uie  Dive,  and  then 
at  St.  Valery  ^pon  the  Somme,  where  a  tnms- 


Nor 


(766  ) 


Nor 


port  fleet,  whoae  lowest  estimate  is  696,  lay 
ready  to  receiye  them.  After  a  long  and 
harassing  delay,  due  to  thwarting  wimu,  the 
expedition  was  at  last  allowed  to  lift  anchor 
on  Sept,  27,  and  next  day  it  appeared  off  the 
coast  of  Sussex.  The  moment  was  eminentlv 
favourable.  Harold's  fleet,  which  had  lain 
there  all  the  summer  to  guard  the  approaches 
to  the  land,  had  been  forced  from  its  post  by 
the  exhaustion  of  its  provisions;  and  the 
Xorman  host  disembarked  at  Pevensey  unob- 
structed. Indeed,  the  moment  was  doubly 
favourable.  Harold  and  the  choicest  de- 
fenders  of  his  kingdom  had,  on  the  very  eve 
of  the  dread  hour,  been  called  northwanls  to 
repel  a  fatally-timed  invasion  of  his  brother 
Toeti  and  the  Norwegian  king,  Harold  Har- 
drada  ;  and  two  days  before  William  left  St. 
Valery,  had  van<^uished  and  slain  them  both 
at  Stamford  Bridge.  Ck>ast  and  southern 
shires  alike  were  thus  bare  of  defence,  and 
William  was  free  to  act  as  he  thought  best 
fitted  to  serve  his  ends.  He  led  his  host 
to  Hastings,  raised  defensive  works  there,  and 
proceeded  by  a  systematic  destruction  of  the 
houses  and  ravage  of  the  fields  that  were 
within  his  power,  to  provoke  Harold  to  stake 
the  issue  on  a  single  battle.  Harold  did  not 
disappoint  him.  On  being  told  of  his  rival's 
landing,  he  gathered  round  him  his  house- 
carls  and  marched  with  a  weU-nigh  incredible 
swiftness  from  York  to  London,  mustered  to 
his  standard  all  the  available  strength  of 
Wessex  and  his  brothers  G^h  and  Leof- 
wine's  earldoms,  then  led  his  men  rapidly 
to  the  hill  of  Senlac  (now  Battle) ;  and,  ar- 
riving on  October  13th,  threw  up  earth-works, 
built  palisadings,  and  awaited  the  onset  of 
the  invaders.  On  the  following  morning 
(Saturday,  Oct.  14),  this  onset  was  given, 
and  after  an  entire  day's  fighting,  as  fierce 
and  obstinate  as  any  recorded  in  the  annals 
of  warfare,  the  sun  set  on  the  slaughter  of 
Harold,  hiis  brothers,  and  the  fiower  of  his 
force,  and  the  hopeless  rout  of  the  rest.  The 
completeness  of  the  result  is  ascribed  by  some 
to  the  impatience  of  Harold,  whose  eagerness 
to  rescue  the  invaded  soil,  or  close  with  his 
antagonist,  made  him  give  battle  with  but  a 
fraction  of  his  strength,  and,  by  others,  to 
his  brothers-in-law,  the  Earls  Edwin  and 
Morcar,  who  held  their  levies  aloof  from  the 
struggle  till  it  was  too  late.  But  it  looked  as 
if  the  terrible  dav  had  merely  cleared  from 
William's  path  his  most  formidable  com- 
petitor; the  surviving  leaders  of  the  nation 
were  not  yet  persuaded  to  elect  him  to  the 
kingdom.  They  chose  the  boy  Edgar  instead, 
and  made  ready  to  continue  the  struggle. 
Thereupon  William  took  his  way  by  Bomney, 
Dover,  and  Canterbury  towiurds  London, 
scattered  a  body  of  Londoners  who  tried  to 
check  his  progress,  and  set  fire  to  Southwark. 
But  finding  me  capital  stiU  insubmissive,  he 
went  with  his  army  to  Walling^ord,  crossed 
the  river  there,  and  moved  on  London  from 


the  west.  This  advance  brought  the  Wise  Men 
that  directed  the  resistance  to  their  knees; 
they  decided  to  offer  William  the  crown ;  and 
meeting  him  at  Berkhampstead  with  Aldrcd 
of  York  at  their  head,  they  announced  to  him 
the  choice  they  had  made.  Yet  William  did 
not  accept  the  proffered  crown  till  he  had 
consulted  with  his  Norman  nobles,  and  been 
advisea  by  them  to  do  so.  He  then  despatched 
a  part  cf  his  army  to  London  to  begin  the 
construction  of  a  fortress  there,  and  following 
leisurely  with  the  main  body,  was,  on  Christ- 
mas Day,  crowned  in  the  great  Minster  by 
the  handig  of  Archbishop  Aldred.  An  im- 
pleasant  incident  marred  the  ceremony.  The 
approving  shouts  of  the  English  within  the 
church,  mistaken  for  cries  of  onslaught  by 
the  Normans  without,  made  these  set  the 
neighbouring  houses  on  fire,  and  a  scene  of 
wild  riot  and  disorder  ensued.  The  crown 
was  now  conquered ;  and  shortly  afterwards, 
at  Barking  in  Essex,  the  fuU  obedience  of  the 
country  seemed  to  be  conquered  also.  Thither 
came  the  great  men  of  the  north,  Edwin, 
Morcar,  Waltheof,  Copsi,  and  others,  and 
made  formal  acknowleogment  of  William  as 
their  king.  The  Ckmquest  might  now  be 
thought  complete.  From  the  vast  estates  of 
Harold,  his  brothers,  and  other  partisans, 
William  rewarded  his  followers ;  but  he  either 
left  undisturbed  or  confirmed  in  their  posses- 
sions and  offices  those  who  had  not  fought 
against  him  or  had  submitted.  To  outward 
appearance  the  only  material  change  was  a 
Norman  instead  of  an  English  king,  and  the 
addition  to  the  higher  and  official  ranks  of  the 
population  of  a  contingent  of  foreign  nobles, 
each  with  a  foreign  following.  AJl  was 
quiet;  and  the  king,  having  deputed  the 
government  to  his  brother  Odo,  now  Earl  of 
Kent,  and  his  friend  Fitz-Osbem,  now  Earl  of 
Hereford,  returned  home  with  his  army  in 
March,  1067.  But  the  work  of  conquest  proved 
to  be  only  half  done.  Owing,  it  may  be,  to  the 
harsh  or  inefficient  rule  of  the  regents,  armed 
risings  broke  out  all  over  the  country ;  and 
WilUiEun  came  back  to  find  that  the  west  and 
north  had  still  to  be  subdued.  In  1068  he 
marched  upon  Exeter,  which  had  placed  itself 
in  the  hands  of  Harold's  mother  and  sons, 
took  it  after  an  honourable  resistance,  and 
thus  brought  under  his  sway  the  western 
counties.  The  northern  lands,  which  were 
also  in  rebellion,  were  awed  into  transitory 
obedience  by  a  movement  upon  Warwick; 
William  entered  York,  and  a  Norman  force 
under  De  Gomines  went  on  to  Durham.  The 
sons  of  Harold,  after  a  vain  attempt  on 
Bristol,  and  a  defeat  in  Somerset,  sailed  away. 
Again  the  prospect  cleared.  But  again  it 
timied  out  to  Ije  illusive.  In  1069  the  north 
was  once  more  in  arms;  the  Normans  in 
Durham  were  slain  to  a  man ;  and  York  was 
besieged  by  Gospatric  and  Edgar  the 
Atheling.  For  a  moment  rebellion  subsided 
before  William's  arrival  at  York,  but  only  to 


Nor 


(  766) 


Nor 


renew  its  fury  after  his  departure.  The  west, 
the  Welsh  border,  and  parts  of  the  Midlands 
also  sprang  to  arms ;  Gospatric,  Edgar,  Wal- 
theof ,  and  Edric  the  Wild  took  piut  in  the 
outbreak  ;  a  large  Danish  expedition  that  had 
just  landed  joined  the  insurgents ;  York  was 
stormed,  and  almost  every  man  of  its 
Norman  garrison  was  put  to  the  sword. 
Leaving  the  other  centres  of  insurrection  to 
the  industry  of  his  lieutenants,  who  did  not 
fail  him,  William  took  in  hand  those  of  the 
north,  and  quelled  thorn  one  bv  one.  The 
Danes  disappeared;  Edgar  flea;  Gospatric 
and  Waltheof  submitted,  and  were  replaced 
in  their  earldoms.  The  chastisement,  pro- 
bably cruel,  of  the  country  folk  that  Wilnam 
deemed  necessary,  grew  in  the  narratives  of 
later  writers  into  a  pitiless  laying  waste  of  all 
northern  England,  into  a  clearance  from  this 
region  of  every  form  of  life.  From  this 
representation  we  may  withhold  our  belief 
till  evidence  sufficient  to  establish  so  com- 
prehensive a  crime  be  produced.  An  arduous 
march  to  Chester  in  the  first  months  of  1070, 
and  the  occupation  of  that  city,  finished  the 
campaign,  and  with  it  the  process  of  conquest. 
When  William  dismissed  his  troops  at  Salis- 
bury in  March,  1070,  the  work  was  practically 
done.  Isolated  attempts  had  still  to  be 
crushed,  but  the  Ck>nqueror's  hold  on  the 
kingdom  was  now  secure. 

'llie  earliest  effect  of  the  Conquest  re- 
sulted from  the  struggle  to  complete  it ;  for 
the  fresh  services  therein  rendered  by  his 
foreign  followers  to  William  were  rewarded 
by  the  fresh  forfeitures  that  the  conflict 
generated.  The  ranks  of  the  great  land- 
owners were  thus  stocked  in  large  majority 
by  foreigners ;  and  the  English  titled  and 
untitled  nobility  were  for  centuries  largely  of 
foreign  origin.  The  rulers  of  the  land,  the 
men  who  administered  affairs  in  Church  and 
State,  were  for  some  generations  taken  almost 
exclusively  from  the  same  class;  William 
was  either  afraid  to  trust  Englishmen,  or  did 
not  find  among  them  the  human  qualities  ho 
sought.  But  few  direct  radical  changes  came 
of  the  Conquest;  the  laws  and  customs  of 
the  English  were  left  unaltered ;  the  ground- 
work of  the  political  system  continued  the 
same — compunfation,  ordeal,  view  of  frank- 
pledge, fyrd,  witenagemot,  all  survived  in 
their  entirety ;  to  every  Englishman  his  full 
sum  of  rights  and  capacities  remained.  But 
two  consequences  of  the  event  led  to  important 
changes  :  the  tenure  of  land  was  feudalised, 
and  a  new  systi^m  and  new  principles  of  law 
were  planted  side  by  side  with  the  old.  The 
former  process  created  in  time  a  thorough 
revolution  in  the  tenure  of  land,  in  the  re- 
lation of  the  king  to  the  land,  and  the  relation 
of  the  landowners  to  the  king;  while  the 
latter,  though  applidable  only  to  men  of 
foreign  origin,  insensibly  influenced  and 
very  largely  transformed  the  native  usages. 
"And  this,"  says  Dr.  Stubbs,  "ran  up  into 


the  highest  grades  of  organisation ;  the  kmg  8 
court  of  counsellors  was  composed  of  his  feudal 
tenants ;  the  ownership  of  land  was  now  the 
qualification  for  the  witenagemot  instead  of 
wisdom ;  the  earldoms  became  fiefs  instead  of 
magistnicies ;  and  even  the  bishops  had  to 
accept  the  status  of  barons.*'  Ainong  the 
miscellaneous  effects  are  prominently  notice- 
able the  union  of  the  various  divisions  of  the 
kingdom,  which  had  not  yet  leaznt  to  hold 
loyally  together,  into  a  single  homogtaieou  ' 
state  and  people ;  the  establishment  of  a 
strong  central  government  and  a  >ngoroa3 
execution  of  the  laws ;  the  separation  of  the 
ecclesiastical  from  the  civil  administration; 
the  closer  connection  of  the  English  Church 
with  the  Roman  see,  and  its  expansion  into 
an  imposing  grandeur  hitherto  unknown; 
the  breaking  down  of  the  national  isolaticHi, 
and  the  final  entrance  of  England  into  the 
family  of  European  peoples.  Great  import- 
ance is  given  by  some  writers  to  the  monl 
discipline  that  4he  Conquest  brought ;  we 
may  perhaps  regard  the  Norman  and  Angevin 
sway  as  the  rugged  school  that  fitted  the  nation 
for  constitutioiml  rule  and  self-government. 

The  history  of  England  and  Nomumdy  before 
and  daring  the  reign  of  William,  and  the  amm- 
stances  of  the  Conquest,  axe  told  in  detail  in  Hat 
great  work  of  Professor  Freeman,  Hu  JToma 
Conqwtt  of  England.  [J.  R.] 

NomuuiB,  The.  The  Normans  wen 
simply  Northmen  or  Scandinavians  advanced 
some  stages  further  in  civilisation  by  a  fe« 
generations  of  residence  in  the  land  of  a  more 
humanised  people  and  the  neighbourhood  uf 
settled  states.  Their  marvellous  efficiency  is 
their  palmy  days  is  probably  explained  br 
theii  having  kept  their  native  haiiiiness  and 
hardihood  of  character — their  moral  maacQ* 
larity,  as  we  may  call  it—and  their  bold 
spirit  of  enterprise  unimpaired  by  the  cnltore, 
the  turn  for  art  and  taste  for  the  finer 
pursuits,  that  they  acquired  by  living  ia 
Graul.  Their  new  experience  mra«ly  added 
intellectual  keenness,  deftness,  and  brilliani^y 
of  stroke  to  their  resources  for  action;  the 
old  stimulating  forces,  their  courage  as^ 
their  endurance,  remained.  Their  ferocity 
had  become  valour,  and  their  bodilv  stmurth 
the  mastery  of  circumstances.  That  they 
owed  the  qualities  which  made  their  pr&ctii'^ 
capacity  to  the  good  fortune  that  planted 
them  on  French  soil,  is  suggested  by  thi' 
totally  different  history  of  their  kinsfolk  who 
had  taken  up  their  abode  in  other  hmd$. 
The  marauding  bands  of  Norwegian  piiatt^ 
that  had  been  roaming  about  and  forming 
settlements  along  the  Seine  in  the  ninth  and 
tenth  centuries  were  at  last  admitted  to  an 
authorised  participation  in  the  soil  bv  an 
agreement  that  Cluo'les  the  Simple  made,  in 
912,  at  St.  Clair,  on  the  Epte.  with  their 
most  formidable  leader,  Rolf  the  Norseman. 
Thus  taken  within  the  pale  of  Continental 
civilisation,  they  rapidly  profited  by  their 


Nor 


(  767  ) 


STor 


advantages.    They  became  Christians;  thev 
discarded  their  own,  and  adopted  the  French 
language;  they  cast  aside  their  semi-barbarous 
legal  usages,  and  took  those  of  the  Fiank 
cultivators  of  the  soil  over  whom  they  domi- 
nated ;  they  learned  or  discovered  improved 
modes  and  principles  of  fighting;  they  ac- 
quired new  weapons — ^the  shield,  the  hauberk, 
the  lance,  and  the  long-bow;   they  became 
masterly  horsemen;  they  developed  an  im- 
pressive  style    of    architecture,    and   built 
churches   and    monasteries;     they    founded 
bishoprics — ^in  a  word,  they  soon  furnished 
themselves  with  the  whole  moral,  spiritual, 
and  practical  garniture  of  human  conduct 
then  available,  with  additions  and  improve- 
ments of  their  own.     Their  territory  had 
increased  by  taking  in  both  kindred  settle- 
ments and  the  lands  of  neighbouring  peoples, 
tiU,  from  a  vaguely  described  **  land  of  the 
Northmen,"   it  became  historic  Normandy. 
Yet  this  wonderful  growth  was  compatible 
with  a  political  condition  which  was  often 
not  far  removed  from  anarchy.    The  aristo- 
cratic class  that  the  fi*ee-living,  hot-natured 
pirate  leaders  had  founded,  and  the  unre- 
strained  passions  of  the  dukes  replenished 
from  generation  to  generation,  were  ever  on 
the  watch  for  an  opportimtty  to  break  loose 
from  all    rule,  and  govern  themselves  and 
the  native  tillers  of  the  soil  that  lay  beneath 
them  at  their  own  sole  discretion.    Nor  did 
the  sense  of  moral  obligation  keep  pace  with 
the  other  elements  of  progress ;  a  connection 
free  from  the  marriage  tie  was  held  no  shame ; 
bastardy  brought  no  taint.    But,  in  spite  of 
these  defects,  the  Normans  made  themselves 
the  foremost  race  in  Europe ;  there  are  few 
other  things  in  history  so  striking  as  the 
contrast    between    the    smallness    of   their 
numbers  and  the  frequency  and  greatness  of 
their  achievements.      During  the  eleventh 
century,  in  the  Eastern  Empire  and  in  Spain, 
in  Italy  and  in  England,  men  of  the  Norman 
race^  gained   renown   and    the    lordship    of 
spacious  lands,  became  kings  and  princes,  and 
determined  the   course    of   history.      "The 
twelve  tall  sons  of  Tancred  of  Hauteville" 
had  grown  into  a  kind  of  proverbial  phrase 
suggestive  of  what  it  is  in  the  power  of  man 
to  do.   Their  craving  for  movement  and  ad- 
venture sought  relief  in  pilgrimages ;  and  as 
they  always  went  armed,  to  enable  them  to 
resist  lawless  attacks,  they  were  ready  for  any 
chance  of  showing  their  prowess  they  might 
fall  in  with,  and  they  fell  in  with  a  good 
JDaiiy.    Their  career  in  Italy  and  Sicily  in 
the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  is  even 
more  astonishing,  and  in  not  a  few  of  its 
features  more  honourable,  than  their  better- 
loiown  exploits  in  Britain. 

Freeman,  Norman  Congwtt;  Hallam,  Ut'ddW 


^jpcc. 


[J.  R.] 


Vorth,  Frederick,  Lord,  afterwards  Earl 
w  Guilford,  was  the  eldest  son  of  th3  first 


Earl  of    Guilford   {b.  1733,  d.  1792).      He 
entered  Parliament  first  as  member  for  Ban- 
bury in  1764,  and  in  1769  was  named  a  Lord 
of  the  Treasury  through  the  influence  of  his 
relative,  the  Duke  of  Newcastle.     In  1766 
Chatham  made  him  Joint-Paymaster  of  the 
Forces  along  with  George  Cooke,  and  it  was 
to   this   amgnlar   conjunction    that    Burke 
specially  alluded  when  he  said  that  "  it  did 
so  happen  that  persoiiB  had  a  single  office 
divided  between  tiiem,  who  had  never  spoken 
to  each  other  in  their  lives  until  they  found 
themselves,   they  knew   not   how,  pigging 
together,    head    and   points,    in   the    same 
truckle-bod."      On   the   death   of    Charles 
Townshend  in  1767  he  accepted  the  office 
of  ChanceUor  of  the  Exchequer,  and  became 
leader  in  the  House  of  Commons.     On  tlA 
fall  of  the  Grafton  ministry  the  king  at  once 
sent  for  Lord  North,  and  found  him  so  use- 
ful a  servant  that  he  retained  his  services 
for  twelve  years.     Those   years  formed  a 
most  eventful  period,  for  during  them  the 
Wilkes  question  was  fought  out,  and  the 
American  colonies  were  for  ever  lost  to  the 
empire.     To  Lord  North  cannot  &irly  be 
imputed  all  the  mistakes  of  that  miniistry. 
He  was  essentially  weak  and  yielding,  and 
was    constantly    overruled    by    the    king, 
where   his  own  better    sense   would   have 
led  him  to  adopt  a  different  course.     HIb 
daughter  says  of  him,  '*  although  I  do  not 
believe  my  father  ever  entertained  any  doubt 
as  to  the  justice  of  the  American  War,  yet  I 
am  sure  that  he  wished  to  have  made  i>eace 
three  years  before  its  termination.*'     These 
words  ezactlv  express  Lord  North's  position 
throughout  the  period  of  his  administration. 
On  the  Wilkes  question  he  fully  believed  in 
the  right  of  Parliament  to  reject  a  member 
duly  elected  by  a  constituency ;  but  he  had 
the  good  sense  to  know  when  it  was  necessary 
to  yield  to  public  opinion,  and  he  would  have 
followed  the  dictates  of  his  own  observation 
had  it  not  been  for  his  easy  temper,  which 
made  him  give  way  to  the  more  immediate 
pressure  of  the  king.    The  same  was  the  case 
with  the  Amerioan  question ;  and  as  early  as 
the  spring  of  1778  we  find  Lord  NorUi  ex- 
pressmg  his  wish  to  resign :  a  wish  which  he 
repeated  at  intervals  during   the  next  four 
years,  and  which  he  was  only  prevented  from 
carrying  into  execution  by  the  king's  almost 
piteous  entreaties  to  him  to  remain  in  office  to 
carry  out  the  court  policy.     At  length  the 
surrender  at  Yorktown  gave  the  final  blow  to 
his  ministry,  and  in  the  spring  of  1782  he 
insisted  on  resigning.      Then  followed  the 
short  Rockingham  ministry,  which  collapsed 
on  the  death  of  Lord  Rockingham,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Shelbume's  ministry,  whidi  in 
turn  gave  way  to  the  celebrated  Coalition 
ministry,   in    which   North    and  Fox   were 
strangely  xmited  as  Secretaries  of  State.    But 
the    universal    unpopularity    and    distrust 
which  such  a  formation  roused,  and  the  secret 


Vor 


(  768  ) 


STor 


influence  employed  by  the  king  to  thwart  its 
measures,  brought  it  to  a  spe^y  conclusion 
in  December,  1 783.  When  Pitt  began  his  long 
tenure  of  office  Lord  North  retired  into 
private  life,  retaining  the  Wardenship  of  the 
Cinque  Porto,  to  which  he  had  been  appointed 
on  his  retir^ent  in  1782.  In  1790  he  suc- 
ceeded to  the  earldom  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  and  died  two  years  afterwards,  having 
been  afflicted  with  total  blindness  during  the 
last  five  years  of  his  life. 

Stanhope,  fl«t.  o/  Eng.,  ▼.,  ri.,  vii. ;  Walpole, 
UBTooin  of  George  III, ;  Janiiis,  Lettert ;  vTre* 
▼elyan,  Early  Yeart  of  Fox;  Broug^ham,  Hutori- 
calSketehn;  Hacaolay,  £May<  on  Chatham  aitd 
Pitt ;  Maasey,  Hiat.  qfEng.  ry^^  -^^  g -i 

Northy  The  Council  of  the,  was  in- 
stituted  in  1536  by  Henry  VIII.,  originally 
for  the  purpose  of  trying  persons  cdimected 
with  the  Pilgrimage  of  Grace.  The  court  was 
held  at  York,  and  had  jurisdiction  over  all  the 
counties  north  of  the  Humber.  Long  after 
all  traces  of  the  insurrection  had  disappeared 
the  court  remained,  and  was  one  of  the  illegal 
jurisdictions  revived  and  made  instruments  of 
oppression  under  the  earlier  Stuarts.  It  took 
the  place  in  the  north  of  the  Star  Chambw  in 
the  rest  of  England,  and  could  inflict  any 
punishment  short  of  death.  It  was  abolished 
by  the  Long  Parliament  in  1641. 

Gardiner,  Hi$t.  of  Eng.,  ieOi—1942 ;  Hallam, 
Coiut.  HiA.,  chapa.  vijl.  andiz. 

North  Foreland,  The  Battle  of  the 
(July  25,  1666),  was  fought  between  the 
English  and  Dutch  fleets,  the  former  being 
commanded  by  Prince  Rupert  and  the  Duke  of 
Albemarle,  the  latter  by  De  Ruji^r.  The 
Dutch  were  totally  routed,  and  lost  about 
4,000  men  and  20  ships,  and  the  English  were 
complete  masters  of  the  narrow  seas.  English 
ships  attacked  various  unfortified  places  on  the 
coast  of  Holland,  and  destroyed  a  large  num- 
ber of  merchant  vessels. 

North-west  FrovinceB,  The,  were 
the  acquisitions  of  Lord  Welledey,  and  were 
so  named  because  at  the  time  they  formed  the 
north-west  frontier  of  India.  "They  com- 
prehended the  coxmtry  lying  between  the 
western  part  of  Behar,  the  eastern  boimdary 
of  Rajpootana  and  the  Cis-Sutlej  States,  and 
the  northern  line  of  the  provinces  included  in 
the  Central  India  agency.  They  touched 
the  Himalayas,  included  Rohilcund,  and 
ran  into  the  central  provinces  below 
Jhansi.     Within  their  limite  were  the  im- 

girial  cities  of  Delhi  and  Agra,  the  great 
indoo  city,  Benares,  the  important  station 
and  fortress  of  Allahabad,  tiie  flourishing 
commercial  centres  of  Mirzapore  and  Cawn- 
pore.  The  rivers  Ganges  and  Jumna  rolled 
in  majestic  rivalry  through  their  length.'* 
They  are  ruled  by  a  lieutenant-governor,  and 
were  created  a  lieutenant-governorship  in  1835. 

Northampton,  The  Battle  of  (July 
10,    1460),    was    fought   during    the    Wars 


of  the  Boses  (q.  v.).  In  1459  the  Torkist  bids 
had  fled  in  confusion  from  Ladford,  and 
Parliament  had  attainted  them.  In  the 
summer  of  1460  they  returned  to  England, 
landed  in  Kent,  and  speedily  raised  a  krge 
army,  with  which  they  entered  London. 
Henry  YL  was  at  Coventry,  and  thither  the 
confederate  lords  marched ;  the  Lancastrums 
advanced  to  meet  them,  and  took  up  a 
position  on  the  banks  of  the  Kene  dose  to 
Northampton.  Here  they  were  attacked 
by  the  Yorkists,  and,  aner  an  obstinate 
resistance,  totally  routed.  The  Duke  of 
Buckingham,  the  Earl  of  Shrewsbury,  and 
many  others  were  slain  on~the  Lancastiian 
side ;  the  king  was  taken  prisoner,  and  the 
queen  obliged  to  take  refuge  in  Scotland. 
Henry  was  subsequently  compiled  to  acknow- 
ledge York  heir  to  the  throne. 

Northamptoiiy  Hbnkt  Howaed,  Eabl 
OF  (</.  1614),  the  son  of  Henry,  Earl  of 
Surrey,  and  the  brother  of  Thomas,  foortb 
Duke  of  Norfolk,  was  created  an  earl  by 
James  I.,  1603.  He  has  incurred  the  in&mj 
of  having  betrayed  the  secrets  of  his  patnm, 
the  Earl  of  Essex,  to  the  Privy  Council,  and 
will  be  rememberod  in  history  as  a  man  of 
shameless  principles,  who  for  various  selfish 
reasons  changed  nis  religion  no  less  than  fiv« 
times.  Under  James  I.  he  rose  rapidly  to 
honour,  being  made  Warden  of  the  Cinqop 
Ports,  and  Lord  Privy  Seal ;  he  was  a  com- 
missioner at  the  trial  of  his  enemy.  Sir  Walter 
Haleigh,  and  was  subsequently  concerned  in 
the  murder  of  Sir  Thomas  Overbur)*,  and 
though  he  had  inherited  *^  the  talents,  the 
taste,  and  the  accomplishments  of  his  father,'' 
was  in  reality,  as  Mr.  Tytler  justly  calls  him. 
<*  a  monster  of  wickedness  and  h\'pocris}'.'' 

Northampton,  William  Paar,  Max- 
Qris  OF  (rf.  1671),  the  brother  of  Queen 
Catherine  Parr,  was  named  one  of  the  coon* 
dllors  appointed  xmder  the  will  of  Henry 
Yin.,  1547,  to  assist  the  executors  in  the 
government  during  the  minority  of  Edvard 
vT.  During  the  rebellion  in  Norfolk,  in  1549, 
he  was  for  part  of  the  time  in  command  of 
the  royal  troops,  but  owing  to  his  incapacity 
was  superseded  by  Warwick.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Mary  he  was  sent  to  the  Tower  for  the 
support  which  he  had  accorded  to  Northom- 
berland,  but  was  subsequently  pardoned.  In 
1564  Northampton  was  implicated  in  Wptt^s 
robellion,  and  was  again  imprisoned,  but  v'as 
shortly  afterwards  released,  and  in  the  next 
roign  became  one  of  Elizabeth's  councilloi^- 

Northbrook,  Thomas  Geokos  Babixo, 
Earl  of  {b,  1826),  was  educated  at  Christ 
Church,  Oxford.  He  was  succeflsively  private 
secrotary  to  Mr.  Labouchero  at  the  Board  of 
Trade,  to  Sir  George  Grey  at  ihe  Home 
Office,  to  Sir  Charles  Wood  at  the  India 
Board  and  at  the  Admiralty  till  1867,  vhen 
he  was  rotumed  for  the. House  of  Coaunons 


Nor 


(  769  ) 


Vor 


at  Penrhynand  Falmouth,  which  constituency  ' 
he  continued  to  represent  till  he  became  a 
peer  at  the  death  of  bis  iather  in  1866.  He 
was  a  Lord  of  tiie  Admiralty  from  May,  1857, 
to  Feb.,  1858  ;  Under  Secretary  of  State  for 
India  from  June,  1859,  to  Jan.,  1861 ;  Under 
Secretary  for  War  from  the  latter  date  till 
June,  1866.  On  the  accession  of  Mr.  Glad- 
stone to  power  in  1868  he  was  again  appointed 
Under  Secretary  for  War ;  and  was  Governor- 
General  of  India  from  Feb.,  1872,  until  1876. 
In  Mr.  Gladstone's  second  ministry  (1880)  he 
was  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  and  in  July, 
1884,  was  appointed  High  Commissioner  m 
Egypt. 

NortheotOy  Sib  *  Stafford  Henrt  (b. 
1818,  d,  1887),  educated  at  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  and  caXLed  to  the  bar  at  the  Inner 
Temple  m  1847,  was  returned  for  Dudley 
in  the  Conservative  interest  in  1866.  He 
was  returned  for  Stamford  (1858),  and  was 
elected  for  North  Devon  (1866).  He  was 
private  secretary  to  Mr.  Gladstone  when  the 
latter  was  President  of  the  Board  of  Trade, 
and  was  Financial  Secretary  to  the  Treasury 
from  Janudrv  to  June,  1859.  He  was  ap- 
pointed President  of  the  Board  of  Trade  m 
Lord  Derby's  third  administration  (1866) ;  and 
was  Secretary  of  State  for  India  (1867 — 68>. 
He  was  elected  Governor  of  the  Hudson's 
Bay  Company  (1869),  and  presided  over  the 
Congress  of  the  Social  Science  Associa1;ion 
held  at  Bristol  in  the  same  year.  Subse- 
quently he  was  a  member  of  the  commission 
which  arranged  the  Treaty  of  Washington.  In 
1874  he  took  office  as  Chancellor  of  the  Ex- 
chequer under  Mr.  Disraeli,  and  when  his  chief 
retired  to  the  House  of  Lords  he  became  leader 
of  the  House  of  Commons.  On  the  fall  of 
the  Beaconsfield  ministry  he  became  leader 
of  the  Opposition  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
but  on  the  accession  of  Lord  Salisbury's 
Ministry,  in  1885,  went  to  the  House  of 
Lords  as  the  Earl  of  Iddesleigh,  and  be- 
came First  Lord  of  the  Treasur}',  exchanging 
this  office  for  that  of  Foreign  Secretair  in 
1886,  and  dying  suddenly  on  the  12th  of 
January,  1887. 

nrorthmeu.    [Danes.] 
Northumberlaiid,  Henky  Pe&cy,  Easl 

OF  (d,  1408),  served  in  France  in  the  wars  of 
£dward  III.'s  reign.  He  was  made  Warden 
of  the  East  Mardies,  and  in  1378  captured 
Berwick.  He  was  frequently  employed  by 
Kichard  II.,  but  his  espousal  of  the  cause  of 
Henry  of  Lancaster  in  1393  caused  the  king 
to  declare  his  estates  forfeited.  On  Henry's 
landing  in  1399  Northumberland  was  one  of 
the  first  to  join  him,  and  when  Henry  be- 
came king  he  received  large  grants  of  land. 
In  1402  he  and  his  son  defeated  the  Scots  at 
Homildon  HUl,  but  about  this  time  they  grew 
discontented  with  the  king,  either  offended  at 
Henry's  negUgence  in  ransoming  their  kins- 
HI8T.-26 


man,  Edmund  Mortimer,  or  at  the  king's  claim 
to  deal  with  the  prisoners  taken  at  Homildon,  or 
from  having  suspicions  of  his  intentions  to- 
wards them.  At  all  events  Hotspur  joined 
Glendower,  and  was  defeated  at  Shrewsbury, 
while  his  father,  who  was  marching  to  his 
aid,  was  compelled  to  submit,  but  was  very 
soon  forgiven  Dy  the  king.  In  1405  Northum- 
berland joined  other  nobles  in  a  fresh  con- 
spiracy against  Henry,  and  on  the  plot  being 
l^trayed  fled  to  Scotland.  In  1408  he  again 
took  up  arms,  and  met  the  royal  troops  at 
Bramham  Moor,  in  Torkshire,  where  his  force 
was  dispersed  and  himself  slain. 
Pauli,  Qetchiekte  von  England, 

Vorthimibarlaildy  John  Dudley,  Duke 
OF  (b.  1502,  d.  1553),  was  the  son  of 
Edward  Dudley,  the  extortionate  minister  of 
Henry  VII.  Created  Lord  Lisle  by  Henry 
VIII.,  he  distinguished  himself  in  naval 
warfare  with  the  French,  as  Lord  High 
Admiral  (1545),  and  was  named  by  the  king 
one  of  the  executors  to  carry  on  the  govern- 
ment durinff  che  minority  of  Edward  VI., 
being  shortly  afterwards  created  Earl  of 
Warwick.  In  1547  he  again  distinguished 
himself  at  the  battle  of  Pinkie,  and  two 
years  later  was  instrumental  in  crushing  the 
rebellion  of  Ket.  About  this  time  he  at- 
tached himself  to  the  Protestant  party,  from 
motives  of  self-interest  chiefly,  and  on  the 
fall  of  Somerset  (1549),  assumed  the  office  of 
Protector,  two  years  later  being  made  Duke 
of  Northumberland.  After  the  execution  of 
Somerset  (1552),  Northumberland  obtained 
complete  ascendency,  not  only  over  the 
Council,  but  also  over  the  young  king,  whose 
favour  he  won  by  his  pretended  zeal  for  Pro- 
testantism ;  though  at  the  same  time  he  con- 
trived to  conciliate  to  a  certain  extent  the 
Emperor  and  the  Catholic  party.  The  ill- 
health  of  Edward  VI.  in  1553  made  it 
evident  that  he  had  not  long  to  live; 
and  Northumberland,  partly  from  ambition, 
and  partly  from  the  loiowledge  that,  if  Mary 
succeeded  her  brother,  his  own  ruin  was  in- 
evitable, formed  the  design  of  getting  the 
succession  altered  in  favour  of  Lady  Jane 
Grey,  whom  he  shortly  afterwtirds  married 
to  his  son,  Guilford  Dudley.  He  had  little 
difficulty  in  persuading  the  King  to  enter  into 
his  project ;  the  privy  councillors  he  had  more 
trouble  with,  but  eventually  the  will  in  I^dy 
Jane  Grey's  favour  was  signed,  and  the  duke, 
relying  on  the  Protestant  party  and  on 
French  aid,  thought  the  success  of  his  plot  se- 
cured, and  it  was  even  hinted  that  he  hastened 
Edwfml'B  end  by  poisoning.  On  the  king's 
death  (July  6,  1553),  Northumberland  at  once 
caused  Lady  Jane  to  be  proclaimed,  and  an- 
nounced to  her  that  she  was  queen;  but,  con- 
trary to  his  expectation,  the  feeling  of  the 
country  was  against  the  usurpation,  and  al- 
most the  whole  of  England  declared  in  favour 
of  Mary.     The  duke  was  arrested  at  Cam- 


If  or 


{  770  ) 


Hot 


brid^  (where,  Beeing  the  failure  of  his  scheme 
inevitable,  he  had  proclaimed  Mary)  by  the 
Earl  of  Arundel,  who  conveyed  him  to  Lon- 
don. He  was  tried  in  WestminBter  Hall,  by 
a  court  presided  over  by  the  Duke  of  Norfolk, 
and  was  condemned  to  death,  being  executed 
on  Tower  Hill  (Aug.  22,  1553).  Before  his 
execution  he  confessed  himself  a  Roman 
Catholic — ''a  needless  and  disreputable  dis- 
closure,*' remarks  Mr.  Turner,  "of  a  masked 
and  unprincipled  mind." 

Stowe,  AnnaU;  Sharon  Tamer,  Hitt,  of  Enq. ; 
Fioude,  iftst.  A/  Eng. ;  Lingturd,  Hist  qf  Eng. ; 
Tytler,  Hist,  of  Edward  VL  and  Mary, 

Northumberlaad,  Thomas  Fb&cy, 
7th  Earl  of  {d.  1572),  was  the  nephew  of 
the  sixth  earl,  and  son  of  Sir  Thomas  Percy, 
who  was  attainted  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
YIII.  As  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Catholic 
party  in  England,  the  earl  was  regarded 
with  suspicion  from  the  very  commencement 
of  Elizabeth's  reign,  and  his  implication  in 
the  Catholic  intrigues  of  1562  with  Philip 
did  not  improve  his  position  at  court.  A  few 
years  later  Northumberland  warmly  espoused 
the  cause  of  the  Queen  of  Scots ;  and  entered 
into  a  conspiracy  with  the  Earl  of  West- 
moreland, Leonard  Dacre,  and  others,  for  her 
release  from  Tutbury  Castle,  where  she  was 
in  confinement.  In  Oct.,  1569,  the  queen 
summoned  the  rebel  lords  to  appear  in  Lon- 
don, but  they  refused  to  obey  her  commands, 
and  rose  in  arms.  The  energetic  measures  of 
the  queen's  ministers  compelled  the  rebel 
earls  to  withdraw  across  the  border  without 
having  gained  more  than  some  very  tempo- 
rary successes;  and  Northumberland — who, 
it  IS  said,  would  have  sought  pardon  from 
Elizabeth,  had  it  not  been  for  the  bi-ave  spirit 
of  his  wife — was  then  given  up  to  Murray  by 
Hector  Armstrong,  of  Harlaw,  and  impri- 
soned in  Lochleven  Cas^tle,  with  William 
Douglas  as  his  gaoler.  After  a  captivity  of 
two  years  and  a  half,  an  attempt  was  made  to 
ransom  him,  and  convey  him  to  Flanders;  but 
Elizabeth,  fearing  that  his  liberty  might  prove 
prejudicial  to  her  interests,  prevailed  upon 
Douglas  and  the  Earl  of  Mortou  to  give  him 
up  to  the  English  governor  at  Berwick  (Lord 
Hunsdon)  for  £2,000.  In  spite  of  strenuotm 
efforts  made  by  Lord  Hunsdon  to  obtain  his 
pardon,  he  was  beheaded  at  York  (Aug.  22, 
1572)  without  a  trial,  as  an  attainted  traitor. 
Stowe,  Annals  ;  Froade,  ff  uit.  of  Eng, 

Northumberlaiid,  Hbnut  Percy,  8th 
Eakl  of  {d.  1585),  brother  of  Thomas,  seventh 
earl,  whom  he  succeeded  (1572),  was  in  1559 
sent  to  Scotland  on  a  mission  to  the  Congre- 
gation ;  and  in  th«  following  year  took  part 
in  the  siege  of  Leith.  In  1569,  on  the  rising 
in  the  north,  and  the  disaffection  of  his 
brother,  the  earl,  then  Sir  Henry  Percy,  t«  ok 
no  part  in  the  insurrection,  though  he  is  said 
to  have  been  implicated  in  the  subsequent 
plot  of  Ridolfi.    In  1583  he  was  arrested  and 


sent  to  the  Tower  on  a  charge  of  complicity 
in  the  conspiracy  of  Francis  Throgmorton, 
who  had  implicated  him  in  his  confession. 
Ou  June  20,  1585,  he  was  found  shot  through 
the  head  in  his  bed.  The  earl  was  said  at 
this  time  to  have  committed  suicide,  and  this 
view  is  held  by  Mr.  Froude.  Lingard,  how- 
ever, and  others,  have  considered  that  he  was 
murdered. 

Northumbarlaiidf  Hbkrt  Pesct,  9th 

Ea&l  of  {d.  1632),  distinguished  himsedf  in 
the  Low  Countries  under  the  Earl  of  Leicester. 
He  warmly  espoused  the  interests  of  James 
duiing  the  last  days  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  and 
wan  by  him  sworn  of  the  Privy  CounciL  He 
was  subsequently  charged  with  complicity  in 
the  Gunpowder  Plot,  and  although  the  accu- 
sation could  not  be  proved,  was  deprired  of 
his  offices,  fined  £30,000,  and  imprisoned  for 
fifteen  years.  **  This  unfortunate  nobleman,** 
says  Miss  Aikin,  *<  was  a  man  of  oonsideFable 
talents ;  the  abundant  leisure  for  intelLectaal 
pursuits  afforded  by  his  long  captivity,  was 
chiefly  employed  by  him  in  the  study  ol 
mathematics." 

Aikin,  Court  of  James  I. 

Vorthiimbria»  the  most  northern  of  the 
great  old  Enghsh  states,  included  as  its  normal 
limits  the  whole  of  the  territory  between  the 
Firth  of  Forth  on  the  north,  and  the  Humber 
on  the  south.  The  sea  bounded  it  on  the  east, 
while  on  the  west  the  Pennine  Range,  with 
its  northern  continuation,  the  Ettrick  Forest, 
divided  it  from  the  British  kingdoms  of  Cum- 
bria and  Strathclyde.  But  considerable  districts 
to  the  south  of  the  Humber  were  at  one  time 
included  within  its  boundaries,  while  the 
western  frontier  was  necessarily  constantly 
shifting,  and  was  gradually,  although  slowly, 
pushed  farther  back. 

Like  the  other  so-called  ''Heptarchic'* 
kingdoms,  Northumbria  consisted  originally 
of  several  separate  settlements,  thoa^  thie 
absence  of  so  definite  a  tradition  as  that  in  the 
south  makes  it  harder  to  ascertain  their  limits 
and  history  In  the  north  a  Frisian  settle- 
ment seems  to  have  been  made  on  the  shoiee 
of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  which  Nennius  calls 
the  Frisian  Sea  (see  on  this  subject  Mr.  Skene's 
Celtic  deotlaud  and  Fritiim  SettltmenU  <m  the 
Firth  of  Forth)^  but  of  this  state  we  have 
practically  no  knowledge.  The  rest  of  North- 
umbria was  colonised  by  Angles.  Bemicia, 
the  district  north  of  the  Tees,  had  for  its  first 
king  Ida,  who  is  said  to  have  come  from  the 
north,  and  to  have  built  as  his  capital  Bam- 
borough,  named  after  his  wife,  Bebba.  He 
gained  many  victories  over  the  Britons,  the 
confused  tradition  of  which  is,  perhaps,  pre- 
served in  the  oldest  Welsh  poetry  (see  Skene's 
Four  Ancient  Books  of  Wales),  He  reigned 
twelve  years  (547 — 559),  and  was  succeeded 
by  several  sons  in  succession,  of  whose  history 
nothing  is  known.  In  693  his  grandson, 
Ethelfnth,  son  of  Ethelric,  became  king.    He 


STor 


(771) 


STor 


was  a  man  of  energy  and  ambition.    His 
marriage  -with  the  daughter  of  Ella,  who  in 
•660  had  established  another  Anglian  kingdom 
in  Deira,  the  district  between  the  Tees  and 
the  Humber,  was  the  excuse  for  the  expulsion 
of  Edwin,  the  son  of  that  monarch,  and  the 
union  of  Bemicia  with  Deira.     Thus  Ethel- 
frith  became  the  first  king  of  the  Northum- 
brians.   His  defeat  of  the  Scots  at  Degsastan 
(603) ,  and  of  the  Welsh  at  Chester  and  Bangor- 
Iscoed  (607),  gave  further  strength  to  the  new 
kingdom.     But  Edwin  of  Deira  had  found  a 
powerful  protector  in  Redwald  of  East  Anglia, 
the  «  Bietwalda,"  and  in  617  Ethelfrith  was 
slain  on  the  banks  of  the  Idle  in  an  attempt 
to  subdue  his  chief  rival  for  the  sovereignty 
of  Britain.    Edwin  now  became  King  of  the 
Northumbrians.     His  marriage  with  Ethel- 
burga,  daughter  of  Ethelbert  of  Kent,  led  to 
his  conversion  to  Christianity  in  627.     In  a 
solemn    Witenagemot     the     Northumbrians 
accepted  the  new  religion,  and  Paulinas,  the 
queen's  chaplain,  became  first  English  bishop 
of  York,  the  old  capital  of  Deira,  and  now  of 
Northumbria.  The  victories  of  Ethelfrith  had 
prepared  the  way  for  the  overlordship  over 
^uth  Britain    which  Edwin  seems  now  to 
have  aflsumed.    He  is  fifth  on  the  list  of 
Bretwaldas,  and  Bede  says  "that  he  ruled  both 
over  Engplish  and  Britons,"  and  that  his  domi- 
nion included  the  two  Monas — ^Anglesey  and 
Man.     With  him  the  Northumbrian  supre- 
macy, which  lasted  for  the  greater  part  of  the 
century,  really  begins.   But  he  found  in  Penda 
of  Mercia,  and  in  Cadwallon,  the  great  Welsh 
king,  formidable  competitors.    In  633  their 
combined  forces  defeated  and  slew  Edwin  at 
Hoathfield.      All    Northumbria   was    for    a 
whole  year  subject  to  the  conquerors,  who 
seem  to  have  auned  at  lessening  its  power 
by  splitting  it  up  again  into  its  original  divi- 
sions  of    Bemicia  and   Deira.    But  in  634 
Oswald,  son  of  Ethelfrith,  returned  from  his 
refuge   in  lona,  drove  out  the  Britons  and 
Mercians,  reunited  the  two  kingdoms,  and 
laboured  for  the  introduction  of  the  Columban 
type  of  Christianity  with  a  zeal  that  merited 
lus   canonisation.    Yet  in  642  he,  too,  was 
slain  by  Penda  at  the  battle  of  Maserfield. 
His  brother,  Oswiu,  who  succeeded  him,  was 
compelled  to  yield  Deira  to  Oswin,  son  of 
Osric,  his  cousm.     In  6ol  Oswiu  contrived  to 
compass  the  death  of  his  rival,  but  the  jealousy 
of  Penda  provided  Deira  with  another  king 
in  Oidilwald.  But  in  654  the  victory  of  Win- 
widfield  over  the  Mercians,  weakened  by  the 
defection  of  Oidilwald,   Penda*s  dependant, 
led  to  the  final  triumph  of  Ovswiu.     Penda 
perished   on  the  field.    Bemicia  and  Deira 
were  again  united.    Oswiu  became  undisputed 
lord    of    the  English,  as  well  as  master  of 
Stx4thclyde   Welsh,    Picts,  and    Scots.     In 
alliance  -with.  Theodore  of  Tarsus  he  settled 
the  ecclesiastical  constitution  of  Knp:land,  and 
his  decoration  in  the  Synod  of  Whitby  (664) 
for  the  Roman  in  preference  to  the  Scottidi 


Churches  was  critical  in  determining  the 
course  of  the  future  history  of  Britain.  He 
was  the  most  powerful  of  all  tiie  Northum- 
brian monarchs,  but  with  him  departed  the 
glory  of  his  country.  His  son  and  successor, 
Egfrid  (670 — 685)  wasted,  in  efforts  to  convert 
a  real  supremacy  over  the  Picts  into  a 
thorough  conquest,  the  resources  that  Oswiu 
had  used  so  well.  The  death  of  Egfrid  on  the 
fatal  field  of  Nectansmere  (685)  was  followed 
by  the  revolt  of  the  Picts,  Scots,  and  Strath- 
clyde  Welsh.  His  long  quarrel  with  Wilfrid 
of  York  had  convulsed  the  internal  relations 
of  the  country.  The  rise  of  Mercia  now  gave 
the  English  states  a  new  master.  The  next 
king  was  Aldfrid  (685 — 705^,  an  illegitimate 
brother  of  Egfrid,  who  had  in  exile  been  a 
pupil  of  the  Scottish  monks,  and  was  called 
the  ''  learned  king.*'  He  was  the  patron  of 
the  great  literary  movement  which  had  begun 
with  Caedmon  and  Benedict  Biscop,  and  which 
long  outlasted  the  political  importance  of 
Northumbria.  During  the  eighth  century 
Northumbria  is  only  remembered  as  the  home 
of  Bede,  Alcuin,  Archbishop  Egbert,  and 
other  great  scholars.  Meanwhile  a  series  of 
revolnUons,  seditions,  and  tumults  had  brought 
the  Iforthumbrian  monarchy  to  the  verge  of 
dis8G*ution.  No  less  than  fourteen  obscure 
kings  ascended  the  throne  between  the  death 
of  Alcfrid  and  796 ;  of  these  "  at  least  thirteen 
ended  their  reig^  by  extraordinary  means." 
Eadwulf  (705)  was  dethroned  after  a  i-eign  of 
two  months.  Osred,  son  of  Alcfrid,  was  shun 
by  his  kinsfolk  (716).  Cenred,  after  a  two 
years'  reign,  came  to  a  calamitous  end  (718). 
Osric,  his  successor,  was  slain  in  731.  Ceol- 
wulf,  the  next  king,  abdicated,  and  became  a 
monk  (737),  as  did  his  uncle's  son  Eadbert  in 
758,  after  an  almost  unprecedented  reign  of 
twenty-one  years.  O^wulf  (758)  was  slain 
by  his  own  household  after  a  year's  reign.  Of 
his  successor,  Moll  Ethelwald  (758 — 765),  we 
are  only  told  that  he  ''lost  his  kingdom." 
The  solemn  deposition  of  Alcred  (765 — 774) 
by  the  Witan  was  an  Important  precedent  for 
later  times.  Ethelred,  son  of  Ethelwald 
(774 — 778)  was  driven  into  exile.  Elfwald 
(778 — 789)  was  slain  by  conspirators.  Osred 
(789 — 792)  was  deposed,  and  exiled,  but 
returned,  and  was  murdered,  whereupon 
Ethelred  was  restored,  only  to  be  killed  by  his 
turbulent  people  in  794  during  a  great  famine 
that  was  accompanied  by  portents,  and 
succeeded  by  a  destructive  I&nish  inroad. 
Osbald,  anoble,  became  king  for  twenty-seven 
days,  but  Eardulf  was  then  called  from  exile 
to  the  throne.  In  806  he  was  driven  into 
exile,  but  was  restoi'cd  by  papal  influence. 
When  he  died  is  uncertain.  The  chroniclers 
now  cease  to  give  a  regular  succession  of  the 
Northumbrian  kings.  The  Danes  had  reduced 
the  kingdom  to  an  extremity  of  disorder.  The 
Mercian  overlords  had  few  difficulties  with 
the  decrepid  state.  In  827  the  Northumbrians 
became  the  vassals  of  Egbert  without  so  much 


Nor 


(  772) 


Not 


as  a  battle.  In  867  the  Danes  took  advantage 
of  the  deposition  of  King  Osbryht,  and  the 
election  of  a  prince  not  of  the  royal  blood,  to 
take  x>osse8sion  of  York.  In  875  inroads  for 
plunder  were  exchanged  for  definite  conquests, 
and  next  year  Halfdone,  the  Danish  leader, 
divided  Deira  amongst  his  willing  followers. 
Thus  ingloriously  the  kingdom  of  Edwin 
came  to  an  end.  A  line  of  English  ealdormen 
long  continued  to  reign  in  Bamborough  over 
Bemicia,  but  they  were  cut  off  from  the  great 
West  Saxon  monarchy  by  Danish  Deira.  The 
gradual  subjection  of  Halfdane^s  successors 
to  the  Basileus  of  Winchester,  the  incorpora- 
tion of  the  Bamborough  earldom,  the  reasser- 
tion  of  Northumbrian  local  feeling  in  the 
great  earldom  of  Canute,  the  grant  of  the 
Lothians  to  the  King  of  Scots,  the  final  con- 
quest of  Northumbria  by  William  I.,  from 
which  time  alone  we  can  date  its  extinction  as 
a  separate  district,  are  the  chief  events  of  later 
Northumbrian  history. 

Bede,  Hiitoria  EaeUtiMtioa ;  Siineon  of  Dur- 
ham, Ih  Qeatia  H$gum  Anglorum,  and  the  ^ii^lo- 
SoDon  Chronicle^  give  most  information  amoog 
the  original  aatnoritieB.  J.  B.  Oreen,  Ths  Making 
of  England  Mid  the  Conqwut  of  England  ;  Stubbs, 
.  Contt.  Hist. ;  Falgrave,  Engiith  Oommonwaalth, 
and  Skene,  Celtic  Scotland,  are  the  most  im- 
portant modem  works.  rr£   F.  T  1 

Kings  op  NoBTHuxBRrA. 

Bthelfrld 598-616 

Edwin 616—683 

Oswald 634-64S 

06wiu 642-670 

Bgfrid 670- G85 

ifirid 685-705 

Eadwnlf 705 

Osred 705-716 

Cenred 716—718 

Oaric 718—731 

Ceolwnlf 781—787 

Edbert 737—768 

Oswulf 758—750 

EthelwaldMoll 759-765 

Alured 765-774 

Bthelred 774—778 

Blfwald 778—780 

Osred 780—792 

Oebald 7M 

Eardnlf 7iH— 806 

Norton,  Grantlby  Fletchbr,  Lord 
{b,  n\6,d.  1789),  was  bom  at  Grantley,  near 
Kipon.  After  being  called  to  the  bar,  he  was 
in  torn  appointed  king's  counsel,  Attorney- 
General  for  the  County  Palatine  of  Lan- 
caster, and  Solicitor-General.  In  1763  he 
became  Attorney-General,  but  went  out  wi^ 
the  Grenville  ministry  in  1765.  While  in 
that  ofiBice  he  had  to  encounter  the  difficult 
question  of  general  warrants;  and  his  im- 
petuous recklessness  did  not  smooth  the  way 
for  his  colleagues.  Upon  the  resignation,  in 
1769,  of  the  chair  of  the  House  of  Commons 
bv  Sir  John  Gust,  Sir  Fletcher  was  elected  to 
fill  the  vacancy.  Through  the  excited  years 
of  Lord  North's  administration,  Norton  filled 
the  office  of  Speaker  with  some  ability,  and  a 
fearless  indifference  to  consequences.  In 
1780  he  paid  the  penalty  of  his  independence 


by  being  dismissed  from  the  chair.    When, 

in  1782,  the  Marquis  of  Rockingham  came 

into  power,  Sir  Fletcher  Norton  was  raised  to 

the  peerage,  with  the  title  of  Baron  Grantley. 

HannJngr*  Sptakera  of  the  Commons;  Stanhope, 
Hut.  ofEng. 

Norton,  Richard,  a  zealous  Catholic  of 
the  north,  took  part  in  the  Pilgrimage  of 
Grace,  and  in  1569,  though  a  very  old  man, 
was  an  active  supporter  of  the  rebel  Earls 
of  Northumberland  and  Westmoreland,  whom 
he  joined  with  his  sons.  His  son  Clmstopher 
formed  a  plan  to  carry  off  Mary  Stoart  from 
Bolton  Caistle,  but  was  foiled  in  its  execution. 
He  subsequently  took  an  active  part  in  the 
northern  rebellion  of  1569,  and  was  in  conse- 
quence executed  at  Tyburn. 

Norway,  Maid  of,  is  a  designation  for 
Margaret,  daughter  of  Eric  II.  and  Mazgaret 
of  Norway.  After  the  death  of  Alexander 
III.  she  was  proclaimed  Queen  of  Scotland,  and 
was  betrothed  to  Edward,  son  of  Edward  I. 
of  England,  but  died  on  her  voyage  (1209). 

Norwich,  has  by  some  been  identified  with 
the  Venta  Icenorum  of  the  Romans,  but  this  i& 
improbable.  It  is  more  likely  an  English  cit^. 
It  was  burnt  by  the  Danes,  under  Sweyn,  m 
1003.  After  the  Conquest  a  strong  castle  wa» 
built  there,  and  it  was  made  an  episcopal  see. 
A  serious  riot  occurred  in  Norwich  in  1272, 
and  in  1381  the  insurgents,  headed  by  John 
Litster,  attacked  the  city  and  plundered  it. 
Once  again,  in  1549,  it  suffered  from  a  popular 
revolt,  when  the  city  was  captured  by  Robert 
Ket  and  his  associates. 

Norwich.,  The  Bridal  of  (107 5), was  the 
occasion  of  the  organisation  of  a  pow^ul  con- 
spiracy against  William  the  Conqueror.  The 
refusal  of  the  king  to  allow  Ralph  Guader,  Earl 
of  Norfolk,  to  marrj'  the  sister  of  Roger  Fitz- 
08b€rD,Earl  of  Hereford,  was  disregarded, and 
a  plot  formed  at  the  wedding-feast  to  depoK 
William,  and  bring  back  the  country  to  itfc 
condition  in  the  time  of  the  Confessor.  The 
conspiracy  was  detected  before  any  attempt* 
could  be  made  against  the  king,  and  the  con- 
spirators either  fled  or  were  heavily  punished. 

Nottdn^ham  was  taken  by  the  Danes  in 
868,  and  confirmed  to  them  by  the  Peace  of 
Wedmore.  It  was  restored  and  re-fortified 
by  Edward  the  Elder,  922.  In  1067  William 
the  Conqueror  reconstructed  and  strengthened 
the  castle.  It  was  taken  and  burnt  twice 
during  the  wars  between  Stephen  and  Maud. 
In  1461  it  was  the  scene  of  iiie  proclamation 
of  Edward  lY.  In  1485  it  was  the  head- 
quarters of  Richard  IIL  before  the  battle  of 
Bosworth.  In  the  Great  Rebellion  it  was  the 
place  where  Charles  I.  set  up  his  standard, 
Aug.  22,  1642.  The  castle  was  dismantled, 
by  Cromwell's  orders  and  re-built  in  1680. 
In  1811 — 12  Nottingham  was  the  scene  of 
formidable  "  Luddite  "  riots,  and  of  a  Refonn 
riot  in  October,  1831. 


Vot 


(  773  ) 


Vov 


Nottingluuiif  Thomab  Mowbbat,  Easl 
OF  {d.  1405),  WHB  the  son  of  Thomas  Mowbxay, 
Duke  of  Norfolk,  the  adversary  of  Henry 
Bolingbroke.  He  joiaed  Henry  on  his  landing 
in  1  'a99j  and  was  made  Earl  MarshaL  In  1 405, 
a  dispute  with  the  Earl  of  Warwick  being 
decided  against  him,  he  left  the  court  in 
chagrin,  and  joined  Scrope  and  others  in  a 
conspiracy  against  Henry  JV.  Through  the 
treachery  of  Westmorlana,  he  was  aeisEed 
and  beheaded. 

ITottinifhaiiiy  Henbaoe  Finch,  Eakl  of 
{b,  1621,  d,  1682),  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1645,  but  his  Royalist  sentiments  prevented 
his  coming  prominently  forward  till  the 
Restoration,  when  he  was  appointed  Solicitor- 
General.  He  conducted  the  prosecution  of 
tiie  regicides  with  great  fairness  and  judg- 
ment. In  1670  he  became  Attorney-General, 
and  in  1673  Lord  Keeper,  which  title  he  ex- 
changed for  that  of  Lord  Chancellor  in  1675. 
He  held  the  Great  Seal  till  his  death  in  1682, 
having  in  1681  been  created  Earl  of  Notting- 
ham. He  figures  in  Dryden*s  Abtahm  tmd 
Aekitophel  under  the  name  of  Amri.  '*From 
his  ]^r8uasive  powers,"  says  Mr.  Fobs,  ^*  he 
acquired  the  titles  of  *the  silver-tongued 
lawyer '  and  *  the  English  Cicero,'  and  from 
his  i^raceful  action  that  of  'the  English 
Roscius.'" 

Foes,  lA/Mt  of^kt  Lord  Chano#Qorf. 

nfottingluuilf  Danisl  Finch,  Eabl  of 
{b.  1647,  d,  1730),  entered  early  into  public 
Hfe.  In  ]  679  he  was  placed  on  tiie  Adnuralty 
Conmiission.  Under  James  II.  he  rigorously 
opposed  the  abrogation  of  the  Test  Act. 
In  1687  he  entered  into  negotiations  with 
Dykvelt,  envoy  of  the  Prince  of  Orange. 
He  and  Danby  were  representatives  of  the 
Tory  party  in  those  proceedings.  He  fol- 
lowed Sancroft*s  ideas  on  the  settlement  of  the 
Revolution  question,  and  advocated  a  regency 
to  be  exercised  in  James's  name  and  during 
his  life,  but  gradually  abandoned  the  idea 
before  the  opposition  of  the  Commons.  He 
was  appointed  Secretary  of  State  under 
William  and  Mary,  thereby  acquiescing  in 
the  king  de  facto,  and  bringing  a  large  body 
of  Tory  supporters  to  the  ministry.  He  was 
soon  involved  in  quarrels  with  his  Whig 
colleague,  Shrewsbury.  In  1689  he  carried 
his  Toleration  Bill,  by  which  Nonconformist 
divines  were  allowed  to  preach  after  signing 
thirty-four  out  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles.  He 
also  moved  a  Comprehension  Bill,  but  was  com- 
pelled to  drop  it  on  account  of  the  opposition 
it  encountered.  On  the  departure  of  William 
for  Ireland,  he  was  placed  on  the  Council  of 
Nine.  The  resignation  of  {Shrewsbury  had  made 
him  sole  Secretary  of  State.  It  was  to  his 
timely  discovery  of  the  intended  invasion,  and 
his  vigorous  measures  to  confirm  the  loyalty  of 
the  fleet,  that  the  victory  of  La  Hogue  was  in 
s^reat  part  due.  At  the  close  of  that  year  (1692) 
he  bitterly  inveighed  against  the  subsequent 


mismanagement  which  had  neutralised  that 
victory.  Nottingham  and  Russell  became 
mortal  enemies!  A  vag^e  vote  of  censure 
was  passed  on  the  former  in  the  Commons  by 
a  majority  of  one,  but  he  was  warmly  sup- 
ported by  the  Lords.  William,  wishm^  to 
reserve  for  himself  the  services  of  Nottmg- 
ham,  induced  Russell  to  accept  a  place  in  the 
household.  But  on  the  appointment  of  Ruisell 
as  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  Nottingham 
had  to  resipfn.  In  1694  be  vigorously  opposed 
the  establishment  of  the  Bank  of'England. 
On  the  accession  of  Anne,  he  became  Secre- 
tary of  State.  But  his  ideas  were  quite  at 
variance  with  the  schemes  of  Gkxlolphin  and 
Marlborough.  In  1704  he  declared  that 
the  minisby  must  be  purged  of  the  Whig 
element,  and  resigned,  in  opposition  he  raised 
the  cry  of  the  *' Church  in  danger.*'  In  1707 
he  proposed  a  motion  to  the  effect  that  the 
English  Church  was  threatened  by  Uie  Union. 
He  was  struck  off  the  Privy  Council.  As 
Harley  neglected  to  give  him  office  (1710),  he 
joined  the  Whigs.  They  W^sed  to  support 
his  Occasional  Conformity  Bill  if  his  To^ 
followers  would  oppose  all  ideas  of  peace.  £(e 
therefore  proposed  and  triumphantly  carried 
a  resolution  ''that  no  peace  was  honourable 
if  Spain  or  the  West  £idies  were  allotted  to 
any  branch  of  the  house  of  Bourbon."  He 
was  placed  on  the  Privy  Council  by  George 
L,  but  in  1716,  disapproving  of  the  con- 
demnation of  t^e  leaders  df  the  Jacobite 
rebellion,  he  was  dismissed,  and  quitted  public 
life. 

Bnmot,    Htft.    of  Aw   Oum  Tim«;   Ksckfty, 

Mtwoin  ;  Macanlsj,  Hut.  of  Eng. ;  Baztke,  Hwt. 

</  Eng, ;  Stanhope,  E$ign  o/ QuMn  Anne, 

Nora  Sootiay  now  the  most  easterly 
province  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  was 
discovered  by  John  Cabot  in  1497.  In  1698 
it  was  partially  colonised  by  a  French  ex- 
pedition under  the  Marquis  de  la  Roche,  and 
in  conjunction  with  New  Brunswick,  re- 
ceived the  name  of  Acadia.  In  1602  Acadia 
was  granted  by  Henry  IV.  of  France  to  a 
Huguenot  nobleman,  but  in  1614  the  English 
made  a  descent  from  Virginia,  and  destroyed 
the  whole  of  the  French  settlements.  In 
the  year  1621  the  country  was  granted  by 
James  I.,  under  the  title  of  Nova  Scotia,  to 
William  Alexander,  Earl  of  Stirling,  whilst 
four  years  later,  in  order  to  encourage  emi- 
gration, the  order  of  Baronets  of  Nova  Scotia 
was  created.  Sir  William  Alexander,  how- 
ever, sold  the  country  to  the  French,  but  on 
the  outbreak  of  the  war  between  France  and 
England  in  1627,  he,  in  conjunction  with  Sir 
William  Kirk,  expelled  the  French,  but  re- 
stored their  settlements  to  them  on  the  con- 
clusion of  peace  in  1631.  The  claim  of  Eng- 
land to  Nova  Scotia  was  again  successfully 
put  forward  by  Cromwell,  but  in  1667  it  was 
ceded  to  France  by  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of 
Breda.  In  1689  it  was  again  taken  by  the 
English  under  Sir  William  Phipps,  but  re« 


Nov 


(774.) 


Oat 


stored  by  the  Treaty  of  Ryswick  in  1697.  In 
1710  the  capital,  Port  Royal,  was  captured  by 
General  Nicholson,  and,  in  spite  of  various 
efforts  made  b^  the  French  to  dislodge  him, 
nras  held  by  him  until  the  whole  of  No\'a 
Scotia  was  formally  ceded  to  England  by  the 
Treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1713.  Though  subject 
to  frequent  disturbances,  Nova  Scotia  re- 
mained uninvaded  until  1744,  when  De 
Quesnel,  the  French  Governor  of  Cape 
Breton,  attempted  to  take  Annapolis,  as  the 
capital,  Port  Royal,  was  then  called.  After 
the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1748)  nearly 
4,000  emigrants — chiefly  disbanded  soldiers — 
went  out  to  Nova  Scotia,  under  the  command 
of  General  ComwaUis,  and  established  the 
town  of  Halifax.  The  French  did  not, 
however,  give  up  hopes  of  recovering  Nova 
Scotia,  and,  in  diliance  with  the  Indians,  con- 
tinued to  harass  the  new  settlers  to  such  a 
deg^ree  that  in  1756  it  was  found  necessary  to 
expel  18,000  of  the  old  French  Acadians. 
Two  years  later  the  Nova  Scotians  received  a 
constitution,  consisting  of  a  house  of  as- 
sembly, a  legislative  council,  and  a  governor 
representing  the  British  crown.  From  this 
time  the  condition  of  the  country  began 
rapidly  to  improve,  and  its  prosperity  was 
also  materially  increased  by  Uie  influx  of  a 
large  number  of  American  loyalists  during 
the  War  of  Independence.  Disputes  and  dis- 
oontent  in  the  legislature  were  of  frequent 
occurrence,  just  as  in  Canada,  and  in  1840 
Mr.  Thomson  (afterwards  Lord  Sydenham), 
Govemor-Greneral  of  Canada,  was  commis- 
sioned to  inquire  into  the  alleged  grievances, 
and  in  consequence  of  his  report  the  executive 
council  was  remodelled  and  the  legislative 
council  was  increased  by  the  addition  of 
several  members  of  the  popular  party.  In 
1858  Lord  Durham  included  Nova  Scotia  in 
his  contemplated  scheme  of  a  union  of  the 
British  North  American  provinces,  but  was  re- 
called before  he  could  carry  out  his  plan.  In 
1867  Nova  Scotia  was  united  with  other  pro- 
vinces under  the  title  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  and  is  subject  to  the  central  govern- 
ment of  the  dominion  at  Ottawa,  though  it 
still  retains  its  own  provincial  government, 
vested  in  a  lieutenant-governor,  an  executive 
and  a  leg^islative  council,  and  a  house  of 
assembly. 

Martin,  Britisk  Cclonin;  Col.  Halibnrton, 
Hitt.  of  Nova  ScoHa;  Creeajt  CoTiatitutiona  of 
Britannic  Empire. 

Vovel  Bisseisin.    [Assize.] 

irunconiar  was  a  high-caste  Brahmin, 
who  intrigued  for  the  deposition  of  Moham- 
med Reza  Khan  from  the  dewanny  of 
Bengal,  hoping  to  obtain  his  place.  Disap- 
pointed of  this,  and  encouraged  by  the 
enmity  of  the  Council,  he  brought  various 
charges  of  peculation  against  Hastings. 
Hastings,  in  return,  had  him  accused,  and  he 
was  hanged  for  forgery. 


NvxiiierieB.  The  large  majority  of 
English  nunneries  before  the  Dissolution 
(1536 — 40}  belonged  to  the  Benedictine  order. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  the  most  important : 
Shaftesbury  (Dorset),  according  to  tradition, 
founded  by  Alfred,  which  was  so  wealthy  that 
Fuller  tells  us  it  was  a  proverb  with  the 
country  folk  '*if  the  Abbot  of  Glastonbury 
might  marry  the  Abbess  of  Shaftesburv,  their 
heire  would  have  more  land  than  the  l^ing  of 
England;"  Barking  (Essex),  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  Erkenwald,  Bishop  of  Lon- 
don, 677,  which  had  for  its  flrst  abbess. 
Ethelburga,  afterwards  canonised ;  Amesburv 
(Wilts),  founded  (980);  St.  Mary  (Wm- 
Chester) ;  Mailing  (Kent) ;  Mergate  (Bedford- 
shire) ;  Catesby  (Northamptonshire) ;  Clerken- 
well,  founded  1100;  Godstow  (Oxfordshire) » 
founded  1138;  Holywell  (Middlesex);  St. 
Helen's  (London),  founded  at  the  beginning 
of  the  thirteenth  century;  Stratford-at-Bow 
(Middlesex) ;  C^tteris  (Cambridgeshire) : 
Polesworth  (Warwickshire) ;  Sheppey  (Kent) ; 
Wherwell  (Hants). 

The  Cistercian  houses  were  usually  small : 
among  the  most  important  were  Tarrant 
(Dorset)  and  Swire  (Yorks).  The  great 
nunnery  of  Dartford,  founded  1355,  was  dis- 
puted between  the  Augustinian  and  Domini- 
can orders,  but  was  held  by  the  latter  at  the 
Dissolution.  Syon  (Middlesex),  almost  the 
wealthiest  house  in  England,  was  held  by 
Brigittine  nuns  (a  branch  of  the  Augus- 
tinians,  reformed  by  St.  Bridget  of  Sweden) ; 
Syon  House  was,  in  1604,  granted  to  the  Eari 
of  Northumberland. 

The  Minoresses,  or  Poor  Clares  (the  female 
Franciscans),  held  four  houses  in  England. 
The  greatest  was  that  in  London,  where  they 
were  placed  by  Blanch  of  Navarre,  wife  of 
Edmund  of  Lancaster,  about  1293.  This^ 
nunnerj'  outside  Aldgate  has  given  its  name 
to  the  Minories.  llie  only  other  house  of 
importance  was  at  Denny  (Cambridgeshire). 


Diigdale,  Monastiecn, 


[W.  J.  A] 


OakboyBy  The,  was  the  name  given  to- 
the  Western  Protestant  tenants  in  Ireland, 
who,  complaining  chiefly  of  exorbitant  county 
cess,  collected  in  bodies  in  1764,  houghed 
cattle,  and  burnt  farms.  They  never  beoime 
formidable. 

Oates,  Titus  {b.  eirca  1620,  d,  1705). 
was  educated  at  Merchant  Taylors'  School 
and  Trinity  College,  CJambridge.  He  took 
holy  orders  and  was  presented  to  a  small 
living  by  the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  A  charge  of 
perjury  being  brought  against  him  he  was 
forced  to  give  up  this  position,  and  was  for  a 
short  time  chaplain  in  the  navy.     He  then 


Oat 


(775  ) 


Oat 


identified  himself  with  the  Roman  Catholics, 
being,  however,  dismissed  in  the  year  1678. 
He  set  himself  to  work  to  gain  a  livelihood  bv 
his  wits,  and  devised  the  story  of  the  Popish 
Plot,  which  was  readily  accepted  by  the  popu- 
lar fears.  Every wha^  it  was  mmonred  that 
Protestantism  was  in  danger,  and  Oates 
communicated  to  the  authorities  that  the 
Catholics  were  on  the  point  of  rising;  that 
the  principal  features  of  their  programme 
were  a  general  massacre  of  Protestants,  the 
assassination  of  the  king,  and  the  invasion  of 
Ireland.  Various  inciaents  just  then  hap- 
pened which  confirmed  Oates*s  story — ^none  so 
much  as  the  murder  of  Godfrey,  the  magis- 
trate who  had  been  most  active  in  giving  pub- 
licity to  the  conspiracy.  Oates  became  a  hero, 
his  story  being  widely  credited.  He  was  re- 
warded with  a  pension  of  £900  a  year,  and  a 
suite  of  apartments  was  devoted  to  his  use  at 
Whitehall.  For  two  years  multitudes  of 
Catholics  were,  on  the  merest  suspicion  and 
on  the  slenderest  evidence,  conaemned  to 
death.  In  1685  Oates  was  convicted  of  per- 
jury, and  sentenced  to  stand  in  the  pillory, 
be  whipped  at  the  cart's  tail,  and  tl^n  im- 
prisoned for  life.  After  the  Revolution 
(1688),  Parliament  declared  Oates's  trial  to 
be  illegal,  and  ordered  his  release,  granting 
him  a  pension  of  £300  a  year.  His  attempts 
to  regain  notoriety  after  this  were  unsuccess- 
ful   [Popish  Plot.] 

Macaulay,  Hiat.  of  Eng.  ;  Baraet,  HUt.  of  hia 
Own  Time. 

Oath,  Thb  Coronation.    [Coronation.] 

Oaths,  Parliamentary,  were  first  im- 
posed in  the  year  1679,  when  it  was  enacted 
that  no  member  could  sit  or  vote  in  either 
House  until  he  had  taken  in  its  presence 
the  several  oaths  of  allegiance,  supremacy, 
and  abjuration,  severe  penalties  being  im- 
posed on  any  one  who  should  neglect  the 
ceremony.  This  measure  was  re-enacted  in 
1700  and  1760,  but  in  1829  the  Catholic  Re- 
lief Act  provided  an  especial  form  of  oath  for 
Roman  Catholics.  In  1866  the  Parliamentary 
Oaths  Act  substituted  one  oath  for  the  three 
previously  in  use,  which  in  1868  was  altered 
with  the  idea  of  including  all  religious  de- 
nominations, the  form  being,  "  I,  A.  B.,  do 
swear  that  I  will  be  faithful,  and  bear  true 
allegiance  to  Her  Majesty  Queen  Victoria, 
her  heirs  and  successors,  according  to  law. 
So  help  me  God."  By  the  law  of  1866  a 
penalty  of  £300  was  imposed  on  members  of 
both  Houses  for  voting  before  they  had  taken 
the  oath,  and  in  the  House  of  Commons  the 
seat  is  vacated  as  if  the  member  were  dead. 
In  the  Upper  House,  however,  a  bill  of 
indemnity  is  usually  passed.  Standing  orders 
also  provide  at  what  hour  the  oath  is  to  be 
taken.  The  most  remarkable  refusals  to  take 
the  oaths  were  those  of  Sir  H.  Monson  and 
Lord  Fanshaw  in  1688,  and  of  Mr.  0*Connell, 
in  1829,  before  the  Relief  Act  was  passed, 


but  in  neither  instance  was  the  objection  en- 
tertained. The  case  of  the  Jews  was  brought 
up  by  claim  of  Baron  Rothschild  in  1850,  to 
take  the  oaths,  omitting  the  words  **  on  the 
true  faith  of  a  Christian  '*  in  the  oath  of  ab- 
juration. A  resolution  was  carried,  however, 
that  he  was  ineligible,  nor  was  Alderman 
Salomons  more  successful  in  the  following 
year.  After  the  (question  had  been  discussed 
m  several  successive  sessions,  an  Act  was 
passed  in  1868  by  which  a  Jew  was  allowed 
to  omit  the  obnoxious  words,  and  a  resolution 
to  that  effect  became  a  standing  order  in 
1860.  The  Parliamentary  Oaths  Act  of  1866 
finally  placed  Jews  on  an  equality  with  other 
members,  by  omitting  the  words  altogether 
from  the  form  of  oath.  The  right  of  Quakers, 
Moravians,  and  Separatists  to  make  an 
affirmation  instead  of  taking  the  oath,  was  first 
contested  by  John  Archdale  in  1693,  but  un- 
successfully. Several  statutes  were,  however, 
passed  to  that  effect  in  the  reigns  of  Anne, 
George  I.,  and  George  II.,  and  upon  a  general 
construction  of  these  statutes,  Mr.  Pease,  a 
Quaker,  was  allowed  to  affirm  in  1833.  In 
the  same  year  Acts  were  passed  allowing' 
Quakers*  Moravians,  and  Separatists,  and 
those  who  had  ceased  to  belong  to  those  per- 
suasions, to  make  an  affirmation  instead  of 
taking  the  oaths;  and  this  concession  was 
confirmed  by  the  Parliamentary  Oaths  Acts  of 
the  following  reign.  In  1880  Mr.  Bradlaugh, 
who  had  been  elected  for  Northampton, 
claimed  to  make  an  affirmation  under  the 
Evidence  Amendment  Act  of  1869  and  1870. 
The  report  of  a  select  committee  being  ad- 
verse, he  presented  himself  to  take  the  oath» 
but  it  was  refused.  In  1883  the  government 
introduced  an  Affirmation  Bill,  but  it  was 
thrown  out  in  the  Commons.  After  the 
General  Election  of  1885  Mr.  Bradlaugh  took 
the  oath  without  challenge,  and  in  1888  an 
Act  was  passed,  at  his  instigation,  giving 
members  the  choice  between  taking  the  oath 
and  making  affirmation. 

Oaths  in  Courts  op  Law  are  imposed  both 
upon  jurymen  and  witnesses.  They  may  be 
traced  back  to  a  very  remote  date,  and  are 
intimately  connected  with  the  much-vexed 
question  of  the  origin  of  trial  by  jury. 
The  law  of  Ethelred  II.  directed  that  the 
twelve  senior  thegns  in  each  wapentake  should 
be  sworn  not  to  accuse  any  falsely.  Though 
this  is  an  isolated  piece  of  legislation,  we  find 
that  in  England,  as  among  the  other  Germanic 
races,  an  oath  was  habitually  imposed  in  the 
courts  upon  the  parties  to  a  suit  and  their  com- 
purgators, and  upon  the  witnesses  who  were 
called  in  if  it  was  held  that  the  oaths  of  the 
former  were  inconclusive.  By  the  system  of 
sworn  recognition  introduced  by  the  Normans, 
which  they  derivedprobably  from  the  Frank  ca- 
pitularies, oaths  were  also  enforced,  and  though 
first  applied  to  civil  cases,  this  system  was  ex- 
tended by  the  Assize  of  Clarendon  to  criminal 
cases  as  well.    It  is  needless  to  discuss  here  the 


O'Br 


(  776  ) 


Ooo 


gradual  diveigenoe  of  the  three  elements  of  the 
jury  system,  the  grand  jury,  the  petty  jury,  and 
the  witnesses,  and  it  is  enou^  to  say  that 
when  their  separate  functions  became  defined 
{eirca  Edward  III.  to  Henry  IV.}  oaths  were 
still  imposed  upon  aU  three.  The  later  aspects 
of  the  question  of  oaths  in  courts  of  law 
chiefly  concern  the  claims  to  exemptions  from 
taking  the  oath  that  have  been  put  forward 
from  time  to  time.  As  in  the  case  of  the 
Parliamentary  oath,  the  three  classes  of  persons 
affected  are  those  who  believe  in  God  but 
are  not  Christians,  Quakers  and  kindred  sects, 
and  Atheists,  and  the  legislation  concerning 
them  falls  chiefly  within  the  present  reign. 
In  the  first  year  of  Victoria  it  was  jproyided 
that  anyone  not  professing  the  Christian 
religion  might  take  the  oath  in  any  form  they 
consider  binding;  hence  Jews  employ  the 
words  "  so  help  me,  Jehovah,"  and  Moham- 
medans swear  by  the  Koran.  Quakers  were 
permitted  to  make  an  affirmation  instead  of 
taking  the  oath,  in  1833,  and  this  privilege 
was  confirmed  by  subsec^uent  legislation.  In 
1854  it  was  provided,  chiefly  for  the  benefit  of 
those  who  belonged  to  no  recognised  religious 
sect,  and  consequently  did  not  come  under  the 
former  relief  Acts,  that  if  any  person  called 
its  a  witness  should  bo  unwilling  to  be  sworn 
from  conscientious  motives,  he  miffht  make  a 
solemn  affirmation,  and  the  same  privilege  was 
gfranted  to  jurors  in  1867.  These  enactments 
were  consolidated  in  the  Evidence  Amendment 
Acte  of  1879  and  1880.  In  1887  a  further  Act 
was  passed,  allowing  any  one  to  affirm  who 
pleads  that  an  oath  is  contrary  to  his  religious 
belief,  or  that  he  has  no  such* belief. 

May,  Parliamentary  Procfiea  and  Coiut.  Htst.; 
Forsyth,  Hist,  of  tlu  Jury ;  Tyler,  Ori^xn  and 
Hut.  of  Oaths ;  and  Stephena's  Comm«7itanet. 

[L.  C.  S.] 

O'BrMn,  William  Smith  {b,  Oct.  17, 
1803,  d.  June  18,  1864),  was  the  second  son 
of  Sir  Edward  O'Brien,  of  Cahimoyle.  His 
eldest  brother.  Sir  Lucas  O'Brien,  who  was 
a  Tory,  became  in  1855  Lord  Inchiquin,  as 
heir  of  the  Marqais  of  Thomond.  Smith 
0*Bri6n  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  at  Cam- 
bridge, and  in  1826  became  the  Tory  re- 
presentative of  Ennis.  He  was  an  energetic 
opponent  of  O'Connoll.  From  1835  to  1849  he 
represented  Limerick,  and  in  1846  he  openly 
joined  the  Young  Ireland  party,  led  by 
Meagher  and  Mitehel.  His  descent  from  Brian 
Boru,  and  the  claims  he  imagined  himself  to 
have  to  the  Irish  crown,  seemed  to  a  certain 
extent  to  have  turned  his  brain.  His  idea 
was  to  establish  an  Irish  Republic  with  him* 
self  as  president.  In  1 848  he  opposed  in  Parlia- 
ment the  Security  Bill  then  proposed,  and  he 
was  afterwards  tried  under  that  very  bill  in 
Ireland,  but  the  jury  disag^eing,  it  became 
necessary  to  allow  him  to  go  free.  The  trea- 
sonable character  of  his  plans  was,  however, 
becoming  clear,  and  an  attempt  was  made  to 
arrest  him.    He  now  left  Dublin,  and  began 


haranguing  the  peasantry  of  the  south.  At 
last,  on  July  25,  he  assembled  a  large  body 
in  arms,  and  led  them  on  the  26th  against 
the  police  at  Bonlagh  Common.  O'Brien  es- 
caped after  the  fight,  and  a  reward  of  £800 
failed  to  lead  to  his  apprehension.  On  Au- 
gust 5,  however,  he  was  recognised  at 
Thurles,  aa  he  was  quietly  taking  a  ticket  for 
Limerick,  and  lodged  in  Kilmainham  gaol 
On  September  21  he  waa  tried  at  CloDmel  by 
a  special  commission,  and  sentenced  to  death. 
But  his  punishment  was  commuted  to  trans- 
portation. Unlike  hiB  feliow-conapirston, 
he  refused  a  ticket-of-leave,  and  was  sent  to 
Norfolk  Island.  In  1856  he  received  a  free 
nardon,  and  returned  to  Ireland.  He  died  at 
Bangor  in  Wales,  and  the  transportation  of 
his  remains  from  thence  to  Irekuid  led  to  a 
Nationalist  demonstration.  In  private  life 
he  was  one  of  the  most  truthful  and  kind- 
hearted  of  men. 

O'BrieiUl.  Thb  Sept  of,  the  most  pow»- 
ful  clan  in  Munster,  their  chief  stronghold 
being  the  city  of  Limerick,  claimed  descent 
from  Brian  Boru.  In  1543  Murrough  O^Brien 
was  made  Earl  of  Thomond  for  life.  He 
became  a  Protestant,  and  displayed  more  than 
the  usual  eagerness  for  Church  lands:  he 
sent  a  paper  to  England  called  the  ^  Irish- 
man's Request,"  asking  for  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge men  to  convert  the  people.  Ulti- 
mately all  his  dignities  fell  to  his  nephew, 
Ronagh,  whom,  in  accordance  with  the  Irish 
custom  of  tanistry,  he  had  supplanted.  The 
fourth  earl  was  a  distinguished  soldier,  and 
fought  against  the  Spaniards  at  Kinsale.  The 
family  became  extinct  in  1741. 
Burke,  BjeHntA  Peeraga. 

Obscene    Publioatioiui    Act.     In 

1857,  Lord  Chief  Justice  Campbell  succeeded 
in  passing  a  bill  to  suppress  the  traffic  in 
obscene  publications,  printe,  pictures,  snd 
other  articles. 

Occanonal  Con^nmityf  Thx  Box 

Against,  was  designed  to  prevent  Disseuten 
from  complying  with  the  provisions  of  the 
Test  Act  (q.v.)  only  so  far  as  to  qualify  them- 
selves for  office  or  membership  of  a  corpo- 
ration. It  was  introduced  for  the  first  time 
in  1702  by  three  Tory  membn:^,  one  of  whom 
was  Henr^  St.  John,  and  provided  Uiat  anyone 
who  attended  a  dissenting  meeting-houae  after 
having  taken  the  sacrament  and  test  for  officec 
of  trust  QT  the  magistracy  of  corporatioiui 
should  be  immediately  dismissed,  ana  heavily 
fined.  This  unjust  measure  passed  the  Com- 
mons, but  was  rejected  by  the  Lords,  though 
Queen  Anne  put  great  preosure  on  that  House 
to  pass  the  bill.  A  similar  fate  attended  it  in 
the  following  year,  and  again  in  1704,  when 
the  more  violent  Tories,  led  by  Nottixigham, 
proposed  to  carry  it  through  their  opponents 
by ''  tacking  it "  to  the  Land  Tax  Bill.  In  1711, 
however,  Nottingham  and  his  ** Dismals" 
formed  an  unprincipled  coalition  with  the 


Coll 


(777) 


aCo 


Whig&j  the  terms  being  that  the  latter  should 
support  the  Occasional  Conformity  Bill,  and 
it  accordingly  became  law,  the  money  fine 
bein^  reduced  from  £100  to  £40.  This  dis- 
creditable Act  continued  in  force  until  1719, 
when  G^eral  Stanhope  introduced  a  measure 
ander  the  cunning  title  of  a  **  Bill  for  strength- 
ening the  Protestant  Interest,"  by  which  the 
Occasional  Conformity  Act  and  the  Schism 
Act  were  abolished,  but  from  whidi  he  was 
forced  to  exclude  the  Test  Act. 

Stanhope,  Hiat.  of  Rgign  of  Anne,  and  flwt.  tf 
Eng.,  ToL  i.,  oh.  9 ;  10  Anne,  cap.  2. 

Oohterlony,  Sm  David  (b.  1758,  d. 
1826),  after  having  served  in  the  Camatic 
under  Hastings  and  Coote,  first  appears 
prominently  as  Colonel  Ochterlony  m  the 
capacity  of  Resident  at  Delhi  (1803),  after 
the  conquest  of  Scindia's  French  troops.  In 
this  ca|Nicit3''  he  conducted  the  defence  of 
Delhi  in  the  most  gallant  manner,  when 
Holkar  besieged  it  on  his  return  from  Malwa 
in  1804.  In  1814  he  was  given  the  command 
of  the  division  destined  to  act  against 
Umur  Singh  in  the  Groorkha  War.  Driving 
Umur  Singh  from  point  to  point  he  at  lairt 
shut  lum  up  in  iMalown.  He  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  a  major-general,  and  had  conferred 
upon  him  the  Grand  Cross  of  the  Bath,  being 
the  first  of  the  Company's  officers  to  attain  to 
that  honour.  In  1816,  Sir  David  took  com- 
mand of  the  army  for  the  second  Goorldba 
campaign,  and  brought  it  to  a  successful  con- 
clusion. After  the  war  he  was  appointed 
British  Resident  in  Malwa  and  Rajpootana, 
and  as  such  had  in  1823  to  deal  with  the  dis- 
puted succession  at  Bhurtpore.  The  Grovemor- 
General,  Lord  Amherst,  disapproved  of  Sir 
David's  measures,  and  he  was  reprimanded. 
He  thereupon  resigned.  The  treatment  he 
had  received  broke  his  heart,  and  he  retired 
to  Meerut,  where  he  died  within  two  months. 

O'Connell,  Daniel  (b.  Aug.  6,  1775,  d. 
1847),  was  the  son  of  an  Irish  gentleman  of 
very  ancient  family.  He  studied  at  Louvain, 
St.  Omer,  and  Douai ;  was  driven  from  the 
Continent  by  the  French  Revolution,  and  went 
to  London  to  read  for  the  bar.  In  spite  of  the 
opposition  of  his  family  he  came  forward 
(Jan.  13,  1800)  as  a  determined  opponent  of 
the  Union,  ftoon  became  the  leaner  of  the 
Catholic  party,  and  in  1823  founded  the 
Catholic  Association.  In  1825,  he  was  pro- 
secuted for  saying,  '^that  he  hoped  some 
Bolivar  would  arise  to  vindicate  Catholic 
rights,*'  but  the  grand  jury  ignored  the  bill. 
It  was  at  his  instigation  that,  in  the  year  1826, 
the  Catholics  be^^n  to  show  their  power  at 
elections.  In  1828,  he  himself  stood  against 
Yesey  Fitzgerald,  and  by  means  of  the 
^'forties"  won  the  famous  Clare  election, 
his  op]K>nent  retiring  after  five  days'  polling. 
His  influence  in  the  same  vear  was  strong 
enough  to  prevent  a  collision  between  the 
Catholics  and  the  Orangemen,  which  seemed 
HiaT.-26» 


impending.  Hie  Emancipation  Bill  followed, 
but  O'Connell  having  been  elected  before  was 
still  excluded  from  Parliament.  He  presented 
himself  (May  15, 1829),  and  pleaded  with  great 
ability  to  be  allowed  to  take  his  seat ;  his  ap- 
plication was  refused,  and  a  new  writ  issued, 
but  0*ConneU  was  returned  unopposed  and 
allowed  to  take  his  seat.  Hewas  now  called  the 
"  Liberator  *'  in  Ireland,  and  was  the  object  of 
intense  adoration  on  the  part  of  the  people.  Iii 
1831,  he  was  forced  to  plead  guilty  to  a  charge 
of  holding  illegal  meetings ;  although  he  was 
not  punished,  his  influence  was  shaken  at  the 
time.  He  in  vain  opposed  the  O)erciou  Act 
of  1833,  but  did  much  service  to  the  Whigs 
in  promoting  the  cause  of  Refonn.  After- 
waras,  O'Connell  and  his  **  taU,"  as  his  fol- 
lowers in  Parliament  were  derisively  called, 
were  for  some  time  able  to  exercise  great  in- 
fluence in  that  assembly,  for  he  held  the 
balance  between  Whigs  and  Tories.  In  1838, 
however,  he  had  to  submit  to  a  reprimand 
from  the  Speaker  for  accusing  a  member  of 
perjury.  In  1840,  he  revived  the  Repeal 
agitation,  and  in  1843,  uttered  language  that 
was  considered  treasonable  at  the  monster 
meetings  he  convened.  But  when  govern- 
ment forbade  the  meeting  at  Clontarf  on 
October  7,  he  failed  to  make  good  his  words, 
and  the  Young  Ireland  party,  among  whom 
were  the  most  talented  of  his  followers, 
separated  from  him.  O'Connell  and  his 
more  immediate  followers  were  arrested  and 
prosecuted  for  conspiracy.  A  jvocy,  entirely 
composed  of  Protestants,  founa  him  guilty, 
and  he  was  sentenced  to  a  year's  imprison- 
ment,  and  to  a  fine  of  £2,000.  The  English 
House  of  Lords  by  three  to  two  reversed  this 
decision.  This  result  was  hailed  with  enthu- 
siasm,  but  the  Repeal  agitation  was  neverthe- 
less crushed.  O'Connell  lived  for  some  years 
longer,  but  his  health  was  giving  way.  On 
Feb.  8,  1847,  he  delivered  his  last  speech  in 
the  Commons,  and  died  soon  after  at  Genoa. 
In  England  he  was  scarcely  looked  upon  as  a 
serious  personage,  and  derisive  epithets  such 
as  the  **  big  beggarman,"  were  constantly  ap- 
plied to  Mm.  But  in  CathoUc  Ireland  the 
influence  obtained  by  his  character,  his  ener- 
getic championship  of  the  cause  of  his  co- 
religionists, and  his  powers  as  a  popular  orator, 
was  unprecedentedly  great. 

"Majt  CcfMb.  Hist.  ofRng,;  Annual  EegUt^r; 
O'Connell's  SpMchM,  edited  by  his  son ;  Paiili, 
Q9$chichte  von  England  ant  2825;  J.  McCaithj, 
Hut.  of  Our  Own  Time$. 

O'Connell  Centenary,  The  (August  5, 

1875),  was  celebrated  by  processions  and  ban- 
quets in  Dublin.  It  led  to  a  furious  quarrel 
between  the  Home  Rulers  and  the  Nationalists, 
which  brought  the  banquet  in  the  evening, 
presided  over  by  the  Lord  Mayor  of  Dublin, 
to  an  untimely  end ;  part  of  the  guests  wish- 
ing Mr.  Gavan  DufN*,  and  not  Sir.  Butt,  to 
be  associated  with  the  toast  of  the  **  legis- 
lative independence  of  Ireland.'* 


O'Co 


(778  ) 


Odo 


O'Connor^  AKTHtK,  heir  expectant  to 
Lord  LongueyiUe,  an  intunate  friend  of  all  the 
English  Whigs,  was  one  of  the  United  Iriah- 
men  from  1 796.  In  that  year  he  was  with  Lord 
Edward  Fitzgerald  in  France,  and  concerted 
with  Uoche  for  an  invasion.  In  1797  he  was 
imprisoned  in  Dublin  Castle,  but  was  soon 
released.  Though  the  government  was  aware 
of  his  treason,  it  was  unable  to  produce  its 
information.  O'Connor  now  established 
virulent  papers  like  the  Pre—  and  the  XortKem 
Star,  advocating  assassination.  On  Feb.  27, 
1798,  while  on  his  way  to  the  French  Direc- 
tory, as  envoy  of  the  Irish  insurrectionary 
party,  he  was  arrested  at  Margate,  and 
brought  before  the  Maidstone  assizes.  All 
the  most  distinguished  members  of  the  Oppo- 
sition, however,  came  forward  as  witnesses 
to  character,  and  he  was  acquitted.  He 
returned  to  Ireland,  but  was  arrested  on 
another  charge,  and  kept  in  prison.  In  1798 
Lord  Comwallis  gave  him  and  his  confede- 
rates a  pardon  on  condition  of  a  full  confes- 
sion of  his  treason.  This  he  did  in  .a  tone  of 
bravado  before  a  committee  of  the  Lords.  He 
was  then  sent  to  Fort  George,  and  kept  there 
till  the  Peace  of  Amiens.  The  American 
government  refused  to  receive  him,  and  ho 
went  to  France. 

Fronde,  English  in  Ireland  ;  Musgrave,  Hitt, 
ofth9  BehelUon. 

O'Connor^  Fbaroub.    [Charttsts.] 

O'Connor,  Boderick,  King  of  Con- 
naught,  and  last  native  King  of  Ireland  {d. 
1198),  was  the  son  of  Turlough  O'Connor. 
In  1161  he  attempted  to  succeed  to  his  father's 
power,  but  was  unable  to  recover  it  till 
O'Loughlin,  of  Ulster,  died  (1166),  and  he 
was  then  recognised  in  the  north  at  least  as 
Lord  of  Ireland.  [For  his  struggles  with 
Dermot  and  the  English,  see  article  on 
Ireland.]  In  cruelty  he  was  fully  equal 
to  Dermot ;  thus  he  put  to  death  a  son  and 
greuidson  of  that  king,  who  were  his  hostages. 
It  was  by  his  command,  too,  that  the  eyes  of 
all  his  own  brothers  were  put  out.  When 
Henr>'  II.  came  over  to  Ireland  in  person,  all 
he  could  obtain  from  O'Connor  was  the  lat- 
ter's  consent  to  receive  his  envoys,  De  Lscy 
and  Fitz-Aldhelm.  In  1175,  however,  he 
concluded  a  treaty  with  Henry  through  am- 
bassadors at  Windsor.  He  thereby  acknow- 
ledged himself  as  Henry's  vassal,  and  pro- 
mised to  pay  tribute.  In  return  the  English 
king  recognised  him  as  overlord  of  all  Ireland 
which  was  not  in  the  hands  either  of  the  king 
himself  or  of  his  Norman  barons.  Revolt  of  his 
sons  embittered  his  later  years,  and  in  1182, 
after  a  fierce  civil  war,  he  resigned  the  crown 
to  his  eldest  son,  and  retired  to  a  monastery, 
where  he  died,  at  the  mature  age  of  eighty -two. 

Moor«.  HUt.  of  Ireland  i  Giraldaa  rambrenBis, 
BaBpuaneUio  Hihem,,  and  Topographia  H^tem,; 
Th«  Chronide  af  ih»  Four  Matters. 

O'Connors.  The  Sept  of  the,  was  long 


supreme  in  Connaught.     [O'Coxnor,  Rod- 

SRicK.]    Feidlim,  Roderick's  successor,  wsk 

recogmsed  as  chief  after  a  fierce  civil  war,  in 

whidi  he  triumphed  by  the  aid  of  the  Do 

Burghs.    In  the  invasion  of  Edward  Bmoe. 

the  O'Connors  at  first  sided  with  the  English, 

but  soon  after  they  changed  sides,  and  the 

slaughter  at  Athenry  in  1316  put  an  end  to 

their  existence  as  a  great  clan.  [Connaught.] 

Mooro,  Hiat,  of  IMand;   Lingard,  flut.  of 
Eng. 

Octennial   Bill  (1768).    In  1761  an 

agitation  for  a  Septennial  Bill  had  b^gun  in 
Ireland,  where,  till  then,  a  Parliament  was  of 
necessity  dissolved  only  by  the  king's  death. 
In  1761  a  bill  to  this  effect  was  paissed,  but 
though  returned  from  England,  an  error  of 
the  draftsman  served  as  an  excuse  to  the 
Irish  Parliament  for  rejecting  it.  In  Oct., 
1767,  the  agitation,  however,  recommenced, 
chiefly  because  the  bill  had  not  been  men- 
tioned in  the  speech  from  the  throne.  In  176$ 
it  was  finally  introduced  as  an  Octennial  BilU 
and  passed. 

October  Club,  The   (1710),   was  com- 
posed," says  Hallam,  *'  of  a  strong  phalanx  of 
Tory  members,  who,  though  by  no  meann  en- 
tirely Jacobite,  were  chiefiy  influenced  by  those 
who  were  such."     "  It  had  long  been  custo- 
mary," says  Mr.  Wyon,  "  for  the  members  of 
a  party,  when  some  important  measure  wa» 
before  Parliament,  to  meet  at  a  tavern  for 
the  purpose  of  concerting  a  plan  of  action. 
The  society  was  termed  a  club."      Soon  after 
the  beginning  of  1710,  a  few  of  the  extreme 
Tories  began  to  hold  a  series  of  meetings  at 
the  "  Bell,"  in  Westminster.   "  The  password 
of  this  club — one  of  easv  remembrance  to  a 
countr>'  gentleman  who  loved  his  ale — was 
October."    The  October  Club  soon  set  itself 
to  work  to  undermine  the  power  of  Harley, 
whose    moderation   they   scorned.      It  was 
from  thence  that  the  Jacobites  looked  for 
supporters  in  the  last  years  of  Queen  Anne*s 
reign.    The  Bolingbroke  faction  belonged  to 
the  October  Club.    They  took  great  delight 
in  vindictive  attacks  on  the  Whigs,  especially 
on  Sunderland. 

OdAly  or  Udal,  Right,  is  a  tenure  of  land 
that  stiU  prevails  in  the  Orkney  and  Shetland 
Islands,  and  which  before  the  growth  of 
feudalism  was  the  ordinary  tenure  of  the 
Teutonic  races.  [Alodial  IjAKD.]  Its  dis- 
tinctive feature  lies  in  the  fact  that  land  held 
by  this  right  is  held  absolutely,  and  not  de- 
pendent upon  a  superior.  Odal  right  is  thus 
antagonistic  to  feudalism,  which  recognised 
service  as  the  on!}'  title  to  land. 

Odo,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (942— 
958),  was  the  son  of  one  of  the  Danish 
chieftains  who  had  taken  part  in  the  invajnon 
of  870.  Odo  was  attracted  by  the  preaching 
of  a  Christian  missionary,  and  embraced  the 
Christian  futh.    He  was  adopted  by  Arch- 


Odo 


(  779  ) 


Off 


bishop  Athelm,  and  in  926  was  made  Bishop 
of  Ramsbury.  In  942  Dunstan's  influence 
gained  Odo  the  aTuhbishopric.  The  arch- 
bishop-elect at  once  declarea  his  intention  of 
becoming  a  monk,  thus  placing  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  party  of  refonn  in  the  Church, 
whose  object  it  was  to  encourage  monasticism, 
introduce  the  Benedictine  rule,  and  enforce 
celibacy  amongst  the  clergy.  During  the 
reign  of  Edred  this  party  had  the  ascendency, 
but  his  successor,  Edwy,  seems  to  have  joined 
the  party  of  the  secular  clergy.  Odo  and 
Dunstan  declared  that  Edwy's  marriage  with 
Elgi\'a  was  unlawful,  and  aiter  a  great  deal 
of  violent  dispute,  Edwy  consented  to  divorce 
her.  The  story  of  Odo's  cruel  persecution 
of  Elg^va  is  in  all  probability .  absolutely 
mythical.     [Dunstax.] 

William  of  Malmesbury ;  Hook,  Arehbishojn 
of  Canterbury. 

OdOy  Bishop  of  Bayeux  {d.  1096),  was  the 
half-brother  of  William  the  Conqueror,  whom 
he  accompanied  and  greatly  assisted  in  his 
invasion  of  England.  In  1067,  during 
William^s  absence  in  Normandy,  he  acted 
as  regent  of  the  kingdom  in  conjunction  with 
William  Fitz-Osbem.  Their  harsh  and  op- 
pressive rule  contributed  to  the  risings  of  the 
English  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  which 
disquieted  the  early  part  of  William  I.*s 
reign.  However,  in  1073  he  was  again  ap- 
pointed regent,  and  helped  to  crush  the  rebel- 
lion of  the  Eurls  of  Hereford  and  Norfolk. 
He  was  munificently  rewarded,  raised  to  the 
second  rank  in  the  kingdom,  and  given  the 
earldom  of  Kent  and  several  rich  manors. 
He  now  aimed  at  the  papacy,  but  his  am- 
bitious projects  were  cut  short  by  the  king, 
who  had  him  arrested  as  Earl  of  Kent,  and 
committed  to  prison,  where  he  remained  till 
William's  death.  Though  he  was  released 
and  restored  to  his  earldom  and  estates  by 
Rufus,  he  joined  Robert  in  his  invasion  of 
England.  Being  taken  prisoner  he  was  com- 
pelled to  quit  the  country,  and  retired  to 
Normandy,  where  he  acted  as  minister  to 
Robert,  and  accompanying  him  on  the 
Crusade  died,  it  is  said,  at  the  siege  of 
Antioch. 

OzdericusYitalis,  Hut.  Eccle*.;  Freeman,  Nor- 
man Conquttt, 

O'Donnell,  Baldeako,  the  descendant 
of  an  ancient  Celtic  race,  was  in  the 
service  of  the  Spanish  government  when 
he  heard  that  his  countrymen  had  risen 
against  the  Revolution  settlement  of  1688. 
The  Spanish  king  refused  him  permission  to 
join  them.  He  thereupon  made  his  escape, 
and  after  a  circuitous  route  through  Turkey 
he  landed  at  Kinsale.  His  appearance  excited 
great  enthusiasm;  8,000  iJlster  men  joined 
him,  and  he  came  to  the  assistance  of  the 
garrison  at  the  first  siege  of  Limerick.  After 
the  defeat  of  the  Irish  at  Aghrim  it  was 
hoped  that  he  would  come  to  the  defence 


of  Galway.  But  he  studiously  held  aloof. 
Soon  afterwards  he  joined  the  English  army 
with  a  few  of  his  devoted  followers,  and 
on  several  occasions  did  valuable  service  to 
William. 

Macaulaj,  Hiat.  of  Eng. 

O'Donnell,  Hugh,  called  Red  Hugh 
{d.  1602),  was  son  and  heir  of  Rory 
O'Donneli,  Earl  of  Tyrconnel.  In  1688  he 
was  treacherously  seized  by  order  of  Sir  John 
Perrot,  and  kept  a  prisoner  at  Dublin  as  a 
hostage  for  his  father's  good  behaviour.  He, 
however,  escaped  after  three  years'  captivity, 
and  at  once  juined  Hugh  0*NeiL  In  1601 
he  commanded  tHe  O'Donnells,  who  marched 
with  O'Neil  to  raise  the  siege  of  Kinsale,  and 
their  defeat  there  is  said  to  have  been,  in  part 
at  least,  due  to  his  impetuosity.  In  1602  he 
sailed  to  Spain  with  a  long  train  of  followers, 
and  was  received  by  the  court  with  great  dis- 
tinction, but  died  soon  afterwards. 
Uoore,  Hitt.  of  Ireland. 

O'Donnolly  Roky,  Earl  of  Tyrconnel 
(d.  1618),  was  brother  of  Red  Hugh  O'Donnell. 
In  1603  he  gave  up  his  Irish  title,  and  re- 
ceived a  grant  of  his  lands  and  the  earldom 
from  James  I.  In  1607,  however,  he  seems 
to  have  conspired  with  O'Neil,  Earl  of 
Tyrone,  and  with  him  at  all  events  he  went 
abroad,  where  he  died  after  being  attainted 
in  1612. 

O'DonnelLi,  Thb  Sbpt  of  the,  were 
powerful  in  Ulster,  where  the  O' Neils  were 
their  hereditary  foes  and  rivals.  Calwa^h 
O'DonneU  was  captured"  by  Shane  O'Neil, 
together  with  the  Countess  of  Argyle,  his 
wife,  in  1560,  and  remained  a  prisoner  till 
1564,  and  even  then  he  had  to  purchase  his 
release  by  the  loss  of  a  large  part  of  his 
lands.  In  James's  reign,  however,  he  re- 
gained his  possessions,  and  became  Earl  of 
Tyrconnel.  Soon  afterwards,  being  involved 
in  a  plot,  he  fled,  and,  with  his  famuy,  became 
prominent  at  the  Spanish  court. 
Fronde,  Hid,  ofEng. 

Ofb,  King  of  Mercia  (767—796),  was  of 
the  royal  house  of  Mercia,  though  not  nearly 
related  to  Ethelbald,  the  last  sovereign  in 
the  direct  line  of  descent.  He  drove  out 
the  usurper  Beomred,  and  quickly  made 
himself  master  of  the  kingdom.  Under 
him  Mercia  became  the  greatest  power  in 
Britain.  He  thoroughly  subdued  Kent  by 
his  victory  at  Otford  in  774,  inflicted  in  777 
a  great  defeat  on  Wessex  at  Bensington,  and 
annexed  Oxfordshire  to  ll^Iercia.  He  fre- 
quently defeated  the  Welsh,  and  pushed  the 
.  boundaries  of  Mercia  westward.  To  protect 
his  frontiers  he  constructed  from  the  Wye  to 
the  Dee  a  dyke,  the  remaining  truces  of  which 
still  bear  his  name.  To  strengthen  his  power 
he  got  leave  from  the  Pope  in  786  to  establish 
at  Lichfleld  an  archbishopric  independent  of 
the  see  of  Canterbury,    llie  murder  of  Ethel- 


Off 


(  780  ) 


Old 


belt  of  East  Anglia  is  one  ffreat  blot  on  OfEa's 

character.     On    the    whole    he    appears    to 

have  been  a  wise  and  humane  ruler,  and  to 

have  encouraged  learning.     He  drew  up  a 

code    of     laws    which    has    unfortunately 

perished.    He  was  very  liberal  to  the  Churcn 

both  at  home  and  abroad,  and  founded  many 

monasteries,    among  which    was    the   great 

abbey  of  St.  Albans. 

Anglo-Sojcon  Chron.;  Matthew  Paris,  Viia 
duorum  Qffarwn;  Lappenberg,  Anglo-Saann 
KingBi  J.  B.  Green,  The  Making  of  Snglond. 

OfEldayy  Lobd  Thomas  {d.  1536),  was  the 
eldest  son  of  the  ninth  Earl  of  Kildare.  He 
renounced  his  allegiance  to  the  sovereign 
power,  and  broke  out  into  open  rebellion. 
He  was  totally  defeated  near  Naas,  and  sent 
to  England  as  a  prisoner,  where  he  and  five 
of  his  uncles  were  hanged  at  Tyburn.    . 

Oglathorpa,  General  James  Edward 
(b.  1698,  d.  1785),  after  serving  in  the  army 
with  distinction,  was  returned  to  Parliament  as 
member  for  Haslemere  (1722).  He  was  cele- 
brated for  his  philanthropy,  and  founded  the 
colony  of  G^rgia,  and  an  asylum  for  debtors. 

Olaf  (Anlaf),  Hakoldson  (or  St.  Olaf) 
id.  1030),  was  brought  up  in  the  kingdom  of 
Novgorod,  and  at  an  early  age  put  to  sea  on 
a  buccaneering  expedition.  He  next  appears 
as  the  friend  of  the  Norman  dukes,  and  fought 
as  Ethelred's  ally  in  England.  Finding  tibat 
CSanute  had  his  hands  full  in  England,  he 
resolved  to  make  an  attempt  for  the  crown 
of  Norway,  and,  leaving  England,  was  suc- 
cessful in  establishing  himself  there.  Canute, 
when  he  found  himself  secure  in  England, 
set  out  with  a  magnificent  fleet,  laigely 
manned  by  English,  to  assert  his  supremacy, 
which  Olaf  had  denied.  The  Norwegian 
king  fled  before  him  into  Sweden,  where 
he  managed  to  secure  the  help  of  many 
outlaws  and  broken  men.  With  them,  and  a 
futhful  knot  of  personal  friends,  he  returned 
to  Norway  to  regain  his  throne.  At  the 
battle  of  Stieklesteadf  he  was  defeated  and 
slain  (1030).  His  body  was  hastily  buried, 
but  was  later  taken  up,  being  foimd  incor- 
rupt, and  buried  in  great  state  in  a  shrine 
at  Trondhjem  (Drontheim).  Many  English 
churches  are  consecrated  to  him.  Tooley 
Street,  in  London,  still  preserves  his  name  in 
the  old  Danish  quarter. 

Snorro  Storleson,  HHmikringla ;  Skulason, 
Ola/i  A<iga  apad  Scripta  HM.  Iglandorum;  Sazo 
QniiDinaticus,  Hiri,  Dantca,  lib.  z. ;  llaurer, 
Bekehrung  dea  Nonoegitchet^  Stammu, 

Olaf  (Anlaf),  Trygwason  (d.   looo), 

was  the  son  of  a  Norwegian  sea-king  of 
royal  blood,  and  was  probably  bom  in  the 
British  Isles.  The  accounts  of  his  early  days, 
which  originate  in  a  Latin  chronicle,  now 
lost,  are  not  to  be  trusted.  His  first  ap- 
pearance in  English  annals  is  probably  988, 
when  Watchct  was  harried,  and  Gova,  the 


Devonish  thane,  slain,  and  many  men  with 
him;  but  in  993  we  are  told  how  he  came 
with  450  ships  to  Stone,  and  thence  to  Sand- 
wich, and  thence  to  Ipswich,   harrjring  all 
about,    and    so    to   Maldon.     Here  he  was 
met  by  Brihtnoth,  the  famous  ealdorman, 
whom  he  defeated  and  slew.   Next  year,  with 
Sweyn,  the  Danish  king,  he  laid  siege  to 
London,  but  failed  to  take  it.    They  then 
harried,  burnt,  and  slew  all  along  the  sea- 
coasts  of  Essex,  Kent,  Sussex,  and  Hamp- 
shire.   On  receipt  of  £16,000  they  agreed  to  a 
gMice,  and  Olaf  promised  never  again  to  vifdt 
ngland  save  peacefully.     Next  spring  he 
went  to  Norway  and  wrested  the  kingdom 
from  Earl  Hacon;  here  he  ruled  for  ^ve 
years,    during   which   time    he    established 
Christianity  in  the  various  districts  of  Norway 
and  her  colonies.  He  disappeared  mysteriously 
after  a  battle  that  he  had  lost ;  rumours  of  his 
living  at  Rome  and  the  Holy  Land  as  a  hermit 
were  long  rife  in  the  North. 

Anglo-Sax&n  Chron. ;  Snorro  Starleson,  Heim- 
Aringla;  Maorer,  B^eakmng  du  Nondgmei^mi 
atammn,  1856. 

Oldcastl^i  StR  John,  Lord  Cobham  {d, 
1417),  was  a  member  of  the  royal  household 
and  a  personal  friend  of  Henry  Y.  He  was 
the  leader  of  the  Lollards.  In  1413  the 
clergy  determined  to  strike  a  blow  at  them  by 
indicting  Oldcastle.  He  refused  to  appear 
before  Convocation,  and  was  excommuni- 
cated. At  last,  compelled  to  attend  before  a 
spiritual  court  at  St.  Paul's,  he  yet  refused  to 
recant  his  opinion,  and  re-asserted  many  of 
his  former  statements,  declaring,  among 
other  things,  that  **  the  Pope,  the  bishops,  and 
the  friars  constituted  the  head,  the  members, 
and  the  tail  of  antichrist.*'  Thereupon  he  was 
pronounced  a  heretic,  and  imprisoned  in  the 
Tower.  Making  his  escape,  he  was  expected 
to  put  himself  at  the  head  of  a  large  body  of 
followers,  who  assembled  in  St.  Guests 
Fields;  but  Henry's  promptitude  prevented 
the  rising,  and  Oldcastle  escaped  from  Lon- 
don. In  1415  he  attempted  to  excite  a  rebel- 
lion, and  in  1417  he  was  captured  in  the 
Welsh  Marches,  and  put  to  death  as  a  heretic 
and  a  traitor.  "  Perhaps  we  shall  most  nfely 
conclude,"  says  Dr.  Stubbs.  "  from  the  tenor 
of  history,  that  his  doctrinal  creed  was  £ar 
sounder  than  the  principles  which  guided 
either  his  moral  or  political  conduct.*'  8ir 
John  Oldcastle  married  the  heiress  of  the 
barony  of  Cobham,  and  in  her  right  was  sum- 
moned to  Parliament  as  Lord  Cobham,  by 
which  name  he  is  often  known.    [Lollards.] 

Old  Samm  is  generally  r^farded  as  the 
Boman  Sorbiodunum.  The  Saxons  in  652 
captured  it  from  the  Britons,  and  named 
it  Searesbyrig.  In  960  a  Witenagemot 
was  held  at  Old  Sarum,  and  the  birons 
were  assembled  here  by  William  in  1086. 
From  the  reign  of  the  Conqueror  till 
the  thirteenth  century  it  was  the  seat  uf  a 


on 


(  781  ) 


OVo 


biiihop;  but  the  town  then  followed  the 
church,  which  was  rebuilt  in  the  plain; 
and  hereafter  it  has  continued  to  be  almost 
desei'ted.  Nevertheless,  it  sent  two  members 
to  Parliament,  and  it  was  for  Old  Sarum 
that  William  Pitt,  Earl  of  Chatham,  first 
sat  (1735).  In  1832  it  was  disenfranchised 
by  the  Keform  BilL 

OUto  Branch  Petition,  Thb  (July, 

1775),  was  the  ultimatum  on  the  part  of  the 
American  colonies  prior  to  the  War  of  Inde- 
pendence. It  was  a  petition  drawn  up  by 
Congress,  urging  the  king  to  direct  some 
mode  of  reconciliation.  B^pectf  ul  and  con- 
ciliatory, the  petition  proposed  no  terms  or 
conditions,  though  it  was  generally  under- 
stood that  the  colonies  would  insist  on  the 
repeal  of  the  obnoxious  statutes,  and  would 
require  some  solemn  charter  regulating  the  re- 
lations of  the  two  countries  in  the  future.  The 
petition  was  entrusted  to  Richard  Penn,  joint 
proprietor  of  the  influential  colony  of  Penn- 
sylvania. But  on  his  arrival  in  London  in 
August,  "  no  minister  waited  on  him  or  sent 
for  htm,  or  even  asked  him  one  single  question 
about  the  state  of  the  colonies.*'  The  king 
would  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  petition  or 
its  bearer.  The  American  envoys  foresaw  too 
clearly  that  the  result  of  the  refusal  would  be 
bloodshed ;  but  Lord  Dartmouth  only  expressed 
the  popular  misconception  of  the  gravity  of 
the  situation,  when  he  said  that  if  he  thought 
the  refusal  would  be  the  cause  of  shedding 
one  drop  of  blood  he  would  never  have  con- 
curred in  it.     [Geobob  III.] 

Bancroft,  Riat.  ofAvMriean  Btvolvtion,  iL,  o. 
49  :  Stanhope,  HUL  o/Sr^g,,  vL,  o.  52. 

Omdnt-ul-Onira]!,  Nabob  of  the  Oar- 
natic,  on  the  death  of  Mahomet  Ali  (1 795)  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  and  debts  of  his  father. 
Daring  his  administration  the  prosperity  of 
the  country  was  rapidly  declining,  and  the  re- 
sources of  government  were  threatened  with 
extinction.  He  was,  however,  surrounded  by 
European  money-lenders,  and  enabled  to  pay 
the  English  subsidy,  and  thus  defer  the  crisis 
for  a  short  time.  Lord  Hobart,  Oovemor  of 
Madras,  proposed  that  the  mortgaged  dis- 
tricts should  be  ceded  to  the  Company  in 
lieu  of  the  subsidy.  This  the  Nabob  refused, 
and  also  a  similar  proposition  by  Lord  Mor- 
uingtonin  1799.  On  the  outbreak  of  hosti- 
lities with  Tippoo,  Lord  Wellealey  demanded 
a  war  contribution  of  three  lacs  of  pagodas ; 
this  was  promised,  but  not  paid.  Various 
propositions  of  cession  were  made  in  lieu  of 
subsidy,  but  all  were  refused.  Meanwhile 
the  Nabob  had  continued  the  intercourse  and 
correspondence  with  Tippoo  which  his  father 
had  begun  in  violation  of  the  Treaty  of  1792, 
and  at  the  capture  of  Seringapatam  proofs  of 
^his  ^ere  discovered.  Before,  however,  any 
action  was  taken  the  Nabob  died  (1800). 

Wtat$>^   DnpaUhM:  Mill,    BiBt,  of  In&ia: 
Wilks,  Vytorf. 


Omiohimd  was  a  wealthy  banker  of 
Moorshedabad,  who  became  acquainted  with 
the  plot  which  Meer  Jaffier  had  arranged 
with  Clive  for  the  destruction  of  Surajah 
Dowlah.  He  demanded  £300,000  as  a  bribe 
for  silence.  Clive  therefore  caused  two 
treaties  to  be  made  out — the  real  one  on  white 
paper,  in  which  Omichund  was  not  men- 
tioned, and  the  other,  the  false  one,  on  red. 
Clive  and  the  committees  signed  both,  but 
Admiral  Watson  refused  to  sign  the  &tlse 
one.  Clive  therefore  forged  his  signature. 
When  Omichund  became  aware  of  the  de- 
ception that  had  been  practised  upon  him,  he 
lost  his  reason. 

Macaulaj,  Ea»ay», 

O'Veily  Conn,  Earl  of  Tyrone  {d. 
eirea  1552),  joined  the  Geraldines  in  their 
rebellion,  and  for  a  long  time  maintained 
himself  against  the  English  forces.  In  1542 
he  consented  to  resign  his  title  of  '*  The 
0*Neil,"  and,  being  refused  the  earldom  of 
Ulster,  went  over  to  England,  and  was  made 
Earl  of  Tyrone :  his  favourite,  though  illegi- 
timate, son  Matthew  being  elevated  at  the 
same  time  to  the  peera^  as  Lord  Dungnnnon 
and  the  earldom  entailed  on  him.  On  his 
death,  a  furious  struggle  broke  out  between 
Matthew's  son  and  his  undo  Shane,  in  which 
the  latter  triumphed. 

O'Voily  Hugh,  Earl  of  Tyrone,  caUed 
"the  arch  rebel"  (d.  1616),  was  the  son  of 
Matthew,  Baron  oi  Dungannon,  who  was 
himself  the  base  son  of  Conn  O'Neil,  the  first 
Earl  of  Tyrone.  He  first  appears  as  com- 
mander of  a  troop  of  horse  on  the  queen's 
side  against  Desmond.  In  1587  the  rank 
and  title  of  Earl  of  Tyrone  is  acknowledged 
to  be  his,  and,  on  his  appeal  to  the  queen,  he 
is  also  invested  with  the  lands  attached  to  the 
earldom.  He  married  the  daughter  of  Sir 
H.  Bagenal,  but  was  suspected  of  having 
carried  hec  off  by  force.  Afterwards  he  was 
the  aUy  of  Bed  Hugh  0*Donnell,  but,  never- 
theless, he  still  temporised  while  he  sought  to 
obtain  help  from  Spain.  In  1597  he  at  last 
threw  off  the  mask,  and,  assuming  the  royal 
title  of  "  The  ©'Neil,"  aUied  himself  with  the 
neighbouring  dans.  Aftor  some  fighting,  he 
deemed  ready  to  submit,  and  allowed  the 
English  to  rebuild  Blackwater  Fort.  He  was 
soon  in  arms  again,  however,  and,  in  1598,  he 
overthrew  Sir  H.  Bagenal  in  person  at  the 
battle  of  Blackwater.  Ulster,  Connau^t, 
and  Leinster  in  consequence  rose.  The 
queen,  now  thoroughly  alarmed,  sent  over 
the  Elarl  of  Essex  as  Lord-Lieutenant.  He 
brought  with  him  ample  powers,  and  an  army 
of  20,000  foot  and  2,000  horse,  the  largest  Ire- 
land had  ever  seen.  The  two  leaders  met  near 
Ballyduich,  in  the  middle  of  the  river  Brenny ; 
a  truce  was  arranged,  and  Essex  consented  to 
submit  O'Neills  demands  to  the  queen.  They 
induded  complete  freedom  of  religion  and  the 


oir« 


(  782  ; 


OVo 


restoration  of  all  forfeited  land  to  the  O^Neils, 
the  0*Donnell8,  and  to  Desmond.  Essex  soon 
after  left  Ireland,  and  Lord  Mount  joy  sac* 
ceeded  him  as  commander  of  the  Englidi 
forces.  The  rest  of  the  country  gradu- 
ally submitted,  but  O'Neil  still  held  out 
in  hopes  of  foreign  succour.  In  1601,  5,000 
Spaniards  at  last  landed  at  Kinsale,  and 
some  2,000  more  at  Oastlehaven.  Kinsale 
was  at  once  besieged  by  Lord  Mount  joy  and 
the  Earl  of  Thomond.  O'Neil,  joined  by 
0*Donnell,  and  by  Captain  Tyrol  with  the 
2,000  Spaniards  n-om  Oastlehaven,  marched 
to  raise  the  siege.    Against  his  own  better 

1'udgment,  he  engaged  the  English  forces  on 
)ec.  23,  1601,  and  was  defeated  with  a  loss  of 
1,200  killed.  In  crossing  the  Blackwater  on 
his  retreat,  he  suffered  another  severe  loss 
and  was  himself  dangerously  wounded.  The 
Lord-Deputy  then  followed  him  into  Tyrone, 
took  his  forts,  ravaged  the  country,  and  even 
broke  to  pieces  the  old  stone  seat  on  which 
the  0*NeiliB  had  been  from  time  immemorial 
inaugurated  as  chiefs.  When  all  hopes  of 
Spanish  succour  came  to  an  end  by  the  sur- 
render of  Kinsale,  and  finally  by  the  capture 
of  Donboy  and  the  non-sailing  of  the  Spanish 
armament,  Mountjoy  induced  the  queen  to 
accept  O'Neil's  submission,  which  he  made  at 
Mellefont,  being  reinstated  in  his  earldom  of 
Tyrone.  James  I.  at  first  treated  him  very 
kindly,  but,  when  the  English  shire  system 
began  to  be  introduced  and  the  penal  laws 
began  to  be  carried  out,  Tyrone  conspired 
with  Tyrconnel  and  the  Spaniards.  In  1607, 
thinking  him%lf  discovered,  he  fled  the 
country  and  settled  in  Rome,  where  he  died 
in  1616.  His  lands  were  confiscated  after  his 
flight.  By  the  death  of  his  sons  soon  after, 
this  branch  of  the  O'Neils  became  extinct. 

Fronde;  Sng.  in  Iretand  ;  Moore,  Hut.  of  Ir§- 
land;  Camden,  AnnAUa  rerum  Anglicarum  ti 
Hibemicarum  ;  Moryaon,  Hitt.  of  Ireland,  1635. 

O'Veil,  OwBN  Rob  {d,  1680),  had  been  an 
officer  in  the  Spanish  service,  but  returned  to 
Ulster,  and  in  July,  1642,  assumed  the  com- 
mand. He  was  soon  hailed  as  "  The  0*Neil," 
though  he  was  not  in  the  direct  line  of 
descent.  The  Council  entrusted  him  with  the 
command  in  Ulster ;  but  he  was  not  at  first 
very  successful,  and  had  to  appeal  to  them  for 
help.  But,  on  June  6,  1646,  he  won  the 
splendid  victory  over  Monroe's  Scots  and 
English  at  Benburb.  He  was  opposed  to  the 
reconciliation  between  Ormonde  and  the 
Catholics,  and,  in  1649,  went  so  far  as  to 
come  to  an  agreement  with  Monk ;  but,  after 
Rathmines,  the  English  Parliament  refused 
to  ag^ree  to  this  treaty,  and  he  then  proceeded 
to  join  Ormonde.  Before  he  could  effect  his 
purpose,  however,  he  was  struck  down  by  ill- 
ness, or,  as  some  say,  poison,  and  died  at 
Clonacter,  in  Cavan.  Leck>'  says  of  him  that 
''during  the  whole  of  his  cai^eer  he  showed 
himself  an  able  and  honourable  man." 

Lecky,    England   in  ths  EighJtemth  Cmtury; 


Froude,  Englitik  in  Irdand^  Warner;  Ctxbi, 
Hitt.  of  the  Life  of  Jamet,  Ihke  of  Ornumde. 

O'BTeilf  Shane  {d.  1567),  was  the  legitimate 
eldest  son  of  Conn  O'Neil.  By  Henry  Vlll.'i 
patent  the  earldom  of  Tyrone,  as  granted  to 
Conn,  was  to  descend  to  Matthew,  his  base  son, 
and  his  heirs.  Matthew  had  before  Cona'a 
death  fEillen  by  Shane's  hand,  but  his  son  wis 
supported  by  England.  Shane  O'Neil,  how- 
ever, got  recognised  as  the  O'Neil  b}'  a  large 
part  of  the  clan,  and  held  out  in  rebellioD 
against  the  Earl  of  Sussex,  his  personal  foe. 
kn  attempt  to  set  up  O'Donnell  against  him 
led  to  that  chiefs  capture,  and  his  wife,  the 
Countess  of  Argyle,  became  Shane's  mistress 
ri560).  Nevertheless,  however,  Shane  pro- 
lessod  himself  anxious  for  peace,  and  even  for 
an  English  wife ;  at  last  he  was  induced  with 
this  view  to  go  over  to  England,  where  he  was 
well  received  by  Elizabeth,  but  not  allowed 
to  return.  When,  however,  in  1561,  the 
young  Earl  of  T^Tone  was  murdered  by  one 
of  his  kinsmen,  Shane  was  allowed  to  depart, 
and  at  once  succeeded  to  all  his  nephew's 
power.  In  1564  the  Lord-Deputy  made  an 
attempt  at  a  meeting  witli  Shane  at  Dundalk 
to  induce  him  to  liberate  O'Donnell,  who  was 
stiU  his  prisoner.  This  he  finally  did,  but  on 
terms  sufficiently  humiliating  for  England 
and  its  ally.  Soon  after  he  concluded  a 
treaty  with  Sir  Thomas  Cusacke,  in  accord- 
ance with  which  he  submitted ;  he  was,  how- 
ever, allowed  to  call  himself  the  O'Neil  till 
an  English  title  should  be  found  for  him  and 
the  garrison  of  Armagh  was  withdrawn. 
This  treaty  he  obser\'ed  very  fiaithfuUy,  and 
in  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  the  English 
he  attacked  and  for  the  time  destroyed  the 
Island  Scots  in  1564.  When  Sir  H.  Sidney 
came  over  as  Lord-Deputy,  he  refused  to 
restore  O'Donnell's  lands,  and  ravaged  the 
Pale ;  in  consequence  he  was  attacked  by  the 
united  forces  of  the  Lord-Deputy,  of  the  Pale, 
and  of  the  O'Donnells,  ana  in  1567  all  his 
forts  were  taken^  and  his  own  clan  abandoned 
him.  He  fied  to  the  Scots,  but  Oge  Mac- 
Cormel,  determined  to  revenge  the  ddeat  and 
fall  of  his  brother,  had  him  murdered  in 
his  camp.  Shane's  head  was  stack  up  in 
Dublin  by  order  of  the  Lord-Deputy.  Shane 
was  a  remarkable  character,  and  seems  to 
have  governed  Ulster  uncommonly  well.  It 
is  also  evident  that  he  had  made  a  favourable 
impression  on  Elizabeth. 

Moore,    HiaC.    of   IrOand;     8idn«f    Pvptn; 
Froude,  Hut.  ofEng. 

O'Vail,  Sir  Phblim  (</.  1652),  a  relation 
of  the  last  Earl  of  Tyrone,  was  one  of  the 
leaders  in  the  Ulster  rising  of  1641.  He  was 
a  weak  man,  and  the  only  one  among  the 
leaders  who  seems  to  have  really  allowea  and 
encouraged  outrages.  At  first  he  spared  the 
prisoners,  but  after  meeting  with  some 
reverses,  he  began  to  execute  his  captives, 
and   on    one    occasion    even    burnt   down 


<yv« 


(  783  ) 


Ovd 


Armagh.  Early  in  1642  he  announced  that 
he  waa  entrusted  with  a  royal  commisaion, 
and  showed  in  support  of  his  assertion  a 
parchment  with  the  Ghreat  Seal  of  Scot^d. 
It  was  prohably,  but  not  certainly,  torn  from 
an  old  charter.  He  also  began  to  style  him- 
self the  0*NeiL  In  July,  1642,  however,  the 
command  dropped  from  his  feeble  hands,  and 
Owen  Roe  O'Keil,  his  successor,  expressed  in 
strong  terms  horror  and  disgust  at  his  conduct. 
Sir  Phelim's  mother,  on  the  other  hand,  had 
greatly  distinguished  herself  in  protecting 
the  Protestants  from  her  son's  cruelty.  Sir 
Phelim*s  chief  success  in  actual  warfare  was 
obtained  over  the  garrison  of  Drogheda.  In 
1652  he  was  tried  before  the  High  Court  of 
Justice  at  Kilkenny,  presided  over  by  Fleet- 
wood, and,  together  with  some  200  others, 
convicted  and  executed. 

Fronde,  Eng,  in  Ireland ;  Ctfte,  Hw(.  of  tlu 
Lif4  ofJamm,  Duke  of  Ormond; 

OVoilSf  The  Sept  of  the,  was  the  regal 
race  of  Ulster,  descended  from  the  ancient 
race  which  governed  Ireland  before  the  days 
of  Brian  Boru.  In  Edward  Bruce's  invasion 
their  chief  resigned  his  title  to  the  crown.  The 
regal  title  of  the  0*Neil  was,  however,  always 
borne  by  their  chief  when  he  was  in  arms 
against  England.  In  Elizabeth's  time  the 
0*Neil  submitted  {eirea  1543),  and  became 
Earl  of  Tyrone,  being  refused  the  earldom  of 
Ulster. 

Moore,  Hwt.  of  Irtland. 

OtBXLf^VBiWlj  The,  was  a  term  which 
began  to  be  used  as  early  as  1689,  and 
was  applied  to  the  upholders  of  Revolution 
principles.  On  Sept.  21,  1796,  the  first 
Orange  lodge  was  instituted  by  the  Peep 
o'  U^y  Boys,  after  the  celebrated  battle 
of  Diamond.  The  lodges  soon  multiplied, 
their  chief  object  at  that  time  being  to 
disarm  the  Catholics,  who  indeed  had  no 
right  to  keep  arms.  By  1797  they  could 
master  200,000  men.  Many  noblemen  and 
gentlemen  joined  them,  and  it  was  their 
influence  which  counteracted  that  of  the 
United  Irishmen  in  the  north.  In  1798  the 
rebels  were  more  afraid  of  them  than  of  the 
regular  troops,  but  Lord  Camden,  perhaps 
rightly,  refused  to  employ  them,  and  thereby 
give  a  sectarian  character  to  the  rebellion. 
In  1825  they  were  dissolved  by  the  Associa- 
tion Bill.  In  1836  they,  however,  again 
numbered  145,000  members  in  England  and 
125,000  in  Ireland.  The  Duke  of  Cumber- 
land was  Grand  Master,  and  the  Orangemen 
were  suspected  of  a  wish  to  change  the  suc- 
cession in  his  favour  by  force  of  arms.  Con- 
sequently, after  a  parliamentary  inquiry,  their 
lodges  were  broken  up.  In  1846  they  were 
again  revived,  and  many  faction  fights  fol- 
lowed in  Ireland.  In  1869  great  excitement 
"^'as  created  by  the  arrest  of  their  Grand 
Master  for  violating  the  Party  Processions  Act. 
More  recently  they  have  been  active  in  their 
opposition  to' Home  Rule. 


OrdainAniy  The  Lords,  consisted  of  earls, 
barons,  and  bishops,  appointed  in  March,  1310, 
to  hold  office  till  Michaelmas,  1311,  and  to 
draw  up  ordinances  for  the  reform  of  the 
realm.  A  precedent  for  the  appointment  of 
such  a  commission  was  found  in  the  proceed- 
ings of  the  Oxford  Parliament  of  1258,  and 
in  both  cases  it  is  noticeable  that  the  Com- 
mons had  no  share  in  the  matter.  The 
Ordainers  were  twenty-one  in  number,  viz., 
seven  bishops,  eight  earls,  and  six  barons. 

Ordaal.  This  name,  once  written  orddl 
and  ordel^  etymologically  signifies  a  distri- 
bution into  **  deals  *'  or  parts,  then  a  discrimi- 
nating, and  then  a  deciding  (Ger.  Urtheit),  and 
was  given  to  a  peculiar  method  of  reaching 
the  facts  in  criminal  cases  that  mxide  a  feature 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  judicial  system.  Though 
represented  as  an  inheritance  from  Pagan 
times,  it  is  described  as  "a  reference  to  the 
direct  judgment  of  God,"  and  would  seem  to 
have  been  allowed  as  an  alternative  to  those 
who  failed  in  or  shrank  from  the  process  by 
compurgation  or  by  oath.  **  If  he  dare  not 
take  the  oath,'*  says  an  old  law,  **  let  him  go 
to  the  triple  ordeal.*'  But  the  recorded  detaUs 
will  not  warrant  a  positive  statemeiit.  We 
only  know  that  under  certain  circumstances, 
while  the  court,  sheriff,  bishop,  thegn8,'&c., 
declared  the  law,  the  ordeal  was  expected  to 
reveal  the  facts.  The  ceremony  took  place  in 
church.  After  three  days  of  severe  discipline 
and  austere  diet,  having  communicated  and 
made  oath  that  he  was  innocent,  the'  accused 
person,  standing  between  twelve  friends  and 
twelve  foes,  when  a  special  'sOrvice  had  con- 
cluded, plunged  his  arm  into  boiling  water, 
drew  out  a  stone  or  lump  of  iron,  and  had  his 
arm  bandaged  by  the  priest.  This  was  the 
ordeal  of  water.  Or  he  was  called  on  to  seize 
a  bar  of  iron  that  had  lain  on  a  fire  till  the 
last  collect  of  the  service  had  been  read,  carry 
it  for  three  feet,  and  hasten  to  the  altar,  when 
the  priest  promptly  applied  the  bandages. 
This  was  the  ordeal  of  iron.  If  in  three 
days'  time  the  priest  could  say  the  arm  was 
healed,  the  sufferer  was  pronounced  guiltless, 
if  not,  he  was  judged  as  one  convicteaof  GKxl. 
Minor  or  less  accredited  ordeals  were  the 
eorsnedf  or  eating  of  the  consccrated'or  accused 
morsel,  and  the  casting  of  the  subject,  bound, 
into  deep  water.  If  the  former  did  not  choke, 
if  the  latter  threatened  to  drown,  it  was  taken 
as  a  proof  of  innocence.  Walking  on  burning 
ploughshares  also  appears  as  an  ordeal,  but 
seldom,  if  ever,  save  in  incredible  stories,  as 
in  that  told  of  Emma,  Canutc^s  widow. 

Ordeal  continued  after  the  Conquest.  The 
Conqueror  allowed  it  to  Englishmen  when 
challenged  by  Normans  in- place  of  the  newly- 
introduced  tnal  by  battle.  '.' 7>om«Mfay,"  Prof. 
I^Veeman  tells  us,  "  is  full  of  cases  in  which 
men  offer  to  prove  their  rights  ...  by 
battle  or  bv  ordeal.'*  In  the  Assize  of  North- 
ampton  (1176)  it  is  ordered  that  men  presented 


Ovd 


(  784) 


Ore 


before  the  king's  justices  for  the  darker  crimes 

should  **  go  to  the  judgment  of  water.**     But 

ii  fell  into  disrepute ;   the  Church  withdrew 

her  countenance  from  it;    other    processes, 

notably  the  crude  forms  of  the  jury  system, 

grew  into  favour;   the  Lateran  Council  of 

1216  abolished  it.    This  sealed  its  doom  in 

England  as  elsewhere ;  a  letter  of  Henry  III.*s 

to  the  itinerant  justices  in  1218  is  usually 

accepted  as  marking  its  final  extinction. 

PalgraTe,  Ettglieh  Comnumvealth;  Lingard, 
HiMt.  of  Eng. ;  Stubbs,  Contt.  Hiat.     r j^  j^ -| 

Orddriciu  Vitalis  (b.  1075,  d.  1145) 
was  of  mixed  parentage,  his  father  being  a 
native  of  Orleans  and  his  mother  an  English- 
woman. He  was  bom  in  England,  but  spent 
most  of  his  time  at  lisieux,  in  Normandy. 
He  wrote  an  Eeclesiaatieal  History  y  chiefly  con- 
cerned with  the  afiairs  of  Normandy,  and  he  is 
on  the  whole  the  most  valuable  authority  for  the 
reigns  of  William  the  Conqueror  and  his  son. 
The  first  part  of  his  work  deals  with  the 
history  of  the  Church  from  the  beginning  of 
the  Christian  era  to  the  year  855 ;  the  second 
part  gives  the  history  of  the  monastery  of 
St.  Evroul ;  and  the  third  part  is  a  general 
history  of  events  in  Western  Christendom 
from  Carlovingian  times  down  to  the  year 
1141. 

The  best  edition  is  that  pnbliahed  at  Paris  by 
Le  PreTost,  and  a  translation  will  be  foond  iu 
Bohn's  ilntiqiianan  Library. 

Orders  in  Coimcil  are  orders  by  the 
sovereign  with  the  advice  of  the  Frivy 
Council.  They  have  been  issued  in  times  of 
emergency.  In  1766  an  embargo  was  im- 
posed on  the  exportation  of  com,  because  of  a 
deficient  han'est  and  the  prospect  of  a  famine. 
Napoleon  I.'s  Berlin  decree,  declaring  the 
whole  of  the  British  Islands  to  be  in  a  state 
of  blockade,  called  forth,  on  Jan.  7,  1807,  an 
Order  in  Council  prohibiting  all  vessels,  imder 
the  penalty  of  seizure,  from  trading  to  ports 
under  the  infiuence  of  France.  Further 
orders  bearing  upon  the  same  question  were 
issued  on  Nov.  11  and  21  of  the  same  year. 
On  April  26, 1808,  by  a  new  Order  in  Council, 
the  blockade  was  limited  to  France,  Holland, 
a  part  of  Germany,  and  the  north  of  Italy. 
The  legality  of  Oixiers  in  Coimcil  has  been 
frequently  questioned.  They  have,  however, 
been  authorised  by  statute  in  various  matters 
connected  with  trade  and  the  revenue  ;  and 
the  International  Copyright  Act,  7  and  8  Vic, 
cap.  12,  contains  a  clause  empowering  the 
crown  by  Order  in  Council  to  extend  the 
benefits  of  that  Act  to  works  first  published 
in  any  state  that  gives  a  like  privilege  to  the 
productions  of  this  country. 

Ordinance  is  a  form  of  legislation  op- 
posed to  a  statute.  An  ordinance  has  been 
defined  as  **a  regulation  made  by  the  king, 
by  himself,  or  in  his  council,  or  with  the 
advice  of  his  council,  promulgated  in  letters 
patent  or  in  charter,  and  liable  to  be  recalled 


by  the  same  authority.*'  Hie  essential 
difirerence  between  an  ordinance  and  a  statute 
lay  in  the  fact  that  the  former  did  not  require 
to  be.  enacted  in  Parliament,  and  mi^ht  be 
repealed  without  Parliament.  Moreover,  the 
ordinance  is  the  temporary  Act  of  the  execu- 
tive; the  statute,  the  permanent  Act  of  the 
legislature.  From  the  earliest  days  of  Parlia- 
ment a  great  deal  of  jealousy  was  felt  on 
account  of  the  ordaining  power  of  the  king 
and  his  council.  It  very  frequently  happened 
that  an  ordinance  practicallv  repealed  or 
materially  modified  what  had  been  enacted 
by  statute;  and  in  1389  a  petition  was  pre- 
sented by  the  Commons  praying  that  no 
ordinance  be  made  contrar\'  to  the  common 
law,  the  ancient  customs  of  the  land,  or  the 
statutes  made  by  Parliament.  The  sovereign 
still  possesses  the  power,  which  must  be  given 
to  the  executive,  of  legislating  by  ordinance 
in  certain  cases.  But  these  ordiinances,  or 
Orders  in  Council,  as  they  are  termed,  art^ 
only  made  with  the  consent  of  Parliament, 
are  in  most  cases  laid  before  the  two  Houses,, 
and  may  be  abrogated  by  Act  of  Parliament, 

Ordovicas,  The,  were  an  ancient  British 
tribe  who  occupied  the  north  of  Wales  and 
Anglesey. 

Oreffon  Qnastion,  The.  The  treaty* 
of  1783  between  the  United  States  and 
England  had  omitted  to  define  the  frontier 
between  Canada  and  the  United  States  east- 
wards from  the  great  lakes,  and  also  west- 
wards from  the  Kocky  Mountains,  learing 
open  the  disposal  of  iiiQ  vast  district  lying 
between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the 
Pacific.  In  November,  1 8 1 8,  a  convention  weu^ 
concluded  between  the  two  governments  con- 
taining this  stipulation,  that  **  whatever  terri- 
tory mav  be  claimed  by  one  or  other  of  the 
contractmg  parties  on  the  north-west  coast  of 
America,  to  the  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
as  also  all  bays,  harbours,  creeks,  or  riven 
thereon,  shall  be  free  and  open  to  the  ships, 
citizens,  and  subjects  of  both  powers,  for  ten 
years  from  the  date  of  the  signature  of 
the  present  convention.'*  This  convention 
was  renewed  Aug.  6,  1827,  for  an  indefinite 
period,  with  the  understanding  that  either 
party  might  rescind  the  stipulation  by  giving 
twelve  months'  notice.  The  boundary  ques- 
tion was  thus  left  still  in  abeyance.  Numerous 
difficulties  occurred,  and  in  1846  the  American 
legislature  gave  notice  that  the  existing  con- 
vention would  terminate  in  twelve  months.  A 
great  deal  of  indignation  had  previously  been 
excited  in  England  by  President  Polk's  in- 
augural address  in  1846,  in  which  he  dis- 
tinctly claimed  Oregon  as  part  of  the  United 
States,  and  asserted  that  the  Americans  would 
maintain  their  right  to  it  by  force  of  arms  if 
necessary.  This  speech  was  replied  to  by 
Sir  Robert  Peel  in  a  spirited  address  to  the 
House  of  Common^  England  at  once  trans- 
mitted a  proposition  for  a  settlement,  and  this 


Orf 


(  786) 


Orl 


ivas  eventually  accepted  by  the  United  States. 
The  territory  waa  then  equitably  divided  be- 
tween the  two  coantries  by  the  Oregon  Treaty 
of  1846.  The  north-west  frontier  was  defined 
along  the  main  land  to  the  coast,  but  there 
were  some  minor  points  which  were  not 
defined  with  sufiicient  precision  to  prevent 
mistake.  In  consequence  a  dispute  arose  later 
as  to  the  ownership  of  the  little  island  of  San 
Juan,  which  was  decided  by  arbitration. 

EUenboroogh,    Diary;    Martin,   Lif«   of  the 
Pfinee  Coiuort;  Molesvrorth,  Hui.  of  J^. 

Osfordy  £arl  op.    [Russell  ;  Walpole.] 

Orlo&Mr  and  ShotlancU  the  northern- 
most county  of  modem  Scotland,  consists  of 
two  groups  of  islands,  of  which  the  Orkneys 
are  the  southernmost.  There  are  faint  traces 
of  their  having  been  originally  inhabited  by 
Picts.  If  Nennius  could  be  believed  {J£on,  Mist, 
Brit,^  p.  66a)  it  was  the  original  settlement  of 
that  nation.  In  a.i>.  86  Agricola  took  posses- 
sion of  the  Orkneys,  but  it  is  improbable 
that  the  Romans  ever  effected  a  definite  oc- 
cupation. When  in  682  the  Pictish  king,  Brude 
MacBile,  devastated  the  Orkney  Islands, 
he  must  have  waged  war  against  some  civil 
foes.  But  the  re«l  history  of  the  northern 
islands  begins  with  the  ScEUidinavian  settle- 
ments. Their  position  exposed  them  to 
Viking  outrages,  and  invited  the  settlement 
of  the  hardy  Norsemen,  who  fied  beyond  sea 
from  the  tyranny  of  Harold  Harfagr.  In  874 
Thorstein  the  Red,  son  of  a  Norse  King  of 
Dublin,  had  already  conquered  both  Orlmey 
and  Shetland,  and  Caithness  and  Sutherland. 
But  within  ten  years  Harfagr  himself  sailed 
to  Orkney,  added  it  to  his  empire,  and  consti- 
tuted it  an  earldom  in  favour  of  Rognwald, 
who  handed  it  over  to  his  brother  Sig^urd. 
Jarl  Sigurd  soon  added  to  his  government 
OuthnesB  and  Sutherland,  if  not  districts  still 
farther  south.  It  is  unnecessary  to  enter  into 
the  detailed  history  of  the  Jarls  of  Orkney,  of 
their  wars  with  the  Scots,  in  the  Hebrides, 
and  in  Irekind.  Their  district  was  frequently 
split  up  Into  two  portions,  held  by  different 
members  of  the  reig^ng  fiimily.  The  Scottish 
kings  claimed  some  indefinite  suserain  rights 
over  Caithness,  but  Orkney  paid  scat  or  tribute 
to  Norway  alone.  Some  of  the  more  valiant 
of  the  earls  conquered  the  whole  of  the 
districts  north  of  Uto  Spoy,  but  the  evidence 
of  language  no  less  than  of  history  shows  that 
'^Suther  land"  was  the  southernmost  point 
of  the  district  permanently  occupied  by  the 
Norsemen.  Unlike  the  Hebrides,  the  jarldom 
of  Orkney  was  not  only  conquered,  but  colo- 
nised. The  original  inhabitants  were  nearly 
extirpated.  To  this  day  the  lang^ge  of  the 
district  is  English,  the  nomenclature  Norse, 
the  laws  and  constitution  purely  Scandinavian. 
The  udal  tenure  and  the  Norse  poor  law  are 
but  things  of  yesterday  in  Orkney.  After  the 
introduction  of  Christianity  by  Olaf  Trygg- 
vason  in  997,  Orkney  becune  the  seat  of  a 


bishopric,  and  Shetland  later  of  an  aTch> 
deaconry,  which  were  iacluded  in  the  province 
of  Trondhjem.  But  the  obedience  of  the 
Bishop  of  Caithness  was  more  doubtfuL  Earl 
Thorfinn  (1014—1064),  the  founder  of  the 
cathedral  of  Kirkwall,  was  almost  the  last  of 
the  g^reat  conquering  Jarls  of  Orkney.  His 
conquests  lapsed  on  his  death.  His  sons, 
Paiu  and  Eriing,  who  joined  Harold  Har- 
drada's  expedition  to  England  in  1066,  ruled 
jointly,  and  were  the  founders  of  two  lines  of 
earls.  The  son  of  Erling  was  the  famous  St. 
Magnus.  Malcolm  Canmore  by  his  marriage 
with  Thorfinn's  widow  brought  the  whole 
district  into  some  relation  with  the  Scottish 
crown.  But  in  1093  both  Orkneys  and 
Western  Isles  were  conquered  for  a  time  by 
Magnus  Barefoot  of  Norway,  but  on  his  death 
in  1104  the  native  jarls  regained  their  practi- 
cally supreme  authority.  In  1196  William 
the  Lion  definitely  subjected  Caithness  to  his 
throne.  In  the  next  centur}'-  the  earldom  of 
Caithness  was  divided  between  the  Angus 
and  Moray  families.  At  a  later  period  the 
Sinclairs  got  possession  of  it.  T^e  islands 
remained  under  the  nominal  suzerainty  of  the 
Kings  of  Norway,  and,  after  the  Danish  con- 
quest, of  the  Kings  of  Deuinark.  In  1470 
they  were  handed  over  to  James  III.  as 
security  for  the  portion  of  his  wife,  Margaret 
of  Denmark.  At  the  same  time  the  bishopric 
was  transferred  from  the  province  of  Trond- 
hjem to  that  of  St.  Andrews.  The  pledge  was 
never  redeemed,  and  at  last,  on  the  marriage 
of  James  VI.  with  Anne  of  Denmark,  the 
pretensions  of  the  Danish  kings  were  more 
formally  ceded.  The  islands  were  constituted 
into  a  Scottish  county,  though  it  was  not 
until  the  Reform  Act  of  1832  that  Shetland 
had  any  voice  in  returning  Parliamentar}*^ 
representatives.  The  land  gradually  got  into 
the  hands  of  Scottish  proprietors,  but  the 
bulk  of  the  population  remained  Norse, 
though  that  lang^uage  died  out  with  the  cessa- 
tion of  the  political  connection. 

Anderson's  edition  of  the  Orkntyjingmr  Saga; 
Skene,  Cdtic  Scotland;  Sobertson,  Scotland 
under  her  Barly  King* ;  Torfaei,  Orcades ;  Barry, 
HitL  qf  Orfen«y  ;  Burton,  Hut.  (^Seoilund. 

[T.  F.  T.] 

Orleans,  The  Sieoe  of  (1428—29),  was 
commenced  by  the  Duke  of  Bedford  in 
October,  1428.  The  English  were  at  this 
time  masters  of  the  whole  country  north  of 
the  Loire,  and  were  anxious  to  extend  their 
conquests  across  that  river.  For  this  purpose 
it  was  necessary  that  Orleans  should  be  taken, 
as  it  commanded  the  valley  of  the  Loire.  The 
size  of  the  rity  rendered  a  strict  blockade 
almost  impossible,  while  a  considerable  French 
force  harassed  the  besiegers.  The  battle  of 
Patay,  which  was  fought  in  Febmary, 
1429,  seemed  to  deprive  the  beei^d  of 
all  hope  of  succour,  and  the  fall  of  Orleans 
was  certain,  when  the  sudden  rise  of  Joan 
of   Axe,  and   the    enthusiasm  she   created. 


Orl 


(  786  ) 


aided   by    the    skill  of   Dunois   and  other 

genenUfl  selected  by  her,  entirely  changed 

the  aspect  of  affairs.     Led  by  the  heroine  of 

Domremy,  the  French  succeeded  in  entering 

Orleans  in  April,  and  on  May  8  the  English 

raised  the  siege  and  retired,  being  defeated 

with  considerable  loss  ten  days  later  at  Patay. 

JSir  £.   Creasy  places  the  siege  of  Orleans 

among  the  decisive  battles  of  the  world,  and 

certainly  its  results  were  very  considerable. 

The  raising  of  the  siege  was  the  turn  of  the 

tide ;  after  this  the  English  lost  town  after 

town,  fortress  after  fortress,  till  at  last,  of  all 

their  great  French  possessions,  Calais  alone 

was  loft  to  them. 

Monstrelet,    Chroniquta;   Micbelet,  Hut.    d« 
France,  voL  t. 

Orletoilf  Adam,  Bishop  of  Winchester 
{d,  1345),  was  made  Bishop  of  Hereford  in 
the  year  1317,  and  translated  to  Winchester 
in  1333.  In  1323  he  was  accused  of  high 
treason  before  Parliament.  He  refused  to 
recognise  the  jurisdiction  of  a  lay  court, 
and  was  supported  by  all  the  other  prelates 
and  many  of  the  barons.  Edward  II. 
summoned  a  council  of  laymen  and  had 
Orleton  tried  before  them.  A  verdict  of 
guilty  was  returned,  and  his  property  seques- 
trated. Before  long,  however,  he  was  reoon- 
<dled  with  the  king  ;^  but  he  never  forgot  the 
insult,  and  in  1326  'he  took  the  lead  among 
the  bishops  in  support  of  Isabella  and  Mor- 
timer, tie  played  a  very  important  part 
in  the  events  which  led  to  Edward's  depo- 
sition and  murder,  and  is  largely  responsible 
for  both  these  acts. 

Ormonde,  James  Bi-tlbr,  4th  Earl  of 
{(l.  1452),  was  Lord-Deputy  in  Henry  IV.'s 
reign.  In  Henry  V.*s  reign  he  was  Lord- 
Lieutenant,  and  succeeded  in  keeping  the 
natives  out  of  the  Pale  (q.v.).  In  1423  he 
was  superseded.  In  1440,  however,  he  again 
became  Lord-Lieutenant,  and  remained  so 
till  1446. 

Lodge,  PcrtraiU, 

Ormonde,  Jambs  Bctlbr,  6th  Earl  of 
(d.  May  1,  1461),  was  created  Earl  of 
Wiltshire  in  1449,  and  was  knighted  by  Henry 
VI.  In  1453  he  became  Lord- Lieutenant  of 
Ireland,  and  got  tonnage  and  poundage  granted 
to  him  on  condition  of  guaraing  the  seas.  He 
was  an  ardent  Lancastrian,  and  fought  against 
the  Earl  of  Warwick  at  sea.  At  Wakefield, 
he  was  one  of  those  who  captured  the  Duke 
of  York.  In  1461,  however,  he  was  taken 
prisoner  at  Towton,  and  beheaded  at  New- 
castle (May  1,  1461).  Together  with  his 
brothers  he  was  attainted  in  Edward  lY.'s  first 
Parliament ;  his  brother,  the  sixth  earl,  was, 
however,  soon  afterwards  restored  in  blood. 

Orxnonde,  Thomas  Butler,  7th  Earl  of 

{d.  151')),  succeeded  his  brother,  the  sixth 
carl.  The  act  of  attainder  was  finally  re- 
versed by  the  first  Parliament  of  Henry  VII., 


aiid  he  was  summoned  to  the  English 
ment  as  Baron  Ormonde  of  Bochfoid,  in 
1496.  In  1616  he  died,  without  male  iasue. 
Through  his  daughter,  his  English  barony 
passed  to  the  Boleyns,  and  they  were  created 
Earls  of  Ormonde  as  well.  But  on  the  death 
of  Thomas  Boleyn  without  male  issue,  in 
1639,  the  earldom  was  restored  by  Heniy 
VIII.  to  the  BuUers. 
Lodge,  Portraits. 

OrmondOy  Thomas  Butler,  10th  Earl 
OF  (d,  1614),  was  in  1569  Lord  Hi^  Tiea- 
surer  of  Ireland,  which  ofSoe  he  held  till  his 
death.  He  was  a  staunch  Protestant,  having 
been  educated  at  the  English  court ;  this  em- 
bittered his  feud  with  the  Earl  of  Deomond 
(a.v.).  In  1680  he  was  appointed  Governor  of 
Munstor,  and  the  duty  was  imposed  on  him 
of  destroying  his  old  foe,  the  Earl  of  Des- 
mond. In  January,  1680,  he  ad>'anced  into 
the  country  of  the  Fitzgeralds,  destroying  all 
before  him.  It  is  said  that  in  one  year  his 
forces  killed  836  malefactors,  and  4,000  other 
people.  So  relentless  was  his  policy  that 
Munster  was  a  desert  when  he  left  it.  During 
the  remainder  of  his  life  Ormonde  continued 
a  firm  supporter  of  the  English  supremacy. 

Ormonde,  Jambs  Butler,  Ist  Duke  or 
{d,  1688),  was  the  most  powerful  nobleman  in 
Ireland.    In  1641,  when  the  rebellion  broke 
out,  he  was  made  lieutenant-general  of  the 
king's  forces.    In  consequence  of  his  victory 
over  Lord  Mountgarret  at  Kilrush  in  April, 
1642,  he  became  a  marquis.   He  soon  aiter  de- 
feated General  Preston,  but  the  position  of  the 
king  in  England  being  critical,  he  obeyed  the 
royal  orders,  and  concluded  with  the  reoels  the 
peace  called  the  Cessation.  Soon  after  he  was 
made  Lord-lieutenant,  but  being  unable  to 
hold  his  own,  he  honourably  chose  rather  to 
give  up  Dublin  to  the  Puritans  than  to  the 
natives,  and  surrendered  it  to  Colonel  Jones, 
and  in  1647  he  concluded  a  regular  treaty 
with  the  Parliamentary  commissioners.    On 
hearing,  however,  of  Charles  L's  execution, 
he  took   out  a  new  commission    as   Lord- 
Lieutenant  from  Charles  II.,  and  soon  found 
himself  at  the  head  of  all  the  Irish  forces,  ex- 
cepting only  0*Keirs  troops ;  however,  his  at- 
tempt to  besiege  Dublin  was  frustrated  by  the 
battle  of  Ratlunines  (Aug.  2,  1649),  and  soon 
after  he  left  the  kingdom.    Aiter  the  battle  of 
Worcester,  he  remained  with  Charles  II.  in 
his  exile.  On  the  Kestoration  he  became  Lord 
Butler  and  Earl  of  Brecknock  in  the  English 
peerage,  and  in  1661  Duke  of  Ormonde  in 
Ireland.     He    was   again    Lord-lieutenant 
from  1661  to  1668,  and  again  from  1677  to 
1682.      His    losses    in    the    king's    service 
were  estimated  at  £900,000.    His  reputation 
for  loyalty,  ability,  and  integrity  stood  very 
high,  and  he  held  aloof  from  the  immorality 
of  Charles's  court      His  latter  yean  weni 
douded  by  his  fears  for  James  IL,  and  they 


Omt 


(  787  ) 


Ort 


probably  hastened  his  end.  Uis  eldest  son. 
Lord  Ossory,  had  fallen  by  the  hand  of  an 
afisassin  in  1680.  This  son  was  nearly  as 
popular  as  his  father,  and  had  {j^reatly  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  Netherlands* 

Burnet,  Hitt.  of  hit  Own  Time;  Clarendon, 
HiA  ctf  tA«  RthaUon  ;   Carte,  Life  of  Ornumde. 

Ormondey  Jaxss  Butlbk,  2no  Dvkb  of  {b. 
1665,  <^.  174o),  was  grandson  of  the  first  Duke 
of  Ormonde.  On  the  death  of  his  grand- 
lather,  he  was  elected  Chancellor  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford.  On  the  arrival  of  William 
in  England,  he  deserted  James  JI.  in  company 
with  Prince  George  of  Denmark,  and  was 
present  at  the  coronation  of  William  and 
Mary.  Ue  was  present  at  the  battle  of  the 
Boyne,  at  Steinkirk,  and  at  Landen,  where 
he  was  taken  prisoner.  In  1696  he  voted 
for  the  attainder  of  Fen  wick.  In  1700  large 
grants  of  land  were  made  him  by  the  Com- 
mons. On  the  outbreak  of  the  War  of 
the  Spanish  Succession,  he  was  sent  with 
an  expedition  to  Cadiz,  together  with  Sir 
Oeorg^  Booke.  In  1 703  the  duke  became  Lord- 
lieutenant  of  Ireland,  on  the  resignation  of 
Rochester,  and  was  reappointed  in  1710.  His 
policy  of  favouring  the  Catholics  and  opposing 
the  Irish  Parliament  made  him  very  popular 
in  Ireland.  On  the  dismissal  of  I^Iarlborough 
he  was  appointed  to  command  the  troops  in 
Flanders.  He  was  ordered  to  undertake  no 
oifensive  operations  against  the  French,  in 
view  of  the  proposed  treaty;  but  he  could 
not  refuse  to  join  Eugene  in  the  aeffe  of 
Quesnoy.  On  the  declaration  of  an  armistice 
(June,  1712),  the  English  troops  were  ordered 
to  separate  horn.  Eugene.  After  the  accession 
of  Geor^,  it  was  resolved  to  impeach  him  for 
acting  in  concert  with  Marshal  Yillars.  He  fled 
to  France.  Bolingbroke  ascribes  the  ruin  of 
the  Pretender's  cause  in  1716  to  the  flight  of 
Ormonde  and  the  death  of  Louis  XIV.  The 
duke  soon  started  for  the  coast  of  Devonshire, 
hoping  to  find  that  county  in  a  state  of  rebel- 
lion. But  his  agent  had  betrayed  his  plans ; 
and  there  was  every  appearance  of  the  most 
profound  peace.  On  his  return  he  quarrelled 
with  Bolingbroke,  and  induced  James  Edward 
to  dismiss  him.  In  1719,  Alberoni,  the  Spanish 
minister,  fitted  out  a  fleet,  with  5,000  soldiers 
nnder  the  command  of  Ormonde.  He  was  to 
join  it'  at  Corunna  as  "  Captain-General  of 
the  King  of  Spain.''  But  the  ships  were 
scattered  by  storm.  He  spent  the  remainder 
of  his  life  chiefly  in  retirement  at  Avignon. 
In  1740,  on  the  outbreak  of  war,  Ormonde 
went  once  more  to  Madrid,  but  could  gain  no 
promises  of  help.  In  1744  Charles  Edward 
neglected  to  summon  him  to  loin  his  in- 
tended invasion  of  England,  until  all  chance 
of  success  was  over  for  the  year.  "  Ormonde," 
says  Stanhope,  ^*  unlike  Bolingbroke,  having 
taken  his.  part,  steadily  adhered  to  it  in 
evil  fortune,  and  never  returned  to  his 
native  country.    He  was  certainly  a  man  of 


very  amiable  temper,  and  no  mean  accomo 

plishments ;  and  with  no  blot  on  his  character 

unless  incapacity  and  utter  want  of  vigour 

are  to  be  looked  on  as  such." 

Bolmgbroke,  Letter  to  Wyndham;  Maoaulay, 
Hist,  of  Eng. ;  Stanhope,  Hxet,  of  Eng, 

Ondni  Question.    On  Jan.  14,  1858, 

Felix  Orsini  and  his  gang  attempted  the 
assassination  of  the  Emperor  of  the  French 
by  means  of  explosive  bombs.  As  these  men 
came  from  London,  where  they  had  made  their 
preparations,  great  indignation  was  excited  in 
France  that  belter  was  afforded  to  such  a 
crew  of  rufiians.  Count  Walewski,  Minister 
of  Foreign  Affairs,  wrote  to  Count  Persigny, 
French  ambassador  at  London,  on  the  subject 
with  some  acrimony,  inveighing  against  the 
defective  laws  of  England,  which  allowed  the 
right  of  asylum  to  protect  such  assassins. 
The  French  ambassador  made  representations 
to  the  English  government,  and  Lord  Palmer- 
ston,  recognising  the  justice  of  the  represen- 
tations, introduced  a  bill  for  the  puniuhment 
of  conspiracy  to  murder.  Unfortunately, 
however,  certain  French  officera  had  thought 
fit  to  give  vent  to  their  indignation  against 
England  in  their  congpntulations  to  the  Em- 
peror, and  entreated  him  to  allow  them  to 
"  demand  an  account  of  the  land  of  iniquity 
which  contains  the  haunts  of  the  monsters, 
who  are  sheltered  by  its  laws."  The  result 
was  that  in  spite  of  Count  Walewski's  en- 
deavours to  remove  the*  bad  impression,  the 
spirit  of  England  was  roused  and  Lord  Pal- 
merston's  measure  was  regarded  as  an  un- 
worthy concession  to  the  menaces  of  the 
French  army.  It  was  thrown  out  on  a  di- 
vision, and  Lord  Palmerston  resigned.  His 
successor.  Lord  Derby,  took  np  a  stronger 
position,  and  returned  a  firm  answer  to  Count 
Walewski's  note.  A  satisfactory  reply  was 
received,  and  the  matter  terminated  in  a 
friendly  and  honourable  manner. 

Ashley.  Life  of  Lord  Palfiv«r>tou;  McCarthy, 
Hist,  qf  Our  Own  Times. 

OrthM,  The  Battle  of  (Feb.  27,  1814), 
was  fought  at  the  close  of  the  Peninsular  War, 
and  gained  one  of  the  strong  positions  which 
Soult  had  taken  up  in  the  south  of  France. 
Two  days  before  the  battle,  Bercsford  forced 
the  passage  of  the  Gave  de  Pan,  below  Orthes. 
On  the  next  day,  Soult  learnt  this,  and  took  up 
a  strong  position  on  a  ridge,  which  was  in  part 
covered  with  woods,  and  pi'esented  a  concave 
front  to  the  allies.  The  ridge  was  crossed  by 
the  main  road  from  Orthes  to  Dax,  and  was 
protected  in  front  of  its  centre  by  some 
swampy  ground,  at  the  further  side  of  which 
was  an  old  Roman  camp,  which  was  oc- 
cupied on  the  day  of  the  battle  by  the  light 
division.  Wellington's  plan  was  to  turn 
the  French  right,  while  Hill,  skirting  the 
French  left,  should  seize  the  road  to  St.  Sever ; 
thus  Soult  would  have  no  line  of  retreat^ 
and  would   be    shut    up    in   Orthes.      The 


Osg 


(  788  ) 


0«w 


attacks  of  Roe  and  Picton  on  the  French 

right  on  the  morning  of  the  27th  completely 

failed ;  but  Wellington  ordered  a  concentrated 

assault  to  be  made  on  the  French  left  and 

centre.  Wading  through  the  marsh,  the  troops 

were  not   noticed   imtil  they  drove   in  the 

skirmishers,    and    carried  aU    before    them. 

The   confusion    soon    became    general,    and 

the  French  fell  back.      Hill  meanwhile  had 

forced  the  ford  at  Souars,  and  was  now  in 

possession  of  the  Pau  road.     There  was  thus 

open  to  Soult  only  a  narrow  road  to  Sault 

de  Nuvailles.    Of  this  he  determined  to  avail 

himself,    and    conducted    the    retreat    with 

such  skill  and  order  that  the  French  were 

able  to  seize  a  small  lidge,  before  Hill  could 

occupy  it.     Wellington,  being  wounded,  was 

unable   to    superintend  the  pursuit  himself, 

which    was    not    carried    on    so    vigorously 

as  it  might  have  been.     As  it  was,  however, 

Soult  lost  an  enormous  number  of  stragglers, 

many  of  whom  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 

allies. 

Napier,  PeniiMular  War;  Clinton,  Peninaular 
War. 

Osgod  Clapa  was  a  Bane  in  the  service 
of  Hardicanute.  It  was  at  the  marriage  of 
his  daughter  with  Tovi  the  Proud  that 
Hardicanute  died.  On  the  accession  of 
Edward  the  Confessor  he  was  made  Sialler^  or 
Master  of  the  Horse,  but  seeme  to  have  been 
suspected  of  intrigues  with  Magnus,  and  was 
accordingly  banished  in  1046.  Clapham,  in 
London,  is  supposed  to  be  named  from  his 
mansion. 

Florence  of  Worcester,  ChnmicU, 

Osred  11.,  King  of  Northumbria  (788 
— 789),  was  the  son  of  Aired ;  he  succeeded 
on  the  murder  of  Alfwold,  but  held  the 
kingdom  scarcely  a  year  when  Ethehred  (q.v.) 
returned,  and  compelled  him  to  abdicate. 
He  was  obliged  to  assume  the  tonsure,  and 
subsequently  to  seek  refuge  in  exile. 

AngUhSaxcm  Chronide ;  Simeon  of  Durham. 

OstmexLy  or  Eastmen  (Norse,  Aust. 
inathr)y  was  the  name  generally  applied  to 
the  Scandinavian  settlers  in  Ireland.  Towards 
the  end  of  the  eighth  century  the  exception- 
ally disturbed  condition  of  Ireland,  where  the 
Sower  of  the  ard  ri  (over-king)  had  been  Fe- 
nced to  nothing,  and  sept  constantly  waged 
war  against  sept,  invited  the  Viking  rovers  to 
plunder  and  settle  on  its  coasts.  In  795  the  first 
recorded  invasion  took  place.  For  the  next 
half  century  the  invaders  sought  plunder  only. 
But  about  850  they  formed  permanent  settle- 
ments along  the  whole  east  coast.  Dublin, 
whose  suburb  Oxmanstown  still  preserves  the 
name  of  the  Ostman,  Wexford,  Waterford — 
both  purely  Norse  names — Limerick  even,  in 
the  remotest  part  of  the  island,  became  the 
centres  of  Norse  jarldoms.  With  character- 
istic facility,  the  new-comers  soon  mixed 
with  the  natives.  Besides  the  pure  races — 
the  Dub-gaill,  or  black  foreigners,  and  Find- 


gaill  or  fair  foreigners,  as  varions  branches  of 
Qie  Norsemen  were  called — ^the  mixed  race  of 
Gall-goidel  soon  became  equally  famous  aa 
pirates,  warriors,  and  mariners.  They  con- 
stantly spread  devastation  along  the  shores  of 
Britain.  The  Welsh  coast,  from  its  proximity, 
was  especially  often  attacked  by  them.  But 
they  also  had  close  relations  with  the  Norse- 
men more  to  the  north.  A  son  of  a  King  of 
Dublin  first  conquered  Orkney;  and  nam» 
like  Njal  give  weight  to  the  theory  that 
Iceland  was  largely  settled  by  Irish  "Danes, 
or  at  least  had  conistant  dealings  with  them. 
The  Danish  kings  of  Dublin  were  espedally 
powerful.  At  last  the  vigour  of  the  Viking 
states  began  to  abate.  The  Ostmen  were 
compelled  to  acknowledge  the  overlordship 
of  great  English  kings,  like  Edgar.  Hiey 
became  too  much  mixed  up  with  the  dan 
system  of  the  Irish  to  retain  their  old  chaxac' 
teristics.  A  great  Celtic  reaction  set  in, 
which  culminated  in  the  decisite  yictory  of 
the  famous  Brian  Boroimhe  at  the  battle  of 
aontarf  in  1014.  (See  Skene,  (^Uic  SeotUnd, 
i.  386.)  The  power  of  the  Norseman  was 
broken,  though  the  weakness  of  the  con- 
querors left  Dublin  a  Danish  city  until  the 
arrival  of  Strongbow.  Their  conyersion  to 
Christianity  still  farther  weakened  the  oM 
Viking  prowess.  Their  bishoprics,  connected 
with  Trondhjem  in  early  times,  were  in 
striking  contrast  to  the  clan  ^'steni  of  the 
Irish  Church.  The  anxiety  of  these  Norse 
bishops  to  avoid  amalgamation  by  the  latter 
by  acKnowledging  the  supremacy  of  Canter- 
burj',  is  strikingly  brought  out  by  the  rela- 
tions of  Lanfranc  with  the  Archbishop  of 
Dublin.  (Freeman,  Nonnan  Conquest,  iv.  629.) 
At  last  the  remnants  of  the  Ostmen  readily 
assimilated  themselves  to  their  kinsfolk  the 
Norman  lords  and  soldiers  who  conquered  the 
greater  part  of  Ireland  in  the  reign  of  Heniy 
II.  Except  for  their  influence  in  the  place- 
names  of  the  island,  and  on  the  growth  of  the 
towns,  they  left  few  permanent  traces  in  the 
later  history  of  Ireland. 

Chr<micln  of  the  Piett  and  Seotf,  edited  hj 
Skene  ;  Wars  qf  th«  6<ndh«l  and  tfc«  Giui  (BoIIi 
Beries) ;  Dasent,  Burnt  Ni'ol ;  Worsan,  Danm 
and  Norwegiantt  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Ire- 
land. [-X.  F.  T.] 

OstorixiS  Scapula,  Homan  Governor 
in  Britain  ^47 — 61),  conducted  the  suc- 
cessful campaign  against  Caractacus.  The 
subsequent  rising  of  the  Silures  taxed  his 
energies,  and  is  said  to  have  occasioned  his 
death. 

OswalcU  King  of  Northumbria  (634— 
642),  was  the  son  of  Ethelfred.  After  his 
father^s  death,  he  retired  to  Scotland,  where 
he  remained  till  the  death  of  his  elder  brothers 
gave  him  the  claim  to  the  throne.  He  de- 
feated Cadwallon  at  Heavenfic^d,  near 
Hexham,  and  obtained  the  soyereignty  both 
of  Bemicia  and  Deira.    He  ranks  as  the  sixth 


0«w 


(  78»  ) 


Ond 


Bretwalda,  and  ia  said  to  have  leig^ned  over 
Angles,  Britozis,  PictB,  and  Scots.  He  re- 
«0tabliBhed,  with  the  help  of  St.  Aidan, 
Christianitv  in  Northumbna,  and  hiB  virtues 
xeceive  high  praise  from  Bede.  He  perished 
at  Maserneld  in  battle  asainst  Penda  of 
Herda.  By  his  subjects  he  was  regarded 
as  a  martyr,  and  muacles  were  said  to  be 
wrought  by  his  relics. 

Btide,  RM,  S«eUf.;  AfngiO'Saaon  CknmidU, 

Oswostiy  is  a  town  in  Shojishire  of  con- 
siderable antiquity.  It  derives  its  name  from 
Oswald,  King  of  Northumbna,  642.  The  re- 
mains of  a  castle  said  to  date  from  the  Norman 
Conquest  are  there,  situated  on  a  hill  to  the 
west  of  the  town. 

Omwjf  or  Oswiu*  King  of  Bemicia 
^.  642,  d.  670),  was  the  son  of  Ethelfred. 
On  the  death  of  his  brother  Oswald,  he 
succeeded  to  Bemicia  and  the  Bretwtdda- 
ship»  while  Deira  went  to  his  nephew, 
Oswine.  In  651  Oswiu  murdered  his 
nephew,  but  failed  to  conquer  the  whole  of 
Deira.  During  the  early  part  of  this  reign, 
Northumbria  was  exposed  to  frequent  attadcs 
from  Penda  of  Mercia,  who  was,  how- 
ever, defeated  and  slain  by  Oswiu  in  664. 
For  a  short  time  after  this,  Oswiu  ruled  over 
the  whole  of  Herda,  but  was  eventually  com- 
pelled by  Wul^here  to  retire  within  the 
boundaries  of  his  own  kingdom.  Oswiu's 
reign  is  also  important  for  the  union  of  the 
Churches  in  England,  which  took  place  now, 
tiie  Scottish  missionaries  being  obliged  to 
submit  to  the  authority  of  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury.  His  reig^  was  most  prosperous, 
and  his  kingdom  was  greatly  enlarged  by 
victories  over  the  Picts. 

Bede,   Hue.  Secies.;  Anglo-StUBon  Chrontelf; 
Lappenbetg,  Anglo-Stucon  King$. 

Otadoni,  or  Ottadeni,  The,  were  an 
ancient  British  tribe  occupying  the  coast  from 
the  Tyne  to  the  Firth  of  Forth,  including  a 
lar^e  part  of  Northumberland,  with  the 
present  counties  of  Berwick  and  Elast  Lothian, 
and  part  of  Roxburghshire. 

Otford,  The  Battlb  of  (773),  was  fought 
between  Oifa  and  Alric  of  Kent,  and  resulted 
in  a  victory  for  the  former,  and  the  sub- 
mission of  Kent  to  Mercia. 

OtllO,  one  of  the  chaplains  of  Pope  Hono- 
riu9  III.,  WHS  sent  over  to  England  as  nuncio 
in  1225,  partly  to  plead  for  Falkes  de  Breaut^, 
in  which  he  was  unsuccessful,  and  partly  to 
raise  money  for  the  Pope  by  obtaining  a  g^rant 
of  two  prebends  in  each  cathedr^.  This 
monstrous  demand  was  refused,  and  in  1226 
Otho  left  England,  to  return  in  1237  with 
full  legatine  powers.  He  now  acted  with 
great  moderation,  arranged  some  difficulties 
with  Scotland,  reformed  the  Church,  and 
attempted  to  abolish  pluralities.  But  his 
rapacity  was  unbounded,  and  when  he  left 


England  in  1241,  it  was  said  that  he  had  than 
drained  the  country  of  more  money  than  he 
had  left  in  it. 

Ottawa  ia  the  capital  of  Canada.  It  was 
named  Bytown,  after  Colonel  By,  until  1854, 
when  it  was  incorporated  as  a  city  under  its 
present  name.  In  1865  it  was  made  the 
Canadian  capital  and  scat  of  the  legislature. 
The  Parliament  Houses  are  reckoned  amongst 
the  finest  buildings  in  America. 

OttMrbnxn.  Thb  Battle  of  (Aug.  19, 
1888),  was  fought  between  an  invaoing  force 
of  Scotch  troops,  headed  by  the  Earls  of 
Douglas  and  Murray,  and  an  English  force, 
led  by  the  Percies.  The  Scotch  army  was 
divided  into  two  portions,  which  marched 
into  England  bv  different  routes.  The  smaller 
division,  after  being  repeatedly  threatened  l^ 
the  English,  besieged  Uie  town  of  Otterbum, 
in  Northumberland,  where  they  were  attacked 
in  an  entrenched  position  by  Hotspur  with  a 
force  of  9,000  men.  Although  the  Scots  were 
numerically  far  inferior,  their  victory  was 
decisive;  both  the  Percys  (Hotspur  and 
Balph)  were  taken  prisoners,  and  about  2,000 
of  Uie  English  were  slain.  The  battle  of 
Otterbum  has  been  commemorated  in  ballad 
poetry  under  the  name  of  Chevy  Chase. 
•*  The  battle  of  Otterbum,"  says  Mr.  Burton, 
**  has  this  much  significance  in  history,  that 
it  marks  the  fading  from  the  defenders  of 
Scotland  .of  the  dread  of  immediate  absolute 
conquest  by  TSngland." 

Froiatart;  Burton,  Htst.  i^Bectland, 

OttarbnxnOy  Thomas  of  (d.  eiita  1421), 
a  Franciscan,  wrote  a  Chronicle  of  English 
History  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  year 
1420.  This  work  is  of  some  value  for  the 
reigns  of  Henry  IV.  and  V.,  and  has  becai 
published  by  Heame. 

Ondo.  at  one  time  a  province  of  the 
Mogul  Ejnpire,  became  connected  with  Eng- 
land during  the  governor-generalship  of 
Warren  Hastings,  through  the  Treaty  of 
Benares  and  the  transactions  with  regard  to 
the  Rohillas.  The  treaty  began  that  dSensive 
alliance  which  gradually  tended  to  subject 
the  Vizier  to  the  English,  and  which,  in  1801, 
after  various  cessions  of  territory,  placed  him 
in  an  isolated  position,  surrounded  by  the 
English  territories,  without  the  necessities  of 
defence.  The  sovereigns,  in  consequence, 
gave  themselves  up  to  extravagance,  de- 
bauchery, and  misgovemment,  in  spite  of  the 
repeated  protests  and  threats  of  the  English. 
G^ee-ud-deen,  on  his  accession  in  1814, 
assumed,  by  the  advice  of  Lord  Hastings,  the 
title  of  King  of  Oude,  and  no  longer  recog- 
nised the  authority  of  the  Mogul.  In  1856 
Lord  Dalhousie  annexed  the  country  by  the 
order  of  the  Directors,  the  king  becoming  a 
state  prisoner. 

Oudenardo,  The  Battle  of  (July  lU 


Onl 


(  796  ) 


Ova 


1708).  This  was  one  of  the  g^reat  battles  in 
the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession.  Finding 
that  the  war  was  becoming  unpopal&r  both 
with  the  English  and  Dutch^  Marlborough 
resolved  on  a  decisive  blow.  The  French, 
numbering  100,000,  under  the  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy, a  prince  of  the  blood,  who  was  jealous 
of  Venddme,  the  second  in  command,  were 
attempting  to  take  Oudenarde,  a  fortress  on 
the  Scheldt.  IVIarlborough,  having  been 
joined  by  Eug&ne,  in  command  of  the  allies, 
amounting  to  little  more  than  80,000,  ad- 
vanced towards  them,  and  they  promptly 
raised  the  siege.  Although  the  French  out- 
numbered the  allies,  they  were  under  the 
disastrous  disadvantage  of  being  led  by  com- 
manders with  different  views ;  and  when, 
accordingly,  the  armies  met,  they  were  utterly 
routed.  They  lost  3,000  men  and  had  7,000  taken 
prisoners^  besides  ten  pieces  of  cannon  and 
4,000  horses.  The  allies  lost  nearly  2,000  men. 

Coze,  Marlborough;  Marlborough  Deiiepatehe$ ; 
Stanhope,  Reign  of  Qu^en  Anne  ;  Martin,  Hist. 
d«  France, 

Oularty  Skirmish  at.  On  May  27, 
1798,  during  the  Irish  Hebellion,  8,000  in- 
surgents  were  defeated  here.  Of  some  200  of 
the  North  Cork  Militia,  all  but  five  were 
killed.    Father  Murphy  led  the  rebels. 

Outlawry,  i-f^t  exclusion  from  the  pro- 
tection and  benefit  of  the  law,  has  been  £rom 
very  early  times  the  punishment  which  has  at- 
tended flight  from  justice,  or  refusal  to  appear 
before  a  legal  tribunal.  In  the  laws  of  Edgar 
it  is  even  enacted  that  a  person  refusing 
obedience  to  a  decision  of  the  hundred,  shall, 
after  being  fined  three  times,  become  an  out- 
law, unless  the  king  allows  him  to  remain  in 
the  land.  An  outlaw  was  said  to  **bear  a 
wolf's  head,"  and  therefore  to  be  lawfully 
slain  by  any  who  met  him.  But  as  early  as 
the  thirteenth  centurj'  some  doubt  seems  to 
have  been  felt  as  to  the  expediency  of  so 
simimary  a  procedure.  Thus  Bracton  laid  it 
down  that  though  an  outlaw  might  be  killed 
if  he  defended  himself  or  ran  away,  so  that  it 
was  difi^cult  to  take  him,  when  once  taken  his 
life  was  in  the  king's  hands,  and  any  one  then 
killing  him  must  answer  for  it  as  for  any 
other  homicide.  Yet  Fleta,  under  Edward 
II.,  declares  that  an  outlaw  may  be  killed 
anywhere  with  impunity,  and  the  case  which 
Coke  refers  to,  in  order  to  prove  that  under 
Edward  III.  such  an  act  was  declared  by  the 
judges  unlawful,  shows  really  that  the  old 
principle  was  still  recognised.  But  as  manners 
softened,  the  question  ceas^  to  be  of  practical 
importance,  though  the  legal  doctrine  was 
still  doubtful  as  late  as  Philip  and  IVIary. 
The  most  important  consequence  of  outlawry 
was  the  forfeiture  of  chattels  for  all  cases, 
with  the  addition,  in  cases  of  treason  or 
murder,  of  the  forfeiture  of  real  property ;  for 
other  offences,  of  the  profits  of  land  during 
the  outlaw's  lifetime.  Outlawry  in  civil 
cases   for    refusal  to    appesur  in  court   was 


abolished  by  42  and  43  Victoria.  In  criminal 
cases  it  is  practically  obsolete,  and  no  longer 
necessary,  since  extradition  treaties  have  be- 
come general.  It  may  be  added  that  outlawry 
does  not  lie  against  a  peer  except  for  treason, 
felony,  or  breach  of  the  peace. 

Schmid,    Qteetze  der  Angelsa4)h$en ;  Stephen* 
OonuMntoriM,  iii.  [W.  J.  A.] 

Outram,  Sm  James  {b,  1803,  d.  1863), 
saw  active  service  in  Afghanistan  (1838),  and 
subsequently  acted  as  Resident  at  Hyderabad, 
Satara,  and  Lucknow.  In  1842  he  -was  ap- 
pointed commissioner  to  negotiate  with  the 
Ameers  of  Scinde,  in  which  capacity  he 
differed  from  Sir  C.  Napier  as  to  the  latter's 
conduct.  In  1856  he  became  chief  commis- 
sioner of  Oude.  His  name  is  inseparably 
connected  with  the  defence  of  Lucknow,  and 
he  ranks  as  one  of  the  saviours  of  India 
during  the  Indian  Mutiny.  In  1856  he 
commanded  during  the  Persian  War,  and 
became  in  1858  a  baronet,  and  lieutenant- 
general. 

Kaye,  Sepoy  War, 

Overbnrv,  Sir  Thomas  {b,  1581,  d.  1613), 
was  educated  at    Queen's  College,   Oxford, 
became  a  student  at    the   MidcUe   Temple, 
and  was  knighted  in  the  year  1608.     Over- 
bury  earned  distinction  as  a  poet,  traveller, 
and  writer,  and  became  the  friend  and  con- 
fidential adviser  of  Kobert  Carr.     The  king 
became  jealous  of  his  influence,  and  wished  to 
remove  nim  from  the  court,  whilst  at  the  same 
time  his  opposition  to  Bochester's  proposed 
marriage  with  Lady  Essex  made  Rochester 
wish  to  get  him  out  of  the  way  for  a  time. 
James  offered  Overbury  a  diplomatic   post 
abroad,  which  Bochesteor  encouraged  him  to 
refuse,  and  the  king  for  this  refusal  committed 
Overbury  to  the  Tower    (April  21,    1613). 
Rochester  merely  wished  to  keep  Overbury 
quiet.     Lady  Essex  seized  the  opportnnitj'  to 
get  rid  of  him    altogether,   and  at  length 
succeeded  in  getting  him  poisoned  (Sept.  15, 
1613).      On  Dec.   20,  the  same  year,  took 
place  the  marriage  of  Lord  Rochester,  nor 
created   Earl  of  Somerset,  to  the  divorced 
Countess  of  Essex.    Early  in  1616  the  fact 
that  Overbur>'  had  been  poisoned  came  to  the 
knowledge  of  Sir  Ralph  Winwood,  the  king's 
ambassador  in  the  Low  Countries,  and  was 
by  him  revealed  to  the  king.    Four  of  those 
concerned  in  the  plot  were  executed,  and  the 
earl  and  countess  were  tried  before  the  Lord 
High  Steward's  court   (May,   1616).     Both 
were  declared  guilty,  but  pardonea  by  the 
king,   and,  after  1623,  released  from  their 
confinement  in  the  Tower. 

Oardiner,  Hut.  of  Eng.  (Mr.  Oardiii«r  belieres 
Somerset  not  ffnilty) ;  Speddiwr,  Studim  in  Sng. 
HiBt.  ;  Amcw,  The  Great  f)y«r  o/ Potaontii^ ;  Bim- 
baalt,  The  Worke  of  Sir  Thvmue  Overburu ;  SlaU 
Trials.  [C.  H.  F.] 

Overkirlc,  General  (<f.  1708V  was  one 
of   the  Dutch  ^vonrites  of  \^^Oiam   HI., 


(  791  ) 


Oye 


whose  life  at  the  battfe  of  St.  Denis  he 
saved,  receiving  as  reward  from  the  States 
General  a  costly  sword.  On  the  accession  of 
William  he  became  Master  of  the  Horse. 
He  took  an  active  share  in  William's  battles 
in  Ireland,  and  received  grants  of  Irish  land, 
which  were  among  those  assailed  by  the  Re- 
sumption Bill.  He  was  present  at  the  death-bed 
of  William  III.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  War  of 
the  Spanish  Succession  he  shared  with  Opilan 
the  command  of  the  Dutch  troops,  and  was 
entrusted  to  command  the  line  of  the  Meuse. 
At  the  battle  of  Bamillies  he  headed  a  charge 
on  the  French  cavalry,  but  was  driven  back  by 
a  counter  charge  from  the  "  Maison  du  Roi.** 
Soon  afterwards  he  invested  and  reduced 
Ostend.  At  the  battle  of  Oudenarde  he 
turned  the  French  right,  and  cut  it  off  from 
the  main  body.  Shortly  afterwards  he  died, 
worn  out  by  the  labours  of  the  campaign. 

Bamet,  Hitt.  of  hU  Own  TivM;  Hoeanlay, 
Hut.  qffng. 

Oxford,  Thb  Citt  of,  is  mentioned  as 
the  seat  of  a  school  or  college  as  early  as  802. 
It  was  taken  by  Edward  the  Elder  in  912, 
and  became  one  of  the  most  important  of  the 
West  Saxon  towns.  It  was  captured  by  the 
Danes  under  Sweyn  in  1013,  and  was 
several  times  the  seat  of  the  Witenagemot 
under  Canute.  It  was  stormed  by  William 
the  Conqueror  in  1067,  and  the  castle  built 
about  1070.  The  castle  was  occupied  by  the 
Empress  Maud  in  1142,  and  captured  by 
Stephen  on  her  escape.  The  treaty  between 
Henry  II.  and  Stephen  was  made  at  Oxford 
(Nov.  7,  1163).  In  1258  the  Mad  Parlia- 
ment met  there,  and  the  Provisions  of  Oxford 
were  drawn  up.  In  1542  Oxford  became  one 
of  Henry  VIII.'s  new  bishoprics.  Ridley, 
Latimer,  and  Cranmer  were  executed  here  in 
1556  and  1556.  In  the  Civil  War  it  was  the 
head-quarters  of  Charles  I.  after  Oct.,  1642. 
The  king  established  his  mint  there  in  1643, 
and  held  a  Parliament  in  1644.  It  was  un- 
successfully besieged  by  Fairfax  in  May, 
1645,  and  again  besieged  the  following  May, 
and  taken  June  24,  1646. 

Oxford,  John  db  Ybkb,  Earl  of  {b.  1409, 
d.  1461),  fought  in  the  French  wars,  and  was 
one  of  the  ambassadors  who  negotiated  peace 
with  France.  He  was  a  staunch  Lancastrian, 
and  on  the  accession  of  Edward  IV.  he  was 
attainted  and  beheaded  on  Tower  HilL 

Oxford,  John  db  Yere,  Earl  of  {d. 
1513),  son  of  the  above,  was  restored  to  his 
earldom  in  1464,  but  on  the  restoration  of 
Henry  VI.  joined  the  Lancastrians.  After 
the  battle  of  Bamct  he  fled  to  France,  and 
getting  together  some  ships,  maintained  him- 
self by  piracy.  He  afterwards  seized  on  St. 
MichaeFs  Mount  in  Cornwall,  where  he  was 
besieged  for  some  months.  He  at  last  sur- 
rendered and  was  imprisoned  at  Hamnes,  in 
Pioardy.    Here  he  remained  till  1484,  when 


he  induced  the  governor  of  the  castle  to 
espouse  the  cause  of  Henr^'  of  Richmond, 
whom  he  accompanied  to  England,  and  assisted 
at  Bosworth.  He  was  rewarded  by  Henry 
VII.,  and  made  Constable  of  the  Tower  and 
Lord  Chamberlain.  He  commanded  the 
armies  employed  against  Simnel  and  the 
Cornish  rioters,  became  High  Steward  and 
High  Admiral,  and  was  high  in  Henry  VII.'s 
favour.  Yet  he  was  fined  15,000  marks  for 
his  violation  of  the  Statute  of  Livery  on  the 
occasion  of  a  royal  visit  to  his  seat. 
Bacon,  Henry  VII, 

Oxford,  Edward  Verb,  17th  Earl 
OF  {b.  1640,  d.  1604),  one  of  the  haugh- 
tiest and  most  overbearing  of  the  nobles 
of  Elizabeths  reign,  was  one  of  the  com- 
missioners at  the  trial  of  Mary  Queen  of 
Scots  in  1586.  He  subsequently  did  good 
service  for  England  in  fitting  out,  at  his  own 
expense,  ships  for  the  defence  of  the  country 
against  the  proposed  Spanish  invasion  (1588). 

Oxford,  Provisions  of  (1258),  were  the 
schemes  of  reorganisation  and  reform  foi'ced 
on  Henry  III.  by  the  Mad  Parliament  of 
Oxford  in  1258.  A  commission  of  twenty-four 
persons  was  appointed,  twelve  nominated  by 
the  king,  and  twelve  by  the  barons.  By  the 
advice  of  these  commissioners,  the  king  was 
to  drfiw  up  means  for  the  reform  of  the  ciN^il 
administration,  the  Church,  and  the  royal 
household.  When  the  Parliament  met,  the 
barons  brought  forward  a  schedule  of  ^ev- 
ances  which,  they  desired  the  commissioners 
to  remedy.  The  Provisions  of  Oxford  them- 
selves supply  the  machinery  by  which  these 
grievances  might  be  redressed.  The  twenty- 
four  commissioners  met,  and  each  twelve 
selected  two  out  of  the  other  twelve,  and 
these  four  nominated  fifteen  who  were  to  form 
a  council  for  advising  the  king  and  to  hold 
three  annual  Parliaments.  With  them  the 
barons  were  to  negotiate  through  another 
committee.  There  was  also  another  committee 
of  twenty-four,  whose  business  it  was  to 
inquire  into  financial  matters;  while  the 
original  twenty-four  were  to  undertake  the 
reform  of  the  Church.  The  commissioners 
drew  up  the  Provisions  of  Westminster  (q.v.), 
and  drove  the  foreigners  out  of  the  country. 
This  government  lasted  till  1261,  when  Henry 
repudiated  his  oath,  and  the  Pope  issued  a 
bull  absolving  him.  [Montfort,  Simon  dr.] 
Stubbs,  Const.  Hist*  and  SeUat  Charters. 

Oxford,  Ukiversity  of.  [Universities.] 

Oyer  and  Terminer  is  the  name  given 

to  a  commission  granted  by  the  crown  to 
judg^  and  others,  **  to  hear  and  to  deter- 
mine **  cases  of  treason  felony  and  trespass. 
By  virtue  of  this  commission,  judges  deal 
with  criminal  cases  in  the  various  circuits. 
The  words  oyer  and  terminer  are  derived  from 
the  French  wir,  to  hear,  and  terminer,  to 
determine. 


(  702) 


Pai 


PaoifioOf  Bon,  was  a  Jew,  a  natiTO  of 
Oibraltar,  and  consequently  a  British  subject, 
resident  at  Athens.  In  April,  1847,  his  house 
was  attacked  and  burnt  by  the  mob.  The 
Hellenic  authorities  took  no  steps  to  prevent 
the  outrage,  and  refused  to  indemnify  Don 
Pacifico,  who  claimed  heavy  damages.  Lord 
Palmerston  demanded  instant  compensation ; 
and  on  the  refusal  of  the  Greeks  to  satisfy 
this  claim,  or  that  raised  in  the  case  of  the 
Fantome^  and  of  Mr.  Finlay  [Fznlay  Ques- 
tion], a  British  fleet  was-  ordered  to  enter 
the  Piraeus,  and  seize  the  shipping  there  be- 
longing to  Greek  owners.  The  Hellenic 
government  appealed  to  France  and  Russia. 
Negotiations  took  place  between  the  govern- 
ments of  England  and  Fiance,  in  the  course 
of  which  a  serious  quarrel  between  the  two 
powers  was  with  difficulty  avoided.  Finally 
the  claims  were  settled  Dy  arbitration,  and 
Don  Pacifico  received  about  one-thirtieth  of 
the  sum  he  demanded.  Lord  Palmerston's 
<;oercive  measures  towards  the  Hellenic  go- 
vernment formed  the  subject  of  animated  de- 
bates in  both  Houses  of  JParliament.  In  the 
House  of  Lords  a  vote  of  censure  was  carried 
against  the  government  by  a  majority  of 
thirty-seven.  In  the  Commons,  however,  a 
vote  of  confidence  was  carried  by  forty-six, 
after  a  remarkably  brilliant  speech  from  Lord 
Palmerston. 

Ann.  Beg.,  1847 ;  Hanaard:*  BtbotM  ;  McCarthy, 
HiA.  of  Our  Own  Ttm«f. 

Paget,  WzLUAK,  Lord  (5.  1506,  d.  1563). 
Bom  of  humble  parents,  he  attracted  the 
notice  of  Bishop  Ghirdiner,  and  rising  rapidly, 
was  knighted,  and  became  one  of  the  secre- 
taries of  state  in  1543,  and  in  that  capa- 
city negotiated  peace  with  France  in  1546. 
He  was  appointed  one  of  the  council  of 
regency  by  the  will  of  Henry  VIII.,  with 
the  office  of  chief  secretary,  and  supported 
Somerset  in  setting  aside  that  arrangement 
and  assuming  the  office  of  Protector.  In 
1549  Sir  William  Paget  was  sent  on  a 
mission  to  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  to  per- 
suade him  to  join  England  in  a  war  with 
France;  and,  though  unsuccessful,  he  was 
on  his  return  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Lord 
Paget  of  Beaudesert.  In  a  statesmanlike 
letter,  written  from  Germany,  he  attempted 
to  inspire  the  wavering  councils  of  the  Pro- 
tector with  prudence  and  vigour  in  dealing 
with  the  rising  in  the  west  of  England,  but  to 
little  purpose.  The  see  of  Lichfield  lost  the 
greater  part  of  its  lands  in  order  to  furnish 
him  with  an  estate.  On  the  fall  of  Somer- 
set, to  whom  he  had  been  consistently  faith- 
ful, Paget  was  thrown  into  the  Tower,  and 
depriv^  of  his  appointments  (1551),  but  was 
pardoned  in  the  following  year.  On  the  ac- 
cession of  Mary  he  became  one  of  her  most 


trusted  advisers,  a«d  was  made  Keeper  of 
the  Seals.  He  was  throughout  in  favour 
of  moderation,  and  had  no  sympathy  with 
those  who  wished  for  the  establishment 
of  the  Inquisition,  and  the  execution  of 
the  Princess  Elizabeth.  Lord  Paget  was 
one  of  the  promoters  of  the  marriage  between 
Mary  and  Philip  of  Spain,  and  was  disposed 
to  regard  the  friendship  of  Charles  V.  as 
highly  necessary  for  England.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Elizabeth,  he  resigned  the  seals ;  bat 
though  he  did  not  enjoy  the  confidence  of  the 
queen,  he  continued  from  time  to  time  to  give 
her  advice.  During  the  last  years  of  his  life, 
he  advocated  an  alliance  with  Henry  IV.  of 
France  in  preference  to  the  friendship  of 
Spain. 

SUAb  Papers  during  th»  Beign  of  Henry  YIII. 
fSecord  CommiBsion) ;  Strype,  Mwmorudt,  voL 
IT. ;  Hayward,  Life  of  £aieanl  VL 

PM6t»  Thomas,  2nd  Lord  [d,  1589),  the 
seoonason  of  Lord  Paget  of  Beaudesert,  was 
a  zealous  Catholic,  and  a  supporter  of  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots  and  the  Jesuits.  He  was 
attainted  and  compelled  to  take  refuge  abroad, 
on  suspicion  of  being  concerned  in  Throg- 
morton's  plot. 


»,  Thomas  (6.  1737,  d,  1809),  was 
the  son  of  a  Norfolk  stavmaker.  He  lived 
first  at  Sandwich  and  then  in  London,  prac- 
tising various  trades  with  indifferent  suc- 
cess. In  1774  he  emigrated  to  America, 
where  he  became  editor  of  the  Pentuifiranw 
MagazifUy  and  in  1776  published  his  famous 
pamphlet.  Common  Sense,  which  was  followed 
by  a  periodical  called  the  Crisis,  written  for 
the  purpose  of  keeping  up  the  flagging  spirits 
of  the  colonist*.  Paine  was  rewarded  by 
Congress  by  the  appointment  of  Secretary  to 
the  Committee  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and  in  1781 
was  sent  to  Fiance  in  company  with  Colonel 
Laurens  to  negotiate  a  loan  for  the  United 
States.  He  visited  France  a  second  time  in 
1787,  and  went  from  thence  to  England, 
where,  in  1791,  he  published  the  Rights  of 
Man  in  reply  to  Burke^s  lUJleetions  an  the 
French  Revolution.  The  government  thereupon 
resolved  to  prosecute  him  for  his  attack  upon 
the  Constitution,  and  in  spite  of  Erskine's 
brilliant  defence,  he  was  found  guilty 
Paine  had  already  anticipated  his  sentence  by 
retiring  to  France,  where  he  was  returned  to 
the  National  Convention  by  the  electors  of 
Pas-de- Calais.  "  The  foreign  benefactor  ol 
the  species,"  as  Carlyle  calls  him,  voted  with 
the  Girondists,  and  advocated  the  banishment 
rather  than  the  execution  of  the  king.  His 
moderation  procured  for  him  expulsion  as  a 
foreigner  from  the  Convention  by  the  Jaco- 
bins, and  imprisonment.  In  1794,  however, 
he  was  released  on  the  intercession  of  the 
American  government,  and  resumed  his  seat. 
The  Age  of  Reason,  composed  during  his  im- 
prisonment, was  a  defence  of  Deism,  written 
in  extremely  gross  taste.    Paine  returned  to 


Pai 


(  793  ) 


Pal 


Ameriea  in  1802,  and  spent  the  rest  of  bii  life  in 
obscurity. 

8taU  TriajM,  zzii.,  357;  Cobbett,  Li/« ;  Chnl- 
men,  14/^;  Moncure  D.  Conway.  lAfe;  Paine's 
Wcrht,  edited  by  Meadom  (Boeton,  1856) .  New 
edition  by  Conway. 

Pains  and  Penalties,  Bills  op,  are 
analoffous  to  bills  of  attainder,  from  which 
they  differ  in  the  fact  that  the  panishment  is 
never  capital,  and  does  not  affect  the  children. 
[Aitainjieb;  Impbacumbnt.] 

Pakenhjun,  Sm  Edwabd  {d.  1815),  was 
a  brother-in-law  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington, 
and  one  of  his  most  trusted  subordinates.  He 
distinguished  himself  greatly  in  the  Peninsular 
War,  plajring  an  important  part  in  the  victory 
of  Salamanca  (1812).  During  the  war  with 
America,  which  began  in  1812  he  commanded 
the  expedition  sent  against  New  Orleans. 
The  pkuce  was  vigorously  defended  by  G^eneral 
Jackson,  and  in  the  disastrously  unsuccessful 
assault  (Jan.  8,  1816)  Pakenham  lost  his  life. 


^ »— *^i  ^™  John  (d.  1727),  was  a 

high  Tory,  and  member  for  the  county  of 
Worcester  during  the  reigns  of  William 
III.  and  Anne.  He  prefexred  a-  complaint 
against  William  Uoyd,  Bishop  of  Worces- 
ter, and  his  son,  for  using  their  influence 
in  the  elections  against  him,  and  proved 
his  case,  the  House  censuring  their  con- 
duct as  "  unchristian."  Sir  John  Paking^n 
was  throughout  his  life  a  violent  partisan; 
his  speech  against  the  union  with  Scotland 
was  hooted  down  because  of  its  ungenerous 
insinuations,  and  he  was  equally  head- 
strong in  his  opposition  to  the  Occasional 
Conformity  Bill.  There  does  not  appear  to 
be  the  slightest  ground  for  the  idea  that  he 
was  the  original  of  Sir  Roger  de  Goverley. 
He  was  the  ancestor  of  Sir  John  Pakington, 
created  Saron  Hampton  {d.  1880),  who  held 
various  posts  in  Loid  Derby's  ministry,  and 
who,  in  1866,  disclosed  to  his  constituents  the 
eecret  of  the  famous  **  Ten  Minutes*  Bill.'* 

Stanhope,  Hid.  of  'Bmq, ;  Wyon,  Hut  of  Quma 
JniM. 

Palatdne*  Countibs,  are  so  called  from 
the  &ct  that  their  lords  had  royal  rights, 
■equally  with  the  king  in  his  palace  (palatium). 
The  earl  of  a  county  palatine  could  pardon 
treasons,  murders,  and  felonies;  while  all 
writs  were  in  his  name,  and  offences  were 
said  to  be  committed  against  his  peace,  and 
not  against  that  of  the  king.  Palatine  counties 
originated  in  the  time  of  William  I.,  who 
practically  created  three — Chester,  Durham, 
and  Kent— whilst  Shropshire  had,  until  the 
time  of  Henry  I.,  palatine  rights.  These 
coimties  were  selected  as  being  especially 
liable  to  attack — Chester  and  Shropshire 
from  the  Welsh  Marches,  Kent  from  Fiance, 
and  Durham  from .  Scotland.  The  disturbed 
state  of  the  borders  rendered  it  an  easy  task 
for  an  earl,  who  was  as  powerful  as  a 
'Sovereign  in  his  own  territory,  to  extend  his 


frontiers  at  the  expense  of  his  enemie& 
Kent  ceased  to  be  a  palatine  earldom  after 
the  death  of  Odo  of  Bayeux,  whilst  Pem* 
brokeshire  and  Hexhamshire,  in  Northumber- 
land, were  made  counties  palatine.  Henry  I. 
granted  royal  rights  over  the  IbIp  of  Ely  to 
the  Bishop  of  Ely,  and  in  the  year  1351  Lan- 
caster was  created  a  palatine  earldom.  "  The 
palatine  earldom  of  Chester,"  says  Bishop 
Stubbs,  "had  its  own  courts,  judges,  and 
staff  of  officers,  constable,  steward,  and  the 
rest ;  it  had  its  parliament,  consisting  of  the 
barons  of  the  county,  and  was  not  until  1641 
represented  in  the  Parliament  of  the  king- 
dom." The  other  counties  palatine,  with  the 
exception  of  Lancaster  and  Chester,  which 
were  held  by  the  crown,  and  of  Durham,  were 
assimilated  to  the  rest  of  the  countr>'  during  the 
sixteenth  centur}'.  The  })alatine  jurisdiction 
of  Durham  remained  with  the  bishop  until 
1836,  whilst  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Palatine 
Courts  at  Lancaster,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Chancery  Court,  were  transferred  to  the  High 
Court  of  Justice  by  the  Judicature  Act  of  1873. 

Patof  Thb.  That  part  of  Ireland  which 
was  de  facto  si(}>ject  to  English  law  began  to  be 
called  tiie  "  Pide  "  in  the  fifteenth  century.  It 
was  in  earlier  times  distinguished  from  Celtic 
Ireland  as  **  the  En|lish  land."  The  Pale 
was  surrounded  by  a  nelt  of  waste  marches^ 
beyond  which  lay  the  lands  of  the  Irish 
enemy.  From  the  invasion  of  Edward 
Bruce,  in  1315,  until  the  Geraldine  rebellion 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  the  extent  of 
''the  English  land"  steadily  diminished. 
Bruce  hamed  the  Pale  mercilessly  in  1316 
and  1317.  The  small  English  freeholders 
were  forced  to  follow  the  Lord-Deputy  in 
his  **  hostings."  Their  abandoned  farmsteads 
were  robbed  and  burnt  by  English  and  Irish 
alike.  They  fled  in  great  numbers  across 
the  seas,  in  spite  of  the  most  strenuous  legal 
prohibitions.  The  Statute  of  Kilkenny  (1367) 
openly  acknowledges  the  division  of  Ireland 
into  a  Celtic  and  an  English  territory-,  and 
attempts  to  isolate  them  from  each  other  by 
decreeing  savage  penalties  against  Celtic 
intruders  into  the  Pale,  and  English  colonists 
adopting  Irish  customs.  But  the  law  was 
soon  a  dead  letter.  The  statute  of  Edward 
IV.,  c.  3,  provides,  just  a  century  later,  for 
the  sweanng-in  of  the  Irish  inhabitants  of 
the  Pale  as  Ueges,  and  declares  that  deputies 
shall  be  named  to  accept  their  oaths  *'  for  the 
multitude  that  is  to  be  sworn."  The  Parlia- 
ment of  Drogheda  in  1494  ordered  the  construc- 
tion of  a  mound  and  ditch  around  the  English 
borders,  "in  the  county  of  Dublin,  from  the 
waters  of  Auliffy  to  the  mountain  in  Kil- 
dare,  from  the  waters  of  Auliffy  to  Trim,  and 
so  forth,  to  Meath  and  Uriel."  These  prac- 
tically continued  to  be  the  limits  of  the  Pale 
until  Henry  YIII.  undertook  the  conquest  of 
the  whole  island.  Dalkey,  Tallaght,  Kil- 
cullen.  Nans,  Kilcock.  Sydan,  Ardee,  Denver, 


Bal 


(7M) 


Fal 


and  Dandalk  formed  the  border  in  1  #5 15.  In 
1634  there  was  "  no  folk  subject  to  the  king's 
laws,  but  half  the  county  Uriel,  half  the 
county  of  Meath,  half  the  county  of  Dublin, 
half  the  county  of  Kiidare.'*  In  1537  Justice 
Luttrell  describes  the  Pale  as  a  "  little  prednct, 
not  much  more  than  20  miles  in  length  ne  in 
bredth.*'  Bullied  by  the  crown,  <*  cessed  " 
by  the  Parliament,  subjected  by  their  lords 
at  once  to  feudal  dues  and  to  tribal  imposi- 
tions, plundered  by  corrupt  judges  and  ex- 
tortionate deputies,  blackmailed  by  the  Irish 
in  time  of  peace,  and  harried  by  both  sides  in 
time  of  war,  the  dweller  in  the  Pale  was 
probably  the  most  wretched  of  all  the 
wretched  inhabitants  of  Ireland. 

Hiatorii'ol  and  Municipal  Docununts  of  IreUmd, 
1172—1320  (tteoord  Series);  Bichej,  L0etvm 
on  th»  Ui$lory  of  Ireland. 

Palgrave,  Sm  Francis  {b.  1788,  d.  1861), 
was  called  to  the  bar  (1827),  and  having  servcKi 
on  the  Record  and  Municipal  Corporation 
Commissions,  was  appointed  in  1838  Deputy- 
Keeper  of  her  Majesty's  Records.  Palgrave 
wrote  largely  on  historical  subjects ;  his  chief 
work,  the  Sise  and  Progress  of  the  Engliah 
Cofmnouteealth :  Anglo-Saxon  Period {ISS2),  was 
the  fruit  of  unwearied  research  and  examina- 
tion into  original  authorities,  and  though 
many  of  the  conclusl^  have  not  been  ac- 
cepted by  later  scholars,  and  some  mistakes  in 
details  have  been  pointed  out,  it  is  valuable 
for  its  learning  and  acuteness.  He  wrote 
besides  a  History  of  England:  Anglo-Saxon 
Period  (1831) ;  a  History  of  Normandy  and 
England  (1851 — 57);  and  edited  for  the 
government  the  Calendars  and  Inventories  of 
the  Treasnry  of  the  Exchequer j  Parliamentary 
Writs,  JRotuli  Curia  Megis^  and  Documents 
Illustrative  of  the  History  of  Scotland,  besides 
writing  an  Essay  on  the  Original  Authority  of 
the  King*s  Council.  Sir  Francis  was  of  Jewish 
parentage,  and  his  name  was  Cohen,  which 
he  changed  to  Palgrave  on  his  marriage. 

PalladilUly  St.,  was  one  of  the  numerous 

Christian    missionaries    who    preceded    St. 

Patrick    in   Ireland.      He   was   consecrated 

Bishop  of  Ireland  by  Pope  Celestine  I.,  and 

despatched  by  him  in  431  to  that  country. 

Little  is  known  about  his  previous  history ; 

he  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  Briton,  and 

appears  to  have  been  sent  in  the  first  instance 

by  the  British  bishops  to  the  Gkiulish  bishops, 

and  by  the  latter  to  the  Pope.     He  landed  in 

Munster,  but  failed  to  gain  many  converts, 

and    departed,  having    erected    there    three 

wooden  churches.     On  his  way  back  to  Rome 

he  died,  one    account  representing   him  as 

having  been  martyred  by  the  Scots. 

O' Donovan,  Fowr  Masters;  Colgaa,  Lives  of 
fit.  Patridc 

Palluier,  Sir  Hugh  {b.  1720,  d,  1796), 
was  second  in  command  to  Admiral  Keppel 
in  a  ludicrously  abortive  action  with  the 
French  ofE  Cape  Ushant  in  1778,  in  which. 


after  several  hours'  fighting,  the  rival  fleets 
withdrew  without  any  advantage  having  been 
gained  on  either  side.  Keppel  declared  that 
PalliBer  was  to  blame  for  this  failure,  mutual 
recriminations  ensued,  and  the  former  being 
a  member  of  the  Opposition,  the  latter  a 
Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  their  case  was  made 
a  party  question.  At  length  the  matter  vas 
referred  to  a  court-martial,  which,  reflecting 
the  unjust  tone  of  popular  opinion,  trium- 
phantly acquitted  Keppel,  and  when  Palliaer, 
feeling  that  this  was  a  reflection  on  himself 
resigned  his  appointments,  and  demanded  an 
inquiry,  he  could  only  obtain  a  very  qualified 
sentence  of  approvaL 

Hunt,  Life  of  PaUiser;   Stanhope,   EitL  ef 
Eng.,  vol.  vi.,  ch.  58. 

Palmer,  Sir  Thomas  {d,  1553),  was  joint 
commander  of  the  English  force  which  ini^ed 
Scotland  in  1648,  and  took  Haddington.  On 
the  blockade  of  the  town  by  the  French  and 
Scotch  he  was  taken  prisoner  while  escortinj^ 
a  relieving  force  which  re-victualled  iht 
exhausted  garrison.  Palmer's  chief  notoriety 
is  derived  from  his  betra}'al  (in  1551)  of  the 
Protector  Somerset  to  the  Earl  of  Warwick, 
to  whom  he  revealed  a  plot  to  murder 
Warwick  himself,  and  others  of  the  Protector's 
enemies,  which,  when  supplemented  by  some 
false  additions,  led  to  his  death.  Palmer  was 
subsequently  condemned  by  a  special  com- 
mission and  executed  for  his  share  in  the 
treason  of  Northumberland  and  Lady  Jane^ 
Grey. 

Pal]ii0rston,  Henrt  John  Temple, 
Viscount  (b.  1784,  d.  1866),  was  the  eldest 
son  of  the  second  viscount.  He  succeeded 
to  the  title,  which  was  in  the  Irish  peerage, 
in  1805,  and  was  promptly  chosen  by  the 
Tory  party  in  the  University  of  Edinbui^gh 
to  contest  the  seat,  but  without  s3ucoe98.  In 
1807,  however,  he  began  his  parliamentar}' 
career  as  the  representative  of  Newport,  and 
two  years  later  became  Secretary  at  War  in 
the  Duke  of  Portland*s  administration.  This 
ofiice  he  held  under  successive  governments 
until  1828,  and  aided  the  Duke  of  Wellington 
in  his  great  exploits  as  far  as  a  rotten  military 
system  permitted.  Lord  Palmerston  early 
attached  himself  to  the  more  liberal  section 
of  the  Tories,  which  was  led  by  Canning  and 
Huskisson,  and  he  followed  the  latter  out  of 
office.  He  now  joined  the  A^^igs,  and  in 
1830  accepted  the  Secretaryship  for  Foreign 
Affairs  under  Earl  Grey,  placing  an  honour- 
able part  in  the  negotiations  which  led  to  the 
independence  of  Belgium,  to  the  settlement  of 
the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  questions,  to  the 
European  resistance  to  the  designs  of  M^emet 
Ali,  which  brought  him  into  so  much  odium 
in  France.  Having  retired  from  office  with 
the  rest  of  his  colleagues  in  1841,  he  re- 
turned with  them,  and  again  became  Foreign 
Secretary  in  1846.  Palmerston's  unsympa- 
thetic attitude  towards  the  European  rerolu- 


(796) 


Pap 


tions  of  1848,  and  the  quarrel  with  Greece 
about  the  Don  Padfico  afEair,  caused  his 
foreign  policy  to  be  called  in  question ;  a 
vote  of  censure  was  passed  upon  it .  in 
the  House  of  Lords,  but  in  the  House 
of  Conunons  an  amendment,  moved  by 
Mr.  Roebuck  in  favour  of  the  government, 
was  carried  by  a  majority  of  forty^six, 
Palmerston  making  a  magnificent  speech  on 
the  status  of  British  subjects  abroad.  In 
1852  he  was  dismissed  from  office  by  the 
Queen,  acting  on  the  advice  of  Lord  John 
Russell,  for  expressing,  entirely  on  his  own 
responsibility,  the  government's  approval  of 
Louis  Napoleon's  coup  tPHat,  In  spite  of 
Mr.  Disraeli's  saying,  *'  There  was  a  Palmer- 
ston," he  promptly  defeated  his  late  leader 
on  the  Militia  Bill,  and  having  declined  office 
in  Lord^  Derby's  stiUbom  ministry,  became 
Home  Secretary  in  Lord  Aberdeen's  Coalition 
cabinet  (Dec.,  1852).  In  that  capacity  he 
inaugurated  the  ticket-of-leave  system,  but 
he  was  chiefly  employed  the  while  in  watch- 
ing the  Eastern  question,  and  urging  his 
colleagues  forward  to  the  war  with  Russia. 
On  the  faU  of  the  Aberdeen  administration 
before  Mr.  Roebuck's  vigorous  attack,  it  was 
felt  that  he  was,  as  he  said,  Vin^pitable,  and  in 
Feb.,  1855,  he  became  Prime  Minister.  After 
the  peace  a  period  of  languor  followed  until, 
in  1857,  the  government  was  defeated  on  Mr. 
Cobden*8  motion  condemning  the  measures 
taken  in  "  the  lorcha  Arrow  "  afEair,  when 
Lord  Palmerston  appealed  to  the  country, 
and  came  back  again  to  power  with  a  larger 
majority  than  before.  The  Indian  Mutiny 
was  followed  by  his  bill  for  the  transf errence 
of  the  anthority  of  the  East  Indian  Company  to 
the  crown.  In  February,  1858,  he  was  most  un- 
expectedly defeated  over  the  Conspiracy  Bill, 
caused  by  Orsini's  attempt  on  the  life  of 
Napoleon  HI.,  but  the  Conservative  adminis- 
tration  that  supplanted  him  proved  short- 
lived, and  in  1859  he  came  into  power  again 
as  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  and  continued 
to  hold  that  office  until  his  death.  During 
his  administration  the  treaty  of  commerce 
with  France  was  concluded  (1860)  through 
Mr.  Cobden's  exertions.  He  was  on  the  side 
of  the  North  during  the  American  Civil 
War;  in  the  Trent  and  Alabama  affairs  he 
displayed  some  want  of  wisdom.  Then  came 
the  Maori  War;  the  Polish  insurrection  of 
1863,  during  which  his  distrust  of  the  Em- 
peror of  the  French  compelled  him  to  dis- 
countenance the  idea  of  intervention;  and 
the  Schleswig-Holstein  question,  during 
which  he  uttered  words  that  were  universally 
interpreted  to  imply  that  England  would 
intervene  on  behalf  of  Denmark.  Lord 
Palmerston's  last  great  speech  was  in  reply 
to  Mr.  Disraeli's  attack  on  the  conduct  of  the 
government,  and  it  saved  him  by  a  majority 
of  eighteen.  His  death  was  rather  sudden. 
He  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey,  Oct. 
27,  1865.    Lord  Palmerston  was  essentially 


a  European  rather  than  an  English  states- 
man ;  he  has  been  charged  with  understand- 
ing little,  and  caring  still  less,  about  the 
great  movements  of  the  time  at  home.  On 
Uie  Continent  he  made  it  his  first  business  to 
uphold  the  interests  of  his  country,  and  that 
fact,  combined  with  his  genial  good-humour, 
was  perhaps  the  cause  of  the  great  popularity 
which  he  enjoyed  to  the  end  of  his  career. 

The  best  life  of  Loi'd  Palmerston  is  that  of 
Lord  Dolling,  the  last  volnme  of  which  is- 
edited  by  the  Hon.  Evelyn  Ashley. 

Paadnlfy  Papal  legate  {d.  1226),  one  of 
Innocent  lll.'s  ministers,  was  sent  to  England 
in  1213  to  make  terms  with  TTitt/y  John.  For  a 
little  while  the  king  held  out,  but  finding  him- 
self deserted  by  everyone,  he  consented  to  Pan- 
dulf  8  terms,  and  resigned  his  kingdom  to  tho 
Pope,  receiving  it  back  as  a  fief  of  the  holy 
see.  Shortly  after  this  Pandulf  left  England 
and  did  not  return  till  1218,  when  he  was  ap- 
pointed legate  in  the  place  of  Gualo.  He 
held  this  office  for  three  years,  during  which 
time  he  brought  a  considerable  odium  on  him- 
self by  his  fiance  with  Peter  des  Boches 
against  the  English  members  of  the  Council. 
Still  we  find  him  lending  valuable  assistance 
to  the  cause  of  order  by  repressing  the  tur- 
bulence of  the  barons.  In  1218  he  was  ap- 
pointed Bishop  of  Norwich.  Stephen  Lang- 
ton  strongly  opposed  Pandulf  s  pretensions, 
and  in  1221  procured  the  recall  of  his  com- 
mission as  legate,  together  with  a  promise 
from  the  Pope  that  during  his  (Langton's) 
lifetime  no  legate  should  be  appointed.  Pan- 
dulf retired  to  his  diocese  of  Norwich,  where 
he  died. 

Papacyy  Rblattoks  with.  The  conver- 
sion of  the  south  of  England  by  the  Roman 
monk  Augustine,  who  was  sent  by  Pope 
Grregory  I.,  established  a  close  connection 
between  the  Church  in  England  and  the 
Papacy.  Gregory  I.  drew  up  a  scheme  for  the 
ecclesiastical  organisation  of  England  accord- 
ing to  the  lines  of  the  provincial  organisation 
of  the  Roman  Empire.  There  were  to  be  two 
ecclesiastical  provinces — one  in  the  south,  and 
one  in  the  north— and  each  of  the  metaro- 
politans  was  to  have  twelve  sufEragan  bishops 
under  him.  This  scheme  was  never  entirely 
realised.  The  north  of  England  was  con- 
verted by  Celtic  missionaries ;  but  the  superior 
organisation  of  the  Roman  Church  made  it 
more  attractive  to  many  minds.  The  North- 
umbrian Wilfrid  visiter!  Rome,  and  returned 
a  staunch  adherent  to  the  Roman  system. 
The  struggle  between  the  Roman  and  Celtic 
Churches  disturbed  Northumbria,  till  the 
Synod  of  Whitby  (664),  chiefly  owing  to 
Wilfrid's  influence,  decided  in  favour  of 
Rome.  This  decision  brought  England 
within  the  circle  of  Western  civilisation,  and 
made  possible  her  political  union.  Soon 
afterwards  the  death  of  an  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  at  the  papal  court   gave  Pope 


Pap 


(  796  ) 


Pap 


Vit4iliaii  an  opportunity  of  nominating  Theo- 
dore of  Tarsus  as  his  successor.  It  is  a 
striking  instance  of  the  cosmopolitan  influence 
of  the  Roman  system  that  an  Eastern 
monk  should  rule  the  English  Church.  Arch- 
bishop Theodore  had  a  rare  gift  for  organisa- 
tion. He  established  the  framework  of  the 
ecclesiastical  system  pretty  much  as  it  re- 
mains at  present.  He  made  the  Church  in 
England  strong  in  religion  and  learning. 
England  became  a  centre  of  missionary 
activity.  In  the  eighth  century  English  mis- 
sionaries spread  Christianity  along  the  Khine, 
and  paid  back  England's  debt  of  gratitude 
to  the  papacy  by  bringing  the  Frankish 
Church  into  closer  connection  with  the 
holy  see.  In  787  a  sign  of  England's 
relationship  to  Rome  was  g^ven  by  OfCai  King 
of  Mercia,  who,  to  obtain  the  Pope's  consent 
\o  the  establishment  of  a  Mercian  arch- 
'  bishopric  at  Lichfield,  granted  a  tribute  to 
the  Pope.  This  payment  of  a  penny  from  every 
hearth  passed  on  under  the  name  of  Peter's 
pence,  and  in  later  days  the  traditioual  sum 
of  £201  9s.  was  paid  for  the  whole  kingdom. 
Though  the  papacy  was  regarded  with 
great  respect,  its  interference  was  rarely  in- 
vited in  the  affiiirs  of  the  English  Church. 
In  the  tenth  century  Dunstan  made  the  in- 
tercourse with  Rome  closer,  and  the  arch- 
bishops from  that  time  went  to  Rome  for 
their  palls. 

On  the  whole,  it  may  be  said  that  in 
Anglo-Saxon  times  the  Church  in  Eng- 
land was  decidedly  national,  and  workeid 
harmoniously  with  the  State.  Few  mat- 
ters were  .referred  to  the  Pope*s  dedsion. 
Even  Dunstan  rejected  a  papal  sentence,  and 
legates  were  rarely  seen  in  England.  But 
the  events  preceding  the  Norman  Conquest 
tended  to  bring  the  papacy  into  closer  rela- 
tions with  English  politics.  Under  Ed^K^urd 
the  Confessor,  a  Norman  favourite,  Robert  of 
Jumi^ges,  was  made  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury. On  Godwin's  return  from  exile, 
Archbishop  Robert  fled  amongst  the  other 
Normans.  His  place  was  filled  up  by  the 
election  of  Stigand,  which  Pope  Leo  IX. 
refused  to  recognise,  as  being  uncanonical. 
Pope  Alexander  II.  favoured  the  expedition 
of  Duke  William  of  Normandy,  and  sent  him 
a  consecrated  banner.  The  papal  approbation 
lent  the  Norman  Conquest  somewhat  the 
appearance  of  a  crusade,  and  three  papal 
legates  were  sent  afterwards  to  reform  the 
English  Church.  Many  bishops  were  de- 
posied,  and  Norman  successora  were  given  to 
their  sees.  But  neither  William  I.  nor 
Archbishop  Lanfranc  had  the  smallest  inclin- 
ation to  surrender  any  of  the  rights  of  their 
position.  The  great  Pope  Grregory  VII.  sent 
to  demand  arrears  of  Peter's  pence,  which  he 
considered  as  a  feudal  due,  and  claimed  also 
the  performance  of  homage.  William  I. 
answered  that  he  would  pay  the  arrears ;  as 
to  the  homage,  he  had  never  promised  it,  his 


predecessors  had  never  performed  it,  and  be 
knew  not  on  what  grounds  it  was  claimed. 
Moreover,  William  I.  reduced  to  shape  the 
claims  of  the  crown  in  ecclesiastical  matten. 
He  set  forth  three  points :  (1)  That  no  Popb 
should  be  acknowledged  in  his  realm  save  after 
his  consent.  The  reason  for  this  was  the  fre- 
quency of  disputed  elections  to  the  papacy, 
and  conflicting  claims  between  rivalk  (2) 
No  decision  of  national  or  provincial  synods 
was  to  be  binding  without  his  consent.  (3)  No 
vassal  of  the  crown  was  to  be  excommunicated 
till  he  had  been  informed  of  the  offence. 

The  strong  position  assumed  by  William  I. 
was  used  by  William  IL  as  a  means  of  tyranny 
and  extortion.  Ecclesiastical  fiefs  were  treated 
like  lay  fiefs;  bishoprics  were  kept  vacant, 
and  their  revenues  were  seized  by  the  crown. 
The  reign  of  William  IL  shows  the  need  which 
there  was  for  a  power  like  that  claimed  by 
Gregory  VII.  to  protect  the  Church  from 
feudal  exactions.  A  schism,  however,  weakened 
the  papacy.  Archbishop  AnselTn  was  at- 
tacked by  William  II.  because  he  wished  to 
receive  the  pall  from  Urban  II.,  whom 
the  king  had  not  yet  acknowledged  as  Pope. 
Finally  the  pall  was  sent  to  England,  and 
was  taken  by  Anselm  from  the  high  altar  at 
Canterbury.  But  Anselm  could  not  stand 
against  the  persecution  of  William  II.,  and 
fied  to  the  Continent,  where  the  papacy  was 
still  powerless  to  help  him.  On  Henry  I.'s 
accession  he  returned ;  but  he  had  learned  in 
his  exile  the  most  advanced  principles  of  the 
Hildebrandine  policy,  and  on  his  return  he 
raised  an  objection  to  the  investiture  of 
spiritual  persons  by  a  layman.  This  wu 
practically  to  assert  the  entire  freedom  of  the 
Church  from  the  State.    Henry  I.  would  not 

Sleld,  and  Anselm  again  went  into  exile, 
ut  the  king  needed  the  archbishop's  help, 
and  in  1107  Pope  Paschal  II.  agreed  to  a 
compromise,  which  ten  yean  afterwards 
was  extended  universally.  The  crown  was 
to  receive  homage  for  the  temporalities 
attached  to  an  ecclesiastical  office,  while  the 
spiritual  emblems,  the  ring  and  cxosier,  were 
to  be  conferred  by  spiritual  persons.  Soon 
after  this,  Henry  I.  used  the  mediation  of 
Pope  Calixtus  II.  to  compose  his  differences 
wifii  the  French  king.  Another  subject  of 
dispute  arose  about  the  presence  of  papal 
legates  in  England.  The  Pope,  as  universal 
visitor  of  the  Church,  sent  leffoti  a  latere  for 
special  purposes.  The  English  clergy  main- 
tained tnat  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  was 
permanent  representative  of  the  Pope  (kgatv* 
natm)  in  England,  and  could  not  be  super- 
seded. Henry  I.  did  not  fight  this  question. 
In  1125  a  papal  legate,  John  of  Crema,  pre- 
sided at  an  important  council  in  London ;  hut 
the  protest  against  legates  was  not  in  vain. 

Henry  II.  procured  from  the  one  English 
Pope,  Hadrian  IV.,  a  bull  conferring  on  him 
the  sovereignty  of  Ireland,  which  was  granted 
on  the  ground  that  by  the  donation  of  Con- 


Bap 


(  797  ) 


Pap 


staatine  all  islands  were  vested  in  the  Roman 
see.  But  he  made  no  use  of  this  grant  till 
the  murder  of  Archbishop  Thomas  Becket 
made  it  desirable  for  him  to  show  some  zeal 
in  the  Pope's  service.  During  the  quarrel 
between  Henry  II.  and  Becket,  the  papacy 
was  not  strong  enough  to  interfere  with  effect. 
£ven  after  Becket's  murder  Alexander  III. 
received  Henry  II. *s  excuses,  and  did  not  join 
his  enemies.  Henry  II.*s  invasion  of  Ireland 
was  followed  by  the  Synod  of  Cashel,  in 
which  the  Irish  Church  was  reformed  in 
accordance  with  the  Pope's  wishes. 

The  reign  of  John  marks  the  farthest 
advance  of  the  papal  power  in  English  affiiirs. 
Under  Innocent  III.  the  papacy  reached  its 
highest  point,  and  John's  brutal  character 
was  no  match  for  the  Pope.  A  disputed 
election  to  the  see  of  Canterbury  led  to  an 
appeal  to  Rome.  There  was  enough  infor- 
mality to  lustify  Innocent  III.  in  setting 
.isido  both  the  claimants ;  but  he  went  further, 
caused  a  new  election  to  be  held  in  Rome, 
and  nominated  Stephen  Langton  to  the  suf- 
frages of  the  monks.  John  refused  to  admit 
Langton,  and  Innocent  III.  laid  his  kingdom 
under  an  interdict.  John  confiscated  the 
goods  of  the  clergy:  Pope  Innocent  III. 
proceeded  to  excommuziicate,  and  finally 
to  depose,  the  king.  John's  tyranny  had 
alienated  his  subjects,  and  the  French  king 
was  read^'  to  execute  the  papal  sentence.  In 
despair  John  made  abject  submission,  granted 
his  kingdom  to  the  Pope,  and  received  it 
back  as  a  fief,  by  the  annual  rent  of  1,000 
marks.  As  John  debased  himself  the  spirit 
of  the  English  barons  rose.  Aided  by  .Ajch- 
bishop  Langton  they  demanded  a  charter  of 
liberties.  Innocent  III.,  to  his  disgrace,  took 
the  side  of  his  vassal,  and  the  Gr^t  Charter 
was  a  victory  won  by  a  united  people  against 
the  kina^  and  the  Pope  alike.  Innocent  III. 
annulled  the  charter,  but  died  as  the  struggle 
was  about  to  commence.  John's  death  quicMy 
followed,  and  the  minority  of  Henry  III. 
gave  time  for  reflection.  The  young  king 
was  crowned  by  the  legate  G-mdo,  and  for 
a  time  there  was  an  attempt  on  the  pait  of 
the  papacy  to  set  up  a  legatine  government  in 
England.  Archbi^op  Langton,  by  earnest 
remonstrances,  procured  the  withdrawal  of 
legates,  and  the  confirmation  by  the  Pope  of  the 
legatine  i>ower  of  the  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury. For  two  centuries  there  was  no  further 
attempt  to  interfere  by  legatesin  Englishaffairs. 

The  papacy  was  soon  involved  in  a  des- 
perate struggle  against  the  imperial  house 
of  Hohenstaiden,  for  which  it  needed  large 
Buppliea.  England  was  exposed  to  in- 
creasing exactions,  and  the  feeble  character 
of  Henry  III.  made  him  a  willing  tool  in 
the  hands  of  the  resolute  Popes  Gregory  IX. 
and  Innocent  lY.  The  Pope  taxed  the  Eng- 
lish clergy  to  the  extent  of  a  twentieth  or  a 
tenth  of  their  annual  incomes.  They  pro- 
tested at  the  Council  of  Lyons  (1245),  but 


their  remonstrances  were  not  supported  by 
the  king.  Moreover,  the  Pope  used  recklessly 
hib  prerogative  of  provisions,  or  nominations 
to  vacant  benefices,  suspending  the  rights  of 
the  patrons.  It  was  said  that  the  incomes 
thus  drawn  from  England  by  foreign  and 
non-resident  ecclesiastics  amounted  to  .50,000 
marks.  An  association  was  formed,  headed 
by  a  knight,  Sir  Robert  Twinge,  which  took 
the  law  into  its  own  hands,  harried  the  papal 
collectors,  and  drove  them  from  the  kingdom. 
Innocent  lY.  oifered  Henry  III.  the  kingdom 
of  the  Two  Sicilies  for  his  second  son 
Edmund,  and  Henry  III.  did  his  best  to 
induce  England  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  ' 
war  necessary  to  gain  possession  of  this  dis- 
puted heritage.  The  laity  refused  to  pay; 
but  the  clergy  suffered  from  every  device  which 
the  papal  ingenuity  could  frame.  Henoe 
cleriad  discontent  was  a  strong  element  in 
the  Barons'  War,  and  the  nation  generally 
looked  upon  the  Pope  as  a  foreign  intruder. 

The  great  King  Edward  I.  had  to  face  a 
resolute  Pope  in  Boniface  YIII.,  who  aimed 
at  making  the  papacy  the  centre  of  the  inter- 
national relations  of  Europe.  By  the  bull 
Cierieis  laieot,  Boniface  YIII.  forbade  the 
taxing  of  the  clergy  except  by  his  consent. 
The  Convocation  in  1297  pleaded  the  Pope's 
prohibition  against  a  heavy  demand  for 
money  made  by  the  king.  Edward  I. 
replied  by  outlawing  those  who  refused  to 
pay,  and  the  clergy  were  driven  to  make 
composition  with  Uie  ro^'al  officers.  Soon 
afterwards,  however,  Edward  I.  was  glad  to 
employ  Boniface  YIII.  as  arbitrator  in  an 
untimely  difference  between  himself  and  the 
French  king.  Boniface  YIII.,  wishing  to 
extend  his  influence,  encouraged  the  Scots 
to  appeal  to  him  as  judge  between  them 
and  Edward  I.  Edward,  to  avoid  a  personal 
quarrel  with  the  Pope,  laid  his  letter  before 
Parliament  at  Lincoln  in  1301.  The  barons 
replied  that  the  Kings  of  England  had  never 
pleaded,  nor  been  bound  to  plead,  concerning 
their  temporal  rights  before  any  judge,  eccle- 
siastical or  secular ;  their  subjects  would  not 
permit  them  to  do  so.  Boniface  YIII.  was 
engaged  in  a  contest  with  the  French  king, 
which  ended  in  his  defeat,  and  led  to  the 
establishment  of  the  papacy  at  Avignon.  The 
feeble  Edward  II.  was  ready  to  use  Pope 
John  XXII.  as  the  means  of  procuring  a 
truce  with  Scotland  ;  but  the  fortunes  of  war 
had  changed  after  Bannockbum,  and  it  was 
now  the  turn  of  the  Scots  to  refuse  the  papal 
mediation. 

The  French  war  under  Edward  III.  in- 
creased the  English  resistance  to  papal 
exactions,  which  under  the  Avignonese  Popes 
grew  heavier  and  heavier.  The  Popes  at 
Avignon  were  on  the  French  side,  and  Eng- 
land would  not  see  her  money  carried  to  her 
foes.  In  1343  the  agents  of  two  cardinals 
who  held  preferment  in  England  were  driven 
from  the  land.      In   1351   was   passed  the 


Fap 


(798) 


Pap 


Statute  of  Provisors,  which  enacted  that  if 
the  Pope  appointed  to  a  benefice,  the  pre- 
sentation for  thttt  time  was  to  fall  to  the 
kihg,  and  the  papal  nominees  were  liable  to 
imprisonment  till  they  had  renounced  their 
claims.  To  avoid  the  conflict  of  jurisdiction 
between  the  royal  courts  and  the  papal 
courts,  the  Statute  of  Preemunire  in  1363 
forbade  the  withdrawal  of  suits  from,  the 
king^B  court  to  any  foreign  court.  In  1366 
Pope  Urban  V.  demanded  arrears  for  the 
last  thirty-three  years  of  the  tribute  of  1,000 
marks  which  John  had  agreed  to  pay  to  the 
papacy.  The  prelates  were  foremost  in  giving 
their  opinion  that  John  had  no  power  to  bind  the 
nation  to  another  power  without  its  consent. 
Lords  and  Commons  together  resolved  that 
they  would  resist  to  the  utmost  the  Pope's 
claim.  Urban  V.  withdrew  in  silence,  and 
the  papal  suzerainty  over  England  was  never 
again  revived. 

The  spirit  of  resistance  to  the  papacy  was 
expressed  in  the  teaching  of  WycUf,  who 
began  his  career  as  an  ardent  supporter  of 
the  English  Church  against  tiie  Pope.  When 
ho  passed  into  the  region  of  doctiine.  Pope 
Gregory  XI.  issued  buUs  ordering  his  trial ; 
but  Wyclif  was  not  personally  condemned. 
The  great  schism  in  the  papacy  led  to  an 
increase  in  papal  expenditure  and  papal 
exactions,  especially  under  Boni&ce  IX.  But 
the  spirit  of  England  and  the  Statutes  of 
Provisors  and  Praemunire  were  strong  enough 
to  offer  determined  resistance.  In  1391  Boni- 
face IX.  annulled  the  statutes  by  a  bull,  and 
proceeded  to  issue  provisions  which  the  Eng- 
lish courts  refused  to  recognise.  Parliament 
at  the  same  time  asserted  that  they  would 
not  recognise  the  Pope's  power  of  excommuni- 
cation if  it  were  directed  against  any  who 
were  simply  upholding  the  rights  of  the 
crown.  At  the  same  time  a  more  stringent 
statute  against  provisors  was  passed.  The 
schism  in  the  papacy  greatly  diminished  the 
papalpower,  and  led  to  many  efforts  to  heal 
it.  Ultimately,  in  the  Council  of  Constance 
the  rival  popes  were  deposed  or  resigned,  and 
in  the  vacancy  of  the  papal  office  there  was 
an  opportunity  for  reforming  abuses  in  the 
ecclesiastical  system.  The  Emperor  Sigis- 
mund  was  desirous  of  reform,  and  at  &rst 
Henry  V.  of  England  promised  his  aid.  But 
the  difficulties  of  harmonious  working  in  the 
council  were  so  great  that  Henry  V.  deserted 
Sigismund,  and  joined  those  who  thought 
that  a  new  election  to  the  papacy  was  a 
necessary  prelude  to  reform.  Henry  Beaufort, 
Bishop  of  Winchester,  the  king's  unde,  was 
called  to  Constance,  to  mediate  between  con- 
tending parties.  By  his  good  offices  arrange- 
ments were  made  for  the  election  which  ended 
in  the  choice  of  Martin  V.  (1418).  Martin  V. 
showed  his  g^titude  by  raising  Henry  Beau- 
fort to  the  dignity  of  cardinal.  It  shows  the 
weakness  of  the  government  under  Henry 
VI.^  that  Beaufort  was  allowed  to  hold  this 


di^ty  together  with  his  bishopric.  Up  to 
this  time  ^glish  bishops  had  been  compiled 
to  resign  their  sees  on  accepting  the  car- 
dinalate.  Moreover,  Beaufort  was  nominated 
papal  legate  against  the  Hussitesi  He  raised 
troops  in  England,  and  led  an  expedition. 
Archbishop  Chicheley  was  weak  and  timid. 
Martin  Y.  ordered  him  to  procure  the  repeal 
of  the  Statute  of  Praemunire,  and  when  he 
pleaded  his  inability,  suspended  him  from  his 
office  as  legate.  In  1428  Chicheley  ^-as 
driven  to  beg  the  Commons  to  repeal  the 
Statute  of  Pnemunire ;  but  weak  as  was  the 
government,  the  Commons  refused.  Martin 
V.  humiliated  the  English  episcopate,  but 
gained  nothing  for  himself. 

The  next  relations  of  the  papacy  with  Eng- 
land are  purely  political,  arising  from  the 
Pope's  position  in  the  politics  of  Italy.    In 
1489  Heniy  VII.    of    England  joined  the 
League  which  was  formed  by  Pope  Alexander 
VI.,  against  the  French,  in  consequence  of 
Chaxles  VIII.'s  invasion  of  Italy.     Similarlj 
in  1512,  Henry  YIII.  joined  the  Holy  League 
which   Julius   11.    formed   against    France 
Julius  II.  promised  to  transfer  to  him  the 
title  of  "most  Christian  King,*'  which  had 
hitherto  belonged   to  the  French  monarch. 
The  transfer  was  not  made,  but  a  few  yean 
later  Henry  VIII.  was  satisfied  with  the  title 
of  **  Defender  of  the  Faith,"  granted  to  him 
by  Leo  X.  in  return  for  a  treatise  against 
Martin  Luther.    Henry  VIII.'s  great  minis- 
ter, Wolsey,  became  a  cardinal,  aspired  to 
the  papacy,  and  entertained  projects  for  a 
reform  of  the  Church.    But  Henry  VIII.'s 
desire  for  a  divorce  from  his  vnfe,  Catherine 
of  Aragon,  led  to  a  collision  with  the  papac}'. 
Heniy  demanded  that  the  Pope  should  an- 
nul, or  declai'e  to  be  invalid  from  the  first, 
the  dispensation  by  virtue  of  which  he  had 
married  his  brother's  widow.    Clement  VII. 
temporised,  and  even  endeavoured  to  procnre 
Catherine's  consent.    He  committed  the  cause 
to  Wolsey  and  Campeggio  as  legates,  and 
then  revoked  it  to  his  own  court.    Hear}' 
VTII.  had  gone  too  far  to  recede.    Wobey 
was  declared  liable  to  the  penalties  of  Pne- 
munire  for  having   exercised  the  authority 
of  legate.    The  clergy  were  by  a  legal  quibble 
involved  in  the  same  penalty,  and  only  es- 
caped   by  admitting  the  royal    supremacy. 
Henry  YlII.  hoped  to  intimidate  the  Pope ; 
but  Clement  VII.  dared  not  g^ve  way.    In 
1533  the  royal  supremacy  was  established  by 
Act  of  Parliament,  and  all  direct  relations 
with  the  Court  of  Rome  were  suspended.    In 
1537  Pole  was  made  legate  north  of  the  Alps, 
with  a  view  to  influence  English  affairs ;  bat 
Henry  VIII.  proclaimed  him  a  traitor,  and 
Pole  was  obhged  to  return  from  Flanders. 
Under  Mary,  in  1654,  Pole  was  received  as 
papal  legate  in  England,  and  all  Acts  of  F^- 
liament  against  the  Pope's  jurisdiction  wm^ 
repealed.      Pope  Paul  IV.  was  injudicious 
enough  to  urge   upon  Mary  and  Pole  the 


Bap 


(799  ) 


impossible  work  of  restoring  the  poflsessionfl 
of  the  Church.  On  Mark's  death  he  showed 
such  an  implacable  spirit  towards  Elizabeth 
that  she  felt  that  Anne  Boleyn's  daughter 
could  not  be  reconciled  to  the  Roman  Church. 
In  1659  the  royal  supremacy  was  restored, 
and  there  was  never  again  a  question  of  its 
abolition.  England  drifted  further  and 
further  from  the  papacy,  and  in  1571  Pins  V. 
excommunicated  Elizabeth. 

The  marriage  of  Charles  L  to  Henrietta 
Maria  renewed  to  some  degree  diplomatic 
intercourse  with  the  Pope.  Papal  messengers 
were  sent  to  England,  and  the  queen  had 
a  representative  at  Rome.  Charles  I. 
wished  to  confirm  his  claims  to  the  alle- 
giance of  his  Catholic  subjects ;  and  his  pro- 
ceedings were  viewed  by  the  Puritans  with 
growing  displeasure.  The  talk  of  union 
between  the  Church  of  England  and  the  Church 
of  Rome  was  one  cause  of  popular  discontent. 
Under  Charles  II.  and  James  II.  these 
relations  were  again  renewed,  with  the  result 
of  accentuating  more  clearly  the  Protestantism 
of  England  by  the  Act  of  1701,  which  secured 
the  Protestant  Succession.  From  this  period 
relations  with  the  papacy  became  regulated 
by  the  ordinar}'  exigencies  of  diplomacy. 
During  the  Napoleonic  war,  England  took 
the  put  of  Pius  YII.,  and  restored  to  him 
the  Papal  States,  of  which  he  had  been  vio- 
lently dispossessed.  The  last  act  of  hostility 
towards  the  papacy  was  the  Ecclesiastical 
Titles  Act  of  1651,  which  regarded  as  papal 
aggression  the  appointment  of  Roman  Catholic 
biwops  with  temtorial  desig^nations. 

Collier,  Bccl€sia$tical  History;  Stabbs, 
Const,  Hist. ;  Lingoid,  Hitt.  ^  Sng, jDixon, 
Hist,  of  tht  English  Church;  Pernr,  Hist,  of 
ths  Church  of  England;  Milman,  Latin  Chria- 
tianity  ;  Creighton,  History  of  ths  Papacy  during 
ths  Psriod  of  ths  Reformation.  r^^  q-i 

Pa^^ineaily  M.,  was  a  leader  of  the  French 
Canadian  party  of  Lower  Canada,  and  one  of 
the  chief  movers  of  the  petitions  to  the  home 
government,  setting  forth  the  grievances  of 
the  National  party.  He  was  a  man  of  great 
ability,  and  hAving  been  elected  a  member 
for  the  city  of  Montreal  in  1820,  became  in 
a  very  short  time  Speaker  of  the  assembly. 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  riots  in  1836,  the 
government  attempted  to  arrest  Papineau  for 
his  democratic  utterances,  but  failed,  though 
they  succeeded  in  compelling  him  to  leave  the 
coQntr>'. 


I,  Matthbw  {d.  eirca  1259),  was  a 
Benedictine  monk  of  the  abbey  of  St.  Albans. 
He  was  sent  to  Norway  as  visitor  of  the 
Benedictine  order  by  the  Pope  in  1248,  and 
probably  employed  in  other  important  diplo- 
matic and  ecclesiastical  missions.  He  was  a 
man  of  great  accomplishments,  and  was  a 
mathematician,  poet,  and  theologian.  He  is 
specially  notable  as  an  historian.  He  wrote 
a  work  called  Chronica  Majora,  which  is 
a  continuation  of  the  Mi$tory  ot  Roger  of 


Wendover  from  the  year  1235.  He  also 
wrote  Hitiorta  Minora  which  extends  from 
1067  to  1253,  and  the  Lives  of  the  Abbots  of 
St.  Albans.  He  is  supposed  also  to  have 
written  the  abridgment  of  the  Sistoria 
Major  called  Florea  Historiarunij  and  attri- 
buted to  Matthew  of  Westminster.  Matthew 
Paris  is  the  greatest  of  our  medissval  chroni- 
clers, and  almost  the  only  one  deserving 
the  name  of  historian.  He  seems  to  have 
been  on  intimate  terms  with  Henry  III.  and 
the  chief  men  of  his  day,  and  to  have  made 
good  use  of  his  opportunities.  His  works, 
nom  their  fulness,  their  evident  signs  of  ac- 
curate information,  and  their  plain-spoken 
candour,  are  by  far  the  most  important 
authorities  for  the  first  half  of  the  thirteenth 
century ;  while  in  point  of  style,  and  in  the 
acuteness  of  their  observations  and  reflections, 
they  are  very  greatiy  superior  to  most  of  the 
mediaBval  annals. 

An  edition  of  the  Hisi,  Kinor  is  published  in 
the  Soils  Series.  The  Chronica  Majora  were 
flrat  printed  in  1571.  There  is  a  translation  in 
Bohn  8  Antiqyuarioin  Library. 


is,  The  Dbclailmion  of,  1856.  At  the 
Congress  of  Paris,  1856,  four  important  points 
of  international  law  were  agreed  to  by  the 
representatives  of  the  powers  :—(l)  Privateer- 
ing is  and  remains  abolished.  (2)  The 
neutral  flag  covers  even  enemies*  goods,  with 
the  exception  of  contraband  of  war.  (3) 
Neutral  goods,  with  the  exception  of  contra- 
band of  war,  are  not  liable  to  capture  under 
an  enemy's  flag.  (4)  Blockades  in  order  to 
be  binding  must  be  effective :  that  is  to  say, 
maintained  by  a  force  really  sufficient  to 
prevent  access  to  the  enemy's  coast.  The 
concurrence  of  the  government  of  the  United 
States  of  America  was  sought  for  these  resolu- 
tions. It  was  refused  to  the  first,  but  given 
to  the  rest.  This  refusal  was  due  to  the 
objections  raised  by  the  European  powers  to 
the  American  proposition  that  for  tiie  future 
all  private  property  should  be  exempted  from 
capture  by  ships  of  war.  Spain  and  Mexico 
also  declined  to  accede  to  the  four  articles. 

-,  The  Treaty  op  (Feb.,  1763),  brought 


to  an  end  the  Seren  Years'  War  between 
France  and  England.  Separate  negotiations 
had  been  opened  in  March,  1761,  but  had 
been  broken  off  by  Pitt  on  learning  of 
the  Family  Compact  between  France  and 
Spain.  Upon  this  discoverj',  Pitt  reBolved  on 
war  with  Spain,  and  laid  energetic  plans  for 
carrying  on  that  war  before  the  Council. 
Temple  alone  supported  him;  and  finding 
that  he  could  not  lead,  he  resigned  in  October. 
In  November  the  treaty  was  concluded  by 
the  Duke  of  Bedford,  English  ambussador  at 
Paris.  As  to  Spain,  each  nation  was  to 
obsen'e  the  same  limits  as  before  the  war 
began,  Spain  conceding  all  the  points  on 
which  she  had  based  her  declaration  of  war. 
Between  France  and  England  both  nations 


(  800') 


agreed  to  take  no  further  part  in  the  war  in 
Germany ;  and  the  French  were  to  restore  all 
teiritories  held  by  them  in  Hesae  and 
Hanover.  Minorca  was  to  be  given  by  them 
in  exchange  foi^  Belleisle.  America  passed 
wholly  to  England;  but  the  French  were 
to  retain  their  rights  of  fishing  off  Newfound- 
land. In  the  West  Indies,  England  retained 
Tobago,  Dominica,  St.  Vincent,  and  Grenada ; 
but  restored  Guadaloupe,  Martinique  and  St. 
Lucia.  In  Africa  France  gave  up  Senegal, 
but  recovered  Goree.  In  India,  she  agreed 
to  have  no  military  establishment;  and  on 
this  condition  the  French  were  allowed  to 
resume  the  factories  which  they  had  held 
before  the  war.  Before  the  peace  was  finally 
concluded,  news  came  of  the  capture  of 
Havannah ;  and  the  English  cabinet  insisted 
on  some  equivalent  being  given,  if  England 
was  to  cede  this,  her  most  recent  conquest. 
Florida  was  accordingly  given  up  by  France. 

Stanhope,  Hitt.  of  Eng. ;  Thackeray,  Lift  of 
Chatham;  Koch  and  SchoeU,  TraiUt  de  Palx. 

,    The  Treaty  op  (May,  1814),  was 

concluded  by  the  allies  soon  after  the  ab- 
dication of  Napoleon,  and  his  despatch  to 
Elba.  Its  terms  were  very  moderate,  when 
considered  by  the  side  of  tiie  teirible  havoc 
inflicted  on  the  Continent  during  nearly 
twenty  years  by  the  French  armies.  The 
frontier  of  1790  was  to  be  generally  restored ; 
but  on  the  north,  and  towards  the  Bhine,  it 
was  to  be  advanced,  so  as  to  include  several 
strong  fortresses,  while  towards  the  Alps  a 
considerable  part  of  Savoy  was  included 
within  the  French  border.  England  and 
Austria  refused  to  make  France  pay  any 
contribution  towards  the  expenses  incurred 
by  the  war.  The  only  real  advantage  gamed 
by  England  was  the  surrender  of  the  Isle  of 
finance,  in  order  to  secure  the  route  to 
India,  while  it  retained  Malta  for  the  same 
object. 

,   The  Treaty  op   (Nov.   20,  1816), 

was  concluded  on  the  close  of  Napoleon's  final 
campaign  in  Flanders.  It  rigorously  in- 
sisted on  confining  France  to  its  old  boun- 
dary of  1790,  and  deprived  it  of  the  additions, 
which  the  treaty  of  the  previous  year  had 
allowed  to  it.  A  large  contribution  towards 
the  war  expenses  was  levied  upon  it,  to  the 
amount  of  700,000,000  francs,  which  was  all 
to  be  paid  in  five  years.  As  a  security  for 
the  payment  of  this  large  indemnity,  and  for 
the  future  tranquillity  of  the  country,  it  whs 
stipulated  that  the  northern  fortresses  should 
be  held  for  five  years  by  the  troops  of  the 
allies. 

Alison,  Hi«t.  of  Europe;  LondcntUrry  Oorr#> 
spondmM;  Stapleton,  lAfe  of  Canning. 

-,  The  Treaty  op  (Feb.,  1866),  came 


at  the  close  of  the  Crimean  War.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  ^^ear  1866  the  plenipoten- 
tifmes  of  the  great  powers  assembled  at  Paris. 
Four  articles  were  brought  forward  a3  the 


basis  of  a  peace.  They  were  eventually 
accepted  in  a  slightly  amended  form  by 
the  Czar.  The  first  redressed  the  Mol- 
davian frontier,  so  as  to  render  it  more  easily 
defensible  against  Russian  invasion.  The 
second  took  from  Russia  all  control  over  the 
mouths  of  the  Danube,  appointing  first  a 
commission  of  the  great  powers  to  arrange 
preliminaries,  and  secondly  a  peinianent 
commission  from  Austria,  Turkey,  Bavaria, 
Wurtemburg,  and  the  three  Danubian  pro- 
vinces to  draw  up  rules,  establish  a  police, 
and  superintend  navigation.  The  third  pro- 
posed that  no  fleet,  and  no  naval  station  of 
any  country,  should  be  permitted  in  the 
Black  Sea,  but  that  Russia  and  Turkey  should 
be  empowered  to  make  a  convention  to  keep 
up  a  small  light-armed  force  for  police  and 
coast  service;  on  the  other  hand  merchant 
ships  of  all  classes  were  to  be  allowed  freely 
to  enter  it. 

Hertslet,  Ifap  of  £urope  by  Tr«aty. 

,  The  Treaty  op  (March  3,  1867),  va* 


concluded  between  England  on  the  one  hand 
and  Persia  on  the  other.  By  it  Persia  re- 
nounced all  claim  or  dominion  over  Herat 
and  Afghanistan,  and  engnged  to  refer  any 
future  differences  she  might  have  with  the 
Afghan  States  to  the  friendly  offices  of  the 
British  government.  The  slave  trade  in  the 
Persian  Gulf  was  also  by  this  treaty  aboliiJied. 

Parisll  is  derived  from  the  Greek  irapoicfo, 
and  means  primarily  the  district  assigned  to 
a  particular    church.     In    early    times  thf 
bishoprics    were    small    and    the    spiritual 
care  of  each  town  or  district   was  in  the 
hands  of  the  bishop,  but  with  the  spread 
of  Christianity  and  the  development  of  the 
importance   of    the    episcopate,    it    berame 
usual  to  assign   special   districta  within  the 
diocese  to  the  care  of  a  single  presbj'^er  under 
the  bishop's  supervision.     By  t^>e  ninth  or 
tenth  century  at  latest  this  parochial  system 
became  universal,  but  it  had  been  gradually 
growing  up  long  before  that  time.  In  England 
^e  original   missionaries  were  monks,  who 
were  organised  together  by  their  dependence 
on  the  bishop,  but  it  soon  became  an  evidence 
of  piety  for  the  lord  of  a  district  to  build  and 
endow  a  church  on  it,  in  return  for  which  he 
seems  to  have  acquired  the  right  of  nomi- 
nating tiie  minister,  who  gradually  obtained 
the    disposal    of    the    tithe,    which    origi- 
nally had  been  administered  by  the  bishop. 
Archbishop  Theodore    of   Tarsus    gave  the 
first  impulse    towards    the   develoiiment  of 
the    parochial     system     in    England «    and 
Bede  urged  strongly  on  Archldshop  Egbert 
the    importance   of  the  work.      TJitiinately 
the    whole    of   England,   with  insignificant 
exceptions,     was     divided     ii  to     parishes, 
which  were  usually,  though  not  nec-easanly, 
conterminous  with  the  township  or  manor, 
though  in  many  cases  the  township  was  too 
small  to  require  a  priest  and  church  of  itsown. 


(801) 


SO  that  some  parishes  contain  several  town- 
ships, and  sometimes  the  boundaries  of 
parishes  and  townships  even  overlap.  Still, 
as  a  whole,  the  parish  became  little  more  than 
the  township  in  its  ecclesiastical  aspect,  and 
aa  the  old  English  local  system  became  ob- 
solete,  the  parish  encroached,  so  to  say,  upon 
the  township.  In  modem  times  the  parish 
suggests  civil  quite  as  much  as  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction.  The  parish  has  become  for  many 
purposes  the  unit  of  local  government,  of  high- 
way management,  of  ratmg,  of  poor  relief,  as 
much  as  the  district  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  rector  or  vicar.  The  parish  vestry, 
originally  an  ecclesiastical  assembly  of  all  the 
inhabitants,  has  become  a  civil  court  that  has 
acquired  some  of  the  slender  functions  of  the 
townshipmoot.  The  churchwardens  and  over- 
seers, its  officers,  ^ve  become  in  a  sense  civil 
as  well  as  ecclesiastical  officers.  One  of  the 
churchwardens  is  elected  by  the  ratepayers 
in  the  Easter  vestry  meeting. 

Besides  civil  parishes,  as  old  parishes  are 
called,  the  Church  Building  Act  of  1818  per- 
mitted  the  establishment  of  new  ecclesiastical 
parishes  or  districts,  which,  independent  in 
ecdeaiastical  matters,  remained  for  civil  pur- 
poses  part  of  the  mother  parish. 

Hatch,  OrgaiMatwn  of  the  Early  Christian 
Churehe*;  Stabbs,  Const.  Hist.:  Blackstone, 
Cotnmentarin ;  Bcunx,  Parish  Law;  Cobden 
Club  Etaaya  on  Local  Govsmmmt  of  JSngland, 

[T.  F.  T.] 


Thb,  were  an  ancient  Celtic  tribe 
occupying  the  south-eastern  portion  of  the 
present  county  of  York. 


%  Matthew  (*.  1604,  d.  1676), 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  bom  at  Nor- 
wich and  educated  at  Cambridge,  where  he 
attained  g^reat  celebrity  as  a  scholar  and  a 
theologian.  He  became  famous  as  a  preacher, 
and  was  appointed  Chaplain  to  Henry  VIII., 
and  in  1652  Dean  of  Lincoln,  but  having 
distinguished  himself  by  his  zealous  advocacy 
of  the  Reformation,  narrowly  escaped  martyr* 
dom  during  the  JVIarian  persecution.  His 
sound  judgment  caused  him  to  be  singled  out 
by  Elizabeth  on  her  accestdon  for  the  primacy, 
which  he  accepted  much  against  his  will, 
being  consecrated  at  Lambeth  by  Barlow, 
Bishop  of  Chichester;  Hodgkins,  suffragan 
Bishop  of  Bedford;  Miles  Coverdale,  Lstte 
Bishop  of  Exeter;  and  John  Scory,  Bishop 
of  Hereford  (Dec.  17,  1669).  From  this  time 
the  history  of  Archbishop  Parker  is  that  of 
the  Church  of  England.  On  several  occa- 
sions the  archbishop  found  himself  brought 
into  collision  with  Elizabeth,  especially  on 
the  subject  of  the  marriage  of  the  clergy, 
which  he  favoured.  He  took  an  important 
part  in  the  translation  of  the  Bishop's  Bible 
(1563  —  68),  and  in  his  revision  of  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles  showed  much  good  sense. 
Parker  was  the  author  of  the  famous  Adver- 
tuMt&nts  of  Queen  Mizabeth,  which  formed  a 
HitT.-26 


book  of  discipline  for  the  clergy,  and  the 

enforcement  of  which  has  earned  for  their 

author  the  obloquy  of  the  Puritanical  party 

and  the  reprocush  of  having  been  a  persecutor. 

In  1676  the  archbishop  died,  having  during 

the  whole  tenure  of  his  office  followed  the 

consistent  policy  of  maintaining  ecclesiastical 

affairs  as  S^ey  had  been  left  by  Edward  VI. 

In  theology  he  was  Calvinistic,  but  in  matters 

of  ecclesiastical  government  he  was  altogether 

opposed    both    to    the    Catholics    and    the 

Piuitans,  and  anxious,  with  due  prudence  and 

circumspection,  to  obtain  uniformity  in  the 

English  Church.    Parker  was  a  student  of 

English  antiquities  and  early  history.      He 

wrote    a    work,    De    Antiquitate    Britannia 

E€ele8%€B  (1672),  and  edited  Matthew  Paris  in 

1671. 

Strype,  Mtemorials  ;  Hook,  Lives  of  the  Arch- 
Hfhops.  Parker's  Works  have  been  pabliahed 
by  the  Parker  Society,  established  1840. 


r,  Samuel  {h.  1640,  d.  1688^,  Bishop 
of  Oxford,  was  the  son  of  one  of  the  Barons  of 
the  Exchequer.  At  the  Restoration  he  forsook 
the  Puritan  fiarty,  to  which  he  had  belonged, 
and  made  himself  conspicuous  by  his  bitter 
attacks  on  them.  He  was  consecrated  Bishop 
of  Oxford  in  1686,  and  next  year  was  forcibly 
intruded  into  the  office  of  President  of  Mag- 
dalen College.  He  died  shortly  after  this, 
leaving  the  reputation  of  a  voluminous  and 
acute  writer,  and  a  dishonest  man.  He  left 
an  historical  work,  De  JUbue  aui  Tetnporia, 
published  in  1726. 


»,  Sir  Hyde  (ft.  1739,  d.  1807), 
entered  the  navy  at  an  early  age,  and  was 
made  a  post-captain  in  1763.  He  distin- 
guished himself  during  the  American  War, 
and  captured  Savannah  in  1778.  He  took 
part  in  the  relief  of  Gibraltar  in  1782,  and 
the  operations  before  Toulon  in  1799.  In 
1801  he  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command 
of  the  expedition  to  Copenhagen,  with 
Nelson  as  his  second.  The  actual  command 
of  the  fieet  which  was  in  action  at  the  battle 
of  Copenhagen  was  taken  by  the  latter. 

Parkhnrst,  John  (b.  1611,  d.  1674^, 
Bishop  of  Norwich,  the  tutor  of  Bishop  Jewel, 
was  one  of  the  most  earnest  of  the  Reformers 
of  Edward  YI.'s  reign,  and  was  in  conse- 
quence obliged  to  take  refuge  at  Zurich 
during  the  Marian  persecution.  On  the 
accession  of  Elizabeth  he  returned  to  England 
and  became  Bishop  of  Norwich.  Bishop 
Parkhurst  was  a  supporter  of  the  Noncon- 
formists, and  a  vehement  opposer  of  persecu- 
tion. 

Wood,  LivsB  ;  Wordsworth,  EcAss.  Biog. 


I,  Silt  William  {d,  1696),  was  a 
lawyer  and  a  Jacobite  conspirator,  chiefly 
notorious  from  his  share  in  the  Assassination 
Plot.  He  had  been  one  of  the  most  violent 
opponents  of  the  Exclusion  BiU,  and  had 
supported  James  II.  to  the  last.  After  the 
Revolution,  however,  he  swore  alleg^iance  to 


(  802  ) 


William.  He  did  not  take  a  very  active  share 
in  the  AHWUwination  Plot  (1696),  owing  to  the 
infirmities  of  age.  His  chi^  duty  was  to 
provide  arms  for  the  conspirators.  Large 
quantities  were  seized  at  his  house  on  the 
detection  of  the  plot.  He  was  tried  and  con- 
demned to  death  (March  24).  A  committee 
of  the  Commons  went  to  interrogate  him  at 
Newgate,  but  he  refused  to  betrav  his  accom- 
plices. He  died,  **not  only  without  a  word 
indicating  remorse,  but  with  something  which 
resembled  exultation.*' 

Parliament.  The  fundamental  notion 
that  has  always  upheld  the  office  and  action 
of  Parliament  in  the  constitution,  and  has  been 
professedly  the  guiding  principle  of  all  deal- 
ings with  it  on  &e  pait  of  the  crown,  is  that 
it  IS  the  realm  of  England  in  little,  embracing 
in  its  conception  all  the  separate  parts  which 
united  make  the  conception  of  the  great 
English  nation.  Every  capacity,  every  poli- 
tick virtue  inherent  in  the  whole  nation,  is 
inherent  in  it.  The  history  of  the  institution, 
taken  apart  from  its  origin,  begins  with  Nov. 
27,  1295.  On  that  day  the  first  assembly 
whose  parliamentary  character  is  unoontro- 
verted  met  at  Westminster ;  but  the  word 
FarliatMnt — which  translates  colloquium^  means 
a  talking y  and  came  to  us  from  Italy — had  been 
already  in  frequent  use;  it  was  g^ven,  for 
instance,  to  the  peculiarly  constituted  meet- 
ings that  the  Provisions  of  Oxford  determined 
should  be  held  three  times  a  year.  Its  earliest 
recorded  application  to  a  national  assembly  is 
found  under  the  year  1246,  and  even  after  1296 
mere  councils  were  now  and  then  called  by 
the  name.  Parliament,  in  the  words  of  Bishop 
Stubbs,  is  '*  the  concentration  of  all  the  consti- 
tuents of  the  shircmoots  in  a  central  assombl}'. 
They  contained  in  their  ultimate  form  the 
great  folk,  clerical  and  lay,  the  freeholders, 
and  representatives  of  the  townships  and 
municipalities  of  the  several  shires.  Parlia- 
ment contains  practically  the  same  component 
parts  of  the  nation,  and  the  kinship  of  the 
humbler  with  the  grander  institution  is  seen 
in  the  employment  for  centuries  of  the  sheriffs 
and  county  courts  in  Parliamentary  elections. 
Through  the  sheriffs  the  whole  electoral 
machinery  was  set  in  motion :  at  the  county 
courts  the  elections  of  knights  of  the  shire 
was  made,  and  to  them  those  of  citizens  and 
burgesses  were  reported.  The  county  court, 
too,  had  long  been  the  chief  depository  of  the 
principle  of  representation;  when  the  need 
arose  its  merit  as  a  model  for  the  great  repre- 
sentative body  could  hardly  be  missed.  But 
the  historic  Parliament  is  something  more 
than  the  express  essence  of  all  the  county 
courts  in  the  kingdom ;  it  is  an  assembly  that 
is  an  image  of  the  people,  not  as  an  undivided 
whole,  but  as  split  up  into  separate  interests. 
It  is  "  not  only  a  concentration  of  machinery, 
but  an  assembly  of  estates."  The  clerg}',  the 
baronagOi  and  the  commons  had  all  to  be  in 


it,  united  yet  distinct,  to  make  it  a  fall  Psr- 
liament.  Now  the  higher  clergy  and  th« 
baronage  had  always  been  in  Uie  national 
council;  the  lower  clergv  and  the  ooounons 
had  onlv  to  be  added,  ana  the  work  would  be 
done.  !rhe  process  of  adding  those  took  some 
time,  and  but  for  the  strong  motive  that  kept 
driving  on  the  king  to  its  accomplishmfnt, 
might  have  taken  much  longer.  Pefscmal 
property  or  "  movables  "  had  become  subject 
to  taxation ;  the  methods  of  getting  the  neces- 
sary consents,  expressed  or  constructive,  which 
the  pre-Parliamentary  regime  obliged  the 
king  to  resort  to,  were  complicated  and 
tedious,  and  the  need  of  a  simple  and  swifter 
method  was  strongly  felt.  Accordingly  ve 
find  several  assembliea  before  1295  which 
contained  one  oi  more  of  the  Parliamentary- 
elements  that  were  still  wanting,  but  wbidi 
still  lacked  something  to  make  them  perfect. 
In  1213  two  such  were  summoned,  one  vith 
chosen  men  of  the  towns  in  it,  to  St.  Albans; 
the  other,  with  chosen  men  of  the  shires  in  it, 
to  Oxford.  In  12d4  the  sherifb  were  directed 
to  see  that  their  several  shires  returned  tvo 
knights  each  to  settle  what  aid  they  were 
willing  to  give  the  king.  During  the  yesit 
that  follow  similar  instuices  are  found :  but 
in  none  were  citizens  and  burgesses  combined 
i^ath  knights  of  the  shire  till  the  meeting  in 
Jan.,  1265,  of  the  renowned  ParUament  called 
at  the  instance  of  Simon  de  Montfort.  This 
contained  117  dignified  churchmen,  23  lay 
nobles,  two  men  summoned  from  each  shire 
through  the  sheriff,  and  two  men  summoned 
from  each  aty  and  borough,  but  not  through 
the  sheriff.  This,  however,  **  was  not  prim- 
arily and  essentially  a  constitutional  assembly. 
It  was  not  a  general  convention  of  the  tenanlB- 
in-chief  y  or  of  the  three  estates,  but  a  Psrlia- 
mentary  assembly  of  the  supporters  of  the 
existing  government."  Consequently  Bishop 
Stubbs  reuses  to  see  in  it  the  first  Parliament 
of  the  modem  type.  During  the  next  thirty 
years  there  was  no  lack  of  assemblies  that  ^ 
the  name  of  Parliaments,  in  whidi  the  com* 
monalty  is  recorded  to  have  been  preseni 
Under  1282  we  read  even  of  provincial  Pulia* 
ments,  one  at  York  and  one  at  Northampton, 
both  representative  of  the  lower  dergvand 
lay  commons — which,  howtver,  sat  apart  from 
each  other — ^but  without  the  lay  nobility.  A 
general  tax  was  their  object>  in  which  &ctwe 
have  a  proof  of  the  close  connection  betwetsi 
taxation  and  the  birth  of  representative 
government.  A  Parliamentary  gathering  at 
Acton  Bumell  in  1283  is  a  good  example  of 
those  unfinished  Parliaments.  It  contained 
no  clergy,  and  representatives  of  only  twenty- 
one  cities  and  boroughs ;  and  its  buanen  vas 
to  see  David  of  Wales  tried  for  his  life.  Others, 
equally  imperfect,  succeed.  At  last  the 
troubles  that  crowded  in  upon  Edward  I.  in 
1295  persuaded  him  to  throw  himself  npfia 
his  whole  people.  In  October  he  issued  writs 
for  an  assembly,  which  should  be  a  complete 


(  803  ) 


image  of  the  nation.  On  Nov.  27  this  assembly 
met,  and  in  it  historians  discern  all  the  com- 
ponent parts  and  type  of  a  finished  Parliament. 
It  was  composed  of  97  bishops,  abbots  and 
priors,  65  eatls  and  barons,  39  judges  and 
others,  representatives  of  the  lower  clergy, 
summoned  through  their  diocesans,  and  repre- 
sentatives of  the  counties,  cities,  and  boroughs 
summoned  through  the  sheriff.  Every  section 
of  the  population  that  had  political  rights  was 
in  it,  in  person  or  by  proxy. 

This  fully  developed  Parliament  did  not  at 
once  iaJX  into  the  exeYciae  of  all  the  powers  be- 
longing to  the  body  of  which  it  was  the  expan- 
sion. One  of  them,  indeed,  the  judicial,  it  has 
taken  care  never  to  assume.  Taxation  was  at 
first  the  sole  business  that  all  its  parts  had  in 
common,  but  time  and  circumstance  soon 
brought  rights  and  privileges.  By  slow  degrees 
legislation  and  general  political  deliberations 
<»ime  to  be  classed  among  its  powers.  All  its 
parts,  however,  did  not  advance  towards  these 
with  equal  speed;  those  which  have  since 
far  outstripped  the  others  moved  but  timidly 
at  first.  For  a  time,  also,  the  several  parts 
held  aloof  from  one  another,  and  even  when 
the  pairing  process  began,  the  tendency  was 
towards  the  combination  of  the  barons  and 
knights  of  the  shire  into  one  body,  the  citu^ens 
and  burgesses  into  another,  while  the  clergy 
made  a  thirds  But  this  did  not  go  far ;  withm 
little  more  than  a  generation  the  clerical  and 
lay  baronages  had  coalesced  into  the  joint 
«8tate  of  the  lords  spiritual  and  temporal,  and 
all  the  lay  representatives  into  the  estate  of 
the  commons;  and  within  little  more  than 
fifty  years  the  lower  clergy,  preferring  to  tax 
themselves  in  Convocation,  had  fallen  away 
altogether.  From  this  time  Parliament  grew 
«teaaily  in  importance,  and  in  a  few  ^nera- 
tions  was  firmly  root^  in  the  constitution. 
It  had  become  indispensable  to  the  legal 
transaction  of  the  greater  affairs  of  state. 
During  medieval  times  it  was,  except  at  rare 
and  brief  intervals,  convoked  often  and  regu- 
larly, and  not  seldom  to  provincial  towns ; 
Its  influence  was  felt  in  every  department 
of  government;  it  occasionally  curbed  the 
king's  will ;  its  members  had  become  privi- 
leged, and  a  system  of  rules — a  whole  code  of 
laws,  in  fact — had  grown  up  to  g^ide  its 
conduct  and  prescribe  its  procedure.  From 
the  time  of  Edward  III.  it  is  undoubted  that 
no  tax  could  be  levied,  and  (in  secular  matters 
at  least)  no  law  be  made  that  had  not  origin- 
ated in  and  been  sanctioned  by  Parliament. 
Throughout  the  Tudor  period  it  kept  all  its 
powers  unimpaired,  though  in  exercising  them 
it  was  moved  by  special  causes  to  submit  for 
a  time  to  the  dictation  of  the  crown.  In 
[Elizabeth's  days  it  begeui  to  recover  its  inde- 
pendence, and  under  the  early  Stuarts  it 
entered  upon  a  course  of  action  which  de- 
veloped into  a  struggle  for  supremacy  in  the 
atate.  This  it  pursued  so  doggedly  that  it 
measured  its  strength  with  the  crown  and 


overthrew  it,  but  only  to  be  itself  overthrown 
by  one  of  its  own  soldiers.  Restored  with 
the  monarchy,  it  again  drifted  into  a  less 
violent  oonfiict  with  its  former  antagonist,  and 
at  the  Revolution  it  secured  its  supremacy ; 
and  it  has  since  become  the  one  all-important 
political  power. 

The  powers  and  exemptions,  known  as 
Privile|;e  of  Parliament,  which  both  Houses 
enjoy  m  common,  are  of  two  lands — those 
that  belong  to  the  Houses  in  their  corporate 
capacity,  and  those  that  belong  to  individual 
members.  Of  the  former  the  most  vital  are 
freedom  of  speech,  liborty  of  access  to  the 
presence  of  the  sovereign,  that  the  severely 
should  not  notice  anytiiing  said  or  done  m 
Parliament,  save  on  the  report  of  the  House, 
and  the  power  of  committing  for  contempt. 
Of  the  latter  class  the  most  valuable  is  ex- 
emption of  members  from  arrest  when  going 
to,  attending,  or  returning  from  Parliament, 
except  on  a  charge  of  treason  or  felony,  or  a 
refuad  to  give  surety  of  the  peace.  Once 
these  privileges  were  far  more  extensive. 
But  legislation  has  removed  the  area  of  their 
personal  privilege  to  the  one  immunity  given 
above. 

Stnbbs,  8^4et  Charters  and  Const.  Hist, ;  May, 
Practical  Treatise  j  ^^"xrjx  ParliavMnU  otM 
CoiMioil«;  Hallam,  Cotiat  Hxst, 

Parliamentavy  Trains  Bill  (1864). 

This  bill  was  introduced  by  Lord  Derby.  It 
proposed  that  in  every  railway,  leading  to  the 
metropolis,  provision  should  be  made  for  the 
accommodation  of  the  working  classes  by 
cheap  trains.  This  measure  was  aibcepted  by 
the  government,  and  was  the  first  of  a  long 
series  of  similar  measures. 

Pamell.  Charles  Stewart  {b.  1846,  d. 
1891),  was  bom  at  Avondale,  co.  Wicklow. 
Elected  for  co.  Meath  in  1875,  he  entered  upon 
a  policy  of  Parliamentary  obstruction,  and  a 
few  years  later  was  accepted  as  the  leader  of 
the  Home' Rule  party.  From  October,  1 88 1 ,  to 
May,  1882,  he  was  detained  in  Kilmainham 
Graol  because  of  his  attempt  to  interfere  with 
the  operation  of  the  Irish  Land  Act  of  1881. 
He  had  been  President  of  the  suppressed  Land 
League ;  he  was  now  elected  President  of  the 
National  League,  which  succeeded  it.  In 
1886  Mr.  Gladstone  and  the  bulk  of  the  Liberal 
party  accepted  the  Home  Rule  policy.  In 
1889  a  Commission  which  had  been  appointed 
to  examine  charges  of  complicity  with  crime 
which  had  been  brought  against  Mr.  Pamell 
and  his  followers  by  the  Times  reported  that 
the  letter  attributed  to  Mr.  Pamell,  approving 
of  the  PhcBuix  Park  murders,  was  a  forgery, 
that  he  and  his  colleagues  had  not  personally 
organised  outrages,  but  that  their  incitements 
to  intimidation  had  been  followed  by  outrages 
which  they  had  failed  to  denounce.  In  1890 
he  was  mulct  in  costs  as  co-respondent  in  the 
O'Shea  divorce  case,  and  the  maiority  of  his 
party  elected  Mr.  Justin  McCartny  as  leader^ 


(804) 


in  his  place.  His  struggle  to  regain  the 
sapremacy  in  Ireland  was  brought  to  a  close 
by  his  death  in  the  following  year.  ' 

Parry,  Bk.  William  (d.  1585),  was  a 
Welshman  **  of  considerable  learning,  but 
vicious  and  needy,"  who  was  employed  by 
Burleigh  to  reside  abroad,  and  to  act  as  a  spy 
on  the  English  exiles.  On  his  return  home, 
he  had  frequent  interviews  with  the  queen, 
disclosing  various  designs  on  her  life.  In 
1584,  having  violently  opposed  in  Parliament 
the  act  against  the  Jesuits,  he  was  expelled 
from  the  House,  and  imprisoned  for  a  short 
time,  but  released  by  the  queen's  orders.  He 
was  shortly  afterwards  denounced  as  having 
formed  a  scheme  to  assassinate  the  queen. 
Under  torture  he  confessed  that  he  had  been 
urged  to  murder  Elizabeth  by  Morgan  and 
Cardinal  Como,  and  that  the  intention  was  to 
place  the  Queen  of  Scots  on  the  throne. .  He 
was  executed  for  treason  at  Tyburn  (March, 
1585). 

ParsonSi  Kobbrt  (b.  1546,  d.  1610),  *'& 
subtle  and  lying  Jesuit,"  was  bom  in  Somer- 
set, and  educated  at  Oxford,  where  he  became 
a  fellow  of  BalUol.  Being  compelled  to  quit 
England  on  a  charge  of  embezzling  the  college 
money.  Parsons  went  to  Kome,  and  joined 
the  Jesuits.  In  June,  1580,  he  visited  Eng- 
land in  company  with  Edmund  Campian.  A 
very  severe  statute  against  those  who  har< 
boured  or  concealed  Jesuits  was  passed  by 
Parliament  (Jan.,  1581).  So  active  was  the 
search  after  the  two  missionaries,  that  Parsons 
was  compelled  to  return  to  the  Continent. 
He  then  went  to  Scotland  for  the  purpose  of 
undermining  the  English  influence  there ; 
and  in  1582  met  the  Duke  of  Guise  at  Paris, 
where  he  arranged  the  plan  associating  Mary 
and  James  in  the  government  of  Scotland, 
and  went  to  Spain  to  procure  assistance  from 
Philip.  His  schemes  were,  however,  frus- 
trated  by  the  prompt  measures  of  Elizabeth's 
ministers,  and  by  the  Raid  of  Kuthven.  In 
1594  he  published,  under  the  name  of  Bole- 
man,  his  famous  Conference  about  the  Succes- 
»ion  to  the  Crown  of  Englafid^  dedicated  to 
Essex,  in  which  he  set  forth  the  claims  of  the  ' 
Infanta. 

Partition  Treaties  were  an  at- 
tempt to  settle  from  outside  the  complex 
question  of  the  Spanish  Succession  on  the 
death  of  the  king,  Charles  II.  (1)  (Oct.  11, 
1698).  It  was  proposed  to  confer  the 
greater  part  of  the  Spanish  dominions  on 
the  least  powerful  of  the  candidates,  the 
Electoral  Prince  or  Bavaria.  The  first  over- 
tures were  made  by  Louis  XIY.,  and  in  con- 
sequence. Marshal  Tallard  was  sent  to  London 
in  April,  and  the  first  rough  form  of  the  divi- 
sion was  broached.  In  August  Louis,  still 
hoping  to  secure  the  whole  of  the  Spanish  do- 
minions for  one  of  his  grandsons,  was  inclined 
to  break  off  the  negotiations,  but  was  dis- 


suaded by  TaUard.  The  departure  of  Wil- 
liam for  Holland,  where  it  was  feared  that  h*- 
might  form  a  union  with  the  emperor,  the 
Elector  of  Bavaria,  and  the  chief  Protestant 
princes  against  France,  caused  Louis  to  wish 
for  a  definite  settlement.  By  the  Treaty  of 
Loo,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  signed  by  the 
representatives  of  England,  France,  and  Hol- 
land, France  consent^  to  resini  all  claims  on 
Spain,  the  Indies,  and  the  Netherlands  in 
favour  of  the  electoral  prince.  The  dauphir 
was  to  have  the  province  of  Guipuscoa,  with 
Naples,  Sicily,  and  some  small  Italian  islands 
which  were  part  of  the  Spanish  monarchy. 
The  Milanese  was  allotted  to  the  Archduke 
Charles.  As  the  electoral  prince  was  still  a 
child,  it  was  agreed  that  his  father,  who  was 
then  Viceroy  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands^ 
should  be  Bcgent  of  Spain  during  the  mi- 
nority. Unfortunately,  the  electoral  prini-« 
was  carried  off  by  small-pox  (Feb.,  1699)« 
and  no  arrangement  had  been  made  for  the 
case  of  his  dying  before  succeeding  to  the 
throne.  "  Thus  perished,"  says  Ranke,  **  an 
arrangement  which  was  in  harmony  with  ex- 
isting circumstances,  and  probably  could  havtr 
been  carried  out."  (2)  (Oct.  11,  1700),  wa^ 
another  attempt  to  settle  the  Spanish  Succes- 
sion, again  unsettled  by  the  death  of  the 
Electoral  Prince  of  Bavaria.  This  time,  tht- 
Archduke  Charles  of  Austria  was  to  be  king 
of  the  greater  part  of  the  Spanish  dominions. 
France  was  to  receive  Guipuscoa,  in  the  north 
of  Spain,  and  the  two  Sicilies,  together  with 
Milan,  which  ^las  to  be  exchanged  for  the 
Duchy  of  Lorraine.  Spain,  the  Indies,  and 
the  Netherlands  were  to  pass  to  the  Archdoke 
Charles.  It  was  evident  that  Louis  was  in- 
sincere. Soon  the  Spanish  minister,  Portoctir- 
rero,  and  the  French  diplomatist,  Harcourt,  in- 
duced the  dying  King  of  Spain  to  make  a  new 
will  declaring  the  Duke  of  Anjou,  a  son  of  the 
dauphin,  heir  to  the  whole  of  his  dominions. 
The  treaty  was  unpopular  in  England.  In 
November  the  King  of  Spain  died,  and  Lonis, 
with  complete  disregard  of  treaties!  accepted 
the  Spanish  inheritance  for  his  grandson.  The 
Tory  House  of  Commons  proceeded  to  im- 
I>each  Portland,  Oxford,  Somers,  and  Mont- 
ague for  their  share  in  the  treaties ;  but  this 
resentment  proved  abortive,  although  in 
March,  1701,  both  treaties  ^ere  severely 
censured.  "  It  was  felt,"  says  Ranke, "  that  the 
whole  advantage  arising  from  the  late  war 
was  being  lost  by  it.  By  getting  South  Italy 
and  the  Tuscan  shores,  France  would  ht 
mistress  of  the  Mediteiranean  and  of  the 
Levant  trade ;  out  of  the  Mediterranean  ports 
no  ship  would  be  able  to  sail  without  her 
leave." 

Bauke,  Hut.  of  Eng. ;  Maoanlaj,  Hul.  of  Bn^. ; 
Miurtin,  Hitt.  ie France;  Kahon,  IFar  ofSpnuiMk 
Sucoteaion, 


»,  Thb  Battlb  op  Capb  (Aug.  11, 
1718),  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  the  Spanish 
fleet.  Alberoni,  as  a  preliminary  step  towards 


(  806  ) 


Pee 


the  fulfilment  of  his  designs  against  the  power 
of  Austria  in  Italy,  made  himself  master  of 
SicilV)  a  country  which  neither  England 
nor  France  was  pledged  to  support.  At  this 
crisis,  Admiral  Byng  arrived  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean. The  Spaniards  laid  siege  to  the 
citadel  of  Messina  on  July  31.  Byng  em- 
barked 2,000  German  infantry  at  Naples, 
and  proceeded  to  its  relief.  He  proposed, 
however,  to  the  Spanish  commander  a  sus- 
pension of  arms  for  two  months.  Perplexed 
by  the  non-arrival  of  instructions  from  his 
;govemmeut,  the  Spanish  admiral,  Castafleta, 
neither  accepted  nor  rejected  the  proposal,  but 
put  out  to  sea.  Byng  encountered  him  off 
Cape  Passaro.  The  first  shot  was  fired  by 
■some  detached  Spanish  ships,  and  a  general 
engagement  ensued.  '*  The  Spaniards,"  says 
Lord  Stanhope,  ^'  were  without  order  and  con- 
cert ;  and  vessel  after  vessel,  attacked  in  succes- 
«ion  by  a  superior  force,  found  even  the  highest 
•courage,  the  most  stubborn  resLstance,  un- 
availing.'* Castafleta  continued  to  cheer  on 
his  men,  though  wounded  in  both  legs.  The 
report  to  the  English  government  was :  "  We 
have  taken  and  destroyed  aU  the  Spanish 
jihips  which  were  upon  the  coast ;  the  number 
■as  per  margin.'* 

Paston  Letters,  Thb,  are  a  series  of 
letters  written  by  and  to  the  members  of  the 
family  of  Paston,  of  Norfolk,  from  1424  to 
1506.  Besides  the  letters,  which  are  from  and 
to  many  of  the  most  illustrious  persons  of  the 
time,  a  considerable  number  of  public  docu- 
ments of  great  importance  are  preserved  in 
the  Paston  archives.  The  importance  of  this 
series  of  family  documents  cannot  be  over- 
rated. Besides  throwing  much  light  on  family 
aiffairs,  they  present  a  complete '  picture  of 
English  familv  life  in  the  fifteenth  century. 
X  portion  of  them  were  published  by  Sir  John 
Fenn  in  1787,  but  by  &r  the  best  edition  is 
that  of  Mr.  J.  Oairdner. 


fcv,  Thb  Battle  op  (May  18,  1429), 
was  f ougnt  after  the  raising  of  tiie  siege  of 
•Orleans.  The  English  army  retired  towards 
Beaugency,  but  this  important  town  was 
<aiptiued  by  the  French,  and  a  pitched  battle 
was  fought  at  Patay,  between  Orleans  and 
Bretigny,  in  which  the  English  were  defeated 
with  a  loss  of  2,000  men. 

Patent  IBLoVLb,  The,  contain  accounts 
of  all  grants  of  offices,  honours,  and  pen- 
sions, and  particulars  of  individual  and  cor- 
porate privileges.  The  term  patent  was  given 
to  these  roUs  because  they  were  delivered 
open,  with  the  great  seal  affixed,  and  were 
supposed  to  be  of  a  public  nature  and  addressed 
to  all  the  king's  subjects.  A  Calendar  to 
.fiome  of  the  Patent  Rolls  has  been  printed  by 
the  Record  Commission. 

Patrick,  St.    [St.  Patrick.] 

Panlety  Siu  Ahyas,  after  being  for  some 


time  the  English  ambassador  at  Paris,  waa 
created  Governor  of  Jersey,  and  in  1586, 
owing  to  his  stem  Puritanism,  was  chosen  to 
guard  fhe  Queen  of  Soots  at  Tutbury*  He 
was  insensible  alike  to  Mary's  charms  and  to 
her  endeavours  to  win  him  over  to  her  side, 
declaring  *'  that  he  would  not  be  diverted  from 
his  duty  by  hope  of  gain,  fear,  or  loss,  or  any 
private  respect  whatsoever."  In  spite  of  his 
sternness,  Paulet  seems  to  have  treated  the 
Scottish  queen  with  respect  and  courtesy  ; 
and  though  the  letter  signed  by  Davison  and 
Walsingham  after  the  trial,  requesting  him 
to  "  find  out  some  way  to  diorten  her  life," 
was  undoubtedlv  sent,  and  that  too  on  the 
authority  of  Elizabeth,  he  fiatly  refused  to 
do  what  "God  and  the  law  forbade."  He 
was  subsequently  a  commissioner  at  Mary's 
trial,  and  was  present  at  her  execution.  In 
1688  he  was  sent  as  a  commissioner  to  the 
Netherlands,  in  con^*  unction  with  Henry, 
Earl  of  Derby,  and  Sir  Jameis  Crofts. 

PanliniUi  was  one  of  the  missionaries 
who  came  to  reinforce  Augustine  in  601,  and 
on  the  marriage  of  Ethelbursa,  daughter  of 
Edbald  of  Kent,  to  Edwin  of  Northumbria, 
he  was  selected  to  accompany  the  princess. 
Through  his  instrumentality,  Edwin  was 
brought  to  Christianity  in  626,  and  with  the 
assent  of  the  Witenagemot  the  Christian 
religion  was  established  in  Xorthumbria,  and 
Paulinus  was  made  Bishop  of  York.  In  this 
new  position  he  was  energetic,  and  in  the 
course  of  six  years  had  traversed  nearly  the 
whole  of  Northumbria,  preaching  and  bap- 
tising. The  death  of  Edwin  in  633,  and  the 
ravages  of  Penda,  compelled  Paulinus  to  quit 
the  kingdom  and  seek  refuge  in  Canterbury. 
The  see  of  Rochester  being  vacant,  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  it,  and  held  it  until  his  death  in  644. 

Bede,  Hid.  JSccIm.;  Bright,  Barly  Eng,  Ch, 
Htct. 

Peada,  King  of  Mercia  (655 — ^656),  waa 
the  son  and  successor  of  Penda.  He  was 
only  allowed  by  Oswiu  of  Northumbria,  his 
father-in-law,  to  hold  the  southern  portion  of 
Mercia.  His  reign  is  important  as  seeing  the 
introduction  of  Christianity  into  Mercia, 
Peada  himself  having  been  converted  during 
his  father's  lifetime.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
murdered  by  the  treachery  of  his  wife. 

Peokhaxilf  John,  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury (1279—1292),  was  Provincial  of  the 
Franciscans,  and  on  the  resignation  of  Kil- 
wardby,  was  appointed  to  the  archbishopric. 
As  a  friar,  at  a  time  when  the  friars  had  not 
lost  their  missionary  spirit,  Peckham  looked 
upon  himself  as  the  agent  of  the  Pope  to 
Ensland,  and  had  little  sympathy  with  the 
national  feelings.  The  greater  part  of  his 
pontificate  was  occupied  in  disputes  with 
the  king,  with  the  Archbishop  of  York, 
or  with  the  monks  of  Canterbury.  Of  his 
policy  Dean  Hook  says :  "It  is  clear  that  he 
was  not  on  the  patriotic  or  national  side  in 


(  806  ) 


politics,  although  the  peaceful  and  prosperoiu 
state  of  the  country  did  not  render  it  neces- 
aary  for  him  to  declare  himself." 

Trivet ;  Hook,  Live§  of  the  Arehbi$hop9, 

Peoock.  Rboinald,  aaid  to  have  been 
bom  in  W^es,  was  elected  in  1417  fellow  of 
Oiiel  College,  ordained  priest  four  years  later, 
appointed  in  1431  Master  of  Whittington 
College  in  London,  and  became  in  1444 
Bishop  of  St.  Asaph,  and  Doctor  of  Divinity. 
In  1450,  on  the  murder  of  Bishop  Moleyns, 
he  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Chichester. 
Pecock  distin^^shed  himself  b^  the  origin- 
ality of  the  views  he  expressed  m  his  preach- 
ings and  writings.  His  great  work,  the 
Htprestor  of  Overmuch  Blaming  of  the  Clergy^ 
was  directed  affainst  the  errors  of  the  Lol- 
lards, and  vindicated  the  reasonableness  of 
the  usages  of  the  Church.  For  this  and  other 
books  Pecock  was  attacked  in  the  council 
held  at  Westminster  in  1457,  cited  before  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  his  works  ex- 
amined by  twenty-four  doctors,  and  he  him- 
self finally  condemned  as  a  heretic.  Under 
this  pressure  he  abjured  the  heretical  posi- 
tions charged  against  him,  and  made  a  public 
recantation  at  Paul's  Cross  (Dec.  4,  1457). 
He  was  deprived  of  his  bishopric,  and  though 
he  appealed  to  Rome  and  procured  buUs 
ordering  that  it  should  be  restored  to  him, 
ho  was  unable  to  recover  it.  He  spent  the 
rest  of  his  life  in  compulsory  seclusion  in  the 
Abbey  of  Thomey,  in  Cambridgeshire. 

The  Beprenor^  edited  by  Churchill  Babing- 
ton  (Rolls  Series) ;  Qsixdner,  StvdUe  in  Eng. 
flut. 

Pecquignyi  The  Treaty  of  (1475),  was 
made  between  Edward  IV.  and  Louis  XI.  of 
France.  The  English  invaded  f^nce  in 
1475,  Edward  IV.  having  made  an  alliance 
with  Charles  of  Burgimdy,  but  directly 
the  English  set  foot  in  France,  Louis  offered 
to  treat  for  peace,  and  eventually  the  treaty 
of  Pecquigny  was  made  on  these  terms: — 1. 
Edward  to  return  to  England  on  the  payment 
of  75,000  crowns.  2.  A  truce  to  be  kept  for 
seven  years.  3.  The  Kings  of  England  and 
France  to  assist  each  other  against  foreign 
enemies  or  rebellious  subjects.  4.  Prince 
Charles,  son  of  Louis  XI.,  to  marry  the 
Princess  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edwara  IV. 
5.  The  King  of  France  to  pay  annually  to  the 
King  of  England  the  sum  of  50,000  crowns. 

Peel,  Sir  Robert  {b.  Feb.  5,  1788,  d. 
July  2,  1850),  was  the  son  of  Sir  Robert  Peel, 
an  enormously  wealthy  Lancashire  cotton 
manufacturer.  Educated  at  Harrow  and 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  Peel,  after  a  very 
brilliant  university  career,  entered  Parlia- 
ment for  Cashel  in  1809,  as  a  supporter  of 
Mr.  Perceval.  In  1810  he  was  made  Under- 
Secretary  for  the  Homo  Department.  In 
1812  he  was  Chief  Secretarj' for  Ireland  under 
Lord  Liverpool.  In  1817  he  was  returned  as 
member  for  Oxford  University,  and  in  1819 


he  was  chosen  chairman  of  the  committee  on 
the  currency,  in  which  capacity  he  ira» 
mainly  instrumental  in  bringing  about  the 
return  to  cash  payments.  From  1822  to  1827 
Peel  was  Home  Secretary ;  but  on  the  acces- 
sion of  Canning  (April,  1827),  he  retired, 
being  unable  to  agree  with  that  minister  oa. 
the  subject  of  Catholic  Emancipation.  In 
1828  he  returned  under  the  Duke  of  Wel- 
lington; and  in  March,  1829,  having  become 
convinced  of  the  necessity  of  granting  the 
demands  of  the  Catholics,  he  moved  the 
Catholic  Relief  Bill  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. In  May,  1830,  Peel  succeeded  his- 
father  in  the  baronetcy,  and,  having  been 
rejected  the  previous  year  by  the  Univereit)' 
of  Oxford,  re-entered  Parliament  as  raemW 
for  Tamworth.  During  the  discussion  on  the 
Reform  Bill,  Peel,  who  resigned  with  hi» 
colleagues  (Nov.,  1830),  strenuously  opposed 
the  measure.  In  1834  he  was  recalled  to 
office  during  the  brief  Conservative  ministiy 
of  William  IV.  On  May  6,  1839,  on  the 
resignation  of  the  Melbourne  ministry,  Sir 
Robert  Peel  was  sent  for  by  the  queen ;  but 
his  request  for  the  removal  of  certain  of  her 
majesty's  ladies  of  the  bed-chamber  who 
were  connected  with  WTiig  leaders  being 
refused,  he  declined  to  form  a  ministry,  ana 
the  Whip;8  returned  to  office.  In.  Aug.,  1841, 
they  resigned,  and  Sir  Robert  Peel  became 
Prime  Minister,  holding  office  till  June,  1S46. 
His  rigitne  was  marked  by  some  important 
financial  changes,  including  the  Bank 
Charter  Act  of  1844.  But  it  was  specially 
marked  by  the  repeal  of  the  Com  Law» 
(q.v.),  and  the  removal  of  protectionist  re- 
strictions on  trade.  Sir  Robert,  with  the  bulk 
of  his  followers,  was  altogether  opposed  to  the 
removal  of  the  com  duties,  and  vigorously 
resisted  the  Anti-Corn  Law  agitators.  But 
he  at  length  became  convinced  of  the  justice 
of  their  cause,  and,  to  the  intense  disgust  of 
many  of  his  followers,  himself  brought  in 
the  bill  for  the  repeal  of  the  duties  on  coin. 
But  a  large  portion  of  the  ConservatiTes^ 
noandoned  him,  and  the  Liberals  gave  him 
little  support,  and  in  June,  1846,  he  resigned. 
During  the  remaining  years  of  his  life  he 
gave  a  general  support  to  the  home  and  com- 
mercial policy  of  the  Whig  ministers,  though 
ho  opposed  their  foreign  policy.  He  died 
from  the  effects  of  a  &11  from  his  horse  while 
riding  along  Constitution  Hill.  Peel's  policy, 
especially  in  the  matter  of  the  Catholio 
Claims  and  the  Com  Laws,  exposed  him  to 
much  misconstruction  in  his  lifetime.  But 
his  honesty,  his  zeal  for  the  welfare  of  the 
country,  his  moral  courage  and  independence 
of  character,  have  bcien  amply  acknowledged 
by  the  succeeding  generations.  And  what- 
ever  exception  might  be  taken  to  his  general 
statesmanship,  no  one  has  doubted  that  his 
talents  as  an  athninistrator  and  a  financier 
were  of  the  highest  possible  order. 

Sit  Robert  Pffl  and  kie  Xrn  (1844);  Taylor  tfd 


(  807  ) 


_  It  was  doubtless  from  France 
that  England  first  learned  to  narrow  the  poli- 
tical application  of  the  word  peers — which  in 
Hterary  and  general  usage  still  collectively 
designates  all  persons  that  are  equals  in  rank 
or  belong  to  the  same  class — to  members  of  the 
specially  privileged  order,  the  hereditary  no- 
bility. "Die  German  companions  in  arms, 
who  had  conquered  Gaul  and  divided  the 
land  among  them,  were  at  an  early  period 
called  peel's,  that  is,  fellow-warrioi-s  pledged 
to  mutual  support.  Its  limitation  in  England 
to  the  hereditary  counsellors  of  the  sovereign, 
whose  capacity  to  fill  such  an  office  originated 
at  one  time  in  the  tenure  of  certain  fiefs,  at 
another  in  the  direct  receipt  of  a  personal 
writ  of  summons  to  Parliament,  at  a  third  in 
a  formal  patent  of  peerage,  and,  in  its  femi- 
nine form,  to  the  wives  of  such  hereditary 
counsellors,  and  in  certain  contingencies  their 
female  descendants,  as  well  as  created  peer- 
esses, may  perhaps  have  been  encouraged  by 
the  perfect  equality  of  privilege  that  held 
the  varying  ranks  of  the  order  on  the  same 
level  in  the  political  system.  In  that  system 
kings,  princes,  dukes,  marquesses,  earls,  vis- 
counts and  barons,  have  all  been  equals, 
whatever  social  precedences  may  have  dis- 
tinguished them.    The  latest  created  baron 


Mackfty,  Sir  Rotmi  Pttl'a  Lift  and  Times; 
IXmbleday,  Political  Life  of  Sur  Boheri  Pe«l; 
Xiieutel,  Dew  Lehm  und  die  Redtt^  Sir  JBobert 
Pwto(1850)}  Qvdzot,Sir  Robert  Peel. 

[S.J.L.] 

Pool*  YiscorNT  {b,  1829),  is  a  son  of  the 
great  Sir  Robert  Peel.  He  entered  Parlia- 
ment as  a  Liberal  in  1865,  and  after  holding 
some  minor  offices  in  the  Government,  was 
appointed  Speaker  in  1884,  presiding  over 
the  deliberations  of  the  House  with  brilliant 
sacoeas,  until  in  1895  he  resigned  and  was 
elevated  to  the  House  of  Lords,  with  a  life 
pension  of  £4,000  a  year. 

Peelites  was  the  name  given  to  those 
Conservatives  who,  after  the  Repeal  of  the  < 
Com  Laws  (1846),  formed  a  third  intermediate 
party  in  Parliament.  Liberal-Conservatives, 
they  refused  a  junction  with  either  political 
extreme.  Even  after  the  death  of  Peel  in 
1850,  the  presence  of  Sir  James  Graham,  Mr. 
Gladstone,  the  Duke  of  Newcastle,  Sidney  Her- 
bert, Mr.  Cardwell,  among  the  Peelites  made 
them  especially  formidable.  On  the  accession 
of  the  Earl  of  Aberdeen  in  1852  the  isolation 
of  the  Peelites  ceased,  that  ministry  being 
formed  by  a  coalition  of  Peelites  and  Whigs. 

Feep-o'-Day  Boys,  Tbb,  was  the  name 
assumed  by  many  of  the  Dlster  Presbyterians 
between  1780  and  1795,  who  banded  them- 
selves together  to  resist  the  Catholic  ''De- 
fenders." On  the  institution  of  the  Orange 
lodges  in  1790  many  of  the  Peep-o*-Day 
Boys  passed  into  them.  The  Peep-o'-Day 
Boys  bore  a  large  share  in  the  *'  BatUe  of  the 
Diamond  "  (Sept.  21,  1796). 


had  a  voice  and  vote  in  Parliament  as  potent 
as  a  King  of  Scotland's  or  a  Prince  of  "Vilas's. 
But  though  all  peers  were  once  lords  of  Par- 
liament, tiiere  never  has  been  a  time  when  all 
lords  of  Parliament  were  peers.  The  lords 
spiritual  have  never  been  considered  peers; 
they  are  not  regarded  as  having  the  right, 
when  accused  of  treason  or  felony,  to  be  tried 
by  the  peers ;  and  they  do  not  sit  in  judg- 
ment on  a  peer  arraigned  on  a  capital  charge. 
The  word  came  into  regular  use  in  the  four- 
teenth century ;  it  is  found  in  the  sentence 
passed  on  the  Despencers  in  1321.  The 
status  and  composition  of  the  peerage  had 
then  been  de&iitely  established,  and  its 
place  in  the  constitution  been  settled.  The 
English  peerage  had  then  declared  itself 
to  be  no  caste,  such  as  was  the  French 
nobility,  but  merely  a  small  knot  of  citizens 
whose  distinguishing  feature  was  that  they 
had  inherited  the  capacity,  or  been  invited, 
or  been  conmiissioned  by  the  king,  to  fill  a 
responsible  office  in  the  State,  that  of  per- 
petual adviser  of  the  crown,  had  a  few 
cherished  privileges  conceded  to  them  in  con- 
sequence, and  on  dyin^  passed  on  their  duties 
and  privileges  to  their  heirs.  For  in  time 
tenure  lost  its  ennobling  virtue,  in  time  the 
writ  of  summons  was  discontinued  as  a  mode 
of  creating  peers,  and  the  more  deliberate 
proceeding  of  bestowing  the  dignities  that 
admitted  te  the  peerage  by  a  formal  patent, 
was  exclusively  used,  and  enabled  the  crown, 
when  it  seemed  ad^'i8able,  to  limit  the  right 
of  inheritance,  which  hitherto  had  descended 
to  heirs  geneial,  to  heirs  male.  In  mediaeval 
da^'S,  when  the  dignity  devolved  upon  an 
heiress,  though  she  could  not  herself  take  the 
official  seat  in  Parliament  and  in  Council,  she 
yet  could  give  her  husband,  if  not  a  right  to 
the  dignity,  at  least  a  presumptive  claim  to  a 
writ  of  summons.  Thus  the  Kingmaker  was 
for  a  time  Earl  of  Warwick,  merely  because 
he  had  married  the  sister  and  heiress  of 
Henry  de  Beauchamp.  And  the  state  of 
suspended  animation  for  a  peerage  that  is 
known  as  abeyance^  arose  when  a  peer  left  his 
honours  at  his  death  to  co-heiresses,  whose 
posterity  had  no  power  of  assuming  them  till 
the  stock  of  all  but  one  of  the  daughters  had 
been  Ahausted. 

The  special  privileges  of  the  peerage  descend 
from  an  early  period ;  but  it  was  the  quarrel 
of  Edward  III.  with  Archbishop  Stratford  in 
1341  that  first  made  the  most  valuable  of 
them  mattera  of  record.  In  the  course  of  that 
dispute  the  lords  reported  that "  on  no  account 
should  peers  ...  be  brought  to  trial,  lose 
their  possessions,  be  arrested,  imprisoned, 
outlawed  or  forfeited,  or  be  bound  to  answer 
or  to  judge,  except  in  full  Parliament  and 
before  their  peers.''  And  in  1442  it  was 
settled  by  statute  that  peeresses  had  the  same 
rights,  when  placed  in  the  same  position. 
But  the  value  of  the  right  was  for  centuriea 
greatly  impaired  by  its  practical  restriction 


Pel 


(  808  ) 


to  the  times  when  Parliament  was  sitting; 
during  the  recess  the  Lord  Steward,  who  was 
appointed  by  the  crown,  formed  the  court  at 
his  discretion,  by  choosing  whomsoever  he 
pleased  from  the  body  of  peers,  generally  to 
the  number  of  twenty-three  only.  This  hard- 
ship was  removed  by  the  Treason  Bill  of 
1096,  which  made  it  obligatory  to  summon  to 
the  court  of  the  Lord  Steward  *'  all  the  peers 
who  have  a  right  to  sit  and  vote  in  Parlia- 
ment." It  is  only  on  charge  of  treason,  mis- 
prision, and  felony  that  peers  are  entitled  to 
the  privilege ;  for  minor  offences  they  are 
tried  by  the  ordinary  courts.  The  other 
rights  of  a  peer~  freedom  from  arrest,  admis- 
sion on  demand  to  the  presence  of  the  sove- 
reign, liberty  to  kill  venison  in  a  royal 
f oredt,  a  claim  to  higher  damages  for  slander, 
&c. — are  now  of  little  or  no  account.  Since 
the  completion  of  the  Imperial  Parliament, 
there  are  many  Scottish  and  Irish  peers  who 
are  not  lords  of  Parliament :  but  &ey  enjoy 
all  the  other  distinctions  of  the  order ;  and  an 
Irish  peer  can  sit  among  the  Commons  for 
any  constituency  in  Gmat  Britain.  The 
two  most  striking  features  in  the  later  history 
of  the  peerage  are  the  amazing  increase  in  its 
numbers,  and  the  unreserved  admission  to  its 
ranks  of  men  of  distinction  in  every  honour- 
able emplo^-ment,  soldiers,  lawyers,  diplo- 
matists, bankers,  tnulesmen,  manu&Lcturers. 
In  this  way  the  order  has  grown  from  59 
landed  proprietors  in  1603  to  more  than  600 
representatives  of  almost  every  form  of  social 
snd  personal  distinction,  literature  not  ex- 
cepted. 

Courthope's  Edition  of  Nicolas's  Hittcric 
Peerage;  May,  Praetical  Treatiae;  May,  Contt, 
Hist.,  Vol.  t ;  Hallam;  Stubba.  rj^  Jj  T 

Pela^lUI  was  bom  in  Britain,  towards 
the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  and  his 
origfinal  name  appears  to  have  been  Morgan, 
of  which  Pelagius  is  a  Grsedsed  form. 
He  left  his  native  land  very  early,  and 
lived  most  of  his  life  in  Graul,  where  he 
became  notorious  for  his  heretical  teaching  on 
the  subject  of  original  sin  and  free-will. 
Pelagianism  took  root  in  Britain,  and  it  was 
to  combat  this  heresy  that  Germanus  and 
Lupus  came  over  from  GauL  It  would  seem 
to  have  died  out  in  Britain  in  consequence  of 
the  English  Conquest. 

FeUiaai,  Henry  {b.  1696,  d.  1754),  was 
a  younger  son  of  the  Duke  of  Newcastle. 
He  took  an  active  pirt  in  the  suppression 
of  the  rebellion  in  1715;  and  first  sat  for 
Seaford  in  1718.  He  became  Lord  of  the 
IVeasury  (1721),  Secretary  of  State  for  War 
(1724),  and  PajTnaster  of  the  Forces  (1730). 
He  was  a  zealous  supporter  of  Walpole,  and 
faithfully  upheld  the  measures  of  that  minis- 
ter against  the  attacks  of  the  Opposition. 
Walpole' s  resignation  in  1742  was  followed 
by  Wilmington's  short  ministry.  On  his 
death  the  candidates  for  the  premiership  were 


Pelham  and  Pulteney.  With  extreme  re- 
luctance the  former  was  induced  to  assame 
the  management  of  the  Commons  as  Firat  Lord 
of  the  Treasury.  He  was  supported  by  the 
brilliant  Carteret,  who  had  been  Pulteney*s 
friend.  The  Pelhams  succeeded  to  the  diffi- 
culties of  the  Austrian  Succession  question, 
and  were  obliged  to  obey  the  dictates  of  their 
party,  who  were  detennined  on  hostilities 
with  France.  Carteret,  finding  hia  policy 
thwarted,  retired  in  1744.  Pelham,  who,  un- 
like Walpole,  dreaded  opposition,  now  per- 
suaded Chesterfield  and  Pitt  to  support  the 
ministry,  and  placed  several  Tories  in  sub- 
ordinate positions.  Finding  themselves  super- 
seded by  Carteret  in  the  £ng*s  councils,  the 
Pelhams  determined  to  bring  the  matter  to  a 
crisis  by  demanding  the  admission  of  Chester- 
field and  Pitt  to  ofiice.  On  the  king^s  refusal, 
they  resigned ;  but  as  Carteret  failed  to  form 
a  ministry,  they  were  placed  again  in  power. 
Meanwhile  the  Jacobite  rebellion  of  1745  had 
the  effect  of  bringing  the  Pelhams  back  to 
Walpole^s  peaoe  policy,  and  the  war  was 
concluded  by  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 
(Oct.,  1748).  There  had  now  ceased  to  be 
any  opposition  in  Parliament.  In  1750  Pel- 
ham introduced  his  successful  financial  bill, 
whereby  the  interest  of  the  national  debt  was 
decreased  from  five  and  four  to  three  per 
cent.  The  reform  of  the  calendar  and  Lord 
Hardwicke*s  Marriage  Act  ^1753)  are  the 
remaining  points  of  interest  m  his  adminis- 
tration. In  1754  he  died,  and  George  de- 
clared, "  Now  I  shall  have  no  more  peace.*' 
"  Like  Walpole,"  says  Mr.  Lecky,  "he  was 
thoroughly  successful  in  questions  of  finance, 
and  almost  uniformly  successful  in  dealing 
with  them.  A  timid,  desponding,  and  some- 
what fretful  man,  with  little  energy  of  cha- 
racter or  intellect,  he  possessed,  at  least,  to  a 
high  degree,  good  sense,  industr}%  knowledge 
of  business,  and  Parliamentary  experience.** 

Ck>xe,  Life  of  Pelham;  Smollett,  Hut.  <tfEmg.; 
Stanhope,  Hurt,  of  Bng.;  Lecky.  Hut.  (f  the 
Bighteenih  Cetdury. 

Pembroke,  Jasper  Tudor,  Earl  op 
(d.  1493),  was  the  son  of  Owen  Tudor  and 
Catherine  of  France.  In  1461  he  fou^t 
against  the  Yorkists  at  the  battle  of  Mortimer's 
Cross,  where  he  was  defeated,  and  with  diffi- 
culty escaped.  He  was  attainted,  and  deprived 
of  his  honours,  but  in  1470  he  landed  in 
England  with  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  and  the 
Lancastrians  driving  Edward  out,  he  was 
restored  to  his  titles  and  estates.  In  1471  he 
once  more  had  to  flee,  and  this  time  in 
company  with  his  nephew,  Richmond.  For 
many  years  he  lived  in  Britanny,  tiU  1485, 
when  he  accompanied  Richmond  to  England, 
and  shared  the  victory  of  Bosworth  with  him. 
He  received  great  rewards  from  Henry  VII., 
and  was  one  of  the  commanders  at  the  battle 
of  Stoke,  in  1487. 

Pembroke,  Thomas  Herbert,  8th  Earl 
OF,  and  5th  Earl  of  Montgomery  (b.  1666- 


(  809) 


d,  1733),  waA  educated  at  Christ  Chiu'ch, 
Oxford,  and  succeeded  to  his  brother's  title 
in  1683.  He  raised  the  trained-bands  of 
Wilts  in  order  to  suppress  Monmouth's  rebel- 
lion. In  1687  he  was  deprived  of  his  lord 
lieutenancy.  He  took  part  in  the  coronation 
ceremony  of  William  and  Mary,  although  he 
had  Toted  for  a  regency,  and  was  shortly 
afterwards  sent  as  ambassador  extraordinary 
to  the  States-Greneral.  Pembroke  was  sworn 
of  the  Privy  Council,  and  put  at  the  head  of 
the  Admiralty  Commission.  On  the  depar- 
ture of  Williiun  for  Ireland  he  was  placed  on 
the  Council  of  Nine.  Pembroke  was  made 
Lord  Privy  Seal  in  1691.  When  the  king 
went  to  the  Netherlands  to  take  command  of 
the  army  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  Lords 
Justices.  He  voted  against  Fenwick's  at- 
tainder, although  desirous  that  that  con- 
spirator should  be  brought  to  the  scaffold. 
Pembroke  was  first  plenipotentiary  at  the 
Treaty  of  Ryswick.  He  was  created  President 
of  the  Council  in  place  of  Leeds  in  1700  ;  and 
by  an  able  speech  expressed  the  dislike  of  the 
Tory  Peers  to  the  Resumption  Bill.  On  the 
accession  of  Anne  he  was  dismissed  from  the 
Admiralty  in  order  to  make  room  for  Prince 
George.  He  was  one  of  the  commissioners  to 
treat  of  the  Union  with  Scotland,  and  Lord 
Lieutenant  of  Ireland  in  1707.  Pembroke 
was  subsequently  created  President  of  the 
Council,  from  which  the  Whigs  attempted  to 
thrust  him  in  order  to  make  room  for  Somers. 
On  the  death  of  Prince  Greorge,  he  again  be- 
came Lord  High  Admiral,  but  resigned  in  1 709 
on  receiving  a  pension.  Before  the  arrival  of 
George  I.  in  England  Pembroke  was  one  of 
the  Lords  Justices  who  carried  on  the  adminis- 
tration. During  the  remainder  of  his  long  life 
he  took  but  little  part  in  politics.  Although 
Pembroke  played  a  prominent  part  during 
two  reigns,  we  know  but  little  of  his  person^ 
character.  He  was  a  moderate  Tory  in 
opinions,  and  seems  to  have  carried  out  his 
official  duties  with  zeal  and  integrity. 

Bnznet,  Htat.  of  Hi*  Oven  Time;  DCacaolay, 
Hist  ofEng. ;  Wyon,  Meign  of  Anne. 

Pembroke^  William  Herbert,  Earl  of 
{d,  1570),  one  of  the  most  powerful  men  of 
his  day,  was  employed  in  crushing  the  western 
rebellion  in  1549,  and  as  a  reward  was  made 
Master  of  the  Horse  and  President  of  the 
Council  of  Wales.  In  1551  he  was  created 
Earl  of  Pembroke,  and  in  conjunction  with 
Warwick  and  Northampton  virtually  ruled 
England.  At  first  deeply  implicated  in  Nor- 
thumberland's plot  to  set  Lady  Jane  Grey  on 
the  throne,  the  Earl  soon  found  that  his 
interests  lay  really  on  the  other  side,  and  on 
perceiving  that  the  countr}*-  was  in  favour  of 
Mary,  proclaimed  her  at  St.  Paul's  Cross. 
In  1554  he  threw  the  whole  weight  of  his 
influence  into  the  scale  in  favour  of  the 
queen,  whom  however  he  personally  regarded 
with  dislike ;  and  it  was  owing  in  a  great 

H1BT.-26* 


measure  to  his  course  of  action  that  Sir 
Thomas  Wyatt's  rebellion  was  so  easily  sup* 
pressed  in  tbe  following  year ;  he  was  one  of 
the  commissioners  sent  to  France  to  arrange 
for  a  general  peace,  and  in  1556  led  a 
reinforcement  of  troops  to  Calais  to  ward  off 
the  threatened  French  attack.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Elizabeth  he  accorded  her  his  warmest 
support.  In  1569  he  was,  however,  arrested 
on  suspicion  of  being  implicated  in  the  plot 
to  marry  the  Duke  of  Norfolk  to  Mary^ 
Queen  of  Scots,  but  he  cleared  himself  at 
once,  and  was  placed  in  command  of  part  of 
the  queen's  army. 

PenaL  Code,  The,  ix  Ireland,  was  first 
felt  under  James  I.  In  1603  a  royal  procla- 
mation was  issued  ordering  all  Eoman  Catholic 
priests  to  leave  the  country  under  pain  of 
death,  and  announcing  that  the  penal  dausea 
of  the  Act  of  Uniformity  would  be  put 
in  force.  Parliament,  however,  remonstrated^ 
and  in  1613  a  promise  was  given  that  the 
laws  would  not  be  enforced.  A  period  of 
some  toleration  followed,  which  was  cut  short 
by  the  Cromwellian  conquest.  Under  the 
f^tectorate  the  Catholic  gentry  and  priests 
were  shipped  off  wholesale  to  Barbadoes  as 
slaves;  no  Catholic  was  allowed  to  carry 
arms,  to  live  in  garrison  towns,  or  to  go  a 
mile  from  his  residence  without  a  passport. 
In  spite  of  the  second  Act  of  Uniformity,  the 
Irish  enjoyed  a  considerable  amount  of  tolera* 
tion  under  Charles  II.  and  James  II.,  but 
their  sufEerings  began  again  after  the  broken 
treaty  of  Limenck.  After  the  English 
Parlmment  had  in  1693  excluded  Catholics 
from  the  Irish  Parliament  by  imposing  the 
oath  of  allegiance  and  abjuration,  and  a  de« 
claration  against  transubstantiation,  upon 
members,  the  latter  body  set  to  work  upon  the 
legislation  known  to  infamy  as  the  Irish  penal 
code.  (1)  The  first  of  the  penal  statutes, 
passed  in  1695,  provided  tbat  no  Catholic 
should  keep  a  school  under  penalty  of 
£20  or  three  months'  imprisonment;  that 
parents  should  not  send  their  children  abroad 
for  education  under  penalty  of  outlawry  and 
confiscation,  the  case  to  be  tried  without  a 
jury.  (2)  The  Di8arming  Act  commanded 
all  papistis  to  deliver  up  their  arms  under 
penalty  of  a  heavy  fine  for  the  first  offence, 
and  imprisonment  for  life  and  forfeitiu^  for 
the  second.  (3)  In  1697  all  Roman  Catholic 
ecclesiastics  who  were  in  correspondence  with 
Home  were  expelled  the  kingdom,  and  for- 
bidden to  return  under  pain  of  death;  new 
priests  were  forbidden  to  enter  Ireland,  and 
in  the  following  reign  the  existing  clergy 
were  placed  under  a  strict  system  of  registra- 
tion (1704).  (4)  The  Intermarriage  Act  pro- 
vided that  a  Protestant  woman  marrying  a 
Catholic  should  be  dead  in  the  eye  of  the 
law,  and  a  Protestant  man  who  married  a 
Catholic  should  be  regarded  as  a  papist. 
(5)  Catholics  were  disqualified  in  1698  nom. 


P«n 


(810  ) 


•»i 


imctising  as  solicitorB,  and  further  xneaflares 
-weire  pajBsed  in  the  reigns  of  Anne  and  G^eorge 
II.  to  prevent  evasions  of  the  Act.  The 
legislation  of  Anne's  reign  was  terribly  severe, 
and  was  deliberately  framed  with  the  object 
of  depriving  the  native  Irish  of  what  little 
property  they  still  possessed : — (1)  The  Act 
for  the  Suppression  of  Papacj'  (1704)  provided 
that  any  person  who  perverted  a  Protestant 
should  be  guilty  of  praemunire ;  that  Catholic 
parents  should  be  compelled  to  maintain  and 
educate  their  Protestant  children;  that  no 
Catholic  could  be  guardian  or  trustee;  that 
the  eldest  son  of  a  Catholic,  by  turning  Pro- 
testant, converted  his  father's  interest  in  his 
estates  into  a  mere  life-tenancy;  and  that 
lands  of  Catholics  were  to  descend  in  gavel- 
kind unless  the  eldest  son  declared  himself  a 
Protestant.  Again,  no  Catholic  could  buy 
land  or  take  leases  for  more  than  thirty-one 
years;  he  could  not  inherit  land  without 
taking  the  oaths,  the  estate  passing  at  once, 
until  his  apostacy  or  death,  to  the  next 
Protestant  heir;  no  Catholics  were  to  be 
allowed  to  settle  in  limerick  or  Galway ;  no 
person  was  to  hold  office,  civil  or  military, 
without  taking  the  oaths  and  subscribing  the 
declaration  of  transubstantiation.  (2)  By  the 
Act  of  1709  an  informer  who  could  prove  that 
a  lease  or  sale  had  been  secretly  made  in 
fevour  of  Papists  was  to  have  the  property ; 
and  the  previous  legislation  compelling 
Catholic  fathers  to  support  their  Protestant 
children,  suppressing  papist  schoolmasters 
and  regulars,  and  commanding  parish  priests 
to  be  registered,  were  enforced  with  additional 
rigour.  Lastly,  in  1727  an  Act  was  passed 
bv  which  every  Roman  Catholic  was  deprived 
of  his  vote,  both  at  Parliamentary  and  muni- 
cipal elections.  The  only  effect  of  this 
terrible  code  was  the  destruction  of  the 
Catholic  gentry  in  Ireland ;  many  of  the  best 
families  emigrated,  and  a  few  apostatised. 
Hie  other  measures  were  either  evaded  or  not 
put  into  execution.  The  cruel  persecution  of 
the  ''Irish  enemy**  began  to  abate  towards 
the  end  of  Walpole's  administration ;  and  to 
Lord  North  belongs  the  credit  of  the  first 
substantial  Roman  Catholic  Relief  Bill,  by 
which,  on  taking  the  oath  of  allegiance, 
they  were  allowed  to  hold  leases  of  999  years 
(1778).  In  1782  the  penal  code  was  further 
relaxed,  the  provisions  against  the  purchase, 
inheritance,  and  disposition  of  land,  residence 
in  Limerick  and  Qalway,  instruction  by 
popish  schoolmasters,  and  the  guardianship  of 
children,  being  repealed.  Additional  measures 
for  the  freedom  oi  the  Roman  Catholics  were 
passed  in  1792,  when  the  restrictions  on  the 
legal  profession  were  removed,  the  odious 
Intermarriage  Act  was  repealed ;  and  in  1793, 
when  £40  freeholders  were  allowed  to  vote  in 
Parliamentary  and  municipal  elections,  to 
enter  Dublin  L^niversity,  and  to  fill,  with  a 
few  exceptions,  civil  and  military  offices. 
These    were   stepping-stones   to   tiie   great 


Roman  Catholic  Emancipation  Act  of  1829, 

by  which  the  last  relics  of  the  abomiioble 

Penal  Code  were  swept  away. 

Irieh  Statutes;  Lelaud,  Sid.  of  InUud; 
Lecky,  Hiat.  ofBng. ;  Hallam^  c.  xriii. ;  Frooda, 
Bnalith  in  Irdand;  Walpole,  The  Kingiem  ^ 
Irwmd, 

Penda.  King  of  Mercia  (626 — 6o4),  «u 
the  son  of  r  ybba  or  Wybba,  and  claimed  to  be 
descended  from  Woden.  tJnder  him  Merda 
first  assumed  a  position  of  equality  with  the 
other  kingdoms.  The  petty  states  wl^ch 
hitherto  had  occupied  Middle  England  were 
conquered  by  him,  and  consolidated  into  the 
later  Mercian  state,  which  was  conterminoiu 
with  Central  England.  He  was  the  opponent 
of  Christianity  and  of  Northumbria,  against 
which  he  even  formed  an  alliance  with 
the  Welsh.  In  633  he  defeated  and  slew 
Edwin  of  Northumbria  at  Heathfield,  and 
ravaged  the  whole  country  of  the  North- 
umbrians ;  in  642  he  again  defeated  the 
Northumbrians  at  Maserfield.  He  frequently 
defeated  the  East  Angles,  and  slew  three  of 
their  kings.  He  drove  Cenwealh  of  Wessex 
out  of  his  kingdom,  and  at  one  time  seemed 
likely  to  make  himself  master  of  almost  the 
whole  of  England.  But  in  654  he  was  him- 
self defeated  and  slain  at  Winwidfield  by 
Oswiu  of  Northumbria.  "  This  prince,"  says 
Lappenberg,  **  presents  a  striking  and  almost 
inexplicable  phenomenon.  Ruler  of  a  terri- 
tory surrounded  more  than  any  others  by  a 
numerous  hostile  British  population,  a  state 
which  was  of  all  the  youngest;  a  state 
formed  in  the  middle  of  the  country',  of 
immigrants  and  aftercomers,  who  found  the 
maritime  parts  already  occupied ;  protected 
by  marshes,  rivers,  mountains,  succeeding  to 
power  at  the  age  of  sixty,  yet  displaying  the 
energy  of  youth ;  the  last  unshaken  and 
powerful  adherent  of  paganism  among  the 
Anglo-Saxons,  this  prince  had  during  his 
reign  of  thirty  years  first  assailed  the  Bret- 
walda  of  Northumbria,  and  afterwards  re- 
peatedly tne  other  states  of  his  countrymen, 
with  great  success  and  still  greater  cruelty, 
vet,  notwithstanding  the  destruction  of  five 
Kings,  without  securing  to  himself  any  lasting 
result."    [Mebcia.] 

Florence  of  Waroester,  CHronieIc;  Lappen- 
berg, AngUh-Saxim  Kingt^ 

Peninsular  War.  Thb  (1808— 18U), 

was,  so  far  as  England  was  concerned,  the 
most  important  episode  in  the  wars  with 
France,  which  lasted,  with  little  intermission, 
from  1793  to  1815.  In  July,  1808,  an  alliance 
was  signed  between  England  and  Spain,  and 
two  British  divisions  were  at  once  de^tched 
to  Portugal,  under  Wellesley  and  Moow. 
From  Aug.  1 — 6,  Wellesley  was  engaged  in 
disembarking  the  troops  in  Figueras  Bay, 
and  on  the  8th  he  moved  towards  Lisbon. 
On  the  17th  Laborde  opposed  him  at  Rorica, 
and  was  defeated ;  and  Junot  met  with  the 
same  fate  at  Vimiero  four  days  later.  WeUes* 


P«n 


(811) 


ley  'was,  however,  prevented  from  following 
up  the  advantage  he  had  gained  by  a  rapid 
pursuit ;  and  on  the  30th,  the  Convention  of 
Cintra  was  signed,  by  which  the  French  were 
allowed  to  quit  Portugal  unmolested  with  all 
their  stores,  guns,  and  ammunition.     Much 
as  this  convention  was  condemned  at  home, 
it  secured,  by  the  occupation  of  Portagal,  a 
firm    basis    of    operations.      In    November, 
Napoleon  himself  took  command  in  Spain; 
and  after  severe  struggles  with  the  Spaniards, 
the    fVench,    on    Dec.    4,    entered   Madrid, 
and  installed  Joseph  for  the  second  time  on 
the  throne  of  Spain.      Meanwhile,  Sir  John 
Moore,  who,   on  the    other  generals  being 
recalled  after  the  Ck>nvention  of  Cintra,  had 
succeeded  to  the  command  in  Lisbon,  had 
arranged  to  form  a  junction  at  Salamanca 
with  Sir  David  Baird,  who  was  bringing  up 
reinforcements  from  Corunna,  but  owing  to 
want  of  transport,  and  the  stupidity  of  the 
native    authorities,    neither    general    could 
move  at  an  adequate  pace ;   and  it  was  not 
till   Nov.    13    that  Moore  arrived  with  his 
vanguard  at  the  place  appointed.    In  spite  of 
the  fact  that  all  his  precautions  in  the  rear 
had  been  overthrown  by  the  treachery  of 
the  Spaniards,  he  determined  to  press  on  to 
the  assistance  of  the  Spanish  armies.     On 
Dec.    9    he    first  learnt   that    Madrid    was 
in  the   possession  of  the  French,  and  that 
one  French  army  had   been  despatched  to 
Lisbon  by  way  of  Talavera,  thus  cutting  off 
his  retreat  to  Portugal,  while  Soult  was  on 
his  march  against  Moore*s  army.    He  at  once 
marched  against  Soult,  and  checked  him  in  a 
brilhant  skirmish  at  Sahagun ;  but  Napoleon 
was  drawing  his  armies  round  to  enclose  him ; 
and  there  was  nothing  left  but  to  retreat. 
This  movement  was  b^un  on  the  24th,  and 
the  several  divisions  concentrated  at  Astorga 
on  the  Slst.    The  next  day  Napoleon  had  to 
leave  the  army,  and  Soult  was  left  to  pursue 
a  force  which  under  extreme  difficulties  had 
forgotten  all  discipline.    Nevertheless  Moore 
managed  to  bring  them  safely  to  Corunna, 
where   he  halted  to   collect  the  stragglers. 
On   Jan.    16,   1809,  he    gave  Soult    battle, 
defeated    him,    though    killed    himself    in 
the  moment  of  victory;  and  the  army  was 
embarked  without   further  molestation  and 
sailed  for  England.     In  May  Wellesley  took 
command  in  Portugal,  where  the  Frendi  were 
almost    supreme.      He    at    once    advanced 
against  Soult,  and  drove  him  back  from  Lis- 
bon in  a  series  of  skirmishes.    He  followed 
up  his  partial  successes  by  an  advance  up 
the  Valley  of    the  Tagus,  and  on  July  28 
defeated  Victor  and  Joseph  in  a  hard-fought 
battle  at  Talavera.    He,  however,  retreated 
soon  afterwards  into  winter  quarters  on  the 
Mondego.    In  the  spring  of  1810,  Mass^na 
opened  a  brilliant  campaign,  the  object  of 
which  was  the  conquest  of  Portugal.    After 
many  successes  he  was  met  by  Lord  Wel- 
lington (for  a  peerage  had  been  bestowed 


upon  Wdlesley  after  Talavera),  at  Busaoo 
on    Sept.    27,    defeated,    and   driven    back. 
Wellington  took  advantsige  of  the  victory  to 
retreat  to  the  lines  of  Torres  Vedras,  which 
he  had  constructed  as  a  defence  for  Lisbon. 
In  March  (1811),  having  received  reinforce- 
ments,   Wellington    issued  from    his   lines, 
and    by    a    series    of    masterly    movements 
forced  Mass6na  to  retreat  to  Suamanca.    On 
April    9   he    began    to   blockade    Almeida, 
and  in  the  beginning  of  IVIay,  at  Fuentes 
d'Onoro,  again  defeated  Masscna,  who  had  ad- 
vanced to  its  relief.    During  the  battle,  the 
Governor  of  Almeida  had  taken  advantage  of 
the  carelessness  of  the  investing  force  to  de- 
stroy the  fortress  and  escape.    In  the  mean- 
while Graham  had  broken  out  from  Cadiz, 
where  he  had  been  invested  all  the  winter, 
and  on  March  6  defeated  Victor  at  Barossa. 
Beresford  had  on  March  15  been  detached  by 
Wellington  to  recapture  Badajos,  which  had 
been  lost  to  the  French  by  the  treachery  of  its 
commander.    Early  in  May  he  had  made  all 
the  dispositions  necessary  for  the  siege ;  but  * 
the  operations  had  soon  to  be  abandoned  on 
account  of    Soult's  approach  with  a  strong 
relieving  force.      Beresford  gave  him  battle 
on  the  ridge  of  Albuera  on  May  16,  and 
after  a  terrible   struggle,  in  which  victory 
was  long    doubtful,    entirely    defeated   the 
French  army.    Wellington,  coming  up  soon 
after  the  battle,  at  once  ordered  Badajos  to 
be    reinvested.      An  assault,    however,    on 
Badajos    on    June    9     was    repulsed    with 
great  loss;  and  the  siege  was  finally  aban- 
doned on  the  approach  of  Soult  and  Mumont, 
who  had  unitea  their  forces.    Wellington  re- 
tired behind  the  Guadiana,  but  took  up  so 
bold  a  position  that  he  imposed  on  the  two 
marshals;  who,  thinking  him  much  stronger 
than  he  really  was,  in  their  turn  withdrew, 
Soult    to    Seville,   Marmont    to    the  Tagus 
valley,  where  he  quartered  his  army  around 
Almaraz.    Wellington  at  once  advanced,  but 
was  foiled  in  an  attempt  to  surprise  Ciudad 
Rodrigo,  which,  however,  was  now  completely 
blockaded.      Late   in    September,  Marmont 
marched  with  an  overwhelming  force  to  its 
relief ;  and  after  checking  him  in  a  vigorous 
combat  at  El  Bodon  Wellington  ordered  a 
general  retreat.    On  the  27th  he  again  re- 
pulsed an.  attack  of  the  French,  and  withdrew 
to  a  position  so  strong  that  ^larmont  did  not 
venture  to  attack  it,  and  from  want  of  sup- 

flies  withdrew  again  to  tho  Tagus  valley, 
n  October  Hill  successfully  drove  the  French 
from  Caceres,  and  opened  up  the  whole  dis- 
trict for  a  forcing  ground  for  the  allies. 
For  two  months  Es^madura  was  completely 
in  Hill*s  power,  till  in  Jan.  (1812)  he  was 
recalled  «to  Portugal  by  a  threatened  advance 
of  Marmont.  Meanwhile  in  the  east  of 
Spain  the  French  had  been  very  successful, 
and  Valencia  and  Catalonia  had  been  reduced. 
On  Jan.  1  (1812),  Wellington  with  all  things 
ready  crossed  tiie  Agueda,  and  on  the  8th 


Fan 


(812) 


broke  ground  in  front  of  Ciudad  Bodrigo. 
The  siege  was  hurried  on  in  order  to  fore- 
stall Marmont's  arrival.  On  the  19th  the 
place  was  assaulted  and  caiTied  after  a  ter- 
rible struggle.  When  Marmont  in  his  ad- 
vance learned  the  fall  of  Ciudad  Rodiigo,  he 
hastily  retired  to  Salamanca,  whidb  he 
fortified.  Wellington  lost  no  time  in  march- 
ing to  the  south,  and  preparing  for  the  siege 
of  Badajos.  The  works  were  begun  on 
Harch  17,  and  here  again  had  to  be 
conducted  with  all  speed  from  the  fear  of 
Soult's  relieving  force.  On  April  7  the 
place  was  captured  by  one  of  the  most  deter- 
mined and  sanguinary  assaults  on  record. 
On  May  19  Hill  surprised  and  destroyed 
the  bridge  of  Ahnaraz,  which  formed  the 
only  communication  across  the  Tagus  between 
liarmont  and  Soult,  and  Wellington  followed 
up  this  success  by  laying  siege  to  the  forts  of 
Salamanca.  In  ten  days  they  were  reduced, 
and  on  July  22  Wellington  utterly  defeated  the 
French  in  the  great  battle  of  Salamanca.  For 
.  eight  days  he  followed  up  the  pursuit  to  Valla- 
dolid.  Thence,  leaving  Clinton  to  watch  the 
movements  of  the  French  in  the  direction  of 
Burgos,  he  continued  his  march  to  Madrid, 
which  he  entered  in  triumph  on  Aug.  12. 
Here  he  was  again  prevented  by  the  illi- 
berality  and  bad  management  of  the  home 
govemmoDt  from  carrying  the  war  any  fur- 
ther into  Spain,  although  either  Soult  or 
Suchet  might  have  been  crushed.  He  ac- 
cordingly turned  towards  the  north,  where 
Clausel  had  rallied  the  fragments  of  the  Sala- 
manca army.  Clausel  retreated  before  Welling- 
ton with  much  skill ;  and  Wellington  halted 
before  Burgos,  resolved  to  take  it  before 
proceeding  further  north.  He  was,  however, 
very  badly  supplied  with  siege  tools,  and  even 
ammunition  ran  short ;  and  the  siege,  which 
was  begim  on  Sept.  19,  was  finally  abandoned, 
after  a  month  had  been  spent  in  unsuccessful 
attempts  to  storm  the  place.  The  retreat 
was  conducted  under  great  difficulties,  aggra- 
vated by  the  utter  disregard  for  discipline 
to  which  the  men  gave  way.  After  several 
skirmishes,  Wellington's  army  found  itself 
secure  at  Ciudad  Rodrigo.  Wellington  then 
disposed  it  in  winter  quarters,  and  made 
strenuous  preparations  for  renewing  the 
campaign  in  the  following  year.  The  earliest 
movements  of  1813  were,  however,  made  by 
Murray  against  Suchet  in  the  east,  and  re- 
sulted in  the  defeat  of  the  latter  near  Castella. 
It  was  not  tiU  May  that  Wellington  began 
his  forward  movement,  but  then  all  his  plans 
were  so  matured  that  the  position  of  the 
French  behind  the  Douro  was  turned,  and  they 
were  in  full  retreat,  without  a  battle  having 
been  fought.  A  union  had  been  also  effected 
by  the  same  operations  with  the  Spaniards 
in  Ghdlicia.  Burgos  was  destroyed  by  the 
French  in  their  retreat ;  and  without  taking 
any  advantage  of  the  natural  difficulties  of  the 
country,   Joseph  abandoned  every  position, 


until  he  had  crossed  the  Ebro  and  taken  up  a. 
strong  position  at  Vittoria.  It  was,  however* 
of  no  avail,  for  on  June  21  Wellington  carried 
the  position,  and  inflicted  on  Joseph  the  most 
crushing  defeat  suffered  by  any  army  through- 
out the  war.  Graham  was  at  once  despatched 
to  lay  sieg^  to  San  Sebastian ;  but  in  a  few 
weel^  the  works  had  to  be  suspended  on 
account  of  the  arrival  of  Soult,  who  had  been 
sent  to  supersede  Joseph  and  was  reorganising 
the  northern  army.  In  a  series  of  fierce 
combats  fought  among  the  passes  of  the- 
Pyrenees,  Soult*s  efforts  to  break  tiie  line 
of  the  allies  were  utterlv  baffled;  he  re- 
tired, and  Wellington  oraered  the  siege  of 
San  Sebastian  to  bo  resumed.  On  Aug.  31 
it  was  stormed.  Soult  made  one  more  effort 
to  succour  it,  but  he  was  worsted  in  the 
combats  of  Vera  and  San  Marcial,  and  had  to- 
retire  again.  Wellington,  by  the  fall  of  San. 
Sebastian,  was  free  to  devote  his  whole  atten- 
tion to  Soult.  By  a  series  of  skilful  move- 
ments he  forced  the  passage  of  Bidassoa  early 
in  October.  A  month  later  he  attacked  Soult 
in  a  strong  position,  which  he  had  been  forti- 
fying for  three  months,  on  the  Nivelle.  Each 
redoubt  was  successively  carried,  and  the 
English  troops  crossed  the  river.  A  month 
later  he  crossed  the  Nive,  in  the  iaoe  of 
Soult's  opposing  force.  The  next  day  Soult 
issued  from  Bayonne,  thinking  that  he  could 
cut  off  the  left  wing  of  the  allies.  The  attack 
was  met  by  a  stubborn  resistance,  till 
Wellington  sent  up  reinforcements  and  com-^ 

Silled  the    French  to  withdraw    in   haste, 
ut  Soult  directed  a  new  attack  against  the 
right,  which  had  been  thus  weakened.    Wel- 
lington had,  however,  anticipated  the  attack, 
and  after  **  one  of  the  most  desperate  battles 
of  the  whole  war,"  succeeded  on  Dec.  13  in 
completely  baffling  the  French  on  all  points. 
The  country  was,  however,  so  flooded,  that  no 
further   movement    was    possible;    and  the 
allies  went  into  winter  quarters  along  the  left 
bank  of  the  Adour,  the  French  being  disposed 
along  the  opposite  bank.    In  February,  1814, 
Wellington    determined    to     advance     into 
France ;  but  to  do  this  it  was  necessary  to 
drive  Soult  from    Bayonne.     It    was   only 
possible  to  cross  the  Adour  below  Bayonne, 
as  it  was  weakly  guarded  there  on  account  of 
its  natural  difficulties.    His  plan,  therefore, 
was  to  draw  Soult  away  by  an  advance  of  his 
centre  and  right,  while  Sir  John  Hope  with 
the  left  effected  the  passage  of  the  river. 
Accordingly  Hill,  with  20,000  men,  moved 
off  on  Feb.  12  towards  the  east.    The  French 
outposts  were    everywhere    driven    in,    and 
Soult  was  hopelessly  mystified  as  to  Welling- 
ton's real  design.    He  accordingly  made  lus 
dispositions  so  as  to  be  able  to  concentrate  on 
Orthes.    Wellington  continued  to  drive  in  the 
enemy  from  aU  their  outposts,  and  on  the 
26th  Beresford  crossed  the  Gave  de  Fku,  and 
false  attacks  were  directed  against  Orthes. 
On  the  following  day  the  English  attacked 


Pen 


(813) 


Soult's  pofiitioiL  at  OrtheB.    For  a  long  time 
the  battle  was  doubtful ;  indeed,  at  one  time 
the  French  seemed  to  be  on  the  point  of 
repulsing  the  attack  and  winning  the  day; 
but  Wellington,  quickly  changing  hia  mode 
•of  attack  to  suit  the  altered  circumstances, 
won  a  complete  yictory,  which  would  have 
resulted  in  the  entire  destruction  of  Soult's 
^rmy  had   the   pursuit   been   energetically 
executed.     Meanwhile  Hope   had   gpmppled 
with  stupendous  difficulties;  had  crossed  the 
Adour,  and  in  the  face  of  the  enem^  had,  by 
the   indefatigable   energy   of   soldiers    and 
f»ilors  combined,  contrived  a   bridge  which 
should  resist  alike  the  force  of  the  tide  and 
the  attacks  of  the  foci     The  investment  of 
Bayonne  was  now  complete ;  and  Wellington, 
crossing   the    Adour,   despatched    Beresford 
with  12,000  men  to  Bordeaux,  while  he  him- 
self prepared  to  follow  Soult,  who  was  re- 
tiring towards  Toulouse.    In  three  skirmishes 
the  allies  encountered  the  French  outposts, 
^and  drove  them  in;    but   Wellington    was 
moving  cautiously,  and  it  was  not  till  March 
26  that  the  two  armies  were  in  sight  of  one 
.another.    Soult  was  resolved  to  hold  Toulouse, 
in  order  to  keep  his  communications  open 
with  the  other  armies,  and  Wellington  was 
•equally  resolved  to  isolate  him.    Accordingly 
he  attacked  him  on  April  10  ;  and  at  len^h, 
after  a  most  terrible  struggle,  in  which  the 
allies  lost  more  men  than  in  almost  any  other 
battle  in  the  whole  war,  the  chief  positions 
were  caxried.    But  even  then  Soult  did  not  at 
once  give  up  the  place,  and  was  ready  to 
receive  an  attack  the  next  day.     Wellington, 
however,  designed  a  new  plaua  of  operations, 
•and  Soult,  afraid  of  being  surrounded,  carried 
oS  most  of  his  troops  to  Yillefranche.    The 
movement  was  a  most  masterly  conception, 
•and  its  execution  did  not  fall  short  of  the 
skill  wiUi  which  it  was  planned.    But  its 
results  were  never  known,  because  news  had 
-already  arrived  of  the  Convention  of  Paris 
and  the  abdication  of  Napoleon.    Thus  ended 
the  War  of  the  Peninsula,  and  the  English 
forces  made  all  haste  to  evacuate  France.    On 
•June  14  Wellington  issued  a  general  order, 
in  which,  he  thanked  the  troops  for  their 
glorious  services  throughout  the  long  struggle, 
which  had  had  an  incalculable  influence  on 
the  afEairs  of  Europe,  and  had  in  no  small 
deg^e  contributed  to  the  fall  of  Napoleon. 

Napier,  Pmnnndar  War;  Clintoii,  Penintular 
War;  Alison,  Hid.  of  Bur<yp§;  Thion,  Hi«i.  ijf 
fh0  ConndaU  and  Empire.  [W.  K.  S.] 

Pean,  SiH  William  (*.  1621,  d.  1670),  a 
native  of  Bristol,  entered  the  merchant  service, 
and  afterwards  the  royal  navy.  In  the  war 
between  the  Commonwealth  and  the  Dutch 
he  greatly  distinguished  himself,  and  in  1653 
be<^e  an  admiral.  In  1655  he  bore  a  large 
share  in  the  capture  of  Jamaica,  and  in  the 
same  year  became  M.P.  for  Weymouth.  In 
1660  he  was  knighted,  and  made  one  of  the 


commissioners  of  the  navy.  He  took  part 
in  the  subsequent  Dutch  wars,  and  was  en- 
gaged in  the  great  victory  of  1665. 

Penn,  William,  son  of  Admiral  Sir 
William  Penn,  educated  at  Christ  Church, 
Oxford  and  at  Saumur.  He  became  a  Quaker 
in  1667,  and  was  in  1668 — 9  eight  months 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower,  and  in  1671  six 
months  in  Newgate,  for  propagating  Quaker 
doctrines.  On  March  4,  1681,  he  received 
from  the  king,  in  satisfaction  for  debts  due  to 
his  father,  the  land  lying  between  Marj'land 
and  New  York,  and  founded  the  colony  called 
after  him  Pennsylvania.  From  the  summer 
of  1682  to  the  summer  of  1684  he  was  engaged 
in  laying  the  foundations  of  the  colony  in 
America  and  establishing  good  relations  with 
the  Indians.  On  his  return  to  England,  he 
obtained  great  influence  with  James  II.,  ap- 
proved and  supported  the  Declaration  of 
Indulgence,  and  endeavoured  to  secure  for 
the  policy  of  the  king  the  support  of  William 
of  Orange.  In  1690  and  in  1691  he  was 
accused  of  treasonable  correspondence  with 
the  exiled  king,  but  in  neither  case  was  the 
charp^  proved.  Nevertheless  he  was  in  1692 
deprived  of  his  government  of  Pennsylvania, 
which  was  restored  to  him  two  years  later. 
In  1699  he  made  a  second  visit  to  America, 
whence  he  returned  in  1701.  His  relations 
to  the  colony  and  the  colonial  assembly  in- 
volved him  in  many  debts,  and  frequent 
disputes  arose.  He  could  not  "  but  think  it 
hard  measure  *'  he  wrote  to  the  colonists  in 
1710,  '*that,  while  that  has  proved  a  land  of 
freedom  and  flourishing,  it  should  become  to 
me,  by  whose  means  it  was  principally  made 
a  country,  the  cause  of  gnef,  trouble,  and 
poverty."  In  1712  Penn  was  struck  by 
apoplexy,  just  as  he  was  preparing  to  sell  to 
the  crown  his  rights  as  proprietor,  and,  though 
he  lived  till  1718,  was  mcapable  for  the  rest 
of  his  life  of  doing  any  business. 

TTorfei,  published  1728;  L\fe,  by  Hepworth 
Dixon,  Forster  Clarkson,  ana  Uranville  Penn. 
Mflrcaolaj'B  ohaxgea  are  refuted  in  Paget's 
Pianl«a  atul  ParadoxM, 


J  (fit  Ap  Henky),  John  (4.  1559,  d. 

1593),  a  Wehh  clergyman,  became  one  of 
the  most  zealous  followers  of  Robert  Browne 
and  a  determined  opponent  of  Episcoxxicy. 
He  was  supposed  to  have  originated  the  attacks 
on  the  bishops  published  under  the  name  of 
Martin  Marprelate,  but  it  was  found  impos- 
sible to  trace  the  work  to  him.  He  was 
subsequently  brought  to  trial  on  a  charge  of 
having  lib^ed  the  queen,  and  though  the 
evidence  was  incomplete,  was  found  guilty 
and  hung  at  St.  Thomas  Waterings  (May  29, 

1593). 

Wordsworth,  SceUa,  Biog.;   Strype,  Annals; 
Burnet,  Hitt,  ojUu  Etformatum, 

Pen  Selwood,  Tub  Battle  of  (1016),  was 
fought  between  Edmund  Ironside  and  Canute,* 
and  resulted  in  the  victory  of^  the  former. 


Pea 


(814) 


Pep 


Pen  Selwood  is.  in  Somerset,  not  fax  from 
Qillingham. 

Pension  Bill*  Tm  (1730),  was  intro- 
duced by  Sandys  as  a  weapon  of  attack 
against  Sir  Bobart  Walpole.  By  an  Act  of 
1708,  all  persons  holding  pensions  from  the 
crown  during  pleasure  were  made  incapable 
of  sitting  in  the  House  of  Ck>mmons,  and  this 
was  extended  by  an  Act  of  1714  to  Uiose  who 
held  them  for  any  term  of  years.  "  But  the 
difficulty,'*  says  liallam,  **  was  to  ascertain 
the  fact,  the  government  refusing  informa- 
tion/' Accordingly  Sandys  proposed  a  Bill 
by  which  eyery  member  of  the  Commons  was 
to  swear  an  oath  that  he  did  not  hold  any 
such  pension^  and  that  if  he  accepted  one,  he 
would  disclose  it  to  the  House  within  fourteen 
days.  Walpole  allowed  this  measure  to  pass 
the  Commons  by  a  small  majority,  and  threw 
the  responsibility  of  its  reje<iion  in  the  Lords 
on  Townshend  as  leader  in  that  House.  This 
was  one  of  the  reasons  that  led  to  the  latter's 
resignation.  The  measoie  suffered  a  similar 
fate  in  1734  and  1740. 

Hallam,  Conri,  Hist,:  Stanhope,  Hut.  o/Bng. 

PencdonSyTHB  Question  of,  is  intimately 
connected  with  that  of  the  alienation  of  royal 
demesne,  which  was  so  frequently  made  a 
subject  of  complaint  by  the  reformers  of  the 
Middle  Ages.  It  was  not  until  the  accession 
of  Queen  Anne  that  steps  were  taken  to 
prevent  the  sovereign  from  charging  the 
hereditary  revenues  with  pensions  and  an- 
nuities which  were  considered  to  be  binding 
on  his  successors,  when  it  was  provided 
that  no  portion  of  the  hereditary'  revenues 
should  be  alienated  by  the  crown  beyond 
the  life  of  the  king.  Pensions,  however, 
were  still  granted  on  the  hereditary  re- 
venues of  Scotland  and  Ireland,  and  on  the 
i^  per  cent,  duties,  for  the  lives  of  the 
grantees.  When  George  III.  surrendered 
the  hereditary  revenues  in  exchange  for  a 
fixed  civil  list  amounting  first  to  £800,000, 
and  afterwards  to  £900,000,  it  became  the 
fund  from  which  pensions  were  paid.  There 
were  no  limits  to  pensions,  except  the  civil 
list  itself,  and  debts  frequently  accumulated 
in  consequence ;  moreover,  they  dangerously 
increased  the  influence  of  the  crown.  Burke 
proposed  in  consequence  (1780)  that  the 
pension  list  should  be  reduced  to  £60,000, 
but  his  Bill  for  "  the  better  security  of  the 
independence  of  Parliament,  and  the  econo- 
mical reform  of  the  civil  and  other  establish- 
ments "  did  not  become  law.  However,  the 
Civil  List  Act  of  the  Rockingham  adminis- 
tration, which  was  passed  in  1782,  was  built 
on  the  same  lines.  The  pension  list  was  to  be 
gradually  reduced  to  £95,000,  and  no  pension 
to  any  one  person  was  to  exceed  £1,200.  In 
order  to  prevent  the  practice  of  granting 
secret  pensions  during  pleasure,  it  was 
directed  that  all  future  pensions  were  to  bo 
paid  at  the  lucchequer,  and  they  were  to  be 


granted  only  in  cases  of  distrses  or  doBeit 
The  pension  lists  on  the  Irish  and  Scotch 
revenues,  and  on  the  4^  per  cent,  duties,  still 
remained,  however,  and  were  sonroes  of  mach 
political  corruption.  (1)  In  1793  the  Irish 
pensions  had  reached  the  sum  of  £124,000, 
the  gross  annual  revenue  being  £275,102. 
After  several  attempts  had  been  made  to 
remedy  the  abuse,  a  Bill  was  introduced  into 
the  Irish  House  of  Commons,  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  the  Lord  Lieutenant,  by  which  Uie 
hereditary  revenues  were  surrendered  in 
exchange  for  a  civil  list  of  £145,000,  and  a 
pension  list  of  £124,000,  which  was  eventually 
to  be  reduced  to  £80,000.  No  gfnmts  in  aoy 
one  year  were  to  exceed  £1,200,  but  pen&ons 
held  during  the  pleasure  of  the  crown  were 
exempted  from  the  provisions  of  the  Act 
The  contemplated  reduction  was  effected  by 
1814 ;  and  on  the  accession  of  G^rge  lY.  the 
Irish  pension  list  was  further  reduced  to 
£50,000,  no  grants  exceeding  £1,2U0  to  be 
made  until  the  list  was  so  reduced.  (2)  The 
Scotch  hereditary  revenues  remained  exempt 
from  Parliamentary  control  until  1810,  when 
the  pensions  charged  on  them  amounted  to 
£39,379.  It  was  then  provided  that  the 
amount  of  the  pensions  should  be  reduced 
to  £25,000,  and  no  more  thui  £800  should  be 
granted  in  one  year  until  the  reduction  had 
been  effected.  "(3)  In  1830  the  4^  per  cent, 
duties  were  surrendered  by  William  IV.  for 
his  life,  the  pension  charged  upon  them  con- 
tinuing payable.  At  the  same  time  the  three^ 
pension  lists  of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland 
were  consolidated,  and  arrangements  made 
for  their  reduction  from  £145,750  to  a  future 
maximum  sum  of  £75,000  on  the  expiration 
of  existing  interests.  Lastly,  on  the  accession 
of  Victoria,  the  right  of  the  crown  to  grant 
pensions  was  restricted  to  £1,200  a  year; 
these  pensions  to  be  granted  in  strict  con- 
formity with  the  resolutions  of  the  House  of 
Commons  of  1834,  which  limited  them  to 
"such  persons  only  as  have  just  claims  on 
the  royal  beneficence,  or  who,  by  their  per- 
sonal services  to  the  crown,  by  the  perfonn- 
ance  of  their  duties  to  the  public,  or  by  their 
useful  discoveries  in  science  and  attainments 
in  literature  and  the  arts,  have  merited  the 
gracious  consideration  of  the  sovereign,  and 
the  gratitude  of  their  country."  In  1887, 
a  Select  Gonmiittee  of  the  House  of  Commons 
appointed  on  the  motion  of  Mr.  Bradlaugh, 
reported  against  the  granting  of  perpetual 
pensions  in  the  future,  and  recommended  the 
commutation  of  existing  ones.  A  motion  in 
this  sense  was  passed  in  1888,  and  since  then 
many  pensions  have  been  commuted. 

Se«  May,  ConBt,  Hiaf.,  voL  {.,  obap.  ir.  See 
also  Burke.  Work*,  ed.  181&  and  Rtwrt  o»  Hnt 
CivU  Lidt,  Dec  1837.  FL.  C  S  1 

Frays,  Samusl  (b.  1632,  d.  1703),  was 
educated  at  St.  Paul's  School,  and  Magdalen 


(816) 


Gollege,  Cambridge.  Uo  became  Clerk  of  the 
Acts  to  the  Navy  in  1660,  and  Secretar}*^  to 
the  Navy  in  1678.  Daring  the  reig^  of 
Charles  II.  and  James  II.  the  administration 
of  naval  affairs  was  largely  in  his  hands,  and 
he  introduced  some  important  reforms.  He 
was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  on  suspicion  of 
being  concerned  in  the  popish  plot  in  May, 
1679,  but  liberated  tiie  following  February. 
He  became  President  of  the  Royal  Society  in 
1684.  He  wrote  Memoir*  of  the  Eoyal  Navy 
(1690),  and  left  in  his  manuscripts  a  Diary ^ 
written  in  shorthand,  which  was  deciphered 
and  first  published  by  Lord  Braybrooke  in 
1826.  The  work  is  ahnost  unequalled  for  its 
naive  candour,  and  its  gossiping  pages  give  a 
sin^pilarly  piquant  sketch  of  the  court  and 
society  of  Charles  II.'s  reign. 

Perceval.  Spsxcer  {b.  1762,  d.  1812), 
was  the  second  son  of  John,  Earl  of  Egmont, 
and  was  educated  at  Harrow  and  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge.  In  1786  he  was  called 
to  the  bar,  and  ten  years  later  took  silk.  At 
the  same  time  he  entered  Parliament  as  M.P. 
for  Northampton,  and  was  soon  noticed  by 
Pitt  as  a  promising  member.  In  supporting 
the  Treason  and  Sedition  Bills  he  rendered 
good  service  to  the  government.  Addington 
appointed  Perceval  his  Solicitor-General,  and 
in  1802  Attorney-General,  in  which  capacity 
he  had  to  conduct  the  prosecution  of  Peltier 
for  a  libel  on  Bonaparte,  and  in  spite  of  the 
brilliant  defence  of  Sir  James  IMaokintosh,  he 
secured  a  verdict  of  guilty.  He  held  that 
office  unta  Pitt's  death  in  1806.  In  March, 
1807,  he  b^me  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer, 
and  on  the  death  of  the  Duke  of  Portland  in 
1809  he  was  named  First  Lord  of  the  Trea- 
sury. At  that  time  the  war  in  the  Peninsula 
was  being  carried  on:  Napoleon  had  as  yet 
received  no  check  on  the  Continent ;  England 
was  spending  millions  in  encouraging  the 
nations  of  Europe  to  offer  an  effectual  resist- 
tance  to  him.  Foreign  politics  were  thus 
all  engrossing,  and  scarcely  any  attention 
was  paid  to  the  reforms  at  home,  which  were 
80  badly  needed.  For  thi*ee  years  his  ministry 
lasted,  and  then  on  ]^Iay  11,  1812,  he  was 
shot  by  one  Bellingham,  in  the  lobby  of  the 
House  of  Commons.  Nothing  could  have 
happened  so  opportunely  for  PercevaPs  repu- 
tation as  his  murder,  which  raised  him  to  the 
position  of  a  martyr.  From  having  been 
really  a  minister  of  moderate  abilities,  by  his 
death  he  suddenly  became,  in  public  estima- 
tion a  political  genius,  a  first-rate  financier, 
and  a  powerful  orator.  "We  can  now  look 
back  more  calmly  and  see  in  him  a  man  of 
shrewd  sense,  imperturbable  temper,  narrow 
views,  and  restless  ambition,  which,  to  his 
credit,  never  led  him  astray  ^om  the  path  of 
integrity. 

Alison,  Hise.  cf  Europe  ;  Duke  of  BackiiiKhaiu, 
Memoin  of  Court  of  the  Regenoy;  O.  Bobo,  Diarj/. 

Hbnuy   (6.  1366,  (L  1403),  who 


from  his  impetuosity  and  daring  was  sumamed 
'*  Hotspur,"  was  the  son  of  Henry  Percy, 
Earl  of  Northumberland.  When  quite  young 
he  was  associated  with  his  father  in  the  charge 
of  the  Scotch  prisoners,  and  in  1385  he  was 
sent  to  release  Calais,  and  made  many  daring 
excursions  into  Picardy.  He  killed  the  Earl  of 
Douglas  in  the  battle  of  Otterbum,  where  he 
was  himself  taken  prisoner.  On  his  release  he 
fought  in  France  and  Britanny.  He  joined 
Henry  of  Lancaster  on  his  landing  in  England 
in  1399,  and  received  substantial  rewards  from 
him  subsequently.  Becoming  discontented, 
however,  with  the  king,  Percy  joined  in  1403 
with  Douglas,  but  was  defeated  and  slain  in 
the  battle  of  Shrewsbury.  He  married  EUza- 
beth  Mortimer,  eldest  daughter  of  Edward, 
Earl  of  March. 


•  «»**««.».  A1.ICE,  was  one  of  the  ladies  of 
the  bedchamber  of  Philippa,  queen  of  Edward 
IIL  After  his  wife's  deaUi  she  acquired 
immense  influence  over  the  king,  and  inter- 
fered in  the  affairs  of  State,  supporting  the 
policy  of  John  of  Gkiunt.  In  the  Good  Par- 
liament (1376)  most  serious  charges  were 
brought  against  "her.  She  had  interfered  with 
the  administration  of  justice,  and  her  rapa- 
city and  extravagance  were  equally  un- 
bounded. She  was  compelled  to  take  an  oath 
never  to  return  to  the  king's  presence ;  and  it 
was  ordained  that  if  in  the  future  she  be- 
haved as  she  had  in  the  past,  she  should  for- 
feit her  goods  and  be  banished.  On  the  death 
of  the  Black  Prince,  however,  the  proceed- 
ings of  the  Good  Parliament  were  reversed, 
and  Alice  Perrers  resumed  her  influence  over 
the  king.  She  was  present  at  his  death-bed, 
but  fled  from  it  after  robbing  him  of  his 
finger  rings.  Of  her  subsequent  history 
noticing  is  known. 

Perroty  Sm  John  {b.  1527,  d,  1592),  was 
reputed  to  be  the  son  of  Henry  VIII.  He 
was  imprisoned  by  Mary  for  his  religious 
opinions,  but  under  Elizabeth  rose  for  a  time 
to  high  favour.  In  1572  he  was  appointed 
President  of  Munster,  where  he  suppressed  a 
widespread  rebellion,  and  in  1583  was  made 
Lord  Deputy  of  Ireland.  His  policy,  though 
calculated  to  benefit  the  county,  gave  such 
offence  to  the  clergy  that  they  contrived,  by 
means  of  forged  documents,  to  obtain  his 
recall,  which  was  followed  by  his  trial  for 
high  treason  in  1592.  He  was  found  guilty, 
though  probably  on  very  insufficient  evidence, 
of  using  language  derogatory  to  the  queen, 
and  of  giving  secret  encouragement  to  Spain ; 
and  died  in  the  Tower  of  a  broken  heart, 
September,  1592. 


«  «..•«»  'Wax,  Thb  (1856).  At  the  end 
of  1855  a  series  of  studied  insults  towards 
Mr.  Murray,  the  British  minister  at  the 
Persian  court,  obliged  him  to  withdraw  his 
mission  from  Teheran,  and  break  off  00m- 
munication  ydth   the  Persian   government. 


(816) 


Pet 


Attempts  were  made  to  patch  the  matter  up, 
hut  the  news  of  the  siege  and  capture  oi 
Herat,  in  spite  of  treaty  obligations,  was 
followed  by  a  declaration  of  war  by  England 
(Nov.  1, 1856).  An  army  of  6,000  men,  under 
Qie  command  of  Sir  James  Outram,  was  at 
once  despatched  to  the  Persian  Gulf.  The 
English  attacked  Rushan,  a  fort  near 
Bushire,  and  the  place  was  carried  after  an 
obstinate  defence.  The  next  day  Bushire 
was  attacked  and  similarly  captured.  On 
Jan.  27,  Sir  James  Outram  arrived  and 
took  the  command.  Being  joined  by  part  of 
Havelock's  division,  he  advanced  on  Burras- 
goon,  where  the  Persians  were  encamped, 
found  it  deserted,  and  returned  after  destroy- 
ing all  the  stores  found  there.  On  his  return 
he  was  much  annoyed  by  the  Persian  cavalry, 
but  eventually  succeeded  in  attacking  and 
driving  off  the  pursuing  force.  A  short  lull 
in  hostilities  occurred  now.  But  on  March  26 
the  strong  fortress  of  Mohamrah  on  the 
Karoon  river  was  attacked  by  sea  and  land. 
The  garrison  was  commanded  by  Prince 
Khan  Mirza.  No  real  attempt  was  made  at 
a  defence  ;  the  guns  of  the  fort  and  town 
were  quickly  silenced  by  the  fleet,  and  then 
the  prmce  abandoned  the  place  and  retreated 
to  Akwaz,  100  miles  up  the  Karoon,  where 
he  had  large  magazines  and  supplies.  Sir 
James  Outram  immediately  organised  an 
expedition  under  Commander  Rennie  to 
•ascend  the  river  and  destroy  this  place.  The 
steamer  advanced  on  the  29th,  and  on  April 
1  found  the  enemy,  about  7,000  strong,  posted 
at  Akwaz.  The  troops  landed  and  advanced 
against  the  town.  There  was,  however,  no 
struggle.  The  Persians,  cowed  by  tiieir 
disasters,  fled  at  once,  and  again  allowed 
their  camp  to  be  taken  possession  of  with  all 
the  stores  it  contained.  On  the  4th  the 
expedition  returned  to  Mohamrah,  and  thus 
the  operations  closed.  Meanwhile,  the  pre- 
liminaries of  a  peace  had  been  adjusted  at 
Paris.  The  Shah  agreed  to  renounce  all 
pretensions  to  Herat,  to  withdraw  his  troops 
from  Afghanistan,  to  guarantee  protection  to 
the  EngUsh  commerce,  and  to  suppress  slavery 
in  the  Persian  Gulf.    [Malcolm,  Sir  John.] 

Ontnm,  Penian  ExpidHian ;  Annval  JUgitter, 
18S6. 

Perth,  was  taken  by  Bruce  from  the 
English  (1311),  and  in  1332  was  fortified  by 
EdwaixL  Baliol,  who  was  for  a  time  besieged 
there  by  the  Earl  of  March.  Jn  1339  it  was  re- 
taken by  Robert  the  Stewart  from  Sir  Thomas 
Ughtred,  Edward  III .'  s  lieutenant.  In  1 55 9  it 
was  occupied  by  the  Queen  Regent  and  a 
French  bodyguard;  in  Sept.,  1644,  it  was  taken 
by  Montrose  after  the  battle  of  Tippermuir,  and 
in  May,  1689,  by  Claverhouse.  In  1715  it 
ivas  occupied  by  Lord  Mar,  and  in  1745  was 
also  in  the  hands  of  the  rebels  for  some  time. 
James  I.  was  murdered  (1436)  in  the  monas- 
tery of  Black  Friars  in  Perth. 


Peterborough,  Bctbdict  of  (tf.  1193), 

was  of  unknown  origin.  In  1 173  he  was  ap- 
pointed  chancellor  to  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury;  in  1177,  Abbot  of  Peterbo- 
rough; and  in  1191,  Vice  -  Chancellor  of 
England.  The  Chronide  which  is  erroneously 
attnbuted  to  him  extends  from  1169  to  1192, 
and  is  highly  important  for  the  period  it  em- 
braces, giving  much  information  not  to  be 
found  in  any  other  writer. 

Benedict  of  Peterborongh's  CfcromoU  hai 
been  published  in  the  BoUa  Series,  with  invfthi- 
able  mtrodactions  by  Bishop  Stnobs,  who  mg- 
seats,  with  much  inrobabilltv.  that  Bichtra 
Fitx-Neal,  Bishop  of  London,  is  the  anthor. 

Peterborougliv    Chablbs   Mobdau-nt, 

Eaul  of  {b,  1668,  d,  1735),  in  1675  succeeded 
to  his  father's  estates.  In  his  youth  he 
served  under  Admirals  Torrington  and  Marl- 
borough in  the  Mediterranean.  For  his  bold 
opposition  to  the  designs  of  James  II.  he 
was  compelled  to  betake  himself  to  the  Hague, 
where  he  strongly  recommended  the  Prince  of 
Orange  to  invade  England.  When  William 
had  landed  at  Torbay,  Mordaont  went  on 
before  him,  and  occupied  Exeter.  He  became 
First  Commissioner  of  the  Treasury,  a  post 
to  which  he  was  unsuited;  and  where  be 
quarrelled  with  Godolphin,  who  was  an  ex- 
cellent financier.  He  was  created  Earl  of 
Monmouth.  In  1690  Caermarthen  procured 
his  retirement  from  office.  In  1696  he  at- 
tempted to  ruin  his  opponents  by  the  help  of 
Sir  John  Fenwick's  confessions.  But  the 
attempt  failed,  and  Monmouth,  now  hated  bj 
both  parties,  was  stripped  of  his  employments. 
In  1697  he  succeeded  to  his  uncle*s  fortunes  and 
title.  On  the  accession  of  Anne  he  was  offered 
and  refused  the  command  of  the  forces  in 
the  West  Indies.  In  1705  he  was  sent  to 
command  in  Spain.  He  captured  the  for- 
tresses of  Montjuich,  and  Barcelona  fcU. 
Though  he  had  but  a  handful  of  men,  he 
at  once  pushed  on  to  relieve  San  MatUieo. 
He  accomplished  the  feat  with  1,200  men, 
and  drove  the  Spanish  army  of  7,000  men 
before  him  into  Valencia.  From  Valencia  he 
set  out  in  the  night  and  defeated  a  reinforce- 
ment of  4,000  men.  A  French  army  imder 
Marshal  Tesse,  and  a  fleet  under  the  Count  of 
Toulouse,  were  sent  to  blockade  Barcelona, 
Peterborough  attempted  to  raise  the  siege, 
but  failed.  He  then  produced  a  conunissicHi 
appointing  him  commander  of  the  fleet  as 
well  as  the  army,  and  set  out  in  an  open  boat 
in  quest  of  it  He  was  picked  up  by  one  of 
the  ships ;  and  though  he  failed  to  bring  on 
an  engagement  with  the  French  fleet,  he  re- 
lieved Barcelona.  But  he  quarrelled  with  the 
Archduke  Charles,  who  disapproved  of  his  de- 
sign of  marching  at  once  on  Madrid.  Unable 
to  endure  a  command  divided  between  himself 
and  Galway,  he  left  the  army  for  (Jenoa.  In 
1707  he  returned  as  a  volunteer ;  but  Sunder- 
land, a  warm  supporter  of  Galway,  roughly 
recalled  him.    He  visited  Vienna,  the  camp 


Pet 


(817) 


Pet 


of  Charles  XII,  at  Alt-Bastadt,  and  that  -of 
^larlborough  in  Flanders.     In  1711  be  was 
sent  to  Vienna    in  order  to   reconcile  the 
Emperor  and  the  Duke  of  Savoy.    In  1713 
he    was  made   Governor    of    Minorca.     On 
the  accession    of    Groorge  I.,  he  was  made 
general    of    the     marine    forces    of    Great 
Britain,  an   office   continued   under  George 
II.    In  1717  he  was  suddenly  arrested  at 
Bolog^na  on  the  groundless  charge  of  plotting 
•against  the  Pretender's  hfe.      In    1719  he 
•conducted,  on  his  own  responsibility,  an  in- 
trigue with  the  French  court  through  the 
Duke  of  Parma,  uncle  of  the  Queen  of  Spain, 
which  resulted  in  the  dismissal  of  the  minister 
Alberoni.     In  1735  he  died  at  sea,  on  his  way 
to   Lisbon.      ''This  man,"  says  Macaulay, 
*Vwas,  if  not  the  greatest,  yet  assuredly  the 
most  extraordinary  character  of  that  age.  .  . 
But  his  splendid  talents  and  virtues  were 
rendered  almost  useless  to  his  country  by  his 
restlessness,  his  irritability,  his  morbid  craving 
for  novelty  and  for  excitement.   His  weakness 
had  not  only  brought  him,  on  more  than  one 
-occasion,  into  serious  trouble,  but  had  impelled 
him  to  some  actions  altogether  unworthy  of 
his  humane  and  noble  nature.'* 

Matctulaj.  Hid.  qf  Bng. ;  Stsnbope,  Hist.  ^ 
Bnq.  and  War  of  Suoo«uum  in  Spain. 

Petorloo  Keating,  Thb  (August  16, 

1819),  was  the  most  celebrated  of  the  meetings 
in  which  the  natioi^al  desire  for  Parliamentary 
Reform  found  expression.  Manchester  decided 
to  follow  the  example  of  Birmingham,  and 
made  large  preparations  for  a  grand  meeting 
-on  Aug.  16,  1819,  under  the  l^d  of  a  noted 
reformer,  "  Orator  "  Hunt.  The  county  ezeca* 
tive  mide  extensive  military  arrangements  to 
prevent  any  rioting  or  disturbance.  On  the 
day  fixed,  between  50,000  and  60,000  people 
marched  into  St.  Peter's  Field,  then  on  the 
•outskirts  of  Manchester,  while  the  magistrates 
were  watching  the  proceedings  from  a  neigh- 
bouring house.  As  soon  as  Hunt  rose  to  ad- 
dress the  assembled  crowd,  they  sent  the  chief 
constable  to  arrest  him — a  hopeless  impos- 
sibility in  the  face  of  an  enthusiastic  mob. 
The  Yeomanry  were  then  sent  to  charge  the 
crowd  ;  but  they  became  scattered,  lost  their 
order,  and  were  beginning  to  experience 
some  rough  treatment  at  the  hands  of  the 
crowd,  when  the  magistrates  gave  the 
Hussars  orders  to  charge.  Nothing  could 
have  been  more  efiPectual ;  "  the  charge  swept 
the  mingled  mass  of  human  beings  before 
It ;  people,  yeomen,  and  constables,  in  their 
confused  attempts  to  escape,  ran  over 
one  another.'*  The  meeting  was  broken 
np;  Hunt  was  arrested,  and  the  field  was 
left  strewn  with  the  victims  of  the  im- 
petuous charge,  which  has  given  to  the 
P<)terloo  Meeting  the  name  of  the  Manchester 
Massacre. 

Wftlpole,  Siti^.   fif  Bng.  fnm  1816;   Annval 
B«yi«tar;  Lift  ^  WAok. 


Patem,  or  Peter,  Hugh  (&.  1599,  d. 
1660),  was  a  native  of  Fowey  in  Cornwall,  and 
was  educated  at  Cambridge.  He  became 
lecturer  at  St.  Sepulchre's  Church  in  the  city, 
and  in  1633  minister  of  an  Independent  con- 
gregation at  Rotterdam.  In  1634  he  emi- 
grated to  Massachusetts,  and  succeeded 
Boger  Williams  as  pastor  at  Salem.  He 
returned  to  England  in  1641.  *'  I  was  sent 
over  to  his  majesty,"  he  said  on  his  trial, 
''  that  we  might  have  a  little  help  in  point  of 
excise  and  customs,  and  encouragements  in 
learning."  He  remained  in  England,  and 
became  an  active  preacher  and  army  chaplain. 
In  1649  he  accompanied  Cromwell  to  Ireland, 
and  became  one  of  the  commissioners  for  the 
amendment  of  the  laws  (1651).  He  was  also 
appointed  one  of  the  Triers  (1664).  At  the 
Bi^ttoration  he  was  excepted  from  the  Act  of 
Indemnity,  tried  as  a  regicide  and  condemned 
to  death.  He  was  charged  with  plotting  the 
king's  death  with  Cromwell,  and  with  exciting 
the  soldiers  against  him  by  his  preaching 
before  and  during  the  trial.  He  was  also 
aocused  by  rumour  of  being  himself  the  exe- 
cutioner of  Charles  I.,  but  this  was  not 
brought  forward  on  his  trial.  He  was  exe- 
cuted on  Oct.  16,  1660. 

Peter's  Pence.    [Kom-fboh.] 
Petition  and  Advice  (1667).  On  Feb. 

23,  1667,  Sir  Christopher  Pack  brought 
forward  in  the  House  of  Commons  an  address 
proposing  the  recasting  of  the  constitution. 
This  was  discussed  and  am'ended  for  a  month, 
and  finally  presented  to  Cromwell  on  Mar.  31 
under  the  title  of  the  *'  Petition  and  Advice.*' 
April  was  spent  in  discussions  between  Crom- 
well and  a  committee  of  the  House  touching 
the  question  of  the  kingship  Qiefinitely  re- 
fused by  Cromwell  on  May  8),  and  dealing 
with  defects  which  he  perceived,  and  amend- 
ments which  he  suggested  in  other  portions 
of  the  proposed  constitution.  The  Commons 
fiinally  added  a  supplement  to  the  original 
"Petition  and  Advice,"  called  "The  Humble 
Additional  and  Explanatory  Petition  and 
Advice."  The  two  documents  together, 
known  shortly  by  the  title  of  the  first, 
made  up  the  new  scheme  of  government. 
Cromwell  was  empowered  to  choose  his  suc- 
cessor, and  confirmed  in  the  Protectorate. 
Parliaments  were  to  be  called  every  two 
years  at  the  furthest,  and  enjoy  all  their 
customary  rights.  Several  classos  of  persons, 
viz.,  all  Roman  Catholics,  and  generally  all 

C:>ns  who  had  borne  arms  against  the  Par- 
ent, and  not  since  given  signal  testimony 
of  their  good  affections,  were  excluded  from 
political  rights.  The  Protector  was  em- 
powered to  nominate  a  second  House  of 
seventy  members,  his  Church  establishment 
sanctioned,  and  a  limited  toleration  secured. 
To  the  Protector's  Council,  consisting  of 
twenty-one  persons,  approved  by  Parliament, 
an  important  share  in  the  government  was 


Pet 


(818) 


Pic 


g^ven.  Protector  and  Council  together  disposed 
of  the  fixed  yearly  revenue  (£1,300,000),  now 
granted,  and  were  responsible  for  its  expen- 
diture to  Parliament.  On  the  whole  the 
Petition  and  Advice  established  a  fsx  more 
workable  distribution  of  political  power  than 
the  Instrument  of  Government. 

Maason.  Life  of  Milton ;  Guizot,  CromvtCl  ; 
Garlyle,  CromMowt  Lttt^n  and  9p0eehe»;  Bar- 
ton, Diary.  [Q.  H.  F.] 

Petitioners  (1679)  was  the  name  given 
to  those  members  of  the  Opposition,  or 
"  Country  "  party,  who  in  this  year  presented 
petitions  to  Charles  II.  asking  him  to  summon 
a  Parliament  in  Jan.,  1680.  Their  opponents 
presented  counter-petitions,  expressing  ab- 
horrence of  the  attempt  to  encroach  on  the 
royal  prerogative,  and  were  hence  called  Ab- 
horrera  (q.v.). 

Burnet,  Hist,  of  hia  Own  Time,  ii.  238. 

Petition  of  Bight  (1628).  When 
the  third  Parliament  of  Charles  I.  met,  the 
Parliamentary  leaders  resolved  to  begin  by 
vindicating  the  violated  rights  of  the  subjects 
rather  than  renewing  the  attack  on  Buck- 
ingham. After  a  general  discussion  the 
Commons  proceeded  to  pass  resolutions 
against  arbitrary  imprisonment,  unparliamen- 
tary taxation,  and  other  grievances.  Went- 
worth  suggested  that  they  should  proceed  by 
a  bill  which  should  define  what  the  law 
should  be  in  the  future,  but  though  his  idea 
was  adopted  by  the  Commons,  the  king's 
openly  expressed  ojpposition  obliged  them  to 
drop  it  (April  28).  Coke  now  proposed  that 
they  should  ask  the  Lords  to  join  with  them 
in  a  Petition  of  Right  (May  6),  and  after  about 
three  weeks*  debate  the  Upper  House  passed 
the  petition  (May  28) .  The  petition  demanded 
four  things : — (1)  That  no  freeman  should  be 
obliged  to  give  any  gift,  loan,  benevolence  or 
tax,  without  common  consent  by  Act  of  Par- 
liament. (2)  That  no  freeman  should  be  im- 
prisoned contrary  to  the  laws  of  the  land. 
(3)  That  soldiers'  and  sailors  should  not  bo 
billeted  in  private  houses.  (4)  That  commis* 
sions  to  punish  soldiers  and  sailprs  by  martial 
law  should  be  revoked,  and  no  more  issued. 
CAiarles,  with  the  consent  of  the  Council, 
answered  evasively,  "  The  king  willeth  that 
right  be  done  according  to  the  laws  and 
customs  of  the  realm,  and  that  the  statutes 
be  put  in  due  execution."  Dissatisfied  with 
this  reply,  the  Commons  prepared  a  remon- 
strance against  the  advisers  by  whose  counsel 
the  king  had  acted.  The  king  interrupted 
them  by  a  message  forbidding  them  to  meddle 
with  affairs  of  State.  The  House  boldly  took 
up  again  the  charges  against  Buckingham. 
Before  this  determination,  and  before  the  am- 
biguous attitude  of  the  House  of  Lords,  the 
king  yielded  and  assented  to  the  petition  ac- 
ooimng  to  the  usual  form.  But  the  king's 
final  surrender  did  not  secure  the  agreement 
of  king  and  Commons.    A  new  quarrel  soon 


arose  on  the  qnestlon  whether  the  petition 
rendered  illegal  the  levy  of  tonnage  and 
poundage  without  a  Parliamentary  grant. 
Nevertheless,  the  king's  acceptance  marked  the 
beginning  of  a  great  era  in  English  history. 
Gardiner,  SitL  of  Bng,,  leoS—lMg;  Hallaia^ 
Cowt.  fltrt.  [C.  H.  F.] 

Petitions.    [Pjlbliament  ;  Cbowx.] 

Philip,  KofO  (b.  1527,  d.  1598),  thoo^ 
nominally  sovereign  of  England,  had  only  a 
brief  and  transientconnection  with  this  oountiy. 
He  was  affianced  to  Queen  Mary  in  1554,  axkd 
celebrated  his  marriage  with  her  in  JuLv  of 
that  year.  He  remained  in  the  country  little 
more  than  a  year,  during  whidli  time  he 
hurried  on  the  Catholic  reaction,  and  began 
the  <<  Spanish  terror."  Disgusted,  however, 
with  his  wife,  the  country,  and  the  parlia- 
mentary Constitution,  he  quitted  "Rngli^H  in 
1555  (September),  never  to  return.  In  October 
of  this  year  his  father  abdicated  the  crown 
of  Spain  in  his  favour.    [Mart  ;  Euoabsth.] 

Philiphaugh,  Thb  Battlb  of  (Sept  18, 
1645),  was  fought  at  a  place  two  miles  west  of 
Selkirk,  when  Montrose's  Highland  army  was 
surprised  by  David  Leslie  with  4,000  horse 
from  the  Sottish  camp  before  Hereford. 
Montrose  himself  escaped  with  a  small  por- 
tion of  his  force,  the  rest  were  cut  in  pieces. 

Pllilippa,  QuBBN  {b.  eirea  1312,  d.  1369),. 
wife  of  fioward  lU.,  daughter  of  William, 
Count  of  Holland  and  Hainault,  was  married 
to  Edward  in  1328.  She  accompanied  her 
husband  on  some  of  his  foreign  expeditions, 
and  at  other  times  defended  the  kingdom  in 
his  absence  ;  though  the  story  of  her  presence 
at  the  battle  of  Neville's  Cross  rests  on  in- 
sufficient authority.  Better  authenticated  is 
her  intercession  for  the  burgesses  of  Calais. 

PhippSy  Sib  Constantinb,  was  Lord 
ChancdUor  of  Lreland  (1711  to  1714),  Lord 
Justice  in  1711  and  in  1714.  He  was  an 
active  Jacobite,  and  in  1712,  by  his  efiforta» 
won  the  Dublin  elections  for  his  party. 

Phosniz  Park  Murders.  [Ibblaxd.] 

Picton,  Genbbal  Sni  Thomas  {b.  1757. 
d.  1816),  entered  the  army  in  1771.  In  1784 
he  was  ordered  to  the  West  Indies ;  and  on 
the  capture  of  St.  Luda,  two  years  later.  Sir 
Balph  Abercromby  reconunended  him  for  the 
lieutenant-colonelcy  of  the  68th,  and  soon 
afterwards  appointed  him  Governor  of  the 
island  of  Trinidad.  In  this  capacity  he  al- 
lowed torture  to  be  applied  acon^ing  to  the 
Spanish  law.  Legal  proceedings  were  in^- 
tuted,  and  in  1805  he  was  found  guilty  by  a 
jury  in  the  Court  of  King's  Bendh.  A  new 
triid  was,  however,  granted,  and  the  verdict 
was  reversed  in  1808.  In  1809  he  commanded 
a  brigade  in  the  Walcheren  expedition,  and 
was  appointed  Grovemor  of  Flushing.  Before 
he  had  recovered  from  a  malarious  laver* 


Pie 


(819) 


Tic 


wldch  he  had  contracted  on  this  expedition,  he 
was  ordered  to  Portugal  to  command  the  3rd 
Division,  nicknamed  the  Fighting  Division. 
At  Badajos  he  rendered  most  signal  service. 
He  was  soon  afterwards  invalided,  hut  re- 
sumed his  command  in  time  to  share  in 
the  hattle  of  Vittoria,  where  lus  division  hore 
the  hrunt  of  the  fighting.  He  was  engaged 
in  nearly  all  the  hattles  of  the  Pyrenees  and 
in  the  south  of  France.  On  the  news  of  the 
escape  of  Napoleon  from  Elha,  at  Wellington's 
express  desire,  Picton  accepted  a  command 
under  him.  At  Quatre  Bras  he  was  with  a 
very  inferior  force  opposed  to  Ney,  and  for 
three  hours  sustained,  unaided,  a  most  ohsti- 
nate  contest.  In  this  hattle  he  received  a 
woond,  of  which  he  told  no  one,  lest  he 
should  he  prevented  from  taking  part  in  the 
greater  battle,  which  he  knew  must  soon 
take  place.  Accordingly  he  was  present  in 
command  of  the  5th  Division,  agamst  which 
Napolaon  launched  one  of  his  earliest,  and, 
as  the  Duke  of  Wellington  testified,  "one 
of  his  most  serious  attacks."  As  he  was  in 
the  act  of  giving  the  word  for  that  charge 
which  repidsed  the  attempt  to  break  the 
English  line^  he  was  struck  oy  a  musket-ball 
on  the  temple,  and  killed  instantaneously. 
The  story  that  the  Duke  of  Wellington  was 
on  bad  terms  with  Picton  has  been  totally 
denied  by  the  duke  himself,  who  appreciated 
his  quaHties  and  solicited  his  services  both  in 
the  Peninsula  and  in  Flanders. 

MemoirH  of  Picton  ;  Napier,  Penirunlar  War; 
Wollington  Owpatchea. 

HctSf  The  {i,e.f  Picti,  or  painted  people), 
were  the  nation  who  in  early  times  inhabited 
the  north-  eastern  and  nortnem  parts  of  the 
modem  Scotland.  Their  ethnology  has  been 
one  of  the  most  controverted  points  even  in 
Celtic  antiquities.  But  no  one  now  believes 
that  they  were  of  Teutonic  origin,  and  the 
general  consensus  seems  to  be  that  they  were 
Celts  of  the  Groidelic  rather  than  of  the 
Brythonic  type.  It  has,  however,  been  shown 
that  not  only  some  of  their  place-names,  but 
also  some  of  their  customs,  can  hardly  be  of 
Aryan  origin,  and  that  consequently  they 
were  largely  of  "Ivemian'*  or  pre- Aryan 
descent.  But  the  term  Picts,  which  ia 
obviqusly  of  Roman  origin,  does  not  seem  to 
be  indicative  of  race,  but  to  have  been  simply 
used  to  denote  a  group  of  people  of  yarious 
origin  dwelling  together,  who  ultimately 
became  members  of  the  same  political  orgam- 
sation.  To  the  classical  writcov  the  term  Pict 
simply  meant  the  whole  aggregate  of  the 
tribes  dwelling  to  the  north  of  the  Boman 
walls,  who  at  an  earlier  age  were  known  as 
the  Caledonii  and  MeatsB.  They  never  were 
subjugated  by  the  Romans,  ana  even  when 
the  Scots  had  occupied  the  western  coast  of 
Scotland,  they  still  held  the  region  north  of 
the  Forth,  and  east  of  Drumalban,  though  at 
a  later  date  Scandinavian  conquests  deprived 
them  of  the  extreme  north  of  the  island.    The 


range  of  mountains  called  the  Mounth  divided 
the  northern  from  the  southern  Picts.  There 
was  also  a  third*.  Pictish  territory  in  Galloway, 
whose  inhabitants,  shut  off  by  Brythonic 
tribes  from-  their  northern  brethren,  were 
called  the  Niduari  Picts,  and,  curiously 
enough,  retained  the  name  long  after  it  had 
become  extinct  north  of  the  Forth.  [Gal- 
loway ;  Cuic»RiA.]  When  they  first  became 
prominent  in  history  as  the  devastators  of  the 
abandoned  province,  the  Picts  were  mostly 
heathens.  The  Picts  of  Galloway  had  become 
at  least  partially  converted  to  Christaanity  by 
the  preaching  of  Ninian  at  the  end  of  the 
fourth  oentiuy.  At  the  end  of  the  sixth 
century  the  teaching  of  Columba  established 
among  the  Picts  the  authority  of  the  monastic 
and  tribal  church  of  lona,  and  created  intimate 
relations  between  the  immig^rant  Scots  and 
the  race  they  had  driven  over  Drumalban. 
About  the  same  time  a  united  Pictish 
monarchy  seems  to  have  ^rown  up,  with  a 
peculiar  rule  of  succession  in  the  female  line 
that  was  certainly  prc-Aryan.  Before  long, 
however,  the  Picts  were  compelled  to  fully 
acknowledge  the  supremacy  of  the  great 
Northumbrian  monarchs  of  the  seventh 
century.  The  rash  enterprise  of  Egfrid  led, 
however,  to  the  Pictish  victory  of  Dunnichen 
fNechtansmere),  wldch  again  secured  their 
zreedom  (685).  In  the  next  century  the 
teaching  of  the  missionary,  St.  Bonifacius, 
induced  Nectan,  King  of  Uie  Picts,  to  expel 
the  Golumban  clergy,  and  introduce  the 
Roman  usages  (717).  The  result  was  constant 
war  with  tiie  Scots,  which,  along  with  the 
Danish  inroads,  which  now  became  constant, 
reduced  the  Pictish  kingdom  to  much  miser}*. 
The  history  of  the  period  after  Bede's  invalu- 
able work  ends  is  very  obscure.  The  Pictish 
law  of  succession  especially  exposed  the  state 
to  the  dimger  of  foreign  kings.  At  last,  in 
844,  Kenneth  MacAlpin,  '*the  first  of  the 
Scots,"  established  a  new  dynasty  in  the  land 
of  the  Picts,  which  produced  the  political 
union  of  Picts  and  Scots.  After  the  end  of 
the  ninth  century  there  are  no  more  kings  of 
the  Picts — or  of  Scone,  as,  after  its  capital, 
the  state  was  sometimes  called — ^but  of  Alban. 
The  whole  of  Scotland  north  of  the  Forth  and 
Clyde  was  thus,  except  for  the  Norse  jarldoms 
on  coasts  and  islands,  united,  at  least  nomi- 
nally, into  a  single  state. 

Eisros  or  thx  Pzcts. 

Bmde,  son  of  Mailcon    . 
Gflrtnaidh,  eon  of  Domeloh 
Nectan,  gnndson  of  Herd 
CSniooh,  son  of  Luchtrea 
Qartxuiid,  son  of  Wld     . 
Brude  „        »,        • 

Taloisas  „  „  . 
Talorgan,  ■on  of  Eanfred 
Qartnaid,  son  of  Domnall 
Drost  .,         „       • 

Brude,  son  of  Bile  . 
Tszan,  son  of  Entefldich 
Brude,  son  of  Derili 
Nectan 
Drust 


ft 


ft 


d.584 
d.  599 
d.  612 
d.  631 
d.  635 
641 
653 
657 
.  d.  663 
.  d.  678 
.  d.  608 
.  d.  607 
.  d,  7(» 
.  db.  7M 
.  0X.7M 


d. 
d. 
d. 


m 


(820  ) 


Fit 


Alpin,w>BofEoehBidh d.  788 

Keotaa,  son  of  DeriU       .  rtt.  A  d.  729  (31P) 

Anerus,  son  of  Feigus ci.  761 

Brude       „  „ d.  768 

Giniod,  son  of  Wredeoh d.  775 

▲Ipin,  son  of  Wroid d  780 

Taloiiran,  son  of  Angos d  782 

Drest,  son  of  IMorgan d.  785 

Conall,  son  of  TWdff  ....  A  789(90?) 
Constantin,  son  of  Fergus  .  .  .  .  d.  880 
Angos  ,,  ,  ....    d.  832 

Drast,  son  of  ConstantiD  )  ^   dm 

Talorgan,  sonof  Wthofl  )  •  •  •  •«•»«> 
Eoganan  (UTen),  son  of  Angus     .       .       .    d.  838 

Wrad,  son  of  Bargoit d.  S42 

Brude       „  „ d.  843 

Xenneth  MacAlpin d.  859 

Skene,  Celtic  SooUand,  gives  the  only  full  and 
critical  account  of  the  Picts,  hased  on  the 
original  authorities,  edited  by  Mr.  Skene  in  his 
ChroniclM  of  the  Pxcta  and  8cot9.  Rh^'s  Celtic 
Britain  giyes  a  good  snnunary  of  the  history,  and 
throws  much  light  on  the  ethnology  of  the  Picts. 

[T.  F.  T.] 

Pilgrimage  of  Grace  was  the  name 
given  To  the  inson'ection  in  Yorkshire  and 
Lincolnshire  in  1537,  caused  chiefly  by  the 
ecclesiastical  and  other  reformsof  Henry  VIII. 
and  Cromwell.  It  was  headed  by  a  young  Lin- 
colnshire gentleman,  named  Bobeit  Aske,  and 
joined  by  most  of  the  gentlemen  and  nobility  of 
Yorkshire.  The  rebels  mustered  in  great  force 
and  advanced  towards  York,  which  they  occu- 
pied. Joined  by  the  Archbi^op  of  York,  Lord 
Darcy,  and  the  Percies,  the  rebels, 30,000  strong, 
moved  southwards.  At  Doncaster  they  were 
met  by  the  royal  commissioners,  the  Earl  of 
Shrewsbury  and  the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  A 
conference  was  held,  and  the  rebels  were  in- 
duced by  the  terms  offered  to  disband.  But, 
finding  that  their  demands  were  not  really  to 
be  complied  with,  an  insurrection  broke  out 
anew  under  Sir  Francis  Bigod.  This  was 
suppressed,  with  neat  severity.  Martial  law 
was  established  m  the  north.  Aske,  Darcy, 
and  twenty  other  leaders  were  seized  (March, 
1637)  and  executed,  and  the  movement  was 
stamped  out. 

Pindarrie  War.  The  Pindarries  were 
a  body  of  freebooters,  established  in  the 
Vindhya  Hills,  recruited  from  all  nations  and 
religions,  and  finding  emplojrment  sometimes 
with  the  armies  of  native  princes,  sometimes 
in  predatory  excursions  of  their  own.  Their 
expeditions  were  of  the  most  destructive 
character;  all  mounted  and  lightly  armed 
they  crossed  the  country  in  marches  of  from 
forty  to  fifty  miles  a  day,  fell  upon  the  devoted 
district,  carried  off  everything  movable  in  it, 
and  burnt  the  houses  and  crops.  In  1815  the 
Pindarries  crossed  the  Nerbudda,  and  ravaged 
the  English  possessions  in  the  Deccan.  Irord 
Hastings  determined  to  end  this,  and  pre- 
pared large  armies  in  all  the  presidencies. 
The  matter  was  complicated  by  the  extensive 
conspiracy  organised  by  Bajee  Rao  and  Appa 
Sahib,  and  the  treadhery  of  Dowlut  Rao 
Scindia.  The  vigorous  measures  of  Lord 
Hastings,  however,  broke  up  the  conspiracy, 
and  the  Pindarries  were  beaten  again  and 


again  (1817).  Ghetoo  Singh,  their  chief,  how- 
ever,  with  the  remnant  of  his  followers,  to 
the  number  of  20,000,  assembled  in  arms. 
The  English  forces  were  concentrated  for  a 
cireat  atfasick ;  the  Pindanies  seeing  the  hope- 
lessness of  resistance,  fled ;  Chetoo,  deprived 
of  his  followers,  sought  refuge  in  Uie  forests 
of  Malwa,  where  he  was  devoured  by  a  tiger, 
and  the  Pindarries  submitted  (1818).' 

KnhoeyTHE  Battxe  of  (1001),  was  fought 
between  the  English  and  the  Danes,  in  which 
the  latter  were  victorious.  Pinhoe  is  a  village 
three  miles  east  of  Exeter. 

Pinkie  Clench..  Thb  Battlb  of  (Sept 

10,  1547),  was  fought  during  the  Protector 
Somerset's  campaign.  The  two  forces  were 
drawn  up  on  eadi  side  of  the  Esk,  the  English 
under  Somerset  and  Warwick,  the  Scotch 
under  the  Earl  of  Huntly.  The  Scotch 
crossed  the  river  and  at  first  gained  the  ad- 
vantage, but  were  scattoed  by  a  great  charge 
of  the  fhigliflh. 

Pipe  Holla,  The,  or  Great  Rolls  of  the 
Exchequer,  are  preserved  in  the  Record  Office 
and  are  almost  perfect  from  2  Henry  IL  to 
the  present  date.  *They  relate  to  all  'matt^ 
connected  with  the  revenue  of  the  crown, 
crown  lands,  &c.,  and  are  of  great  value  for 
historical  and  genealogical  purposes.  A  Pipe 
Roll  Society,  for  the  publication  of  these  docu- 
ments, was  formed  in  1883. 


-ipewell,  Ths  Council  of  (1199),  was 
held  by  Richard  I.,  immediately  after  his 
coronation,  to  raise  money  and  make  other 
preparations  for  his  Crusade.  Pipewell  Abbey 
IS  in  Northamptonshire,  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Rockingham. 

Fiteaim  Island.    In  April,  1798,  the 

crew  of  'H.,'M..S.  Bounty  mutinied,  owing  to 
the  harsh  conduct  of  their  commander,  Lieu- 
tenant Bligh.  After  many  adventures,  a 
remnant  of  the  mutineers  reached  Pitcaim 
Island  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  where,  together 
with  some  women,  natives  of  islands  in  the 
South  Seas,  they  formed  a  settlement,  remark- 
able for  the  orderly  and  exemplary  conduct 
of  its  inhabitants.  Their  descendants  inhabit 
the  island  to  this  day.  The  settlement  was 
visited  by  Captain  EUiot  in  1839,  who  gave 
such  a  favourable  report  of  the  state  of  the 
islanders,  that  assistance  was  sent  out  to  them 
by  the  government. 

Pitt,  William  (&.  1759,  d.  1806),  the  son 
of  the  first  Earl  of  Chatham  and  Lady  Hester 
Gren'^lle,  was  bom  May  28,  1759,  and  very 
early  gave  signs  of  his  future  greatness  in  his 
marvellous  precocity.  In  1773  he  went  up 
to  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge,  where  iaa 
industry  led  him  to  devour  mathematics  and 
classics  alike.  He  left  Cambridge  soon 
after  his  Other's  death,  and,  being  called  to 
the  bar  in  1780,  went  the  Western  CTircuit. 
But  Ul  the  autumn  of  that  year  a  geoersl 


nt 


(821) 


election  took  place,  and  Pitt  was  returned  to 
Parliament  for  Appleby.    In  the  following 
February  Pitt  made  his  first  speech  in  favour 
of  Bnrke's  plan  for  Economical  Reform.    His 
power  was  recognised  at  once ;  Fox  proclaimed 
him  one  of  the  first  men  in  Parliament.    He 
continued  to  gain  influence  and  admiration  by 
every  speech  he  made.    Early  in  December 
news   came    of    Comwallis's    surrender   in 
America,  and  Pitt  seized  the  opportunity  to 
attack  the  government.    The  ministry   re- 
signed, and  was  succeeded  by  Rockingham's 
cabinet.    Pitt  was  offered  the  Yice-Treasurer- 
ship    of   Ireland;    but   he    knew    his   own 
value,  andj  declined  the   offer,  which  would 
not  have  given  him  a  seat  in  the  cabinet. 
He  nevertheless  supported  the    government 
till    Rockingham's    death.      Then   followed 
Lord  Shelbume's  brief  tenure  of  office,  suc- 
ceeded by  the   Coalition.    When  that  came 
to  an  end  in  Dec,  1783»  the  king  invited 
Pitt  to  form  a  government.     Never  had  a 
Prime  Minister  a  more  difficult  task  before 
him.    In  December  the  majority  against  him 
was  almost  two  to  one ;  but  such  was  Pitt's 
resolution  and  tact,  that  by  March  6,  1784, 
it   had    dwindled,   after   sixteen   divisions, 
down  to  a  bare  majority  of  one.    The  country 
at  large  was  vehement  in  its  support  of  the 
government,  and  the  city  of  London  pre* 
sented    Pitt  with   its   freedom.     Pitt  now 
dissolved   the  Parliament,  and  government 
candidates  were  everywhere  returned.     Pitt 
at  twent3''-f our  <*  domineered  absolutely  over 
the  cabinet,  and  was  the  favourite  at  once  of 
the  sovereign,  the  Parliament,  and  the  nation." 
Already  in  1782  he  had  demanded  an  inquiry 
into  the  system  of  Parliamentary  representa- 
tion. When,  however,  he  was  in  power  with  a 
large  majority  at  his  back,  he  was  prevented 
by  the  kmg's  strenuous  opposition  from  again 
introducing  the  subject,  and  the  French  Revo- 
lution soon  had  the  effect  of  driving  the  mere 
notion  of  reform  of  any  kind  out  of  men's 
minds.   He  nevertheless  did  make  an  effort  in 
that  direction  when,  in  1786,  he  introduced  a 
bill  "to  amend   tbe    representation  of  the 
people  of  England  in  Parliament."    During 
his  first  eight  years  of  power,  Pitt  enjoyed  a 
time  of  tranquillity  and  peace,  when  there  were 
no  wars  being  carried  on  by  England,  at  any 
rate  at  a  nearer  distance  than  India,  and  the 
country  and  Parliament  alike  were  anxious 
to  see  carried  out   some    of  the  numerous 
reforms  which  had  been  so  often  talked  about. 
The  first  of  these  measures  which  Pitt  ap- 
proached was  the  vexed  question  of  Indian 
government,  which  had  proved  the  death  of 
the  Coalition   ministry.    Pitt's  Indian  Bill 
vas  quite  successful,  and  was  followed  by'  his 
scheme  for   the  reduction  of  the  National 
Debt.    In  the  same  year  (1786)  began  the 
measures  for   the    impeachment  of  Warren 
Hastings.     Pitt  took  no  active  part  in  it, 
though  he  gave  his  support  to  the  prosecution. 
In  1788  the  king  fell  ill,  and  Pitt,  supporting 


the  constitutional  view  of  the  Regency  ques* 
tion  against  Fox,  who  warmly  took  up  the 
cause  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  attached  him- 
self more  firmly  than  ever  to  George  III. 
In  the  same  year  he  advocated  with  all  his 
eloquence  a  Bill  for  the  Abolition  of  the  Slave 
Trade.  When  the  French  Revolution  broke 
out,  Pitt  appeared  in  a  new  light.  For  the 
remaining  years  of  his  life  he  was  chiefly 
engaged  in  leading  the  European  opposition 
to  France.  His  war  administration,  however, 
was  far  from  fortunate,  and  his  military 
enterprises  were  ill-planned  and  unsuccessf  uL 
But  at  home  he  still  held  his  own  in  the  con- 
fidence of  his  countrymen.  He  saw  the  im- 
mediate necessity  for  the  union  of  Ireland 
with  England ;  but  the  king's  narrow-minded 
obstinacy  prevented  him  combining  Union 
with  CathoHo  Emancipation,  which  alone,  he 
aaid,  would  make  the  Union  effectual.  But 
Pitt  was  not  the  man  to  be  baulked  in. 
his  endeavours  to  fulfil  a  promise ;  and,  aa 
he  could  not  have  his  own  way  in  the 
matter,  he  resigned,  in  1801,  the  post  which 
he  had  held  so  triumphanUy  for  seventeen 
years,  and  with  him  went  all  the  abler  mem- 
bers  of  his  administration.  *^A11  that  was 
•left  to  the  king  was  to  call  up  the  rear  ranks 
of  the  old  ministry  to  form  the  front  rank  of 
a  new  ministry."  Adding^n  became  Prime 
Minister,  and  for  a  time  seemed  to  succeed, 
chiefly  by  the  help  of  Pitt,  who  supported 
him,  and  by  the  conclusion  of  a  peace  with 
France  on  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Amiens. 
But  the  real  incapacity  of  Addmgton,  com- 
bined with  the  restless  ambition  of  Bonaparte, 
at  length  compelled  Pitt  to  assume  a  difi'erent 
attitude  towards  the  ministry.  Parliament 
and  the  nation  at  large  looked  to  Pitt  as  the 
only  man  who  could  save  the  country  in  the 
event  of  the  war  which  it  was  seen  must  soon 
be  continued  with  France.  Addington  felt  the 
pressure  on  all  sides,  but  tried  to  come  to 
terms  with  Pitt,  which  would  still  leave  him 
in  the  possession  of  a  large  share  of  power. 
In  May,  1803,  Pitt  emerged  from  the  retire- 
ment in  which  he  had  been  living,  and  made  a 
great  speech,  advocating  the  declaration  of 
war.  In  April,  1804,  Addington  resigned. 
Pitt  was  conmianded  to  form  a  ministry. 
He  desired  a  broad  government,  which  should 
include  all  the  highest  talent  in  the  kingdom 
—  Fox,  Grenville,  Windham,  and  others. 
But  the  king's  obstinacy  once  more  defeated 
an  excellent  scheme.  Pitt  yielded,  and  formed 
a  Tory  administration.  Most  strenuous  efforts 
were  made  both  at  home,  and  by  the  develop- 
ment of  foreign  combinations,  to  avert  the 
threatening  danger ;  and  the  glorious  victory 
of  Trafalgar  in  Oct.,  1805,  crushed  the  French 
navy.  But  the  close  of  Pitt's  career  is  melan- 
choly. The  Opposition,  which  had  refrained 
from  any  factious  resistance  to  the  war  policy 
of  the  government,  in  April,  1805,  proposed 
a  vote  of  censure  on  Lord  Melville  for  mis- 
management of  the  navy   while  Treasurer 


Pla 


(  822  } 


PU 


under  Pitt's  former  adminiBtration.  Pitt  etood 
by  his  old  friend ;  but  the  Speaker's  casting 
vote  decided  a  division  against  the  accused. 
Pitt  regarded  the  adverse  vote  as  almost  a 
vote  of  censure  on  himself,  and  was  quite 
•crushed.  In  the  following  July,  Parliament 
was  prorogued;  but  the  war  was  carried  on 
with  Napoleon's  usual  activity.  In  September 
Pitt  had  the  satisfaction  of  negotiating  with 
Russia'  and  Austria  a  general  coalition  against 
Napoleon,  who  in  reply  made  every  prepara- 
tion for  invading  England.  Circumstances, 
however,  prevented  him  from  carrying  out 
that  scheme,  and  he  turned  his  attention  to 
the  Continent.  The  capitulation  of  the 
Austrian  army  at  Ulm  on  Oct.  19  was  the 
first  result  of  this  change  of  plan.  The  news 
proved  a  death-blow  to  Pitt,  which  even  the 
news  of  I'rafalgar  four  days  later  could  not 
avert.  The  next  day,  at  the  Lord  Mayor's 
dinner,  ho  spoke  the  last  words  he  was  ever  to 
utter  in  public.  In  December  he  retired  to 
Bath  to  rest ;  but  the  news  of  Austerlitz  com- 
pleted the  breakdown  of  his  health.  He  was 
just  able  to  travel  to  London  in  January  for 
the  opening  of  Parliament  on  the  21st ;  but 
when  he  arrived  at  Putney,  he  was  too  ill 
to  attend,  and  two  days  later,  on  Jan.  23, 
1806,  he  died.  Pitt  has  *been  justly  called 
the  man  of  Parliamentary  government.  No 
man  ever,  from  his  earliest  appearance  in 
the  House  of  Commons  to  his  lateirt  days,  exer> 
oised  so  absolute  a  sway  over  that  assembly. 
By  his  incorruptible  integrity,  conspicuously 
displayed  during  nineteen  years,  he  did  more 
than  any  one  man  to  crush  out  the  corruption 
in  high  places  which  had  prevailed  during  the 
first  eighty  years  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

Massey,  Sist. ;  Stanhbpe,  Pitt;  QrtnviJU 
Corre*pondence ;  PUt't  8pe«cha;  Pari.  Hut.; 
Jes«e,  Mem.  of  Reign  of  G$orge  111, ;  May,  Contt. 
Hi»t. ;  Macaulaj'f  JSuay$  ;  Aaolphus,  Rist. ;  Lord 
Eosebery,  Wm.PUt.  j-^   j^  g  ■] 

Flac6  Bills.  Thk  Fibot  (1672)  was  a 
measure  congenial  to  the  Tory  reformers  of 
William  III.'s  reign.  Its  object  was  summarily 
to  exclude  all  placemen  mm.  the  House  of 
Commons.  ^'Nobody  thought  of  drawing  a 
line  between  the  few  functionaries  who  ought 
to  be  allowed  to  sit  in  the  House  of  Commons, 
and  the  crowd  of  functionaries  who  ought  to 
be  shut  out.  A  member  who  was  to  be 
chosen  after  1693  was  not  to  accept  any  place 
whatever."  The  bill  was  violently  opposed 
in  the  Upper  House,  Marlborough  making  a 
great  speech  in  its  support.  When  the  ques- 
tion was  put,  forty -two  were  in  its  favour  and 
forty-four  against  it.  Proxies  were  called, 
however,  and  the  bill  was  lost  by  three  votes. 
Next  year  the  bill  was  introduced  again,  and 
again  easily  passed  the  Commons.  It  pro- 
vided that  no  member  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, elected  after  Jan.  1,  1694,  should 
accept  any  place  of  profit  under  the  crown, 
on  pain  of  forfeiting  his  seat,  and  of  being 
incapable  of  sitting  again  in  the  same  Par- 


liament. The  Lords  added  the  wise  ameDd- 
ment,  "  unless  he  be  afterwards  chosen  to 
serve  in  the  same  Parliament."  The  Cara- 
mons agreed  to  this  amendment.  William, 
who  appears  to  have  misunderstood  the 
nature  of  the  bill,  refused  his  assent.  The 
angry  Commons  first  passed  an  address, 
afiirming  that  those  who  had  advised  the 
king  on  this  occasion  were  public  enemies; 
and  then,  on  the  motion- of  Harley,  appointed 
a  committee  to  cfraw  up  a  representation  to 
the  king.  William,  however,  in  his  reply, 
yielded  nothing.  **  Thus  ended,  more  happily 
than  William  had  a  right  to  expect,  one  of 
the  most  dangerous  contests  in  wluch  he  ever 
engaged  with  his  Parliament."  In  1694  the 
bill  was  introduced  again  into  the  Commons. 
It  was  thrice  read,  but  on  the  third  reading 
was  rejected  by  thiity-tliree  votes.  The  result 
of  the  bill  would  liave,  as  Ranke  remarks, 
caused  **  Parliament  and  the  administration 
to  stand  against  one  another  as  two  distinct 
bodies."  The  Second  (1743)  was  originally 
proposed  by  Sandys,  but  subsequently  op' 
posed  by  him  on  the  ground  that  George  IL 
was  antagonistic  to  the  measure.  **  Derided," 
says  Hallam,  **  though  it  was  at  the  time,  it  had 
considerable  effect;  excluding  a  great  num- 
ber of  inferior  officers  from  the  House  of 
Commons,  which  has  never  since  contained  so 
revolting  a  list  of  court-deputies  as  it  did  in 
the  age  of  Walpole." 

Plantaffanaty  the  name  by  which  the 
house  of  Anjou  is  generally  known,  is  deriTed 
from,  planta  genista,  the  broom-plaiit,  a  sprig 
of  which  was  usually  worn  by  Geoffrey  of 
Anjou,  father  of  Henry  II.,  on  his  cap.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  this  custom  of  his  is  to  be 
taken  to  indicate  his  love  of  field-sporta.  or  as 
a  sign  thAt  he  y^as  not  ashamed  of  the  humble 
origin  of  the  house  of  Anjou,  which  had  for 
its  founder  a  woodman  of  Hennes.  [ANGBvnfs.] 

Plantaganaty  Family  of.    [Anoeviks.] 


j^  The  Battle  ok  (June  23, 1757). 
was  fought  by  dive  against  the  troops  of 
Surajah  Dowlah  in  the  campaign  undertaken 
to  avenge  the  massacre  of  the  Black  Hole  of 
Calcutta.  Clive  having  concluded  his  armnfe- 
ments  with  Meer  Jaffier,  addressed  a  letter  to 
Surajah  Dowlah,  recapitulating  the  grievances 
which  the  English  luid  to  complain  of,  and 
stating  that  he  was  coming  to  Moorshedabad 
to  arrange  them.  He  set  out  from  Chander- 
nagore  on  June  13  with  an  army  of  1,000 
Europeans,  2,000  natives,  and  eight  pieces  of 
cannon.  Meer  Jaffier,  however,  proved  faith- 
less, and  on  the  19th  the  rains  set  in  with 
great  violence.  Clive  saw  that  he  had 
advanced  too  for  to  recede,  and  that  there 
would  be  more  danger  in  retiring  than  pro- 
ceeding. Accordingly  he  called  a  council  of 
war  on  the  question,  and  it  was  almost  nnani- 
mously  decided  not  to  risk  an  action.  In 
spite  of  this,  however,  on  June  22,  the  British 


PU 


(  828  ) 


Pin 


force  GTOBaed  the  Hooghly,  and  at  midnight 
encamped  in  a  grove  of  mango-trees  at 
Plassey.  In  the  morning  the  Nal^Vs  troops, 
headed  hy  a  hody  of  fifty  Frenchmen,  were  in 
motion,  and  the  assault  began  with  a  furious 
cannonade.  The  English  escaped  the  shots 
hy  sitting  down  under  cover  of  a  high  bank. 
About  noon  a  slight  shower  damaged  the 
enemy's  powder.  They  were  compelled  to 
withdraw  their  artillery,  and  Clive  advanced 
vi^rously  to  the  attack  of  their  lines.  In 
spite  of  the  gallantry  of  the  French,  Clive 
was  able  to  storm  the  camp,  rout  the  whole 
army,  and  pursue  them  for  about  six  miles. 
The  enemy,  it  is  supposed,  lost  about  500  men  ; 
the  English  only  seventy-two.  The  Nabob, 
influenced  by  the  conspirators,  had  been  the 
first  to  fly,  and,  mounted  on  a  camel,  and 
followed  by  about  2,000  horse,  bore  to  his 
capital  the  news  of  his  disgrace. 

Mill,  Hist,  qf  India;  01«ig,  L^«  o/Ctive. 

Platen,  Madams  db,  was  a  sister  of  the 
Oountess  of  Darlington,  the  mistress  of 
Oeorge  I.  We  find  the  sisters  supporting 
Oarteret  against  Walpole  and  Towndiend, 
who  relied  on  the  influence  of  the  Duchess  of 
Kendal.  She  received  a  bribe  of  £10,000  to 
facilitate  the  passing  of  the  South  Sea  BUI. 
In  1723  a  maniage  was  arranged  between 
her  daughter  and  the  G9unt  of  St.  Ho- 
rentin,  but  the  countess  required  as  a  con- 
dition that  a  dukedom  should  be  gpranted  to 
the  bridegroom.  This  Carteret,  as  Secretary 
for  the  Southern  Departinent,  exerted  himself 
to  obtain  from  the  Duke  of  Orleans.  Horace 
Walpole  was  thereupon  sent  by  his  brother 
to  Paris  to  counteract  the  intrigue.  Madame 
de  Platen  was  ultimately  consoled  by  a 
portion  of  £10,000  from  George,  but  the 
mtcorferenoe  of  Walpole  caused  Carteret  to 
retire  to  the  lord-lieutenancy  of  Ireland. 

Playkoiuia  BUIjThb  (l  737) ,  was  brought 
f orwMrd  by  Sir  Robert  Walpole  in  order  to 
check  the  indecency  of  the  stage.  His  Play- 
house Act  was  an  amendment  to  the  Vagrant 
Act  of  Queen  Anne's  reign.  **  It  declared,*' 
says  Lord  Stanhope,  ''  that  any  actor  without 
a  legal  settlement,  or  a  licence  from  the  Lord 
Chiunberlain,  should  be  deemed  a  rogue  and  a 
vagabond.  To  the  Lord  Chamberlain  it  gave 
le^  power  instead  of  customary  privile^; 
authorising  him  to  prohibit  the  representation 
of  any  drama  at  his  discretion,  and  compelling 
all  authors  to  send'copies  of  their  plays  four- 
teen days  before  they  were  acted,  under  for- 
feiture of  £50,  and  of  the  licence  of  the 
house.  Moreover,  it  restrained  the  number 
of  playhouses,  by  enjoining  that  no  person 
should  have  autJiority  to  act  except  within 
the  liberties  of  Westminster,  and  where  the 
king  ^uld  reside."  The  bill  was  carried  in 
spite  of  the  vigorous  opposition  of  Lord 
Chesterfield ;  and  its  effect  in  subjecting  all 
plays  acted  to  the  previous  examination  of 


the  Lord  Chamberlain  and  the  officials  ap- 
pointed by  him,  has  never  been  undone. 

PleMly  Tub  Court  of  Common,  or  Com- 
mon Bbnch,  gained  existence  as  a  separate 
court  from  the  curia  regis  by  the  17th  article 
of  Magna  Charta,  which  provided  that  "  com- 
mon pleas  should  not  follow  the  court,  but  be 
held  in  some  fixed  place.*'  In  the  early  part 
of  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  it  was  disUnguidied 
from  the  Exchequer  and  the  King's  Bench 
as  having  cognisance  of  the  private  suits  of 
subiects.  The  Court  of  Common  Pleas  was 
held  at  Westminster.  In  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward I.  the  Barons  of  the  Exchequer  were 
forbidden  to  interfere  in  its  jurisdiction, 
and  from  the  beginning  of  that  reign  com- 
mences a  regular  series  of  Chief  Justices  of 
Common  Pleas.  A  full  bench  consisted  of 
the  Chief  Justice  and  of  four  (after  31  &  32 
Vic,  of  Ave)  puisne  judges.  This  court  had 
a  concurrent  jurisdiction  with  the  Queen's 
Bench  and  Ebcchequer  in  personal  actions 
and  ejectment.  It  had  an  exclusive  jurisdic- 
tion in  real  actions.  Under  the  Parliamentary 
Ejections  Act  of  1868,  and  under  the  Kailway 
and  Canal  Act  of  1853,  it  also  received  ap- 
peals from  the  Revising  Barristers'  courts. 
Appeals  from  this  court  formerly  lay  to  the 
King's  Bench,  but  were  transferred  by  21 
Geo.  IV.  and  1  Will.  IV.  to  the  judges  of 
the  King's  Bench  and  the  Barons  of  the  Ex- 
chequer sitting  in  the  Exchequer  Chamber. 
The  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  the  court  was 
maintained  by  the  Judicature  Act  of  1873, 
for  the  Common  Pleas-  Division,  but  in  virtue 
of  s.  31  it  has  since  been  merged  b}^  Order  of 
Council  in  the  general  jurisdiction  of  the 
High  Court  of  Justice. 

Wharton,  Law  Lexicon ;  Stubbs,  Con<  flist., 
ii.  260.  j-^    jj  J 

PlegUlllLdf  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(890 — vl4),  was  a  man  of  very  extensive 
Hterary  acquirements,  and  one  of  the  chief 
ornaments  of  Alfred's  court.  It  is  generally 
supposed  that  it  is  to  him  that  we  owe  the 
compilation  of  a  portion  of  tho  Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicle^  and  it  is  known  that  he  assisted  the 
king  in  many  of  his  literary  undertakings, 
notably  in  the  translation  of  Gregory's  pas- 
torals. ^He  carried  out  consistently  the 
plans  of  Alfred,  and  laboured  diligently  to 
secure  for  the  Church  a  learned  ministry.'' 

Asaer,  Vita  Alfredi;  William  of  Malmesbnry, 
Qttta  Pont^lewm ;  Hook,  Archbishopt. 

Plunket,  William  Conyngham,  Lord 
{b,  July,  1764,  d.  Jan.  4,  1854),  the  son  of  a 
clergyman;  he  was  educated  at  Trinity 
Col£ge,  and  in  1787  was  caUed  to  the  Irish 
bar.  In  1807  he  became  member  for  Mid- 
hurst;  in  1812  for  Dublin  University.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  brilliant  speakers  in  an 
age  of  orators.  He  was  not  a  Whig,  but  a 
follower  of  Lord  GrenWlle.  In  1821,  after 
Grattan's  death,  he   became  the  chief  pro- 


Poi 


(824) 


Pea 


ffloter  of  Catholic  Emancipation  (q.v.)  in 
Parliament.  He  had  before  been  Solicitor- 
General,  and  in  1821  became  Attorney- 
General.  As  such  he  proceeded  ex  officio  against 
tiie  promoters  of  the  **  Bottle  Plot "  (q.v.),  and 
his  conduct  was  criticised  in  Parliament,  but 
he  was  able  to  vindicate  it  successfully.  In 
1827  Canning  tried  to  get  him  made  Lord 
Chancellor,  but  the  king  refused.  He  was, 
however,  made  Lord  Chief  Justice  of  the  Irish 
Court  of  Common  Pleas,  and  a  peer.  In  1830 
he  became  Lord  Chancellor. 

Plunlcat's  Speechn;  May,  C<mtt,Hi$t. 

Poitiers,  The  Battle  of  (Sept.  19, 1356), 

was  the  second  of  Edward  the  Black  Prince's 

great  victories  over  the  Frendi.    In  1355  the 

&uce  which  had  been  concluded  for  eight 

years  came,  to  an  end.    The  Black  Prince  at 

the  head  of  a  great  army,  largely  composed  of 

mercenaries,  landed  in  Guienne,  and  marched 

up  the   Garonne,   plundering    the    country. 

The  following  year  he  marched  towards  the 

Loire ;  but  near  Poitiers  he  found  his  way 

barred  by  60,000  men  under  King  John  of 

France.  <"  The  prince's  army  is  said  not  to 

have  exceeded  8,000 ;  but  it  was  very  strongly 

posted  behind  lanes,  hedges,  and  \'inevard8, 

which  were  lined  with  anSiers.     His  oners  to 

treat  were  rejected,  and  the  French  horse 

pressed  on  up  the  lane.    But  they  fell  back 

in    confusion    before    the    arrows   of    the 

English.     At    the    same   time   they    were 

charged  in  flank    by  the  Engli^  cavalry, 

while  the  main  body  of  the  English  foot 

advanced  on  their  front.    The  French  fought 

desperately,    but    were    completely    routed. 

8,000  of  them  were  killed,  and  among  the 

crowd  of  prisoners  was  King  John  himself. 

Froiflsart,  Ohronide ;  Jehan  le  Bel,  Chroniqun ; 
Longman,  Edvard  the  Third. 

Poitiers,  William  of  (b.  eirca  1020), 
was  a  Norman  soldier  who  subsequently  took 
orders,  and  became  one  of  William  the  Con- 
queror's chaplains.  He  wrote  GeUa  Gulielmi, 
an  account  of  the  Norman  Conquest,  em- 
bracing the  period  from  1036  to  1067.  Being 
a^  contemporary  account,  his  history  is  of  con- 
siderable value. 

Pole,  Ahthur,  son  of  GeofErey  Pole,  and 
nephew  of  Cardinal  Pole,  attempted  in  1562 
to  form  a  conspiracy  in  conjunction  with  his 
brother,  Edwanl  Pole,  and  with  the  aid  of  the 
Duke  of  Guise,  against  Elizabeth,  offering  in 
case  of  his  success  to  sink  his  own  claims  to 
the  throne  in  favour  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots. 
The  ^lot  was  discovered  before  it  came  to 
anything,  and  Pole  was  sent  to  the  Tower, 
and  condemned  thougph  not  executed.  His 
claims  to  the  throne,  by  which  he  hoped  to 
win  over  a  large  number  of  adherents,  were 
derived  from  George,  Duke  of  Clarence, 
brother  of  Edward  IV. 

Pole,  John  db  la;  Michael  de  la. 
[Suffolk.] 


Polet  Reginald,  Cabdinal  (fi,  1500,  d. 
1658),  was  the  younger  son  of  Sir  Richard 
Pole,  by  Margaret,  dau^ter  of  George,  Daks 
of  Clarence,  brother  of  Edward  IV.  Though 
educated  for  the  Church  and  destined  for  the 
highest  ecclesiastical  prefermente,  he  gave  ap 
all  his  prospects  rather  than  acquiesce  in  the 
divorce  of  Queen  Catherine  and  the  separatiaa 
of  England  from  the  Papacy.  He  retired  to 
Italy,  and  was  made  a  cardinal  by  Paul  III. 
He  was  the  intimate  associate  of  Contaiini 
and  the  early  reformers  of  Catholicism; 
had  an  important  share  in  the  business  of 
the  Curia,  and,  it  is  said,  narrowly  missed 
the  papal  chair.  He  took  a  leading*  part  in  the 
Council  of  Trent,  though  that  assembly  eon- 
denmed  his  doctrine  of  justification.  H<» 
never  lost  sight  of  England;  wrote  a  book 
against  Henry ;  constantly  stiired  up  the 
Catholic  powers  against  him,  and  was  the 
leading  representative  of  English  Catholicise 
in  Europe.  At  last  the  reaction  under  Mary 
restored  him  to  England  as  papal  legate  and 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He  was  her 
leading  adviser  in  ecdesiastical  afEain, 
though  he  is  said  to  have  been  averse  to 
some  of  the  more  brutal  aspects  of  her  perse- 
cutions. Towards  the  end  of  his  life  he 
was  involved  in  a  quarrel  with  Paul  IV.,  who 
^prived  him  of  his  legatine  position. 

Phillips,  Lif$  of  PoU,  with  Bidley's  AnvmO' 
^•rnont:  Fronde,  Hut.  of  Eng.,  and  Ptiit 
Workg,  includinff  his  Ejndoim  and  D«  SehimaU 
AngUcan*, 

PolislL  Hote,  The  (1863).    The  news  of 
the  Polish  insurrection,  and  its  sanguinary  sup* 
pression,  excited  great  enthusiasm  and  sym- 
pathy in  England  and  France  for  the  PoUdi 
cause.    France  was  ready  for  intorvention  if 
England  would  join.    Earl  Russell  went  to 
the  extent  of  drawing  up,  in  concert  with 
France  and  Austria,  a  note  on  the  subject, 
urging  on  the  Russian  government  six  points 
as  the  outline  of  a  pacification  of  Poland. 
These  were — a  complete  amnesty,  a  natioittl 
representation,  a  distinct  national  administiB- 
tion  of  Poles  for  the  kingdom  of  Poland,  full 
liberty  of  ccuscience,  with  the  repeal  of  aU 
the  restrictions  imposed  on  Catholic  worship, 
the  recognition  of  the  Polish  language  as 
official,  the  establishment  of  a  regular  system 
of  recruiting.      Lord  Palmerston,   however, 
refused  to  hear  of  anything  like  armed  inter- 
vention.    When  Russia  learnt  that  the  note 
was  a  mere  unsupported  suggestion,  she  treated 
it  coolly  and  contemptuously.    The  question, 
however,  was  brought  up  in  the  House  of 
Commons  by  Mr.  P.  Hennessy.    The  result 
was  a  hot  debate,  in  which  Mr.  Disraeli,  Lord 
Palmerston,  Mr.  Walpole,  Mr.  Stansfeld,  Lord 
Robert  Cecil,  and  others,  vied  with  each  other 
in  expressing  detestation  of  these  barbarities. 
A  great  meeting  was  held  on  the  subject  at 
the    Guildhall,  at  which  similar  indignant 
speeches  were  delivered.    Nothing,  howerer^ 


Pol 


(  826.  ) 


Poo 


was  done  by  the  govemment   beyond  the 

despatch  of  tiie  Note. 

AwMial   Stegitttr,   1863;    HoMard't  Debattt; 
McCarthy,  Hid,  of  Oiur  Own  Time, 

PolifllL  Quostion  (1831—32).  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  Polish  rebellion  England 
warmly  sympathised  with  the  rebels.  At 
the  same  time  Palmerstpn,  occupied  with  the 
Belgian  question,  steadily  refused  to  assist  the 
Polos  except  by  suggestions  to  Russia.  But 
that  power  knew  he  would  not  interfere  by 
arms,  and  his  remonstrances  were  treated 
with  derision.  He  made  another  attempt  to 
obtain  mercy  for  the  Poles  after  the  fall  of 
Warsaw,  but  Nesselrode  briefly  informed 
him  that  the  only  obligation  incumbent  on 
Russia  by  the  T^ty  of  Vienna,  was  the 
duty  of  maintaining  the  imion,  and  that  the 
constitution  was  a  grace  of  the  emperor, 
which  had  been  forfeited  by  rebellion.  In 
1831,  however,  the  woes  of  Poland  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  House  of  Commons.  But 
these  attacks  produced  no  result.  The  feeling 
<n  favour  of  the  Poles  grew  as  the  news  of 
the  Russian  cruelties  was  brought  home, 
and  in  July,  1833,  Mr.  CuUar  Fergusson 
moved  an  address  to  the  crown  in  favour 
of  the  Poles.  Palmerston,  however,  opposed 
this,  urging  that  the  British  government 
could  not  So  more  than  it  had  done,  unless 
it  decl&red  war,  and  that  the  latter  course 
would  be  hardly  advisable.  However,  the 
most  violent  language  was  applied  to  Russia 
■and  its  emperor  in  Parliament,  and  the  feeling 
against  them  became  so  strong,  that  later  in 
the  session  the  ministry  was  compelled  to 
give  way,  and  grant  a  sum  of  £10,000  for  the 
relief  of  tiie  Polish  exiles. 

Annual  Bogi^r;  fldnaard's  Debatw, 

PontMe  was  a  duty  imposed  upon  all 
freemen  lor  the  making  and  repairing  of 
bridges,  and  is  the  same  as  the  "  Brig-bot " 
of  Anglo-Saxon  times.  In  a  charter  of 
Edward  I.  to  certain  foreign  merchants,  we 
find  them  exempted  from  **  pontage/* 

Poor,  Roger  lb  (or,  Roger  Pauper),  was 
the  son  of  Roger,  Bishop  of  Salisbury.  By  his 
father's  influence  he  was  made  Chancellor  by 
King  Stephen  in  1135,  but  in  1139  he  was,  to- 
gether with  many  other  ministers,  arrested  by 
the  king.  He  was  carried  to  Devizes,  where  his 
cousin  Nigel,  Bishop  of  Ely,  was  holding  out 
against  the  royal  troops,  and  the  threat  that, 
unless  he  surrendered,  his  cousin  should  be 
put  to  death  before  his  eyes,  had  the  intended 
effect.  After  remaining  in  captivity  for  some 
time,  he  was  released  on  condition  of  quitting 
the  kingdom,  to  which  he  never  returned. 

Poor  Law,  The  (Ireland).  There 
was  no  legal  provision  for  the  Irish  poor  pre- 
vious to  the  year  1828,  though  some  two 
and  a  half  millions  were  annually  spent  in 
charity.  In  1838  the  English  system  was  in- 
troduced, and  though  the  Irish  were,  and  are, 


especially  unwilling  to  enter  a  poor-house,  it 
on  the  whole  succeeded.  During  the  famine, 
indeed,  the  poorer  unions  were  very  soon 
bankrupt,  and  Parliament  was  more  than  once 
called  on  to  relieve  them.  At  la^,  in  1849,  the 
Rate  in  Aid  Bill  was  passed,  by  which  to  re- 
lieve the  poor  districts  of  Connaught — a  general 
rate  all  over  Ireland  was  resorted  to,  govern- 
ment lending  £100,000  for  the  relief  of  imme- 
diate distress,  on  this  security. 

Poor  Laws  is  the  name  which  has  been 
given  to  the  legislation  providing  for  the 
relief  and  maintenance  of  the  destitute.  In 
medisaval  England  the  care  of  the  helpless 
poor  was  undertaken  generally  by  the 
lords  of  manors,  the  parochial  clergy,  the 
monasteries,  and  religious  guilds,  and  in  the 
case  of  poor  craftsmen  by  the  trade  guilds. 
After  the  Black  Death  in  1349  the  surviving 
labourers  refused  to  work,  except  at  higher 
wages.  By  an  Act  of  the  same  year  (the  first 
of  tiie  many  "Statutes  of  Labourers")  an 
attempt  was  made  to  force  all  able-bodied 
men  to  work,  and  almsgiving  to  **  sturdy  "  or 
"  valiant "  beggars  was  forbidden.  In  the  Act 
of  1388,  confirming  the  Statute  of  Labourers, 
appears  the  first  germ  of  a  law  of  settlement, 
^e  labourer  was  thereby  forbidden  to  leave 
his  place  of  service,  or  to  wander  about  the 
country  without  a  passport ;  impotent  beggars 
were  to  remain  where  they  were  at  the  pass- 
ing of  the  Act,  or  if  not  there  provided  for,  to 
seek  a  maintenance  within  their  hundreds,  or  in 
the  places  where  they  were  bom.  In  the  Acts 
of  1495  and  1504  it  was  further  provided  that 
beggars  should  be  "sent  to  the  place  where 
they  were  bom,  or  have  dwelt,  or  are  best 
known,  to  support  themselves  by  begging 
within  the  hundred." 

In  the  sixteenth  century  the  break-up  of 
the  system  of  the  manor  and  craft-guild, 
the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries  and  reli- 
gious guilds,  and  the  increase  of  prices 
owing  to  debasement  of  the  coinage,  made 
the  question  of  pau}>erism  much  more 
pressing  than  it  had  ever  been  before,  and 
some  systematic  attempt  to  provide  relief  was 
necessary  to  prevent  social  anarchy.  In 
1536  it  was  enacted  that  while  the  "  lusty  " 

e>or  might  be  "daily  kept  on  continual 
hour,"  the  poor  who  were  not  able  to  work 
should  be  provided  for.  For  this  purpose  the 
congregation  of  each  parish  were  to  be 
exhorted  to  charitable  offerings,  and  a  book 
was  to  be  kept  by  the  clergy  showing  how 
the  money  was  spent.  In  1551  collectors  of 
alms  at  church  on  Sunday  were  to  be  ap- 
pointed, and  persons  refusing  to  subscribe 
were  to  be  expostulated  with  by  the  bishop. 
By  a  later  Act  the  bishop  was  empowered  to 
send  them  before  the  justices,  who,  if  per- 
suasion failed,  could  impose  upon  them  the 
payment  of  a  definite  amount.  It  was  not, 
however,  till  1601  that  a  general  compulsory 
rating  was  substituted   for   semi-voluntary 


Poo 


(  826  ) 


Poo 


contribution.  This  Act,  the  foundation  of 
English  Poor  Law,  ordered  the  nomination  by 
the  justices  of  two  or  three  overseers  in  each 
parish,  who  were  empowered  to  raise  the 
amount  necessary  for  the  relief  of  the  poor  by 
taxing  every  inhabitant.  The  Act  drew  a 
clear  distinction  between  able-bodied  poor 
unwilling  to  labour,  or  unable  to  find  employ- 
ment, who  were  to  be  set  to  work,  and 
impotent  poor  unable  to  work,  who  were  to 
be  relieved.  Persons  able  but  refusing  to 
labour  were  to  be  committed  to  prison. 

The  Law  of  Settlement,  which  took  the  place 
of  the  various  Tudor  statutes  to  suppress 
vagrancy  by  imprisonment,  whipping,  brand- 
ing, and  the  like,  began  with  an  Act  of  1662. 
This  authorised  the  justices,  upon  complaint 
of  the  overseers,  made  within  forty  days  of  a 
person's  coming  to  a  strange  parish,  to  order 
him  to  be  removed  to  his  own  place  of  settle- 
ment, unless  he  could  give  securities  to  the 
parish  against  becoming  chargeable  to  it. 
The  natural  result  of  this  Act  was  to  keep  the 
poor  to  their  own  parishes,  and  to  prevent 
labourgoing  where  it  was  needed.  Intolerable 
tyranny  was  its  outcome.  In  1685  it  was 
enacted  that  insomuch  as  '*  poor  people  at 
their  first  coming  do  commonly  conceal  them- 
selves,*' the  forty  days  should  count  from 
their  giving  notice  of  their  residence  to  the 
overseers.  In  1691  various  other  ways  of 
obtaining  settlement  were  established,  such 
as  payment  of  taxes  for  a  year,  or  a  year's 
hiring,  or  the  serving  of  an  annual  ofBce. 
Still  more  important  was  another  provision 
of  the  same  Act.  In  order  to  prevent  misuse 
of  the  powers  of  overseers,  it  was  ordered  that 
a  register  should  be  kept  of  paupers  and  of  the 
amounts  received  by  them,  that  a  new  list 
should  be  made  out  yearly,  and  that  no  one  else 
should  receive  relief,  except  by  authority  of  one 
justice,  or  by  order  of  the  bench  of  justices 
at  quarter  sessions.  This  latter  clause  was 
speedily  interpreted  as  empowering  justices 
to  order  relief  to  applicants  at  their  own 
discretion.  An  attempt  was  in  vain  made  to 
meet  the  misuse  of  this  power  by  an  Act  of 
1723,  which  enacted  that  the  applicant  must 
prove  that  he  had  already  applied  to  the  parish 
officers,  who  must  show  cause  why  he  was 
not  relieved.  But  the  evil  result  of  allow- 
ing justices  to  act  independently  in  the 
matter  of  relief  were  not  very  apparent  till 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and,  on  the 
whole,  the  Poor  Law  worked  well  down  to  1 760. 

In  1697  a  workhouse  had  been  built  in 
Bristol  under  a  special  Act,  and  there  "  the 
workhouse  test "  was  first  adopted,  Le.y  willing- 
ness to  enter  the  house  was  alone  taken  as  a 
test  of  destitution.  The  plan  proved  so 
successful  that  it  was  imitated  in  some  other 
towns,  and  by  the  Act  ef  1723  parishes  were 
empowered,  singly  or  in  unions,  to  provide 
workhouses,  with  the  proviso  that  persons 
refusing  to  enter  such  houses  should  be  refused 
relief.    This  Act  resulted  in  a  great  diminu- 


tion of  expenditure  where  adopted,  yet  it 
seems  to  have  been  carried  out  in  oompaTa* 
tively  few  parishes. 

The  industrial  revolution  which  began  in 
the  second  half  of  the  eighteenth  centoiy, 
and  the  increase  of  enclosures,  led  to  a  rs^d 
extension  of  pauperism,  which  was  6till  further 
encouraged  oy  a  slipshod  philanthropy.  By 
Gilbert's  Act  of  1782  parishes  were  empowered 
to  form  unions  or  incorporations  with  ad- 
jacent parishes;  these  incorporations  were 
permitted  to  build  workhouses.  The  justices 
were  to  appoint  guardians  (paid  officials,  like 
modem  relieving-officers)  to  administer  i^ef . 
The  Act  of  1723  was  practically  repealed  in 
the  case  of  incorporations  by  the  provision 
that  none  but  the  impotent  were  to  be  sent  to 
the  workhouse,  while  suitable  employment 
was  to  be  provided  for  the  able-bodied  near 
their  own  homes.  Sixty-seven  such  inooipo- 
rations  were  formed,  and  the  result  of  the 
statute  was  that  in  five  years  the  cost  of  relief 
rose  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  million  pounds. 

The  pressure  of  the  Continental  war  led  to 
still  more  disastrous  measures.  In  1795  the 
Berkshire  magistrates  drew  up  a  declaration 
(the  so-called  "  Speenhamland  Act  of  Parlia-^ 
ment ")  fixing  a  scale  of  relief  according  to 
the  price  of  wheat,  and  the  number  of  chilaroi 
in  a  family,  and  they  wexe  imitated  in  seva«l 
other  counties.  The  practical  effect  of  this 
was  that  relief  was  granted  in  aid  of  wages, 
and  the  farmers,  themselves  benefiting  through 
their  long  leasee  by  the  hig^  price  of  ooni, 
were  able  to  throw  part  of  the  cost  of  their 
labour  upon  non-farming  residents  in  their 
parishes.  Next  year  an  Act  legalised  generally 
out-door  relief,  and  formally  repealed  the  Act 
of  1723.  In  1801,  moreover,  the  justices 
became  the  rating  as  well  as  the  relieving 
authority.  Some  attempt  was  made  in  1819 
to.improve  the  state  of  things  by  empowering 
su<^  parishes  as  chose  to  elect  a  '*  select 
vestry^'  to  superintend  the  overseers.  In 
most  parishes,  however,  especially  in  the 
rural  districts,  relief  was  still  adminis- 
tered by  the  overseers,  with  the  right  of 
appeal  to  the  justices  on  the  part  of  the 
labourer  when  the  overseers  were  not  suffi- 
ciently pliant.  The  worst  consequences 
followed — the  agricultural  labourers  were 
pauperised,  the  bastardy  laws  made  vice  very 
profitable,  and  a  premium  was  set  on  idleness 
and  improvidence.  Between  1784  and  1818 
the  amount  of  poor  rate  increased  about  three 
times  as  fast  as  population  (population  from 
eight  millions  to  nearly  twelve  millions,  poor 
rate  from  two  million  pounds  to  almost  eight 
millions).  These  evils  led  to  a  commission  of 
inquiry  in  1833,  and  the  great  Act  of  1834, 
the  most  important  in  the  history  of  Poor 
Law  after  160l.  It  attempted  to  restore  the 
workhouse  test  for  able-bodied  paupers; 
parishes  were  grouped  into  unions,  and  plaoed 
under  elected  boards  of  guardians,  and  the 
guardians  were  put  under  a  central  board  at 


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London  —  the  Poor  Law  (yommissianeiSy 
Bapeneded  in  1847  by  the  Poor  Law  Board, 
and  that  in  1871  by  the  Local  Gk>vermnent 
Board,  headed  by  a  responsible  miniitter  aa 
President.  The  measure  was  for  a  time  very 
SQCcessful,  and  by  1841  the  poor  rate  had 
f&llen  to  £4,760,000.  In  1844  the  *'  Oat-door 
Prohibitory  KeUef  Order"  finaUy  forbade 
all  relief  except  in  the  workhouse.  But  the 
commissioners  still  allowed  oat-door  relief  in 
case  of  sickness  or  **  bodily  infirmity,"  and 
this  was  speedily  construed  to  cover  reHef  to 
persons  over  sixty  years  of  age  incapable  of 
earning  wages.  But  this  led  once  more  to  a 
rapid  increase  of  out-door  relief,  encouraging 
improvidence,  and  causing  wages  to  be  lower 
than  they  would  otherwise  have  been.  During 
the  ten  years  1861  —  71  the  expenditure 
rose  from  five  and  three-quarter  to  more 
than  seven  and  three-quarter  million  pounds, 
and  the  number  of  paupers  from  883,921  to 
1,037,360.  Thisincrease  of  pauperism,  together 
with  the  grow^  of  a  epirit  of  scientific  philan- 
thropy, led  to  strong  efforts  to  enforce  the 
workhouse  test,  and  these  have  met  with  con- 
siderable success.  They  have  been  seconded 
in  London  by  Goschen's  Act  of  1870,  which 
placed  workhouse  expenditure  on  a  metro- 
politan fund,  while  leaving  out-door  relief  to 
be  borne  by  each  district.  Since  then  the 
incidence  of  the  metropolitan  poor-rate  has 
been  so  altered  that  the  richer  parishes  pay 
more  than  they  used  to,  and  the  poorer 
parishes  less.  It  has  been  generally  found 
impossible  to  get  rid  of  out-door  relief,  unless 
some  charitable  organisation,  worlring  in 
concert  with  the  Poor  Law  authorities,  deals 
with  cases  of  temporary  distress. 

¥or  medinyal  laws,  see  Stabbs,  Contt.  Hut., 
iiL,  ch.  zxi.  The  main  authoritiea  for  the  Poor 
Law  are  Nicholl,  Hist,  of  ^Qvr  Xaio ;  Eden,  SKaU 
of  ih%  Poor;  Riport  of  Poor  Law  CommiMton, 
1834 :  Glen,  Poor  Lavo  Ordert ;  Awtmai  EtporU  of 
Xrooai  Qovemmtfnt  Board,  and  of  the  Coi^ertncnof 
Poor  Law  Guardians.  Tm  Poor  Lou,  by  Fowle,  ia 
an  excellent  faitttory,  oovering  the  whole  period, 
and  giTinipjparallel  Information  aa  to  other 
ooontries.  The  subject  is  treated  in  Its  relation 
to  the  general  economic  movement  in  Toynbee, 
The  Jndiurtrtal  Revotutiom.  For  more  recent 
dforta  see  OotaTia  Hilt,  Homo§  of  London  Poor 
and  Our  Common  Land,  ^^  T   A  1 

Poomnder.  The  Treaty  of  (March  1, 
1776),  was  concluded  between  the  rkust  India 
Company  and  the  Poonah  State.  It  annulled 
all  the  engagements  of  the  Treaty  of  Surat  to 
Ba^oba,  who  was  to  disband  his  army  and 
retire  to  the  banks  of  the  Godavery  on  a 

Sension.  The  British  army  was  to  quit  the 
eld,  Sakette  was  to  be  retained  if  the 
Govemor>General  desired  it,  but  all  other 
acquisitions  were  to  be  relinquished;  the 
daim  of  the  English  on  the  revenues  of 
Baroach  was  conceded  with  twelve  lacs  for  the 
expenses  of  the  war. 

Pophaaif  Sir  Jokk  (b.  1531,  d.  1607), 
appointed  Solicitor-General  in  1679,  was  two 


years  later  elected  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Commons.  He  became  Attorney-General  the 
same  year,  an  office  which  he  held  for  eleven 
years,  during  which  he  took  part  in  most  of 
the  important  State  trials  of  the  period.  In 
1592,  Popham  succeeded  Sir  Christopher 
Wray  as  Lord  Chief  Justice,  in  which 
capacity  he  presided  at  the  txiaJs  of  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh  and  the  conspirators  in  th» 
Gunpowder  Plot.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
the  originator  of  the  idea  of  the  transporta- 
tion of  felons  to  New  England  and  other 
colonies.  Sir  Edward  Coke  calls  him  **  a  man 
of  ready  apprehension,  profound  judgment, 
most  excelleait  understanding,  and  admirable 
experience  and  knowledge  of  all  business 
which  concerned  the  Commonwealth." 

Foas,  Jvdgoo  ofEng. ;  Fuller,  WortUn. 

Popish  Plotp  The,  was  the  name  giveii 
to  an  imaginary  conspiracy  of  the  Catholics 
in  the  reign  of  -Charles  II.  Though,  no 
doubt,  there  were  some  projects  for  an  attempt 
against  the  government  agitated  by  the 
English  Catholics,  there  is  little  doubt  that 
the  **  plot "  owed  its  existence  chiefly  to  the 
imagination  of  Titus  Gates  and  other  in- 
formers. Gates  was  an  English  clergyman 
of  bad  character,  who  had  become  a  Roman 
Catholic,  and  joined  the  Jesuits  at  St.  Gmer. 
In  1678  he  deposed  before  a  magistrate  that 
he  knew  the  particulars  ^of  a  papist  scheme, 
by  which  the  king  was  to  be  kiUra,  a  Roman 
Catholic  ministry  appointed,  and  a  massacre 
of  the  Protestants  prepared  with  the  assistance 
of  a  French  army.  A  few  days  afterwards 
Sir  Edmondbury  Godfrey,  the  magistrate 
before  whom  Gates  had  sworn,  was  found 
murdered  on  Primrose  Hill,  and  a  universal 

r'c  spread  over  the  nation,  which  seemed 
the  time  to  have  lost  its  senses.  The 
wildest  stories  of  Gates  and  the  informers 
who  arose  were  believed  without  question. 
Parliament  met  on  Oct.  21,  and  the  Commons 
resolved,  "  that  there  hath  been,  and  still  is,  a 
danmable  and  hellish  plot,  carried  on  by 
papist  recusants  for  assassinating  the  king, 
the  subverting  the  government,  and  for  root- 
ing out  the  Protestant  religion.'*  The  plot 
was  taken  up  by  Shaftesbury  as  a  weapon 
against  his  political  opponents  and  the  Duke 
of  York.  On  the  evidence  of  Gates,  Danser- 
field,  Carstairs,  and  Bedloe,  many  leading' 
Roman  Catholics  were  tried,  convicted,  and 
imprisoned,  or  executed,  and  Gates  went  so 
far  as  to  swear  that  he  had  heard  the  queen 
give  her  consent  to  the  king's  murder.  On 
Nov.  30  an  Act  was  passed  *'  for  disabling* 
papists  from  sitting  in  either  Houses  of  Par- 
liament." In  March  of  the  following  year 
a  679)  the  bill  to  exclude  the  Duke  of  York 
irom  the  throne  was  brought  in,  and  though 
Charles  deferred  it  for  that  year  by  a  disso- 
lution, it  iras  carried  through  the  Commons 
in  Nov.,  1680,  and  rejected  in  the  House  of 
Lords.    In  Dec.,   1680,  Lord  Stafford,  the 


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most  distinguished  of  the  victiiDS  of  the 
Popish  Plot,  was  executed.  But  by.  this  time 
a  reaction  had  set  in.  The  judges  would  no 
long^  convict  on  the  evidence  of  the  in- 
formerSi  and  the  people  were  alienated  by  what 
«eemed  like  a  w  hig  persecution  of  the  Duke 
of  York.  In  March,  1681,  Charles  dissolved 
his  fifth  Parliament,  and  governed  without 
one  during  the  remainder  of  his  rei^;  and 
later  in  the  year  one  of  the  false  witnesses, 
Ck)llege,  was  put  on  his  trial,  and  condemned 
at  Oxford,  and  Shaftesbury  himself  was  prose- 
cuted by  the  crown  for  treason,  though  the 
bill  was  thrown  out  by  the  grand  jury  in 
London.     [Oatbs.] 

Burnet,  llitt.  of  hU  Own  Titn«;  Macaulay, 
Hist,  of  Eng.;  Christie,  Ltfs  of  Slm^fiieabwry , 
Hallam,  Contt.  Hitt. 

Popnlatioil.  There  is  no  subject  on 
which  wilder  guesses  have  been  made  than 
those  which,  without  enumeration,  or  some- 
thing eouivalent  to  enumeration,  have  been 
hazarded  about  the  population  of  cities  and 
counties,  about  the  numbers  of  contending  or 
invading  armies,  and  about  the  ravages  of 
famine  and  pestilence.  Accounts  of  those 
numbers  have  been  given,  occasionally  with 
some  statement  which  appears  to  be  confir- 
matory, but  which  later  research  has  accepted 
with  distrust.  Thus,  Herodotus  states  a 
number  for  the  invading  host  of  Xerxes,  and 
asserts  in  confirmation  of  his  figures  that  a 
rough  census  was  taken  of  the  army  and  its 
followers.  But  in  the  more  critical  age  of 
Juvenal  the  whole  narrative  was  scouted  as 
the  invention  of  a  vainglorious  and  menda- 
cious Greek.  In  the  same  manner,  but  with 
a  better  critical  apparatus,  Hume,  in  his  essay 
on  the  populousness  of  ancient  cities,  chal- 
lenged llie  assertions  of  those  who  claimed 
millions  where  thousands  would  have  been 
nearer  the  truth.  In  our  own  country  the 
same  exaggerations  have  been  made,  doubtless 
in  good  Mth.  Gascoigne,  the  critic,  and  in 
some  degree  the  chronicler  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  a  Chancellor  of  Oxford  University, 
and  a  highly  estimable  and  honourable  person, 
alleges  that  he  read  the  names  of  thirty 
thousand  students  in  Oxford  during  the  period 
immediately  antecedent  to  the  great  Plague 
of  1349.  They  could  not  possibly  have  bSen 
housed  in  the  town,  or  if  housed,  could  hardly 
have  been  fed.  We  are  told  that  sixty  thou- 
sand persons  perished  by  disease  in  Norwich 
between  January  and  July  in  the  above-named 
year,  but  it  is  certain  that  till  the  last  thirty 
years,  or  thereabouts,  Norwich  has  never  had 
60,000  inhabitants.  Numbers  are  habitually 
exaggerated,  and  when  panic  is  abroad  the  ex- 
aggeration rapidly  becomes  a  geometrical  ratio. 

During  the  fourteenth  century,  and  nearly 
to  the  end  of  the  sixteenth,  the  population  of 
England  and  Wales  could  not  have  been 
more  than  from  two  to  two  and  a  half  millions. 
The  proof  of  this  statement  is  partly  indirect, 
and  partly  direct.    It   may  be  confidently 


affirmed  that,  provided  tSe  inhabitants  of  a 
country  subsist  on  one  kind  of  grain,  as  the 
EnglLsh  from  the  remotest  period  have  on 
wheat — more  generally,  indeed,  from  the 
Middle  Ages  to  the  eighteenth  century  than 
they  even  do  at  present^-the  number  of  peisons 
in  the  country  will  be  almost  exactly  equal  to 
the  number  of  quarters  of  wheat  which  is 
annually  produced  in  the  country.  Now  it 
could  be  shown,  and  it  has  been  shown  else- 
where, that  the  maximum  produce  of  wheat 
in  England  and  Wales  from  the  beginning  of 
the  fourteenth  to  the  close  of  the  sixte^th 
century  could  not  have  been  more  than  two 
and  a  half  millions  of  quarters,  and  was 
probably  much  less,  the  average  rate  of  produc- 
tion per  acre  being  below  eight  bushels.  The 
writa:  of  this  uiicle  has  examined  many 
thousands  of  fium  accounts,  giving  the  exact 
amount  of  produce  from  the  acreage  sown  in 
all  parts  of  England,  and  he  is  confident  that 
eight  bushels  to  the  acre  is  a  liberal  estimate  in 
average  years. 

We  are  not,  however,  without  direct  esti- 
mates. There  are  several  taxing  rolls  in  the 
Record  Office,  especially  records  of  poll  taxes, 
from  which  it  is  possible  to  amve  at  an 
approximate  estimate  of  population.  One  of 
those  more  than  a  century  ago  was  published, 
and  commented  on  in  the  Arckaologia.  In 
1377,  the  last  year  of  Edward  III.'s  reign, 
Parliament  granted  the  king  a  poll  tax  of 
four  pence  a  head  on  all  lay  persons  over 
fourteen  years  of  age,  none  but  known  beggan 
being  exempted  from  contributing.  Beneficed 
clergymen  paid  a  shilling :  other  ecdesiaatical 
persons,  except  mendicant  friars,  paid,  like 
the  laity,  four  x>ence.  The  number  of  persons 
who  paid  the  tax  in  the  whole  country,  and 
in  the  principal  towns,  is  given,  and  Mr.  Top- 
ham  added  one-third  to  the  amount,  in  order 
to  include  the  untaxed  part  of  the  population, 
a  quantity  which  the  Wtal  statistics  of  the 
time  entirely  justified,  though  now,  owing  to 
sanitary  improvements,  the  Ufe  of  childhood 
is  prolonged  beyond  what  was  to  be  expected 
then,  and,  therefore,  the  proportion  of  youth 
to  a  more  adult  age  is  higher.  The  forty-two 
towns,  which  are  separately  enumerated,  had 
an  aggregate  population  of  168,720  penons. 
The  rest  of  the  population  in  the  county  and 
small  towns  is  1,207,722.  But  from  this 
enumeration  Durham  and  Chester,  and  Wales, 
including  Monmouth,  are  excluded,  not  being 
taxed  in  the  grant.  Mr.  Topham  put  this 
population  at  182,123,  making  a  total  of 
1,568,565.  By  adding  a  third  of  this  number 
for  the  children,  and  giving  a  very  liberal 
allowance  for  beggars  and  begging  frian,  a 
total  of  two  and  a  quarter  millions  is  reached 

Again,  there  exists  in  the  archives  of  the 
Record  Office  an  enumeration  of  the  popula- 
tion and  the  quantity  of  com  produced  in 
nine  of  the  Kentish  hundreds.  This  was 
certainly  made  in  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth 
century.    Kent  was  one  of  the  wealthiest 


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conntieB  in  medisdyal  England,  if  we  take  into 
account  the  large  amount  of  down  and  wood- 
land which  it  contains.  The  district  referred 
to  contained  no  large  town  then,  and  contains 
none  now.  The  population  was  14,813  in  the 
period  referred  to,  and  was  88,080  in  1871,  or 
almost  exactly  six  times  more.  Now  six  times 
two  and  a  half  millions  is  about  the  number 
of  persons  who  can  in  average  years  be  sup- 
ported by  the  produce  of  English  agriculture, 
the  residue  being  dependent  on  foreign 
supplies.  It  is  in  the  highest  degree  improb- 
able that  calculation  derived  from  these 
different  elements  should  so  closely  agi'ee 
in  the  conclusion,  and  that  conclusion  be  an 
eiTor. 

The  readers  of  Macaulay  will  remember 
that  this  author,  in  his  excellent  but  unequal 
chapter  on  the  state  of  England  at  the  death 
of  Charles  II.,  argues  with  conclusive  force 
that  three  separate  calculations  have  been 
made  as  to  the  population  of  England  and 
Wales  about  that  time.  Gregory  King  calcu- 
lated the  quantity  from  the  hearth  tax,  and 
set  it  at  five  and  a  half  millions.  The  second 
estimate  is  taken  from  a  return  made  to 
William  III.  as  to  the  number  of  the  several 
religious  sects,  and  concludes  with  a  popu- 
lation of  under  five  and  a  half  millions.  The 
third  is  that  of  a  writer  of  our  own  time,  who 
has  gathered  his  inferences  from  the  registers 
of  baptisms,  marriages,  and  burials,  and  reaches 
nearly  the  same  figure.  We  could  add  a  fourth 
estimate,  which  would  arrive  at  almost  exactly 
the  same  conclusion,  viz.,  from  the  rate  of 
production  from  the  soil,  which  was  at  this 
time  more  than  double  that  at  which  it  stood 
in  the  period  from  the  accession  of  Edward 
III.  in  1327  to  the  death  of  Elizabeth  in  1603, 
so  great  had  been  the  progress  of  agriculture 
during  the  seventeenth  centur}',  and  we  may 
add,  also,  of  opulence. 

The  fact  is,  a  oountrv  will  always  contain 
as  many  people  as  can  subsist  on  the  produce 
of  its  own  soil,  or,  being  engaged  in  manufacT 
ture  and  trade,  can  procure  from  foreign 
sources  the  whole  or  part  of  what  it  needs  for 
its  subsistence.  Occasionally  it  produces 
nothing,  but  g^ts  all  its  wanto  from  external 
sources,  as  Venice  did  in  the  time  of  its  greatest 
opulence  and  power.  More  frequently,  if  it 
be  eminent  as  a  trading  or  manufacturing 
country,  it  obtains  a  portion  of  its  supplies 
in  exchange  for  its  service  as  a  trader,  or  for 
its  goods  as  a  producer.  The  population  will 
be  nearly  or  quite  stationary  if  it  cannot 
expand  in  the  direction  of  trade,  or  of 
generally  merchantable  commodities.  The 
population  may  be  stationary  by  reason  of 
climate,  or,  perhaps,  of  race,  but  the  soQ  of 
a  diminishing  fertility,  or  the  soU  of  an  un- 
equal progression,  will  be  filled  by  foreign 
imjnigrants.  It  is  sometimes  said  that  the 
native  population  of  the  American  Union, 
especially  in  the  Eastern  States,  is  unprogres- 
sive,  though  this  has  been  denied  or  disputed. 


But  the  accession  of  the  foreign  populatioa 
in  America  is  an  enormous  annual  total,  and 
would  be,  even  if  the  growth  of  the  native- 
bom  stocks  was  obvious  and  indisputable.  The 
fact  is,  the  production  of  food  within  the  limits 
of  the  American  Union  is  vastly  in  excess  of 
the  possible  wants  of  the  existing  population. 

Fears  have  been  expressed  that  the  growth 
and  increase  of  the  human  race  would  at  no 
remote  period  induce  some  enormous  calamity, 
that  the  area  of  cultivable  land  is  limitod» 
that  the  power  of  occupation  is  limited,  and 
that  the  racilities  of  transport  are  limited  also. 
But  at  present,  and  as  far  as  one  can  interpret 
the  facts,  for  an  indefinite  future  these  con- 
tingencies are  increasingly  distant.  The 
distribution  of  products  is  rendered  year  by 
year  more  easy,  and  the  distribution  of  labour, 
though  certainly  not  so  obvious  and  imme- 
diate, is  sufficiently  easy  for  some  relief  to  a 
local  plethora  of  labour,  or  to  a  temporary 
lack  of  employment,  or  for  the  attractiveness 
of  a  new  field  of  labour.  It  is  not,  indeed, 
true,  as  some  mo4^m  socialists  have  alleged, 
that  a  rapid  growth  of  population  can  never 
meet  with  a  glutted  market,  or  deficient  sus- 
tenance, but  there  are  checks  which  the 
theorists  of  the  pessimist  view  do  not  enume- 
rate, and  there  are  risks  which  the  optimist 
interpreters  of  the  situation  do  not  recognise. 
If  MalthuR  and  Rioardo  and  the  elder  and 
younger  Mill  had  been  told  that  the  three 
kingdoms  would  presently  contain  nearly 
forty  millions  of  people,  and  that  food  woula 
be  dieaper,  employment  more  constant,  and 
wages  higher  that  when  they  sought  to  inter- 
pret the  facts,  they  would  have  possibly 
retained  their  tiieories,  but  would  have  been 
far  less  confident  in  their  accuracy. 

Over-population,  like  over-production,  is 
partial,  and  confined  to  particular  employ- 
ments or  classes.  When  a  calling  is  prosperous 
or  reputable  it  attracts  persons,  and  those 
who  are  attracted  ai'e  not  easily  able  to 
abandon  their  choice.  In  the  United  States, 
and  the  'English  colonies,  where  there  is  a 
boundless  field  for  certain  callings,  there  is  a 
very  restricted  market  for  others.  In  these 
countries  there  has  long  been  an  over-popu- 
lation of  clerks  and  shopmen,  and  such 
persons  have  been  warned  for  many  ^ears 
past  that  there  is  no  field  for  their  service  in 
a  country  which  has  infinite  opportunities, 
for  in  truth  there  never  is  an  over-population 
of  industrial  agents,  whose  services  are  per- 
manently and  increasingly  in  demand,  and 
there  always  is  an  over-population  of  those 
who  cannot  find  employment  for  the  labour 
which  they  think  they  can  give,  but  which 
the  market  does  not  estimate.  So,  again, 
there  are  employments  of  capitalists  which 
are  over-crowded,  perhaps  at  present  more  so 
than  amon^  artisans.  [Tor  the  numbers  of 
the  population  since  1801,  see  Census.] 

The  theorj  of  population  is  disoasaed  by  rnanv 
writers,  from  Gregory  King  In  the  Mventeenth 


(  830  ) 


century  down  to  the  eoonomista  of  oar  own 
time.  The  prinoipal  work,  on  which  the  largest 
and  mottpermanent  controversy  has  been  waged^ 
is  thatofMalthns  (q.vO-  3e«  Godwin,  Political 
JimHm;  Donbleda^t  Thtory  Cff  Population ;  the 
writings  of  the  two  Mills,  fattier  and  son ;  and, 
for  the  ancient  condition  of  Eiigland,  Sogers, 
Agrieuliw  and  PrietMt  and  Si*  Cmiurut  of 
Work  and  Wagn.  [J.  E.  T.  B.] 

Porteons  Siots»  Thb,  were  occasioned 
by  the  hanging  of  a  smuggler  named  Wilson 
at  Edinburgh  in  1736.  Captain  Porteous, 
of  the  City  Guardi  ordered  his  men  to  fire  on 
the  rioters,  some  of  whom  were  killed.  Con- 
demned to  death,  Porteous  was  respited  by  the 
QoTemment,  but  was  seized  by  the  populace 
and  hanged.  The  Lord  Provost  was  declared 
incapable  of  further  office,  and  the  city  was 
•compelled  to  pay  £1,600  to  Porteous's  widow. 

Portlaady  Richabd  Weston,  Easl  of 
{b.  1677,  d.  1634),  became  collector  of  the 
customs  in  the  port  of  London,  and  one  of 
the  commissioners  charged  with  the  reform 
of  the  navy  (1618^.  In  Sept.,  1621,  he  was 
appointed  Chancellor  of  ^e  Exchequer.  In 
1624  he  strongly  opposed  war  with  Spain, 
but  contrived  to  preseiTC  Buckingham's 
favour,  and  was  created  Baron  Weston, 
April  13,  1628.  In  the  House  of  Lords  he 
•strove  to  amend  the  Petition  of  Bight  by 
inserting  a  clause  saving  the  king's  *'  sovereign 
right,"  and  two  months  later  was  made  Ixnd 
Tmsurer  (July,  1628).  After  Buckingham's 
death  he  succeeded  to  his  influence,  and  be- 
•came  the  king's  chief  adviser.  As  such  he 
advised  the  dissolution  of  the  third  Parliament, 
and  was  threatened  with  impeachment  by 
Eliot.  In  foreign  afiPairs  he  aimed  at  an 
understanding  with  Spain,  and  he  opposed 
intervention  in  the  German  War.  Mis  in- 
fluence in  the  Council  was  assailed  by  Laud, 
by  the  queen,  by  the  Earl  of  Holland,  and 
many  others,  yet  he  retained  the  king's 
confidence  till  his  death.  He  was  created 
Earl  of  Portland  in  1633. 

Oardiner,  EUt.  of  Eng. ;  Clarendon,  Hut  cf 
the  .R«6eUian. 

Portlaiidy  William  Bbntincx,  Earl  of, 
afterwards  Duke  of  {b.  1649,  d,  1709),  was 
a  member  of  a  noble  Dutch  family,  and  a 
close  friend  of  William  III.  His  friend- 
ship with  William  of  Orange  is  said  to  have 
originated  from  his  nursing  the  prince 
through  a  severe  attack  of  small-pox.  On 
the  discovery  of  the  Bye  House  Plot  he  was 
sent  by  William  of  Orange  to  England  to 
congratulate  Charles  II.  and  the  Duke  of 
Yonc  on  their  escape.  He  was  sent  to 
England  in  1687  in  order  to  confer  with  the 
leaders  of  the  Opposition  tibere.  He  ac- 
companied William  to  England.  In  1689 
he  was  in  favour  of  William's  sole  claim 
to  the  throne,  and  had  a  violent  dispute 
with  Burnet  on  the  subject.  In  1690  he  was 
sent  by  William  to  HoUand  in  order  to  calm 
Amsterdam,  where  the  citizens  refused  to 


allow  William  to  nominate  the  magistntei. 
He  had  been  created  Earl  of  Portland,  uid 
Groom  of  the  Stole.  He  accompanied  the 
king  to  Ireland,  and  commanded  a  troop  of 
Dutch  horse.  In  Jan.,  1691,  he  sailed  villi 
William  for  Holland.  William  had  given 
him  large  grants  of  land  in  Wales,  but  the 
hostility  of  the  Commons  compelled  him  to 
revoke  the  grant  (1695).  In  July,  1697,  a 
series  of  informal  mterviews  took  place  be- 
tween him  and  Alarshal  Boufflers  at  Hull, 
while  the  conference  was  sitting  at  Ryswick, 
with  a  view  to  terms  of  peace.  It  was  through 
these  interviews  that  the  Treaty  of  Rysvick 
was  eventually  concluded  (Sept.,  1697).  Mean- 
while the  friendship  between  Portland  and 
William  was  growing  cold,  for  the  fonner 
showed  an  unworthy  jealousy  of  the  king's 
new  favourite,  Arnold  Van  KeppeL  Next 
year,  therefore,  the  king  sent  him  to  Paris  at 
the  head  of  a  magnificent  embassy.  Portland 
executed  his  duties  with  fidelity.  Together 
with  Marshal  Tallard,  he  laid  down  the  lines 
of  the  Partition  Treaty.  Portland  returned  to 
England,  and  in  the  beginning;  of  1699  sur- 
prised everyone  by  resigning  his  office  aa 
Chamberlain.  His  jealousy  of  Keppel  seems 
still  to  have  been  the  motive  that  influenced 
him.  The  quarrel  between  Portland  and 
Albemarle  grew  in  intensity,  and  at  length 
he  retired  altogether  from  court  In  1701, 
he  came  forward  to  defend  the  Second  Par- 
tition  Treaty.  Together  with  Somers  he  was 
impeached  for  his  share  in  the  matter,  and  the 
Commons  requested  that  he  might  be  removed 
from  the  king's  councils.  There  were  ad- 
ditional charges  against  him  for  grants  and 
diJapidations  of  the  royal  revenue.  Bat  the 
Commons,  who  refused  to  appear  at  the  trial 
of  Somers,  allowed  the  impeachments  to  drop. 
He  was  present  at  the  deathbed  of  William, 
and  in  lus  last  moments  the  king  took  the 
hand  of  his  old  friend  and  pressed  it  tenderly 
to  his  heart.  Portland  lived  in  retirement 
for  the  remainder  of  his  life.  '<  Bentinck," 
says  Macaulay,  "was  early  pronounced  by 
Temple  to  be  the  best  and  truest  servant  that 
ever  prince  had  the  good  fortune  to  possess,  and 
continued  through  life  to  merit  that  hononr- 
able  character." 

Bumet/Hist.  ^  hit  Own.  Time^ ;  Boyer.  An- 
nal»f  Mftcitnlay,  Higt.  ^  Eng.;  Banke,  Hid.  ^ 
Eng. 

PortunL  Kelations  WITH.  The  friendly 
relations  wnicn  Henry  II.  had  established  with 
the  princes  of  the  Iberian  peninsula  made  the 
few  dealings  between  the  early  Portuguese 
monarchs  and  the  English  court  of  a  generally 
amicable  nature.  More  intimate  relations 
began  when  the  Black  Prince  became  the 
partisan  of  Peter  the  Cruel  of  Castile,  and 
John  of  Gaunt  claimed  his  tluxme  as  his 
daughter's  husband.  The  reigning  King  of 
Portugal,  Don  Ferdinand,  joii^  the  Engliah 
against  Henry  of  Tiastamare,  who  had  suc- 
ceeded in  winning  the  throne  of  Peter.    la 


(831) 


1381  an  English  army,  tmder  the  Earl  of 
Ounbridge,  who  had  alao  married  a  daughter 
•of  Peters,   came  into  Portugal;    but  very 
Httle  was  done,  the  English  troops  behaved 
badly,  and  Ferdinand  ooncluded  a  truce  with 
the  CastiliEuis.    The  marriage  of  Cambridge's 
49on  John  to  Beatrice,  the  king's  daughter, 
was  annulled  on  the  retirement  oif  the  English, 
and  on  Ferdinand's  death  in  1383,  Don  John 
of  Avis  had  to  fight  for  his  throne  against 
Beatrice's  husband,  King  John  of  Oasdle. 
In    1386   John   of   Ghiunt   came    with   an 
EIngliah  army  to  help  the  new  king,  whom  he 
married  to  his  daughter  Philippa.     But  the 
campaigns  proved  unfortunate,  and  John  of 
Gaunt  abandoned  both  Portugal  and  his  hopes 
of  thctCastilian  crown.    The  career  of  mari- 
time glory  into  which  Portugal  embarked  in 
the    fifteenth  century  brought    it    into    no 
direct  relations  with  England,  though  it  pre- 
pared the  way  for  later  English  enterprise ; 
and  when  the  English  first  appeared  in  India 
they  were  welcomed  by  the  Great  Mogul  as 
likely   to    counterbalance    the    Portuguese. 
Intimate  commercial  relations  between  Eng- 
land  and  Portugal  also  sprang  up  during  the 
later  Middle  Ages.  The  conquest  of  Portugal 
in  1580  by  Philip  II.  of  Spain  led  to  the 
fitting  out  of  the  Armada  in  Lisbon  harbour, 
but  also  to  the  English  affording  a  refuge  to 
Don  Antonio  l^or  of  Crato,  the  popular  can- 
<lidate  for  the  Portuguese  throne,  in  whose 
behalf  Drake,  in  1689,  avenged  the  Armada 
by  an  expedition  to  the  coast  of  Portagal. 
But  though  Antonio  accompanied  the  fleet,  it 
did  more  harm  to  Spain  than  good  to  Por- 
tugal, and    the    plundering    of    Portuguese 
vessels,  and  the  devastation  of  Portuguese 
colonies  by  the  English,  involved  their  old 
ally  in  their  war  against  her  new  master. 
In  1640  Portugal  began  her  successful  revolt 
under  John  of  Braganza  against  Spain.    One 
of  the  first  acts  of  the  new  State  was  to  con- 
clude, in   1642,  a   commercial   treaty  with 
Charles  I. ;  but  this  rather  complicated  its 
relations  with  the  government  of  the  Common- 
wealth.   In  1650  John  refased  to  surrender 
the  fleet  of  Princes  Rupert  and  Maurice,  which 
had  taken  refuge  in  the  Tagus,  to  BIiJeo  ;  an 
act  which,  despite  the  voluntary  retirement  of 
the  princes,  caused  some  disagreement.    But 
in  1652  the  English  war  against  the  Dutch, 
the   enemies    ox    Portugal,   and  Cromwell's 
adoption  of  an  anti-Spanish  policy  soon  after, 
made  it  an  easy  matter  to  renew  in  1654  the 
treaty  of  1642.    This  began  the  political  and 
commercial  dependence  of  Portugal  on  Eng- 
land, which  was  continued  by  the  marriage 
of  Catherine  of  Braganza  to  Charles  II. ;   a 
measure  necessitated  by  the  abandonment  of 
the  Portuguese  by  the  French  in  the  Treaty 
of  the  Pyrenees,  and  justified  by  the  securitv 
it   gave   to  Portuguese  independence,   botn 
against  the  Spaniards  and  Dutch.     But  the 
cession    of    Bombay    and    Tangier    almost 
acknowledged  the  commercial  sapremacy  of 


the  English.  At  last  the  designs  of  Louis 
XIV.  on  Spain  involved  the  Portuguese  in 
hostility  to  him,  and  justified  the  conclusion 
of  the  Methuen  Treaty  (q.v.)  in  1706,  which 
completed  the  dependence  of  Portugal. 
Through  it  Portuguese  armies  fought  with 
Stanhope  and  Galway  against  the  French 
and  Spaniards  during  the  Succession  War. 
All  through  the  eighteenth  centuiy  Portugal, 
like  Holland,  was  a  satellite  of  Englimd. 
The  whole  trade  of  Portugal  fell  into  English 
hands.  The  commerce  of  Lisbon  and  Oporto 
was  entirely  carried  on  by  English  factors. 
The  vineyards  of  the  Douro,  and  the  mines 
of  Brazil,  were  ultimately  quite  dependent 
on  English  capital.  The  bread  wluch  the 
Portuguese  ate,  and  the  clothes  which  they 
wore,  were  brought  from  England ;  and,  what 
was  worse  to  disciples  of  the  mercantile 
system,  the  "balance  of  ti^e"  was  con- 
stantly in  favour  of  the  English.  The  famous 
Marquis  of  Pombal,  who,  during  the  reign  of 
King  Joseph  (1750 — 1777)  upheld  almost 
alone  the  power  of  Portugal,  sought  to 
change  this  dependence  into  alliance  on 
equal  terms.  The  English  factors  and  Jesuits 
combined  to  plot  his  ruin ;  but  his  triumph 
resulted  in  a  transient  revival  of  Portuguese 
trade  through  his  commercial  companies,  and 
Pitt  was  willing  to  accept  the  assistance  of 
the  Portuguese  army,  which  the  Count  von 
der  lippe  had  reorganised  in  the  war  against 
Spain  at  the  close  of  the  Seven  Tears*  War. 
The  death  of  King  Joseph,  and  the  fall  of 
Pombal,  renewed  the  degiadation  of  PortugaL 
The  war  against  revolutionary  France  again 
necessitated  its  dependence  on  England.  Even 
in  1801,  when  Fnmce  and  Spain  were  united 
against  it,  Portugal  struggled  some  time 
before  accepting  the  Treaty  of  Madrid,  which 
gave  Fitmce  equal  commercial  rights  with 
England.  But  the  refusal  of  Portugal  in 
1807  to  .accept  the  Continental  system  in- 
volved it  in  fresh  hostilities  with  France. 
English  help  alone  forced  Junot  to  conclude 
the  Convention  of  Cintra.  Henceforth  Por- 
tugal was  the  basis  of  operations  against  the 
French  during  the  whole  Peninsular  War. 
Government  and  army  became  alike  de- 
pendent on  England,  and  the  Portuguese 
troops,  disciplined  by  Beresford,  proved  no 
unworthv  allies  of  the  English  under  Welling- 
ton. The  conclusion  of  the  war  Jeft  Por- 
tugal, where  the  liberal  spirit  was  rising,  in 
the  hands  of  the  tyrannical  government  of  a 
king  who  had  sought  in  Brazil  a  secure 
refuge  from  the  French.  In  1822  a  con- 
stitution was  obtained ;  but  in  1824  an  abso- 
lutist reaction  under  Don  Miguel  took  place ; 
which  was  renewed  in  1828.  Canning  exerted 
all  his  energies  in  favour  of  the  constitutional 
party.  But  after  his  death  the  Wellington 
ministry  took  a  neutral  attitude,  which  prac- 
tically meant  supporting  Don  Miguel.  The 
heroic  struggle  of  Dona  Sfaria  provoked,  how- 
ever, much  sympathy,  and  in  1833  an  English 


(  832  ) 


expedition  under  Napier  powerfully  assisted 
in  the  triumph  of  the  constitutional  party, 
and  the  quadruple  alliance  of  England,  France, 
and  Spain  with  Portugal  guaranteed  their 
success.  In  1836  the  Methuen  Treaty  was 
annulled.  The  recent  ambition  of  Portugal 
to  tako  part  in  the  colonising  of  Africa  re- 
ceived a  check  in  1889,  when  Lord  Salisbury 
forced  her  to  abandon  her  claims  to  Nyassa- 
land. 

Schafer,  Geschichte  von  Portturdl;  Bouohot, 
Bistoire  d»  Portugal  et  d»  $48  UoUmiet ;  Pauli, 
QesehichU  von  England;  Schans,  Bngliache 
SandelspolitUc ;  The  BriiUh  Merchant;  luhon, 
War  of  the  Succestion  in  Spain  ;  The  Rights  of  an 
Englishman  in  Portugal;  Napier,  Penineular 
War ;  C&ruota,  The  Marquis  of  PomJbal. 

Portugal,  The  Journbt  of,  was  the 
name  given  to  the  expedition  undertaken  in 
the  year  1589  to  wrest  the  Portuguese  crown 
from  Philip  of  Spain,  and  bestow  it  on  Don 
Antonio,  an  illegitimate  son  of  Henry  of. 
Portugal.  The  expedition,  which  was  under 
the  command  of  Sir  Francis  Drake  and  Sir 
John  Norris,  sailed  in  March,  1589.  Corunna 
was  partly  destrayed,  while  Norris  defeated 
a  large  force  of  Spaniards  who  had  come  to 
relieve  the  city.  Drake  then  sailed  up  the 
Tagus  to  Lisbon,  whilst  Norris  landed  at 
Peniche  and  marched  overland  to  join  him. 
Lisbon,  however,  was  too  strong  to  be  taken, 
the  country  refused  to  rise  for  tibe  Pretender, 
and  in  May  the  expedition  returned  home. 

Post-lTati,  Casb  op  the.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  James  I.  to  the  throne  of  England,  it 
became  a  question  whether  his  Scottish  sub- 
jects, bom  after  his  accession  to  the  English 
throne  [post-nati)^  were  aliens  in  England  or 
not.  The  Scots  contended  that  they  were 
not,  and  the  same  view  was  taken  by  the 
judges  in  the  House  of  Lords.  In  the  House 
of  Commons  it  was  contended  that  a  statute 
would  be  required  to  naturalise  them.    The 

g^int  was  decided  in  the  Court  of  Exchequer 
hamber,  when  ten  of  the  twelve  judges 
decided  that  a  post-iiatiu  was  not  an  aUen  in 
England. 

Post  Office,  The,  as  a  government 
service,  may  be  said  to  date  from  the  reign 
of  Charles  I.,  who  in  1635  commanded  his 
"  Postmaster  of  England  for  foreign  parts  " 
to  establish  postal  communication  between 
Edinburgh  and  London.  Li  1710  the  system 
which  had  developed  from  this  beginning 
was  remodelled,  a  general  post  office  iov  the 
three  kingdoms  being  set  up,  under  the 
control  of  a  "  Postmaster-general."  In  1840 
Kowland  Hill's  penny  postage  scheme  was 
adopted  by  Parliament.  The  Savings  Bank 
department  was  added  in  1861,  and  in  1870 
the  Government  took  over  the  telegraph 
service.  The  Postal  Union  was  formed  in 
1874. 

Poyninn,  Siu  Edwabd  (d,  1512),  after 
a  distinguished  military  career  was  sent  to 
Ireland  as  Lord-Deputy  by  Henry  YII.  soon 


after  his  accession.  He  was  very  sacoessf ol 
both  in  subduing  the  partisans  of  the  house 
of  York,  and  in  quelUng  the  native  Irish 
rebels  in  Ulster,  and  along  the  borders  of  the 
Pale.  He  reduced  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
island  to  order.  His  period  of  government  is 
specially  noted  for  the  passing  in  December 
(1649)  of  "  Povnings'  Act,*'  by  which  it  was 
enacted  that  all  existing  English  laws  should 
be  in  force  in  Ireland,  and  that  no  Pariiament 
should  be  held  in  Ireland  without  the  sanction 
of  the  king  and  council,  who  should  also  be 
able  to  disallow  statutes  passed  by  the  Irish 
Houses.  Thus  the  legislative  independence  of 
the  EInglish  colony  in  Ireland  was  at  an  end. 
*<  Poynings*  Act "  was  only  repealed  in  1782. 

Pracip6,'THE  Writ  op,  was  a  peremptory 
command  addressed  to  the  sherid,  ordering 
him  to  send  a  particular  cause  to  be  tried  in 
tile  long's  court,  instead  of  the  local  oonrt 
By  section  34  of  Magna  Charta  its  use  was 
limited. 


irOi  Statutes  of.    In  the  four- 
teenth century  there  seem  to  have  been  two 
forms  of  papal  exaction  more  distasteful  to 
the   Enghsh  Parliament  than   any    othen: 
the  one-— of  no  modem  standing  even  then 
— ^the  right  claimed,  and  often  exercised,  by 
the  Pope  of  giving  away  Church  benefices 
in  England  to  men  of  his  own  choice,  and 
often  to   aliens;    the  other,  -his  persistent 
action  in  assuming  to  hims^  and  his  curia 
the  right  of   deciding  cases  of  law  which 
ought  properly  to  have  been  dealt  with  by 
the  king's  courts  at  home.    Against  each  of 
these  abuses  the  Parliaments  of  the  middle  of 
Edward    IIL's   reign   aimed   statutes:    at- 
tempting to  check  the  first  abuse  by  the 
StatuU    of  I^ovisors    (1350—51),    and    the 
second   by   the    first   Statute  of   Praemunire 
(1353).    By  the  latter  of  these  two  statutes 
the  king  "  at  the  grievous  and  damorons 
complaints  of  the  great  men  and  the  commons 
of  his  realm  of  England,"  enacts  that  all  his 
liege  people  of  every  condition  who  refer  any 
matter  properly  belonging  to  the  king's  court 
to  any  jurisdiction  outside  the  realm  shall  be 
allowed  two  months  within  which  to  apposr 
'  before  the  king's  Council,  his  Chancery,  or  his 
justices  of  eitiier  bench,  &c.,  to  answer  for 
their  contempt  of  the  king's  rights  in  trans- 
ferring their  cases  abroad.    *'  If,"  the  statute 
continues,  **  they  fail  to  put  in  an  appearance 
at  the  due  time,  their  lands  and  chattels  are 
all  forfeited  to  the  king ;  their  persons  are 
liable  to  be  seized,  and  if  not  found,    the 
offenders  are  to  be  outlawed."    Two  things 
are  worth  noticing  with   reference   to   the 
statute;  first,  that  the  clergy  are  not  men- 
tioned as  petitioning  for   its  enactment  or 
assenting  to  it;  and,  second,  that  although 
the  measure  is  plainly  levelled  against  the 
pretensions  of  the  Roman  Curia,  yet  its  aim 
IS  nowhere  stated  in  the  body  of  the  Act 
There  were  several  subsequent  Statutes  of 


(  883  ; 


PrsBmanire.  The  later  and  fuller  are  naturally 
more  often  called  the  statute,  as  in  a  way 
they  superseded  the  earlier.  The  name  is 
more  especially  reserved  to  an  Act  passed  in 
the  sixteenth  year  of  Richard  II.  (l|93).  In 
this  statute  it  is  plainly  stated  that  the  right 
of  recovering  the  presentation  to  a  church 
benefice  ^*  belongeth  only  to  the  king's  court 
by  the  old  right  of  his  crown  as  used  and  ap- 
proved in  the  time  of  all  his  progenitors,  kings 
of  England."  The  statute  then  proceeds 
to  condemn  the  practice  of  papal  translation, 
and  after  rehearsing  the  promise  of  the  three 
estates  of  the  realm  to  support  the  king  in 
his  rights,  enacts  without  any  circumlocution, 
"  that  if  any  purchase,  or  pursue,  in  the 
Court  of  Rome,  or  elsewhere,  such  trans- 
lations, processes,  excommunications,  bulls, 
&c."  he  and  his  notaries,  counsellors,  and 
abettors  shall  forfeit  all  their  lands  and  tene- 
ments, goods,  and  chattels  to  the  king,  while 
the  offenders  themselves  are  to  be  attached  and 
brought  before  the  king  and  his  council,  or  be 
proceeded  against  by  writ  of  Framumrefaeia«, 
as  is  ordained  in  other  Statutes  of  Provisors. 
It  is  from  the  phrase  H'amunire  facias  that 
the  whole  enactment  has  derived  its  name. 
These  are  the  opening  words  of  the  writ 
directed  to  the  officer,  bidding  him  forewarn 
the  offender  when  and  where  he  is  to  appear 
to  answer  to  the  charges  brought  against  him. 
The  word  Ftamunire  is  said  to  be  a  corrup- 
tion of  Framonerif  to  be  forewarned,  ^he 
scope  of  these  Praemunire  Acts  was  still  f  unher 
enlarged  under  2  Henry  IV.,  3  Henry  V.,  &c. 
The  Statutes  of  Praemunire  were,  however, 
constantly  disregarded.  Papal  provision  be- 
came in  the  1 6th  century  the  most  usual  way  of 
appointing  to  bishoprics.  The  custom  of  grant- 
ing dispensations  from  the  statute  had  much 
influence  on  the  growth  of  the  King's  dispens- 
ing power.  It  was  by  a  dexterous  manipulation 
of  tiie  clause  which  included  the  abettors  of 
a  breach  of  the  Statute  of  Praemunire  in  the 
penalty  due  to  the  prime  offender,  that 
Henry  VIII.  laid  the  whole  body  of  the 
clergy  at  his  mercy  in  1531  for  having 
acknowledged  the  legatine  authority  of 
V^olsey;  and  the  king's  pardon  was  only 
bought  by  a  large  sum  of  money,  and  their 
acknowledgment  of  him  as  supreme  head  of 
the  church.  Under  Elizabeth,  to  refuse  the 
oath  of  supremacy  was  made  a  breach  of  the 
Statute  of  Praemunire ;  and  also  to  defend 
the  pope's*  jurisdiction  in  England,  or  to 
support  a  Jesuit  college,  or  any  popish 
seminary  beyond  the  sea.  By  later  enact- 
ments the  penalties  following  a  breach  of  this 
statute  have  been  extended  to  offences  very 
different  from  those  which  were  commonly 
connected  with  the  word  Praemiuiire. 

8MivU&  of  the  BeaJm, ;  Stubbs.  Corut,  Hiit. ; 
S6«ve8,  Kuiory  of  EngliA  Law}  Sir  T.  £. 
Tomlina,  Law  Dictionary, 


:,  or,  properly,  the  Book 
of  ConuiiOll    P^myer,    is   the   Liturgy 

Hl8T^27 


of  the  Church  of  England,  ordainea  by 
law  for  national  use.  Before  the  Reforma- 
tion, Latin  service-books  were  in  use 
throughout  Christendom,  founded  upon  a  com- 
mon model,  but  containing  considerable  varia- 
tions. The  prayers  for  various  hours  of  the 
day  were  contained  in  the  Breviary;  the 
order  for  celebrating  the  Holy  Communion  in 
the  Missal.  There  was  also  a  manual  of  de- 
votions in  English  called  the  Prymer,  cilrrent 
in  the  fifteenth  century.  The  desire  of  the 
reforming  party,  headed  by  Cranmer,  was 
for  greater  simplicity  and  intelligibility  in 
the  service-books,  and  Cranmer  steadily 
moved  in  that  direction.  In  1541  a  new 
edition  of  part  of  the  Sarum  Breviary  was 
issued ;  and  in  1642  Cranmer  notified  to 
Convocation  the  ELing's  pleasure  that  the 
service-books  should  be  examined,  corrected, 
and  reformed  of  all  superstitious  prayers. 
A  committee  of  bishops  and  divines  sat  for  that 
purpose  and  prepared  materials  for  the  future. 
Poitions  of  the  Scriptures  were  ordered  to 
be  read  in  English  in  churches ;  and  in  1544 
the  Litany,  which  was  already  in  English  for 
use  in  processions,  was  revised  by  Cranmer. 
In  1545  was  issued  the  "King's  Prymer," 
which  contained  the  Creed,  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  the  Ten  Commandments,  and  several 
canticles  and  collects,  as  well  as  the  Litany 
in  English. 

In  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  the  work  of 
liturgical  revision  first  bore  definite  fruit.  In 
the  first  year  of  the  reign,  Convocation  and 
Parliament  ordered  the  Communion  to  be 
administered  under  both  kinds ;  and  a  com- 
mittee of  divines  was  appointed  to  draw  up 
"  The  Order  of  Communion,"  which  was 
published  in  1548.  This,  however,  was  only 
a  temporary  measure  for  immediate  use.  The 
commissioners  applied  themselves,  under 
Cranmer's  presidency,  to  the  task  of  framing 
,a  complete  Book  of  Prayer.  They  finished 
their  labours  within  the  year,  and  Rubmitted 
the  Book  to  Parliament,  by  which  it  was 
accepted.  The  Act  of  Uniformity,  passed  in 
Jan.,  1549,  ordered  the  Book  to  come  into 
general  use  on  the  evening  of  Whit  Sunday. 
The  objects  of  the  compilers  of  this  Book  are 
stated  in  their  preface  to  be  (1)  the  formation 
of  a  uniform  use  for  the  whole  realm,  (2)  the 
simplification  of  rubrics,  (3)  the  reading  of 
the  whole  Psalter  in  order,  (4)  the  continuous 
reading  of  the  Bible,  (5)  the  omission  of 
needless  interruptions,  (6)  conformity  to  the 
pure  Word  of  the  Scripture,  (7)  the  formation 
of  a  Prayer-book  in  the  vulgar  tongue.  The 
first  Prayer-book  of  Edward  VI.  followed 
closely  on  the  Prymer  for  morning  and  even- 
ing prayer,  so  as  to  make  as  little  change  aa 
possible.  Its  chief  differences  from  the 
Prayer-book  now  in  use  are — (1)  Matins  and 
Evensong  began  with  the  Lord's  Praver  and 
ended  with  the  Third  Collect.  (2)  The  Litany 
followed  the  Communion  office,  and  there 
were  no  instructions  for  its  use.     (3)  In  the 


(884) 


Communion  office  the  Commandments  were 
not  read;  the  prayers  were  differently 
arranged,  and  included  a  mention  of  the 
Virgin  and  prayers  for  the  dead ;  there  was 
an  invocation  of  the  Holy  Ghost  before  con- 
secration; the  words  used  in  gi^'ing  the 
elements  were  only  the  first  clause  of  the  two 
now  in  use ;  the  priest  was  ordered  to  stand 
*'  afore  the  midst  of  the  altar  " ;  the  old  vest- 
ments, albs  and  copes,  were  prescribed  for  the 
celebrant;  water  was  mixed  with  the  wine. 
(4)  In  the  Baptismal  Service  a  form  of  exor- 
cism was  used ;  trine  immersion  was  directed; 
the  child  was  arrayed  after  baptism  in  a 
white  garment,  called  a  ehriiom,  and  was 
anointed  with  oil  on  the  head.  (5)  The 
Burial  Service  contained  prayers  for  the 
dead,  and  provision  was  made  for  a  Com- 
munion at  a  burial. 

This  Prayer-book  was  well  received  by  the 
peoplQ  geuerally ;  but  an  influx  of  foreigners 
brought  to  England  opinions  more  decidedly 
Calvinistic.  The  Prayer-book  was  no  sooner 
in  use  than  a  small  party  called  for  its  re- 
vision. They  prevailed  with  the  King,  who 
again  appointed  a  committee,  with  Cranmer 
at  its  head.  In  their  work  the  committee 
asked  the  opinions  of  the  learned  foreigners^ 
Peter  Martyr  and  Bucer.  The  result  of  this 
revision  was  the  Second  Prayer-book  of 
Kdward  VI.,  which  was  published  in  1652. 
It  added  the  introductory  portion  of  Morning 
and  Evening  Prayer,  appointed  the  Litany 
to  be  used  as  at  present,  added  the  Decalogue 
to  the  Communion  office,  reduced  its  prayers 
to  the  order  in  which  they  now  occur, 
omitting  the  points  noticed  above;  directed 
the  priest  to  stand  *'at  the  north  side  of  the 
table,"  and  to  wear  no  vestment  save  the 
surplice.  The  tendency  of  the  alterations 
made  is  most  clearl}'  seen  in  the  substitution 
of  the  second  clause  now  used  at  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  elements  for  the  first  clause, 
which  was  omitted.  ITie  Second  Prayer-book 
Hhowed  no  desire  to  retain  old  uses  because 
they  were  old,  but  was  a  movement  towards 
the  doctrines  of  the  Continental  reformers. 

The  Second  Prayer-book  of.  Edward  VI. 
had  scarcely  time  to  come  into  use  before  it 
was  swept  away  by  the  Marian  reaction. 
When  Elizabeth  came  to  the  throne  in  1558, 
she  behaved  with  great  caution,  and  was 
crowned  according  to  the  rites  of  the  Roman 
Pontifical.  A  committee  was,  however,  ap- 
pointed early  in  1559  to  compare  the  two 
Books  of  Edward  VI.  and  correct  them. 
The  commission,  of  which  the,  chief  mover 
was  Edward  Guest,  after  Bishop  of  Roches- 
ter, decided  in  favour  of  Edward  VI.'s  Second 
Prayer-book,  with  a  few  alterations.  These 
were  adopted  by  Parliament,  and  the  revised 
Prayer-book  came  into  use  on  June  24,  1659. 
The  alterations  were  not  important,  but  were 
Hignificant  of  Elizabeth's  desire  for  compre- 
hension. The  ornaments  in  use  in  the  second 
year  of  Edward  VI.   were  recognised;   the 


two  clauses  in  the  administration  of  ths 
elements  at  the  Communion  were  put  together 
as  they  are  now ;  a  petition  was  omitted  from 
the  Litany — *'  From  thQ  Bishop  of  Rome  and 
all  his  ^detestable  enormities,  Good  Lead 
deliver  us." 

Again  the  return  of  exiles  from  the  Con- 
tinent brought  discord,  and  the  Faritan 
party  desired  another  revision^  At  the  acces- 
sion of  James  I.  the  King  agreed  to  hear  the 
Puritan  demands  at  a  conference  at  Hampton 
Court  in  1603.  The  Puritans  met  with  little 
attention,  and  the  changes  made  in  the 
Prayer-book  were  slight ;  chief  of  them  vas 
the  addition  of  the  Thanksgiving  Prayex«, 
and  of  the  latter  half  of  the  Catechism. 
.  Charles  I.  attempted  to  force  on  Scotland  the 
use  of  the  English  Liturgy,  and  his  attempt 
led  to  a  revolution.  Under  the  Conmionwealth 
the  Prayer-book  was  swept  away.  After  the 
Restoration,  a  conference  was  held  at  the 
Savoy,  in  1661,  between  twelve  bi&hope  and 
twelve  Presbyterians,  to  discuss  the  wishes  of 
the  Presbyterians  for  a  revision  of  the 
Prayer-book.  This  Conference  did  not  show 
much  attempt  at  c-onciliation  on  either  side. 
A  committee  of  bishops  was  again  appointed 
to  revise  the  Prayer-book,  and  no  steps 
were  taken  to  meet  the  wishes  of  the  Presbv- 
terians.  What  alterations  were  made  ntha 
increased  than  diminished  the  scruples  of  the 
Puritans  against  receiving  the  work,  llif 
revised  F5rayer  -  book,  finally  reduced  to 
th^  shape  in  which  we  now  have  it,  was 
approved  by  Parliament,  and  its  use  was 
enforced  by  the  Act  of  Uniformity  of  1662. 
Some  printed  copies  were  carefully  compared 
with  the  original,  were  then  sealed  with  the 
Great  Seal,  and  were  sent  to  all  cathedia^fi, 
to  the  Courts  at  Westminster,  and  to  the 
Tower,  to  be  preserved  for  ever.  Since  then 
the  Sealed  Books  have  remained  the  standaid 
for  preserving  the  Prayer-book  in  its  original 
form.  It  is  true  that  in  1689  a  committee 
was  appointed  to  prepare  such  alterations  '*8S 
might  reconcile,  as  much  as  possible,  all 
differences."  But  Convocation  was  opposed 
to  all  change,  and  the  proposals  were  never 
considered. 


Palmer,  OriffiMB  LUurgxea;  Whe^Ue^,  0»0i* 


by  the  Parker  Society). 


FrerogatiTey  Tub  Rotal.  Prerpgatire 
has  been  defined  as  an  exclusive  privilege. 
Historically  considered,  it  is  not  much  more 
than  the  legal  exercise  of  the  royal  autho- 
rity. An  old  judge  expounded  it  as  "that 
law  in  case  of  the  king  which  is  law  in 
no  case  of  the  subject."  "  It  is  of  blood,'' 
Bacon  said,  "  to  the  Common  Law;  it 
sprang  from  sources  akin  to  those  from 
which  the  Common  Law  has  spnmg ;  it  did 
for  the  king  and  still  does  for  the  crown 
what  the  Common  Law  did  for  the  subject'* 


(  835  ) 


"  It  grew,"  says  Bishop  Stubbe,  "  out  of  cer- 
tam  conditions  of  the  national  life,  some  of 
which  existed  before  the  Norman  Conquest, 
others  were  the  products  of  that  great  change, 
and  others  resulted  from  the  peculiar  course 
of  Henry  II.  and  his  descendants."     Before 
*  1377  it  had  actually  or  virtually  parted  with 
most   of  its   legislative  and  taxing  powers. 
Chief    among    its    admitted    and    exclusive 
powers  at    this  time   were  those  of  calling, 
interrupting,    and    dismissing    Parliament, 
of   ratifying    legislation,   of  creating  peers, 
and    conferring  every  form   of    honour,  of 
making  cities  and    boroughs,  of  pardoning 
criminals,  of  negotiating  with  foreign  powers, 
of  declaring  and  conducting  war,  of  nominat- 
ing to  Church  dignities  and  presenting  to  an  im- 
mense number  of  benefices,  of  appointing  all 
public  officials,  of  coining  money,  regulating 
trade,  fixing  weights  and  measures,  and  es- 
tablishing markets  and  havens.    And  a  law 
of  uncertain  date,  but  given  as  IT.Edw.  II., 
called  PrerogtUiva  Regia^  adds  to  these  the  cus- 
tody of  idiots  and  lunatics,  wreck  of  the  sea, 
whales  and  sturgeons,  and  the  right  to  the 
lands  and  goods  of  attainted  felons.     And, 
with  few  exceptions,  these  advantages  are 
dtill  conceded  to  Prerogative.    But  besides 
these  it  then  claimed,  and  despite  a  long  and 
stubboriE  opposition  continued  to  exercise,  the 
rights  of  purveyance,  and  of  issuing  commis- 
sions of  array,  with  sU  the  manifold  accom- 
paniments   and  consequences  of   both.      A 
power  to  dispense  with  and  even  suspend  the 
operation  of  a  statute  was  also  among  its  de- 
mands.    Such  was  the  mediaBval  measure  of 
Prerogative  at  its  widest  possible  legal  stretch, 
though  even  to  this  a  king  like  Richard  II., 
in  his  days  of  absolutism,  would  seek  to  g^ve 
an  unquestionably  illegal  extension.    During 
the    constitutional  rule  of  the  Lancastrian 
dynasty  the  tendency  opposite  to  Richard's  set 
in,  that  of  not  only  dislodging  Prerogative  from 
its  disputed  position,  but  also  of  placing  its  le- 
^timate  exercise  under  Parliamentary  controL 
The  Tudor  despotism,  however,  forced  this  to 
yield  in  its  turn ;  and  for  a  time  it  became 
the  fashion  to  strain  the  principle  to  the  ut- 
most, and   give  it  a  practically  unbounded 
sphere  of  action.    The  high  prerogative  doc- 
trine then  came  into  vogue,  which  vested  in 
the  king,  besides  his  ordinary  power  limited 
by  law,  an  extraordinary  power  as  extensive 
us  the  whole  province  of  government,  to  be 
resorted  to,  if  the  safety  of  the  Commonweal 
were  judged  by  the  king  to  require  its  appli- 
cation, when  the  constitutional  resources  of 
authority  were  deemed  inadequate.    This  was 
perhaps  what  Bacon  meant  when  ho  described 
Prerogative  as  "  the  accomplishment  and  per- 
fection of  the  Common  Law,"  stepping  in  to 
the   rescue   of  the  State  when  the  Common 
I^w  was   found  wanting.     At  the  same  time 
tho  erection  of  exceptional  jurisdiction   and 
the  granting  of  monox)olies  were  regarded  as 
covered    by  the  regular  prerogative.     The 


dangerous  doctrine  and  the  questionable  prac- 
tices were  effaced  for  ever  by  the  actipn  of 
the  Long  Parliament.  But  the  dispensing 
and  suspending  powers  still  lingered ;  Charles 
II.  and  James  II.  employed  them  without 
scruple.  These,  however,  were  finally  extin- 
guished by  the  Bill  of  Rights.  The  Revolu- 
tion started  a  new  method  of  dealing  with 
Prerogative;  it  was  left  with  most  of  its 
powers  unimpaired,  and  some  of  them  even 
strengthened,  but  their  exercise  was  gradually 
drawn  under  the  efficient  control  of  Parlia- 
ment. This  now  belongs  to  a  body  of  min- 
isters who  are  responsible  for  it  to  the  Com- 
mons and  the  country,  and  are  virtually 
chosen  and  dismissed  by  both. 

Allen,  BiM  and  QrovBth  of  the  Royal  Prerogativ$ 
in  England;  the  Congtitational  Histories  of 
Hallam,  May,  and  Stubbs.  [J.  R.] 


ly  Tub  Liberty  op  the,  was  only 
secured  after  long  and  arduous  struggles. 
Soon  after  the  invention  of  printing  the  press 
throughout  Europe  was  placed  imder  the 
severe  censorship  of  the  Church,  and  after 
the  Reformation  this  censorship  became 
in  England  part  of  the  royal  prerogative. 
Printing  was  granted  as  a  monopoly,  confined 
by  regulations  issued  by  the  Star  Chamber 
under  ^lary  to  the  Stationers'  Company  ;  and 
under  Elizabeth  it  was  interdicted,  except  in 
London,  Oxford,  and  Cambridge,  the  licensing 
being  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  Archbishop 
of  Canterburv  or  the  Bishop  of  London,  on 
special  occasions  in  those  of  the  queen*s 
printer,  and  in  the  case  of  the  law-books  with 
one  of  the  chief  justices.  Mutilation  was 
infiicted  on  transgressors  of  the  law;  for 
instance,  in  the  case  of  Stubbes.  Further 
restrictions  were  imposed  by  the  Star  Chamber 
under  James  I.  and  Charles  I.  In  1637  the 
number  of  master-printers  was  limited  to 
twenty,  and  of  letter-founders  to  four.  The 
penalty  for  printing,  bookbinding,  or  letter- 
founding  without  a  licence  was  whipping, 
the  pillory,  and  imprisonment ;  and  even  new 
editions  of  authorised  books  had  to  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  licensers.  It  was  in  the  midst 
of  these  persecutions  that  the  first  newspaper, 
The  Weekly  Netves^  appeared  (1641),  ana  it 
was  followed  after  Uie  fall  of  the  Star 
Chamber  by  large  quantities  of  tracts  and 
newspapers.  The  censordfaip  was,  however, 
continued  under  the  Commonwealth,  and 
the  Independent  writers  were  suppressed 
with  such  severity  as  to  call  forth  from 
]^Iilton  a  noble  vindication  of  freedom  of 
opinion  in  the  Areopagitiea.  After  the  Res- 
toration came  the  Licensing  Act  of  1662,  by 
which  printing  was  confined  to  London,  York, 
and  the  two  universities,  and  the  number  of 
master-printers  was  limited  to  twenty  as 
before,  and  all  new  works  subjected  to  exa- 
mination by  an  officer  called  tho  licenser. 
Its  cruel  provisions  were  used  with  terrible 
harshness  by  the  licenser,  Roger  L^Estrange,' 


(  836  ) 


and  all  newspapers  stopped  except  the  Official 
London  Gazette  and  the  Obeervaior,  The  Act 
expired  in  1679,  but  was  revived  at  the 
accession  of  James  II.,  and  continued  until 
1695,  when  the  renewal  of  the  censorship  of 
the  press  was  negatived  by  the  House  of 
Commons. 

The  press  was  now  free  in  theory ;  but  still 
suffered  considerable  restrictions  in  practice 
from  the  stamp  duty,  and  the  law  of  libel  The 
first  Stamp  Act  (q.v.)  was  imposed  in  1712, 
partly  as  a  means  of  raising  revenue,  partly 
as  a  check  upon  the  scurrility  of  the  cheaper 
papers.  It  was  gradually  raised  to  fourpence, 
and  in  1820  it  was  imposed  by  one  of  the 
Six  Acts  upon  tracts  and  kindred  publications. 
Evasions  of  the  Stamp  Act  were  frequent, 
and  were  severely  punished  by  the  State. 
In  1836,  however,  the  stamp  duties  on  news- 
papers were  reduced  to  one  penny,  and  in 
1865  they  were  altogether  abandoned.  Another 
tax  on  knowledge,  the  paper  duty,  was 
abolished  in  1861.  The  law  of  libel  was  ex- 
ceedingly ill-defined,  and  was  frequently  used 
as  an  instrument  of  government  oppression 
under  William  III.  and  Anne,  among  its 
victims  being  Defoe  and  Steele.  Sir  Robert 
Walpole,  however,  who  was  comparatively 
indifferent  to  attaick,  allowed  it  to  slumber 
during  his  long  administration,  and  it  was 
not  until  the  accession  of  George  III.,  when 
public  opinion  had  become  keenly  alive  to  the 
corruption  of  Parliament,  that  the  govern- 
ment and  the  press  came  into  collision  again. 
Wilkes,  by  the  famous  "No.  45"  of  the 
North  Briton^  raised  the  question  of  the  right 
to  arrest  authors  and  printers  of  an  obnoxious 
publication  on  a  general  warrant,  and  gained 
a  complete  victory.  Then  came  Junius's 
"  Letter  to  the  King,"  the  trial  for  the  republi- 
cation of  which  by  the  bookseller  Almon 
established  the  important  doctrines  that  a 
publisher  was  criminally  liable  for  the  acts 
of  his  servants,  and  that  a  jurv  had  no  right 
to  determine  the  criminality  of  a  libeL  The 
latter  theory  was,  however,  evaded  at  the 
trial  of  Woodfall,  the  original  publisher,  who 
was  found  guilty  by  the  jury  of  "  printing 
and  publishing  only ; "  it  was  the  subject  of 
nequent  comments  of  a  hostile  nature  in  both 
houses  of  Parliament,  and  was  vigorously  com- 
bated by  Erskine  in  the  cases  of  the  Dean  of 
St.  Asaph  in  1779,  and  of  Stockdale  in  1789, 
Finally,  in  1792,  Fox's  Libel  Act  established 
the  important  principle  of  the  right  of  juries 
to  find  a  general  verdict  of  guilty  or  not 
guilty  on  the  whole  matter. 

The  outbreak  of  the  French  Bevolution 
unfortunately  produced  a  strong  reaction 
against  the  freedom  of  the  press.  Between 
1792  and  1820  tiie  Libel  Acts  were  frequently 
invoked.  The  ill-advised  prosecutions  of  the 
Duke  of  Wellington's  administration  in  1830 
and  1831  were  the  last  important  attempts  to 
suppress  the  free  written  expression  of  opinion. 
Since  that  time  the  press  .has  been  completely 


free  to  discuss  public  men  and  measures. 
Moreover  its  position  has  been  established  on 
a  firmer  basis  by  Lord  Campbell's  libel  Act 
(1843),  by  which  a  defendant  in  a  case,  of 
de&matory  libel  is  allowed  to  plead  that  it  is 
true,  and  that  its  publication  is  for  the  public- 
benefit,  and  by  which  publishers  are  n(» 
longer  held  liable  for  the  unauthorised  acts  of 
their  servants. 

Hallam,  Const.  Ritt.,  chs.  xiiL,xT.;  May,  Coiuf. 
Mitt.,  IL,  cha.  ix.  and  z. ;  Macaxuay,  RiA  «/ 
Eng.;  Grant,  Th»  Ifevotpa^  Pren.  See  SSElix.'. 
c.  2  ;  13  and  U  Charles  ll.,  c. 33 ;  10  Annexe.  IS, 
32  Geo.  IIL,  c.  60;  6  and  7  Vict.,  c.  ML 

[L.  C.  S.] 

PrestonpaiLfly  The  Battle  of,  m-a^ 
fought  on  Sept.  21,  1745,  at  a  village  in  Had- 
dington county,  nine  miles  east  of  Edinburgh, 
between  the  Young  Pretender's  adherents  and 
the  Royal  forces  under  ISir  John  Cope,  the 
latter  being  defeated. 

Pretender.  [Stuart,  James  Edwabb. 
and  Stu^ut,  Charles  Edward.  ] 

Pride's  Purge  is  the  name  given  to  the 
violent  measure  by  which  (Dec.  6,  1648)  the^ 
army  excluded  a  large  number  of  the  Presbyter- 
iaus  from  the  Parliament.  At  the  close  of  164S 
the  army  resolved  to  bring  the  king  to  a  trial. 
and  to  put  a  stop  to  the  treaty  proceeding  be- 
tween him  and  the  Parliament.  JParliament  on 
D«c.  5  decided  that  the  king's  answers  to  their 
proposals  offered  foundations  for  a  peace.  The 
army,  which  had  occupied  London  on  Dec.  2, 
surrounded  the  House  of  Commons  on  the  morn- 
ing of  the  6th  with  the  regiments  of  Colonels 
Pride,  Hewson,  and  Hardross  Waller.  Pride, 
with  a  list  of  names  in  his  hand,  prevented  cer- 
tain obnoxious  members  from  passing  in,  and 
locked  up  those  who  resisted.  The  number  of 
those  arrested  amounted  in  the  course  of  th^ 
next  day  to  47,  and  96  were  excluded.  On  the 
same  day  a  paper,  called  the  *'  Humble  Pro- 
posals and  Desires,*'  was  presented  to  thf- 
members  still  sitting  on  behalf  of  the  council 
of  officers,  setting  forth  the  demands  of  the 
army.  The  Jlouse,  reduced  to  less  than 
80  members,  decided  by  60  to  28  to  proceed 
with  the  consideration  of  these  propoeal< 
(Dec.  7),  and  in  the  next  three  weeks  rescinded 
its  late  votes,  and  determined  to  try  the  king. 

Prior,  Matthew  (*.  1664,  d,  1721),  iws 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  the  liteiv}' 
diplomatists  and  politicians  of  William  IIl*':^ 
and  Anne's  reigns.  He  was  educated  at  ^yest- 
minster  and  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge, 
of  which  he  became  a   Fellow,     He  was  a 
friend  of  Charles  Montague,  afterwards  chief 
of  the  Whig  party,  and  wrote  with  him  7^f 
City  Mouse  and  the  Country  Mouee,  a  satire  on 
Diyden's  Fable  of  the  Bind  and  the  Bsnther. 
Prior  was  sent  as  secretary  to  the  confrrtfs  at 
The  Hague,  and  became  one  of  William'* 
gentlemen  of  the  bedchamber.    He  was  ap- 
pointed secretary  to  the  English  legation  at 
Kyswick  (1697),  and  was  entrusted  with  the 


(  887  ) 


duty  of  bringing  the  treaty  to  England.  Next 
year  he  was  seat  in  the  same  capacity  to  France 
under  the  Duke  of  Portland.  When  factions 
broke  out  in  the  court,  Prior  deserted  Portland 
•and  attached  himself  to  Albemarle.  He  was 
Appointed  Under  Secretary  of  State  to  the 
Earl  of  Jersey,  but  was  reftioved  from  office 
on  the  retirement  of  that  nobleman.  In 
1701  he  was  elected  for  East  Grinstead  and 
^pointed  Commissioner  of  the  Board  of 
l^de.  Under  Anne  he  remained  out  of 
favour  while  the  Whigs  were  in  power ;  but 
in  July,  1711  he  was  sent  with  the  Abbe 
Oualtier  to  Paris  with  propositions  for  peace. 
In  August,  1712,  the  ministry,  weary  of 
the  length  of  the  negotiations,  sent  Boling- 
bi*oke  to  Paris  to  bhorten  the  work  by  personal 
conversation  with  Torcy.  Prior  accompanied 
him,  and  on  Bolingbroke*s  return  he  was  left 
as  charge  d'affaires,  without  regular  au- 
thority, and  with  scanty  remittances.  Dis- 
grace rapidly  overtook  him  on  the  death  of 
Anne.  As  soon  as  he  returned  to  England 
he  was  examined  before  the  Committee  of 
^fety,  of  which  Walpole  was  chairman, 
for  his  share  in  the  negotiations  for  peace. 
He  was  imprisoned,  and  on  June  10  Walpole 
moved  an  impeachment  against  him,  but 
eventually  he  was  released  without  trial.  The 
rest  of  his  life  was  spent  in  retirement. 

Johnaon,  lAvts  of  the  PoeU;  MacanlAjr,  Hut. 
of  Eng. ;  Stanhope,  Reian  of  QuMn  Anne ;  Prior's 
collected  works,  including  his  incomplete 
Jf  amcir  V  Hu  Own  Time,  were  publiahed  in  1733. 

PriBOnSy  Legiblatiok  ox.  As  early  as 
1166  it  was  enacted  (by  the  Assize  of  Claren- 
don, c.  7)  that  in  each  county  the  sheriff 
shoiild  provide  a  gaol  at  the  king's  cost  if  one 
did  not  already  exist.  In  addition  to  these 
'*  common  gaols,*'  some  of  the  law  courts  had 
special  prisons  connected  with  them,  such  as 
the  Marshalsea,  attached  to  the  King^s  Bench, 
and  the  Fleet  to  the  Star  Chamber  and  Chan- 
cery. Little  attention  was  paid  to  the  con- 
dition of  these  prisons  until  the  eighteenth 
century.  The  gaolers  were  paid,  not  by  sala- 
ries; but  by  the  fees  which  they  could  exact 
from  the  prisoners,  and  men  wore  often  re- 
tained long  after  tbeir  innocence  had  been 
pronounced  because  they  could  not  pay  the 
sums  demanded.  In  1728'  the  discovery  of 
certain  cruelties  perpetrated  in  the  Fleet  led 
to  the  appointment  of  a  Parliainentary  com- 
mission. The  warden  and  his  agents  were 
put  upon  their  trial  for  murder,  but  were 
acquitted;  and  the  Act  passed  in  1729  to 
remedy  the  worst  evils  was  almost  useless. 
The  question  was  apparently  forgotten  until 
Howard  began  to  prosecute  his  inquiries.  In 
1774  two  acts  were  passed,  one  providing  that 
«v6ry  prisoner  against  whom  the  Orand  Jury 
failed  to  find  a  true  bill  should  be  immediately 
and  without  fee  released,  and  that  the  gaoler 
should  be  paid  from  the  county  rate ;  and  the 
other  to  secure  the  due  cleansing,  etc.,  of 
inriBOiis.    After  this  time  numerous  statutes 


were  passed.  Of  these  the  most  important 
were  those  of  1823,  1865,  and  1877.  The 
Act  of  1823  was  largely  the  result  of  Mrs. 
Fry's  efforts,  and  introduced  a  classification 
of  prisoners.  In  1865  the  distinction,  which 
had  never  been  carefully  maintained,  between 
common  gaols  and  houses  of  correction — ^the 
latter  intended  only  for  convicted  criminals, 
was  finally  abolished;  and  what  was  far 
more  important,  it  was  enacted  that  in  all 
cases  imprisonment  should  be  "separate," 
«.«.,  solitary.  Finally,  the  Prison  Act  of 
1877,  which  is  now  the  principal  statute  on 
the  subject,  gave  an  increased  power  of  cx>n- 
trol  to  the  Home  Secretary  and  to  the  Prison 
Commissioners  appointed  on  his  recommen- 
dation. It  is  to  be  added  that  between  the  years 
1853  and  1864  transportation  was  abolished, 
and  penal  servitude,  t.^.,  imprisonment  with 
hard  labour  on  public  works,  substituted* 

Stephen,  Hut.  Crim,  LaWf  L,  ch,  xiii. ;  State 
Tn'alc,  vol.  xvii.  (1813),  p.  287;  Memoirs  of 
HowMd  and  Mrs.  Fry.  [W.  J.  A.] 

Probate  and  DiToroe.  Thb  Court 

OF,  was  created  in  1857,  and  received  the 
testamentary  and  matrimonial  juiisdiction, 
which  had  previously  been  vested  in  the 
Ecclesiastical  Courts.  By  the  Judicature 
Acts  of  1873  this  court,  together  with  the 
Admiralty  Court,  forms  one  of  the  divisLons 
of  the  High  Court  of  Justice. 

pTOdamatioiUI.  In  mediaeval  and 
later  times,  when  the  range  of  customary  and 
statute  law  was  still  comparatively  limited, 
and  many  practices  that  gave  concern  to 
kings  and  ministers  were  left  uncorrected 
thereby,  the  king  took  upon  himself  at  times 
to  supply  the  defect  by  issuing  proclamations^ 
which  either  expanded  and  applied  the  provi- 
sions of  already  existing  laws — in  any  case 
were  presumed  to  be  fair  deductions  from 
such  laws — or  were  independent  acts  of  pre- 
rogative. They  were  under  the  Plantagenet 
and  Lancastrian  kings  avowedly  temporary. 
Under  the  Tudors  proclamations  took  a  bolder  . 
tone,  and  began  to  encroach  on  the  domain  of 
legidation,  indeed  in  1539  they  seem  to  have 
actually  entered  it.  In  that  year  was  passed 
the  astounding  Statute  of  Proclamations,  which 
enacted  that  the  king,  with  the  advice  of  his 
council,  might  set  forth  proclamations,  with 
penalties  in  them,  as  obligatory  on  the  subject 
as  an  Act  of  Parliament,  provided  they  did 
no  damage  to  the  estates,  liberties,  or  persons 
of  the  king's  subjects,  and  infringed  no 
law.  But  the  first  law  of  Edwwi  YI. 
repealed  this  measure.  In  Elizabeth's  reign 
they  were  not  seldom  used  to  supplement 
legislation,  assist  in  the  promotion  of  a 
policy,  or  regulate  the  conduct  of  the  people. 
The  banishment  of  Anabaptists,  fastmg  in 
Lent,  building  houses  round  London,  carrying 
daggers,  or  wearing  long  rapiers,  trading  with 
the  French  king's  rebels,  are  a  few  of  the 
things  that  were  commanded  or  forbidden  in 
them  under  penalties,  and  itis  not  clear  that  very 


(  888  } 


mimy  of  them  were  dintinctly  illegal ;  statute 
■law  certainly  warranted  some,  the  unstrained 
prerogative  others.    James  I.  resorted  to  the 
practice  so  often,  and  pushed  it  so  decidedly 
across  the  boundaries  of  legality,  that  in  1610 
the  alarmed  Commons  made  it  a  subject  of 
formal  complaint,  alleging  that  the  king's 
proclamations  |;ouched  the  liberty,  goods,  in- 
heritance, and  livelihood  of  men,  and  that 
there  was  a  general  fear  they  would  grow  to 
the  strength  of  laws.    The  gravest  examples 
were  that  which  in  1604  dictated  rules  to  the 
constituencies  in  choosing  members  of  Parlia- 
ment, and  those  which  forbade  new  buildings 
about  London,  and  the  making  of  starch  out  of 
wheat,  and  in  most  cases  disobedience  was 
made  punishable  in  the  Star  Chamber.  James 
gave  a  reassuring  reply,  and  consulted  his 
chief    judges.     An    important    consequence 
followed.   The  consulted  judges,  Ibd  by  Coke, 
were  unanimously  of  opinion  that  by  his  pro- 
clamation the  king  could  not  create  an  offence. 
He  could  only  admonish  his  subjects  to  keep 
the   law,  and   could  not  make   an  offence 
punishable  in  the  Star  Chamber  if  it  were  not 
80   already.     James    frankly   accepted   this 
statement  of  the  law,  and  desisted  &om  issu- 
ing proclamations  imposing  fine  and  imprison- 
ment. But  in  Charles  I.' s  reign  proclamations 
were  greatly  multiplied,  especiaUy  during  the 
long  cessation  of  Parliament.    For  staying  in 
London   despite    a    proclamation    ordering 
country  gentlemen  with  their  families  back 
to  their   homes,  one  Mr.   Palmer    was,    in 
16^2,  fined  £1,000  by   the    Star  CTiamber. 
**The   illegality    of    these    proclamations," 
says   Hallun,    "  is    most    imquestionable." 
It    is    curious,    however,    that    they   after- 
wards found  no  place  in  the  Grrand  Remon- 
strance.   Li  the  ecclesiastical  province  the 
sovereign's   action    in  this    respect    is    less 
disputable.    Proclamations   for  and  against 
certain  religious  tenets,  practices,  and  ritual 
were  frequent  between  1529  and  1640.    That 
of  Charles  L,  in  1626,  "for  the  establishing 
of  the  peace  of  the  Church,"  is  one  of  the 
latest  examples.    The  practice  survived,  but 
only  just  survived,  the  convulsion  of  1640-60. 
To  omj  one  or  two  of  Charles  ll.'s  reign  has 
exception  been  taken.    It  is  significant  that 
no  mention  is  made  of  them  in  Uie  Declara- 
tion of  Rights.    Those  that  are  stiU  issued  by 
the  Privy  Council  are  invariably  warranted, 
sometimes  commanded,  by  the  statute  law. 

Bcodie,  Coiue.  Hi$t,;   HaUam,  Ctmst.  Hut, 

[J.  R.] 

Proph^syinj^  was  the  name  given  in 
the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  to  meetings  of 
the  clergy,  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
bishops,  for  tbe  discussion  and  explanation  of 
passages  of  Scripture.  The  meetings,  which 
were  held  in  public  for  the  edification  of  the 
people,  were  presided  over  by  a  moderator. 
The  system  began  during  the  primacy  of 
Archbishop  Parker,  and  was  very  obnoxious 


to  Elizabeth,  as  savouring  of    Puritanism. 

Most  of  the  bishops  were  in  favour  of  them, 

as  were  many  of  the  Privy  Council,  and 

Archbishop  Grindal  was  sequestered  for  five 

years  from  the  exercise  of  his  jurisdiction  for 

refusing  to  put  down  the  "  prophesyihgs"  at 

the  queen's  command.     They  mere  finally 

suppressed  by  a  special  conunand  of  ^izabeth, 

about  1577,  and  never  subsequently  revived. 

Mosheim,  Ecclen.  Hid.;  HalUun,  Qnui.  EUL: 
Froude,  Hid.  of  Eng. ;  Hook,  Litn  of  the  Ank- 
hi»hop9. 

ProtOCtor,    Thb    Titlb    of,    was  first 
given   to  the  governors    appointed   daring 
the  minority  or  incapacity  of  the  king.    It 
was  borne  by  the  Duke  of  Bedford  during 
the  minority  of  Henry  VL  (or  in  his  absennf 
by  the  Duke  of  Gloucester),  and  by  the  Bake 
of  York  in  1454,  and  again  in   1455  daring 
Henry's  illness ;  the  Duke  of  Gloucester  in 
1483,  and  the  Duke  of  Somerset  from  1547 
(Jan.)  to  1548  (Oct.).    The  House  of  Lords, 
in  answer  to  Humphrey,  Duke  of  Gloucester, 
thus  defined  the  meaning  of  the  word.    **  It 
was  advised  and  appointed  by  authority  of 
the  king  assenting  the  threei^tates  of  this  land, 
that  ye,  in  absence  of  my  lord  your  brother 
of  Bedford,  should  be  chief  of  the   king's 
council,  and  devised  unto  you  a  name  different 
from  other  counsellors,  not  the  name  of  tutor, 
lieutenant,  governor,  nor  of  regent,  nor  no 
name  that  should  import  authority  of  gover- 
nance of  the  land,  but  the  name  of  protector 
and  defender,  which  importeth  'a  penM>nsl 
duty  of  attendance  to  the  actual  defence  of 
the  land ,  as  well  against  enemies  outward  if  case 
required,  as  against  rebels  inward,  if  any 
were,  granting  you  therewith  certain  power, 
the  which  is  specified  and  contained  in  an 
Act  of  the  said  Parliament,  to  endure  as  long 
as  it  liked  the  king.' "    In  the  case  of  the 
Duke  of  Somerset  he  was  in  the  instrument 
si^ed  by  the  Privy  Council  on  Jan.  31,  1547, 
^id  to  1>B  appointed  because  the  good  govern- 
ment of  the  realm,  the  safety  of  the  kin^,  and 
''the  more  certain  and  assured  direction  of 
his  affairs  "  required  '*  that  some  special  man 
of  the  number  aforesaid  (the  executors^  should 
be  preferred  in  name  and  place  beiore  the 
other,  to  whom,  as  to  the  head  of  the  rest,  all 
strangers  and  others  might  have  access,  and 
who  for  his  virtue,  wisdom,  and  experience  in 
things,  were  meet  and  able  to  be  a  special 
remembrancer,  and  to  keep  a  most  certain 
account  of  all  our  proceedings."    The  title  of 
Protector  given  to  Cromwdl  (which  may  be 
compared  with    that   of   ^  euttodet  liberMit 
Anglia,*^  assumed  by  the  Long  Parliament) 
was  chosen  because  it  was  not  altogether  strange 
to  Einglish  ears,  and,  perhaps,  also  because 
it   left   the    definite  iorm   of  government, 
whether  monarchical  or  republican,  an  open 
question.    Cromwell's  title  was  "  Lord  Pro- 
tector of   the    Conunonwealth  of   England, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland.**    It  was  given  to  him 
first  in  the  Instrument  of  Government,  and 


(  839  ) 


after  his  refusal  to  accept  the  crown,  coDfimied 
by  the  Petition  and  Advice. 

Hall&iD»  Mi4dl€  Ag49 ;  Stnbbs,  Contt.  Bist,; 
Vroade,  Hitt.  of  Bng,  The  diaooHioiis  on  the 
qneetion  of  the  titlee  of  king  and  Protector  ore 
to  be  found  in  Burton,  Parlaanuntary  Diary.  See 
also  Cromwell's  own  speeohes  in  Ourlyle'e 
OrcmwU^  and  Whitelocke'a  JCmiiortal*. 

[C.  H.  F.] 

Plrotestant  Refugees  inEngrlaad. 

— Aa  soon  as  the  Reformation  was  established 
in  England,  this  country  became  the*  prin- 
cipal resort  for  the  oppressed  Calvinists  of  the 
Low  Countries  and  of  western  and  northern 
France,  lust  as  Switzerland  was  for  the  cen- 
tral and  southern  provinces  of  the  latter. 
The  immigration  began  before  the  end  of  King 
Henry  VIII.'s  reign  ;  it  received  a  powerful 
impulse  through  the  policy  which  guided  the 
ministers  of  King  Edward  VI ;  and  in  1550 
a  charter  was  granted  to  the  Protestants 
settled  in  London,  allowing  them  free  exer- 
cise of  their  religion,  and  appointing  the 
church  of  Austinfriars  for  the  joint  worship 
of  Dutch,  Walloons,  and  Huguenots.  The 
whole  community  was  placed  under  the 
superintendence  of  John  A  Lasco,  a  devoted 
mmis^r  who  had  abandoned  high  preferment 
as  a  Catholic  priest  in  Hungary  in  order  to 
found  a  Protestant  church  at  Emden,  in  ESast 
Friesland.  Driven  from  his  charge  there, 
A  Lasco  had  sought  refuge  in  England  in 
1648,  and  took  an  active  part  in  securing 
pliblic  support  for  his  fellow  exiles.  A  few 
months  utor  the  establishment  of  the  con- 
gregation of  Austinfriars,  the  French-speak- 
mg  portion  of  it — Huguenots  and  Walloons — 
separated  to  found  a  distinct  church  in 
Threadneedle  Street,  known  as  **  The  London 
Walloon  Church ;"  in  1840  they  removed  to 
St.  Martin's-Ie-(lrand.  Meanwhile  colonies 
were  being  formed  in  other  parts  of  England. 
The  silk-weavers  of  Canterbury  settled  there 
as  early  as  1547,  and  from  1561  until 
the  present  day,  although  now  their  in- 
dustiy  can  hardly  be  said  to  exist,  they 
have  worshipped  in  the  crypt  of  the  cathe- 
dral. By  1575  colonies  were  in  exist- 
ence at  the  seaports  of  Southampton, 
Winchelsea,  Rye,  Dover,  Sandwich,  and  Yar- 
mouth ;  and  inland  at  Glastonbury,  Wands- 
worth, Maidstone,  Colchester,  Norwich,  Thet- 
ford,  and  Stamford.  All,  or  nearly  all,  of 
these  had  their  own  religious  services.  Other 
sporadic  Walloon  settlements  appear  to  have 
existed  at  Buckingham,  Stony-Stratford, 
Newport-Pagnell,  and  other  places  in  the 
southern  Midlands.  In  the  first  years  of  this 
immigration  the  Dutch  and  Walloon  element 
seems  to  have  greatly  outnumbered  the 
Huguenots.  An  account  of  the  year  1567 
reckons  2,993  Dutch  to  only  512  French 
within  the  City  of  London  proper ;  but  on  the 
south  coast  the  French  appear  to  have  almost 
exclusively  prevailed.  The  success,  however, 
of  the  Dutch  in  the  resistance  to  Spanish  rule 
soon  put  an  end  to  the  emigration  from  that 


quarter;  and  the  issue  also  of  the  Edict  of 
Nantes  ^1598),  which  gave  a  legal  status  to 
the  Calvimstic  community  in  Fraoice,  had  the 
natural  result  of  keeping  the  Huguenots  at 
home.  There  was,  therefore,  a  pause  in  the  in- 
flow into  England  until  the  fourth  quarter  of 
the  seventeenth  century.  But  the  measures 
preliminary  to  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of 
Nantes  (1685),  had  their  effect  in  a  great 
multiplication  of  the  French  settlements  in 
Enghuad.  Between  1686  and  the  beginning  of 
the  eighteenth  century  no  less  than  thirty 
French  churches  sprang  into  existence  in 
London  and  its  immediate  vicinity.  Others 
arose  at  Bristol,  Barnstaple,  Bideford,  Ply- 
mouth, Stonehouse,  Dartmouth,  and  Exeter, 
at  Faversham,  at  Thorpe-le-Sokon  in  Essex, 
and  in  Edinburgh.  A  whole  set  of  colonies 
was  founded  in  Ireland,  at  Portarlington  and 
Toughal,  in  Dublin  (where  the  Frenc*h  had 
three  churches),  as  also  at  Lisbura,  Waterford, 
Cork,  and  other  places.  The  last  influx  of 
Protestant  refugees  was  that  of  the  mixed 
multitude  of  French  and  Gennans  who 
were  ejected  from  the  Palatinate  in  1709; 
several  thousands  of  whom  were  re- 
ceived in  England,  and  the  majority,  prob- 
ably, sent  on  to  America.  Many  of  the 
English  congregations  named  were  from 
the  beginning  attached  to  the  National 
Church  ;  nearly  all  in  time  became  so.  The 
foreigners  soon  adapted  themselves  to  English 
customs,  and  although  they  experienced  much 
opposition  from  native  tradespeople,  were 
able  to  exercise  their  handicrafts  to  the  signal 
advantage  of  the  country.  There  are  few 
industries  that  have  ^ot  benefited  by  the 
work  of  the  immigrants.  In  particular  may 
be  mentioned  those  in  silk  (at  Canterbury 
and  Spitalfields),  linen,  cotton,  wool,  paper, 
beaver  (at  Wandsworth),  sailcloth,  glass,  &c. 
The  total  number  of  those  who  settled  in 
English  territory  after  the  revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes  can  hardly  be  short  of 
80,000. 

J.  Sontherden  Bum,  Hi<.  of  the  Foreign  Pro- 
tenant  Bt/ugeeB  M(tl«<i  in  England,  1846;  C. 
Wein,  H«0t.  of  iho  FrtnciK  Protectant  Refugoee, 
bk.  iii  (English  translation,  1854);  D.  C.  A. 
Agnew,  Protestant  Exileefrom  France  in  the 
Rsign  of  Louie  XIF.,  2nd  Ed.,  1871,  etc. ;  B.  L. 
Poole,  Hiet.  of  the  Huguenote  of  th«  Di^n-eUm, 
ohs.  Tii.-iK.,  1880.  [R.  L.  P.] 

Pmssiay  Rblatioks  with,  began  with 
the  commercial  and  crusading  intercourse 
between  England  and  the  Teutonic  Order. 
The  towns  of  the  old  Prussian  state  were  all 
Hanse  Towns,  and  the  intimate  dealings 
between  England  and  the  Hansa  [Hansa] 
extended  te  Elbing,  Danzig,  and  Riga. 
At  last  rising  English  commerce  was  checked 
by  the  exclusive  system  of  the  Hansa.  ^ 
At  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century,  the 
quarrels  between  Prussian  and  English  mer- 
chants led  the  Hochmeister  in  1386  to  confis- 
cate all  English  merchants*  goods.  In  1388 
an  nndentanding  was   arrived  at,  but  the 


(840) 


desire  of  the  English  for  more  privileges 
involved  constant  disputes  all  through  the 
fifteenth  century.  Despite  this,  crusading 
expeditions  to  help  the  Teutonic  knights  in 
their  struggle  against  the  heathen  were  not 
unfrequent.  In  1352  Duke  Henry  of  Lan- 
caster took  the  cross,  and  in  1391  Thomas  of 
Gloucester  projected,  and  Henry  of  Boling- 
broke  accomphshed,  a  crusade  against  the 
Lithuanians.  Meanwhile,  relations  with 
Brandenburg  became  friendly  during  the 
tehure  of  the  Margruveship  by  the  Bavarian 
and  later  Luxemburg  houses.  The  Reforma- 
tion united  Prussia  and  Brandenburg  under 
the  HohenzoUem.  The  acquisition  of  the 
Rhenish  duchies  brought  the  Prussian  House 
into  relations  with  James  I.  and  Charles  I. 
The  close  connexion  of  the  HohenzoUems 
with  Holland,  at  first  a  cause  of  disunion 
with  England,  ultimately  became  a  bond  of 
connection.  The  Great  Elector's  last  act  was 
to  contribute  powerfully  to  the  Revolution  of 
1688,  by  senmng  his  troops  into  Holland  to 
invade  England.  He  had  felt  himself  threat- 
ened  by  James  II.'s  alliance  with  Louis  XIV., 
and  had  strongly  urged  William  to  seize  the 
English  crown.  Common  alliance  with  Aus- 
tria, common  hostility  to  France,  now  imited 
England  and  Prussia.  Frederick  I.,  the  first 
king,  married  the  sister  of  George  I.,  Sophia 
Charlotte.  His  son,  Frederick  William  I., 
married  his  cousin  Sophia  Dorothea,  daughter 
of  George  I.  Frederick  William  I.  for  many 
.years  remained  on  good  terms  with  England. 
In  1725  he  signed  the  Treaty  of  Hanover; 
but  secretly  deserted  the  English  for  the 
Austrian  aHiance,  and  the  double  marriage 
project  by  which  Prince  Frederick  of  Wales 
was  to  marry  Wilhelmina,  the  king's  daughter, 
and  his  heir  Frederick,  the  Princess  .Aonelia 
of  Hanover,  was  never  carried  out.  The 
accession  of  George  II.  hardly  mended 
matters.  He  bore  no  goodwill  to  his  brother- 
in-law,  or  to  his  nephew  Frederick  II.,  who 
became  king  in  1740.  The  Elector  of  Han- 
over feared  the  growing  power  of  Prussia; 
yet  so  important  was  Prussia's  help  against 
France  that  English  diplomacy  did  its  utmost 
to  compel  Maria  Theresa  to  acquiesce  in 
Frederidc's  conquest  of  Silesia.  During  the 
Seven  Years'  War,  Frederick  found  in  Eng- 
land his  one  important  ally.  His  brilliant 
feats  of  strategy  won  him  g^reat  popularity  in 
England,  where  he  was  regarded,  strangely 
enough,  as  the  "  Protestant  Hero."  The  acces- 
sion of  George  III.  led,  however,  to  England's 
sudden  desertion  of  Prussia  in  a  way  that 
Frederick  never  forgave.  His  later  policy  of 
Russian  alliance  was  largely  the  result  of  his 
conviction  that  no  stable  alliance  could  be 
formed  with  England.  Frederick  William 
II.,  however,  found  in  England  an  all^, 
first  against  Austria  and  Russia,  next  m 
the  intervention  in  Holland  to  restore  the 
House  of  Orange,  and,  lastly,  in  the  war 
i^gainst  Revolutionary  France.    But  in  1796 


Prussia  .concluded  peace  with  France  at  Basel, 
and  refused  to  join  the  second  coalition  of 
1799 ;  and  delayed  in  1805  to  join  the  war 
until  Austria  was  defeated  and  Prussia  itself 
threatened  by  the  French.  After  Jena  Prus- 
sia was  compelled  by  Napoleon  to.  exclude 
English  manufactures  ana  join  in  his  mea- 
sures to  reduce  the  power  of  his  great  enemy. 
The  War  of  Liberation  renewed  the  alliance 
between  Prussia  and  England,  and  Blucher 
and  Wellington  destroyed  Napoleon's  last 
army  at  Waterloo.  The  Tory  government, 
after  the  Peace  of  1815,  found  in  Prussia  a  can- 
genial  ally.  Since  then,  the  relationB  between 
England  and  Prussia  have  been  generally 
friendly.  The  refusal  of  Prussia  to  co-operate 
against  Russia  during  the  Crimean  War,  its 
attacks  on  Denmark  in.  order  to  restore 
Schleswig-Holstein  to  Germany,  caused  some 
discontent  in  England.  But  the  sympathy 
felt  for  the  Power  which  (done  could  give 
unity  to  Germany,  and  the  alliance  between 
the  courts,  which  culminated  in  the  marriage 
of  the  then  Crown  Prince  of  Prussia  to  the 
eldest  daughter  of  the  Queen  of  England,  have 
been  sufficient  to  maintain  a  general  friend- 
liness, though  the  different  aims  and  objects 
of  the  two  countries  would  prevent  any  very 
intimate  alliance. 

Voigt,  Qt»chicht9  von  Pntuaen  ;  and  Scbaos, 
EngUache  Hand«l«gMchtchte.  tor  the  eu^  rela- 
tions with  Prnsada  trnder  uie  Teutonio  juiigfati 
and  HansA.  Banke.  Eng.  Hi^.;  Carlyle*  Fr#d«- 
ride  tfca  Great;  Seeley^  Lift  of  Stein;  QteauA, 
Qetchiclde  de*  Prertaaisdhen  ^n<U»;  Bebnann, 
Neuere  QeBckichtt  det  PreuMisehtfn  Staatn. 

[T.  F.  T.] 

Pxynne,  William  (*.  1600,  d.  1669), 
matriculated  at  Oxford  1616,  and  entered 
at  Lincoln's  Inn  1620.  He  was  an  mi* 
tiring  student  of  ecclesiastical  and  legal 
antiquities,  a  bitter  Puritan,  and  a  Toluminoiu 
writer  on  controversial  subjects.  In  1632  ha 
published  a  work  entitled  HUtriomattii, 
attacking  the  immorality  of  the  stage, 
Mid  containing  words  supposed  to  reflect  oa 
the  queen.  For  this  he  was  fined  £5,000  by 
the  Star  Chamber ;  de^^raded  from  his  degree 
and  the  practice  of  his  profession,  and  sen- 
tenced to  be  pilloried  and  to  loac  both  his 
ears.  Again,  in  1637,  for  attacking  thfi 
bishops  in  his  News  from  Ipswich,  he  was 
sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life.  The 
Long  Parliament  released  him,  and  dedared 
these  sentences  illegal,  He  became,  in  1641, 
member  for  Newport,  was  most  active  in  the 
prosecution  of  Laud,  and  was  appointed  one 
of  the  Visitors  of  the  University  of  Oxford. 
As  he  opposed  the  king's  trial,  and  considered 
Charles's  answers  to  the  Parliamentary  proposi- 
tions to  offer  grounds  for  a  treaty,  he  was  ex- 
pelled by  Pride's  Purge  in  1648.  In  1659  he 
exerted  himself  very  actively  to  procure  the 
restoration  of  the  secluded  members,  and 
when  admitted  worked  to  bring  about  the 
king's  return.  In  the  discussions  on  the 
punishment  of  the  Begicides,  he  was  (me  of 


TvLb 


(841  ) 


thoiT  severest  opponents.  In  1660  he  was 
appointed  Keeper  of  the  Records  in  the 
Tower,  which  post  he  held  till  his  death. 

Public  Worship  Begiilation  Act 

(1874),  Thb,  was  introduced  into  the  House 
of  Lords  by  the  Archbishop  of  Omterbury,  and 
into  the  House  of  Commons  bv  Mr.  Russell 
Gumey.  The  object  of  the  bill  was  to  give 
parishioners  a  ready  way  of  invoking  the 
authority  of  the  bishop,  and  to  enable  the 
bishop  to  prohibit  by  his  own  mandate  any 
practices  which  he  considered  improper,  or 
else  to  submit  the  question  to  the  decision  of 
a  judge  specially  appointed  to  decide  in  such 
cases.  All  that  was  requisite  to  put  this 
machinery  in  motion  against  any  clergy- 
man was  that  three  of  the  parishioners  should 
declare  themselves  dissatisfied,  and  proceed 
to  make  use  of  the  law.  A  new  court 
was  erected,  to  which  was  transferred  all  the 
authority  of  the  Court  of  Arches,  and  at  its 
head  was  placed  Lord  Penzance,  as  the  first 
judge,  who  thus  became  the  direct  successor 
of  the  Bean  of  Arches.  There  was  a  very 
warm  debate  on  the  subject  in  both  Houses. 
Lord  SaUsbur^',  Mr.  Hardy,  and  Mr.  Glad- 
stone opposed  it  with  great  vehemence  as 
destractive  of  the  independence  of  the  Church. 
Mr.  Disraeli  and  Sir  William  Harcourt  stood 
forward  as  its  most  prominent  champions.  The 
Act  has  not  been  successful  in  its  operation. 

Puckering,  or  Pickering,  Sir  John 

(d,  1596),  after  having  distinguished  himsell 

as   a    Parliamentary    lawyer,    was    elected 

Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons,  1685,  and 

again  in  1586.     He  was  active  in  promoting 

the  execution  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  and 

subsequently  prosecuted  Secretary  Davison 

for  the  despatch  of  the  warrant  for  her  death. 

He  was  counsel  for  the  crown  on  the  oocasioii 

of  the  prosecutions  of  the  Earl  of  Arundel 

and  Sir  John  Perrot  for  treason ;  and  in  May, 

1592,  received  the  Great  Seal  with  the  title  of 

Lord  Keeper  as  the  roward  of  his  services  to 

the  queen,  succeeding  Sir  Christopher  Hatton. 

He  maintained  in  his  new  position  his  repu* 

fiction  as  a  sound  lawyer. 

OunpbeU,   Livn   of  th§  ChanoMon;    Fobs, 
Jvdg§B  of  England, 

Pucklachiircll,  a  village  of  Gloucester- 
shire,  a  few  miles  north-east  from  BristoL 
There  was  a  royal  palace  thero  in  Anglo« 
Saxon  times,  and  thero  it  was  that  in  946 
King  Edward  was  stabbed  by  a  robber  named 
Liofti,  while  keeping  the  feast  of  St.  Augus* 
tine  0^  Oanterbury. 

PlU^jaub  is  the  district  Ijring  about  the 
five  rivers,  the  tributaries  of  the  Indus.  It 
was  inhabited  by  a  half-rolig^ous,  half-military 
oonmranity,  the  Sikhs,  or  Akalees.  Their 
oommonwealth  was  divided  into  fraternities 
called  misiUf  the  chief  of  each  of  which  was 
tbe  leader  in  war  and  arbiter  in  time  of 
peaoe.  Of  these  chiefs  twelve  were  deemed  the  I 
Hxsx-27* 


foremost  in  rank.  In  1806  Bonjeet  Sing^ 
the  chief  of  one  of  these  misils,  ended  a 
long  and  gradual  course  of  encroachment  by 
becoming  the  ruler  of  the  whole  Punjaub.  The 
old  indejMndence  still  survived,  and  the 
**  Khalss,**  or  Sikh,  oommonwealth  was  re- 
garded with  almost  superstitious  devotion  by 
the  chiefs,  people,  and  soldiery.  Bnnjeet  was 
but  the  head  of  the  Kbalsa,  the  a^rmy  was  the 
army  of  the  Khalsa,  everything  was  done  in 
its  name  and  to  its  honour.  On  his  death 
(1839)  the  government  fell  into  anarchy  fcnr 
six  years.  In  1846  the  fears  of  the  minjsten 
launched  60,000  Sikhs,  the  magnificent  army 
of  the  Khalsa,  across  the  Sutlej  [Sikh 
Wars].  The  victory-  of  the  English  involved 
cessions  and  submission  (1846).  National  in- 
dignation at  this  humiliation  produoed  the 
second  Sikh  War,  which  ended  in  the  annexa- 
tion of  the  Punjaub  (1849).  It  was  placed 
under  a  board  of  commissioners. 

CmmlTighain,  HUt,  of  Bikha, 

PnxitaiUL  Thb.  During  the  course  of 
the  English  Kef ormation  a  difference  sprang 
up  between  the  moderate  Reformers,  and 
those  who  wished  to  make  the  forms  and 
oeremonies  of  religious  worship  as  simple  as 
possible.  The  attempt  to  impose  certain 
external  forms  and  ceremonies  gave  rise  to 
more  open  disunion.  **  The  English  bii^ops  " 
(writes  Fuller  under  the  date  1664)  <<  con- 
ceiving themselves  empowered  by  their 
canons,  began  to  show  their  authority  in 
urging  the  clergy  of  their  dioceses  to  sub- 
scribe to  the  liturgy,  ceremonies,  and  disci- 
pline of  the  Church :  and  such  as  refused  the 
same  were  branded  with  the  odious  name  of 
*  Puritans.'  '*  Up  to  about  1570  the  question 
at  issue  between  the  Elizabethan  Puritans 
and  the  authorities  of  the  Church  was  a 
question  of  rituaL  After  that  date  the  institu- 
tion of  Episcopacy  was  attacked,  especially 
by  Cartwright,  on  the  ground  of  the  apos- 
tolic ordination  of  Presbyterianism,  and  the 
question  of  Church  govemment  added  to  the 
zormer  cause  of  division.  Thns  was  founded 
the  Presbyterian  section  of  the  Puritan  part^. 
The  first  Puritans  were  anxious  to  remam 
within  the  national  Churoh  and  reform  it 
after  their  own  ideas.  But  from  the  first 
attempt  to  enforce  confonnity  some  of  them 
began  to  form  sepcunte  conventicles.  In 
June,  1567,  a  company  of  more  thfui  100  were 
seized  at  worship  m  Plummers'  Hall,  London, 
and  fourteen  or  fifteen  sent  to  prison.  This 
is  "the  first  instance  of  actual  punishment 
infiicted  on  Protestant  Dissenters  "  (Hallam). 
Later  in  the  reign  a  sect  arose,  called — from 
their  leader,  Bobert  Brown — Brownists  (or 
Separatists),  holding  that  each  congregation 
was  in  itself  a  complete  Church,  denying  that 
the  State,  or  any  assembly  of  the  clergy  had 
any  right  to  control  it,  and  proclaiming  the 
duty  of  separation  from  the  National  Church. 
This  was  ^  origin  of  the  Independent  sectioa 


(842) 


ol  the  Puritan  party.  The  result  of  the 
spread  of  these  views  was  the  Act  of  1573, 
enacting  imprisonment,  banishmenti  and  death 
as  penalties  for  Nonconformity. 

The  demands  of  the  Puritan  clergy  were 
expressed  in  the  Millenary  Petition  presented 
to  James  in  1603,  and  at  the  Hampton  Court 
Conference  (1604).  They  asked  for  certain 
definite  alterations  in  the  ritual,  for  a  preach- 
ing ministry,  and  for  the  amendment  of  the 
articles  in  a  Calvinistio  direction.  They 
wished  to  maintain  uniformity  in  ritual  and 
in  doctrine,  hut  to  change  the  characters 
of  both.  After  the  rejection  of  their  demands, 
jf  conformity  to  the  existing  order  was  enforced, 
4Uid  about  300  of  the  Puritan  clergy  were 
ejected  from  their  livings,  as  many  had  been 
expelled  by  Whitgift  during  the  previous 
reign.  English  Puritanism  in  the  earlier 
part  of  the  seventeenth  century  continued  to 
adhere  more  and  more  exclusively  to  Cal- 
vinistic  doctrine,  and  by  the  mouth  of  the 
House  of  Commons  to  demand  the  suppression 
of  the  opposite  views.  The  resolution  passed 
by  that  body  on  March  2,  1629,  declared  that 
**  whosoever  shall  bring  in  innovation  in  reli- 
^on,  or  by  favour  seek  to  extend  or  introduce 
Popery  or  Arminianism  or  other  opinions 
disagreeing  from  the  true  and  oithodox 
Church,  shall  be  reputed  a  capital  enemy  to 
this  kingdom  and  the  commonwealth." 
During  &e  same  period  questions  of  ritual 
and  ceremonial  became  of  less  importance  in 
Puritan  teaching,  and  the  demand  for  a 
purer  morality  and  a  reformed  life  more  and 
more  its  characteristics.  The  number  of 
Puritans  within  the  Church  increased.  Baxter 
describes  them  thus :  *'  Most  men,"  he  says, 
«  seemed  to  mind  nothing  seriously,  but  the 

body  and  the  world The  other  sort 

were  such  as  had  their  consciences  awakened 
to  some  regard  of  God  and  their  everlasting 
state ;  and  according  to  the  various  measures 
of  their  understanding,  did  sjpeak  and  live  as 
serious  in  the  Christian  faith,  and  would 
much  inquire  what  was  duty  and  what  was 
sin,  and  how  to  please  God ;  and  made  this 
their  business  and  interest,  as  the  rest  did 
the  world.**  Under  the  government  of 
Charles  I.  and  Laud,  a  series  of  mea- 
sures were  directed  against  the  Puritans. 
Controversial  preaching  was  silenced  by  a 
royal  proclamation,  so  that  the  doctrines 
at  issue  between  the  two  parties  in  the 
Church  could  not  be  freely  discussed,  the 
lectureships  were  suppressed,  and  writers 
against  the  hierarchy  or  the  Prayer-book 
severely  punished.  The  summoning  of  the  Long 
Parliament  at  length  gave  thevPuritans  the 
ascendency,  and  they  set  to  worl^to  carry  out 
their  ideas  on  Church  Beform.  The  Grand 
Hemonstrance  set  forth  their  programme. 
They  wished  (1)  to  reduce  within  bounds  the 
"exorbitant  power"  of  the  prelates;  (2>  to 
unburden  the  consciences  of  men  of  needless 
and  superstitiQUB  ceremonies,  suppress  inno- 


vations, and  take  away  the  monumentB  of 
idolatry;    (3)  to  effect  this  intended  refor- 
mation, a  synod  of  British  divines,  "  assisted 
with  some  from  foreign  parts  professing  the 
same  religion,**  was  to  be  assemmod  to  discos 
and  submit   to  the  confirmatioQ.  of  Parlia- 
ment the  necessary  measures.    At  the  sane 
time  they  meant  to  maintain  unifoimityaf 
doctrine  and  discipline.   *'  We  hold  it  requisite 
that  there  should  be  throughout  the  whole 
realm  a  conformity  to  that  order  which  the 
laws  enjoin  according  to  the  Word  of  God.'' 
To  carry  out  these  views  the  PresbvtemB 
system  of  church  government  was  established 
in  England,  and  a  new  Prayer-book  and  Con- 
fession of  Faith  drawn  up,  two  or  three  thou- 
sand of  the  clergy  were  ejected  from  their 
livings,  and  a  severe  law  passed  against  all 
heretics  and  sectaries.    But  the  Independent 
section  of  the  Puritan  party,  the  succcssoia  of 
the  Separatists,  defended  the  cause  of  tolera- 
tion and  congregational  government,  purged 
the  Parliament,  put  a  stop  to  the  Assembly  of 
Divines,  and   finally  dissolved  both.     The 
advanced  section  of  the  Independents  would 
have    abolished    altogether    an   Established 
Church.    Cromwell,  however,  was  determined 
to  carry  out    a    more    conservative  policy, 
"  his  definite  ideal  had  come  to  be  a  State 
Church  that    should  comprehend  Preshytd- 
rians,  Independents,  Baptists  and  pioos  ma 
of  all  sound  evangelical  sects  with  an  ample 
toleration  of  dissent  round  about  it"    This 
ideal  he  carried  out  during  the  Protectorate. 
After  his  death,  when  the  seclnded  memhai 
had  been  readmitted  to  sit  in  Parliament, 
Presbyterian  government  was  re-established 
(March,  1660),  and  the  Bestoration  found  it 
in  possession.    Charles  had  promised  a  liberty 
for  tender  consciences,  and  led  the  Presby- 
terians to  hope  for  their  comprehension  within 
the    Church    Establishment.       Negotiatioos 
for  that  purpose  were  carried  on,  and  a  con- 
ference took  place  at  the  Savoy  (1661),  but 
attempts  at  a  compromise  flailed,  and  the  Act 
of  Uniformity  was  passed  (May,  1663).  About 
2,500  of  the  Puritan  clergy  were  dcpriTed  of 
their  livings  in  consequence  of  this  change. 
Those  who  conformed  and  remained  within 
the  Church  formed  the  Low  Church  party» 
those  who  now  definitely  separated  themisd^^ 
from  it,  the  Konconformist,  or  Dissenting 
party. 

Neal,  Hutoni  o/th«  Purttaiu  ;  Gardiner,  Bid, 
qf  England  ;  MMKm,  JAft  of  HHUm. 

\\j*  xl.  *.J 

Pnrveyaiica.  "  Purvey  "  is  but  anothff 
form  of  "  provide."  Purveyance,  in  its  general 
sense,  was  the  obli^tion  believed  to  be  o| 
immemorial  antiquity,  imposed  upon  aU 
people  of  the  country-side  through  which  tiie 
king  was  making  progress,  of  proriding  hio 
and  his  multituoinous  following  with  the 
means  of  support  and  conveyance,  at  pno» 
fixed  by  the  royal  officers,  and  paid,  ii !»» 
at  all,  in  tallies,  the  value  of  which  was  to  be 


(843) 


<ieducted  from  the  next  taxes  that  the  several 
victims  of  the  exaction  would  have  to  pay. 
Keduced  to  particulars,  it  meant  the  right  of 
buying  for,  and  the  duty  of  selling  goods  to, 
the  king  in  preference  to  any  other  purchaser 
■(called  pre^m^tion),  the  power  of  demanding 
personal  services,  horses,  and  carts,  and 
everything  else  that  the  case  needed,  from 
those  of  tlie  neighbourhood  who  could  give 
them,  at  whatever  cost  of  damage,  loss,  and 
inconvenience,  with  no  chance  oi  ever  being 
■adequately  paid,  and  little  of  ever  being 
paid  at  aU.  No  irregular  royal  right 
was  of  greater  antiquity,  better  estab- 
lished, or  of  longer  continuance.  We  can 
track'it  by  the  efforts  to  correct  its  evils  from 
the  Great  Charter  till  the  Civil  Wars ;  and  it 
was  undoubtedly  much  older  than  the  Charter. 
Even,  in  its  warranted  use  it  was  specially 
oppressive  in  England;  the  very  eagerness 
of  our  best  kings  to  do  their  work  well,  by 
keeping  them  constantly  travelling  &om 
place  to  place,  aggravated  its  hardships.  But 
its  nature  lent  it  readily,  to  abuse;  it  was 
accordingly  grossly  abused,  and  most  galling 
its  abuses  were.  Not  only  were  the  pur- 
veyors outrageously  unjust,  dishonest,  and 
unfeeliuKf  making,  as  an  authority  states, 
«very  old  woman  tremble  for  her  poultry  till 
the  king  had  gone  by,  and  perverting  their 
office  to  their  own  enrichment,  but  the  son  or 
servant  of  the  king  was  counted  as  the  king 
himself,  and  every  other  colourable  pretext 
for  making  the  requisition  was  seized  without 
scruple.  It  was,  moreover,  construed  into  a 
claim  to  call  upon  whole  counties  for  supplies 
of  beef,  pork,  and  com,  on  great  state  occa- 
flions.  jPurveyance  was,  therefore,  odious 
in. itself;  and  it  loaded  the  crown  with  a 
heavy  burden  of  unpopularity.  No  grievance 
provoked  so  much  leg^lation ;  it  is  prominent 
in  every  remedial  movement  and  measure 
for  centuries ;  we  are  told  that  not  less  than 
thirty-six  statutes  were  passed  to  restrain 
it,  ten  in  Edward  in.'s  reign  alone.  Tet  its 
legality  was  always  admitted,  nor  was  there 
over  any  thought  of  removing  the  **  accursed 
prerogative ''  itself,  as  Archbishop  Islip  called 
it.  ^e  curtailing  legislation  was  not  alto- 
gether useless ;  after  1362,  when  Edward  III. 
enacted  that  purveyance  should  provide  for 
the  personal  needs  of  the  king  and  queen 
only,  and  that  purveyors  should  change  their 
name  to  buyers,  its  abuses  would  seem  to 
have  been  less  grievous.  In  process  of  time, 
however,  an  abundant  crop  of  new  ones  had 
grown  round  it ;  of  these  the  Commons'  peti- 
tion, in  1604,  gives  a  detailed  account  that 
shows  a  wonderful  ingenuity  on  the  part  of 
the  purveyors  and  cart-takers  in  working  the 
prerogative  for  their  own  benefit,  and  to 
the  oppression  and  vexation  of  the  people. 
Bacon  told  the  king  that  their  practices 
were  '*  the  most  common  and  general  abuse 
of  all  others  in  the  kingdom."  It  was 
then   proposed  to  compound  the   right  for 


an  annual  payment    of   £50,000,   but    the 

proposal  fell  through.    Two  years  later  the 

king  pruned  away  the  worst  of  the  evils 

by  proclamation;  and  the  rage  against  the 

officials  subsided.     In  1610  a  surrender  of 

the  right  by  the  crown  was  almost  arranged 

in  the  bargain  known  as  the  Great  Contract, 

but  broke  down  with  the  collapse  of  that 

negotiation.    It  was  discontinued,  however, 

with  the  relics  of  feudalism,  at  the  fall  of  the 

monarchy,  and  was    not    restored  with  its 

restoration.  In  1660  purveyance  was  formally 

abolished  by  the  Convention  of  that  year. 

Stubbfl,  Const,  Hut. ;  Hallam,  Middle  Agu  and 
Contt.  Hut. ;  Gazdiner,  Hitt.  of^  -Bny.,  toI.  L  ; 
Spedding,  Bacon'*  I.«tter^  vol.  ill.       f  J.  K.] 

Fym,  John  {b.  1584,  d.  1643),  descended 
from  a  good  Somersetshire  family,  educated 
at  Broadgates  Hall,  Oxford,  early  obtained  a 
responsible  office  in  the  Exchequer,  and 
entered  Parliament  in  1614  as  member  for 
Calne.  In  the  second  Parliament  of  Charles  I. 
he  was  one  of  the  managers  of  Buckingham's 
impeachment,  and  in  the  third  he  took  a 

Prominent  part  in'  the  debates  about  the 
Petition  of  Kight.  In  1640  ho  was  naturally 
pointed  out  to  head  ^e  popular  party,  and 
the  great  speeches  in  which  he  summed  up 
their  grievances  were  widely  circulated 
amongst  the  people.  He  moved  the  impeach- 
ment of  Straifonl,  drew  up  with  the  aid  of 
St.  JohA*the  charges  against  him,  and  was 
the  chief  manager  of  his  trial.  The  Bill  of 
Attainder  was  forced  on  him  by  the  extreme 
party  amongst  his  followers,  and  Pym  did  his 
Dcst  to  give  the  proceedings  a  judicial  form.. 
Not  only  was  he  a  very  able  debater  anc^ 
Parliamentary  tactician,  but  he  had  w^t 
Clarendon  terms  "a  very  comely  and  grave 
way  of  expressing  himself."  He  was  a  strong 
Presbyterian,  though  not  at  first  disposed  to 
go  the  length  of  the  Koot-and-Branch  party, 
and  it  was  probably  on  accoimt  of  this  relative 
moderation  that  it  was  at  one  time  intended 
by  the  kinf  to  offer  him  the  post  of  Chan- 
cellor of  &e  Exchequer.  The  Protestation 
and  the  Grand  Renionstrance,  two  appeals  to 
the  people,  were  particularly  his  work:-  The 
influence  which  he  exercised  gained  him  from 
the  Royalists  the  nickname  of  King  P^,  and 
marked  him  out  for  impeachment  on  the 
charge  of  treasonable  correspondence  with 
the* Scots,  and  attempt  to  subvert  the  funda- 
mental laws  of  the  kingdom)  brought  against 
him  by  the  king  in  January,  1642.  After 
the  refusal  of  the  g^uarantees  demanded  by 
Parliament,  Pym  became  a  leading  member 
of  the  Committee  of  Safety  (July  4,  1642). 
He  was  practically  the  head  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  unceasingly  active  in  directmg'  the 
conduct  of  the  war,  and  maintaining  the  spirit 
of  resistance  in  city  and  Parliament.  He  was 
excepted  from  pardon  in  the  king's  proclama- 
tions, and  exposed  both  to  the  slanders  of  the 
Boyalists  and  to  many  accusations  from  the  dis- 
contented of  his  own  party.    But  he  retaiipied 


(844) 


QUA 


tile  confidence  of  the  Parliament  to  the  last, 

and  a  month  before  hia  death  they  conferred  on 

him  the  important  post  of  lieutenant-Greneral 

of  the  Onmanco  of  the  Kingdom.    Hia  last 

important  work  was  the  bringing  about  the 

alliance  with  the  Scots.    He  died  on  Dec  8, 

1643,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Clarendon  thus  describes  his  position  in  1640: 

**  He  seemed  to  all  men  to  have  the  greatest 

influence  upon  the  House  of  Commons  of  any 

man ;  and,  in  truth,  I  think  he  was  at  that 

time,  and  for  some  months  after,  the  most 

popular  man,  and  the  most  able  to  do  hurt, 

that  hath  lived  in  any  time." 

Oardiner,  HxMt.  of  Eng,,  19M-^lM2i  Forster, 
BritUh  Statetmen;  "Mij,  Long  Parliament; 
Claxendon.  BsboUwa.  [C.  H.  F.j 


Thb  Battles  op  the  (July  25 
— Aug.  2,  1813),  during  the  closing  pterioa  of 
the  Peninsular  War,  were  a  series  of  com- 
bats which  resulted  in  the  defeat  of  Soult's 
attempt  to  relieve  San  Sebastian.  In  July, 
Soult  had  been  sent  to  supersede  JosepL. 
On  the  2dth  and  26th,  General  Cole  was 
vigorously  attacked  by  Soult  at  Ronces- 
valles,  and  only  just  managed  to  maintain  his 
position  until  Picton  and  Campbell  arrived, 
while,  at  Maya,  Stewart  was  all  but  driven 
from  the  pass,  after  losing  two  successive 
positions.  Wellington,  on  returning  from 
San  Sebastian,  heard  of  these  combats  at 
Imeta,  and  at  once  gave  orders  for  all  the 
troops  to  concentrate  in  communication  with 
the  force  at  Pampeluna.  The  retreat  of  the 
troops  was  successfully  accomplishe<ll  On 
•Ihe  28th  a  combat  took  place  at  Santarem, 
where  Wellington,  with  very  inferior  num- 
bers, held  a  strong  position  against  the 
attacks. of  Soult.  On  the  30th,  Hill  was 
attacked  at  Buenzas  in  a  difficult  position, 
and  his  position  was  turned;  but  in  the 
meantime  Wellington  had  assaulted  and  taken 
Santarem,  and  had  thrown  the  French  who 
were  engaged  against  him  into  hopeless  con- 
fusion. Soult's  position  had  become  desperate, 
and  it  was  necessary  to  retreat.  In  the 
narrow  passes  he  with  difficulty  escaped 
being  surrounded  and  losing  his  whole 
army.  During  nine  days'  fighting  the  allies 
had  lost  7,300  men,  while  the  Fi«nch  loss 
must  have  been  quite  double.  Soult's  army 
was  rendered  incapable  of  further  action  for 
the  present,  and  Wellington  at  once  ordered 
Graham  to  renew  the  siege  of  San  Sebastian. 

Napier,  Pmimndar  War;  Clinton,  Pmincvlar 
War, 

Q 

Quadruple  AUianee,  The   (August, 

17 lo),  was  the  name  given  to  the  extension 
of  the  TViple  Alliance  of  1717  between 
England,  France,  and  Holland  by  the  adhe- 
sion of  the  Emperor  to  its  principles.  A 
treaty  was  drawn  up  by  the  allied  powers, 
with  the  main    object  of  maintaining   the 


European  settlement  effected  by  the  Tmtf 
of  Utrecht.  With  a  few  changes  of  detail, 
the  chief  articles  of  the  treaty  were  that 
Spain  was  to  restore  Sardinia  to  the  Emperor, 
and  the  King  of  Spain  to  renounce  his  daim 
to  succeed  to  the  French  crown ;  while  the 
Emperor  renounced  all  claim  to  what  had 
been  guaranteed  to  Philip  V.  by  the  Treatj 
of  Utrecht.  Philip  was  to  renounce  h» 
claim  to  the  Italian  possessions  of  the  Emperor 
and  to  the  Netherlands.  The  Emperor  was  to 
be  put  in  possession  of  Sicily,  in  retoni  far 
which  the  Emperor  was  to  give  up  Sardinia 
to  the  King  of  Sidlv,  who  was  to  be  con- 
firmed in  aU  the  cessions  made  to  him  by  the 
Treaty  of  Turin  in  1703 ;  while  the  Emperor 
was  to  acknowledge  the  house  of  Savoy's 
right  to  succeed  to  the  crown  of  Spain  in 
case  of  the  failure  of  Philip  V.'s  hein. 
France  and  Great  Britain  promised  to  aid 
the  Em})eror  to  acquire  possession  of  Sicily; 
while  tiie  Emperor  and  the  French  bound 
themselves  to  maintain  the  Protestant  mc- 
oeasion  in  England.  The  Kings  of  Spain  and 
Sicily  were  to  be  forced  to  submit  to  these 
tonns,  but  weie  allowed  three  months'  con- 
sideration. If  any  one  of  the  mediatins: 
powers  was  attacked,  the  othera  should  assist 
him.  If  both  Spain  and  Sicily  held  oot, 
Sardinia  was  to  be  first  conquered,  and  then 
Sicily,  of  which  two  islands  the  former  was 
to  be  put  in  the  guardianship  of  England; 
and  in  case  of  this  resistance  on  the  part  of 
these  two  powers,  the  Emperor  was  allowed  to 
recover  the  part  of  Milan  ceded  by  the  Treaty 
of  Turin.  When  once  in  possession  of  Sicily 
the  Emperor  was  to  give  up  all  daim  upon 
Spain  and  the  Indies. 

Kooh  and  Schoell,  H%$t.  dst  TroOds  d$  Ftu. 

m 

QnjilEemy  The,  owe  their  origin  to 
Greorge  Fox,  who  seems  to  have  com- 
men(^  ^ireaching  about  the  year  1647,  from 
which  tune  his  life  was  SLlmoet  constant 
travel  or  imprisonment.  The  term  Quaker 
seems  to  have  been  first  bestowed  u^  the 
new  religious  body  at  Derby  in  1650,  m  alls- 
sion  to  Fox's  phrase  bidding  people  '*  tremUe 
at  the  word  of  the  Lord.*'  Before  long  his 
wilder  followers  began  to  draw  attention  to 
themselves  by  their  strange  habits,  which 
disturbed  public  worship,  and  by  declaiming 
against  all  sorts  of  clergy,  against  the 
use  of  **  steeple-houses  '*  and  fixed  times  of 
assembling.  But  the  extravagances  of  the  new 
sect  were  confined  to  fanatics,  and  must  not  be 
set  down  to  the  discredit  of  its  more  respects* 
ble  membera  like  Barclay  and  Penn.  By  1692 
the  Quakers  had  already  set  up  assemblies  m 
Tiancashire,  and,  a  few  years  later,  held  their 
first  separate  London  meeting  in  Watling 
Street.  Neal  relates,  though  apparently  oa 
somewhat  doubtful  authority  in  some  cases^ 
the  most  extraordinary  tales  of  their  oondoct 
in  these  days ;  and  Whitolocke  assures  us  that 
one  Quaker  came  to  the  door  ol  the  Fsrlia- 


QUA 


(846) 


Que 


ment-hoiue  with  drawn  sword,  being  ''in- 
spired by  the  Spirit  to  kill  every  man  that 
flat  in  the  hoose."  Such  extravagant  conduct 
gained  them  many  enemies;  but  Cromwell 
was  willing  to  lend  them  his  protection,  and 
was  spedafiy  averse  to  the  treatment  of  Nay- 
lor,  a  QuaJcer  who  received  a  severe  sentence 
as  a  blasphemer,  Dec.  17,  1656.  At  the 
Kestoration,  they  petitioned  the  king  in 
favour  of  the  four  hundred  men  and  women 
of  their  sect  imprisoned  in  or  near  London,  and 
petitioned  for  toleration.  The  only  answer  to 
this  petition  was  a  declaration  that  if,  after 
a  certain  date,  any  people  should  refuse 
to  take  an  oath — a  ceremony  which  the 
Quakers  considered  wicked— or  should  as- 
semble for  worship,  they  should  be  liable  to  two 
fines  of  £5  and  £10,  and  for  the  third  offence 
to  transportation.  The  Acts  of  Uniformity  and 
the  Coigporation  Act  told  upon  them  as  upon 
other  ^ssenters.  On  James  II.  *8  accession 
they  petitioned  the  new  king  for  toleration, 
and  now  had  a  defender  at  court  in  the  person 
of  Penn.  They  gladly  accepted  the  privi- 
leges of  the  Beduation  of  Indulgence.  In 
1682  Penn  had  founded  the  colony  of  Penn- 
sylvania, and  one  of  the  leading  articles  of  its 
constitution  granted  freedom  of  conscience 
to  gin.  who  admowledged  the  ''one  eternal 
God."  The  Quakers  shared  in  the  benefits 
of  the  Toleration  Act,  and  in  many  of  the 
various  Acts  by  which,  in  subsequent  times, 
ihe  bounds  of  religious  and  dvil  Hberty  have 
been  enkuged.  In  1833  they  were  allowed  to 
make  a  "  solemn  affirmation  and  declaration" 
in  lieu  of  an  oath  in  Parliament  and  courts 
of  law. 

Neal.  Eid.  of  ih«  Pwitana ;  Bogne.  Hi$t.  of 
DiMamten;    Stoaghton,   HitL    of   BMtgion    in 
•  Xngland. 

Ql&atre  Bras,  The  Battle  of  (June  16, 
ISlo),  was  an  encounter  between  the  left  of 
the  fVench  army  and  the  English  advanced 

fiard  in  the  diort  campaign  of  18 1 5.  Quatre 
ras  itself  was  merely  a  mass  of  farm- 
buildings  situated  at  the  pomt  where  the  four 
main  roads  to  Brussels,  mveUes,  Gharleroi, 
and  Namur  intersect.  Napoleon's  orders  were 
that,  while  he  attacked  the  Prussians  at 
Ligny,  on  the  16th,  Ney  should  simultaneously 
overwhelm  the  British  force  at  Quatre  Bras. 
The  attacks  b^gan  at  three  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon,  and  as  evening  wore  on,  Ney  be- 
came aware  that  no  reinforcements  could  reach 
him ;  and  at  the  same  time  fresh  troops  were 
arriving  for  the  allies,  among  whom  were 
two  brigades  ,of  the  Guards.  As  the  attacks 
became  feebler,  Wellington  ordered  all  the 
troops  to  advance.  They  at  once  drove 
the  French  before  them,  and  carried  every 

C'tion  which  the  French  had  wen.  Night 
now  fallen,  aql  the  troops  bivouacked  on 
the  field  of  battle.  The  remforcements  had 
now  given  Wellington  a  numerical  supe- 
riority over  Ney ;  but  the  necessity  of  formmg 
a  connection  with  BSicher,  who  was  falling 


back  from  Ligny,  compelled  him  to  foreffo 

the  opportunity   of   attacldng  Ney  on  l£e 

17th,  and  at  ten  o'clock  next  moniing  he 

began  a  retreat  to  the  field  of  Waterloo; 

Siborne,  WaUrioo  Campaigt^f  Chmu&y,WaUrio9 
L9etwr§a, 

QaebaOy  Pkotixcb  of.    [Canada.] 

QnebeOy  The  Captubb  of  (Sept.  13, 1769), 
was  effected  by  General  Wolfe  during  the 
campaign  in  America  which  formed  part  of 
the  Seven  Years'  War.  The  idea  of  attacking 
Quebec,  the  capital  of  French  Canada,  was 
one  of  long  standing  with  English  miiuBters, 
and  in  1711  an  expedition  was  sent  against 
it,  which  returned  without  being  able  to  make 
its  way  through  the  channel  of  the  St.  Law- 
rence. The  town  was,  from  its  position, 
considered  impregnable,  and  was  defended  by 
13,000  French  troops  under  the  Marquis  de 
Montcalm.  Wolfe's  force  of  8,000  men, 
on  board  Admiral  Saunders's  fleet,  succeeded 
in  landing  on  the  Isle  of  Orleans,  before  the 
city,  by  June  27,  1769^  On  the  29th  Wolfe 
took  possession  of  the  headland  of  Port 
Levi,  which  laces  Quebec.  The  city  was 
situated  on  a  promontory  of  lofty  rocks, 
which,  continuing  beyond  the  ci^,  were 
called  the  Heighto  of  Abraham.  Montcalm 
had  so  disposed  his  troops  as  to  command 
the  only  dangerous  position  of  assault,  with 
the  river  and  the  sandbank  in  his  front,  and 
behind  him  heavy  woods.  Wolfe  commenced 
to  fire  on  the  city  from  his  two  batteries, 
while  Montcalm  remained  for  the  most  part 
on  the  defensive.  On  Julv  9  Wolfe  carried 
his  troops  over  to  the  left  bank,  while  a 
squadron  of  English  ships,  passing  further  up 
the  river,  maintained  the  blockade.  At  last, 
being  unable  to  induce  Montcalm  to  move, 
Wolfe  crossed  the  Montmorency,  but  was 
beaten  back.  Still  the  two  other  English 
armies  failed  to  appear.  To  add  to  the  other 
difficulties,  Wolfe  fell  ill  of  a  fever,  and  there 
were  only  between  3,000  and  4,000  effective 
men.  So  matters  continued  till  the  night  of 
Sept.  12,  when  Wolfe  determined  to  attempt 
to  scale  the  Heights  of  Abraham*  In  the 
darkness  of  the  midnight,  half  his  forces  were 
carried  across  with  the  tide.  Clambering  up 
the  precipice  by  the  aid  of  bushes  and  stumps, 
they  startled  tiie  French  company  guarding 
that  part  of  the  heights.  Before  Montcalm 
could  muster  his  men,  the  English  were  at  the 
very  back  of  Quebec.  In  &e  engag^ement 
that  followed,  Wolfe  was  wounded  in  the 
groin,  and  died  in  the  moment  of  victory,  at 
tiie  early  age  of  thirty-three. 

Stanhope,  Hi»C  </  Sng. ;  Gleig,  Brittek  Com- 
mandan;  B.  Wnyht,  Mtmoin  of  QenonA 
Wol/4. 

Qliebeo  Act.  Thb  (1774),  was  passed  at 
the  instigation  ot  Lord  Norui,  to  conciliate; 
as  far  as  possible,  the  French  Canadians,  and 
to  secure  their  alleg^ianoe  to  Britai^,  in  the 
approaching  war  with  America.    ^Diis  Act 


Qua 


(846) 


Qn* 


TestoTed  the  old  French  Bystem,  and  estab- 
lished  the  Boman  Catholic  Church,  to  which 
the  Tast  majority  of  the  Canadians  belonged, 
whilst  it  **■  confinned  the  French  Canadians  in 
their  possessions,  their  laws,  and  rights,  on 
condition  of  their  taking  an  oath  of  allegiance 
which  was  so  worded  as  not  to  hurt  the 
conscience  of  Roman  Catholics."  It  also  pro- 
vided for  the  establishment  of  a  legislative 
council,  with  authority  over  everything  except 
taxation.  * 

Creaqr,  Britannic  £m]>ire. 

Queen  is  &  word  which  originally  meant 
no  more  than  woman  or  wife,  though  it  early 
came  to  be  used  for  the  wife  of  a  king'. 
Asser,  after  telling  how  EthelwuU  upon 
his  return  to  En^^and  with  his  second 
wife,  Judith,  placed  her  upon  a  throne  by 
his  side,  *'  contrary  to  the  perverse  custom  *' 
of  the  West  Saxons,  proceeds  to  ex]^ain  that 
the  evil  deeds  of  Eadburh,  wife  of  jBeorhtric 
of  Wessex,  had  caused  the  nobles  of  that 
kingdom  to  swear  that  the^^  would  not 
henceforth  allow  any  king's  wife  to  sit  upon 
the  throne  beside  her  husband,  or  even  to 
be  called  "queen"  {regind).  According  to 
Professor  Freeman  (Norm,  Conq.)y  this  ex- 
plains the  fact  that  in  Wessex  the  usual  title 
for  the  king*3  wife  was  "  Lady,"  Elmfdige, 
though  in  Mercia  *  *  Queen,"  eioen,  was  BtUl  used. 
From  the  time  of  Ethelred,  however,  a  special 
form  for  the  coronation  of  the  queen  appears 
in  the  rituals ;  Eadgy  th,  wife  of  the  Confessor, 
is  said  by  the  chronicler  to  have  been  **  hal- 
lowed to  queen,"  though  she  is  afterwards 
always  spoken  of  as  "  lady ;  "  and  from  the 
coronation  of  Matilda,  wife  of  the  Conqueror, 
onward,  the  title  "  queen  "  is  always  applied 
to  the  wife  of  the  kmg.  But  it  still  carried 
with  it  the  sense  of  king's  tri/0,  and  this  may, 
perhaps,  explain  the  &ct  that  the  Empress 
Matilda,  who  claimed  the  crown  in  her  own 
right,  is  never  spoken  of  as  "  queen,"  or 
**regina,"  but  in  the  chronicles  appears  as 
'*  Empress,"  and  in  William  of  MaJmesbury 
and  a  charter,  as  **  Domina."  On  the  other 
hand,  Stephen's  wife,  Matilda,  is  spoken  of 
as  "  the  long's  owen.^* 

Henry  I.'s  attempt  to  secure  the  accession 
of  his  daughter  broke  down,  partly  because 
the  rule  of  a  woman  was  unprecedented,  and 
opposed  alike  to  the  old  English  theory  of 
election  and  the  new  feudal  spirit,  but  stiU 
more  because  of  her  marriage  with  the  Count 
of  Anjou,  the  hereditary  enemy  of  the  Nor- 
mans. But  till  long  afterwards  there  were 
doubts  whether  a  queen  could  reign  in 
England.  The  accession  of  Mary  Tudor 
was  secured  alike  by  her  father's  will,  au- 
thorised by  Act  of  Parliament,  and  by 
the  strong  legitimist  feeling  of  the  country. 
To  extinguish,  however,  "  the  doubt  and  folly 
of  malicious  and  ignorant  persons,"  a  statute 
was  passed  declaring  that  a  queen  regnant  has 
the  same  powers  and  prerogatives  as  a  king. 


Mary,  wife  of  William  III.,  occupied  a  curious 
position,  midway  between  that  of  queen  coDsort 
and  queen  regnant,  for  while  the  Bill  of  Rights 
declared  the  Prince  and  Princess  of  Oran^ 

i'oint  sovereigns,  and  her  name  accompanied 
lis  in  all  pubUc  documents,  '*  the  sole  and  full 
exercise  of  the  regal  power  "  was  entrusted  to 
the  prince. 

The  medisBval  queens  consort  of  England 
usually  possessed  considerable  estates  sepa- 
rately acuounistered,  and  had  their  own  chan- 
cellors. In  modem  times  they  have  had  their 
attorneys  and  solicitors-general,  though  the 
offices  are  merely  nominal.  Apparently  even 
before  the  Conquest  the  queen  consort  received 
**  queen's  g^ld "  (aurum  regitue,  probably  th<»^ 
same  as  the  gersamma  regina  of  Domesday),  i>., 
one  mark  of  gold  for  every  one  hundred  marks 
of  silver  paid  to  the  king  in  feudal  dues  and  the 
like.  As  there  was  no  queen  consort  from  the 
death  of  Henry  YIII.  to  the  aooession  of 
James  I.,  its  payment  was  suspended,  and 
Anne  of  Denmark  never  exacted  it.  In  1636 
writs  were  again  issued  for  lev^-ing  it,  bat 
Charles  afterwards  bought  the  right  from  hi& 
wife  for  £10,000,  and  it  was  never  enforced. 
'  By  the  Act  25  Edward  III.  it  was  rendered 
treason  to  compass  or  imagine  the  death  of 
the  queen,  or  to  violate  her,  and  in  the  latter 
case  the  queen  herself,  if  consenting,  ^ra» 
guilty  of  treason.  For  this  offence  Anne 
Boleyn  was  tried  before  the  peers  of  Parlia- 
ment ;  Caroline,  wife  of  George  IV.,  was 
proceeded  against  in  a  like  case  by  a  hill  of 
pains  and  penalties.  The  legal  position  of  a 
queen  consort  is  that  of  a.  feme  sole,  and  not  of 
a  feme  covert.  She  "is  of  ability  to  purchase 
lands  and  convey  them,  to  nu^  leasee,  to 
grant  copyholds,  and  do  the  other  acts  of 
ownership  (without  the  concurrenoe  of  her 
lord),  wmch  no  other  nuarried  woman  nntil 
very  recently  could  do.  She  may  likewise 
sue  and  be  sued  alone  without  joining  her 
husband.  She  may  also  have  a  separate  pro- 
perty in  goods,  as  well  as  in  lands,  and  she 
has  a  right  to  ^dispose  of  them  by  will'* 
(Stephen.)  But  ^though  she  can  be  sued,  she 
is  not  liable  to  any  amercement. 

A  queen  dowager  is  not  protected  by  the 
Statute  of  Treasons.  An  Act  is  said  to  hare 
been  passed  in*  the  reign  of  Henry  VX ,  though 
of  this  there  is  little  evidence,  rendering  anr 
person  who  dared  to  marry  a  queen  dowager 
without  special  royal  licence  liable  to  the 
foiieiture  of  his  lands  and  goods.  No  actioo. 
however,  seems  to  have  been  taken  when  it 
was  discovered  that  Igord  Seym9ur  of  Sudeler 
had  married  Catherine  Parr  before  leave  was 
given. 

Stabb8,Coiue.  Hid.,  i.  5  U8;  BVeemaa,  ITormw 
ConqutBt,  For  the  legil  position  of  the  (pesB 
consort  and  dowager,  Sjjephen,  CcmmmUnOf 
bk.  iv.,  pt.  i.,  oh.  iv.  •  [W.  J.  A] 

Quean  Aima'v  Bomi'^  was  instituted 

in  1704  for  the  relief  of  the  poorer  clergy. 
The  tax  known  as  the^rst-fmits  and  tentba 


Qll« 


(W7) 


Qll« 


oC  livings  on  the  Church  (the  Buirender,  that 
ia,  of  the  entire  income  of  the  first  year  of 
every  ecclesiastical  living,  and  the  tenth  part 
of  the  income  of  every  suheequent  year),  had 
been  originally  imposed  by  the  papacy,  but  this 
had  been  transfeired  to  the  crown  by  Henry 
YIII.  Under  Charles  II.  the  condition  of  the 
clergy  was  miserable  in  the  extreme;  their 
incomes  hardly  ever  amounted  to  £100  a  year 
— ^they  wero  often  less  than  £15.  At  this  time 
the  tax  only  produced  £14,000  a  year,  and  the 
king  used  it  as  a  fund  from  whidi  to  pension 
his  mistresses  and  their  ofCspring.  In  1697 
Bishop  Burnet  presented  to  William  HI.  a  plan 
for  transferring  the  proceeds  of  the  tax  m>m 
the  crown  to  the  poor  clergy,  but  the  king  set 
it  aside.  The  design  was  carried  out  in  the 
next  reign.  On  Feb.  7,  the  day  after  the 
queen's  birthday.  Sir  Charles  Hedges,  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Exchequer,  announced  to  the 
House  that  her  Majesty  intended  to  make  a 
grant  of  her  whole  revenue  arising  out  of  the 
first-fruits  and  tenths  of  livings,  for  the  benefit 
of  the  poorer  clergy.  The  proiect  was  warmly 
approved  by  the  House,  ana  a  bill  passed 
empowering  the  queen  to  incorporate  such 
persons  as  she  should  select  as  trustees  for 
her  bounty.  The  measure  passed  through 
the  Lords  after  some  opposition.  Various 
regulations  have  been  made  with  reference 
to  this  fund  since  it  was  first  handed  over 
for  the  benefit  of  the  clergy.  Of  these 
Acts  the  principal  are  2  and  3  Anne,  c.  20, 
authorising  the  queen  to  establish  a  corpora- 
tion  for  the  management  of  the  fund,  which 
was  done  the  same  year,  consiBting  of  arch- 
bishops, bishops,  privy-councillors,  various  law 
officers,  the  mayors  of  cities,  euatodet  rotttiorum, 
and  lieutenants  of  counties,  &c.  By  1  Gbo.  I. 
these  trustees  were  allowed  to  examine  wit- 
nesses on  oath.  £200  was  to  be  invested  for 
the  increase  of  each  living  with  a  stipend  of 
less  than  £  1 0  a  year :  then  those  not  exceeding 
£20.  To  everv  living  under  £45  a  year  the 
governors  might  malre  a  grant  of  ;£20a  on 
condition  of  a  similar  amount  being  raised 
from  other  sources.  By  46  Geo.  m.,  c.  133, 
£6,000  a  year  was  granted  for  the  augmen- 
tation of  livings  not  exceeding  £150  a  year. 
By  28  &  29  Vic,  c.  69,  any  five  of  the 
governors  (three  being  archishops  or  bishops) 
are  constituted  a  quorum.  Other  statutes 
have  allowed  certain  advances  for  repairing 
c^iancels,  building  parsonages,  and  other 
similar  purposes. 

Burnet,  Htst.  of  hiB  Own  Time;  Stanhope, 
Htign  of  Qtueti  Anne;  Wyon,  Hist,  of  Qrixit 
BriJUan  during  the  Beign  of  Quten  Anne. 

Qaean-gold  {Aurum  Regina)  was  a  claim 
made  by  the  Queens  of  England  on  every 
tenth  mark  paid  to  the  king  on  the  renewiU 
of  leases  or  crown-Utnds  on  the  granting  of 
charters — matters  of  grace  supposed  to  be 
obtained  by  the  poweiful  intercession  of  the 
queen. 


QlieaiUibenyy  Jambs  Douglas,  2ki> 
DuKB  op  (1662—1709),  succeeded  to  his 
father's  title  in  1695.  He  had  been  a  staunch 
supporter  of  the  Prince  of  Orange,  and  in  his 
earlier  years  had  served  in  the  army.  In 
1700  he  was  appointed  High  Commissioner  to 
the  Parliament  of  Scotland,  and  in  1702  and 
1703  occupied  the  same  office  for  Queen  Anne. 
In  the  latter  year  he  was  driven  out  of  office 
for  his  share  in  what  is  pODularly  called 
'*The  Queensberry  Plot"    M^.),  but    two 


pODuie 


years  later  was  niade  Keeper  of  the  Privy 
ii^eal,  and  a  Commissioner  for  the  treaty  of 
the  Union.  For  the  purpose  of  carrying  the 
Union  through,  he  was  appointed  Lord  High 
Commissioner  to  the  last  Scotch  Parliament 
in  1706,  and  on  his  journey  to  London  was 
received  with  the  utmost  honour  in  England 
as  some  recompense  for  the  execrations  he 
had  to  encounter  in  Scotland.  As  a  reward 
for  his  services  on  this  occasion  he  was 
created  an  English  peer  (1708),  a  pension  of 
£3,000  a  year  was  granted  him  out  of  the 
Post  Office,  and  "the  whole  patronage  of 
Scotland  was  vested  in  his  hands."  In  1709 
his  vote  in  the  election  of  the  Scotch  Tepre- 
sentativo  peers  was  disallowed,  as  he  now  sat 
in  the  House  of  Lords  in  his  own  right.  His 
death  occurred  in  1711.  His  son  Charles, 
the  third  Duke  of  Queensberry,  was  friend 
and  patron  of  Prior  and  Gay. 

Qneeiuiberry  Plot,  The  (1703).    In 

March,  1703,  Queen  Anno  g^nted  a  pardon 
to  all  Scotch  political  offenders  who  would 
take  the  oath  to  her  government.  Encouraged 
by  this  act  of  generosity  several  of  the  exiled 
adherents  of  the  Stuarts  availed  themselves 
of  this  opportunity  of  returning  to  their  own 
country  for  the  puiposes  of  stirring  up  sedi- 
tion. Amongst  those  who  took  advantage  Jt 
the  new  state  of  affairs  was  Lord  Lovat.  Be- 
fore long  it  got  noised  abroad  that  there  waa 
to  be  a  g^reat  Highland  gathering  at  Lochaber 
early  in  August,  and  people  were  not  long 
in  discovering  or  inventing  a  political  mean- 
ing to  this  event.  Lovat  now  availed  him* 
self  of  the  general*  feeling  of  disquietude  to 
gratify  a  grudge  which  he  had  long  held 
against  Lord  Ati^ole,  the  Keeper  of  the  Privy 
SeaL  Having  in  his  possession  an  unad- 
dressed  letter  written  by  the  Pretender's 
queen  to  some  Scotch  noble,  he  filled  in  the 
blank  of  the  superscription  with  the  name  of 
Athole,  and  then  forwarded  the  document  to 
the  commissioner,  the  Duke  of  Queensberry. 
The  latter  nobleman,  glad  of  an  opportunity 
of  ruining  his  colleague,  sent  on  Uie  letter 
unopened  to  the  queen.  Before  long,  how. 
ever,  one  of  Lovat's  friends  revealed  the 
deceit,  and  the  chief  plotter  had  to  fly  to  tha 
Continent.  But  as  a  result  of  his  deception 
Queensberry  had  to  quit  office,  and  even 
then  the  effects  of  this  movement  were  not  all 
over.  In  December  the  queen  informed  the 
House  of  Lords  in  London  that  there  were 


Qua 


1848) 


gni 


Yreach  emissaries  stirring  up  rebellion  in 
Scotland,  and  this  body  at  once  commenced 
investip^ating  the  <]^ae8tion  on  its  own  account, 
but  without  commg  to  any  very  definite 
result.    In  the  meanwhile,  however,  the  ap- 

gdntment  of  a  committee  of  inquiry  in  the 
ouse  of  Lords  had  wounded  the  feelings  of 
the  Scotch,  who  naturallv  considered  ihat 
such  a  question  should  be  oealt  with  by  their 
own  Privy  G<mncil.  At  the  same  time  the 
prooeedings  djkthe  House  of  Lords  had 
stirred  up  indignation  nearer  home.  The 
Commons  discovered  in  the  action  of  the 
Peers  that  this  body  were  assuming  powers  of 
criminal  inquiry  which  did  not  belong  to  it, 
and  prayed  the  queen  to  give  orders  for  the 
investi^tion  to  be  carried  on  by  her  officers. 
Accordingly,  when  the  Scotch  Parliament 
met  in  January,  1704,  the  queen  dedied  the 
Privy  Council  to  ascertain  how  much  truth 
there  was  in  the  suspected  plot. 

Qneensferry  Paper,  The  (Jone,  1680), 

was  found  in  the  pocket  of  Henry  Hall,  one 
of  the  leading  Covenanters  in  Scotland.  He 
was  captured  at  Queensferry,  and  the  docu- 
ment that  had  been  in  his  possession  read  at 
the  council  board.  This  document  was  a  pre- 
liminary sketch  of  the  more  famous  Declara- 
tion of  Sanquhar  (q.v.). 

Qaeensland.    [Australia.] 

Qaeenstoii..  Tkb  Battle  of  (Oct.,  1812), 
was  fought  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Ontario  be- 
tween an  invading  force  of  Americans,  and  the 
English  and  Canadian  forces  led  by  Oenerals 
Brock  and  Sheaife.  The  victory  remained 
with  the  English,  who,  however,  purchased  it 
by  the  death  of  General  Brock. 

.  Qlldrouailley  Louise  de.  Duchess  of 
^onsmouth  {d.  1734),  came  over  to  England 
in  the  train  of  Henrietta  of  Orleans,  the  sister 
of  Charles  II.,  whose  mistress  she  shortly 
became,  and  who  soon  created  her  Duchess  of 
Portsmouth  (1673).  She  appears  to  have  been 
friendly  with  Arlington,  and  to  have  long 
kept  up  a  communication  with  the  French 
ambassadors,  being  very  anxious  for  the 
friendship  between  Louis  XlV.  and  Charles  II. 
to  continue.  Towards  the  close  of  the  reign 
she  became  a  strong  partisan  of  the  Exclusion 
BilL  A  little  later  she  became  on  good 
terms  with  the  Duke  of  York,  finding  that  he 
was  willing  to  guarantee  her  £6,000  a  year 
from  the  receipts  of  the  Post  Office.  Next 
year  (1682)  she  was  mainly  instrumental  in 
securing  Sunderland's  recall  to  office,  and  in 
1684  was  one  of  the  prime  movers  of  the 
ruling  ministers,  Sunderland  and  Godolphin. 
When  the  king  was  seized  with  his  fatal 
apoplectic  stroke,  it  was  she  who  reminded 
the  Duke  of  York  that  his  brother  was  at 
heart  a  Catholic,  and  who  thus  succeeded  in 
calling  Francis  to  the  royal  deathbed.  By 
Charles  II.  she  was  the  mother  of  the  Duke  of 
Bichmond;  but  her  own  title  died  with  her. 


Quia  Smptoras  is  the  name  giTento 
the  statute  enacted  in  1290,  which  oizected 
that  in  all  future  transfers  of  land  the  new 
tenant  should  hold  the  land  not  from  the 
alienor,  but  from  the  next  lord.  Thus  if  B 
holding  land  from  A  transferred  some  of  tint 
land  to  C,  C  would  hold  it  not  from  E  but 
from  A.  In  this  way  sub-inleudation  vai 
checked,  and  no  new  manors  could  be  fomed. 
The  real  importance  of  this  act  oonsisted  io 
its  stopping  the  creation  of  freBh  manore,siMl, 
by  puttmg  a  great  bar  to  the  practice  of  sub- 
infeudation, largely  increasing  the  chancei  d 
the  greater  landlords,  and  above  all  the  Isna- 
lord  par  exeellenM,  the  king,  to  eecheats. 
From  this  point  of  view  it  may  well  be  com- 
pared with  the  Statute  of  Mortmain. 

8tabb6.    SeUct   Charien    and     Cmiflt.    VvL; 
Diffby,  Ritt  of  flu  Lam  o/Btal  Projmtff, 

QiliberoiL,  The   Battle  of  (Nov.  20, 
1759),  was  fought  between  the  English  and 
French    during    the    Seven    Years*   War. 
Sir  Edward  Hawke  had  been  engaged  dmiog 
the    summer    of    1759    in    blockading   the 
Fiench  fleet,  which  lay  at  Brest  unaer  De 
Confians,  and  when,  in  the  autumn,  be  vu 
forced  to  stand  off,  ihe  French  admiral  eeiud 
his  opportunity  to  sally  forth  in  the  hope  d 
overpowering  a  few  English   frigates  thst 
were  cruising   about   under    Captain  Du^ 
before  Sir  Edward  Hawke  could  come  np  to 
their  aid.  In  this  plan,  however,  De  Gonflaai 
was  unsuccessful,  and  the  united  Enghdi 
fleets  drove  the  French — ^to  whom  they  were 
slightly  superior  in  numbers — ^back  from  the 
pomt  of  Quiberon  to  coast  near  the  mouth  d 
the  Vilaine.    The  French  ships  were  dim 
up  close  to  a  shore  rocky  and  set  with  isltndi 
gOioals  and  quicksands  rendered  their  poritioo 
still  more  dtuigerous  to  attack.    NeverUieI««. 
Hawke  determined  on  an  engagement,  ao<l 
refused  to  listen  to  the  representations  of  bis 
pilot,  whom  he  answered  with  the  wonhi 
*'  You  have  done  your  duty  in  this  reaKA- 
strance;  now  lay  me  alongside  the  French 
admiral.**    The  battle  resxuted  in  a  deciste 
victory  for  the  English,  who  only  lost  foc^ 
men,  and  by  night  two  French  ships  m. 
struck,  four  were  sunk,  and  the  othen  hid 
drawn  up  the  Vilaine.    To  set  against  th^ 
two  English  vessels  were  stranded,  but  their 
crews  were  saved.    In  return  for  this  rirtory* 
which  relieved  England  from  all  fear  of  in^ 
sion,  and  shattered  the  fVench  naTsl  povc 
for  a  time,  a  pension  of  £1,500  a  yew  ^*^ 
conferred  upon  Admiral  Hawke. 

QniberoiLy  The  Expedition  to, took  jda* 
in  tne  year  1795,  and  was  intended  to  »«s^ 
the  BoyaUst  insurgents  of  Ia  Vend^  av 
Britanny .  After  much  delay,  the  expedition. 
consisting  iMgely  of  French  royalist  rrfngej 
left  England  (July,  1796),  and  landed  st  t» 
peninsula  of  Quiberon,  near  Cainsc.  H*J 
they  were   joined   by  a   laige  nuinwr  « 


Quo 


(849) 


'<  ChouanB  *'  and  irregular  troops,  com- 
manded  by  tho  Royalist  generala  De 
Puisaye  and  D^Henillv.  The  little  fort  of 
Penthi^vre  was  captured  by  these  troops ;  but 
after  that  nothing  was  done,  owin^  to  jealou- 
sies among  tiie  leaders.  Meanwhile,  Hoche, 
the  Eepublican  general,  had  raised  10,000 
troops,  and  managed  to  recapture  the  fort, 
and  to  shut  the  insiders  up  in  the  Peninsula 
of  Qttiberon.  They  were  then  attacked  by 
the  Bepublicans,  and  cut  to  pieces,  or  driven 
into  the  sea.  About  900,  with  the  leader,  I>e 
Fuisaye,  escaped  to  the  English  vessels.  The 
remainder  were  killed  or  taken  captive.  Of 
the  prisoners  700  were  shot  by  their  captors 
after  the'  fighting  waa  over. 

Alison,  Hut.  qf  Ewrnip*;  Yoa  Bybel,  IVwieh 

Quonimy  Justicbs  of  thb.  When  jus- 
tices of  the  peace  were  appointed  in  each 
eounty,  it  was  customary,  in  empowering  any 
two  or  more  of  them  to  inquire  into  offences, 
to  specify  the  names  of  some  few  of  these 
justices,  without  whose  presence  business 
could  not  be  transacted.  The  specifying 
words  were  "quorum  (».«.,  of  the  whole 
number)  aliquem  vestrum,  A.,  B.,  C,  D.,  &c., 
unum  esse  volumus,'*  and  from  this  phrase 
these  more  important  justices  were  called 
'*  justices  of  the  quorum.'*  It  has  now,  how- 
ever, become  customary  to  make  no  distinc- 
tion between  special  justices  and  others ;  and 
as  a  rule,  the  *'  quorum  '*  clause  simply  repeats 
all  the  preceding  names,  with  perhaps  one  ex- 
ception, for  the  sake  of  form.  The  writ  at 
present  used  in  the  appointment  of  these  jus- 
tices, has  continued  with  very  little  alteration 
indeed  since  the  year  1590. 

Quo  Warranto  Commissions  were 
issued  by  Edward  I.,  for  the  purpose  of 
inquiring  into  the  questions — (i.)  what  were 
the  rovfd  manors;  (iL)  by  what  warrant 
«8tates'that  were  formerly  crown  lands,  or 
(iii.)  judicial  rights  that  were  once  exercised 
bv  the  crown,  had  passed  into  the  hands 
of  private  individuals  or  corporations.  In 
1274  the  king  had  appointed  a  commission  of 
inquiry,  which  resulted  in  the  "  RotuU  Hun- 
dredorum,"  and  by  the  Statute  of  Oloucester 
(1278),  the  itinerant  justices  were  to  order 
the  people  by  proclamation  "  to  show  what 
kind  of  franchises  they  had,  and  by  what 
warrant."  These  commissions  were  fre- 
quently resisted,  notably  b^  Earl  Warenne ; 
but  the  inquiry  was  continued  through  a 
period  of  more  than  twenty  years.  The  most 
important  effect  of  these  commisrions  was 
that  they  provtoted  any  further  encroach- 
ments on  royal  property  or  rights. 


Babbliiig    the   Curates,    was   the 

name  given  to  the  expulsion  of  Episcopalian 
clergymen  from  the  south-west  of  Scotland 


by  the  Cameronians  in  1689—90.      There 

seems  to  have  been  comparatively  little  mob 

violence.      Cameronian     committees     were 

formed  to   superintend   the    ejectment,  and 

formal   notices   to  qidt  were   sent   to    the 

curates.     A  subsequent  act  of  the  Scottish 

Parliament  legalised   these   proceedings   by 

declaring  the  parishes  vacant. 

Tlie  expulsion  in  described  in  the  Cameronian 
pamphlet,  Pott  V^  Contmdinys  IX«|flair«d.  Some* 
what  opposing  aoooonta  wUl  bo  found  in  Burton, 
Hist.  Soot.,  ch.  IzzzL,  and  Cunningham,  ChmrA 
HUtory,  oh.  xzL,  16-19. 


Badcot  Bridge,  Thb  Baitlb  of  (1387), 
was  a  skirmish  on  the  Thames  near  Faring- 
don,  between  De  Vere,  Duke  of  Ireland,  the 
favourite  of  Bichard  II.,  and  the  baronial 
forces  imder  the  Earl  of  Derby  (afterwards 
Henry  IV.).  De  Vere,  finding  himself  out- 
numbered, fled,  and  his  men  surrendered 
after  a  slight  skirmish.  The  result  of  this 
defeat  was  to  place  the  king  entirely  at  the 
meroy  of  Gloucester  and  the  other  Lords 
Appellant. 

Radical.  The  exact  origin  of  this  term 
as  applied  to  a  political  party  is  unknown ; 
possibly  it  was  derived  from  a  speech  delivered 
by  Fox  in  1797,  wherein  he  declared  that 
"  radioEil  reform  '*  was  necessary.  The  word 
seems  to  have  come  into  general  use  about 
1816,  and  was  applied  to  j>er8ons  asitating  on 
behalf  of  extreme  measures  of  ParUamentary 
reform.  The  best  account  of  the  early 
character  of  the  movement  is  given  by  the 
weaver  Samuel  Bamford  (PoMtages  in  the  Life 
of  a  Radical).  Describing  a  meeting  of 
representatives  from  several  '*  Hampden 
Clubs,"  he  says,  **  Resolutions  were  passed 
declaratory  of  the  right  of  every  male  to 
vote  who  paid  taxes ;  that  males  of  eighteen 
should  be  eligible  to  vote ;  that  parliaments 
should  be  elected  annually ;  that  no  place- 
man or  pensioner  should  sit  in  Parliament ; 
that  every  twenty  thousand  inhabitants  should 
send  a  member  to  the  House  of  Commons. 
It  was  not  until  we  became  infested  by 
spies,  incendiaries,  and  their  dupes,  that 
physical  force  was  mentioned  among  us." 
The  most  important  leaders  of  the  party  were 
<*  Orator"  Hunt,  Cobbett,  and  Major  Cart- 
wright;  it  was  also  patronised  by  Sir  Francis 
BuKlett.  Some  of  the  extreme  Radicals,  how- 
ever, seem  to  have  planned  an  armed  move- 
ment ;  and  the  action  of  the  government  and 
public  fear  caused  the  terms  Raidical  and  rioter 
to  be  used  as  synonymous.  Even  Brougham 
said  in  1819,  <*  The  Radicals  have  made  mem- 
selves  so  odious,  that  a  number  even  of  our 
own  way  of  thinking  would  be  pleased 
enough  to  see  them  and  their  vile  press  put 
down  at  an  hazards."  During  the  struggle 
over  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832,  the  term 
began  to  be  adopted  by  some  comparatively 
moderate  Parliamentary  advocates  of  reform. 
In  the  Parliaments  which  followed  they  num- 
bered from  fifty  to  seventy,  including  Grotei 


(  860  ) 


Moleeworth,  Boebuck,  Joseph  Hume,  etc. 
Henceforth  the  term  came  to  indicate  little 
more  than  an  advanced  Liberal ;  and  after  the 
Reform  Bill  of  1867  was  often  used  as  a  scorn- 
ful designation  for  the  whole  Liberal  party. 

For  the  earlj  Radical  movement,  besldee 
Bamford,  see  Martineau,  Htttorv  0/  the  Peace, 
bk.  i. ;  oud  Spenoer  Walpole,  HUt,  of  £119..  toL 
i.,  oh.  r. 


I,  Si&  Thomas  Stamford  (d.  1781, 
d.  1826),  a  colonial  administrator  and  natura- 
list, was  the  son  of  a  naval  captain.  He 
became  a  clerk  in  the  India  House,  and 
was  appointed  in  1805  imder-secretuy  at 
Prince  of  Wales'  Island.  His  ability  brought 
him  under  the  notice  of  Lord  Minto,  to 
whom  he  suggested  the  conquest  of  Java 
from  the  Dutch.  This  isluid  he  admin- 
istered as  Lieutenant-Crovemor  from  1811 
to  1816.  From  1818  to  1824  he  was  Lieu- 
tenant-Grovemor  of  Bencoolen  in  Sumatra, 
and  succeeded  in  establishing  the  settle- 
ment at  Singapore.  In  Java  and  in  Sumatra 
he  emancipated  the  slaves,  and  introduced 
many  reforms.  Eveiywhere  he  made  re- 
searches in  zoology  and  botany ;  and  on  his 
return  founded  the  Zoological  Society. 

Raglan,  LoBD  (^.  1788,  <?.  1855].  Fitzroy 
Henry  Somerset,  youngest  son  of  the  fifth 
Duke  of  Beaufort,  enten^d  the  army  in  1804. 
In  1808  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  appointed  him 
his  aide-de-camp ;  in  this  capacity  he  served 
all  through  the  Peninsular  War,  and  was  pre- 
sent at  Waterloo,  where  he  lost  an  arm.  He 
was  afterwards  employed  on  several  diplo- 
matic missions,  and  sat  in  the  House  of 
Commons  for  Truro  during  two  Parliamente. 
In  1852  he  was  appointed  Master  General  of 
Ordnance  and  elevated  to  the  House  of  Peers. 
In  1854  he  became  Field  Marshal.  On  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Crimean  War  Lord 
Haglan  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of 
the  British  Army.  He  reached  the  Crimea 
in  September,  1854,  and  shared  with  Marshal 
St.  Amaud  the  command  of  the  allied  forces 
during  the  winter  and  the  following  spring 
[Crimean  Wak].  Lord  Baglan  was  heavily 
weighed  down  by  the  anxiety  caused  by  the 
sufierings  of  his  men  in  the  trenches.  His 
health  had  been  gradually  failing  before  he 
was  seized  by  the  attack  of  cholera  which 
carried  him  off  (June  28,  1856).  Of  Lord 
Kaglan's  personal  bravery  and  sense  of  duty 
there  was  never  any  doubt.  His  merits  as  a 
commander  were  never  put  to  a  fair  test  in 
the  Crimea.  He  shared  a  divided  command 
and  conducted  the  operations  of  the  British 
army  at  a  time  when  40  years  of  peace  had 
reduced  our  military  establishments  to  the 
eompletest  inefficiency. 

Kinglake,  The  IniNuioii  o/(fc«  QrviM»i;  Annual 
Segiiter,  1856. 


are  a  most  important  source  of  information 
upon  the  condition  of  Scotland  in  the  four- 
teenth century.  The  Bannatyne  Club  pub- 
lished the  documents  in  full  in  1834.   . 

ttainsboroilgh.  Colonel  {d.  1648),  one 
of  the  Parliamentery  officers  who  took  part 
under  Cromwell  in  the  storm  of  Bristol, 
where  he  '*had  the  hardest  task  of  all" 
(Cromwell*s  letter).  In  1648  he  was  ap- 
pointed admiral,  but  the  fleet  mutinied  and 
set  him  ashore.  He  was  aiwaiwinated  in 
October  of  that  year  in  his  lodgings  at  Don- 
caster  by  a  party  of  Royalists,  who  had 
sallied  from  the  Castle  of  Pontefract. 


_  SolLiy  The,  are  a  collection  of 

documents  recording  the  homage  performed  by 
the  Scotch  barons  and  clergy  to  Edward  I.  on 
his  progress  through  Scothmd  in  1296.   Iliey 


«^poor  Ghant.  The  Treaty  .op  (Dec. 
24,  I8O0),  terminated  the  war  between  the 
East  India  Company  and  Jeswunt  Bao 
Holkar.  All  his  territories  were  restored  to 
him,  but  he  was  obliged  to  renounce  his 
claims  to  Boondee  and  Bampoor,  and  accept 
the  Chumbul  as  his  northern  boundary,  llie 
treaty  was  the  result  of  the  policy  of  concili- 
ation and  peace  adopted  in  India  after  Welles- 
ley's  return  to  England. 

Mill,  Brttifli  India,  toL  vi,  ch.  zixL 

Af^pntaaiap  ''the  land  of  the  Rajputs/*  is 
a  considerable  district  in  North-western  India, 
including  eighteen  native  states,  of  which  the 
most  important  are  Oodeypoor  or  Mewar, 
whose  Bana  is  recognised  as  the  overlord  of 
the  rest — Jeypore,  Jodhpore,  Eotah,  Bikanir, 
Ulwar,  and  Jeysulmir.  The  Rajputs  vigor- 
ously resisted  the  Mohammedan  invaders,  but 
internal  anarchy  caused  their  division  into 
several  states,  and  thus  laid  them  open  to 
the  attack  of  the  Mahrattas.  In  1803  Lord 
Wellesley  took  them  imder  British  protection 
on  condition  of  their  paying  tribute,  and  in 
1817  they  recognised  British  suzerainty. 

Baleigh,  8m  Walter  (h.  1652,  d.  1618), 
was  the  son  of  Walter  Raleigh  of  Budleigh, 
in  Devonshire.    After  spencQng  three  yean 
at  Oxford,  he  went  in  1569  to  France  to  aid 
the    Huguenots.      Returning    in    1578,   he 
accompanied  his  half-brother.  Sir  Humphrev 
Gilbert,  on  a  voyage  of  discovery  to  New- 
foundland, which  proved  unsuccessfuL     In 
1580  Raleigh  obtained  military  employment 
in  Ireland,  where  he  distinguished  himself  by 
his  ruthless  severity,  and  took  part  in  the  mas- 
sacre of  the  Smerwick  garrison.    For  his  ser- 
vices he  received  12,000  acres  of  the  Desmond 
land,  and  it  was  upon  these  that  he  first  planted 
the  potato  in  1596.    After  the  suppression  of 
the  rebellion  he  attracted  the  attention  of  ths 
queen,  whose  &vour  he  soon  won,  and  who 
sent  him  on  a  mission  to  the  Prince  of  Orange 
in  1582.    In  1584  he  obtained  a  charter  for 
the  colonisation  of  any  lands  not  held  by  a 
Christian  prince ;  three  expeditions  were  des- 
patched by  Raleigh  to  America,  but  the  colony 
which  haid  received  the  name  of  Virginia  had 
to  be  abandoned  in  1590.    In  1585  Raleigh 
had  been  knighted,  and  in  1587  had  becooM 
captain  of  the  Queen's  guard.    After  taking 


(86r) 


an  active  part  in  the  defence  of  the  country 
against  the  Armada,  he  voyaged  to  Guiana  to 
find  E>I)oiado  in  1595,  acoompanied  Essex  to 
the  capture  of  Cadis  in  1596,  and  joined  in 
the  expedition  to  the  Azores  in  the  following 
year.  It  was  on  this  occasion  that  Baleigh, 
who  had  taken  the  island  of  Fayal  without 
waiting  for  the  arrival  of  the  rest  of  the 
expedition,  had  a  serious  quarrel  with  Essex 
(q.v.),  who  had  all  along  been  his  rivaL  On  the 
accession  of  James  I.,  he  was  deprived  of  his 
office  of  captain  of  the  guard,  and  dismissed 
from  court,  owing  to  the  enmity  of  Sir  Robert 
Cecil  (q.v.).  He  was  shortly  charged  with 
complicity  in  Lord  Cobham*s  plot  in  favour 
of  Lady  Arabella  Stuart,  was  found  guilty  of 
treason  and  sentenced  to  death.  The  true 
history  of  the  plot  can  scarcely  be  recovered, 
but  it  seems  certain  that  Baleigh  was  guilty 
of  nothing  more  than  vague  talk.  The 
sentence  of  death  was,  however,  not  carried 
into  effect,  and  Raleigh  remained  a  prisoner 
in  the  Tower  for  twelve  years,  occupying 
himself  in  writing  his  HUtory  of  the  World, 
In  1615  he  was  released,  in  order  to  conduct 
an  expedition  to  Guiana  in  search  of  gold; 
on  his  arrival  in  South  America  he  was 
attacked  in  the  Orinoco  by  the  Spaniards,  whom 
he  defeated,  but  the  gold  mine  remained 
undiscovered,  and  Raleigh  returned  to  Eng- 
land in  1618.  '  He  was  badly  received  by 
James,  who,  disappointed  at  the  iU  success  of 
the  expedition,  declared  his  intention  of 
punishing  those  who  had  committed  acts  of 
violence  "  against  his  dear  brother  of  Spain." 
Raleigh  was  executed  on  his  old  sentence 
(Oct.  29,  1618). 

Edwards,  lAfe  and  L^vn  qfEalngh,  the  most 
oomplete  biography.  Pope  Hennessy's  BdUigh 
in  IreiUMd  aiid  Schombnrgk  b  edition  of  Bo- 
ledgh'8  DiBcowry  of  Guiana  are  miefal  for  par- 
tioiilar  periods.  The  best  diflcuasion  of  his 
share  in  Cobham's  plot  is  in  Qardiuer,  Hist,  of 
JhMf.,  vol  i.,  and  acoonnt  oi  his  last  ezpedldon 
to  Ooiana  in  voL  iii.  A  luefal  little  sketch  has 
been  written  by  Mrs.  Creighton. 

Salpb,,  Jambs,  was  a  native  of  Phila- 
delphia. He  settled  in  England  in  1726.  He 
devoted  himself  to  literature,  and  produced 
some  plays  and  dramas  of  little  merit.  In 
1742  he  published  a  pamphlet  in  answer  to 
the  memoirs,  of  the  Duchess  of  Marlborough, 
and  thus  became  known  as  a  political  writer. 
He  devoted  his  services  to  the  Opposition 
and  the  Prince  of  Wales'  party,  and  wrote 
numerous  tracts  in  their  interest.  He  re- 
ceived a  pension  on  Greorge  IL*s  accession. 
Among  other  works  he  wrote  The  Use  and 
Abuse  of  Parliamenta,  and  a  Sisiory  of  Eng- 
land during  the  reigns  of  Charles  II.,  James 
H.,  and  William  III.,  which,  though  pos- 
sessed of  little  literary  merit,  is  of  some 
value  owing  to  the  facilities  which  Ralph 
had  for  acquiring  information  oh  this  period. 

Salpll  OF.EscuRBS,  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury (1114 — 1122),  was  the  son  of  a 
2[omuui  boron,  .and  became  Abbot  of  Seez. 


He  was  ejected  from  his  abbey  in  1104  by 
Robert  die  Belesme,  and  sought  refuge 
in  En^and  with  Henry  I.  In  1108  he  waft 
made  Bishop  of  Rochester,  and  as  such,  on 
the  death  of  St.  Ansehn  in  1109,  he  acted  as 
administrator  of  the  see  of  Cant^bury.  For 
five  years  Henry  refused  to  fill  Anselm's 
place,  but  at  length  he  was  obliged  to  consent 
to  an  election,  and  in  1114  Ralph  was  chosen 
archbishop.  An  attempt  to  exact  from 
Thurstan,  Archbishop  Elect  of  York,  an 
acknowledgment  of  the  supremacy  of  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  is  the  most  im- 
portant event  in  Ralph's  subsequent  career. 
In  1119  he  had  a  stroke  of  palsy,  and  died  in 
1 122.  He  is  described  by  Ordericus  as  "  deeply 
learned,  fluent  of  speedi,  good  humoured,  and 
popular.*' 

The  fullest  modem  aooonnt  is  in  Hook's  Areh- 
bishops  o/CafUerbvry,  based  on  Eadmer,  Hittoria. 
Novorum,  William  of  Malmesbnry,  and  Order- 
ions  Vitalis. 

Aamillies,  The  Battle  of  (May  23» 
1706),  the  second  of  Marlborough's  great 
victories  in  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession. 
Both  Marlborough  and  Villeroi,  the  French 
commander,  were  eager  for  a  battle,  and  the 
armies  met  near  Ramillies,  between  Namur 
and  Louvain.  Villeroi's  right  wing  was  com- 
posed of  the  household  troops,  whuo  his  left, 
which  he  considered  sufficiently  protected  by 
the  swamp  created  by  a  stream  (the  Little 
Gheet),  consisted  only  of  a  single  line  of 
infantiy.  Marlborough  made  a  feint  of  at- 
tacking the  left;  Villeroi  was  at  once  de- 
ceived, and  withdrew  troops  from  his  right  to 
strengthen  it.  Then  the  main  body  of  the 
English  and  Dutch  attacked  the  French 
extreme  right,  which  was  also  taken  in  the 
flank  by  the  Danish  cavalry,  which  had 
^dloped  round  unperceived.  Thus  the 
SVench  position  was  turned,  and  now  the 
main  body  was  attacked.  After  a  hard 
struggle,  the  household  troops  retreated. 
The  difficulties  caused  by  the  baggage 
waggons  in  the  rear  created  a  panic,  and  the 
whole  army  fled  in  the  direction  of  Brussels. 
Many  towns  at  once  surrendered,  and  before 
the  end  of  the  year  the  only  places  of  import- 
ance held  by  the  French  in  the  Netherlands 
were  Mens  and  Namur. 

Marlborough  Dm^hea;  Mahon,  War  of 
Bpantuih  Succeuion ;  Wjon,  Reign  of  Anne. 

TtftiKiHTUfgnr,  The  Battle  of  (1848). 
At  the  beginning  of  the  second  Sikh  war, 
the  British  army,  under  Lord  Gough,  attacked 
Shere  Sing  at  Ramnuggur  on  uie  Chenab. 
His  position,  however,  was  too  strong  to 
storm ;  and  many  lives  were  lost  in  a  charge 
of  the  dragoons  to  clear,  the  Sikhs  from  the 
dry  sandy  bed  of  the  river.  A  flanking 
movement  was  then  attempted,  whereupon 
Shere  Sing  withdrew  to  SadooUapoor. 

Ttainafty,  Sir  Alexander,  of  Dalhousie^ 
compelled  we  English  in  1538  to  raise  the 
siege  of  Dunbar  (q.v.).    After  cairying  on  a. 


(  862  ) 


saooeasfol  gaerilU  war  against  them  for  some 
years,  he  took  the  castle  of  Roxburgh  (1642), 
receiTiiig  as  his  reward  the  sheriffdom  of 
Teviotdue.  This  aroused  the  jealousy  of  Sir 
William  Douglas,  who  captured  him  at 
Hawick  and  starved  him  to  death  in  his 
castle  of  Hermitage. 

Bandolnhy  Sm  Thomas  {b,  1 623,  d.  1690), 
one  of  the  ministers  of  Queen  Elisabeth,  was 
compelled  to  seek  an  asylum  abroad  during 
the  reign  of  Mary,  owmg  to  his  religious 

X'  dons.  On  his  return  to  England, 
r  Mary*6  death,  he  was  employ^  on 
several  important  diplomatic  missions  to 
France  and  Bussia,  and  more  especially  to 
Scotland,  in  connection  with  which  countiy 
his  statesmanship  was  chiefly  shown.  His 
first  embcwsy  to  Scotland  was  in  1669,  when 
he  accompanied  the  Earl  of  Arran,  and  in  the 
following  year  he  was  employed  by  Elizabeth 
to  testi^  to  the  Scotch  her  disapprobation  of 
the  Confession  of  Faith.  In  1663—4  he  was 
sent  to  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  charged  with 
the  delicate  mission  of  recommending  a 
husband  for  her,  the  individual  selected  being 
Lord  Robert  Dudley,  afterwards  Earl  of 
Leicester.  In  1664  Randolph  was  named  a 
commissioner  at  the  Conference  of  Berwick 
(q.v.;,  and  in  the  subsequent  year  was  again 
ambassador  in  Scotland,  sending  to  the  queen 
**  accounts  from  week  to  week  of  the  position 
of  parties  and  of  the  progress  of  the  crisis." 
In  the  same  year  he  was  commissioned  to  as- 
sure the  Protestant  lords  in  Scotland  of  Eliza- 
beth's sympathy,  and  to  promise  Argyle  and 
Murray  thiat  they  should  have  what  aid  from 
England  they  required.  In  1666  the  ^ueen  of 
Scots  ordered  him  to  withdraw  from  her  court, 
knowing,  says  Mr.  Froude,  that  he  "had 
ahared  Murray^s  secrets,  that  he  had  been 
Elizabeth's  instrument  in  keeping  alive  in 
Scotland  the  Protestant  faction,  and  that  so 
long  as  he  remained  the  party  whom  she  most 
detested  would  have  a  nucleus  to  gather 
round.'*  In  1670  he  was  again  sent  to  the 
north,  but  the  feeling  against  England  was  so 
strong  in  Edinburgh  that  he  found  that  he 
could  not  with  safety  remain.  Two  years 
later  he  was  obliged  to  return  to  Edinburgh, 
and  was  twice  shot  at.  In  1681  he  was 
ordered  to  demand  the  release  of  Morton  from 
James  VI. ;  but  the  hatred  of  the  English 
still .  continued,  and  the  ambassador  had  to 
flee  for  his  life.  Cautious,  trustworthy,  and 
deeply  skilled  in  Scotch  politics,  Randolph 
obtained  the  confidence  of  the  queen  and  the 
goodwill  of  Cecil,  who  wrote  of  him,  "  He  is 
worth  more  than  I  fear  our  time  will  well 
W)n8ider." 

Burghl&y  Tapen;  Burton,  Hi$t,  of  Scotland; 
Fronde,  Hut.  o/Bng. 


taken  by  storm  by  the  Frnglish  forces  under 
Goneral  Godwin,  April  14,  1862.  At  the  cop- 
elusion  of  the  war  the  province  of  Teg%  in 
eluding  Rangoon,  was  annexed  to  British  India. 
Situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Irrawaddy,  it  ii 
an  extremely  favourable  situation  for  trade, 
and  has  become  one  of  the  most  important 
commercial  cities  of  British  India. 


JOOn.  the  capital  of  Burmah,  was  oc- 
cupied by  the  English  in  1824,  during  the  first 
Burmese  war.  In  the  second  Burmese  war, 
undertaken  on  account  of  the  oppression  of 
British  subjects  at  Rangoon,  the  town  was 


I,  A,  is  a  territorial  division  of  Suseex. 
Suasefis  divided  into  six  rapes,  which  again 
are  subdivided  into  hundreds.  It  is  no  more 
than  a  geo^aphical  term,  and  differs  from 
the  lathe  of  Kent  in  that  the  judicial  orgaxusft- 
tion  is  retained  by  the  hundred.  Hie  rape 
may  possibly  represent  the  shires  into  whidi 
Sussex  was  divided  while  it  was  yet  an 
independent  kingdom.  Hie  original  meaning 
is  apparently  *'  snare." 

SappareeSy  were  bands  of  Irish  led  1^ 

dispossessed  proprietors  who  refused  to  submit 
to  the  (SromweUian  transplantation  to  Con- 
naught,  and  carried  on  a  guerilla  warfare 
against  tiie  new  English  possessors.  At  fint 
known  as  Tories,  they  came  later  to  be  called 
Rapparees,  which  Burnet,  writing  in  1690, 
calk  *'a  new  name."  But  the  names  Tory 
and  Rapparee  came  to  mean  in  Ireland  only 
ordinary  felons  at  large.  Their  numben 
were  immensely  exaggerated :  thus  in  1707 
**  there  were  but  six  Tories  in  the  county  Tip- 
perary,  and  four  in  the  county  of  Cork." 

Leoky,  Bng.  in  the  Bightendk  Ctntury,  toL  iL ; 
Pvendcoigast,  OrcmiwMian  8&UUm«nt  mirdtmL 

Satdiffe,  Sm  Richakd,  wasa  oonfidential 
friend  of  Richard  III.  To  his  advice  it  was 
largely  due  that  Richard  abandoned  the  plan 
of  marrying  his  niece,  the  princess  Elisabeth, 
for  Ratcliffe  declared  that  it  would  cause  him 
to  be  suspected  of  having  poisoned  his  own 
wife  Anne  to  make  way  for  the  matdi, 
and  that  her  northern  adherents  would  aban- 
don him  if  it  were  not  at  once  disavowed. 


are  assessments  upon  owners  and 

occupiers  of  real  property  by  local  authoritieii 
and  for  local  purposes ;  they  are  in  fact  local 
taxes.  As  the  power  of  levying  rates  is  not 
recognised  by  the  common  law  of  England, 
the  conditions  under  which  they  are  to  bo 
enforced  are  ^ways  stated  in  the  statutes  pie- 
scribing  them.  Most  of  these  are  of  very 
recent  date,  for  though  contributions  for 
common  purposes  had  been  levied  for  cen- 
turies in  every  parish  and  borough,  this  was 
done  frequently  under  local  by-laws.  The 
rates  authorised  by  statutes  are  of  varioos 
londs: — (a)  By  the  authorities  of  the  civil 
parish  the  poor  rate  is  levied,  the  management 
of  whidi  was  in  1834  taken  out  of  the  hands 
of  the  vestry  and  placed  in  those  of  ovetseen 
[Poor  Law].  The  highway'  rate  is  levied 
by  the  highway  parish,  which  need  not  co- 
incide with  the  poor-law  parish.  The  conirQl 
of  the  roads  was  under  1^  Turnpike  Acts  of 
the  last  century  vested  in  trostees  who  do- 


(  853  ) 


&e1> 


fiayed  the  expenses  by  tolls,  but  this  system 
has  almost  disappeared,  facilities  for  its  aboli- 
tion being  granted  by  an  Act  of  1878.  Burial 
board  rates  may  be  levied  by  burial  boards, 
consisting  of  from  three  to  nine  ratepayers, 
elected  by  the  vestry  imder  the  various  Burial 
Acts  dating  between  1852  and  1875,  but  the 
legislation  on  this  point  is  very  confused. 
The  free  libraries  rate  is  also  collected  by  the 
vestry,  and  the  lighting  and  watching  rate  by 
the  Act  of  1883.  {&)  The  ecdesiastic&d  parish, 
whic&  may  be  distinct  from  the  civil  parish, 
levies  the  church  rate  through  the  vestry. 
This  tax,  however,  ceased  to  be  compulsory  in 
1868,  when  it  was  enacted  that  it  could  no 
longer  be  enforced  by  a  legal  process,  {e)  In 
unincorporated  towns,  improvement  rates  may 
be  levied  by  commissioners  under  special  acts. 
{d)  Borough  rates  are  levied  by  municipal 
councils  as  constituted  under  the  Municipal 
Corporations  Act  of  1835;  they  are  imposed 
to  make  up  any  deficiency  in  the  borough, 
aocoimts,  and  are  usually  assessed  on  the  poor- 
rate  valuation.  This  rate  is  often  increased 
considerably  by  the  loans,  which,  under  the 
Act  of  1835  and  subsequent  Acts,  corporations 
•re  authorised  to  borrow,  [e)  County  rates 
are  levied  for  the  general  expenses  of  each 
county.  They  are  collected,  like  the  poor  rate, 
from  each  puish  by  the  overseers.  Police 
rates  are  levied  in  the  same  way.  {/)  Bates 
for  sanitary  purposes,  such  as  sewerage  rates, 
and  borough  baths  and  washhouses  rates, 
and  -water  rates,  are  imposed  under  the 
various  Public  Health  Acts  which  have  been 
passed  since  1848.  By  the  Act  of  1876  the 
gpuardians  are  constituted  the  authorities  in 
Toral  districts;  and  in  urban  districts  the 
town  council,  or  the  improvements  commis- 
sion, or  a  local  board  appointed  by  th.e  rate- 
payers, iff)  Lastly,  school*rates  are  levied  by 
the  Act  of  1870,  to  make  up  the  difference 
between  fees  and  expenditure.  In  boroughs 
fhev  form  part  of  the  borough  rate,  and  in 
panshes  outside  boroughs,  part  of  the  poor 
rate. 

Ghilmen,  Local  QovtrntMnt  in  the  EnglUh 
OUiMtn  iSfriet;  Falgrave,  LoccA  TaaatUm  of  Qrwt 
BrUain,  [L.  C.  S.] 


■■lithTniTlfttr  Thb  Battlb  of.  In  1649 
the  Royalists  imder  Ormonde  besieged  Dublin, 
having  already  captured  all  the  other  places 
held  for  the  Parliament.  On  August  2  he 
ordered  a  night  attack,  but  Colonel  Jones,  the 
Parliamentarian  commander,  sallied  forth, 
drove  back  the  advancing  force,  and  at- 
tacked the  main  body  encamped  at  Hathmines. 
Just  outside  the  walls  Ormonde  was  com- 
pletely routed,  four  thousand  men  were 
slain,  and  his  artillery  and  two  thousand  men 
captured. 

SaT«n8piir,  or  SaveiUier,  near  Spurn 
Head  in  YorksMre,  was  in  early  times  the 
most  considerable  port  on  the  Mumber,  but 
the   encroachments   of    the    sea   gradually 


destroyed  it,  although  it  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  entirely  submerged  till  the  middle 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  was  at  Ravenspur 
that  Henry  IV.  landed  in  1399,  and  Edward 
IV.  in  1471. 

lELBtymond,  Hichsl,  was  a  French  ad- 
venturer, who  entered  tiie  service  of  Nizam 
Ali  in  1785,  and  soon  organised  a  force 
of  15,000  disciplined  troops,  officered  by  124 
Europeans,  chiefly  French.  In  the  war  be- 
tween Nizam  Ali  and  the  Peishwa  in  1795, 
these  forces  fought  well,  and  they  would  have 
become  formidable  to  the  English  but  for 
the  death  of  Raymond  in  1798.  The  Marquis 
Wellesley,  on  landing  as  Governor-General, 
demanded  the  dismissal  of  the  SVench  con- 
tingent, to  which  the  Nizam  consented  in  the 
treaty  of  Sept.  1,  1798.  No  adventurer  in 
India  ever  stood  higher  than  Raymond  did. 
His  death,  as  the  crisis  to  which  he  might 
have  been  equal  was  approaching,  was  the 
last  drop  in  the  cup  of  ifi-fortune  which  at- 
tended French  enterprises  in  India. 

Malleaon,    Final  Froneh  Strugglu  in   India; 
Owen,  Sdtetion  of  Wtaetiley't  DeepatchM,  p.  165. 

Seadintf  9  the  chief  town  of  Berkshire, 
mentioned  first  in  871  when  Ethelred  and  his 
son  Alfred  were  there  defeated  by  the  Danes, 
though  the  victory  of  Ashdown  near  the  town 
was  afterwards  won.  The  town  was  impor- 
tant as  defending  the  frontier  of  Wessex 
against  Mercia,  since  Wessex  had  been  de- 
prived of  the  lands  north  of  the  Thames. 
Under  Ethelred  the  Unready  in  1006  the 
town  was  reached  by  the  Danes  and  burnt. 
Here  Henry  I.  founded  a  great  monastery  in 
which  he  himself  was  afterwards  buried.  "  It 
was  not  unfit,"  says  Professor  I>Veeman, "  that 
the  victor.of  Tenc^ebrai  should  sleep  on  a  spot 
all  whose  associations  were  purely  English,  a 
spot  which  had  won  its  earlier  place  in  history 
as  the  scene  of  some  of  the  greatest  exploits 
of  Alfred."  It  was  frequently  favoured  by 
the  royal  presence,  and  seveial  parliaments 
were  held  here  by  Henry  VI.  and  Edward  IV. 

''Rebecca  Sioters''  was  the  name 
given  to  lawless  bands  of  Welshmen  who  in 
1843  gave  violent  expression  to  the  popular 
dislike  of  turnpike-gates.  The  rioters  were 
dressed  in  women's  clothes,  and,  in  allusion  to 
Isaac's  bride  (Gen.  xxiv.  60),  the  leader 
and  his  followers  were  known  as  "Rebecca 
and  her  daughters." 

SebeUioiLf  Thb  Gkbat.  The  struggle 
between  the  monarchy  and  the  Parliament 
which  led  to  the  Great  Rebellion  began  with 
the  accession  of  the  House  of  Stuart  to  the 
English  throne.  James  I.  and  Charles  I.  in- 
herited the  Tudor  dictatorship,  but  the  autho- 
rity which  Henry  VIII.  and  Eli«ibeth  had 
exerdsed  in  harmony  with  the  feelings  of  the 
nation,  they  endeavoured  to  use  for  unpopular 
purposes.  The  Commons,  who  had  grown 
strong  and  rich  during  the  sixteenth  century, 


&e1> 


(864) 


Beb 


woke  to  a  coiucioixsneas  of  their  strength, 
«ad  headed  the  opposition  to  the  crown,  as 
the  barons  had  done  in  the  thirteenth.  Whilst 
James  I.  formulated  a  dogmatic  theory  of 
the  sovereign  power,  and  strove  to  realise  it, 
the  Commons  revived  the  constitutional 
claims  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centu- 
ries. The  Petition  of  Hight  in  1628  was  an 
attempt  to  limit  the  king's  powers,  and  secure 
the  subject's  rights,  but  there  was  no  impar- 
tial authority  to  interpret  the  meaning  of  the 
<x>ntract,  and  the  Commons  claimed  by  virtue 
of  it  much  that  Charles  had  not  meant  to 
concede.  For  eleven  years  the  king  governed 
through  the  Privy  Council  without  calling  a 
Parliament.  The  judgment  on  Hampden's 
case  in  June,  1637,  definitely  settled  the  ques- 
tion of  taxation  in  the  king  s  favour.  But  at 
this  very  time  the  king's  ecclesiastical  policy 
had  called  forth  in  Scotland  an  opposition 
which  obliged  him,  after  an  unsuccessful 
attempt  to  suppress  it  by  arms,  to  have 
recourse  once  more  to  an  English  Parliament. 
The  Short  Parliament,  whidi  met  in  April, 
1640,  instead  of  supporting  the  king  in  the 
war,  demanded  the  abolition  of  ship  money 
and  the  taxes  levied  for  the  sapport  of  the 
army,  and  was  about  to  petition  in  favour  of 
the  Scots,  when  it  was  dissolved.  The  ill 
success  of  the  second  Scotch  war,  and  the 
invasion  of  England,  obliged  Charles  again 
to  call  a  Parliament,  known  afterwards  as 
the  Long  Parliament,  on  Nov.  3,  id40. 
On  the  11th  the  impeachment  of  Strafford 
was  moved  by  Pym,  that  of  Laud  followed 
«  little  later,  and  other  leading  officials 
fled  abroad.  Ship  money  was  declared  illegal, 
and  tunnage  and  poimdage  were  no  longer 
to  be  levied  without  the  consent  of  Parlia- 
ment. The  Star  Chamber,  the  Court  of 
Hi^h  Commission,  and  Qther  extraordinary 
jurisdictions  were  abolished.  The  Triennial 
Bill  bound  the  king  to  summon  a  Parliament 
<every  three  years,  and  he  was  obliged  to 
consent  to  an  Act  prohibiting  him  from  dis- 
solving the  existing  Parliament.  Hitherto  the 
Commons  had  be^  united,  but  the  question 
of  Church  reform  caused  a  division  in  their 
ranks.  One  party  wished  to  abolish  the 
bishops  altogether,  the  other  merely  to  limit 
their  powers.  Thus  the  king  was  enabled  to 
-gather  round  him  a  party  which  gave  him 
their  support  on  the  further  questions  which 
rose  out  of  this  disagreement.  In  the  Grand 
Bemonstrance  the  Parliamentary  leaders 
appealed  to  the  people,  setting  forth  the 
king's  misgovemment  in  the  past,  and  the 

Solitical  and  ecclesiastical  reforms  they 
emanded  for  the  future.  The  Irish  rebellion, 
which  broke  out  in  Oct.,  1641,  raised  the 
question  whether  the  king  could  be  trusted 
with  an  army.  In  England  war  began  in  the 
autumn.  The  king  set  up  his  standard  at 
Nottingham  on  Aug.  22,  1642.  On  the  king's 
side  were  the  north  and  west  of  England ;  in 
Wales  and  Cornwall,  and  on  the  border  he  found 


his  strongest  adherents,  while  the  sou^  and 
east,  and  the  manufacturing  districts  especially, 
took  the  side  of  the  Parliament.    ThebatUe 
of  EdgehiU  (Oct.  23)  had  no  decimve  resolls, 
and  a  second  battle  at  Brentford  (Nov.  12) 
was  equally  fruitless.    In  the  campaign  of 
1643  the  advantage  was   decidedly  on  the 
king's  side.    In  the  spring  and  the  summer  a 
Cornish  army  conquered  the  .west,  and  the 
Marquis  of  Newcaistle  recovered  Yorkshire. 
The  fate  of  the  Parliamentary  canae  seemed 
to  depend  on  the  question  whether  Gloucester 
and  Hull  would  hold  out.    But  the  Earl  of 
Essex  relieved  Gloucester,  and  defeated  at 
Newbur}'  the  king's  attempt  to  intercept  his 
march  back  to  London,  whilst  three  weela 
later  Newcastle  was  forced  to  raise  the  siege 
of  Hull.  In  one  part  of  the  country,  however, 
in  the  eabtem  counties,  the  Parliamentary 
cause  had  not  only  held  its  own,  but  gained 
ground,  and  an  army  had  been  formed  there, 
headed   by    the    Earl    of   Manchester,   but 
insjpired  by  Cromwell  (q.v.))  which  exeroseda 
decisive  izUluence  on  the  next  campaign.  Both 
king    and    Parliament   sought    aid    outside 
England.    The  king  concluded  a  truce  uith 
the  rebels,  and  brought  over   troops   from 
Ireland.    The  Parliament  made  an  allianoe 
with   the   Scots,   confirmed  by  the  Solemn 
League  and  Covenant,  which  procured  them 
the  assistance  of  a  Scotch  army,  bat  bound 
them  to  endeavour  to  bring  the  three  king* 
doms  to  religious  uniformity,  and  to  reform 
the  English  Church  "  according  to  the  Word 
of  God,  and  the  example  of  the  best  reformed 
Churches."  The  Westminster  Assembly  ,which 
had  in  July,  1643,  commenced  the  delibera- 
tions ending  two  ^ears  later  in  the  establish- 
ment of  Presbytenanism  in  England,  was  nov 
joined  by  Scotch  divines,  and  Scotch  repre> 
tatives  entered  the  committee  which  directed 
the  war.    A  Scotch  army,  under  the  Earl  of 
Leven,  crossed  the  border,  joined  the  troops 
of  Fairfax  and  Manchester,  and  laid  siege  to 
York.     Bupert    relieved  York,   but  offered 
battle  under   its  walls,   and  the  victory  of 
Marston  Moor  (July  2,  1644)  was  followed  by 
the  conquest  of  all  England  north  of  the 
Trent.     In  the  west  and  south  the  king  was 
more  fortunate.    He  defeated  Waller  at  Cro- 
predy  Bridge  ^June  29),  and  shut  up  Essex  in 
Cornwall,  where  the  latter^s  foot  were  obliged 
to  surrender  (Sept.,  1644).    But  the  advance 
of  the  Boyalists  on  London  was  put  a  stop 
to  by  the  second  battle  of  Newbury  (Oct  27. 
1644).     Wliilst  the  fruitless  negotiations  of 
Uxbridge  were  going  on,    the  Parliament, 
urged  by  CromweU,  resolved  to  adopt  a  new 
system  of  carrying  on  the  war.     By  the  Sdf- 
denying  Ordinance  the  members  of  Parlia- 
ment who  held  commands  had  to  resign  them, 
and  bv  a  second  ordinance  the  army  was  re- 
modelled, reduced  to  21,000  men,  and  placed 
under  the  command  of  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax. 
He  was  allowed  to  retain  the  services  of 
Cromwell,  who  became  his  lieutenant-general. 


Bab 


(  866  ) 


Well  artnedy  well  disciplined,  and  well  paid, 
its  ranks  full  of  men  '*who  had  the  fear  of 
God  before  their  eyes,  and  made  some  con- 
science of  what  they  did,"  the  '*  New  Model" 
changed  the  face  of  the  war.    Fairfax  took 
the  field  on  May  1,  1646,  and  on  June  14th 
Charles  was  defeated  at  Naseby  with  the  loss 
of   half  his  army.    One  after  another  the 
king's  fortresses  in  the  west  were  conquered. 
Winter  alone'  stopped  the  progress  of  Fair- 
fax ;  but  in  Marcl^  1646,  the  king's  last  army 
laid  down  its  arms,  and  his  last   fortress, 
Baglan  Castle,  surrendered  in  Auguit.  Charles 
himself  took  refuge  in  the  Scotch  camp  at 
Newark  at  the  beginning  of  May.    In  the 
ne^tiations  which  followed,  the  Parliament's 
chief  demands  were  the  control  of  the  militia 
and  the  establishment  of  Preebvterianism  in 
England.    The  king  delayed  giving  a  definite 
answer  as  long  as  possible,  but  finally  offered 
to  concede  the  militia  for  ten  years,  and  the 
establishment  of  Fresbyteiianism  for  three. 
The  iScots  at  last,  weary  of  his  delays,  surren- 
dered him  to  the  Parliament,  receivingin  return 
compensation  for  their  expenses  in  the  war 
(Jan.  30, 1647).  The  Presbyterian  leaders  were 
as  anxious  to  impose  uniformity,  and  as  hostile 
to    liberty    of    conscience  and  diversity  of 
worship,  as  Laud  himself.    The  army,  on  the 
other  hand,  had  fought  for  religious  as  well 
as  for  civil  liberty,  and  were    resolved  to 
secure  it.    They  believed  also  that  **  God*s 
Providence  "  had  "  cast  the  trust  of  religion 
and  the  kingdom  upon  them  as  conquerors." 
They  had  also  a  special  gprievance  as  soldiers 
in  the  proposal  to   disband   them   without 
payment  of  their  arrears,  so  they  did  not 
scruple  when  their    demands  were    refused 
to  seize  the  king's  person   (June  4,  1647), 
march  on  London,  expel  eleven  of  the  Presby- 
terian loaders  from  Parliament  (Aug.  7),  and 
treat  directly  with  the  king  themselves.    The 
king  still  continued  his  attempt  to  play  off 
one  party  against  the  other,  and  refused  to 
accept  the  terms  of  the  soldiers.    He  escaped 
from  the  hands  of  the  army  (Nov.  11),  and 
took  refuge  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  where,  whilst 
publicly  negotiating  with  the  Parliament,  he 
privately  concluded  a  treaty  with  the  Scots, 
promising  in  return  for  his  restoration  to 
establish  Presbyterianism  for  three  years,  and 
suppress    all    dissident    sects.      !Parliament 
replied  to  his  rejection  of  the  Four  Bills,,  in 
which  they  had  embodied  their  demands,  by  a 
vote  that  no  more  addresses  should  be  made  to 
the  king  (Jan.  3,  1648),  and  a  meeting  of  the 
officers  of  the  army  decided  that  it  was  their 
duty  so  soon  as  the  expected  war  was  over  to 
call  **  Charles  Stuart,  that  man  of  blood,"  to 
account  for  the  blood  he  had  shed,  and  the 
mischief  he  had  done.    In  April  the  second 
CSvil  War  broke  out.    Fairfax  defeated  the 
Kentish  Royalists,  shut  np  the  main  body  of 
the  insurg^ts  at  Colchester,  and  starved  them 
into  surrender   (Aug.  28).    Cromwell,  after 
putting   down   the   insuzrection  in  Wales, 


attacked  and  destroyed  the  Scotch  army  under 
the  Duke  of  Hamilton  in  a  three  days'  battle 
in  Lancashire  (Aug.  17,  18,  19).  Meanwhile 
the  Presbyterian  majority  in  Parliament  had 
seized  the  opportumty  to  pass  a  severe  law 
against  heresy,  and  reopen  negotiations  with 
the  king  (Tr^tty  of  Newport).  The  victorious 
army  trusted  nether  king  nor  Parliament,  but 
resolved  to  put  a  stop  to  the  negotiations,  and 
effect  a  settlement  of  the  kingdom  itself.  The 
king  was  seized  at  Oarisbrooke,  and  removed 
to  a  place  of  security  (Dec.  1).  The  House 
of  Commons,  purified  by  the  exduzion  of 
ninety-six  Presbyterian  members  (Dec.  6)t 
and  the  voluntary  abstention  of  many  others, 
became  the  obedient  instrument  of  the  army. 
It  passed  a  resolution  to  bring  the  king  to 
justice  (Dec.  13),  assumed  the  supreme  power 
(Jan.  4,  1649),  and  erected  a  High  Court  of 
Justice  to  try  Charles  (Jan.  9^.  The  trial 
lasted  from  Jan.  20  to  27,  and  the  king  was 
executed  on  the  29th,  but  out  of  the  hundred 
and  thirty-five  members  of  whom  the  court 
was  composed  only  fifty-nine  signed  the  death 
warrant.  The  new  government,  which  took 
the  name  of  Commonwealth,  consisted  of  a 
Council  of  State  of  forty-one  persons  exercis- 
ing the  executive  power,  and  a  House  of 
Commons,  which  rarely  numbered  more  than 
sixty  members.  [Commonwealth;  Long- 
Pabliament.] 

Clarendon,  Htsi  of  the  SOniUion;  CarMe, 
CromvelVt  LeUerg  ana  Speeches ;  Mur,  Hid.  qf 
tke  Long  Parliament;  Whitelocke^  JfemortaU; 
Thnrloe,  8taU  Papers;  Lndlow,  Memoirs;  8oo> 
bell,  Acte  and  Ordinaneee  modem  Parliament, 
1840—1866;  Memoin  of  Col.  Bviokineon  Ij  his 
Wife ;  Bnshworth,  CoUectiona ;  Brodie,  Conet. 
Uiak,  o/Eng,,  182&^1880;  Guisot,  OHver  Crom- 
leell  and  the  Eng,  C'ommonweaZth ;  Gardiner,  Hiat. 
of  Eng.,  2808-4i,  and  Great  Oind  War,  2642-49, 
and  Tfce  PwriUin  fieoolution.  [C.  H.  F.] 

SebeUion,  The  Irish.    [Ireland.] 

SebaUioilf  Cade's.  [Cade's  Rebellion.] 

Bebellioily  Wat  Tyler's.  [Tyler's 
Bebbllion.] 

Seoord.  Courts  of,  are  those  "  where  the 
acts  and  juoicial  proceedings  are  enrolled  in 

parchment which  roUs  are  called  the 

records  of  the  court,  and  are  of  such  authority 
that « their  truth  is  not  to  be  called  in 
question."  (Stephen's  Commentaries.)  Tliey 
have  power  slIso  to  impose  fine  and  imprison- 
ment for  contempt  of  court.  A  court  must 
either  be  a  Court  of  Record  by  immemorial 
recognition  or  by  modem  creation  through 
Act  of  Parliament.  James  I.,  by  yielding  to 
the  Commons  in  the  case  of  Goodwin  (1603), 
recognised  that  their  house  was  a  Court  of 
Record. 

Record  CMice.  In  1800  a  committee 
of  the  House  of  Commons  was  appointed  to 
examine  into  the  condition  of  the  public 
records,  and  in  accordance  with  its  recom- 
mendalions,  a  royal  commission  was  ap- 
pointed, which  was  renewed  six  times,  and 


(866  ) 


lasted  till  the  accession  of  Victoria.  The 
Kecozd  Commission  published  its  Report  in 
1837,  and  on  its  recommendation,  by  an  Act 
ol  1838,  the  guardianship  of  the  Records  was 
conferred  upon  the  Master  of  the  Rolls,  with 
power  to  appoint  a  deputy.  Under  this  Act 
the  documents  have  been  removed  from  their 
many  receptacles,  and  placed  in  the  Record 
Offices  in  Fetter  Lane  and  Chancery  Lane, 
London,  and  a  staff  of  officials  and  clerks  is 
employed  in  their  preservation  and  arrange- 
ment. In  1857  the  Master  of  the  Rolls  be^m 
the  publication  of  the  series  of  Chronicles  and 
Memorials  known  as  the  Rolls  series  (q.v.). 


Before  the  Municipal  Cor- 
porations Act  of  1835,  159  out  of  the  246 
corporate  towns  in  England  had  recorders  or 
stewards.  Most  of  these  were  nominated  by 
the  Common  CouncU,  sometimes,  however,  by 
the  aldermen  only,  sometimes  by  all  the  bur- 
gesses. "They  were  mostly  magistrates 
within  their  boroughs,  and  quorum  judges  of 
the  Courts  of  General  and  Quarter  Sessions, 
and  Courts  of  Record  where  those  existed." 
But  few  recorders,  however,  actually  resided 
in  the  towns,  and  in  manv  cases  the  office  was 
obtained  only  in  order  to  facilitate  the  exercise 
of  political  influence.  By  the  Act  of  1835 
all  towns  without  a  separate  Court  of  Quarter 
Sessions  were  deprived  of  their  criminal  juris- 
diction ;  but  boroughs  were  permitted  to 
petition  the  crown  for  a  separate  Court  of 
Quarter  Sessions,  stating  the  salary  they  are 
ready  to  pay  the  recorder.  If  the  petition  is 
granted,  the  crown  henceforward  nominates 
the  recorder.  He  must  be  a  barrister  of  at 
least  five  years'  standing.  He  holds  his  court 
four  times  a  year,  or  more  often  if  necessary, 
and  is  sole  judge  therein. 

Vine,   Englith  Municipaliiiet ;  Stephen,  UuiL 
of  Crttiunal  Law,  I,  oh.  4. 

Heomiters.  The  Royalist  members  who 
deserted  the  Parliament  at  Westminster  after 
the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  were  one  by 
one  "  disabled"  by  the  House  of  Conmions  in 
1646.  Writs  were  moved  for  new  elections 
in  their  place.  More  than  230  new  members 
were  returned,  who  were  called  by  the  Royalist 
writers  **  Recruiters." 

Sedan,  The,  was  a  fortress  protecting  the 
southern  side  of  SebastopoL  [Ckimban  War.] 
On  Sept.  5  the  English  attempted  to  take  it  by 
storm,  while  the  French  attacked  the  Malakoff. 
The  numbers  of  the  attacking  party  were,  how- 
ever, so  diminished  while  crossing  the  open 
ground  immediately  in  front,  and  there  was 
so  much  difficulty  in  sending  for  reinforce- 
ments, that  the  handful  of  men  who  had  entered 
the  works  were  forced  to  retire.  The  evacua- 
tion of  the  southern  side  of  Sebastopol  during 
the  night  made  a  further  attack  unnecessary. 

Saddiffe,  Stratford  db,  Viscount,  E.G. 
(*.  Nov.  4,  1786;  d.  Aug.  14, 1880),  diplomat- 
list,  was  the  son  of  a  London  merchant  named 


Canning,  and  cousin  of  George  Cafming.  la 
1812  ho  negotiated  the  Treaty  of  Bucharest, 
and,  after  holding  several  diplomatic  appoint- 
ments, was  sent  to  St.  Petersburg  in  1824  with 
a  special  object,  when  he  so  aroused  the  hos- 
tility of  the  Grand  Duke  Nicholas  that  whm  the 
latter  became  Csar  he  refused  to  receive  him  as 
British  ambassador.  In  1825  he  went  as  am- 
bassador to  Constantinople  to  support  the  cansa 
of  the  Greeks,  but  his  mission  was  unsocGesB- 
f ul,  and  after  the  battle  of  Navarino  diplomatic 
relations  were  broken  off.  He  returned  to 
Constantinople  in  184 1,  and  for  seventeen  yean 
was  the  supreme  director  of  Turkish  pulicy, 
positively  causing  the  Sultan  Abd-el-Medjid 
to  tremble  before  him.  His  great  aims  were 
to  stave  off  the  ruin  of  Turkey  by  internal 
reforms,  and  to  exclude  all  other  foreign  in* 
floence,  especially  that  of  the  Czar  Nidiolas, 
against  whom  he  cherished  a  personal  hatred 
as  taaik  as  it  was  bitter.  In  the  diplomacy 
which  led  up  to  and  accompanied  the  Crimean 
War  he  displayed  ability  of  the  highest  order. 
He  returns  to  England  in  1868,  and  was 
made  E.G.  in  1869. 


ly  The  Raid  of  (1575),  vas 
a  disturbance  on  the  borders  arising  from  s 
dispute  between  Forster,  the  English  warden, 
ana  Carmichael,  the  Scotch  warden,  of  the 
marches.  The  English  were  defeated,  their 
warden  and  the  Earl  of  Bedford  being  taken 
prisoners.  The  affair  nearly  led  to  a  rupture 
with  the  English  court. 

Sed  Aiver  Szpedition«   Tin.    In 

1869  the  Red  River  Settlement,  in  North 
America,  which  had  been  in  the  territories  of 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  was  transferred 
to  the  new  Dominion  of  Canada.  Some  of 
the  setUers,  however,  refused  to  acknowledge 
the  transfer,  or  to  receive  the  new  lieutenant- 

g>vemor.  On  Nov.  24  the  rebels,  under  Louis 
iel,  took  possession  of  Fort  Garry,  and  re- 
sisted by  force  an  attempt  of  Major  Bonlton 
to  get  possession  of  the  place.  One  of  Boulton's 
followers,  named  Scott,  was  seized  and  shot 
An  expedition,  consisting  of  about  350  British 
troops  and  a  number  of  Canadian  militia, 
under  the  command  of  Colonel  Wolseley,  was 
sent  against  them.  After  a  three  months* 
joumev  in  boats  across  the  lakes  and  rivers, 
Colonel  Wolseley  reached  Fort  Garry  (Aug.  23, 
1870).  The  rebels  surrendered  without  resist- 
ance. The  Red  River  territory,  under  its 
new  name,  Manitoba,  became  a  Ueutenant- 
govemorship  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

Sad  8m  ZxMditioii.  Thb.    In  1800, 

the  Marquess  Wellesley  oespatched  4,000 
Earopeans  and  6,000  sepoys,  under  General 
Baird,  to  co-operate  with  the  forces  under 
Abercromby  in  the  expulsion  of  the  French 
from  Egypt.  The  expedition  proceeded  op 
the  Red  Sea  to  Cosseir ;  thence  they  marched 
120  miles  over  the  desert  to  the  Nile,  reached 
Cairo  Aug.  10,  and  encamped  om  the  shores 


(867) 


•of  the  Mediterranean  on  the  27th.  Before, 
Jiowever,  the  Indian  contingent  could  be 
brought  into  action,  the  report  of  its  approach, 
And  the  energy  of  General  Hutchinson,  who 
succeeded  to  the  command  on  the  death  of 
JSir  Balph  Abercromby,  induced  the  French 
general  to  capitulate. 

WeUesl^,  Vetpatclue;  Alison,  Hi$t.of  JSurope. 

Sednetioiiy  Acnoy  of,  is  a  process  of 
■Scotch  law  by  which  a  settlement  wrongly 
made  is  questioned.  Acting  upon  this  analogy, 
the  Scotch  Government  in  1628  drew  up  "a 
summons  or  initial  writ  of  an  Action  of  Re- 
duction against  all  copyholders  of  ecclesias- 
tical  property,"  declaring  the  king's  right  to 
all  kirklfmds.  Charles's  object  was  to  restore 
to  the  Scotch  church  part  of  the  lands  of  which 
it  had  been  deprived  at  the  Reformation. 

Bedwald,  Kino  of  East  Anqlia  («.  eire, 
•599],  became  a  Christian  probably  owing  to 
'the  pressure  of  his  overlord,  Ethelbert  of 
Kent.    Returning  home  from  Kent,  where  he 
had  received  baptism,  he  was  "  led  astray  by 
his  wife  and  certain  perverse  teachers,  so  that, 
like  the  ancient  Samaritans,  he  seemed  at  the 
•same  time  to  serve  Christ  and  the  gods  whom 
he  had  served  before ;  and  in  the  same  temple 
'he  had  an  altar  to  sacrifice  to  Christ,  and 
.another  small  one  to  offer  victims  to  devils " 
(Bede).     But  it  would  appear  from  Bede  that 
even  while  Ethelbert  was  living,  his  place  as 
•overlord  in  Central  Britain  luid  been  taken 
'by  Redwald.     So  that  it  is  probable  a  war 
had  arisen  between  Ethelbert  and  Redwald 
from  this    religious  compromise,    and   had 
'^ded  in  Ethelbert's    defeat.      **li   middle 
Britain  threw  off  the  supremacy  of  Kent,  its 
^states   none   the  less   remained   a  political 
aggregate;  and  their  fresh  union  under  the 
King  of  Eastern  Anglia  was  only  a  prelude 
to  their  final  and  lasting  union  under  the 
lordship  of  Mercia'*  (Green).    In  617  Edwin 
>of  Northumbria  took  refuge  at  his  court  from 
Ethelfrith,  and  in  the  same  year  Redwald 
attacked  and  defeated  Ethelfri&  on  the  Idle 
— "  the  first  combat  between  the  great  powers 
which  had  now  grouped  the  English  peoples 
about  them.**    But  Redwald  diS  soon  f^Fter, 
and  the  ESast  Anglian  power  seems  to  have 
broken  up  under  his  son,  Eorpwald.    Bede, 
ii.  5,  after  describing  Ethelbert's  overlord- 
ship  {imperium)y  says  that  Redwald  was  the 
fointh  king  who  gained  a  power  of  this  kind 
{imperium  htyusmodi).      In  the  Anglo-Saxon 
ChronieU  Redwald  is  placed  fourth  on  the  list 
-of  Bretwaldas. 

Besides  Bede  and  the  ^nglo-Saxon  CHron.,  see 
Oreen,  Making  fif  En^iamd. 


(Sax.  gerefay  a  name  applied  to 
many  classes  of  officials,  especially  to  those 
charged  with  the  management  of  some  terri- 
torial division ;  as  the  so-called  Laws  of  Ed- 
ward the  Confessor  say, "  est  multiplex  nomen ; 
^l^ve  enim  dicitur  de  scira,  de  wapentagiis, 


de  hundredis,  de  burgis,  de  villis."  [Of  these 
the  most  important  was  the  shire-reeve,  for 
which  see  Shbuiff.]  Besides  the  sheriff,  the 
following  uses  of  the  term  are  to  bo  noted  : — 
High-reeve  (heah-gerefa)  mentioned  in  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Chnmielee,  s.  a.  778, 780, 1001,  and 
1002.  Fort-reeve  (port-gerefa),  borough-reeve 
(burh-gerefa),  and  wie-gerefa  also  frequently 
occur,  in  the  sense  of  the  chief  officer  of  a 
town,  who  presided  over  its  courts,  &c.  The 
first  title  was  only  used  in  trading  towns 
(not  necessarily  ports),  and  was  borne  by 
the  presiding  officers  of  several  of  the  smaller 
towns  until  recent  times.  Tun-gei-efa  is  the 
usual  term  for  the  headman  of  a  township. 
Ho  was  probably  chosen  by  the  inhabitants 
in  free  townships,  but  would  be  nominated  by 
the  lord  in  depeudent  townships.  He  appeared 
with  the  four  best  men  in  the  hundred  court, 
and  in  dependent  townships  was  legally 
responsible  for  his  lord's  men.  The  position 
of  the  manor-reeve  (the  representative  of  the 
earlier  tun-gerefa)  in  the  thirteenth  century 
is  clearly  described  in  Fleta.  He  was  to  be  a 
good  husbandman  chosen  by  the  villatif  and 
was  responsible  for  the  cultivation  of  the  land, 
having  especially  to  watch  over  the  ploughs, 
and  see  that  due  service  was  rendered.  A  and 
of  co-ordinate  authoritv  was  apparently  exer- 
cised by  the  lord's  bailiff,  and  both  alike  were 
subject  to  the  seneschal  or  steward,  who  often 
supervised  several  manors.  The  term  hundred- 
reeve  nowhere  appears.  But  a  reeve  is  men- 
tioned as  holding  the  court  of  the  hundred  in 
the  laws  of  Edward  the  E^der  and  Ethelred, 
and  it  is  possible  that  there  were  two  officers 
in  the  hundred,  the  reeve,  representing  the 
king's  interests,  becoming,  after  the  Conquest, 
the  bailiff  of  the  hundred,  and  the  hundreds- 
ealdor  representing  the  freemen. 

Schmid,  Gwdxe  der  AngeUachten,  and  Kemble, 
Sateons,  ii.,  Bk.  ii.,  ch.  vli.,  discuss  all  the  uses 
of  the  term.  See  also  8tubbs,  <  onst.  Hi^.  i., 
§S9,  45;  and  for  the  High-Beeve.  Green,  Con- 
qneet  of  JSng.,  espedjiUy  ch.  x.         [  W.  J.  A.] 

SefSdxmationt  Thb.  The  process  which 
ended  in  the  separate  organisation  of  the 
English  Church  was  due  to  three  principal 
causes:  (1)  dissatisfaction  with  the  practical 
operation  of  the  papal  headship ;  (2)  a  desire 
to  reform  the  clergy,  and  render  the  Church 
more  useful ;  (3)  a  conviction  that  the  system 
of  the  mediaeval  Church  had  in  many  ways 
deviated  from  the  teaching  of  Christ  and  the 
apostles,  aud  from  primitive  custom.  The 
first  of  these  causes  showed  itself  in  England 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  and  gradually 
led  to  legislative  acts  by  which  England 
endeavoured  to  protect  itself  from  undue 
interference  on  the  part  of  the  pope.  The 
Statutes  of  Provisors  and  Pr»munire  se- 
cured England  against  the  heavy  exactions 
by  which  the  papacy  during  the  Great  Schism 
oppressed  Christendom.  [Papacy.]  In  the 
reforming  coundlq  of  the  fifteenth  century. 


0  858  ) 


which  laboured  in  vain,  England  did  not  take 
a  prominent  part,  because  it  already  had  the 
means  of  keeping  in  check  the  claims  of  the 
papacy.  It  was,  however,  an  Englishman 
who  first  gathered  together  and  expressed  the 
dissatisfaction  of  Europe.  John  Wy cliffe  began 
his  career  by  maintaining  the  independence 
of  the  State  from  hierarchical  interference. 
To  this  he  added  a  longing  after  greater 
simplicity  and  spirituality  of  life.  He  sent 
forth  preachers  among  the  people.  He  de- 
nounced the  worldliness  of  the  papacy  as  anti< 
Christian.  He  undertook  the  noble  task  of 
translating  the  Bible  into  English.  He  wrote 
numerous  tracts  to  stir  upthe  people  to  greater 
earnestness  in  religion.  He  asserted  the  exist- 
ence of  a  true  spiritual  Church  founded  on 
faith  in  Christ,  and  depending  for  its  rule  in 
the  law  of  the  Gospel.  Moreover,  as  a  means 
of  reducing  the  organisation  of  the  Church  to 
greater  purity,  he  attacked  the  central  point 
of  sacerdotahsm — ^the  material  conception  of 
transubstantiation  in  the  sacrament  of  the 
altar.  He  did  not  deny  the  presence  of 
Christ  in  the  Eucharist ;  he  denied  only  the 
change  of  substance  in  the  elements  after 
consecration.  Thus  Wydiffe  united  in  his 
teaching  the  three  principles  which  brought 
about  the  Reformation — a  strong  sense  of 
national  patriotism,  a  deep  desire  for  greater 
spirituality  of  life,  and  an  acute  criticism  of  the 
doctrines  on  which  the  existing  system  of  the 
Church  was  founded.  Wycliffe*s  teaching  drew 
upon  him  ecclesiastical  condemnation.  His 
opinions  spread  in  Bohemia,  and  gave  birth  to 
the  rising  of  the  Hussites.  In  England  his 
followers,  the  Lollards,  were  unfortunately 
associated  with  political  risings,  and  were 
suppressed.  Still  Wycliif  e*s  translation  of  the 
Bible,  and  many  of  his  writings  wore  passed 
from  hand  to  hand,  and  bodies  of  *' Bible- 
men  "  scattered  here  and  there  throughout 
the  land  prepared  the  way  for  more  decided 

efforts.      fWYCLIFFB.] 

The  end  of  the  Wars  of  the  Boses  saw 
a  great  change  in  the  social  condition  of 
England.  The  ideas  of  the  Middle  Ages  were 
languishing.  The  Feudal  System  had  prac- 
tically passed  awav.  While  the  nobles  were 
fightmg,  the  middle  class  had  grown  more 
prosperous.  A  narrow  but  practical  spirit 
prevailed,  which  looked  enviously  on  the 
wealth  of  the  Church,  which  was  unaffected 
by  its  sentiment,  and  which  in  a  dim  way 
wished  to  see  it  made  more  useful.  As 
the  new  learning  made  its  way  in  England 
men  like  More  dreamed  of  a  new  organisation 
of  society,  and  Colet  bestirred  himself  in  the 
cause  of  a  broader  system  of  education.  The 
Church  itself  was  vexatious  to  the  people  by 
the  wide  extension  of  its  inquisitorial  courts 
of  spiritual  discipline.  The  rabble  of  useless 
and  lazy  priests  excited  the  contempt  of 
thinking  men.  There  was  small  hope  of 
reform  from  within ;  for  the  organisation  of 
the    Church  depended   on  Rome,    and   the 


secularised  papacy  of  the  sixteen^  cen- 
tury was  powerless  to  initiate  refonns. 
Politically  the  English  Church,  through  fesr 
of  the  Lollards,  had  relied  for  help  on  the 
crown,  and  had  trusted  to  the  balance  of 
parties.  The  overthrow  of  the  baronage  br 
the  Wars  of  the  Roses  left  the  cro^ 
practically  supreme,  as  the  people  were 
too  much  engrossed  in  business  to  care  for 
an^'thing  save  a  strong  and  peaceful  govem- 
ment. 

The  desire  for  some  reform  in  the  Church 
was  felt  by  Wolsey,  who  obtained  from  the 
pope  permission  to  suppress  thirty  monas- 
teries, and  devote  their  revenues  to  educa- 
tional foundations  at  Oxford  and  Ipswich. 
Perhaps  Wolsey's  schemes  for  internal  refona 
would  have  progressed  further,  if  a  crisis  in 
the  relations  between  Church  and  State  had 
not  been  brought  about  by  the  self-will  of 
Henry  VIII.      Henry  VIII.,  fascinated  by 
Anne  Boleyn,  was  resolved  on  a  divorce  from 
his  wife  Catherine.  He  had  married  Catherine, 
his  brother's  widow,  by  virtue  of  a  papal 
dispensation ;   he  needed  the  papal  consent 
for  a  divorce.     The  papacy  was  the  source  of 
ecclesiastical  law,  the  supreme  judge,  with 
equitable  powers  in  cases  of  g^evanoe.    So 
long  as  Henry  VIII.  expected  to  obtain  hit 
divorce  he  was  content  to  wait.    But  when 
Wolsey's  plans   failed,  and  Pope   Clement 
VII.  showed  that  he  dared  not  gratify  the 
English  king  at  the  expense  of  offending  the 
Emperor,  Henry  VIII.  resolved  to  give  the 
pope  a  sample  of  his  spirit.     The  powerful 
minister  Wolsey  was  declared  subject  to  the 
penalties  of  the  Statute  of  Pnemunire,  be- 
cause he  had  exercised  legatine  powers  with- 
out the  king^s  consent.    He  fell,  and  no  voice 
was  raised  in  his  favour  (1529).   Henry  VIII. 
appealed  from  the  pope  to  the  learning  of 
Clmstendom,  and  proceeded  to  gather  the 
opinions  of  the  universities  on  the  legality  of 
his  marriage,  and  the  propriety  of  his  diTorte. 
Further,  to  terrify  the  pope  by  a  display  of 
his  power,  he  involved  all  the  clergy  of  the 
realm  under   the    penalties  of    Pnemunire, 
because  they  had  recognised  Wolsey^s  lega- 
tine authority.    The  Convocation  of  1631  was 
compelled  to  sue  for  the  king's  pardon,  and 
grant  him  a  large  subsidy  by  way  of  a  fine. 
Moreover,  the  king  demanded  that  he  should 
be  called  in  the  preamble  of  the  Bill  granting 
the  subsidy,  "  sole  protector,  and  supreme 
head  of  the  Church  and  clergy  of  England." 
With  difficulty  Archbishop  Warham  modified 
the  term  "  supreme  head  "  by  the  limitation 
"  as  far  as  the  law  of  Christ  sdlowa"    In  the 
Parliament  of  1532  the  pope  was  still  ixaiher 
threatened  by  an  Act  forbidding  the  pament 
of  annates  to  Rome.  The  dergy  were  terrified 
by  the  presentation  by  the  Commons  of  a  long 
petition  concerning  ecclesiastical  grieTanoea. 
It  was  clear  that  Henry  VIII.  was  in  a  po«- 
lion  to  do  what  he  would.    The  Commons,  as 
representing  tiie  middle  dass,  were  on  lua 


(  869  )  ^ 


side,  becauae  they  had  many  pzactical 
grievaiLces  which  they  hoped  to  see  redressed. 
The  clergy  had  no  strong  hold  on  the  people, 
and  had  little  organisation  amongst  them- 
selves. They  were  helpless  before  the  king, 
and  the  pope  was  unable  to  give  them  any 
succour.  What  is  known  as  '*the  submis- 
sion of  the  clergy"  was  simply  the  practical 
recognition  of  this  fact.  Convocation  in  1532 
"  submitted  themselves  humbly  to  his  high- 
ness," and  undertook  thenceforth  to  pro- 
mulgate no  ordinance  which  had  not  received 
the  royal  approval,  and  to  submit  the  provincial 
constitutions  then  in  force  to  revision  by  a 
committee  of  sixteen  laymen  and  sixteen 
clergy  appointed  by  the  king.  In  1633  the 
new  Archbishop,  Cranmer,  took  cognisance  of 
the  question  of  the  king*s  divorce,  and  pro- 
nounced his  marriage  invalid  from  the  tirst. 
As  the  pope  had  pronounced  in  &vour  of  its 
validity,  tnis  was  a  decided  assertion  of  the 
Act  passed  in  1532  that  appeals  in  such  cases 
as  had  hitherto  been  pursued  in  the  Court  of 
Home  should  thenceforth  be  had  within  tho 
realm.  Henry  VIII.'b  marriage  with  Anne 
Boleyn  announced  his  breach  not  only  with 
the  papacy  but  with  the  public  opinion  of 
Europe.  He  had  advanced  step  by  step  till 
there  was  no  return  possible.  The  Parliament 
of  1534  passed  Acts  confirming  the  submission 
of  the  clergy  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  crown, 
forbidding  the  payment  of  annates  and  all 
other  dues  to  the  pope,  establishing  the  king 
as  supreme  head  of  the  Church,  with  authority 
to  reioma  all  abuses,  and  conferring  on  him 
all  paynients  that  previously  were  made  to 
the  pope.  All  that  was  implied  in  the  papal 
headship  over  the  Church  was  now  swept 
awav  from  England.  The  secular  privileges 
of  the  pope  were  conferred  upon  the  crown. 
The  Church,  whose  machinery  had  already 
been  broken  down  by  papal  encroachments, 
was  left  without  any  ^wer  to  repair  that 
machinery.  Its  legislative  power  was  subject 
to  the  royal  assen^  its  courts  were  left  un- 
reformed,  and  appeals  were  to  be  heard  and 
decided  in  some  court  approved  by  the 
crown. 

Henry  YIII.  had  overturned  the  papal 
headship,  aaid  was  no  doubt  aided  in  so  doing 
by  the  example  of  those  German  states  where 
the  ideas  of  Luther  had  prevailed.  But 
Hemy  himself  was  opposed  to  Luther's 
teachmg,  and  had  no  sympathy  with  the 
cause  of  doctrinal  reform.  He  wished  the 
Church  to  remain  as  it  had  been,  save  that 
the  rights  of  the  pope  w6re  transferred  to 
the  crown.  Even  Cnmmer,  though  he  had 
broken  the  rule  of  clerical  celibacy,  did  not 
meditate  any  groat  change.  But  in  Oxford 
and  Cambridge  especiallv  men  turned  their 
attention  to  German  theolog^^  At  the  end  of 
1534  Convocation  petitioned  the  king  to 
decree  a  translation  of  the  Bible  into  English, 
a  work  which  was  not  allowed  till  1537.  The 
TiBitatorial  power  of  the  crown,  vested  in  the 


hands  of  Cromwell  as  Vicar-general,  was  not 
allowed  to  slumber.  The  visitation  of  the 
smaller  monasteries  led  to  an  Act  in  1535 
giving  to  the  crown  all  religious  houses  below 
the  annual  value  of  £200.  In  1639  the  sup- 
pression of  the  greater  monasteries  followed. 
The  centres  of  the  reactionary  and  papal 
party  were  abolished.  The  wealth  and  social 
importance  of  the  Church  was  greatly 
diminished.  Tho  political  power  of  the 
Church  in  the  House  of  Lords  was  reduced. 
Those  who  were  accused,  with  some  reason, 
of  making  the  ecclesiastical  profession  a 
doak  for  idleness  were  dispersed. 

These  changes  were  not  made  without  pro- 
foundly affecting  English  society.  The  bulk 
of  the  lower  classes  were  attached  to  the 
old  state  of  things,  and  suffered  from  the 
abolition  of  the  monasteries.  The  number  of 
those  who  were  influenced  by  the  teaching 
of  Luther  increased  in  activity.  The  middle 
class  alone  was  satisfied,  and  Henry  YIII. 
took  care  to  satisfy  them  in  his  measures.  To 
define  the  position  of  the  English  Chujch, 
Ten  Articles  "to  stablisl^  Christian  quiet- 
ness" were  put  forward  by  the  southern 
Convocation  in  1536,  which  asserted  as  "laud- 
able ceremonies"  the  chief  uses  of  the  old 
Churdi.  In  1537  was  issued  the  Buhop'B 
Booky  or  Institution  of  a  Christen  MaUf  which 
discarded  the  papal  monarchy,  but  otherwise 
maintained  the  existing  system.  Free  dis- 
cussion of  dog^natic  questions  was  not  ac- 
oording  to  Henry  YIII.'s  views.  He  valued 
his  reputation  for  orthodoxy,  and  in  1639 
the  Six  Articles  inflicted  the  punishment 
of  death  on  aU  who  should  call  m  question 
the  chief  dogmas  and  practices  of  the  mediasval 
Church.  So  long  as  Henr^  VIII.  lived  no 
further  changes  were  made  m  the  position  of 
the  Church  of  England.  His  strong  hand 
kept  contending  parties  from  struggling,  and 
his  strong  will  impressed  itself  on  the  nation. 

With  the  accession  of  Edward  VI.  long 
pent-up  antagonisms  made  themselves  felt. 
One  party,  headed  by  Gardiner,  Bishop  of 
Winchester,  was  contented  with  the  abohtion 
of  the  papal  headship,  and  was  opposed  to 
further  change.  The  reforming  party  was 
divided  into  &ree  chief  bodies — one  consisted 
of  revolutionary  sectaries,  whose  wild  talk 
had  already  created  alarm ;  another  body  of 
advanced  reformers  had  absorbed  much  of 
the  theology  of  the  Swiss  teacher  Zwingli, 
and  regarded  the  sacraments  as  extenial 
symbols ;  the  more  moderate  reformers, 
headed  by  Cranmer,  leaned  to  the  teaching 
of  Luther  and  Melanchthon ;  they  were  willing 
to  reform  superstitious  errors,  but  they  held 
bv  the  sacraments  and  the  system  of  the 
Church.  This  last  party  succeeded  in  getting 
matters  into  their  hands,  and  expressed  their 
views  in  the  first  prayer-book  of  Edward  VI., 
and  in  the  Book  of  the  Homilies.  The  prayer- 
book  provided  a  uniform  use  for  the  service 
of  the  English  Church;   the  homUiee  pro- 


(  860  ) 


Tided  for  the  restoration  of  preaching  as  a 
means  of  teaching  the  people ;  the  Bible  was 
already  translated.  The  practical  character 
of  the  English  Church  was  thus  emphasised. 
It  aimed  at  meeting  the  national  needs,  and 
appealed  to  the  national  intelligence.  Bat 
the  first  Prayer-book  did  not  satisfy  the  more 
ardent  reformers,  whose  numbers  were  rein- 
forced by  a  large  influx  of  foreign  teachers 
driven  by  religious  persecution  from  the  Con- 
tinent. Under  their  influence  Granmer*s 
views  developed,  and  in  1652  a  second  Prayer- 
book  was  issued,  which  simplified  vestments, 
omitted  some  usages  which  were  deemed 
superstitious,  and  re-modelled  the  Communion 
Service  that  it  might  be  more  acceptable  to 
the  followers  of  Zwingli  and  Calvin.  The 
formularies  of  the  Church  were  also  set  forth 
in  Forty-two  Articles,  which  in  the  main 
followed  the  ideas  of  the  Saxon  reformers, 
while  retaining  much  of  the  conservatism 
which  especially  marked  the  beg^nings  of 
the  English  movement.  No  sooner  had  this 
been  done  than  the  accession  of  Mary  pro- 
duced a  reaction,*  which  the  bulk  of  the 
people  regarded  with  indifference.  The 
progress  of  the  Reformation  under  Edward 
VI.  had  been  too  rapid.  It  had  been  accom- 
panied by  many  outrages  on  the  opinions  of 
those  who  held  by  the  old  forms.  It  showed 
little  tenderness  or  consideration  for  others, 
and  was  endured  rather  than  welcomed. 

Under  Mary,  Gardiner  and  his  party  pre- 
pared to  return  to  a  recognition  of  the  papal 
headship.  England  was  again  reconciled  to 
the  papacy.  Many  of  the  English  reformers 
fled  to  the  Continent ;  many  who  remained, 
amongst  them  Cranmer,  suffered  death  for 
their  opinions.  But  Mary's  government  was 
a  failure.  Her  religious  persecution  was  carried 
on  in  a  spirit  of  narrow  fanaticism,  which 
stirred  the  popular  mind  against  her.  Her 
brief  reign  of  five  years  undid  the  ill  effects 
of  the  excessive  zeal  of  the  reformers  under 
Edward  VI.,  and  disposed  men  to  look  regret- 
fully on  the  reign  and  policy  of  Henry  VIII. 
Elizabeth  had  lived  through  both,  and  had 
conformed  to  Bomanism  under  Mary.  She 
made  no  change  at  first,  but  Anne  Boleyn's 
daughter  could  not  seriously  contemplate  a 
reconciliation  with  the  papacy.  Her  first 
Parliament  in  1559  passea  an  Act  to  **  restore 
to  the  crown  the  ancient  jurisdiction  over 
the  estate  ecclesiastical  and  spiritual,  and 
abolish  all  foreign  jurisdictions  repugnant 
to  the  same.*'  Elizabeth  explained  the  mean- 
ing of  the  royal  supremacy  so  re-established 
to  be  "  under  God  to  have  the  sovereignty 
and  rule  over  all  persons  bom  within  these 
her  realms  of  what  estate,  either  ecclesiastical 
or  temporal,  soever  they  be,  so  as  no  other 
foreign  power  shall  or  ought  to  have  any 
superiority  over  them."  At  the  same  time 
heresy  was  defined  to  be  what  was  contrary 
to  the  canonical  Scriptures,  or  the  first  four 
general  councils.  The  Prayer-book  was  revised 


and  legalised,  and  uniformity  of  worship  wai 
enforced  by  an  Act  bidding  all  men  to  resort 
to  their  parish  church,  llie  greater  part  of 
the  Marian  bishops  refused  to  take  tJie  oath  of 
supremacy,  and  were  deprived  of  i^&r  sees. 
Matthew  Parker,  the  new  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  brought  great  learning  and  mudi 
moderation  to  the  difficult  task  of  re-organis- 
ing the  English  Church  upon  a  basis  which 
should  be  at  once  comprehensive  and  definite 
enoxigh  to  form  a  strong  institution.  The 
exiles  who  had  fled  before  Mary^s  persecutioa 
returned  to  England,  strongly  imbued  with 
the  ideas  of  Calvin.  The  Catholic  party 
resented  its  loss  of  supremacy.  Elisabeth 
supported  as  a  compromise  the  system  which 
her  fother  had  devised.  The  old  order  and 
ceremonies  of  the  Church  were  left  untouched, 
while  room  was  made  for  the  exercise  of  the 
spirit  of  personal  religion.  At  first  the  Eliza- 
bethan system  was  not  strong  in  its  hold  on  the 
popular  mind.  It  was  tolerated  because  it  was 
the  only  means  of  securing  peace.  Soon  the 
feeling  of  the  mass  of  the  people  gathered  roond 
it,  and  the  events  of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth 
identified  it  with  the  English  spirit.  A  body 
of  Calvinists,  known  as  Puritans  or  Precisions, 
objected  to  some  of  its  ceremonies,  and  to  its 
episcopal  organisation.  They  vainly  strove 
to  make  alterations,  and  the  ''Martin  Mar- 
prelate  '*  controversy  (1588)  is  a  testimony  to 
their  zeal.  They  were  strong  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  and  grew  in  strength  under 
James  I.  and  Charles  I.,  so  that  the  Great  Re- 
bellion was  as  much  a  religious  as  a  political 
controversy.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Roman- 
ists organised  themselves  into  a  political  party. 
Elizabeth  was  excommunicated  in  1570,  and 
Jesuit  missionaries  flocked  into  England. 
They  were  persecuted,  and  the  great  mass  of 
the  English  Catholics  remained  loyal  to  their 
queen  and  country  against  the  attacks  of 
Spain.  Practically  the  reign  of  Elizabeth 
saw  England  established  as  a  Protestant 
country.  The  Church  of  England  has  in  the 
main  adhered  to  the  lines  &en  laid  down, 
while  Romanists  and  Nonconfonnists  have 
gradually  been  admitted  to  civil  and  religious 
equality. 

Fronde,  Eid.  qf  Sng.;  Lingard,  H%$L  c/ 
Bng. ;  Str^npOf  Jftmoriob;  Dixon,  AUt,  i>f  fkt 
Church  of  £ny. ;  Heylin,  Hut.  of  tfc«  Storms- 
turn;  Foxe^ ^ct« atui MonttmMite /Burnet,  BM. 
of  the  Reformation;  Pooock,  Boccrd*  of  ths 
jMformation/CalMidar  of  State  Pap«ri  c/  a.mKr% 
VllL  and  SUaahoth;  the  pnblicatioiiB  of  the 
Parker  Society;  Seebohm,  Oxford  R^ovman; 
D'Anbign^,  Hut.  ^  th*  B^vrmatwn  in  ik»  Tim* 
ofLuthor.  [JL  C] 

Befbrmatioii  in  Zrekuid.  The  F^- 

liament  which  met  at  Dublin  in  May,  1536, 
rapidly  copied  the  measures  which  the  Eng- 
lish Parliament  had  just  passed.  In  the  fint 
session  the  king  was  declared  supreme  head 
of  the  Church  of  Ireland,  and  given  the  first- 
fruits  ;  and  appeals  to  Rome  were  abolished. 
To  facilitate  the  work,  Poynings*  Act  was 


(861  ) 


Biupeiided,  so  that  the  English  statutes  needed 
only  to  he  copied,  and  it  was  not  necessary  to 
send  drafts  to  London  and  back.  No  opposi- 
tion was  offered  by  the  laity  ;  but  the  spiritual 
peers  sturdily  resisted  the  progress  of  the 
bills;  and  the  proctors  of  the  clergy  (who 
were  in  Ireland  members  of  Parliament, 
though  not  apparently  sitting  with  the  Com- 
mons, but  in  a  separate  house)  were  so  ener- 
getic in  obstruction  that  the  Privy  Council 
decided  that  they  had  no  right  to  vote,  and 
caused  an  Act  to  be  passed  in  the  next  session 
depriving  them  of  the  privilege.  In  1537 
certain  monasteries  were  suppressed,  and  this 
was  soon  followed  by  a  general  dissolution. 
A  small  part  of  the  monastic  revenues  were 
transferred  to  bishoprics ;  but,  as  in  England, 
the  greater  portion  of  the  land  was  sold  at 
nominal  prices  to  private  persons.  An  im- 
portant part  was  played  in  these  transactions 
by  George  Browne,  the  *'Cranmer  of  Ire- 
land," who  had  been  Provincial  of  the  Austin 
Friars,  and  had  been  created  Archbishop  of 
Dublin  in  1535.  The  Bidding  Prayer  issued  by 
him  in  1538  is  the  first  document  in  which  the 
union  of  the  churches  of  England  and  Ireland 
is  declared.  Until  the  accession  of  Edward 
YI.,  no  change  was  made  in  worship  or  belief. 
But  when  an  attempt  was  made  bv  the  council 
without  Act  of  Parliament  to  enforce  the  use 
t>f  Edward's  Prayer  Book,  the  Archbishop  of 
Armagh  and  most  of  the  bishops  and  clergy 
refused  to  obev.  Only  Browne  and  five 
bishops  accepted  the  new  liturgy.  As  Armagh 
was  in  the  land  of  CKeil,  and  beyond  the 
control  of  the  council,  the  primacy  was  trans- 
ferred to  Dublin,  and  some  of  the  vacant 
bishoprics  were  filled  up  by  advanced  Be- 
formers,  of  whom  the  most  important  was 
Bale  of  Ossory.  Under  Mary  the  old  state 
of  things  was  restored.  Browne,  the  con- 
forming bishops,  and  the  married  clergy  were 
deprived.  In  the  second  year  of  Elizabeth,  a 
carefully  packed  Parliament  passed  the  Act  of 
Uniformify,  and  corned  the  contemporary 
English  measures.  Three  bishops  alone  re- 
fused to  conform  ;  but  in  a  large  part  of  the 
country  mass  continued  to  be  performed,  and 
where  the  new  system  was  really  introduced, 
the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries,  which  had 
in  many  places  served  the  parish  churches, 
left  haJI  the  parishes  without  clergy.  The 
English  Churcn,  which  had  been  imposed  by 
the  English  Government,  and  was  used  as  a 
means  of  Anglicising  the  Irish,  never  laid  hold 
of  the  Irish  people.  They  adhered  firmly  to 
the  old  opinions,  and  persecution  only  inten- 
sified their  steadfastness.  The  disestablishment 
of  the  Irish  Church  in  1869  was  an  admission 
that  the  Reformation  in  Ireland  had  been  a 
&ilure,  and  that  the  people  were  practically 
£oman  Catholic. 

Dizoii,  Historu  0/  llf  Chwreh  </  Englamd, 
vol.  ii.  ch.  iz.  ;  wupole.  Kingdom  of  Ireland ; 
Mant,  Hitt.  of  the  Church  of  Ireland;  Elrington, 
Life  of  Uether;  O'SnIUvan,  Hietoria  CathoUea 
IbtmicB, 


Befoxmation  in  Scotland.  The  Re- 
formation was  the  first  national  movement 
in  Scotland  which  originated  with  the  people, 
who  now  came  forward  for  the  first  time  as  a 
power  in  the  State.  By  the  beginning  of  the 
fifteenth  century  the  church  in  Scotl^d  had 
become  very  unpopular.  Favoured  by  the 
crown  it  haa  amassed  riches  and  lands.  Its 
prelates  held  the  great  offices  of  state,  and 
were  arrogant  and  overbearing,  delighting  in 
displavs  of  their  pomp  and  power.  This 
roused,  the  jealousy  of  the  baronage.*  The 
burden  of  the  tithes  and  church  dues,  and  the 
greed  and  injustice  that  were  exercised  in 
extorting  them  by  the  clergy,  in  whom  the 
spixit  of  avarice  was  dominant,  woke  the 
hatred  of  the  people,  who  lent  a  willing  ear 
to  the  reformed  doctrines.  These  doctrines 
were  imported  by  the  fugitives,  who  fled  over 
the  Border  to  seek  safety  from  the  Marian 
{persecution  in  England.  Sympathy  with 
their  sufferings  overcame  the  prejudice  against 
their  nation,  and  roused  a  Protestant  re- 
action among  the  people.  Many  of  the  land- 
owners, inspired  by  a  desire  to  get  hold  of  the 
church  lanos,  joined  the  popular  movement. 
The  Reformers  signed  the  bond  which  pledg^ 
them  to  united  support  [Covenant]  in 
1557.  Abjuration  of  Papal  authority  and 
adoption  oi  the  English  Bible  and  Prayer- 
booK  were  its  principles.  The  ''Lords  of 
the  Congregation,"  as  the  supporters  of  the 
bond  were  called,  demanded  of  the  regent, 
Mary  of  Guise,  a  reformation  of  religion  in 
accordance  with  these  principles.  She  refused, 
and  summoned  their  preachers  before  the 
Privy  Council.  This  roused  a  tumult.  The 
mob,  excited  by  John  Knox,  rose  in  Perth, 
sacked  the  religious  houses,  and  defaced  the 
churches  (1559).  Their  example  was  followed 
throughout  the  country.  l*he  regent  em- 
ployed French  soldiers  to  quell  the  insur- 
gents, and  thereby  excited  a  civil  war.  The 
congregation  took  up  arms  and  appealed  to 
England  for  support.  On  the  death  of  the 
regent  the  estates  passed  the  Reformation 
Statutes,  which  abjured  the  authority  of  the 
pope,  adopted  the  Genevan  Confession  of 
Faith,  and  declared  the  celebration  of  the 
mass  a  capital  offence  (Aug.  25,  1560).  Thus 
the  Church  of  Scotland  was  nominally  sepa- 
rated from  that  of  Rome.  But  these  statutes 
were  not  confirmed  by  the  crown,  for  the 
queen,  l^i^ury  Stuart,  was  in  France.  When 
die  arrived  in  Scotland  (1561),  though  she 
did  not  attempt  to  restore  the  old  church,  she 
demanded  toleration  for  herself  and  her 
attendants,  and  re-established  the  mass  in 
her  private  chapel.  Meanwhile  the  ministers 
and  the  lairds  fell  out  over  the  disposal  of 
the  church  lands.  Most  of  the  richest  of 
the  ecclesiastical  estates  had  been  already 
secured  by  laymen.  Of  the  lands  that 
were  still  unappropriated  the  Privy  Council 
set  aside  one  third  to  pay  the  stipends  of 
the  ministers  of  the  reformed  Church.    The 


(  862  ) 


rest  rexniuiied  in  possession  of  the  churchmen 
who  held  it,  and  as  they  died  off  it  was  to 
iall  to  the  crown.  But  the  Lords  refused 
to  accept  the  First  Book  of  L'uiciplifu^  a  code 
of  stringent  statutes  drawn  up  by  the  ministers 
for  the  government  of  the  Church,  even  more 
tyrannical  in  spirit  than  the  exactions  of  the 
old  church,  which  had  been  found  so  galling. 
For  the  Ft^sbyters  imagined  that  they  h^ 
succeeded  to  the  power  of  the  pope,  and 
assumed  the  right  of  interfering  in  matters 
secular  as  well  as  spiritual.  On  the  deposition 
of  the  queen  (1567)  the  £arl  of  Murray,  her 
half-brother,  was  inade  regent  for  the  infant 
king.  Ue  had  been  foremost  as  a  leader  of 
the  Congregation,  and  during  his  regency 
Presbytorianism  was  in  the  ascendant.  The 
government  of  all  ecclesiastical  matters  was 
committed  to  the  General  Assembly,  a  council 
of  Presbyters  elected  by  their  brethren. 
Liturgical  worship,  however,  was  not  alto- 
gether swept  away  with  the  rites  and  cere* 
monies  of  the  Romish  Church.  A  prayer- 
ix>ok,  called  the  Book  of  Comtnon  Order,  was  in 
daily  use  in  the  churches.  Under  the  regency 
of  Mar  episcopacy  was  again  restored  (1572). 
But  the  bishops  were  merely  nominal,  as  tibiey 
had  neither  lands  nor  dignities,  and  were 
subject  to  the  authority  of  the  General  As- 
sembly. In  1592  this  shadowy  episcopacy  was 
again  abolished,  and  the  Presbyterian  polity 
established.  Each  Presbyter  was  supreme  in 
his  own  parish.  A  certain  number  of  parishes 
formed  a  Presbj'tery  or  council  of  Presbyters, 
who  despatched  the  ecclesiastical  business  of 
the  district.  The  Synod,  composed  of  several 
Presbyteries,  was  a  court  of  appeal  for  matters 
of  graver  import,  while  the  supreme  court, 
the  General  Assembly,  met  yearly  at  Edin- 
burgh. It  was  formed  of  ministers  and  lay- 
men, elders  as  they  were  called,  sent  up  as 
deputies  by  the  several  Presbyteries.  The 
king,  or  his  commissioners,  was  the  secular 
president.  There  was  also  a  moderator 
elected  from  among  the  Presbyters  as  acting 
president.  The  Covenant,  based  upon  the 
principles  of  the  first  bond,  was  \eiry  generally 
signed,  and  the  second  Book  of  DUeipline^ 
dniwn  up  by  Andrew  Melville,  was  accepted 
as  a  code  for  the  government  of  the  church. 
Shortly  after,  the  accession  of  King  James  to 
the  English  throne  again  restored  epis- 
copacy. The  General  Assembly  was  not, 
however,  abolished,  though  deprived  of  its 
despotic  power.  No  change  was  made 
in  the  established  form  of  worship.  The 
attempt  made  by  Charles  I.  to  substitute  the 
English  Liturgy  for  the  Book  of  Common 
Order,  and  a  Book  of  Canons  for  the  Book  of 
JHwipline  led  to  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War.  Under  Cromwell  Presbji^rianism  was 
again  established,  and  again  displaced  by 
episcopacy  under  Charles  II.  After  the 
Revolution  the  bishops  and  the  episcopal 
clergy  were  turned  out.  The  Presbyterian 
Church  was  re-established   by   law   (1690). 


Since  that  date  it  has  been  the  Church  of 

Scotland.    And  at  the  Union  the  liberty  of 

the  Church  was  secured  by  a  prorisian  that 

the  Presbyterian  should  be  the  only  church 

government    in    Scotland   from    that  time 

forward. 

PeteiUii,  Boc^  of  1h»  l7iitr«rsaZ  Xtrfc  <^ 
Scotland;  Calderwood,  Hiif.  of  ihs  Kiik  ^ 
Scotland;  Spottiswoode,  Hiti,  of  the  Chunk 
of  Scotland:  Knox,  Hitt  of  tfce  Rtformalkw^; 
MoCrie,  Jm*  of  John  Knox;  Burton,  Hut.  o/ 
Scotland ;  QardUner,  Hiit.  (ff  Eng.  i.,  oh.  iL  Th« 
best  modern  aooonnt  of  the  Beformation  from 
the  PresbyteriaA  side  will  be  found  in  Con- 
irfnghstn,  Church  Hut.  of  Scotland;  from  the 
Eptsoopfllian  side  in  Grab,  liccZ.  Hitt.  of  Sat- 
land ;  and  from  the  Catholic  side  in  Bdkiuieim, 
QeochichU  der  Kothol.  JCtrch«  in  Schotilami  {Vm. 

[M.  M.] 

Befbrm  Bills.    The  question  d  Pariii- 
mentary  Reform  was  first  raised  in  a  practical 
shape  by  Pitt,  when  he  brought  forward  in 
1785  a   motion     proposing    to     disfranchise 
thirty-six    rotten    boroughs   returning  two 
members  each,  and  to  give  the  memben  to 
the  counties  and  to  Lcndon.      The   motion 
was  rejected  by  248  to  174.     The  breaking 
out  of  the  French  revolution    a   few   yean 
afterwards,  and  the  European  war,  diverted 
men's  minds  from  the  subject,  and  inmiuceda 
disinclination  towards  the  extension  of  popo- 
lar  liberty.    In  1793  both  Burke  and  Pitt 
opposed   Mr.    Grey*s  Parliamentary  Beform 
motion,  which  was  negatived  by  232  to  41, 
and  met  with  no  better  fate  when  brooght 
forward  again  in  1797.     The  Fox  ministry 
had   no  leisure,  and  the  Portland  ministiy 
no    inclination,   to  attend    to    the    matter. 
In    1817  a  motion  of    Sir  Francis  Burdett 
was  lost  by  265  to  77,  and  a  bolder  attempt 
of  the  same  member  to  introduce  manhood 
suffrage    the    following   year  found   not  a 
single    supporter    besides   the    mover   and 
seconder,    in  1820  Lord  J.  Kussell  carried 
a  Bill  for  withholding  writs  from  the  rotten 
boroughs  of  Gatnelfora,  Grampound,  Penrjn, 
and  Barnstaple,  which  was  thrown  out  by 
the  Lords.    £ach  year  from  1 82 1  to  1829  Lord 
J.  Hussell  or  some  other  Whig  introduced  a 
motion  for  reform,  which  in  each  case  was 
rejected.      In    Feb.,    1830,    the     Marquess 
of  Blandford  moved   an  amendment  to  the 
address   in    favour  of   reform,    which   vas 
rejected   by    96    to     11.      The   same   year 
Calvert's  BiU  to  transfer  the  representation  of 
East  Retford  to   Birmingham,  and  Lord  J. 
Husseirs  motion  to  enfranchise  Leeds,  Man- 
chester    and    Birmingham,   were    rejected. 
When  Lord  Grey  became  Prime  Minister  in 
this  year  the  subject  was  at  once  taken  up  by 
the  Cabinet.     On  March   1,    1831,  Lord  J- 
Russell  introduced  the  Reform  Bill.     After 
most  animated  debates  the  second  reading  of 
the  bill  was  carried  (March  2)  by  a  majority 
of  one  (302  to  301).     On  an  amendment  in 
committee  for  reducing  the  whole  number  of 
members  the  ministry  were  defeated.     On 
April  22   Parliament  was  dissolved,  to  me** 


(  863  ,) 


again  in  June  with  the  reformers  in  a  great 
majority.  The  Reform  Bill  was  again  carried, 
this  time  by  367  votes  to  231.  On  Sept.  22 
the  bill  finally  passed  the  Commons,  but  was 
thrown  out  by  the  Lords  (Oct.  8)  by  199  to 
158.  In  December  a  third  Reform  Bill  was 
brought  in  and  carried  by  a  majority  of  162. 
The  Bill  sent  up  to  the  Lords  in  1832  passed 
the  second  reading  on  April  14  of  that  year. 
But  on  May  7  the  Peers,  by  a  majority  of  35, 
postponed  the  disfranchising  clauses  of  the 
Bill,  thus  virtually  rejecting  it.  The  king 
refused  to  create  new  Peers,  tiie  ministers 
resigned,  and  the  Duke  of  Wellington 
attempted  to  form  a  Tory  ministry.  But  the 
attempt  was  hopeless,  and  the  nation  almost 
in  a  state  of  insurrection.  On  May  15  the 
Grey  ministry  returned  to  office,  and  the  king 
was  prepared  to  create  new  Peers  if  necessary. 
The  Lords,  however,  at  length  gave  way,  and 
on  June  4  the  Bill  was  passed.  The  Reform 
Bill  of  1832  disfranchised  56  boroughs,  having 
less  than  2,000  inhabitants,  and  deprived 
30  other  boroughs  of  one  member  each. 
Of  the  143  seats  gained,  65  were  given  to  the 
counties,  22  of  the  large  towns  received  two 
members  each,  and  21  others  one  each.  A 
uniform  £10  household  franchise  was 
established  in  boroughs,  and  in  the  counties 
the  franchise  was  given  to  copyholders,  lease- 
holders and  tenants-at-wiU  holding  property 
of  the  value  of  £50  and  upwards.  Reform 
Bills  with  analogous  provisions  were  also 
passed  for  Sootluid  and  Irdand  in  1832. 
Between  1832  and  1850  motions  for  further 
extending;  the  franchise  were  frequently  made 
and  lost.  In  1852  and  1854  Lord  J.  Russell 
introduced  Reform  Bills  which  were  with- 
drawn. In  1859  Mr.  Disraeli,  on  behalf  of 
the  Conservatives,  introduced  a  bill,  whidi 
was  defeated  by  39  votes.  In  1866  (l^farch)  a 
comprehensive  Reform  Bill  was  introduced  by 
Mr.  Gladstone.  The  "  Adullamite  *'  section 
of  the  Liberals  had,  however,  seceded  from 
their  party,  and  the  Bill,  after  fierce  debate, 
was  carried  only  by  5  votes,  and  in  June  the 
^vemment  were  defeated  on  an  amendment. 
The  Liberals  resigned  and  the  Conservatives,  in 
Feb.,  1867,  brought  forward  and  passed  (Aug.) 
Mr.  Disraeli's  Reform  Bill  of  1867.  This 
bill  conferred  a  household  and  lodger  franchise 
in  boroughs,  though  it  still  left  a  property 
qualification  in  counties  [Elsctions].  Between 
1872  and  1883  motions  m  favour  oi  household 
franchise  in  the  counties  were  moved 
(generally  by  l^Ir.  G.  O.  Trevelyan)  and 
rejected.  In  1884  Mr.  Gladstone  introduced 
a  Reform  Bill  intended  to  render  the  franchise 
uniform  in  England,  Scotland  and  Ireland, 
and  to  assimilate  it  in  counties  and  boroughs. 
No  provisions  for  the  redistribution  of  seats 
were  made,  but  the  government  under- 
took to  bring  in  a  BiU  dealing  with  the 
subject  at  an  early  date.  After  several 
amendments  in  favour  of  joining  the  Franchise 
Bill  with  a  Redistribution  Bill  had  been  thrown 


out  in  the  Commons,  the  bill  passed  its  third 
reading  in  the  lower  house  by  a  majority  of 
130.  The  Lords,  however,  declared  by  a 
majority  of  51  that  no  bill  would  be  satisfac- 
tory which  did  not  deal  with  the  two  subjects 
of  extension  of  the  franchise  and  redistribu- 
tion. The  two  bills  were  brought  in  the 
next  Session  and  carried. 

Molwwortli,  HiM.  oftfu  B^orm  BiU;  Alnbeos 
Todd,  ParlxavMntary  Govt,  in  Eng.i  Faali. 
EngliMcht  Gwshiehie  §eit,  1826;  Walpole.  HuA. 
of  Eng.  from  1815;  J.  McCarthy,  Uitt.  of 
Owr  Own    Timm;   Haiuard's  DelxUM ;  AwntMX 

Heg[alia,  the  insignia  of  royalty,  includ- 
ing various  articles  used  at  coronations  and  on 
state  occasions.  The  most  important  of  these 
were  under  the  charge  of  the  Abbot  of  West- 
minster till  the  Reformation ;  they  are  now 
Preserved  in  the  jewel  ofiice  at  the  Tower, 
n  1649  the  crowns  were  broken  to  pieces; 
new  ones  were  made  for  the  coronation  of 
Charles  II.,  which  have  been  used  ever  since. 


jency  ™^y  ^^^^  during  the  absence 
or  the  incapacity  of  the  sovereign  through 
nonage  or  disease.  William  I. ,  on  his  visit 
to  Normandy  in  1067,  left  Odo,  Bishop  of 
Bayeux,  and  William  Fitz  Osbem,  Earl  of 
Hereford,  joint  guardians  of  his  kingdom, 
though  he  assigned  to  each  a  special  pro- 
vince. When  the  functions  of  the  chief  jus- 
ticiar became  defined,  the  vice-gerency  of  the 
kingdom  was  reckoned  among  them,  though 
the  relative  rights  of  this  ofiicer  and  of  ti^e 
members  of  the  royal  house  were  not  settled. 
Henry  II.,  during  his  absence,  caused  his 
authority  to  be  vested  in  his  son,  the  younger 
Henry,  even  before  he  associated  him  with 
himself  in  the  kingship.  On  the  death  of 
Henry  II.  Eleanor  acted  as  regent  imtil  the 
return  of  her  son,  and  on  the  fall  of  the  jus- 
ticiar Longchamp,  while  Richard  was  on  the 
crusade,  the  barons  recognised  John  as  the 
vice-gerent  of  the  kingdom.  From  the  time 
of  Henry  III.  it  became  customary  for  the 
king  to  appoint  certain  lieutenants,  and  some* 
times  his  eldest  son,  though  an  infant,  to  act 
during  his  absence.  Accordingly  William 
I II., on  leaving  England  in  1695,  Queen  Mary 
being  then  dead,  appointed  seven  lords  jus- 
tices for  that  purpose.  George  I.  left  the 
Prince  of  Wales  as  regent  during  his  first 
absence  from  England,  but  never  did  so  agam 
on  any  like  occasion.  The  question  of  the 
exercise  of  the  royal  authority  during  the  ab- 
sence of  the  monarch  is  now  of  little  moment. 
As  the  common  law  does  not  recognise  in- 
capacity in  the  sovereign,  special  provisions 
have  been  made  as  to  regency  when  occasion 
required.  On  the  accession  of  Henry  III.  at  - 
the  age  of  nine,  the  barons  appointed  the 
Earl  of  Pembroke  as  regent  with  the  title 
rector  regit  et  regni^  and  associated  certain 
councillors  with  him.  When  Edward  III. 
succeeded  his  father  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  the 


(864) 


Parli&ment  nominated  a  council  to  advise  him. 
No  regent  was  appointed  during  the  nonage 
of  Richard  II.,  but  the  magnates  in  this  case 
nominated  the  council.  On  the  accession  of 
Henry  VL,  his  uncle,  the  Duke  of  Gloucester, 
claimed  the  regency  as  next  of  kin,  and  by 
the  will  of  the  late  king.  Both  these  claims 
were  disallowed  by  the  council,  and  Parlia- 
ment constituted  the  Duke  of  Bedford  pro- 
tector, allowing  Gloucester  the  protectorate 
during  the  absence  of  his  brother.  When 
the  long  f ell  iU  in  1454,  the  Duke  of  York 
was  appointed  protector  by  the  Lords,  with 
the  assent  of  the  Commons.  On  his  renewed 
illness  the  next  year,  the  lords  in  again  ap- 
pointing the  duke  assumed  the  right  of 
choice,  though  the  assent  of  the  Commons 
appears  in  the  Act  of  Ratification.  On  the 
death  of  Edward  lY.  his  widow  tried  to  obtain 
the  g^rdianship  of  her  son,  but  the  Duke  of 
Gloucester  was  made  protector  by  the  council 
In  1536  Parliament  gpranted  Uenxy  VIII. 
authority  to  ntune  such  guardians  as  ne  chose, 
in  the  event  of  his  leaving  a  successor  under 
eighteen,  if  a  male,  or  under  sixteen  if  a 
female.  The  king  accordingly  appointed  his 
sixteen  executors  as  guarodans  of  his  son 
Edward  VI.,  constituting  them  a  council  of 
government.  In  spite  of  this  arrangement 
tiiese  councillors  invested  the  Earl  of  Hert- 
ford with  the  protectorate. 

After  the  death  of  Frederick,  Prince  of 
Wales,  in  1751,  Parliament  provided  for  a 
possible  minority  by  enacting  that  'the  Prin- 
cess of  Wales  should  be  regent  and  guardian 
of  the  king's  person,  and  by  nominating  a 
council  of  regency  to  which  the  reigning  king 
had  the  right  of  adding  four  members. 
George  III.,  after  a  severe  illness  in  1765, 
wished  Parliament  to  allow  him  the  right  of 
appointing  any  person  regent  whom  he  chose. 
A  bill,  however,  was  passed  naming  the  queen, 
the  Princess  of  Wales,  and  any  descendant  of 
the  late  king,  as  those  from  whom  a  regent  might 
be  selected.  When  the  king  was  deprived  of 
reason  in  1788-89,  Fox  [Regency  Bills  (3)] 
asserted  that  the  Prince  of  Wales  had  a  right  to 
the  regency,  and,  though  he  substituted  "  legal 
claim'*  for  *' right,"  maintained  that  Parlia- 
ment had  onlv  to  recognise  the  prince's 
claim,  and  could  not  lay  restrictions  on  his 
authority.  Pitt  on  the  other  hand  declared 
that  the  prince  had  "  no  more  right  to  the 
royal  authority  than  any  other  subject," 
and  having  caused  Parliament  to  be  opened 
by  commission  under  the  great  seal,  intro- 
duced a  bill  restricting  the  power  and  patron- 
age of  the  proposed  regent.  The  recovery  of 
the  king  prevented  the  settlement  of  these 
questions  for  the  time.  On  a  like  occasion  in 
1811,  Parliament  passed  a  bill  imposing  re- 
strictions on  the  regent's  authority.  The 
next  regency  bill,  passed  in  1830,  provided 
that,  in  the  event  of  the  death  of  William  IV. 
before  the  queen  was  of  the  age  of  eighteen, 
the  Duchess  of  Kent  should  be  regent,  no 


council  being  appointed.  As  on  the  acoeEaon 
of  the  queen,  the  King  of  Hanover  became 
heir  presumptive,  a  Regency  Act  passed 
1837,  provided  that,  on  the  aecttiae  of  her 
majesty,  the  royal  function  should  be  dis- 
chiurged  by  lords  justices  until  the  arrival  of 
the  king.  Another  Act,  passed  on  the  mar- 
riage  of  the  queen  in  1840,  provided  that, 
should  Her  Majesty  leave  a  suocessor  under 
age.  Prince  Albert  should  be  regent,  without 
any  council,  and  with  full  powers  save  that 
he  might  not  assent  to  any  bill  for  altering 
the  succession,  or  affecting  the  ri^ta  of  the 
Church  of  England  or  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land. From  these  examples  it  will  be  gathered 
that  the  right  of  selecting  the  person  and  de- 
termining the  power  of  a  regent  pertains  to 
the  estatds  of  the  realm  assembled  in  Par- 
liament. [For  the  various  Regency  Bills  see 
the  next  Article.] 

Stabbs,  Const.  Hi$t.,  i.,  563;  iL,  30,  368;  iii. 
97, 167,  821;  Hallam,  MiddU  Agn,  iii.,  184—154; 
May,  (Vmit.  flut.,  iii.,  c.  3 ;  Sir  6.  G.  Lewis, 
ildministratioiu,  112, 121 ;  Sir  K.  Vrranll,  Am. 
thvmotu  Jfemoirs.  iii.,  201—839.         [W.  H.] 

Sotfency  S^UIb.  *^  In  judgment  of  lav 
the  king,  as  king,  cannot  be  said  to  be  a 
minor,"  says  Coke ;  he  has,  therefore,  by 
common  law  no  legal  guardian,  nor  has  any 
provision  been  made  for  the  exercise  of  the 
regal  authority  during  his  youth  or  incapacity. 
It  has  accordingly  been  necessary  to  make 
special  provision  as  occasion  has  arisen,  and 
the  various  measures  which  have  been  adopted 
have  been  of  considerable  political  importance. 

(1)  1751.  Upon  the  death  of  Frederick 
Pnnce  of  Wales,  a  Bill  was  passed  appoint- 
ing the  Princess  of  Wales  regent  in  tiie  event 
of  the  death  of  Greorge  II.  before  the  Prince 
of  Wales  was  eighteen  years  old.  She  was  to  be 
assisted  by  a  council  of  regency  nominated  in 
the  Act,  to  which  the  king  was  empowered  to 
add  four  others. 

(2)  1 765.  Upon  the  recovery  of  Greoi^  III. 
from  his  first  attack  of  mental  disease,  it  was 
thought  desirable  to  provide  for  the  regency 
during  any  such  illness  as  should  incapacitate 
him,  or  in  case  of  his  death,  during  the  child- 
hood of  his  children.    With  his  lofty  views 
of  royal  power,  Greorge  III.  was  not  ready  to 
place  the  nomination  of  a  regent  in  the  hands 
of  Parliament,  but  proposed  that  Parliament 
should  confer  on  him  the  power  of  ^pointing 
any  person  he  pleased  as  regent.     He  almost 
certainly  intended  to  nominate  the  queen, 
but  the  ministers  feared  lest  the  Princess  of 
Wales  should  be  nominated,  and  thus  her 
favourite,  Bute,  become  all  powerful.    George 
had  so  iax  yielded  to  his  ministers  that  he 
consented  to  the  limitation  of  his  choice  *^  to 
the  queen  and  any  other  person  of  the  royaJ 
family  usually  resident  in  England,"  and  a  bill 
had  been  iAtroduoed  into  the  House  of  Lords 
to  this  effect.    After  the  donbt  as  to  whether 
the  queen  was  naturalised,  and  so  capable  of 
acting  as  regent,  had  been  set  at  rest  by  the 


(  865  ) 


opinion  of  the  judges  that  marriage  with  the 
king  naturalised  her,  the  question  arose  as  to 
the  meaning  of  the  term  **  the  royal  family," 
and  most  of  the  ministers,  moved  by  hatred 
of  Bute,  declared  it  did  not  include  the 
Princess  of  Wales.  Having  caused  a  resolu- 
tion introducing  her  name  to  be  rejected, 
they  persuaded  the  kin^  to  consent  to  the 
introduction  of  a  clause  limiting  his  choice  to 
the  queen  and  the  descendants  of  the  late 
king,  on  the  ground  that  other^'ise  the  Com- 
mons would  exclude  the  princess  by  name. 
The  Commons,  however,  reinserted  her  name, 
and  this  evidence  of  the  duplicity  of  his 
ministers  was  one  of  the  main  causes  of  the 
&11  of  the  Grenville  ministry.  It  is  to  be 
noticed  also  that  the  Act  nominated  a  council 
of  regency,  consisting  of  the  king's  four 
brothers  and  of  his  uncle,  the  Duke  of  Cum- 
berland, and  the  great  officers  of  state,  and 
empowering  the  king,  in  the  event  of  the 
death  of  a  brother  or  of  an  uncle,  to  nominate 
another  person  in  his  place. 

(3)  1788—89.  In  1788  the  king,  after 
prorog^ng  Parliament,  lost  his  reason,  and  it 
became  necessary  to  provide  for  the  regency. 
Parliament  met  without  royal  summons  on 
the  day  to  which  it  had  been  prorogued,  and, 
after  a  fortnight's  adjournment,  proceeded  to 
discuss  the  question.  Fox  laid  down  that 
'*  the  Prince  of  Wales  had  as  clear  a  right  to 
exercise  the  power  of  sovereignty  during  the 
king*s  incapacity  as  if  the  king  were  actually 
dead,  and  that  it  was  me^y  for  the  two 
Houses  of  Parliament  to  pronounce  at  what 
time  he  should  commence  the  exercise  of  his 
right,*'  while  the  Premier,  Pitt,  declared  that 
^*  unless  by  dedsion  of  Parliament,  the  Prince 
of  Wales  had  no  more  right — speaking  of 
strict  right — ^to  assume  the  government  than 
any  other  individual  subject  of  the  country." 
The  position  taken  up  by  the  two  statesmen 
is  explained  by  the  fact  that  if  the  prince  had 
become  regent,  Fox  would  at  once  have  been 
made  Prime  Minister ;  and  Pitt  was  anxious 
to  delay  the  creation  of  a  regent.  In  this  he 
was  assisted  by  the  Opposition,  who  resisted 
the  proposal  to  limit  the  future  regent's 
authority.  At  last,  on  Feb.  6,  1789,  after 
Parliament  had  boen  formally  opened  by 
letters  patent  under  tiie  Great  Seal  affixed  by 
authority  of  Parliament,  the  bill  in  whic^ 
among  other  limitations,  the  prince  was 
forbidden  to  bestow  peerages  except  on  royal 
princes,  was  introduced  in  the  Commons, 
and  soon  sent  up  to  the  Lords;  but  the 
king's  sudden  recovery  put  an  end  to  further 
proceedings,  and,  though  the  king  was  anxious 
tor  some  permanent  provision  for  a  regency, 
nothing  was  done. 

(4)  1810.  When  George  IIL's  mind  finaUy 
flave  way,  the  precedent  of  1788 — 89  was 
followed  exactly.  The  bill  passed  both 
Houses ;  and  consent  was  given  to  it  by  com- 
mission under  Great  Seal  affixed  by  authority 
of  Parliament, 

Hm^28 


(6)  1830.  The  Duchess  of  Kent  was  ap- 
pointed regent,  in  the  eveub  of  the  Princess 
Victoria  succeeding  to  the  throne  before 
arriving  at  the  age  of  eighteen.  The  regent 
was  not*  to  be  controlled  by  a  council,  as  m 
previous  Regency  Acts,  but  to  govern  through 
the  ordinary  ministers. 

(6)  1837.  On  the  accession  of  Victoria,  as 
the  King  of  Hanover  was  presumptive  heir, 
an  Act  was  passed  providing,  in  the  event  of 
the  queen's  dying  while  the  successor  was 
abroad,  for  the  carrying  on  of  the  government 
by  lords  justices  until  his  return. 

(7)  1840.  Upon  the  marriage  of  Victoria, 
an  Act  was  passed  enacting  that  in  the  event  of 
any  child  of  her  Majesty  coming  to  the  throne 
under  the  age  of  eighteen,  Prince  Albert 
should  become  regent,  though  without  power 
to  assent  to  any  bill  for  altering  the  succes- 
sion, or  affecting  the  worship  of  the  Church 
of  England,  or  the  rights  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland. 

Ifiaj,  Conat.  Hid,,  L,  ch.  iiL         [P.  S.  P.] 

Begxani  Majestatem  (so  called  from 

its  opening  words)  was  a  code  of  Scotch  law 
dating  from  the  reign  of  David  I.,  which  was 
regarded  until  recent  times  as  the  indepen- 
dent work  of  Scotch  lawyers  of  the  twelfth 
century.  It  is,  however,  scarcely  more  than 
a  copy  of  Glanville's  Treatw  on  the  Laws  and 
Cuatomt  of  England,  and  was  probably  prepared 
by  some.  Scotch  lawyer,  who  incorporated 
with  it  fra^ents  of  earlier  local  usage,  and 
of  the  ancient  customs  known  as  "  the  Laws 
of  the  Brets  and  the  Scots."  The  character 
and  history  of  the  Hegiam  Majestatem  illus- 
trate the  process  of  f  eudalisation  in  Scotland 
and  the  extent  of  English  influence. 

Burton,  Kid.  of  Scotland,  il.,  p.  58 ;  Prefkoe 
to  YoL  i.  of  ScoUf  Ad$,  by  Innes. 

SegicideSy  Thb.  Those  persons  who  sat 
in  judgment  on  Charles  I.,  or  were  instru- 
mental in  his  death,  were  both  at  the  Re- 
storation included  under  this  title.  The 
ordinance  nominating  the  High  Court  of 
Justice  finally  appointed  135  persons  to  judge 
the  king.  Not  half  of  these  attended  the  trial, 
the  number  present  at  the  opening,  counting 
Bradshaw,  the  president,  was  sixty-seven,  and 
sixty-seven  also  were  present  on  Jan.  27, 1649, 
when  sentence  was  pronounced.  Out  of  these 
sixty-seven,  fifty-eight,  and  one  other  person 
(Ingoldsby}  signed  the  death  warrant.  At  the 
restoration,  the  House  of  Commons  ordered 
that  **  all  those  persons  who  sat  in  judgment 
upon  the  late  king's  majesty  when  the 
sentence  was  pronounced  for  his  condem- 
nation," should  be  forthwith  secured  (May 
14).  In  all  the  House  of  Commons  placed 
in  the  category  eighty-four  persons,  viz., 
sixty-seven  present  at  the  last  sitting, 
eleven  frequently  present,  four  officers  of 
the  court,  and  two  exeoutioners.  Out  of 
these  the  Commons  proposed  to  punish  capi- 
tally only  twelve  persons,  viz.,  seven  judges^ 


( ^^) 


three  court  officers,  and  two  executioners. 
The  House  of  Lords  went  further,  and  pro- 
posed that  all  those  who  had  been  present 
at  the  last  sitting,  or  signed  the  warrant, 
saving  only  Ck>loneIs  HutcSiinson,  Tomlinson, 
and  Ingoldsby  —  in  all  sixty-six  persons^ 
should  be  puniahed  capitally.  But  the  Com- 
mons resolutely  opposed  the  Lords*  amend- 
ment. In  the  Bill  of  Indemnity  as  it  finally 
passed  (Aug.  29,  1660),  the  penalties  of  the 
Regicides  were  ordered  as  follows  : —  (1) 
Four  dead  Regicides  excepted  by  posthumous 
attainder  for  high  treason,  viz.,  Cromwell, 
Ireton,  Bradshawe,  and  Pride.  (2)  Twenty 
dead  Regicides  excepted  as  to  their  estates, 
to  be  subject  to  future  fines  or  forfeiture.  (3) 
Thirty  living  Regicides  (viz., twenty-two  judges 
and  eight  others)  absolutely  excepted.  (4)  Nine- 
teen living  Regicides,  excepted  with  a  saving 
clause,  stating  that  they  might  be  legally  at- 
tainted ;  but  that  their  execution  shoula  be 
suspended  *'  until  his  majesty,  by  the  advico 
and  assent  of  the  Lords  and  Commons  in 
Parliament,  shall  order  the  execution  by  Act 
of  Parliament  to  be  passed  for  that  purpose." 
(5)  Six  more  living  Regicides  were  excepted, 
but  not  capitally.  (6)  Two  Regicides  ex- 
cepted, but  with  the  sole  penalty  of  incapa- 
citation for  office,  viz.,  Hutchinson  and  Las- 
celles.  Tomlinson  and  Ingoldsby  escaped 
without  any  penalties  whatever.  The  trial 
of  the  Regicides  took  place  in  October  before 
a  court  of  thirty -four  commissioners  (Oct., 
1660).  Twenty-nine  were  condemned  to 
death,  of  whom  ton  were  executed;  the  re- 
maining nineteen,  with  six  others  who  had 
not  been  tried,  were  mostly  imprisoned  till 
their  deaths,  though  the  fate  of  some  is  still 
obscure.  There  were  still  nineteen  fugitives 
living  in  exile,  of  whom  three  were  subse- 
quently caught  in  Holland,  brought  over 
and  executed,  and  one  (Lisle)  assassinated  in 
Switzerland. 

Maaeon,  Life  ofMiUtm,  vol.  vi. ;  Noble,  lAim 
of  the  Regicide*;  Howell,  State  Trials;  WiUls- 
Bund,  Selection*  from  the  State  Trial*. 

[C.  H.  F.] 


Igistration  Act,  The  (1836),  created 
an  elaDorato  machinery  for  the  registration 
of  births,  deaths,  and  marriages.  It  regulated 
the  method  of  registration,  the  appointment  of 
the  necessary  officials,  and  the  creation  of  a 
central  registry  office  at  Somerset  House 
under  a  Registrar -General,  who  was  to 
present  annual  reports  to  Parliament.  The 
system  then  established  has  remained  sub- 
stantially unaltered  till  the  present. 


^ffium  Donum  was  the  endowment 
of  £1^00  a  year  granted  by  William  III. 
to  the  Presbji^rian  clergy  of  Ireland  to  .re- 
ward them  for  their  activity  against  James. 
In  1695  the  Lords  Justices  advised  the  dis- 
continuance of  the  grant,  but  William  refused 
consent.  From  1711tol715  the  Irish  House 
of  Lords  succeeded  in  preventing  its  being 


paid.  But  on  the  aocesaion  of  Qeorge  L  it 
was  revived  and  increased  to  £2,000.  In  1 870, 
in  consequence  of  the  Irish  Church  Act,  it 
was  abolished,  but  a  compensatioii  ma 
granted  to  all  interested  parties. 


_  Tub,  were  a  British  tribe  occupy, 
ing  the  present  county  of  Sussex,  with  a  chief 
town  R^g^um  (Chichester). 

Hegulatmg  Act,  Lord  Nobth's  (1773), 
was  the  first  important  intervention  of  the 
English  government  in  the  direct  adminis- 
tration of  British  India.  The  difficulties 
of  the  East  India  Company  drove  them 
in  1772  to  seek  a  loan  from  Parliament, 
and  the  ministry  in  consequence  brought  in 
a  bill  for  the  better  government  of  Indis, 
which  was  carried  in  spite  of  the  oppo- 
sition of  the  India  House.  Its  proriaons 
were  that  the  administration  of  Bengal  should 
be  vested  in  a  Qovemor-General  and  looi 
councillors,  and  that  this  government  should 
be  supreme  over  the  other  presidencies ;  that 
the  nrst  Grovemor-General  and  councillors, 
who  were  nominated  in  the  Act,  should  hold 
office  for  five  years,  and  be  irremovable  except 
by  the  crown  on  representation  of  the  Court 
of  Directors ;  that  vacancies  should  be  sup- 
plied by  the  court  subject  to  the  approbstion 
of  the  crown ;  that  a  Supreme  Court  of  Judi- 
cature should  be  established  at  Calcutta  to 
consist  of  a  chief  justice  and  four  puisne 
judges  to  be  nominated  by  the  crown,  and 
paid  by  the  Company ;  that  the  qualification 
for  a  vote  in  the  India  House  should  be  the 
possession  of  £1,000  stock,  and  ttiat  the 
possession  of  more  should  entitle  to  a  plurality 
of  votes  in  a  fixed  proportion ;  that  the 
directors  should  be  elected  for  four  years,  and 
that  one-fourth  of  the  entire  number  should  be 
renewed  annually;  that  all  the  Company^s 
correspondence  relating  to  civil  and  militar>' 
afbiirs,  the  government  of  the  country,  or  the 
administration  of  the  revenues,  shoula  be  laid 
before  one  of  his  Majesty's  secretaries  of  state, 
and  that  no  servant  of  the  crown  or  Company 
should  receive  presents. 
MUl,  Hitt,  qf  India, 


I,  The  Gbakd.  In  the 
first  week  after  the  Long  Parliament  met,  it 
was  mo%'ed  by  Lord  Digby^  "  to  draw  up  such 
a  remonstrance  to  the  king  as  should  be  a 
faithful  and  lively  representation  of  the  state 
of  the  kingdom."  In  the  following  August  it 
was  resolved  that  this  proposal  should  be 
adopted,  and  the  Remonstrance  was  brought 
forward  on  Nov.  8th,  finally  discussed  on 
Nov.  22nd,  and  passed  by  159  votes  to  148. 
It  was  presented  to  the  king  <m  Dec.  Ist 
ordered  to  be  printed  on  JDec.  loth,  and 
answered  by  Charles  on  Dec.  23nL  In  aim 
and  substance  the  remonstrance  was  **sn 
appeal  to  the  nation  rather  than  addren  to 
the  crown."  It  stated  the  case  of  the  Com- 
mons against  the  king,  described  the  con* 


(  867  ) 


Sep 


dition  in  which  they  had  found  the  nation, 
what  ref orms  they  had  already  effected,  what 
they  proposed  for  the  future,  and  what  di£S- 
culties  they  had  to  struggle  against.  The 
preamble  explained  the  causes  which  made  a 
remonstrance  necessary.  Clauses  1  to  104 
traced  the  history  of  the  king's  misgovem- 
ment  from  his  accession  to  the  meeting  of 
the  Long  Parliament.  Clauses  105  to  142 
described  the  abuses  abolished  and  reforms 
effected  and  prepared  by  the  Parliament. 
Clauses  143  to  180  enumerated  the  ol)6truc- 
tions  to  the  work  of  reformation,  evil  counsel- 
lors and  slanderers,  the  army  plots,  and  the 
Irish  rebellion.  Clauses  181  to  191  explained 
and  defended  the  scheme  of  the  Parliamentary 
leaders  for  the  reform  of  the  Church.  The  last 
fourteen  clauses  (192  to  206)  pointed  out  the 
remddial  measures  the  Commons  demanded : 
the  establishment  of  certain  safeguards 
against  the  Roman  Catholic  religion ;  securities 
to  be  given  for  the  better  administration  of 
justice ;  the  king  to  choose  for  ministers  and 
■agents  such  persons  as  the  Parliament  *'  might 
have  cause  to  confide  in.'*  The  earlier  clauses, 
which  merely  set  forth  the  king's  past  mis- 
government,  were  adopted  without  opposition, 
but  the  ecclesiastical  clauses  met  with  an  able 
and  vigorous  opposition  from  Hyde,  Cole- 
popper,  and  others.  The  final  debate  also 
was  long  and  excited,  and  the  two  questions 
whether  the  Remonstrance  should  be  printed, 
and  whether  the  minority  might  enter  their 
protestations,  nearly  led  to  a  personal  struggle. 
It  was  the  fact  that  it  was  a  party  manifesto 
which  led  to  this  opposition,  and  brought  the 
Civil  War  nearer. 

Qardlner,  Hist,  of  Eng. ;  Fonter,  The  Qrand 
Remontitranee  i  Kushworth,  HUtorical  CoUectiona. 

[C.  H.  F.] 

HemoiistrantSi  The.  In  16«i0  a  schism 
took  place  amongst  the  Scotch  Presbyterians, 
Warned  by  the  defeat  of  Dunbar  (Sept.  3), 
and  the  attempt  of  Charles  II.  to  join  the 
Scotch  Royalists,  Argyle  and  his  followers 
determined  to  unite  with  the  Royalists 
to  oppose  Cromwell.  Against  this  policy 
two  leading  divines,  Guthrie  and  Gillespie, 
with  Johnston  of  Warriston,  and^the  chiefs 
of  the  rigid  Presbyterians  of  the  south-west, 
presented  to  the  Committee  of  Estates  "  a 
remonstrance  of  the  gentlemen  commanders 
and  ministers  attending  the  forces  in  the 
west"  (Oct.  22,  1650).  Those  who  joined  in 
this  opposition  were  called  Remonstrants  or 
Protesters. 

Sepeal  Agitation  is  the  name  given 
to  the  movement  headed  by  Daniel  O'Connell 
for  the  repeal  of  the  English  and  Irish 
Union-  From  his  first  appearance  in  pub- 
lic life,  O'Connell  displayed  a  steady  hos- 
tility to  the  Act  of  XJnion.  His  activity 
was  long  absorbed  in  the  great  struggle 
for  Emancipation,  but  he  consistently  avowed 
his  purpose  of  using  Emancipation  as  a  step 


to  Repeal.  The  CathoHc  controversy  had 
two  abiding  results :  it  substituted  the  power 
of  the  priests  for  the  power  of  the  land* 
lords  in  Ireland,  and  it  gave  an  immense  im- 
petus to  the  system  of  organised  agitation  in 
English  politics.  When  the  Act  became 
law,  O'Connell  applied  the  machinery  which 
carried  it  to  the  promotion  of  Repeal.  The 
agitation  was  suspended  in  1831,  renewed 
after  the  Coercion  Act  of  1833,  and  again 
suspended  on  the  accession  of  Lord  Melbourne 
to  power  in  1835.  The  Emancipation  Act 
had  been  in  force  for  six  years,  but  Catholics 
were  still  systematically  excluded  from  office 
by  the  government.  O'Connell  believed  that 
the  new  premier  would  admit  them  to  the 
equality  they  demanded,  and  upon  those 
terms  he  was  prepared  to  drop  the  question 
of  Repeal.  His  expectations  were  not  alto- 
gether, disappointed.  The  Whig  administra- 
tion carried  many  just  and  useful  reforms, 
and  dispensed  its  Irish  patronage  between  the 
rival  creeds.  But  in  the  end  O'Connell's 
support  was  fatal  to  his  allies.  Sir  Robert 
Peel  returned  to  office  in  1841.  The  Repeal 
agitation  was  at  once  revived.  It  was  con- 
ducted by  a  '*  Repeal  Society,"  modelled  on 
the  lines  of  the  Catholic  Association.  The 
ecclesiastical  organisation  of  the  popular 
Church,  which  necessarily  permeated  every 
comer  of  the  land,  was  again  the  basis  of  a 
political  movement.  The  subscribers  were 
classified  according  to  the  amount  of  their 
payments,  which  were  collected  by  the 
priests.  Repeal  wardens  administered  the 
several  districts.  The  great  agitator  himself 
controlled  the  whole.  The  educated  Catholics 
had  dissevered  themselves  from  O'Connell 
early  in  the  Emancipation  contest.  They  held 
utterly  aloof  from  Repeal.  Their  conduct  gave 
a  last  blow  to  their  political  power.  The 
Repeal  Society  manipulated  elections,  pre* 
pared  gigantic  petitions,  and,  above  all, 
devoted  itself  to  the  promotion  of  "  monster 
meetings.''  These  enormous  gatherings  proved 
in  O'Connell's  hands  the  most  striking  feature 
of  the  agitation.  It  is  credibly  reported  that 
at  Tara  (Aug.  15,  1843)  he  addressed  an 
audience  of  250,000  men.  On  Oct.  1  there 
was  a  demonstration  at  Mullaghmast,  in 
Kildare.  Arrangements  were  made  to  hold 
another  at  Clontarf  on  the  8th.  The  govern- 
ment were  seriously  alarmed.  The  Clontarf 
meeting  was  prohibited  by  proclamation  on  the 
7th.  Ample  military  measures  were  taken  to 
enforce  obedience.  The  action  of  the  govern, 
ment,  as  O'Connell  afterwards  complained,  had 
made  a  massacre  imminent.  Such  an  event 
would  probably  have  strengthened  his  posi-> 
tion ;  but  he  shrank  from  bloodshed.  By 
strenuous  exertions  he  succeeded  in  inducing 
his  followers  to  disperse.  The  Repeal  move- 
ment virtually  ended  with  the  Clontarf  pro- 
clamation. O'Connell  was  tried  for  con- 
spiracy, and  convicted  on  Feb.  12,  1844. 
The  judgment  was  reversed  by  the  House  of 


Sep 


(  868  ) 


LordB  oa  Sept.  4.  The  antation  completed 
the  diyinon  of  daasee  in  Ireland,  and  made 
the  minority  feel  that  the  Union  was  essential 
to  their  existence. 

ilnnual  Regi&ter ;  Leoky,  The  Leaden  of  Pvhiie 
Qptwion  in  ir«laitd.  [J.  W.  F.] 


w-io*^  Philip  (rf.  eirea  1434),  was 

one  of  tSe  chief  sapporters  of  Wiem  at 
Oxford,  but  subsequently  being  alarmed  at 
tiie  progress  of  Lollardy  he  became  one  of  its 
strong^est  opponents.  In  1408  he  was  made 
Bishop  of  Lmcoln  and  cardinal  by  the  Pope, 
but  in  1419  he  was  compelled  to  resign  the 
see,  having  violated  the  Statute  of  Praemunire 
in  accepting  the  cardinalship  without  royal 
consent.  After  this  he  seems  to  have  lived 
in  obscurity  for  some  fifteen  years  longer. 


ftmesentatioa.  [Elbctions  ;  Paalia- 

MBNT.J 

SmreseiitatiTe  Feem  are  those  peers 

of  ScoQand  and  Ireland  selected  by  their  order 
to  represent  them  in  the  House  of  Lords.  By 
the  Act  of  (Jnion  with  Scotland  (1707)  it  was 
enacted  that  Scotland  should  be  represented 
in  the  British  House  of  Lords  by  sixteen 
peers  chosen  by  the  whole  bod^  of  the  Scotch 
nobility  (at  this  time  numbermg  154).  The 
proportion  of  Scotch  to  English  members 
of  Farliament  had  been  fixed  at  one  to 
twelve,  and  the  same  proportion  was  observed 
in  the  House  of  Lords.  The  representative 
peers  were  to  be  elected  for  each  Parliament 
oy  open  voting,  and  proxies  of  absent  nobles 
were  allowed.  No  fresh  Scotch  peerages  were 
in  future  to  be  created.  In  1711  the  House 
of  Lords  denied  the  right  of  Scotch  non- 
representative  peers  who  had  been  gj^ii 
Englidi  peerages  to  sit  among  them.  This, 
however,  did  not  prevent  the  conferring  of 
English  titles  on  the  eldest  sons  of  Scotch 
peers,  and  after  a  decision  of  the  judges  in 
1782  the  crown  recommenced  to  grant 
patents  of  peerage  in  Great  Britain  to  Scotch 
peers.  More  than  half  the  Scotch^  peers  are 
now  also  peers  of  England,  and  ultimately 
only  sixteen  will  remain  without  an  here- 
ditary right  to  sit,  and  these  will  perhaps  be 
made  h^^ditary  peers  of  Parliament.  It 
may  be  added  that  one  of  the  proposals  of  the 
Peerage  Bill  of  1720—21  was  to  substitute 
twenty-five  hereditary  for  sixteen  elected 
peers  from  Scotland.  By  the  Act  of  Union 
with  Ireland  (1801),  twenty-eight  Irish  repre- 
sentative peers  were  added  to  the  House  of 
Lords :  these,  however,  were  to  be  elected  for 
life,  and  not,  as  in  Scotland,  for  one  Parlia- 
ment only.  A  new  Irish  peerage  may  only  be 
created  when  three  have  become  extinct.  But 
when  .the  number  shall  have  fallen  to  100 
it  is  to  be  kept  at  that  figure  by  the  creation 
of  one  new  peerage  whenever  a  peerage 
becomes  extinct,  or  an  Irish  peer  becomes  a 
peer  of  Great  Britain. 

XorcU*  Report  on  the  Dignity  qf  a  Peer;  May, 
Practical  TreaHee. 


SequestSy  Thb  Court  op,  was  an  off- 
shoot of  the  Privy  Ck>uncil  in  its  judicial 
capacity.  The  creation  of  a  minor  court  of 
equity  was  necessitated  by  numerous  fEulnres 
of  justice  in  the  common  law  court,  which 
refused  to  afford  any  remedy  beyond  that 
specified  by  the  king's  original  writ.  Ac- 
cordingly an  order  for  regulating  the  Council, 
of  the  13th  Richard  IL,  required  the  Keeper 
of  the  Privy  Seal  and  a  certain  number  of  the 
Council  to  meet  between  eight  and  nine 
o'clock  in  order  to  examine  and  despatch  the 
bills  of  people  of  lesser  charge.  In  the  41st 
of  ElizabeUi  this  court,  which  was  frequently 
resorted  to,  was  declared  illegal  by  adadsion  et 
the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench,  and  waa  finally 
abolished,  together  with  the  Star  Chamber, 
by  the  Long  Parliament.  There  were  also 
local  tribunals,  known  as  courts  of  request  or 
courts  of  conscience  for  the  recovery  of  small 
debts,  limited  at  first  to  sums  under  408.,  and 
afterwards  under  £6.  The  first  of  these  was. 
established  by  Act  of  Parliament  in  1625, 
which  confirmed  a  court  which  had  been  in- 
stituted in  London  by  order  of  Council  in  the 
reign  of  Henr>'  YIIL  ;  and  similar  courts  were 
soon  afterwards  6et  up  by  Act  of  Parliament 
in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom.  They 
proved,  however,  very  inadequate,  and  were 
suppressed  by  the  County  Court  Act  of  1846. 

SpencOt  EqaHahU  Jtuiediction  of  the  Oonrt  of 
Chancery  ;  'ndd  Pratt,  Ahetraet  of  Acte  qf  Parlio- 
ment  refating  to  Cowrie  ofHeguett ;  Stephen,  Cdm> 
mmdariee,  vol.  iii 

BescisflOry  Act,  Thb,  wasan  Act  passed 
by  the  Scotch  Parliament  of  1661.  ''  It  re- 
scinded or  cut  off  from  the  body  of  the  law 
all  the  stetutes  passed  in  the  Parliament  of 
1640  or  subsequently.  This  withdrew  from 
the  statute-book  all  le^slation  later  than  the 
year  1633,  for  the  Parliament  of  1039  passed 
no  statutes  "  (Burton).  It  was  proposed  by 
Sir  Thomas  Primrose  with  the  object  of  an- 
nulling the  Acts  establishing  Pre8b>*terianism 
m  Scotland.  It  was  brought  in  and  passed 
in  one  day  (March  28th^,  and  imme&itely 
approved  by  Lord  Miadleton,  the  High 
Conmiissioner,  without  waiting  for  leave  from 
the  king.  Burnet  says  of  it,  "This  was  a 
most  extravagant  thing,  and  only  fit  to  be 
concluded  after  a  drunken  bout." 

Burnet,  Biat,  of  Hw  Own  Time;  Burton,  fluL 

of  SaMai^. 

Sesolntioners  was  the  name  given  to 
the  supporters  of  the  coalition  between  the 
Scotch  Koyalists  and  the  Presbyterian  party 
proposed  by  the  Argyle  government  in  the 
autumn  of  1650.  In  the  Kirk  oommissioD, 
which  met  at  Perth,  a  resolution  was  passed 
empowering  the  government  to  relax  the  Act 
of  Classes,  and  allow  the  Royalists  to  take 
part  in  the  war.  Those  who  supported  this 
policy  were  called  Resolutioners. 

Sespoiudbili^  of  Kinuten.    As 

now  understood,  this  phrase  expresses  the 


(  869  ) 


frrand  working  and  motiTe  principle  of  parlia- 
mentary and  party  government.    That  every 
holder  of  a  ministerial  office  should  have  at 
tuiy    moment   to  give    an   account   of   his 
'Stewardship,    not    to   the  power  that  nomi- 
nimy    appoints   and  dismissee   him,  bat  to 
the  Commons   and   the    country,   who   can 
withdraw    from    him    the    confidence    that 
is  essential   to  his    staying  in  office,    is  a 
practical  doctrine  that  has  turned  the  nobler 
parts    of     government    into    a    self-acting 
machinery  of  rare  efficiency  hitherto.     This 
is  now  the  outcome  and  function  of  ministerial 
responsibility,   when   the   great    officers   of 
state  have  come  to  be  clothed  with  the  whole 
prerogative  of  the  crown.    Once  it  was  some- 
thing different,  and  served  another  purpose. 
It  was  once  a  device  for  reconciling  the  in- 
violability of  the  sovereign  with  the  rights  of 
the  subject,  and  the  legal  saw,  '*the  king 
can  do  no  wrong,"  with  the  fiict  that  the 
subject  was  often  wronged  by  the  crown,  and 
the  rale  of   law  that   every  wrong  has  a 
remedy.    Officers  of  the  king  were  answer- 
able for  the  king's  measures  to  the  courts  of 
justice  and  to  the  High  Court  of  Parliament, 
and  might  have  to  smart  for  them.    This 
principle  was  early  admitted ;  Hallam  finds  it 
to  have  been  an  essential  check  on  the  royal 
authority,  though  somewhat  halting  in  its 
-operation,  in  1485 ;  and  it  was  ruled  to  be  the 
law  on  a  most  solemn  occasion — the  trial  of  the 
Refficides  in  1660.     *<  The  law  in  all  cases," 
said  Bridgman,  "  preserves  the  person  of  the 
king,  but  what  is  aone  by  his  ministers  unlaw- 
fully, there  is  a  remedy  against  his  ministers 
for  it."     The  higher  action  of  the  principle, 
that  which  has  brought  the  entire  ministerial 
svstem  into  subjection  to  the  Commons  and 
the  country,  has  only  recently  reached  ite  final 
development.       Ite    germs,    however,    were 
sown   with   the    rise    of    Parliament,    and 
attempto    to   reduce   it    to    practice    were 
made  from  time  to  time  as  Parliament  became 
strong.     In  1341  a  pledge  was  exacted  from 
Edwturd  III.  that  the  Chancellor  and  other 
great  officers  should  be  appointed  in  Parlia- 
ment, and  their  work  tested  by  Parliament ; 
accoiding   to    Bishop    Stubbs    this    implies 
"  that   it    is    to    the    nation,    not   to    the 
king  only,  that  ministers  are  accounteble.*' 
In    1378    another  was   given,  that    during 
Richard  II. 's  minority  the  great  ministers 
should  be  chosen  by  Parliament.  But  neither 
of  these  engagemente  stood ;  Parliament  has 
never  succeeded  in    permanently  enforcing 
its  will  by  the  direct  method.     In  the  inven- 
tion of  impeachment  the  right  path  towards 
the  indirect  and  smoother  way  of  working 
tne  principle  was  hit  upon ;  but  even  im- 
peachment was  prematura     Under  the  house 
of  Lancaster  signs  that  this  first  of  constitu- 
tional powers  was  among  the  births  of  time 
are  easily  discoverable ;  but  under  the  Tudors 
there  is  not  a  trace  of  such  a  promise.    With 
the  Stuarte  they  reappear.  The  Parliamentary 


prosecutions  of  Bacon  and  Cranfield,  the  pro- 
ceedings against  Buckingham,  Strafford,  and 
others,  were  all  manifestations  of  the  instinct 
that  was  pushing  the  Commons  towards  the 
momentous  issue ;  and  when  Charles  I.  thought 
of  admitting  Pym  and  Hampden  to  important 
office,  and  actually  bestowed  such  on  Essex 
and  Falkland,  he  gave  a  hint,  the  earliest  in 
history,  of  what  proved  to  be  the  true  manner 
of  working  the  principle.  But  Pym  had  no 
perception  of  this ;  his  aim  was  to  make 
Parliament  immediate  master  of  the  adminis- 
tration. After  the  Restoration  the  movement 
began  in  earnest,  and  on  the  right  line;  in  the 
faU  of  Clarendon,  of  the  Cabal,  and  of  Danby, 
we  see  one  thing  clearly,  that  the  Commons 
had  learned  the  secret  of  turning  out  minis- 
ters. The  incidento  of  Danby*8  overthrow 
are  specially  instructive ;  they  show  that  the 
responsibility  of  ministers  had  become  a 
reality,  and  was  on  ite  way  to  great  ends. 
When  the  Revolution  had  been  consummated, 
the  doctrine  was  esteblished  beyond  dispute ; 
it  became  the  rule  that  the  sovereign  should 
choose  the  ministers,  but  Parliament  should 
decide  whether  his  choice  should  hold  good. 
By  one  power  office  was  given,  to  another  the 
men  who  held  it  were  responsible ;  gained  by 
favour  of  one,  it  could  be  Kept  only  by  favour 
of  the  other.  The  voting  power  in  the 
country  could  take  away  but  not  give.  By 
getting  the  control  of  this  voting  power,  at 
one  time  the  great  families,  at  anomer  King 
George  III.,  contrived  to  intercept  the  effect 
of  the  principle,  and  for  more  than  a  century 
it  operated  only  in  seasons  of  unusual  excite- 
ment. But  the  first  Reform  Bill  first  brought 
into  play  ite  logical  consequence.  Since  1836 
the  Commons  and  voting  power  of  the 
country  have  virtually  indicated  to  the  sove- 
reign tiie  men  who  must  compose  the  ministry, 
as  well  as  dismissed  it  when  so  minded.  How- 
ever, since  a  ministry  is  now  a  solid  mass, 
usually  entering  on  and  resigning  power  with 
unbroken  ranks,  it  would  be  more  accurate 
to  name  the  doctrine  the  responsibility  of 
ministries. 

Stubbs,  Cmut,  Hid.;  HaHam,  Const.  Hid.; 
May,  Cofui.  Hid, ;  Bagehot,  The  EngltMk  0<m- 
dUuHtm.  p.  R.] 

HesTunption  Bill  (1700).  At  the  time 
of  the  conquest  of  Ireland  by  William  III., 
a  bill  had  been  introduced  providing  for  the 
application  to  the  public  service  of  forfeited 
Irish  lands.  This  bill,  however,  had  not  been 
carried  through,  and  William  had  freely  dis- 
posed of  the  forfeitures — some  1,700,000  acres 
m  all.  Of  these  a  quarter  was  restored  to  the 
Catholics  in  accordance  with  the  Articles  of 
Limerick;  sixtv-five  other  great  proprietors 
were  reinstoted  by  royal  clemency ;  and  a 
part  was  bestowed  on  persons  who  had  com- 
manded in  the  war,  such  as  Ginkel  and 
Galway.  But  the  greater  part  was  lavishly 
granted  to  courtiers  and  favourites,  chid 
among   them  Woodstock,    Albemarle,    and 


(  870  ) 


Lady  Orkney.  In  1699  the  CommonB 
^tacked'*  to  a  Land  Tax  Bill  a  clause  nomi- 
nating seven  commissioners  to  examine  into 
forfeitures.  The  majority  report  of  these 
commissioners,  with  its  exagg^eration  of  the 
value  of  the  grants,  and  bitter  attacks  upon 
the  government  for  favouring  Catholics, 
was  welcomed  by  the  Commons,  who  finally 
|Mifl8ed  a  Eesumption  Bill,  appointing  trustees, 
m  whose  hands  the  lands  were  to  be  vested. 
This  they  again  tacked  to  the  Land  Tax  Bill ; 
the  Ix)rd8  were  inclined  to  resist,  but  the 
country  was  on  the  side  of  the  Commons,  and 
the  peers  were  induced  to  yield. 

Buniet,  Hid.  of  hit  Own  TitM ;  Macaolay,  Hid. 
ofEmg,,  c  xsr. 

Serenney  The.  The  collection  and  as- 
sessment of  the  revenue  previous  to  the  Con- 
quest was  a  simple  matter.  The  machinery 
of  government  was  supplied  b}'  the  people 
themselves,  notably  by  the  obligations  of  the 
Trinoda  Necessitas  (q.v.) ;  and  Si  that  had  to 
be  supplied  were  the  personal  wants  of  the 
crown.  These  were  met  by  the  fee-farm  of  the 
folkland,  fines  in  the  law  courts,  market  and 
harbour  dues,  the  right  of  maintenance,  after- 
wards known  as  purveyance  and  heriots. 
Extraordinarv  taxes,  such  as  the  Danegeld, 
were  imposed  by  the  Witenagemot.  Under 
the  Norman  kings  the  rents  from  the  public 
lands  were  commuted  and  became  the  form 
of  the  shire ;  the  Danegeld  continued,  while 
the  heriot  was  supplanted  by  the  feudal  aids. 
The  fines  of  the  local  courts,  and  the  port  and 
market  dues,  were  still  raised.  *  Undor  Henry 
II.  the  towns  began  to  be  an  important 
source  of  taxation;  aids  were  raised  from 
them^  which  subsequently  acquire  an  evil 
significance  under  the  title  of  talliage. 
Taxes  on  movables,  afterwards  so  frequent  in 
the  form  of  thirteenths,  fifteentiis,  &c.,  were 
established  by  the  Saladin  tithe  in  the  same 
reign.  By  the  fourteenth  century  they  had 
supplanted  scutage  and  talliage^  which  were 
levied  on  land.  They  fell  chiefly  on  the 
clergy,  who,  with  the  merchants,  contributed 
from  this  time  the  greater  part  of  the 
revenue.  In  the  reign  of  Richard  the  prin- 
ciple of  sworn  recognitors  was  first  applied 
generally  to  purposes  of  taxation.  The  reigns 
of  John  and  Henry  III.  are  noted  for  the 
illegal  pretexts  by  which  aU  classes  were 
oppressed,  and  the  more  or  less  successful  re- 
sistance of  the  baronial  party.  £dward  I. 
first  instituted  the  customs  by  the  tax  on 
wool  imposed  in  1275,  although  this  impor- 
tant article  had  frequently  been  seized  by 
previous  kings.  [Customs.]  In  this  reign  taxes 
ceased  to  be  imposed  locally,  and  were  voted 
by  the  estates  sitting  in  Parliament.  Among 
the  financial  experiments  of  the  fourteenth 
century  we  may  note  the  poll-tax,  which 
was  afterwards  abandoned ;  and  tunnage  and 
]>oundage,  which  was  perpetuated.  The  kings 
showed  great  ingenuity  in  evading  the  maxim. 


«  What  touches  aU  should  be  allowed  of  alL" 
Among  illegal  sources  of  revenue  were  loans 
from  foreign  merchants,  forced  loans  from 
individuals,  which  became  known  as  benevo- 
lences,  purveyances,  and  exactions  from  the 
towns  lor  forced  levies  of  men,  known  aa 
commissions  of  array.  The  revenue  in  ihs 
fourteenth  century  may  be  estimated  at  aboat 
£65,000  in  times  of  peace,  and  £130,000  i& 
times  of  war.  To  go  into  the  financial  devices 
of  the  Torkist  and  Tudor  djmasties  with  anv 
minuteness  is  not  possible  here ;  it  is  enou^ 
to  notice  the  creation  of  monopolies  in  &e 
latter  period,  and  the  institution  of  fines  for 
religious  nonconformity.  When  the  king 
became  the  head  of  the  Church,  the  support  5. 
the  establishment  fell  upon  the  crown,  and 
then  the  tithe  system  originated  as  it  existed 
until  commuted  in  1836.  The  Stuarts  wer» 
adepts  at  inventing  methods  for  raising 
revenue.  A  permanent  source  of  income  whi(£ 
dates  from  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  is  the 
excise,  first  imposed  by  the  Long  Parliament 
in  1643,  and  presented  to  the  crown  after  the 
Restoration  upon  the  surrender  of  the  &udd 
dues.  At  the  Restoration  the  revenue  was 
fixed  at  £1,200,000  a  year,  and  after  the 
Revolution  at  the  same  ngure.  The  hearth- 
tax  was  abolished  at  the  Litter  date.  [For  the 
arrangement  by  which  the  hereditax}' 
revenues  of  the  crown  were  separated  from 
the  taxes  for  the  support  of  government,  see 
Civil  List.]  It  would  be  impossible  here  to 
give  a  thorough  account  of  the  many  derice» 
for  rusing  revenue  adopted  since  the  Restora- 
tion. We  may  notice  the  rapid  multiplica- 
tion of  import  and  export  duties  under  the 
mercantile  system,  and  their  abandonment  on 
the  introduction  of  free  trade;  the  stamp 
duties  introduced  1671  and  diminished  in  l^e 
present  reign,  l^e  land-tax  imposed  in  1689 
and  first  commuted  in  1798,  the  sucoessioa 
duty  relegated  in  1863,  and  lastly  the  income- 
tax.  The  chief  sources  of  revenue  at 
present  are  the  customs,  excise,  stamps,  land- 
tax  and  house-duty,  property  and  income- 
tax,  post  office,  telegraph  service,  the  crown 
lands,  and  the  interest  on  advances  to  local 
works. 

Sevolntion,  The  (1688 — 89),  is  the  name 
usually  given  to  the  series  of  events  by  which 
James  U.  was  expelled,  and  William  and 
iAaxy  established  on  the  throne.  In  the  three 
years  of  his  reign,  James  II.  succeeded  in 
making  many  enemies.  Two  events  pre- 
cipitated his  fall — the  trial  of  the  Seven 
Bishops  and  the  birth  of  the  Prince  of 
Wales.  So  long  as  the  clergy  could  expect 
that  in  a  few  years  James  would  be  suc- 
ceeded by  the  Princess  Mary,  they  were 
able  patiently  to  bear  reverses.  But  thifr 
hope  was  now  destroyed;  the  young  prince 
would  be  brought  up  a  papist,  and  would 
be  surrounded  by  papist  counsellors.  So 
necessary  was  it  to  the  success  of  Jaine8*s 


Bey 


(871) 


plans  that  Mary  of  Modena  should  have  a  son, 
that  the  majority  of  the  people  sincerely 
believed  the  tfesuits  had  schemed  a  great  im- 
posture. The  whole  nation,  Whig  and  Tory, 
were  anxious  to  be  saved  from  the  rule  of  a 
Catholic  prince,  however  parties  might  differ 
as  to  the  means  to  be  employed. 

Such  was  the  state  of  things  when,  on  June 
30,  1688,  an  invitation  was  sent  to  William 
of  Orange  to  come  to  England  at  once  with 
an  armed  force.  It  was  signed  by  seven 
persons  of  influence — the  Earl  of  Devonshire, 
one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  Whig  party;  the 
Earl  of  Shrewsbury ;  the  Earl  of  Danby ; 
Compton,  Bishop  of  London ;  Henry  Sidney, 
brother  of  Algernon  Sidney;  Lord  Lumley, 
and  Edward  Kussell.  The  Ftince  of  Orange 
at  once  determined  upon  action.  The  birth 
of  the  young  prince  destroyed  the  hopes 
which  he  had  built  upon  the  probability  of  his 
wife*s  accession  to  the  Englidi  throne.  If  he 
could  succeed  in  dethroning  James,  he  might 
expect  to  gain  feu*  more  power  than  that  of  a 
king-consort ;  if  he  couJd  bring  the  power  of 
England  into  the  confederation  against  Louis 
XIV.,  his  pre-eminence  among  the  allies  would 
be  assured.  But  there  were  almost  insuperable 
difficulties  in  the  way.  The  magistrates  of 
Amsterdam  had  long  been'  opposed  to  the 
Orange  princes  and  attached  to  France ; 
the  opposition  of  one  town  would  be  sufficient 
to  prevent  the  States-General  from  consenting 
to  the  expedition  to  England,  and  if  it  did 
not  altogether  stop  it,  might  cause  a  dangerous 
delay.  If  Louis  determined  to  begin  the 
impending  war  by  an  attack  upon  Holland, 
William's  troops  must  be  retained  at  home  to 
defend  their  countr}\  And,  finally,  if  only 
James  could  induce  his  English  troops  to 
fight  one  battle  against  the  Dutch  invaders, 
whatever  its  issue  might  be,  national  feeling 
would  be  enlisted  upon  his  side,  and  he  might 
be  able  to  retain  his  throne.  But  the  revoca- 
tion of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  and  the  recent 
alterations  in  the  French  tari^  had  destroyed 
the  French  party  in  Amsterdam,  and  all  the 
states  and  towns  of  the  republic  were  en- 
thusiastic in  support  of  Orange.  The  pre- 
parations which  were  being  made  in  Holland 
did  not  escape  the  observation  of  the  French 
ambassador,  and  his  master  did  what  he  could 
to  save  James.  A  French  envoy  was  sent  to 
London  to  offer  naval  assistance.  But  James 
petulantly  declared  he  would  not  be  patronised; 
the  French  envoy  could  gain  no  answer  to 
his  message ;  and  the  European  powers  were 
informed  that  the  close  alliance  of  England 
and  France  was  a  mere  invention  on  the  part 
nS.  Louis.  In  anger  Louis  left  him  to  his 
fate ;  he  determined  to  open  the  war  by  on 
invasion  of  Germany,  and  William  could 
venture  for  a  while  to  leave  Holland  un- 
protected.  In  his  negotiations  with  Catholic 
powers,  William  was  able  to  represent  his 
undertaking  as  one  which  had  little  to  do  with 
zeligion,  aiul  his  expedition  certainly  had  the 


good  wishes  of  the  sovereign  pontiff.  And 
the  folly  of  James  in  bringing  Irish  troops 
into  England,  and  William's  wise  policy  of 
putting  forward  his  English  supporters  on 
every  occasion  when  a  conflict  seemed  likely 
to  occur,  threw  national  sympathy  on  the 
side  of  the  Prince  of  Orange,  and  removed  the 
most  formidable  difficulty  out  of  his  way. 

Before  the  expedition  started,  a  declaration 
was  drawn  up  and  published.  It  set  forth 
that  the  fundEunental  laws  of  England  had 
been  violated,  illegal  measures  had  been 
taken  to  favour  Catholics,  prelates  venturing 
to  petition  their  sovereign  had  been  impri- 
soned, judges  had  been  dismissed,  and  pre- 
parations were  being  made  to  bring  together 
a  packed  Parliament.  Moreover,  just  doubts 
were  entertained  as  to  the  birth  of  the  Prince 
of  Wales.  For  these  reasons,  it  was  declared, 
William  was  about  to  enter  England  with  an 
army  in  order  to  assemble  a  free  Parliament, 
to  whose  decision  all  the  questions  in  dispute 
should  be  referred. 

James  was  terrified  when  at  last  he  heard 
of  the  impending  storm.  A  formidable  fleet 
was  put  under  the  command  of  Lord  Dart- 
mouth, and  troops  were  brought  from  Scot- 
land and  Ireland.  All  the  dismissed  magis- 
trates and  deputy-lieutenants  were  replaced, 
and  a  proclamation  was  issned  announcing 
the  king's  intention  to  abandon  the  attempt  to 
repeal  the  Test  Act,  and  his  desire  to  cany 
out  the  Act  of  Uniformity.  Witnesses  were 
brought  before  the  Privy  Council  to  prove  the 
birth  of  the  young  prince ;  and  at  the  request 
of  the  bishops  the  Court  of  High  Commission 
was  abolished  and  the  borough  charters  re- 
stored. But  these  concessions  were  too  evi- 
dently dictated  by  fear  to  be  of  use,  and  James 
still  obstinately  refused  to  give  up  the  dis- 
pensing power. 

On  Oct.  19  William  set  sail  from  Helvoet- 
sluys  with  a  force  of  some  14,000  men,  the 
fleet  being  wisely  placed  under  the  command 
of  the  Englishman  Herbert.  He  was  driven 
back  by  a  gale,  but  set  out  again  on  Nov.  1. 
A  favouring  breeze  carried  the  fleet  into  the 
Channel,  while  it  held  Dartmouth  in  the 
Thames ;  on  the  6th  William  landed  unmo- 
lested at  Torbay.  Hence  he  proceeded  to- 
Exeter,  where  he  began  to  be  joined  by  the 
neighbouring  gentry.  Soon  the  defections 
from  James  became  numerous;  very  sig- 
niflcant  was  the  desertion  of  Clarendon's  son^ 
Viscount  Combur}',  doubtless  prompted  by 
Churchill.  JaiAes  at  once  set  out  for  Salis- 
bury, but  here  Churchill  and  Grafton  left 
him,  and  no  longer  daring  to  trust  his  army, 
the  king  returned  to  London.  On  his  way  he 
was  abandoned  by  Prince  George  and  Or- 
monde, and  when  he  reached  the  capital  he 
found  that  the  Princess  Anne  had  taken 
flight.  In  desperation  the  king  yielded  to 
the  advice  of  the  Council,  and  issued  writs 
for  a  Parliament.  Halifax,  Nottingham,  and 
€h)dolphin  were  appointed  commissioners  to 


'■4 


/ 


(872  ) 


treat  with  William,  bat  this  negotiation,  as 
James  told  Baiillon,  wan  only  a  feint  to  gain 
time.  Meanwhile  the  prince  had  advan^d  to 
Hungerford,  and  there,  on  Dec.  8,  the  com- 
miflsionerB  met  him.  William's  terms  were 
scrupulously  moderate;  all  questions  should 
be  referred  to  a  Parliament,  and  in  order 
that  its  deliberations  might  be  free,  neither 
army  should  come  within  forty  miles  of  the 
capital,  though  James  and  William  were  each 
to  be  allowed  to  visit  Westminster  with  a 
body-guard.  These  terms  were  arranged  on 
Dec.  9 ;  on  the  10th  Mary  of  Modena  and  the 
yoimg  prince  were  sent  out  of  the  country 
under  the  care  of  the  Count  of  Lauzun,  and 
next  day  James  himself  took  flight.  Such 
peers  as  were  in  London  met  in  the  Guildhall 
under  the  presidency  of  Sancroft,and  drew  up 
a  declaration  that  now  that  the  king  had  left 
the  country  they  had  determined  to  join  with 
the  Prince  of  Orange,  and  until  his  arrival 
would  act  as  a  provisional  government.  But 
greatly  to  the  vexation  of  William,  James  was 
stopped  in  his  flight,  and  returned  to  London. 
It  now  became  William's  object  to  terrify  him 
into  again  leaving  the  country.  Remaining 
himseU  at  Windsor,  William  sent  Dutch 
troops  to  occupy  Whitehall,  and  peremptorily 
insisted  that  James  should  remove  to  Ham. 
Again  meditating  flight,  James  proposed  Ro- 
chester instead,  and  to  this  Onmge  readily 
oonsented.  Next  day,  Dec.  19,  William  en- 
tered London,  and  on  the  22nd  James  fled 
from  Rochester,  and  this  time  succeeded  in 
reaching  France. 

William  had  already  called  together  the 
Lords  and  the  members  of  Charles  II.'s  Par- 
liaments, together  with  the  City  magistrates. 
These  advised  the  prince  to  assume  the  ad- 
ministration provisionally,  and  summon  a 
Parliamentary  convention.  The  Convention 
Parliament  met  on  Jan.  22, 1689.  One  party, 
-especially  among  the  clergy,  were  in  favour 
of  negotiating  with  James  and  restoring  him 
npon  conditions,  but  they  could  scarcely  ven- 
ture to  propose  this  when  James  was  himself 
issuing  manifestoes  decJaring  all  their  griev- 
ances imaginary.  Another  party,  headed  by 
Sancroft,  proposed  thnt  the  royal  title  should 
be  left  to  James,  but  that  the  government 
should  be  put  into  the  hands  of  William  with 
the  title  of  regent.  A  third  but  smaller 
section,  the  chiefs  of  which  were  Danby  and 
Compton,  urged  that  by  the  flight  of  James 
the  throne  had  been  vacated,  that  judgment 
must  go  by  default  against  tHe  claims  of  the 
young  prince,  and  that  Mary  was  already  de 
jure  queen.  But  Mary  refused  to  exclude  her 
husband  from  the  throne,  and  William  himself 
declared  that  he  would  not  remain  merely  as 
his  wife's  usher.  The  Whigs,  meanwhile, 
were  unanimous  in  proposing  to  confer  the 
crown  on  William  and  Mary  together,  and  to 
put  the  executive  into  the  hands  of  the  prince, 
and  after  long  discussions  this  was  agreed  to 
by  both  Houses.    The  principal  resolution  of 


the  Commons  accepted  by  the  Lords^  laa 
thus :  ^*  King  James  the  Second,  having  en- 
deavoured to  subvert  the  constitution  of  the 
kingdom  by  breaking  the  original  contzact 
between  king  and  people,  and  by  the  advice 
of  Jesuits  and  oth^  wicked  persons  having 
violated  the  fundamental  laws,  and  having 
withdrawn  himself  out  of  the  kingdomif  has 
abdicated  the  government,  and  the  throne 
has  therehy  become  vacant."  Of  this  resolii- 
tion,  as  Macaulay  justly  says,  the  one  beaoty 
is  its  inconsistency;  *' There  was  a  phrase 
for  every  subdivision  of  the  majority.  The 
mention  of  the  original  contract  gratified  the 
disciples  of  Sidney.  The  word  abdicatian 
conciliated  politicians  of  a  more  timid  schooL 
There  were,  doubtless,  many  fervent  Pro- 
testants who  were  pleased  with  the  censni^ 
cast  on  the  Jesuits.  To  the  real  statesnoan  the 
single  important  clause  was  that  which  de- 
clared the  throne  vacant ;  and,  if  that  dauoe 
could  be  carried,  he  cared  little  by  what  pre- 
amble it  might  be  introduced."  On  Feb.  13, 
the  crown  was  offered  to  William  and  Mary, 
accompanied  by  the  Declaration  of  Rights. 
This  they  accepted,  and  the  same  day  wexe 
proclaimed  king  and  queen. 

The  same  general  plan  had  been  followed 
in  Scotland.  There  the  withdrawal  of  troops 
had  left  the  ground  clear  for  the  Whig  lords. 
While  the  Covenanters  rose  in  the  west,  and 
carried  out  a  violent  ecclesiastical  change,  the 
leading  peers  went  to  London,  and  advised 
William  to  call  a  Convention  of  Estates.  This 
was  done,  and  upon  its  advice  the  Estates  were 
summoned  for  March  14.  After  an  eaaily 
balked  attempt  of  the  Jacobite  minority  to 
hold  a  rival  convention,  a  declaiatian  was 
drawn  up  almost  in  the  same  temis  aa  in 
England,  with  the  addition  that  prelacy  was 
an  insupportable  grievance.  In  L:«land,  Lon- 
donderry and  Exmiskillen  declared  for  Wil- 
liam, but  the  rest  of  the  countr}^  under  Tyr- 
connel's  administration  remained  firm  in  its 
allegiance  to  James,  and  not  till  the  Lnsh  had 
been  crushed  in  war  was  the  Revolution  settle- 
ment accepted  by  them. 

Burnet,  HiMt.  of  hu  Own,  Tmm  (erituased  in 
Sanke,  Eng.  Bitt,,  vi.,  and  oompsxed  wi^  the 
Dutch  Reports)  ;  Life  of  Jamt*  II.;  B«reBbj, 
tfmmotrs;  ETel^n,  Duiry  ;  Lntixell,  Diary;  Dal- 
rymple,  Memoirs  of  Qt,  Britain  (1773),  giving 
detracts  from  Bazillon'i  despatches ;  lucanlay, 
HiMt,  of  Eng,  [W.  J.  A.] 

HeynoldB,  Walter  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury (1313—1327),  was  a  man  of  humUe 
origin.  He  was  made  by  Edward  I.  pre- 
ceptor to  Prince  Edward,  and  subsequently 
treasurer.  He  obtained  a  considerable  in- 
fluence over  the  prince,  and  on  Edward  II.*8 
accession,  Reynolds  was  made  almost  at  once 
Chancellor,  and  Bishop  of  Worcester.  On 
the  death  of  Winchelsey,  the  king  obtained 
from  the  Pope  his  nomination  to  the  arch- 
bishopric. After  the  defeat  at  Bannockbum, 
Reynolds  resigned  office,  and  in  the  latter 


Blie 


(  «73  ) 


Bio 


part  of  the  reign  we  find  him  aiding  with, 
the  queen  againat  his  benefactor.  He  crowned 
Prince  Edward,  and  preached  the  coronation 
sermon.  Dean  Hook  says  with  truth,  *'  Of  all 
the  primates  who  have  occupied  the  see  of 
Canterbury,  few  have  been  less  qualified  to 
discbarge  the  duties  devolving  upon  a  Metro- 
politan than  Walter  Reynolds." 

Bh^,  Expedition  to,  1627.  In  1627  a 
rupture  took  place  between  England  and 
France,  and  Charles  resolved  to  defend  the 
independence  of  the  French  Protestants,  and 
maintain  his  own  claim  to  the  mastery  ot  the 
sea.  For  both  these  objects  the  possession  of 
the  island  of  Rh6,  lying  in  face  of  Rochelle, 
and  commanding  the  commerce  between 
France  and  Spain,  would  be  valuable.  The 
English  fleet,  commanded  by  the  Duke  of 
Buckingham,  sailed  on  June  27,  and  a  landing 
was  made  on  the  island  on  July  12.  St. 
Martin's,  the  capital,  was  besieged  from  July 
17  to  Oct  29.  The  destruction  by  a  storm  of 
the  expedition  destined  to  reinforce  the 
besiegers,  and  the  failure  of  an  assault 
attempted  on  Oct.  27,  combined  with  the 
landing  of  a  Frendi  force  in  the  island,  com- 
pelled the  duke  to  raise  the  siege.  These 
French,  troops,  to  the  number  of  6,000,  com- 
manded by  Marshal  Schomberg,  had  gradually 
been  collected  at  the  fort  of  La  Pr^^  which 
Buckingham  had  neglected  to  take  imme- 
diately after  his  landmg.  They  now  assailed 
the  English  during  their  retreat,  and  inflicted 
a  very  heavy  loss  on  them. 

Gardiner,  EM.  of  Eng.,  ieo$—184»,  vol.  vi. ; 
Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbaiy,  Tht  XxMditum  to  tfc« 
ItUofWU.  [C.H.F.] 

ShodeSf  Ths  Right  Hon.  Cboil  J., 
having  completed  his  education  at  Oxford, 
went  to  South  Africa,  and  by  his  astute 
direction  of  diamond  mines  at  Kimberley 
acquired  a  large  fortune.  Turning  to  politics, 
he  soon  became  a  member  of  the  Cape  Govern- 
ment— ^that  of  Sir  T.  Scanlon.  When  the 
Spriggs  ministry  fell,  in  1890,  he  became 
Premier,  and  held  the  office  nntil  early  in 
1896,  when,  as  a  result  of  Dr.  Jameson's 
abortive  raid  into  the  Transvaal,  he  resigned. 
As  director  of  the  British  South  Africa  Com- 
pany, he,  in  1893,  conducted  the  campaign 
against  the  Matabele. 

Rhodesia.    [South  African  Colonies.] 

Bllllddlan  Castle.  A  fortress  was  flrst 
built  at  Rhuddlan,  a  position  of  considerable 
military  importance  Commanding  the  vale  of 
Clwyd,  by  Llewelyn  ap  Sitsyll  early  in  the 
eleventh  centnrv.  Upon  the  rebellion  of  the 
Prince  Gruflyad,  in  1262,  Harold  marched 
upon  him  at  Rhuddlan ;  GrufFydd  escaped  to 
the  sea  about  two  miles  distant,  but  Harold 
blunt  the  castle.  It  was  rebuilt,  and  after- 
wards conquered  by  a  nephew  of  Hugh 
Lupus.  Edward  I.  caused  a  stately  castle  to 
be  erected  near  the  site  of  the  former  one ; 
here  Queen  Eleanor  gave  birth  to  a  daughtei ; 

Hist.— 28* 


and  here  a  baronial  assembly  was  held,  by  the 
advice  of  which,  in  1284,  the  '*  Statute  of 
Wales  *'  was  drawn  up,  assimilating  the  ad- 
ministration of  that  country  to  that  of  England. 
The  castle  was  captured  by  the  Parliamentary 
general,  Mytton,  in  1646,  and  dismantled. 

Ribbon  Sooiety,  Thb,  was  a  secret  Irish 
confederacy,  consistmg  of  small  farmers, 
cottiers,  labourers,  and  in  the  towns  small 
shopkeepers  and  artisans,  which  appeared 
about  1820  (the  name  <<Bibbon"  not  being 
attached  to  it  till  aboUt  1826) ;  and  gained 
great  streogth  from  1 835  to  1 855.  *  *  In  Ulster 
it  professed  to  be  a  defensive  or  retaliatory 
league  against  Orangeism.  In  Munster  it 
was  at  flrst  a  combination  against  tithe 
proctors.  In  Connaught  it  was  an  organisa- 
tion against  rack-renting  and  evictions.  In 
Leinster  it  often  was  mere  trade-unionism, 
dictating  by  its  mandates,  and  enforcing^  by 
its  vengeance  the  employment  or  dismissal 
of  workmen,  stewards,  and  even  domestics.*' 
To  belong  to  a  Ribbon  Society  was  declared 
illegal  by  the  Westmeath  Act  of  1871 ;  since 
which  time  the  confederacy  has  died  away,  or 
been  merged  in  other  secret  associations. 
A.  M.  Sullivan,  N«io  Jr«Iaiul,  ch.  iv. 

Bicby  St.  Edmund,  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury (1234 — 1240),  was  bom  at  Abingdon 
came  to  Oxford  at  the  age  of  twelve,  after 
staying  there  several  years  begged  his  way  to 
Paris,  and  upon  his  return  to  Oxford  became 
one  of  the  most  popular  teachers  of  theology 
and  philosophy.  About  1222  he  was  ap- 
pointed Treasurer  of  Salisbury  Cathedral, 
and  became  the  spiritual  adviser  of  the 
Countess  of  Salisbury,  widow  of  King  John*s 
half-brother.  Upon  the  death  of  Archbishop 
Richard  le  Grand  some  dispute  arose  as  to 
the  election  of  a  successor,  and  Pope  Gregory 
IX.  induced  the  monks  who  had  gone  to 
Rome  to  elect  Rich  upon  their  return,  a 
measure  to  which  the  king's  consent  was 
readily  obtained.  But  Edmund  was  not  dis- 
posed to  act  as  a  tool  of  king  or  pope,  though 
the  latter  had  written  urging  him  to  persuade 
the  English  to  overcome  their  prejudices 
against  the  aliens.  Immediately  after  his 
consecration  he  visited  the  king,  insisted  on 
the  reform  of  abuses,  and  the  dismissal  of 
foreign  ministers,  especially  Peter  des  Roches^ 
and  threatened  him  with  excommunication  if 
he  refused.  Henry  yielded,  and  Peter  and 
his  creatures  were  dismissed.  "  Edmund  was 
a  bishop  of  the  type  of  Anselm,  with  some- 
what of  the  spirit  and  practical  instincts  of 
Langton ;  but  he  lived  in  an  unhappy  period 
for  the  display  of  either  class  of  qualities, 
under  a  pope  whom  he  knew  only  as  a  task- 
master, and  under  a  king  whose  incapacity 
and  want  of  flrnmess  made  it  as  hard  to 
support  as  to  resist  him "  (Stubbs).  To 
diminish  his  influence  Henry  III.  applied  to 
the  pope  to  send  a  legate  to  England,  and 
Edmund  had  to  struggle  during  the  rest  of 


Bio 


(  874 


'nA^ 


his  life  against  Otho's  effoTts  to  obtain 
benefices  for  foreigners  in  England.  The 
archbisiiop  also  came  into  conflict  with  Henry 
in  the  matter  of  the  marriage  of  Simon  de 
Montfort  to  the  king's  sister  Eleanor,  widow 
of  the  Earl  Marshal,  whom  he  refused  to  free 
from  her  vow  of  perpetual  ¥ridowhood.  In 
1238  Edmund  visited  Rome  to  obtain  papal 
support  in  his  attempt  to  enforce  discipline  in 
the  monasteries  of  Canterbury  and  Rochester. 
But  the  pope,  in  revenge  for  his  action  in  the 
matter  of  the  alien  clergy,  treated  him  with 
studied  insult,  and  decided  all  the  appeals 
against  him.  At  last  in  despair  Edmund 
retired  to  the  abbey  of  Pontigny  in  France, 
and  died  at  the  neighbouring  priory  of  Soissy 
in  1240.  The  popular  belief  in  his  sanctity 
and  the  miracles  reported  from  his  tomb 
forced  Innocent  IV.,  much  against  his  will, 
to  consent  to  his  canonisation  in  1246. 

Hook.  Arehbiahoff  of  Oant«rbury,  vol.  ill., 
baaed  on  a  conlmnpnrary  Life  bjBartTand, Abbot 
of  Pontignj.  Green,  Hi9t.  ofEngltBh  People,  gives 
some  acooant  of  hia  Oxford  life,  aud  Sinbba, 
Cotml.  HieL,  ch.  xiv.,  of  his  constitntional 
action.  [W.  J.  A.] 

Sichy  Richard,  Lord  Rich  (d.  1560), 
who  "brought  a  greater  strain  upon  the 
bar  of  England  than  any  member  of  the 
profession"  (Campbell),  was  in  1533  made 
Solicitor-General.  He  took  a  prominent  part 
in  the  trial  of  Sir  Thomas  More,  giving  as 
evidence  an  untrue  version  of  a  private 
conversation  with  More,  and  so  securing  his 
conviction.  He  was  rewarded  in  1537  by 
being  recommended  to  the  office  of  Speaker, 
and  during  the  rest  of  the  reig^  was  a  ready 
agent  of  the  court  in  the  prosecution  alike  of 
Protestants  and  of  Roman  Catholics.  Under 
the  will  of  Henry  VIII.  Rich  was  appointed 
a  councillor  to  assist  in  the  government  during 
the  minority  of  Edward  VI.,  and  in  October 
(1547)  succeeded  Paulet  as  Lord  Chancellor 
of  England.  In  1649  he  drew  up  the  articles 
charging  Lord  Seymour  of  Sudeley  with 
treason,  and  subsequently  joined  the  Earl  of 
Warwick,  taking  an  active  part  in  the  pro- 
ceedings against  his  former  patron  Somerset. 
In  1551  he  retired  from  public  life. 
Campbell,  Lives  of  the  ChanceUort. 

Bichard  I.,  Kino,  (b.  Sept.  13,  1157, 
».  July,  1189,  d.  April  6, 1199),  was  the  second 
son  of  Henry  II.  and  Eleanor  of  Aqui- 
taine.  He  was  destined  by  his  father  to  rule 
his  mother^s  possessions  in  the  south  of 
France,  and  when  still  quite  3'oung  was  en- 
trusted with  the  government  of  Aquitaine, 
where  he  speedily  joined  in  the  groat  con- 
spiracy of  1173  against  his  father.  Pardoned 
at  the  suppression  of  the  revolt,  he  passed 
several  years  in  a  series  of  chivalrous  and 
brilliant  exploits  among  the  wild  feudal  nobles 
of  Guienne  and  Poitou.  His  success  made 
his  elder  brother  so  envious  that  he  insisted 
on  Richard  doing  homage  to  him,  and  on  his 
refusal  a  war  bitike  out  between  the  brothers 


ill83).  In  alliance  with  B^trand  de  Bam, 
Uchard*s  great  enemy,  Henry  and  Gooffry 
reduced  Richard  to  such  straits  that  Henry 
II.  had  to  go  to  his  assistance.  The  death 
of  the  younger  Henry  concluded  the  war, 
but  in  1184  another  quarrel  between  Richard 
and  his  father  ensued  on  the  former's 
refusal  to  gratify'  the  latter  by  surrendering  a 
portion  of  Aquitaine  to  his  brother,  John. 
Richard's  restless  temper  was  constantly  in- 
volving him  in  wars  with  his  neighbours, 
from  which  nothing  but  his  &ther's  influence 
could  extricate  hun.  Yet  in  1189  he  in- 
spired that  last  successful  revolt,  in  the  midst 
of  which  the  old  king  died. 

Despite  his  constant  revolts,  Richard  secured 
the  succession  without  difficulty.  He  hurried 
to  Englfuid,  not  with  the  view  of  taking  pos- 
session of  the  government  so  much  as  to 
secure  means  to  embark  on  the  projected 
crusade,  into  which  he  threw  all  his  energ>% 
He  held  a  great  council  at  Pipewell,  in  which 
he  displaced  Henry's  old  ministers,  sold  a 
large  number  of  places,  and  made  arrange- 
ments for  the  government  during  his  absence. 
About  three  months  after  his  coronation  he 
left  England. 

The  history  of  Richard's  reign  naturally 
divides  itself  into  two  main  subjects — the 
personal  adventures  of  the  king  in  Palestine, 
Grermany,  and  finall}'  in  France,  and  the 
government  of  the  country  during  his  absence. 
The  brilliant  and  chivalrous  spirit  of  the  king, 
and  that  martial  .prowess  which  gave  him 
.the  name  of  CcBur  de  Ztow,  were  nowhere  bettt^ 
displayed  than  in  his  adventures  in  the  east. 
After  some  delays  in  France,  Richard  and 
Philip  Augustus  -landed  in  Sicily  in  June, 
1190.  After  rescuing  his  sister  from  the 
hands  of  the  usurper,  Tancred,  and  incurring 
the  l^Vench  king's  hostility  by  repudiating  the 
latter*s  sister,  Alice,  to  whom  he  had  been  long 
contracted  in  marriage,  in  favour  of  Beren- 
garia  of  Navarre,  Richard  set  out  for  Palestine, 
conquering  Cyprus  on  his  way,  and  bestow- 
ing it  on  Guy  of  Lusignan.  He  arrived  in 
Palestine  in  time  to  save  Acre,  but  the  retorn 
home  of  Philip  Augustus,  and  the  quarrel  of 
Richard  with  the  Duke  of  Austria,  made  the 
barren  victories  against  the  Saracens  of  little 
avail  in  effecting  the  deliverance  of  the  Holy 
City.  At  last  in  1192  Richard  was  glad  to 
conclude  a  three  years'  truce  with  Saladin, 
which  saved  the  remnants  of  the  Frankish 
kingdom,  and  gave  pilgrims  free  access  to 
Jerusalem.  On  his  way  home  he  was  im- 
prisoned by  his  old  enemy  the  Duke  of 
Austiia,  and  handed  over  to  the  Emperor 
Henry  V^I.,  who  as  the  representative  of  the 
Hohenstaufen,  was  glad  to  get  hold  of  the 
uncle  and  protector  of  Otto  the  Guelf. 

Meanwlule  the  soundness  of  the  adminis- 
trative system  which  Henry  II.  had  established 
was  being  thoroughly  tested  in  England. 
Despite  the  incompleteness  of  Richard's  ar* 
rangements,  despite  the  intrigues   of  Sari 


K-^^t 


(876) 


John,  England  remained  in  a  prosperous 
•condition  during  the  whole  of  the  period. 
Four  successive  justiciars  ruled  the  land  as 
|)ractically  independent  sovereigns,  burdened 
only  by  the  heavy  tribute  which  the  absent 
king  exacted.  The  first,  William  Longchamp, 
Bishop  of  Ely,  was  unpopular  as  a  foreigner, 
And  iiarl  John  profited  by  this  to  excite  the 
baronage  against  him.  In  1 191  the  Archbishop 
of  Rouen,  Walter  of  Coutances,  arrived  with 
a  commission  from  Richard  to  supersede  him. 
His  govetument,  which  lasted  till  1193,  was 
disturbed  by  the  unsuccessful  rebellion  of 
•John,  in  connection  with  an  attack  of  Fhilip 
on  Normandy,  and  by  the  exertions  necessary 
to  raise  the  enormous  ransom  of  £100,000, 
which  the  Emperor  required  for  the  release  of 
Richard.  At  the  end  of  1 193  he  was  succeeded 
by  Hubert  Walter,  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, whose  administration  continued  until 
1198.  The  latter  at  once  succeeded  in  sup- 
pressing John^s  revolt.  When  Richard  paid 
his  second  and  last  visit  to  his  kingdom  in 
the  spring  of  1194  the  land  was  in  profound 
peace.  At  a  great  council  at  Nottingham 
the  accomplices  of  John  were  punished,  the 
sheriffs  removed,  and  money  raised  by  all 
possible  means.  A  second  coronation  at  Win- 
chester was  a  solemn  declaration  that,  whatever 
humiliation  Richard  had  been  subjected  to  in 
his  captivity,  his  royal  dignity  remained  un- 
impaired. As  soon  as  he  had  got  all  he  could 
Richard  hurried  to  France,  where  he  spent 
the  rest  of  his  life  in  a  constant  potty  warfare 
4igainst  Philip  of  France,  until  he  met  his 
dmth  in  1199,  while  besieging  the  obscure 
castle  of  ChaluK.  Meanwhile  Hubert  Walter 
administered  England  with  success.  The 
judicial  iter  of  1 194,  and  the  first  germs  of  the 
offices  of  coroner  and  conservator  of  the  peace, 
showed  that  he  not  only  maintained,  but  also 
developed,  the  system  of  Henry  II.  In  1198 
the  refusal  of  a  royal  demand  for  money  hj 
the  great  council  led  to  his  resignation.  His 
successor,  Gooft'r^'  FitzPeter,  had  not  long 
entered  upon  his  office  when  the  king  died. 

Richard  I.  is  the  most  un-English,  of  our 
kings,  fie  knew  and  influenced  England, 
where  he  hardly  ever  lived,  either  before  or 
after  his  accession,  less  than  any  other  prince. 
Yet,  besides  his  fame  as  a  knight-errant,  he 
had  no  inconsiderable  talent  for  rough  and 
ready  statesmanship.  But  he  was  a  bad 
king,  careless,  extravagant,  and  neglectful  of 
all  his  duties.  The  main  interest  of  his  reign 
in  English  history  is  its  story  of  quiet  admi- 
nistrative routine  and  constitutional  develop- 
ment. 

Bishop  StDbbs'  Editions  of  Bfmeien^  and  of  the 
Chrotitcf«s  ond  Memoriala  of  Richard  11,^  in  the 
BoIIb  Series,  are,  with  his  CotiA.  Uvd.,  the  most 
important  works  beejring  on  Biobard's  reign.  Sm 
also  Paoli,  Qttehu-hU.von  Eixgland;  Lvttelton, 
Henrji  IT. ;  and  Michaud,  Histoire  de»  Cro^ndet. 

[T.  F.  T.] 

Bichard  ZZ.  (&.  Feb.  1366;  r.  June  22, 
1377— Sept.  30,  1399),  was  the  son  of  Ed- 


ward the  Black  Prince  and  Joan  of  Kent.  Soon 
after  his  father's  death  he  was  created  Prince 
of  Wales,  and  recognised  as  heir  to  the  throne. 
During  the  early  years  of  his  reign  he 
was  in  tutelage,  but  the  boldness  and  presence 
of  mind  which  he  showed  diiring  the  peasant 
revolt  seemed  to  augur  a  successful  and 
prosperous  career.  He  appears  to  have  been 
suspicious  of  the  designs  of  his  unde,. 
Gloucester,  and  to  have  determined  to  sur- 
round himself  with  ministers  of  his  own 
choosing,  and  it  must  be  admitted  that  they 
were  selected  with  judgment,  and  (with 
perhaps  the  exception  of  De  Vere)  they 
.hardly  deserve  to  be  stigmatised  as  favourites. 
But  tiiey  were  not  successful  administrators, 
and  the  heavy  taxes  which  were  imposed 
afforded  an  opportunity  to  Gloucester  and 
his  associates  to  denounce  them.  In  1386, 
Richard's  minister,  Michael  dc  la  Pole,  Earl 
of  Suffolk,  was  impeached  by  the  Commons, 
and  the  king  was  compelled  to  agree  to  the 
appointment  of  a  Commission  of  Regency, 
consisting  of  the  Dukes  of  Gloucester  and 
York,  and  eight  other  lords  and  prelates.  In 
the  following  August  (1387),  Richard  pro- 
cured from  the  judges  a  declaration  that  the 
Commission  was  illegal.  But  Gloucester  en- 
tered London  with  a  large  force ;  and  the 
king,  unable  to  resist,  was  obliged  to  give 
way  and  to  allow  his  chief  advisers  to  be  ap- 
pealed of  treason  (Dec,  1387).  The  Parliai- 
ment  of  1388,  the  "Merciless  Parliament," 
condemned  Vere,  Suffolk,  and  six  others  to 
death  ;  and  though  the  two  chief  personages 
escaped,  the  sentence  was  carried  out  in 
four  cases.  The  power  of  Gloucester  lasted 
till  1389,  when  Richard  suddenly  declared 
that  he  was  old  enough  to  manage  his 
own  affairs,  and  dismissed  the  Council  of 
Regency.  But  he  did  not  resort  to  his 
former  methods  of  government ;  on  the  con- 
trary, he  was  reconciled  to  Gloucester  and 
his  associates,  and  was  content  to  admit  them 
to  a  share  in  the  government.  For  some 
years  nothing  happened  to  disturb  the  har- 
mony between  the  king  and  the  nobles,  and 
the  first  symptoms  of  a  revival  of  troubles 
was  in  1395,  when  Richard  proposed  to  many 
Isabella  of  France  and  form  a  firm  alliance 
with  that  country.  This  was  strongly  op- 
posed by  Gloucester,  who  was  suspected  by 
the  king  of  treasonable  designs,  was  arrested, 
and  sent  to  Calais  to  await  his  trial,  but  died 
before  it  came  on,  murdered,  it  was  generally 
•believed,  by  the  king's  orders.  It  would 
seem  that  Richard  was  panic-stricken  at  the 
thought  of  a  plot  against  his  life,  and  de- 
termined to  resort  to  the  most  arbitrary 
measures  to  secure  his  position.  At  any  rate 
a  complete  change  came  over  his  conduct.  The 
pardons  granted  to  the  barons  in  1388  were  an** 
nulled ;  two  of  the  most  prominent  were  ap- 
pealed of  treason.  Arundel  was  executed,  and 
his  brother,  the  archbishop,  banished.  The 
proceedings,  of  the  Merciless  P^liament  were 


(876) 


roBcinded,  and  the  power  of  Parliament  dele- 
gated to  a  small  committee.  Thus  Richard 
seemed  to  have  established  his  absolute  power; 
but  still  there  wore  rumours  of  conspiracies. 
The  Duke  of  Hereford  (Henry  of  Boling- 
broke,  son  of  John  of  Gaunt),  and  Thomas 
Mowbray,  Duke  of  Norfolk,  accused  each 
other  of  treason,  and  were  sentenced  to 
banishment,  the  lisitter  for  life,  the  former  for 
six  years.  Richard  now  resorted  to  various 
illeg^  methods  of  raising  money,  and  he  had 
already  alienated  the  people  from  him,  as 
well  as  the  leading  nobles,  when,  in  1399, 
he  committed  two  acts  of  reckless  folly 
which  were  the  immediate  cause  of  his  down-  ^ 
falL  He  had  promised  Hereford  that  if' 
during  his  exile  his  father  were  to  die,  the 
Lancastrian  estates  should  be  secured  to  him. 
Nevertheless,  on  Gaunt' s  death,  he  seized  the 
whole  of  his  domains  into  his  own  hands. 
This  gave  an  excuse  to  Hereford  (or  I^an- 
caster,  as  he  had  now  become)  to  return  to 
England  to  claim  his  patrimony;  and  the 
circumstances  were  most  auspicious  for  him, 
for  Richard  had  gone  upon  an  expedition  to 
Ireland,  leaving  the  Duke  of  York  as  regent 
in  England.  Henry  of  Lancaster  landed  in 
England,  declared  that  he  came  simply  to 
obtain  his  lawful  inheritance,  was  joined  by 
many  of  the  great  nobles,  and  not  opposed  by 
the  Duke  of  York ;  so  that  when  Richard  re- 
turned from  Ireland  he  found  the  kingdom 
was  lost.  Discovering  his  true  position, 
Richard  offered  to  resign  the  crown.  The 
abdication  was  accepted  by  Parliament,  which 
drew  up  articles  of  accusation  against  him, 
enumerating  all  the  illegal  and  despotic  acts 
he  had  been  guilty  ol  Henry  challenged  the 
vacant  throne  and  was  accepted  as  king. 
After  this,  Richard  disappears  from  history, 
and  nothing  is  known  for  certain  of  the  time, 
manner,  or  place  of  his  death.  According  to 
one  account,  he  was  murdered  at  Pontefract 
by  Sir  Piers  Exton,  while  other  writers  assert 
that  he  starved  himself  to  death.  The  Revo- 
lution of  1399  was  not  a  popular  movement, 
but  was  brought  about  by  a  series  of  circum- 
stances to  a  considerable  extent  unconnected 
with  each  other,  but  which  all  combined  to 
produce  one  result — a  change  of  dynasty. 
The  Church  was  opposed  to  Richard  on  ac- 
count of  his  supposed  Lollard  tendencies  and 
his  treatment  of  Archbishop  Arundel;  the 
nobles  hated  him  because  he  had  refused  to 
govern  according  to  their  views,  and  had 
endeavoured  to  curb  their  independence. 
The  people  supported  Henry  as  being  the 
representative  of  Thomas  of  Lancaster,  and 
having  been  unjustly  defrauded  by  Richard ; 
while  many  asserted  that  Richard  was  not 
the  son  of  the  Black  Prince,  but  a  suppositi- 
tious child,  and  others  maintained  that  Henry 
was  the  true  heir  to  the  throne  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  Edmund  Crouchback,  who  it  was 
said  was  in  reality  the  elder  brother  of  Ed- 
ward   I.    The    extravagance    and    foreign 


maimers  of  the  court  were  extremely  distaste- 
ful, and  the  war  party  strongly  resented  the 
French  marriage.  Among  the  charges  alleged 
against  Richard  by  Parliament  the  most  im- 
portant are  these  : — The  tampering  with  the 
judges  in  1387  ;  the  revocation  of  Uke  pardons 
of  the  Appellants;  the  murder  of  Gloucester, 
the  ill-treatment  of  Lancaster  and  Arundel  : 
illegal  taxation;  alienation  of  crown  lands; 
excessive  power  of  the  household  couits ;  and 
rash  words  asserting  his  own  absolute  au- 
thority. The  truth  probably  is  that  Richard 
attempted  to  do  what  Edward  IV.  and  Henn* 
VII.  were  able  to  effect  later  on— to  crush 
the  power  of  the  nobles,  rule  by  means  of 
ministers,  avoid  expensive  foreign  wars,  and 
keep  the  Church  in  submission.  Like  tiieiu, 
he  worked  by  means  of  Parliament,  and  thu& 
obtained  a  legal  sanction  to  his  most  uncon- 
stitutional acts.  The  chief  reasons  why  they 
succeeded  where  he  failed  were,  that  by  tli^ 
time  of  Edward  IV.  the  strength  of  the 
baronage  had  been  utterly  broken  by  the 
Wars  of  the  Roses,  the  Church  had  lost  it« 
power,  and  the  nation  was  anxious  for  peace 
under  a  strong  government.  In  Richard'^ 
own  character  there  was  much  that  is  attrac- 
tive. He  is  to  be  compared,  says  Dr.  Stubbs, 
rather  to  Edward  III.,  **  the  chivalrous  mag- 
nanimous king  who  left  him  heir  to  difficid' 
ties  which  he  could  not  overcome,"  than  to 
the  feeble  and  worthless  Edward  II.  If  hu 
theory  of  kingship  was  too  lofty  for  the  age, 
it  was  at  least  an  intelligible  one,  and  he 
seems  to  have  kept  before  him  witii  steadi- 
ness and  purpose  the  idea  of  a  despotic  but 
reforming  monarchy.  Though  his  fate  va» 
immediately  caused  by  his  own  deeds,  the 
misfortunes  of  his  career  were  in  great 
part  due  to  the  events  and  policy  of  his 
grandfather's  reign.  "In  personal  appear- 
ance," sa^-s  Mr.  Gairdner,  "he  was  hand- 
some. There  was  a  delicate  beauty  in  his 
features  which  corren>onded  with  a  mode 
of  life  too  luxurious  fbr  the  age.  He  was  a 
lover  both  of  art  and  literature ;  the  patron 
of  Froissart,  Gower,  and  Chaucer,  and  the 
builder  of  Westminster  Hall.  But  he  ^vas 
thought  too  fond  of  show  and  magnificence, 
and  some  of  his  contemporaries  accused  lum 
of  too  great  love  of  pleasure.  Yet  of  positive 
inunorality  we  have  no  real  evidence,  and  his 
devotion  and  tenderness  to  both  his  queens 
(child  as  the  second  was)  is  a  considerable 
presumption  to  the  contrary.*'  Richard  was 
twice  married,  first  in  1382  to  Anne  of 
Bohemia,  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Charles 
IV.,  and  secondly  in  1396  to  Isabella,  daughter 
of  Charles  VI.  of  France.    He  left  no  issue. 

The  contemporazy  authorities  are  &i^hton'g 
Compflation,  De  Eveniibw  Anglim,  de.  (in  Twyr 
den.  Script.  Decern),  and  the  AmuHu  Riearix 
Seewndi  et  H«nrtei  Qiiarti  (Bolls  Series),  which 
forms  the  basis  of  Walmnffbun's  Hittonaj  a 
French  Chronique  ds  la  Trahimm  (Engiiah  H^ 
See.),  and  metrioal 'H ictoirv  du  Boy  Bietard; 
for   IioUardism,    Faaeieuli  Ziatmionm    (Bolto 


tt^^ 


(  877  ) 


Sio 


Series).  The  best  modem  aooount  is  bj  M. 
Wallon,  Richard  II.  (1864).  8m  also  Wright, 
Political  Son9«(t{olLi  Series)  J  Mr.  Skeat's  ed. 
of  PierB  tha  Houghmnn  (Early  lug.  Text  Soc)  ; 
77m  DepontUnk  of  RUKard  IL  (Oundeti  Soc). ; 
Rogers,  Six  CtnJburiu  of  Work  and  Wages^  and 
Stubbs,  Oon»t.  Hitt.,  voL  ii.,  chap.  zri. 

[S.  J.  L.] 

BSchBxd    HI.,  King  {b.    October  21, 
1450,    «.    July    6,     1483,'    rf.     August    22, 
1485),  was  the  son  of    Richard,    Duke    of 
York,   who  was  killed    at    Wakefield,  and 
brother  to  Edward  IV.,  and  George,  Duke 
of  Clarence.    Bom  at  Fotheringay  in  1460,  he 
was  early  inducted  into  state  affairs.      In 
1461  he  was  recalled  from  Flanders,  where  he 
had  been  sent  for  safety,  and  created  Duke  of 
(Tloucester    and  Lord  High    AdmiraL      Ho 
held  faithfully  to  his  brother  during  his  reign, 
and  showed  Imnself  a  wise  councillor  to  him, 
a  good  soldier,  and  a  vigorous  administrator  in 
the  capacity  of  Warden  of  tbe  Scottish  Marches 
and  other  posts.     In  1470,  on  the  outbreak 
of  Warwick*s  insurrection,  Richard  left  the 
kingdom,  with  Eklward,  and  returned  with  him 
to  take  part  in  the  battle  of  Bamet  (April, 
1471).     Immediately  afterwards  he  engaged 
in  the  campaign  of  the  West,  and  contributed 
to  the  victory  of  Tewkesbury.     In  1472  he 
married  Anne  Neville,  the  widow  of  Prince 
Edward,  and  in  consequence  became  involved 
in  a  violent  quarrel  with  his  brother  Clarence 
about  the  inheritance  of  the  Earl  of  Warwick. 
The  rivalrv  between  the  two  brothers  was 
keen,  but  it  is  not  certain  how  far  Richard 
was  responsible  for  Clarence's  downfall,  or.  for  ' 
his  muraer,  if  he  was  murdered.     During  the 
remainder  of  Edward's  reign  Gloucester  was 
much  occupied  with  Scottish  affairs,  and  the 
management  of  the  Border.     In  April,  1483, 
he  left  the  North,  and  on  the  30th  of  the 
month   g^t  possession  of    the    young  king, 
Edward  V.,  as  he  was  being  taken  to  London. 
In  May  Richard  was  appointed  Protector,  and 
immediately  entered  upon  the  functions  of 
government.    A  violent  quarrel  broke   out 
between   Richard  and  the  queen's  party  in 
the    council,    which    was    headed    by  Lord 
Hastings.    In  June  Richard,  at  a  sitting  of 
the    council,    charged    the    queen    and    her 
friends  with  a  plot  against  his  life.     Hastings 
was  seized  and  beheaded  without  trial  on  the 
«pot.      Lords  Grey  and  Rivers,  the  queen's 
relations,    were    beheaded,    and    the  young 
prince  ^chard  of  York  was  surrendered  to 
the  custody  of  the  Protector.     On  June  22 
Dr.    Shaw,   in  a    sermon    at    Paul's    Cross, 
asserted  the  claim  of  Richard  to  the  crown,  on 
the  gpx>und  that  Edward  V.  and  his  brother 
were  illegitimate ;  and  on  Jane  24  Bucking- 
ham, joined  by  a  crowd  of  the  citizens  of 
London,  urg^  Richard  to  accept  the  crown. 
This  Richard  did  on  June  26,  and  on  July  6 
he   was   crowned.     Richard  now  adoptea  a 
policy  of  conciliation,  but  there  was  consider- 
4&ble  disaffection'  against  him,  especially  in 
«outhem  England.     The  young  princes  dis- 


appeared   soon  after,    and   though   nothing 
certain  has  ever  been  discovered  about  their 
fate,  it  was  believed,   and  it  is  extremely 
probable,  that  Richard  had  them  put  to  death. 
The    story    increased     the    feeling    against 
Richard,  and  meanwhile  a  rapprochement  took 
place  between  the    queen's    party  and  the 
Lancastrians,  headed  by  Henry  of  Richmond. 
Richard's  chief  supporter,  Buckingham,  joined 
the  conspiracy.      In    October    Buckmgham 
headed  a  rising  in  the  West  of  England  which 
came  to  nothing.    The  duke  was  captured  and 
put  to  death  without  trial.    But  the  con- 
spiracy was  not  crushed,  and  active  prepara- 
tions were  made  by  the  Lancastrians  during 
the    next    year.      Meanwhile    Richard    was 
becoming  thoroughly  unpopular  in  England. 
His  finances  were  in  disorder,  and  he  was 
obliged  to  have  recourse  to  the  raising  of 
money    by    benevolences,    though    he    had 
himself  passed  a  bill  through  Parliament  the 
previous  year  to  put  an  end  to  that  system. 
In  Aug.,  1485,  Richmond  landed  at  Milford 
Haven.    The  Welsh  were  in  his  favour,  for 
they  looked  upon  him  as  a  national  leader ; 
the  old  nobility  were  alienated  from  Richard, 
and  the  new  nobles  disliked  him ;  his  own 
chief  followers,  the  Stanleys,  were  in  corres- 
pondence with  the  enemy;   and  the  people 
were  indifferent  or  favourable  to  the  invaders. 
Richard  met  them  at  Bosworth   (Aug.    22, 
1485).     In    the    crisis    of    the  battle  Lord 
Stanley,  with  his    troops,    suddenly  joined 
Richmond.      The  king  was  Silled   fighting 
desperately.    Richard  has  been  represented  as 
a  monster  of  iniquity  by  Sir  Thomas  More 
and  other  historians  who  wrote  under  the 
Tudors.     Unscrupulous,  cruel,  and  violent  as 
Richard  was,  he  was,  however,  probably  no 
worse  than  contemporary  princes  and  states- 
men ;  no  worse,  certainly,  than  his  brother  or 
his  successor.    His  capacity  was  undoubted, 
and  he  seems  to  have  made  an  effort  at  the 
beginning  of  his  reign  to  govern  well.    He 
attempted    to    restore    order,   to   check    the 
tyranny  of  the  nobles,  and  to  develop  com- 
merce.   He,  however,  lacked  the  astuteness 
that  enabled  Henry  YII.  to  accomplish  in  a 
great  measure  the  work  he  had  attempted. 
His  private  character  was  not  without  anuable 
traits,  and  had  he  lived  in  times  of  less  diffi- 
culty, and  held  the  throne  by  a  more  secure 
title,  he  might  have  obtained  a  more  favour- 
able verdict  from  posterity. 

The  Continvuitor  of  the  Croyland  ChronicU! 
J.  Boas,  Rist.  Berwn  AnqlioB  (pab.  by  Hesrne) ; 
Fabian,  Coneordanee  of  Hi»to%-ie9  (Ed.  of  1811): 
Sir  Thomas  More,  History  of  RicMrd  III.  and 
lAfeofBdvtardV.,  all  of  whom  are  Tudor  par- 
tisans.  Kodem  works  on  the  reign  are  Horaoe 
Walpole's  ingwnions  Hiatoric  VovJbU  concerning 
Ihe  L{f0  and  Reign  of  King  Richard  III. ;  Miss 
Hasted,  Life  of  Richard  111.,  and  J.  Gairdner, 
Ufe  and  Reign  of  Richard  III.         [S.  J.  L.] 

Sicliardv  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(1174 — 1184),  was  Prior  of  Dover,  and  three 
years  after  the  murder  of  Becket  was  chosen 


( 878 ; 


BUL 


to  fill  the  vacant  see.  He  was  essentially  a 
moderate  man,  and  his  appointment  was 
welcome  to  the  king  as  well  as  the  supporters 
of  Becket*s  policy.  His  great  work  was  the 
rebuilding  of  OBinterbuiy  Cathedral,  which 
had  been  destroyed  by  fire  previous  to  his 
enthronement.  ,  He  was  frequently  employed 
by  Henry  II.  on  affairs  of  state :  e.g.,  in  1176, 
we  find  him  negotiating  a  marriage  between 
the  Princess  Joan  and  King  William  of  Sicily. 
Hook,  Archbithopt  of  CanUrhury. 

Bioliaardy  Buke  of  York  (b,  1472, 
d.  1483),  was  the  second  son  of  Edward  IV. 
In  1477  he  was  married  to  Anne,  daughter 
and  heiress  of  John  Mowbray,  Duke  of 
Norfolk.  Soon  after  Edward  Iv .*s  death,  his 
mother  fled  into  sanctuary  with  him,  but  was 
subsequently  induced  to  let  him  join  his  brother 
in  the  Tower,  where  he  was  probably  murdered 
by  his  uncle's  orders.    [Richard  III.] 

Bichard  Fiti-neal  succeeded  his  father, 
Bishop  Nigel  of  Ely  (nephew  of  Roger  of 
Salisbury),  in  the  ofBce  of  Treasurer  (1169), 
and  became  Bishop  of  London  in  1 189.  He 
was  the  author  of  the  Dialoffus  de  Seaccario, 
the  main  source  of  information  for  the  ad- 
ministrative system  of  Henry  II. 

Bicliaxcl  of  Cornwall  (b.  1209,  if.  1271) 

was  the  son  of  John  by  his  second  wife 
Isabella.  In  1240  he  led  a  crusade  to  the 
Holy  Land,  and  succeeded  in  securing  very 
favourable  terms  for  the  Christians  by  a 
treaty  with  the  Sultan  of  Egypt.  In  1252  he 
was  offered,  but  declined,  t!id  crown  of  Sicily ; 
in  1257  he  was  elected  King  of  the  Romans, 
but  was  never  crowned  emperor.  During 
the  long  years  of  disputes  between  Henry  III. 
and  his  barons,  Richard  tried  to  act  the  part 
of  a  mediator,  but  when  war  broke  out  he 
sided  with  his  brother  and  commanded  the 
left  wing  at  the  battle  of  Ijewcs,  where  he 
was  taken  prisoner,  and  he  did  not  recover 
his  liberty  till  after  the  battle  of  Evesham. 
He  married  first  Isabel,  daughter  of  William 
Marshall ;  secondly  Sanchia,  daughter  of  Ren6 
of  Provence ;  and  thirdly  Beatrice,  niece  of 
the  Archbishop  of  Cologne.  It  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  obtam  a  true  view  of  Richard's 
character,  as,  with  scarcely  an  exception,  all 
the  contemporary  writers  are  on  the  baronial 
side,  and  strongly  prejudiced  against  him,  but 
*'  he  must  have  been  on  any  showing,"  says 
Dr.  Stubbs,  "  a  man  of  much  more  enterprise 
and  energy  than  his  brother  Henry. 

Besides  Stubbe,  Contt,  H%»t.,  iL,  aee  BIo&uw, 
jBarons'  War,  and  Prothero,  Simon  ds  Montf art. 

BicliboroiiglL  (Rutupi a)  ,  a  Roman  town 
and  citadel  guarding  the  eastern  entrance  to 
the  Wantsum — an  inlet  of  sea  between  Thanet 
*  and  the  mainland.  Richborough  was  the  chief 
port  for  commerce  with  Gfaul,  and  the  starting 
point  for  the  great  high  road  of  Kent  through 
Canterbury  and  Rochester  to  Dover.  The 
fortress  was  the  head-quarters  of  the  legion 


protecting  the  Sazon  shore,  but  after  the 
withdrawal  of  the  Romans  it  was  but  feebly 
defended,  and  it  seems  to  have  been  captured 
by  Hengest  toward  the  end  of  his  life. 
J.  B.  Qxeen,  Making  of  England,  ch.  L 

SiolimoncL  Edmund  Tcdor,  Kuu.  op 
{d,  1456),  was  the  eldest  son  of  Owen  Tador 
by  Catherine,  widow  o#  Henry  V.  He  was 
created  Earl  of  Richmond  in  1452,  and  married 
Margaret  Beaufort,  daughter  and  heiress  of 
John,  Duke  of  Somerset,  by  whom  he  had 
one  son,  afterwards  Henry  Yll. 

Siohmond,  Hekrt  Fitzsot,  Ditss  op 
(b.  1517,  d,  1536),  was  a  natural  son  o! 
Henry  YIII.  by  Elizabeth  Blount,  wife  of 
Sir  Gilbert  Tailbois.  Before  he  was  mrea 
years  of  age  he  was  made  a  Knight  of  the 
Garter,  and  created  successively  Earl  of 
Nottingham  and  Duke  of  Richmond  and 
Somerset.  At  the  same  time  he  was  appointed 
Warden  of  the  ^larches  towards  Scotland, 
and  placed  in  possession  of  many  great  estates. 
He  was  also  subsequently  raised  to  the  dignity 
of  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  the  actual 
duties  of  his  position  being  performed  for  him 
by  his  deputy,  Sir  William  Skeffington.  He 
was  married  to  Mary,  daughter  of  the  Duke 
of  Norfolk,  but  died  before  the  oonsummation 
of  the  marriage.  Had  he  li>-ed  ho  would 
almost  certainly  have  been  nominated  in 
Henry*s  will  to  follow  Edward  VL  in  the 
succession  to  the  crown. 

Fronde,  HUt  €fSng.,ch,  r. 

Bidge  Way,  Ths,  one  of  the  great 
Roman  roads,  was  a  brancii  of  the  Iknield 
Way,  from  which  it  separated  at  Streatley  in 
BerKshire.  It  proceeded  along  the  Berkshire 
and  Wiltshire  downs  to  Glastonbury,  them-e 
to  Taunton,  and  through  Devonshire  to  Stnt- 
ton  in  Cornwall,  thence  keeping  along  the 
hills  to  Redruth  and  the  Land's  End.  [Rosux 
Roads.] 

Bidinn,  is  the  name  applied  to  the  throe 
divisions  of  xorkahire,  and  with  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  country  appears  to  be  of  Scua- 
dinayian  origin.  The  four  thingt  into  which 
Iceland  was  partitioned  were  divided  into 
thirds,  thrithungar  ;  and  the  fylker^  or  wtty 
kinffdoms  of  South  Norway  were  simuarlj 
divided.  As  such  a  partition  of  the  land  is 
in  England  only  found  in  Yorkshire  and 
lincolnsfaire  (for\Lindsey,  one  of  the  three 
"parts"  of  Lincolnshire  was  at  the  time 
of  Domesday  divided  into  ridings,  thoagh 
the  name  afterwards  dropped  out  of  use),  it 
seems  natural  to  attribute  it  to  the  Danish 
occupation.  The  loss  of  the  ih  of  thrithing 
may  be  due  to  misdivision  of  the  compound 
words  "  north-thrithiny,**  &c.  At  the  tune  of 
the  Conqueror  the  ridmgs  of  Yorkshire  and 
lancolnf^re  seem  to  have  had  their  own 
moots,  though  these  do  not  appear  later;  at 

E resent  each  riding  in  Yorkshire  has  its  own 
>rd-lieutenant,  and  is  treated  as  a  ^stia^ 


(  879  ) 


Bag 


county  for  poor-law  purposes.    By  ihe  Reform 

Bill  of  1832  two  members  each  were  given  to 

the  east  and  north  ridings  and  four  to  the  west ; 

this  arrang^nent  was  modified  in  1867)  while 

under  the  Act  of  1885  the  west  riding  returns 

nineteen  members,  the  north  four,  the  east 

three. 

Stubbo,  Cmuit.  Hut,,  i,  ch.  y. ;  Soberteon, 
Scotland  under  «t«  JBarly  King»,  li.,  433 ;  Wor< 
saae,  Danes  and  Northmen,  158 ;  Cleasby  and 
Vigfosson,  Icel.  Diet.,  s.  r.  thing  and  thrithwnqi-; 
Skeat.  Engl.  Diet.  [W.  J.  A.] 

Hidley,  Nicolas,   Bishop  of  London  (b, 
1600,  d,  1555),  was  educatecl  at  Pembroke 
College,  Cambridge,  where  he  gained  a  fel- 
lowship.     After    studying    theology  for    a 
couple  of  years  at  Paris  and  Louvain,  he 
returned  to   Cambridge,  and  became  proc- 
tor and  public  orator.      His    learning  and 
energy  commended    him  to  the    notice    of 
Cranmer,  whose  chaplain  he  was  appointed 
in  1537)  and  who  speedily  obtained  tor  him 
the  mastership  of    Pembroke,  and  a  royal 
chaplaincy.    In  1547  he  became  Bishop  of 
Rodiester,  and  took  a  considerable  part  in 
the  preparation  of  Edward  VL's  first. Prayer- 
book,  and  in  carrying  out  the  changes  which 
accompanied  it.    Upon  Bonner's  deposition 
by  the   Privy  Council,  Ridley  was  translated 
to  London  (April,  1550).  In  the  same  year  he 
is  found  vamly  attempting  to  convince  Joan 
Bocher  of  her  errors,  and  assisting  in  the  trial 
of  Gardiner.    As  in  Rochester  Cathedjal  so 
in  St.   Paul's,  he    caused  the  altars  to  be 
destroyed ;  in  St.  Paul's  he  substituted  a  table 
for  the  high  altar,  and  in  1557  placed  it  in 
the  nave  l^fore  the  screen,  setting  it  with  its 
sides  north  and  south.     Like  Cianmer  and 
Latimer,  he  was  disgusted  by  the  violence  of 
•the  council,  and  in  a  sermon  before  the  king 
in  1552  spoke  strongly  of  the  distress  caused 
by  the  seizure  of  the  guild  revenues.    His 
fear  lest  Mary  might  restore  the  old  worship 
led  him  to  join  in  the  attompt  to  secure  the 
throne  for  Jane  Grey,  and  on  July  16,  1553, 
he  preached  at  St.  Paul's  Cross  that  Mary  and 
Elizabeth  were  bastards,  and,  therefore,  with- 
out right  to  the  throne.  As  soon,  however,  as 
Northumberland  and  the  council  had  declared 
for  Mary,  he  set  out  to  meet  the  princess  to 
obtain  pardon,  but  he  was  taken  prisoner  at 
Ipswich,  and  sent  to  the  Tower.     Here  he 
remained  some  eight  mouths,  Bonner  mean- 
while regaining  his  bishopric.  In  April,  1554, 
he  was  sent  to  Oxford,  with  Cranmer  and 
Latimer,  and  committed  to  the  charge  of  one 
of  the  aldermen.    After  being  made  to  appear 
in  a  disputation,    wherein  he  denied  tran- 
substantiation,    and    being    in    consequence 
excommunicated,  he  was  remitted  to  custody, 
and  nothing  further  was  done  till  Sept.,  1555, 
when  he  was  tried  for  heresy  before  three 
bishops,  commissioned  by  Pole  as  legate.    On 
Oct.    16    he   was    executed,    together    with 
Latimer,  in  front  of  Balliol  College.     One  of 
the  most  careful  modem  investigators  of  the 


period  writes : — "  Ridley  has  left  few  remains 
to  vindicate  the  repu&tion  for  theological 
learning  which  has  been  demanded  for  him 
by  modem  biographers,  but  he  was  a  learned 
man ;  in  his  way  he  was  a  moderate  man,  and 
certainly  he  was  a  man  of  great  resolution. 
His  decision  of  character  supported  the 
primate;  the  gravity  of  his  manners  com- 
mended him  to  all  who  knew  him,  and  he 
rose  into  notice  at  a  very  opportune  time  for 
the  credit  of  the  Reformation.  But  his  temper 
had  a  vehemence  which  sometimes  betrayed 
him  into  rashness,  and  in  his  nature  there 
was  something  of  severity,  and  even  of  hard- 
ness" (Dixon). 

Bidley,  Worke  (Parker  Society);  Toxe, 
Acte  and  McnwnenU;  Blimt,  Reformation  cf 
the  Church  of  England,  ii.;  Dixon,  History  of 
the  Church  of  jBn^land,  ii. 

Bidolfl  ConamxBcyf  Thb  (1571),  so- 
called  from  one  of  the  chief  agents,  Robert 
Ridolfi,  a  Florentine  banker  residing  in 
London,  was  a  plot  formed  by  the  Catholic 
party  in  England  for  the  deposition  of  Eliza- 
beth, and  the  elevation  of  Mary  Stuart  to  the 
throne  by  the  help  of  Spain,  and  her  marriage 
to  the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  The  chief  conspirator 
was  Leslie,  Bishop  of  Ross,  who  was  in  com- 
munication with  most  of  the  Catholic  nobles, 
whilst  the  Duke  of  Norfolk  was  involved  in 
the  scheme  apparently  against  his  will. 
During  1571  frequent  negotiations  were 
carried  on  between  Mary  Stuart,  Philip  II., 
the  Duke  of  Alva,  and  the  Pope.  Ridolfi  was 
sent  to  Madrid  to  request  the  aid  of  Philip, 
which  was  at  once  promised.  On  his  way  he 
had  an  interview  with  the  Duke  of  Alva  in 
Brussels,  but  the  messenger  conveying  the 
news  was  arrested  at  Dover  in  possession  of  a 
packet  of  treasonable  letters.  For  these 
letters,  however,  the  Bishop  of  Ross  contrived, 
by  the  connivance  of  Lord  Cobham,  the 
warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports,  to  substitute 
others  of  a  comparatively  innocent  nature, 
and  although  the  messenger  confessed  on  the 
rack  that  he  had  received  the  letters  from 
Ridolfi,  and  although  the  Bishop  of  Ross  was 
arrested,  and  Mary  severely  cross-examined, 
nothing  definite  was  discovered.  Suspicion 
had,  however,  been  aroused,  and  in  Sept., 
1571,  the  whole  of  the  plot  was  discovered 
through  the  instrumentality  of  a  merchant, 
who  had  been  employed  by  Norfolk  to  convey 
money  and  letters  to  his  secretaries.  Several 
of  the  leading  conspirators,  including  the 
Bishop  of  Ross,  the  Earls  of  Arundel  and 
Southampton,  and  Lord  Lumley,  were  at 
once  arrested.  The  bishop  made  a  full  con- 
fession, and  Norfolk,  as  the  centre  of  the 
plot,  was  executed  (June,  1572). 

Fronde,  Hiet.  of  Eng. 

SieTaulZf   Aelrbd  of.  [Ablred.] 

Bigbji  Richard  {b.  1722,  d.  1788),  was 
the  son  of  a  Bedford  linen-drnper,  who  had 


Big 


(  880  ) 


Big 


made  a  fortune  as  factor  to  the  South  Sea 
Company.  He  attached  himaelf  in  early  life 
to  the  Prince  of  Wales,  but  quarrelled  with 
him  before  long.  The  Duke  of  Bedford  be- 
came his  patron,  and  on  becoming  Lord-Lieu- 
tenant in  1758,  took  him  to  Ireland,  as  his 
private  secretary,  and  procured  for  him  the 
sinecure  office  of  Vice-Treasurer  oi  Ireland 
with  a  salary  of  £3,500,  to  which  he  afterwards 
added  the  emoluments  of  the  Mastership  of 
the  HoUs  of  that  country.  On  returning  ficom 
Ireland,  the  duke  had  procured  the  return  of 
Rigby  for  Tavistock ;  and  when  the  duke 
beoime  president  of  the  council  in  1763,  he 
procured  for  his  faithful  henchman  the  most 
lucrative  of  all  offices — the  paymastership  of 
the  forces.  When  county  meetings  were  being 
held  on  all  sides  in  1769,  to  protest  against  the 
rejection  of  Wilkes  by  Parliament,  **  Rigby 
made  a  summer  tour  through  the  east  of  Eng- 
land,  and,  by  the  admission  of  his  opponents, 
checkmated  the  party  of  action  in  at  least  three 
counties.*'  After  his  patron*s  death,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  maintaining  his  position  as  "  boat- 
swain of  the  Bloomsbury  crew,'*  according  to 
one  of  the  lampoons  of  the  day ;  and  still 
lived  on  his  sinecure  offices.  He  was,  how- 
ever, disturbed  for  a  moment  by  being  ac- 
cused in  1778  of  appropriating  public  money, 
as  paymaster-general,  though  as  Lord  North's 
administration  had  strong  reason  for  not 
inquiring  too  deeply  into  cases  of  peculation, 
the  matter  was  allowed  to  drop.  Again,  in 
1782,  when  he  opposed  with  imprudent 
warmth  a  motion  for  reconciliation  with 
America,  Pitt  rebuked  him  sharply,  and  told 
him  that  the  nation  was  tired  of  paying  him. 
He  lived  till  1788,  drawing  money  alike  from 
the  revenues  of  Ireland  and  £nglimd,  building 
np  for  himself  a  lasting  reputation  as  the 
most  notable  placeman  of  the  age. 

Stanhope,  Uitt.  of  Sna. ;  Treveljan,  JKarly 
Life  of  C.  J.  Fox;  Bedford,  Correwpondence ; 
Jonias,  Letten. 

Bigliti  Claim  of.    [Claim  of  Right.] 

BiglLt,  Pbtitiox  of,  Thb,  was  the  mani- 
festodrawn  up  by  the  House  of  Commons  in 
1628,  in  the  form  of  a  petition  to  the  king, 
stating  the  principles  of  the  Constitution 
which  Charles  had  broken.  The  events  lead- 
ing up  to  the  Petition  of  Right  may  be  briefly 
summarised.  Charles  I.  had  dissolved  his 
first  two  Parliaments  before  they  had  granted 
any  supplies,  and,  as  he  was  determined  to 
retiEiin  his  minister,  Buckingham,  and  to  carry 
out  his  policy  of  war  vrith  France  and  Spain, 
he  was  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  a  loan. 
Those  persons  who  refused  to  subscribe  were 
imprisoned,  but  five  of  them,  of  whom  one 
was  Sir  Thomas  Darnel,  demanded  their 
habeas  corpus.  The  crown  lawyers  fell  back 
upon  the  king's  prerogative  power  to  imprison 
without  shovidng  cause  whenever  he  deemed 
it  necessary,  and  this  doctrine  was  accepted 
by  the   judges.      When,    therefore,  a  new 


Parliament  met  in  1628,  it  at  once  began  to 
discuss  the  recent  forced  loan  and  the  arbi- 
trary imprisonments.  Wentworth,  at  this 
time  leader  of  the  Commons,  proposed  thst  a 
short  bill  should  be  drawn  up  merely  redting 
and  confirming  Magna  Carta,  Do  Teitatfio,  &c, 
with  the  addition  of  a  clause  confirming 
Habeas  Corpus ;  but  the  king  objected  so 
strongly  even  to  this  moderate  propoeal  that 
it  was  resolved,  upon  the  motion  of  Coke, 
that  a  Petition  of  Right  should  be  drawn  up. 
Not  only  would  such  a  petition  receive  an  im- 
mediate  answer,  instead  of  being  sent  up  at 
the  end  of  the  session  and  almost  certamlv 
rejected  by  the  king  when  he  had  gained 
supplies,  but  it  would  contain  a  definite  state* 
ment  that  the  king  had  broken  the  law.  As 
finally  drawn  up,  the  petition  demanded  "  that 
no  man  hereafter  be  compelled  to  make  or 
yield  any  gift,  loan,  benevolence,  tax,  or  iueh 
like  charge,  without  common  consent  by  Act 
of  Parliament " ;  that  no  one  should  be  im- 
prisoned without  cause  shown,  and  that  if 
imprisoned  they  should  be  entitled  to  their 
habeas  coi'pus ;  that  soldiers  and  sailors  should 
not  be  billeted  upon  private  persons  without 
their  consent ;  and  that  martial  law  should  be 
abolished.  Of  these  clauses  the  first  two  vere 
far  the  most  important,  and  it  is  clear  that, 
however  Charles  may  have  abused  his  power, 
his  predecessors  had  without  remonstrance 
exercised  the  right  of  imprisonment  without 
showyig  cause.  The  Lords  accepted  the 
measure,  after  in  vain  searching  for  a  formula 
which  should  allow  the  king  to  imprison  in 
cases  of  real  emergency.  Meanwhile  Denbigh 
had  been  unsuccessful  at  Rochelle,  and  the 
king  needed  supplies.  He  demanded  from 
the  judges  "  whether,  if  the  king  grant  the 
Commons'  petition,  he  did  not  thereby  ex- 
clude himself  from  committing  a  subject  for 
any  time  or  cause  whatsoever  without  show- 
ing a  cause."  They  answered  that  every  Ac^ 
had  its  exposition,  which  can  only  be  by  the 
courts  of  law  as  each  case  occurs,  "and, 
although  the  petition  be  granted,  there  is  no 
fear  of  conclusion  as  is  intimated  in  the 
question."  lliereupon  the  king  went  to  the 
House,  and  instead  of  the  usual  form  of 
assent,  read  a  meaningless  declaralaon  that 
the  statutes  should  be  duly  executed.  The 
Commons  were  bitterly  annoyed,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  attack  Buckingham.  Charles  at 
last  yielded,  and  gave  his  assent  in  the  ac- 
customed formula  (June  7,  1628).  In  the 
next  session  the  Commons  renewed  the 
struggle  on  the  ground  of  Tunnage  and 
Poundage,  which  had  been  levied,  although 
no  Act  had  as  yet  g^ranted  it  to  Charles.  Its 
levy  was,  they  declared,  in  violation  of  the 
Petition  of  Right.  But  the  words  of  the 
petition,  interpreted  by  the  usage  of  the  day. 
certainly  did  not  carry  that  meaning;  and 
neither  the  Conrmions  nor  the  king  had  the 
matter  in  mind  when  the  petition  was  hetng 
discussed.     The  question   became   i&Tolvsd 


Big 


(881) 


Big 


with  that  of  religion,  and  the  straggle  on 
theee  two  points  led  to  the  dissolution  of 
1629. 

Qaidiiier,  Hi$t.  0/  Buy.,  c.  IzL-lxiii,,  Ixvii.- 
IxTii.  [W.  J.  A.] 

Sights,  The  Bill  of.  A  committee  ap- 
pointed by  the  Commons  in  the  Convention  of 
1689  to  oonsider  what  measures  nhouldbe  taken 
to  protect  liberty  against  future  sovereigns, 
recommended  that  the  main  constitutional 
principles  violated  by  James  II.  should  be 
solemnly  declared  to  be  the  ancient  rights  of  the 
nation,  and  also  that  several  new  laws  should 
be  enacted.  It  was  easy  to  carry  out  the 
former  proposal ;  the  latter  would  be  a  work 
of  considerable  difficulty,  and  might  occupy 
years.  After  much  discussion,  therefore,  it 
was  resolved  to  fill  the  throne  at  once,  but  to 
insert  in  the  instrument  which  conferred  the 
•crown  on  William  and  Mary  a  declaration  of 
the  fundamental  principles  of  the  constitu- 
tion ;  all  questions  of  further  reform  were  post- 
poned till  a  more  suitable  opportunity.  Ac- 
cordingly a  committee,  presided  over  by 
8omer8,  was  appointed  to  draw  np  a  Declara- 
tion of  Bights,  which,  when  named,  was 
accepted  by  the  Lords  with  some  unimportant 
amendments.  On  Feb.  13, 1689,  this  declara- 
tion was  read  before  William  and  Mary,  and 
the  crown  tendered  to  them;  William,  in 
accepting  it,  assured  the  two  Houses  that  his 
conduct  should  be  governed  by  those  laws 
which  he  had  himself  vindicated.  In  the  De- 
•cember  of  the  same  year,  the  Convention 
having  meanwhile  been  declared  by  statute  to 
be  a  Parliament,  the  Declaration  of  Rights 
was  confirmed  in  the  form  of  a  Bill,  with 
certain  additions.  The  Bill  of  Bights,  as 
finally  adopted,  was  arranged  as  follows : — 

Its  first  section  recited  the  Declaration  of 
Rights.  It  began  by  stating  the  various  acts 
by  which  James  did  "endeavour  to  subvert 
and  extirpate  the  Protestant  religion,  and  the 
laws  and  liberties  of  this  kingdom,"  and 
then,  almost  in  the  same  worcL9,j>roceeded 
to  declare :  That  the  pretended  power  of  sus- 
pending of  laws  and  the  execution  of  laws, 
by  regal  authority  without  consent  of  Parlia- 
ment, is  illegal ;  That  the  pretended  power  of 
dispensing  with  laws  by  regal  authority,  as 
it  hath  been  assumed  and  exercised  of  late,  is 
illegal ;  That  the  commission  for  creating  the 
late  court  of  commissioners  for  eodesiastical 
causes,  and  all  other  commissions  and  courts 
of  the  like  nature,  are  illegal  and  pernicious ; 
That  levying  of  money  for  or  to  the  use  of 
the  crown,  by  pretence  of  prerogative  without 
grant  of  Parliament,  for  longer  time  or  in 
any  other  manner  than  the  same  is  or  shall 
be  granted,  is  illegal;  That  it  is  the  rigLt 
of  the  subjects  to  petition  the  king,  and  that 
all  commitments  or  prosecutions  for  such 
petitions  are  illegal;  That  the  raising  or 
keeping  a  standing  army  within  the  kin^om 
lA  time  of  peace,  unless  it  be  with  consent 
of  Parliament,  is  against  law ;  That  the  subjects 


which  are  Protestants  may  have  arms  for 
their  defence  suitable  to  their  condition,  and 
as  allowed  by  law ;  That  election  of  members 
of  Parliament  ought  to  be  free;  That  the 
freedom  of  speech  and  debates,  or  proceedings 
in  Parliament,  ought  not  to  be  impeached  or 
(questioned  in  any  court  or  place  out  of  Par- 
liament ;  That  oxcessive  bail  ought  not  to  be 
required,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed,  nor 
cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted; 
That  juries  ought  to  be  duly  impanelled  and 
returned,  and  that  jurors  which  pass  upon 
men  in  trials  for  high  treason  ought  to  be 
freeholders ;  That  all  grants  and  promises  of 
fines  and  forfeitures  of  particular  persons, 
before  conviction,  are  illegal  and  void ;  And 
that  for  redress  of  all  grievances,  and  for  the 
amending,strengthening,  and  preserving  of  the 
laws,  Parliament  ought  to  be  held  frequently. 
The  second  section  declared  the  resolution 
of  Lords  and  Commons,  that  William  and 
Mary  should  become  king  and  queen,  to  be 
succeeded  by  their  lawful  issue  if  there 
were  any  such;  in  default  of  that  by 
the  issue  of  the  Princess  Anne,  &c.  The 
third  contained  the  new  oaths  of  allegiance 
and  supremacy.  The  fourth  recorded  the 
acceptance  of  the  crown  by  the  prince  and 
princess ;  who  (v.)  were  pleased  that  the 
Lords  and  Commons  should  continue  to  sit 
and  make  provision  for  the  settlement  of  the 
religion,  laws,  and  liberties  of  the  country. 
Parliament,  therefore,  now  again  (vi.^  de- 
clares the  above  to  be  the  indubitable  rignts  of 
the  English  people;  recognises  (vii.)  that 
James  having  abdicated,  William  and  Mary 
bavo  become  their  sovereign  lord  and  lady, 
and  fixes  (viii.)  the  succession  as  above.  The 
ninth  section  contains  an  important  addition : 
as  it  has  been  found  by  experience  inconsis- 
tent with  the  safety  and  welfare  of  this  Pro- 
testant kingdom  to  be  governed  by  a  popish 
prince,  or  by  any  king  or  queen  marrying  a 

gapist,  it  is  enacted  that  all  persons  who  shall 
old  communion  with  the  Church  of  Rome, 
or  shall  marry  a  papist,  shall  be  excluded 
from  the  throne,  and  the  crown  shall  descend 
to  the  next  heir.  Every  king  or  queen  there- 
fore (x.),  on  the  first  day  of  their  first  Par- 
liament, shall  subscribe  and  audibly  repeat 
the  decoration  mentioned  in  the  statute  30 
Charles  II.,  i.e.,  the  Test  Act  (a  declaration 
against  transubstantiation,  adoration  of-  the 
Virgin,  and  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass). 
Finally  in  the  twelfth  section  it  is  declared 
that  no  dispensation  by  non  obstante  of  or  to 
any  statute  shall  be  allowed,  except  such  dis- 
pensation be  allowed  in  the  statute,  or  shall 
be  specially  provided  for  by  one  or  more 
bills  to  be  passed  during  the  present  ses- 
sion of  Parhament.  The  Lords  had  already 
softened  the  article  of  the  Declaration  of 
Rights  against  the  dispensing  power  by  the 
inwrtion  of  the  words  **  as  it  hath  been  exer- 
cised of  late,''  and  now  this  last  section  was 
added  to  provide  for  cases  where  it  might  be 


(  882  ) 


desirable  that  the  dispenBing  power  should  be 
uaed.  Though,  however,  in  the  next  Parlia- 
ment, the  judges  were  ordered  by  the  House 
of  Lords  to  draft  a  bill  for  this  purpose,  the 
,  matter  dropped.     [Revolution]. 

Macaulay.  Jftat.  o/Eng„  di.  x. ;  Hallaxn,  CwuL 
Jfwrt..  ch.  XV.  [W.J.A.] 

Sinueeioip  Giovanni  Battista,  Arch- 
bishop of  Fermo,  was  sent  to  Ireland  in  1644 
as  the  Pope's  nuncio,  with  a  supply  of  arms 
and  money.  He  opposed  Glamorgan's  treaty 
in  1645,  and  the  Dublin  treaty  of  1646.  In 
1648  he  opposed  Lord  Inchiquin's  armistice, 
and  after  an  unsuf  cessful  tenure  of  oflSce  as 
president  of  the  Kilkenny  Council,  fled  to 
Owen  Roe  0*Neil,  and  then  to  Galway.  He 
was  recalled  in  1649. 

Riot  Act,  The  (1715),  was  passed  at  a  time 
•when  there  were  apprehenaions  of  Jacobite 
risings.  If  twelve  persons  continued  together 
for  one  hour  after  a  proclamation  bidding  them 
disperse  has  been  made  to  them  by  the  magis- 
trate, they  were  guilty  of  felony.  The  magis- 
trate was  required  to  apprehend  persons  re- 
fusing to  disperse,  and  those  who  acted  at  his 
orders  were  indemnified  for  any  injury  which 
they  might  commit.  This  practically  meant 
that  an  hour  after  the  proclaination  the 
military  might  be  ordered  to  fire  on  the 
mob,  or  charge  them.  The  question  after- 
wards arose  as  to  the  legality  of  military  in- 
terference  without  the  order  of  a  magistrate. 
It  was  decided  by  Lord  Mansfield  in  a  case 
arising  out  of  the  Gordon  Riots  in  1780,  that 
it  is  the  duty  of  every  subject  to  resist  persons 
.engaged  in  treasonable  or  riotous  conduct^ 
and  that  this  duty  is  not  less  imperative  upon 
soldiers  than  upon  civilians.  This  decision 
was  confirmed  in  1831  in  a  case  arising  from 
the  Bristol  Riots. 

Sipon,  Frederick  John  Robinson,  Earl 
OP  (*.  1782,  d.  1859),  was  the  second  son  of 
Lord  Grantham.  Entering  Parliament  as 
member  for  Ripon  in  1807,  he  received  office 
under  Perceval  as  Under  Secretary  for  the 
Colonies,  and  became  in  1818  Presid'ent  of  the 
Board  of  Trade.  Created  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer  in  1823,  he  assisted  Huskisson  in 
his  free  trade  measures,  was  made  Secretary 
for  the  Colonies  and  AHscount  Goderich  in 
1827,  and  was  for  a  few  months  Prime 
Minister  after  Canning's  death.  From  1830 
to  1833  he  was  again  Colonial  Secretary, 
becoming  in  the  latter  year  Lord  Privy  Seal 
and  Earl  of  Ripon.  Though  he  afterwards 
became  President  of  the  Board  of  Trade  under 
Peel,  he  had  ceased  to  be  of  any  political  im- 
portance. 

Bipon,  George  Freoebick  Sakuel 
Robinson,  Ist  Marquis  op  (*.  1827),  sue- 
oeeded  to  the  earldom  of  Grey  and  Ripon  in 
1869,  and  was  created  Marquis  of  Ripon  in 
1871.  From  1859  to  1863  he  was  Secretary 
for  War  and  (for  a  short  time)  for  India. 


from  1868  to  1866  War  Secretary,  and  from 
1868  to  1873  President  of  the  CounciL  He 
was  Governor-General  of  India  1880  to  1884, 
First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty  for  a  few  months 
in  1886,  and  Colonial  Secretary  1892  to  1895. 

Bipon,  The  Treaty  of  (1640),  concluded 
the  second  Scotch  war.  After  the  successful 
invasion  of  the  northern  counties,  the  Coimci] 
of  Peers,  assembled  at  York  by  Charlea  L, 
resolved,  on  the  motion  of  Lord  Bristol,  to 
appoint  sixteen  commissioners  to  treat  with 
the  Scots  (Sept.  24).  The  firat  meeting  of 
the  sixteen  English  and  eight  Scottish  com- 
missioners  took  place  at  Ripon  on  Oct.  2 ;  the 
last  on  Oct  26.  A  cessation  of  arms  was 
agreed  upon,  the  two  northern  counties  remain- 
ing in  the  possession  of  the  Scuts,  who  were 
to  receive  from  the  contributions  of  the  in- 
habitants £860  a  day  for  their  maintenance. 
Further  negotiations  were  removed  to  Londoa, 
where  peace  was  concluded  in  Aug.,  1641. 


iffer,  William  {b.  1260),  was  a 
monk  of  St.  Albans,  who  continued  the 
Chronicle  of  Matthew  Paris  from  1272  to 
1306,  the  intermediate  portion,  from  1253 
to  1272,  being  the  work  of  an  unknown 
author.  He  also  wroto  an  account  of  th& 
Barons'  War,  and  a  Life  of  Edward  I. 
Though  inferior  to  Matthew  Paris,  Riahanger 
takes  high  place  among  mediffival  chroniden. 

His  ChronicU  hM  been  pablished  in  the  BoUa 
Series,  and  hi»  Wart  of  tfc«  Baron*  bj  the 
Camden  Society.  For  the  vexed  question  of 
the  authorship  of  the  St.  Albaa'e  Chrtmidn 
from  125S  to  1872,  m«  Sir  T.  Hardr,  Jkscrivtiu 
CatoloyiiA,  on  the  one  aide,  and  Mr.  QairaiHr, 
Early  CKnmto'ar*.  on  the  otjier. 

Rivers,  Anthony  WooDTnxit,  Earl 
{d.  1483),  was  the  son  of  the  first  £arl  Rivets^ 
and  brother-in-law  of  Edward  IV.  He 
married  the  daughter  and  heiress  of  Lord 
Scales,  and  in  1462  was  summoned  to  Parlia- 
ment as  Baron  Scales.  He  took  part  in  the 
siege  of  Alnwick,  and  in  1470  accompanied 
Edward  in  his  flight  to  the  Netherlands,  re- 
turning  with  him  in  the  next  year.  In  1469, 
by  the  death  of  his  father,  he  became  Earl 
Rivers.  He  received  many  honours  from 
Edward,  and,  among  other  offices,  held  that 
of  Captain-General  of  the  Forces.  On  the 
death  of  Edward  IV.,  he  was  appointed  one  of 
the  Council  of  Regency  during  the  minority 
of  his  son,*but  the  jealousy  of  the  old  nobility 
favoured  Gloucester's  designs,  and  Rivers 
was  seized  at  Northampton  and  carried  to 
Pontefract,  where  he  was  beheaded. 


p,  Richard  Woodtii,lb,  Eabl 
{d.  1469),  was  one  of  Henry  V.'s  esquires, 
and  was  made  by  him  seneschal,  and  in  1424 
Governor  of  the  Tower  of  London.  He 
fought  in  the  French  wars  in  Henry  YJ.*8 
reign,  and  married  Jaqnetta  of  Luxemborg, 
widow  of  the  Duke  of  Bedford.  For  this 
clandestine  marriage  he  was  fined  a  thousand 
pounds,  but  was  soon  afterwards  restored  to 


(  883  ) 


Bob 


lavour,  and  in  1448  made  Baron  Rivers.  In 
the  Wars  of  the  Kobcs  he  fought  on  the 
Lancastrian  side,  but  in  1464  his  daughter 
Elizabeth,  who  was  the  widow  of  Sir  John 
Grey,  was  secretly  married  to  the  young  king, 
Edward  IV.  By  his  son-in-law  Rivers  was 
raised  to  high  honours,  made  Constable  of 
England,  and  in  1466  created  Earl  Rivers, 
and  his  sons  received  equal  advantages  from 
their  connection  with  the  sovereign.  The 
Woodvilles  were  hated  by  the  old  nobility  on 
account  of  their  rapid  rise,  while  the  people 
complained  of  their  avarice.  In  1469  a  re- 
bellion broke  out,  headed  by  Sir  WUliam 
Conyers,  the  insurgents  complaining  of  the 
influence  of  the  queon*s  friends.  Having  de- 
feated the  Royal  troops  at  Edgecote,  the 
rebels  seized  Earl  Rivers  and  his  son,  and  put 
them  to  death  at  Ck)venlry. 


dOf  David,,  a  native  of  Turin,  became 
ijiuaician  to  Mar^',  Queen  of  Scots,  and  soon 
afterwards  her  private  secretary.  The  queen's 
favour  quickly  rendered  its  recipient  odious 
to  ike  Scotch  nobles,  who  bandea  themselves 
together  against  him,  and  were  aided  by 
Darnley,  who  had  become  Jealous  of  the 
Italian.  On  March  9, 1566,  liolyrood  Palace, 
where  Rizzio  was  at  the  time,  was  sorrounded 
by  an  armed  force  under  Lord  Morton. 
Others  of  the  conspirators,  chief  of  whom  was 
Lord  Ruthven,  entered  the  queen's  apart- 
ment at  the  instigation  of  Darnley,  and 
dragged  her  favourite  from  her  presence. 
He  was  despatched  in  Damley*s  room,  and 
with  Damley's  sword,  though  not  by  his 
hand.  It  is  extremely  improbable  that 
Rizzio  was,  as  Darnley  coars^y  insinuated, 
the  queen's  paramour,  or  that  he  was  any 
more  than  a  confidential  friend  and  faithfid 
servant.  His  worst  foults,  in  the  eyes  of  the 
conspirators,  were  his  arrogance  and  his 
religion. 

M^et,  Maris  Stvuui;  Hosaok,  Ifary,  Queen 
o/Scot«. 

Hobert  I.,  Kino  of  Scotland.    [Bruce.] 

Sobart  ZI.,  Kino  op  Scotland  («. 
1371,  d.  1390),  the  first  of  the  Stuart 
dynasty,  was  the  son  of  Walter,  Lord  High 
Steward  of  Scotland,  and  Marjory,  daughter 
of  Robert  Bruce.  On  the  death  of  David  II. 
without  children,  Robert,  then  55  years  old, 
succeeded  to  the  throne  unopposed.  In  early 
life,  as  Steward  of  Scotland,  he  had  done  good 
service  against  the  English ;  had  been  present 
at  the  battle  of  Hallidon  Hill,  and  had  lonf 
acted  as  regent  of  Scotland.  He  married 
first  Elizabeui  Mure  of  Rowallan  and  secondly 
Euphemia  Ross.  In  1375  an  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment settled  the  crown  on  the  king*s  sons  by 
his  first  wife,  a  measure  rendered  necessary 
by  the  fact  that  these  children  were  by  eccle- 
siastical law  illeg^itimate.  England  at  this 
time  was  not  in  a  position  to  be  agg^ssive, 
and,  although  the  usual  border  raids  con- 
tinued, Robert's  reign  was  on  the  whole  a 


!»• 


peaceful  one.  A  close  alliance  with  France 
at  the  beginning  of  the  reign,  however,  led 
in  1385  to  a  French  army  being  sent  to- 
Scotland  with  the  view  of  attacking  England 
from  the  north.  The  usual  course  of  border 
devastation  followed;  but  the  French,  dis- 
satisfied with  their  reception  by  the  Scotch, 
soon  returned  home.  In  1388  an  invasion  of 
England  was  planned,  resulting  in  the  defeat 
of  the  English  under  the  Percies  at  Ottcrbum. 
In  1390  Robert  died,  *' leaving  the  character 
of  a  peaceful  ruler  over  a  quarrelsome  people. 
Burton,  Hist,  of  Scotland. 

Sobert  III.,  Kino  of  Scotland  («. 
1390,  d.  1406).  He  was  a  man  of  weak 
and  indolent  character,  ill  fitted  to  copo 
with  tjie  turbulent  spirits  of  the  age.  The 
early  years  of  his  reign  were  disturbed 
by  quarrels  amon^  t£e  Highland  dans 
and  by  lawlessness  in  the  Lowlands  to  such 
an  extent  that  in  1398  the  Scotch  Parlia- 
ment appointed  the  Duke  of  Rothesay,  hia 
eldest  son,  lieutenant  of  the  kingdom.  In  1400» 
Henry  IV.  of  England  invaded  Scotland  with 
the  intention  of  exacting  homage  from  Robert ; 
he  ftiiled,  however,  to  take  Edinburgh  Castle, 
and  retreated  without  effecting  anything. 
An  invasion  of  England  by  the  Scots  waa 
repelled  by  the  Percies  at'  Homildon  Hill 
(1402).  On  the  capture  of  his  son.  Prince 
James,  by  the  English,  Robert  died,  it  is  said 
of  a  broken  heart. 

Bobert  (b.  1056,  d.  1135),  Duke  of  Nor- 
MANDY,  called  Curthose  on  account  of  his 
short  stature,  was  the  eldest  son  of  William  the> 
Conqueror.  In  1073  he  was  made  Count  of 
IVIaine,  which  was  to  be  held  as  a  fief  of  Anjou. 
In  1077  ho  rebelled  against  his  father  and 
demanded  the  Duchy  of  Normandy.  War 
ensued  between  father  and  son;  after  the 
Battle  of  Gerberoi  in  1080,  peace  was  made, 
and  the  succession  to  Normandy  secured 
to  Robert.  On  the  death  of  his  father  he 
claimed  the  English  throne,  but  William 
Rufus*s  prompt  action  disconcerted  him,  and 
he  was  obliged  to  make  a  treaty  by  which 
the  survivor  was  to  succeed  to  the  other'a 
dominions  if  either  died  without  heirs.  In 
1094  Robert  again  made  war  upon  William, 
but  shortly  afterwards,  being  eager  to  join 
the  first  Crusade,  he  pledged  Normandy  to- 
his  brother  for  the  sum  of  £6,000.  In  the 
Holy  Land  Robert  fought  with  great  bravery, 
and  was  offered  but  refused  the  crown  of 
Jerusalem.  Soon  after  his  return  he  learnt 
that  William  was  dead,  and  determined  U> 
enforce  lus  claims  to  the  throne.  Ho  invaded 
England  in  1101,  but  was  induced  by  Henry 
to  make  a  compromise  whereby  he  resigned 
the  crown  of  England  and  contented  himself 
with  the  full  possession  of  Normandy  and 
3,000  marks  a  year.  Quarrels  soon  broke 
out  again  between  the  brothers,  Henry  com- 
plaining that  the  rebellious  English  nobles 
found  a  shelter  in  Normandy.    A  war  ensued 


&ob 


(  884) 


&ob 


In  which  Heniy  won  the  battle  of  Tenchehrai 
in  1106  and  took  Robert  prisoner.  He  was 
sent  to  the  castle  of  Cardiff,  where  he  was 
kept  in  captivity  till  his  death  in  1135.  By 
his  marriage  with  Sibyl,  daughter  of  the 
Count  of  Conversune,  Rooert  had  two  children, 
William  Clito  and  Henry. 

Fraeman,  Norman  ConquMit;  OrdericusYitalifl, 
HM.  Ecdn, 

Sobert  of  Avesbory,  keeper  of  the 
register  of  the  court  of  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  wrote  a  Hittoria  eU  Mirabilibus 
Geatu  Eduardi  III.^  which,  after  briefly  men- 
tioning the  deposition  of  Edward  II.,  g^ves 
the  history  of  his  son  down  to  the  battle  of 
Poitiers.  This  work  is  particularly  valuable 
for  the  original  documents  it  contains. 

Sob«rt  of  JumidMB,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury    (1051 — 1052),    was   a   Norman 
who,  after  having  been  Prior  of  St.  Ouen*s  at 
Rouen,  became  Abbot  of  Jumidgea  in  1037. 
Edward    the    Confessor    foimed     a    close 
friendship  with  him  during  his  stay  in  Nor- 
mandy, and  two  years  after  his  return  (1044) 
conferred  upon  him  the  bishopric  of  London 
— the  first  occupation  of  an  English  see  by  a 
foreigner  since  the  Conversion.     He  at  once 
became  the  leader  of  the  French  party  at 
Edward's    court,  and    the  great   enemy  of 
Godwin  and  his  family.    In  1050,  upon  the 
death  of  Archbishop  Eadsige,  the  monks  of 
Christ  Church  elected  in  his  place  Aelfric, 
a  kinsman  of  Godwin.    The  king,  however, 
nominated  Robert  of  London,  and  henceforth 
the  latter's  one  object  was  to  bring  about  the 
fall   of    Godwin,   whose   opposition    to   the 
French  party  had  been  embittered  by  this 
frustration  oi  his  kinsman's  hopes  as  well  as 
by  Robert's  refusal  to  consecrate  the  English- 
man  Spearhafoc  to  the  see  which  he  himself 
had  ]ert  vacant.     The  archbishop  claimed  lor 
the  Church  certain  lands  hold  by  the  earl,  and 
even  renewed  the  old  accusation  against  him 
of  complicity  in  the   murder  of    Edward's 
brother,  Alfred.    The  attack  of  the  men  of 
Dover  upon  the  escort  of  Eustace  of  Boulogne 
and  Godwin's  refusal  to  punish  them  gave 
Robert    his    opportunity.      By    his    advice 
Godwin  was  summoned  before  the  Witan  to 
answer  charges  old  and  new.    With  Godwin's 
outlawry  the  archbishop's  triumph   seemed 
complete  (September,  1051).     Spearhafoc  was 
deposed,  and  a  Norman  became  Bishop  of  Lon- 
don ;    and,  what  was  still  more  important, 
William  of  Normandy  was  invited  to  England. 
But  in  September,  1052,  Godwin  returned,  and 
the  nation  declared  in  his  favour.  Robert  dared 
not  remain  in  England,  and  with  Ulf,  Bishop 
of  Rochester,  fled  to  Jumidges,  where  he  died 
in  1058.     He  was  immediately  outlawed  by 
the  Witan  and  deprived  of  his  bishopric. 

EngUtK  CktanicU;  William  of  Malmesbnxy ; 
Hook,  Archh\9hoip9  of  Cardmhwry;  Freeman, 
Norman  Conqvutat,  [W.  J.  A.] 


Boberts  of  Kandahar  and  Waiei^ 
ford,  FKBDBazcK  Slbioh,  Ist  Baboii  or 
{b,  1832),  is  son  of  the  late  General  Sn  A. 
Robei-ts.  Entering  the  Bengal  Army  in  1851, 
he  greatly  distinguished  hin^elf  in  the  Indian 
Mutiny,  and  gained  the  Victoria  Cross.  After 
further  service  in  Abyssinia  and  in  South- 
East  Bengal,  he  commanded  the  Knnun 
Vallejr  column  in  the  Afghan  War  of  1878, 
carrying  the  Peiwar  Pass,  and  entering  Qibul 
in  triumph.  It  was  in  the  second  campaign 
(1879-80)  that  he  made  his  celebrated  march 
upon  Kandahar,  covering  over  300  miles  in 
twenty  days,  and  routing  the  Afghans  outside 
the  besieged  dty.  For  this  he  was  created  a 
baronet  and  G.C.B.,  and  received  the  thanks 
of  Parliament  In  1885  he  became  Com- 
mander-in-Chief in  India,  was  elevated  to  the 
peerage  in  1892,  resigned  his  command  in 
1893,  and  was  appointed  Commander-in-Chief 
in  Ireland,  with  the  rank  of  Field-Maralial, 
in  1896. 

Hobin  Soodf  the  hero  of  a  cydeof  popular 
ballads,  according  to  tradition  an  outlaw  com- 
manding a  band  of  freebooters  in  Sherwood 
forest  in  the  reign  of  Richard  I.  Stow,  writing 
in  1590,  and  doubtless  giving  the  popular  story, 
tells  US  that  *'he  sunered  no  woman  to  be 
oppresMd  ....  poor  men's  goods  he  qnred, 
abundantly  relieving  them  with  that  which 
by  theft  he  got  from  the  abbeys,  and  the 
houses  of  rich  old  carles.'*  It  is,  however, 
doubtful  at  what  time  he  lived,  or,  indeed, 
whether  he  existed  at  all.  No  contemporai)' 
historian  mentions  him  :  he  is  first  alluded  to  in 
Fiert  the  Phughtnan,  and  the  earliest  chronicle 
which  speaks  of  him  is  the  Scotichronieon  (of  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries).  An  in- 
scription is  said  to  have  been  found  on  a  tomb 
at  Kirklees  in  Yorkshire  in  which  he  is  called 
Earl  of  Huntingdon,  and  the  date  of  his  death 
is  given  tfs  1247;  but  this  is  apocryphal 
Thierry  thought  he  was  chief  of  a  8axon 
band  warring  against  the  Norman  oppressor ; 
Grim,  that  he  was  purely  mythical.  It  has 
been  attempted  to  identify  him  with  a 
"  Robyn  Hod  **  who  served  as  "  porteor  '*  to 
Edward  II.  in  1223,  but  the  evid«ice  is  v^y 
weak.  The  earliest  ballads  concerning  him 
date  from  Edward  III. ;  Wynkin  de  Worde 
published  the  Lytel  GetU  rf  Rohm  Mood  in 
1495. 

Bobin  of  Bedasdale.    In  1469  an 

insurrection  took  place  in  Yorkshire,  caused 
by  a  dispute  about  tithes  due  to  the  hospital 
of  St.  Leonard  at  York,  which  was  led  by 
Robert  Hilyard,  called  Robin  of  Redeedale. 
This  rebellion  was  suppressed  by  head 
Montague.  Taking  advantage  of  the  dis- 
content existing  among  the  commonB  of  the 
north.  Sir  WilliHm  (>>nyers,  adopting  the 
name  of  Robin  of  Redesdale,  succeeded  in 
raising  a  force,  estimated  at  60,000  men,  in  the 
sunmier  of  the  same  year.    They  published  a 


Bob 


(  886  ) 


Boo 


manifeeto  charging  the  king  with  miflgovem- 
ment,  and  demanding  reform.  This  reTolt 
was  ^rohably  instigated  hy  Warwick ;  it  was 
certamly  approved,  supported,  and  made  use 
of  by  Clarence  and  the  Nevilles.  The  king's 
forces  were  defeated  at  Edgecote,  near  Ban- 
bury, the  king's  adherents,  such  as  William 
Herbert,  Earl  of  Pembroke,  Humphry  Staf- 
ford, Lord  Rivers,  and  others,  seized  and 
beheaded,  and  the  king  himself  became  the 
prisoner  of  the  Archbishop  of  York,  and  was 
obliged  to  issue  a  general  pardon. 

Bobinson,  Sir  Hbrcttlbs  G.  R.,  Babt. 
{b.  1824),  is  a  son  of  the  late  Admiral  Robin- 
son, of  Westmeath.  He  became  President  of 
Montserrat  in  1854,  Lieutenant-Gk>vemor  of 
St.  Christopher's  in  1855,  Gk>vemor  of  Hong 
Kong  in  1859,  of  Ceylon  in  1865,  of  New 
South  Wales  in  1872,  of  New  Zealand  in 
1878,  and  of  the  Cape  in  1880.  In  1881  he 
presided  over  the  Commission  which  settled 
affiiirs  in  the  Transvaal,  and  acquired  such 
popularity,  both  with  the  Boers  and  in  Cape 
Colony,  that,  although  he  had  retired  in  1889, 
he  was  prevailed  upon  to  return  to  South 
Africa  as  High  Commissioner,  and  Gk>vemor 
of  the  Cape,  m  1895.  The  skill  and  firmnesa 
with  which  he  dealt  with  the  crisis  arising 
out  of  the  Jameson  raid  at  the  end  of  that 
year  were  generally  admired. 

BobilUIOXly  John,  Bishop  of  Bristol,  and 
afterwards  of  London  (b,  1650,  d,  1723), 
went  in  1685  as  chaplam  to  the  Engli^ 
embassy  in  Sweden,  where  he  stayed  more 
than  a  quarter  of  a  century,  and  filled  the  posts, 
during  the  absence  of  the  ambassador,  first 
of  resident  and  afterwards  of  envoy  extra- 
ordinary. Anne  rewarded  his  political  services 
and  good  chnrchmanship  with  the  deanery  of 
Windsor  and  the  bishopric  of  Bristol.  Upon 
the  aoceflsion  to  office  of  the  Tory  ministry 
(1711),  and  the  sadden  deaths  of  the  Duke  of 
Newcastle  and  the  Earl  of  Jersey,  to  whom 
the  Privy  Seal  had  been  offered,  the  vacant 
place  was  conferred  on  Robinson,  the  last 
churchman  to  hold  political  office.  Next 
year  he  was  appointed  English  plenipotentiary, 
together  with  the  Earl  of  Strafford,  at  the 
Congress  of  Utrecht,  and  signed  the  treaty 
on  March  31,  1713.  On  the  death  of  Comp- 
ton,  1714y  Robinson  was  translated  to  the  see 
of  Ifondon. 

Bobinson,  Sir  Thomas,  a  politician 
of  little  ability,  who  having  been  minister 
at  Vienna  for  twenty  years,  and  being 
acceptable  to  (George  II.  on  account  of  his 
sympathy  with  the  king's  German  policy, 
was  chosen  bv  the  Duke  of  Newcastle,  on  the 
death  of  his  brother  Henry  Pelham,  to  act  as 
leader  of  the  House  of  Commons,  with  the 
office  of  Secretary  of  State.  <*The  Duke,'* 
said  Pitt  to  Fox,  "might  as  well  send  his 
jack-boot  to  lead  us."  In  1755  Robinson 
retired  to  his  former  office  of  Master  of  the 


Wardrobe  with  a  pension  of  £2,000  on  the 
Irish  establishment.  In  1761  he  was  raised 
to  the  peerage  as  Lord  Grantham. 

Bob  Boy,  Macobboor  Cakpbell  {b.  1666, 
d,  1735),  was  at  first  a  grazier,  but  entering 
upon  large  speculations  in  cattle-breeding 
had  ill-luck,  and  finally  absconded  with  money 
borrowed  from  the  Duke  of  Montrose,  who 
thereupon  seized  his  small  estate.  Rob  Roy 
gained  the  patronage  of  the  Duke  of  Argyle, 
and  proceeded  to  wage  a  predatory  wai-fare 
against  Montrose,  and  also  against  all 
favourers  of  the  union  with  England.  He 
took  part  in  the  rising  of  1715  and  was. 
attainted,  but  evaded  capture. 

Bobsarty  Amt  or  Anne,  the  daughter  of 
Sir  John  Robsart,  married  in  1549  Lord 
Robert  Dudley,  afterwards  Earl  of  Leicester, 
by  whom  she  is  said  to  have  been  murdered 
at  Cumnor,  near  Oxford,  in  1560.  llie  charge 
against  her  husband  cannot  be  proved,  and  it 
is  probable  that  the  crime  was  committed  by 
some  of  the  earl's  friends,  who  thought  to 
derive  benefit  from  his  marriage  with  Queen 
Elizabeth,  which,  it  was  believed,  would  at 
once  take  place  were  he  free. 

BoohellOf  Expeditions    to.      In    1625 

Rochelle,     the     chief     stronghold    of     the 

Huguenots   in   the    south   of   France,  had 

rebelled  against  Louis  XIII.,  but  had  made 

terms  in  the  beginning  of  1626.    James  L^ 

who  understood  that  Richelieu  represented 

not  the  principle  of  religious  intolerance,  but 

that  of  national  union,  had  promised  to  lend  a 

certain  number  of  English  ships  to  assist  in 

the  attack.    But  on  the  accession  of  Charles 

an  attempt  was  made  to  escape  from  this 

promise,  and  though  the  English  government 

were  outwitted,  and  the  ships  were  actually 

used  against  the  town,  the  French  king  was 

annoy^  by  Charles's  action.    The  dismissal 

of   Henrietta   Maria's  attendants,  and   the 

attitude  of  protector  of  the  Protestants  assumed 

by  Charles  in   his   proposals  of  mediation^ 

led  to  a  declaration  of  war  between  England 

and   Fiance.      In   1627    Buckingham   com- 

manded  an  expedition  to  Rh4,  where  he  landed 

in  July.     [Rh1&.]    In  May  of  the  next  year 

another  English  fleet  was  sent,  under  Denbigh, 

to  attempt  the  relief  of  the  town,  which  was 

now  blockaded  by  land  and  sea.     But  the 

English  ships  were  unable  to  break  through 

the   barrier  of    palisades  and    vessels,  and 

returned  in  May.    In  spite  of  the  death  of 

Buckingham  another  attempt  was  made  in 

September.    But  there  was  no  enthusiasm  in 

the  fleet,  and  the  commander  Lindsey  could 

do  nothing.    Charles  declared  he  would  renew 

his   efforts,  but  the    Rochellese  were    now 

starving,  and  capitulated  on  October  18. 

Oardiner,  Hut.  of  JSny.,  ri. ;  ICartin,  Htst.  •/ 
Franc*,  xL 

Boches,  Peter  des  {d.  1258),  Bishop  of 
Winchester,  was  a  Poitevin  friend  of  John, 
appointed  Justiciar  of  England  on  the  death  of 


Boo 


(  886  ) 


■Geoffrey  Fitz-Peter,  in  1213.  It  was  he  who 
anointed  and  crowned  Henry  III.  at  Gloucester 
three  years  later,  and  who  was  associated  with 
the  Eirl  of  Pembroke  and  Gualo  the  Legate  as 
•ohief  councillors  to  the  young  king.  On  the 
death  of  the  above-mentioned  earl  (1219)  Peter 
■des  Roches  seems  to  have  become  guardian  of 
the  royal  person  and  president  of  the  council ; 
but  he  soon  showed  that  his  policy  was  at 
variance  with  that  of  his  predecessor,  as  he 
steadily  set  himself  to  support  the  foreign 
influence  which  Langton  and  the  Justiciar 
had  opposed  so  vigorously.  He  was  soon 
looked  upon  as  the  head  of  the  party  of  the 
strangers,  and  persuaded  its  members  to  resist 
the  resumption  of  the  royal  desmesne  that 
Hubert  de  Burgh  was  striving  to  accomplish. 
But  in  this  he  was  unsuccessful,  and  was  soon 
forced  to  go  abroad,  on  pretence  of  joining  a 
crusade  (1221).  Three  years  later  his  power 
was  still  further  reduced  by  the  fall  of  Falkes 
de  Breaute,  but  only  for  a  time.  The  young 
•king,  however,  seems  to  have  continued  under 
the  tutelage  of  Peter  des  Roches  till  1227, 
when  he  announced  his  intention  of  ruling 
himself,  and  his  late  governor  departed  on 
another  crusade,  from  which  he  did  not 
return  till  1231.  But  on  the  Bishop  of 
Winchester's  return,  all  his  old  influenoe 
revived ;  the  king,  at  his  instigation,  dismissed 
his  old  ministers  on  the  plea  of  peculation, 
and  Hubert  de  Burgh  suffered  imprisonment 
and  forfeiture.  Tlie  new  councillor,  how- 
•ever,  was  soon  overthrown ;  the  barons,  headed 
by  the  Earl  Marshal,  refused  to  meet  him, 
and  the  bishops  threatened  him  with  excom- 
munication. On  the  death  of  that  nobleman, 
Edmund  Rich,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
declared  himself  ready  to  excommunicate  even 
the  king ;  and  then  Henry  at  last  gave  way. 
Peter  des  Roches  was  confined  to  his  spiritual 
duties,  and  his  friends  fell  with  him  (1234). 

Matthew  Paris ;  Panli,  QttclUehU  von  Bnglandm 

SoollOSter  early  gained  importance, 
during  Uie  Roman  occupation,  as  command- 
ing the  point  where  the  main  high  road  of 
South-Eaieitem  England,  that  from  Rich- 
borough  to  London,  passed  the  Medway. 
So  strongly  was  it  fortified  that  the  Jutes 
seem  not  to  have  ventured  upon  attacking  it 
until  they  had  conquered  the  rest  of  Kent. 
It  is  possible  that  Rochester  i^as  the  capital 
of  a  West  .Kentish  kingdom  dependent 
upon  the  King  of  East  Kent,  a  relation  re- 
flected in  the  dependence  of  the  Bishop  of 
Rochester  on  the  see  of  Canterbury.  The 
dedication  of  the  church  of  Rochester  to 
St.  Andrew  may  possibly  be  due  to  the  fact 
that  it  was  from  the  monastery  of  St.  Andrew 
at  Rome  that  Augustine  came.  The  town 
walls  were  strong  enough  to  resist  Ethelrcd, 
when  in  986  he  atfiompted  to  punish  the  in- 
habitants for  sedition;  and  also  withstood 
an  attack  of  the  Danes.  The  cathedral  was 
zebuilt  by  Bishop  Gundulf,  in  the  reign  of 


Rufus,  and,  in  spite  of  later  additions,  re* 
mains  one  of  the  smallest  of  English  cathe- 
dral churches.  Within  the  town  walls,  upon 
a  cliff  overlooking  the  Medway,  had  very 
early  risen  a  fortress  of  earthwork  and  timber, 
and  here  Gundulf  built  for  Rufus  a  castle  of 
stone.  It  was  probably  the  earlier  foitreas 
which  was  occupied  by  Odo  of  Bayeux,  when 
in  1088  he  declared  for  Robert  of  Normandy 
against  Rufus.  The  tower,  which  was  built 
by  Archbishop  Walter  of  Corbeuil  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  I.,  is  one  of  the  finest  ex- 
apiples  of  Norman  military  architecture,  and 
was  in  vain  besieged  in  1215  by  John,  and  in 
1264  by  De  Montfort.  It  was,  howeter, 
taken  by  the  peasantry  in  the  revolt  of  1381. 

Freeman,  William  Ru/ttM,  L,  p.  M,  girea  a  msp 
of  the  town  in  the  eleventh  oentarr. 

[W.  J.  A] 

HoollOSter,  Lawbbncb  Hyde,  Eakl  or, 
the  second  son  of  the  freat  Earl  of  Claren- 
don, became  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  in 
Nov.,  1679.  He  energetically  defended 
the  Duke  of  York  during  the  struggle  over 
the  Exclusion  Bill,  and  was  rewarded  by 
being  created  Viscount  Hyde  in  1681,  and 
Earl  of  Rochester  in  1682.  He  was  in 
favour  of  a  return  to  the  foreign  policy 
of  the  earlier  years  of  the  reifn^,  a  close 
alliance  with  France,  while  Hahfax  ad- 
vocated the  policy  of  the  Triple  Alliance. 
The  influence  of  Halifax  was  the  stronger, 
and  Rochester  was  removed  from  the  Treasury 
in  1684.  But  shortly  afterwards  Charkfl 
died;  James  at  once  created  his  brother- 
in-law  Lord  Treasurer,  and  he  became 
practically  Prime  Minister.  But  Rochester, 
though  ready  to  go  far  in  the  direction  olf 
despotic  government,  was  strongly-  attached 
to  the  English  Church,  and  by  no  means  in- 
clined to  support  James  in  his  measures  for 
the  restoration  of  Catholicism.  A  struggle 
for  office  ensued  between  Rochester  and  the 
more  pliant  Sunderland,  and  when  the  former 
definitely  refused  to  change  his  religion  he 
was  dismissed  (1687).  Id.  1700  William 
thought  it  necessary  to  court  the  support  of 
the  High  Church  party,  and  called  its  leader, 
Rochester,  to  the  cabinet.  In  the  same  ynr 
he  was  noade  Lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland. 
Dissatisfied  with  the  admission  of  a  feir 
Whigs  into  the  first  ministry  of  Anne,  he 
came  over  from  Ireland  and  strenuously  op- 
posed the  carrying  on  of  the  war  with  Fnmcd. 
He  was  ordered  to  return  to  Ireland,  refused 
to  do  so,  and  sent  in  his  refflgnatiou  in  1 70S. 
In  1710  he  became  Lord  President  in  Harley's 
ministry,  and  died  in  1711. 

A  sketch  of  his  character  is  given  by  ICaoui- 
lay,  ch.  ii 

Rochfordy  George  Boleyx,  Babok,  vas 
exmobled  immediately  after  the  marriage  of  his 
sister  Anne  with  Henry  VIII.  In  1636  be 
was  accused  of  immoral  intercourse  with  hi» 
sister,  and  executed  on  3Iay  17.  His  wife 
was  executed  with  Katherine  Howard  (Feb. 


Boo 


(887) 


Bod 


13,  1542),  on  the  charge  of  having  been  an 
accomplice  in  that  queen's  treason. 

BooUnghaxily  Charles  Watson  Went- 
woRTH,  Marquis  of  {b.  1730,  d.  1782)|  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  the  marquisate  in  1750, 
and  was  in  the  following  year  appointed 
Lord  Lieatenant  of  the  North  and  West 
Ridings  of  Yorkshire.  PVom  his  great  wealth 
and  influential  position,  rather  than  on 
account  of  any  gi'eat  ability,  he  was  early 
recognised  as  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  Whig 
party.  When  George  III.  succeeded  to  the 
throne,  and  displayed  his  intention  of  freeing 
himself  from  the  Whig  control,  the  Marquis 
of  Rockingham,  with  the  rest  of  his  party,  found 
himself  in  opposition  alike  to  the  ministry 
and  the  court,  and  was  one  of  those  dismissed 
from  their  lord-lieutenancies  in  1762.  On 
the  death  of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire  in  1764, 
Rockingham  was  at  once  acknowledged  as  the 
leader  of  the  Whig  party ;  and  in  1 765  the 
king,  unable  any  longer  to  endure  the  haughty 
independence  of  Grenville,  threw  himself  into 
the  arms  of  Rockingham.  The  king,  how- 
ever, never  intended  to  entrust  the  govern- 
ment of  the  country  for  any  length  of  time 
to  a  minister  whose  principles  differed  from 
his  own  on  every  pomt,  and  soon  began  to 
thwart  the  government  in  every  measure  by 
a  secret  and  thoroughly  organised  opposition. 
In  spite  of  this,  the  marquis  managed  to  carry 
some  beneficial  measures.  He  soothed  the 
ill-feeling  which  had  been  aroused  in  the 
American  colonies  by  the  Stamp  Act,  by 
repealing  the  obnoxious  measure ;  and  at 
home  he  passed  an  Act  declaring  general 
warrants  illegal.  But  circumstances  were 
too  strong  for  him.  He  was  always  a  bad 
speaker,  and  had  thus  failed  to  acquire  much 
personal  influence  in  Parliament,  or  to  offer 
any  effectual  opposition  to  the  secret  influence 
of  the  court  party.  In  May,  1766,  he  re- 
signed, and  for  the  next  sixteen  years  re- 
mained out  of  office.  He  offered  all  the 
opposition  in  his  power  to  the  ruinous  policy 
which  Lord  North  pursued  towards  the 
colonies,  and  gave  what  aid  he  could  to 
Wilkes  in  his  s&uggle  against  the  t3rTaimy  of 
the  House  of  Commons  on  the  question  of  the 
Middlesex  election.  By  his  consisteuw  con- 
duct and  unfailing  integrity  he  held  his  party 
together  through  a  long  period  of  opposition, 
until,  on  North^s  resignation,  he  for  the 
second  time  became  Prime  Minister  in  March, 
1782.  He  formed  a  cabinet  which  had  aU  the 
elements  of  strength  and  apparently  of 
permanence.  Negotiations  with  the  American 
colonies  were  opened  on  a  broad  and  liberal 
basis,  which  soon  resulted  in  a  peace  between 
the  two  countries.  Burke  introduced  a  large 
scheme  of  economical  reform ;  but  death  pre- 
vented the  execution  of  the  liberal  plans  which 
had  been  the  programme  of  the  administration. 
Stanhope,  Hist,  of  Eng. ;  Alhemarle,  Rocking' 
ham  and  hitt  Contemp<yraritt9  s  Walpole,  Memoirs 
Hf  Qeom  m.  fs.  J.  L.] 


Bocldnffliaill,  The  Council  of  (Mar. 
11 — 14.  1095),  was  held  to  discuss  the 
question  whether  Anselm  could  acknowledge 
Urban  II.  as  pope,  in  spite  of  the  refural 
of  Rufus  to  recognise  either  of  the  con- 
tending pontiffs.  Anselm  himself  had 
asked  that  a  council  should  meet  to  decide 
whether  obedience  to  Urban  was  consistent 
with  allowance  to  William;  if  it  decided 
against  him,  he  declared  he  would  leave  the 
kingdom.  Rufus  consented  to  summon  a 
council  of  magnates,  which  met  in  the  castle 
of  Rockingham,  in  Northamptonshire.  But 
when  it  had  come  together,  the  king*s  party, 
including  most  of  the  bishops,  led  by  William 
of  St.  Calais,  carefully  evaded  the  real  point 
at  issue,  and  persisted  in  treating  Anselm  as  a 
person  on  trial.  Anselm  rejected  their  advice 
to  submit  entirely  to  the  Idng,  and,  greatly 
to  the  disgust  of  Rufus,  who  had  been 
promised  by  his  bishops  that  Anselm  would 
easily  be  crushed,  the  laymen  present  distinctly 
showed  their  sympathy  with  the  archbishop. 
Rufus  vented  his  spite  upon  the  prelates 
by  demanding  that  they  should  abjure  all 
obedience  to  Anselm,  and  those  who  would 
not  go  further  than  to  abjure  such  obedience 
as  was  claimed  by  the  pope's  authority  could 
only  re-win  the  royal  favour  by  heavy 
bribes.  Finally  the  king  yielded  to  the  pro- 
posal of  the  lay  lords,  and  the  discussion  was 
adjourned  till  May  20.  But  before  that  date 
tiie  legate,  Walter  of  Albano,  had  induced 
Rufus  to  acknowledge  Urban. 

A  detailed  account  of  the  Council,  IxuMd  on 
Eadmer,  is  given  in  Freeman,  W.  £u/u«,  i., 
ch.iv.,i4.  [W.J.  A.] 

Sodn^,  George  Brydoes,  Lord  {b.  1718, 
d,  1792),  was  born  at  Walton-on-Thames, 
and  was  the  son  of  a  naval  officer  of  some 
renown.  He  entered  the  navy  when  very 
young,  and  in  1742  attained  the  rank  of 
captain.  In  1747  he  commanded  the  Eagle  in 
the  action  off  Cape  Finisterre.  Two  years  later 
he  was  appointed  Governor  of  Newfoundland. 
On  the  breaking  out  of  war  with  France  in 
1 757  he  was  fully  occupied,  and  served  under 
Hawke  and  Bohcawen  on  the  French  coast. 
In  1759  he  was  promoted  to  be  rear-admiral 
of  the  Blue,  and  made  a  most  daring  and 
successful  raid  upon  the  stores  which  had 
been  collected  in  Ha\Te  with  a  view  to  the 
invasion  of  England.  In  1761  he  was  on  the 
West  India  station.  On  the  conclusion  of  the 
war  he  was  made  a  baronet,  and  four  years 
later  became  Master  of  Greenwich  Hospital 
In  1768  he  was  returned,  after  a  very  severe 
contest,  for  Northampton,  and  his  resources 
were  so  crippled  that  he  had  to  retire  to 
France  to  retrench.  While  residing  there, 
offers  were  made  by  the  French  to  tempt  him 
to  desert  his  country ;  but  he  rejected  the 
overtures,  and  was  rewarded  in  1778  by  being 
promoted  to  be  an  admiral.  It  was  not, 
however,  till  the  following  year  that  he 
obtained  active  employment  as  commander  on 


(  888  ) 


Bol 


the  Leeward  laleB  station.  On  his  way  to 
that  station,  he  conducted  a  convoy  of  sup* 
plies  to  Gibraltar,  which  was  thoa  in  the 
midst  of  its  long  siege.  While  in  charge  of 
this  convoy,  he  captured  off  Gape  Finisterre, 
on  Jan.  8,  1780,  a  valuable  fleet  of  Spanish 
merchantmen  on  their  way  to  Oadiz,  and  a 
week  later  encountered  a  powerful  Spanish 
fleet,  which  he  totally  defeated.  On  his  re- 
turn to  England,  he  was  received  with  loud 
acclamations,  and  was  returned  with  Fox  to 
Parliament  for  Westminster.  Early  in  1781 
he  was  ordered  to  the  West  Indies,  and 
captured  St.  Eustatia ;  but,  failing  to  induce 
the  French  adminl,  De  Ghnsse,  to  try  an 
engagement,  he  returned  to  England.  Being 
appointed  Vice-Admiral  of  Qreat  Britain,  he 
shortly  afterwards  sailed  again  for  the  West 
Indies.  At  length,  on  April  5,  1782,  he 
obtained  his  long-wished-for  opportunity  of 
meeting  De  Grasse,  who  sailed  out  in  the 
hope  of  effecting  a  junction  with  the  French 
and  Spanish  fleets  at  Hispaniola.  Bodney 
pursue^  and,  after  a  partial  engagement, 
succeeded  in  overhauling  the  Fr^oh  fleet 
between  Guadaloupe  and  Dominique.  The 
fight  on  April  10  was  giUlantly  contested,  but 
the  English  victory  was  decisive.  One  of 
the  French  ships  was  sunk,  and  flve  others 
were  taken.  Bodney  returned  to  ESngland, 
to  receive  the  title  of  Baron  Bodney  and  a 
pension  of  £2,000  per  annum.  He  survived 
his  accession  to  these  honours  ten  years,  but 
does  not  seem  to  have  been  happy,  partly 
owinff  to  his  straitened  circumstances. 
Like  Nelson,  he  was  not  more  brave  than  kind, 
and  was  almost  as  much  beloved  by  his  men. 
Handay,  Lt/i  f4  <Bodn«y  ;  AUen,  ITavol  BattlM. 

Soebuok,  John  Arthur  (6. 1802,  d.  1879), 
was  bom  at  Madras,  and  in  1831  was  called 
to  the  bar  at  the  Inner  Temple.  Soon  after- 
wards he  entered  Parliament  as  member  for 
Bath,  quickly  making  his  mark  as  an  incisive 
though  often  bitter  debater.  He  several  times 
lost  and  regained  his  seat,  until  in  1849  he 
was  elected  for  Sheffield,  which  he  represented 
with  but  one  break  (1868  to  1874)  up  to  his 
death.  His  £preatest  political  achievement 
was  when,  in  1855,  by  a  majority  of  157,  and 
in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  Aberdeen 
Government,  he  carried  a  motion  for  a  com- 
mittee to  inquire  into  the  conduct  of  the 
Crimean  War,  and  was  appointed  its  chairman. 


„_- .%  Bishop  op  Salisbubt,  was  a  poor 

priest  oSf  Caen,  who,  winning  the  favour  of  the 
.^theling  Henry  by  the  rapidity  with  which 
he  performed  mass,  became  his  chaplain 
and  private  adviser.  When  Henry  gained 
the  Engli^  throne,  Roger  became  Chancellor, 
in  1107  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  and  at  the  same 
time  Justiciar.  *^  Under  his  guidance,  whether 
as  chancellor  or  as  justiciar,  the  whole  ad- 
ministrative system  was  remodelled,  and  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Curia  Regis  and  Exchequer 
carefully  organised  *'  (Stubbs).    He  swore  to 


the  succession  of  Matilda,  though,  aooordin^ 
to  the  account  he  afterwards  gave,  only  on 
condition  that  she  should  not  be  married  to 
any  foreigner  without  consent  of  the  magoateL 
Stephen  had  little  difficulty  in  gaining  hii 
support  and  the  royal  treasure  whi(£  he 
guarded.  But  in  a  short  time  the  king  began 
to  be^  jealous  of  his  g^reat  minister.  Boger 
and  his  family  monopolised  aU  the  important 
offices  in  the  administration.  Moreover, 
Roger  and  his  nephews  had  been  building 
great  castles  in  their  diocese,  the  most  im- 
portant being  those  of  Roger  at  Sherborne 
and  Devizes.  In  June,  1 139,  Stephen  caosed 
Roger  and  other  members  of  the  mmily  to  be 
arrested  at  Oxford,  and  they  were  not  released 
until  the  castles  had  been  surrendered.  This 
action  on  the  part  of  Stephen  led  at  onoe  to 
the  break-up  of  the  administration,  and  was 
one  of  the  main  causes  of  the  king's  later 
difficulties.    Roger  died  in  Dec.  (1139). 

I^loloyttc  d«  Soaccario,  i ;  William  of  Kewboif  h, 
L.  6 ;  William  of  Malmesbory,  QtAa.  Begum,  t., 
m\  Btubbe^  Coiut.  fittt.,  i.,  §§  111,  U4^  120; 
Fressaaa,  Jform.  Oimg.,  ▼. 

[W.  J.  A] 


_  OP  PosTiONT,  the  possible  author 
of  a  c^tain  anonymous  life  of  Bedcet.  It 
was  ascribed  to  Roger,  and  printed  under 
his  name  by  Dr.  Giles  (1845-6),  because  the 
author  speaks  of  himself  as  having  ministered 
to  Becket  at  the  time  of  his  exile;  while 
another  contemporary  writer  says  that  a 
monk  named  Roger  was  the  minister  of 
Becket  while  at  Pontigny.  But  the  life  gives 
no  such  information  as  could  be  derived  from 
close  personal  knowledge,  and  becomes  slighter 
and  not  more  detailed  on  reaching  the  settle- 
ment at  Pontigny. 

It  was  edited  by  Oaaon  RobertsOD  for  the  RoOi 
Series,  in  1879,  in  volume  iv.  of  JCotoriab/tfr 

Hobiloimd  was  SO  called  from  the  Afghan 
Rohillas,  who  took  possessian  of  the  oountrr 
under  Ali  Mohammed  Khan  in  the  first  half 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  About  1770  the 
Rohillas  were  unable  to  pay  the  Virier  of 
Oudh  some  forty  lakhs,  for  which  he  had  be- 
come security  to  buy  off  the  Miduattas.  The 
vizier  gained  the  loan  of  an  "Rnyliah  force 
from  Warren  Hastings,  with  which  the 
country  was  conquered.  In  1801  a  Isiis? 
part  was  ceded  to  England,  instead  of  ^e 
tribute  which  the  visier  had  bound  himself  to 
pay.  Rohilcund  is  now  a  oommissionership 
in  the  North  West  Provinces. 

Bohilla  Warn.    [Rohilcund.] 

BollSy  The  Master  of  the.  John  of 
Langton  was  the  first  person  who  bore  the  title 
"Keeper  of  the  Rolls  of  Chancerr"  (12o6), 
though  the  office  had  doubtless  been  fiooe 
time  in  existence.  At  first  the  Ee^er  or 
Master  was  merely  the  most  Important  of  the 
clerks  of  Chancery.    As  such  he  natonlly 


Bol 


(  889  ) 


Bom 


had  custody  of  the  Great  Seal  during  the 
absence  of  the  Ghaocellor  from  court.  With 
the  fall  of  the  Justiciar  from  his  high  poli- 
tical position,  his  place  was  taken  by  the 
Chancellor,  hiis  judicial  duties  being  gradu- 
ally devolved  upon  the  Master,  who  began  to 
sit  in  Chancery  and  to  transact  most  of  the 
ordinary  business  of  the  court.  Thus  almost 
aU  the  legal  work  of  the  first  lay  Chancellor, 
Bourchier  (1340 — 41),  was  done  by  the  Master, 
though  in  important  matters  the  Chancellor 
insisted  on  acting  himself.  The  Masters  of 
the  Holls  were  often  also  Masters  of  the 
House  of  Converts  (for  Jews)  in  what  is  now 
Chancery  Lane.  At  the  end  of  the  reign  of 
Edward  III.,  the  mastership  of  this  house 
was  permanently  annexed  to  the  office.  In 
the  reign  of  Kichard  II.  the  Master  for  the 
first  time  received  his  office,  "quamdiu  bene 
se  gesserit,'*  and  by  the  statute  of  12  Richard 
II.  he  was  given  precedence  before  the 
judges.  In  modem  times  his  duties  have 
been  defined  by  an  Act  of  1833,  and  by 
the  Supreme  Judicature  Acts  of  1873  and 
1875 

FosB,  JudffM  of  Sngland. 

Kolls  Series  is  the  name  usually 
given  to  the  collection  known  officially  as 
Chronicle*  and  MemoriaU  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  during  the  Middle  Agee,  As 
early  as  1822  the  House  of  Commons  urged, 
in  an  address  to  Georg«  IV.,  the  advisa- 
bility of  publishing  **a  complete  edition  of 
the  ancient  historians  of  this  realm.'*  But 
nothing  resulted  from  this  address  till  1857, 
when  me  government  accepted  a  scheme  laid 
before  them  in  that  year  by  the  Master  of 
t^e  RoUb,  Lord  Romilly.  The  plan  of  the 
volumes   is  summed  up  in  Lojrd  Romilly' s 

Proposal  'Hhat  each  chronicle  and  historical 
ocument  should  be  edited  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  represent  with  all  possible  correctness 
the  text  of  each  writer  •  .  .  and  that  no 
notes  should  be  added  except  such  as  were 
illustrative  of  the  various  readings  .  .  . 
that  the  preface  to  each  work  should  contain 
a  biographical  account  of  the  author  .  .  . 
and  an  estimate  of  his  historical  credi- 
bility and  value.*'  The  series  now  includes 
editions  by  the  most  competent  of  English 
scholars  of  the  chief  medisBval  chroniclers 
of  England,  including  works  of  Hoveden, 
I^Iatthew  Paris,  Roger  of  Wendover,  Simeon 
of  Durham,  Henry  of  Huntingdon,  Giraldus 
Cambrensis,  the  AnglO'Sazon  Chronicle^  such 
public  records  as  the  Muniments  of  the  Guild- 
hall of  London,  and  the  Black  Book  of  the 
Admiralty,  and  miscellaneous  collections,  such 
as  Mr.  Brewer*s  Monumenta  Francieeana  and 
3ilr.  Anstey*s  Jftftttm«n^a  Acfidemiea.  In  many 
cases  the  value  of  the  text  is  increased  by 
most  learned,  luminous,  critical  or  historic^ 
introductions  by  the  editors.  The  whole 
work  has  been  published  in  a  manner  in  the 
highBBt  degree  creditable  to  English  scholar- 


ship. Its  value  to  the  student  cannot  be  over- 
estimated. 

Many  of  the  works  published  in  the  Bolls 
Series  will  he  found  specified,  with  the  letters 
(B.S.)  appended,  under  Authoriti>b. 

Boman  Soads,  The,  were  perhaps  the 
most  durable  of  the  memorials  which  the 
Romans  left  behind  them  in  Britain.  Their 
occupation  of  the  island  was  primarily  of  a 
military  character,  and  the  extreme  importance 
of  establishing  easy  means  of  communication 
between  the  various  g^irrisons  led  to  the 
gradual  establishment  of  a  very  complete 
system  of  roads.  The  method  of  their  con< 
struction  largely  varies  with  the  nature  of 
the  coimtrj'  traversed.  But  they  were  uni- 
formly raised  above  the  surface  of  the  neigh- 
bouring land,  and  ran  in  a  straight  line, 
almost  regardless  of  hills,  from  station  to 
station.  The  more  important  linos  were  very 
elaborately  constructed  with  a  foundation  of 
hard  earth,  a  bed  of  large  stones,  sometimes 
two  more  layers  of  stones  and  mortar,  and  of 
gravel,  lime,  and  clay,  and  above  all  the 
causeway  paved  with  stones.  The  width  was 
generally  about  fifteen  feet,  and  at  regular 
intervals  were  posting  stations.  The  distance 
was  regularly  marked  off  by  mile-stones. 
The  principcd  Roman  roads  were  used  for 
traffic  many  centuries  after  the  Romans  had 
abandoned  the  island.  During  the  Middle 
Ages  they  were  perhaps  the  only  good  roads 
in  the  country.  In  the  eleventh  century, 
the  ''four  Roman  roads'*  (Watling  Street,  the 
Foss  Way,  Icknield  Street,  and  Ermine 
Street)  were  specially  protected  by  the  king*s 
peace:  a  privilege  afterwards  extended  to 
aU  the  hi^ways  of  the  country.  Of  these 
Watling  Street  probably  ran  from  London  to 
Wroxeter  (Uriconium).  The  Peace  of  Wed- 
more  made  it  the  boundary  between  Alfred's 
dominions  and  the  Danelagh.  Its  northward 
and  westward  continuations  from  Wroxeter 
into  Wales,  its  southern  connection  between 
London  and  Dover,  seem  also  to  have  received 
the  same  name.  The  Foss  ran  from  the  sea- 
coast  at  Seaton  in  Devonshire,  the  Roman 
Maridunum,  to  Lincoln,  with  a  continuation 
known  as  High  Street  to  the  Humber.  The 
Icknield  Way  seems  to  have  extended  from 
east  to  west  from  Iclingham  near  Bury, 
underneath  the  chalk-ridge  of  the  Chiltems 
and  Berkshire  downs,  to  near  Wantage,  and 
thence  to  Cirencester  and  Gloucester.  The 
Ermine  Street  ran  north  and  south  through 
the  Fenland  from  London  to  Lincoln.  Besides 
the  four  great  lines,  "  spacious  in  their  dimen- 
sions, admirable  for  their  construction,  pro- 
tected alike  by  the  edicts  of  our  kings,  and 
the  written  laws  of  the  land,**  as  Henry  of 
Huntingdon  says,  were  many  scarcely  sub- 
ordinate ones.  There  were  several  Icknield 
Streets.  The  mines  of  the  Mendips,  of  Wales, 
and  of  the  Forest  of  Dean  were  opened 
out  by  other  lines  of  highway.  One  great 
road  ran  from  the  Land*s  End  to  Exeter  in 


Bom 


(  890  } 


ooDtiimation  of  the  Foes.    Another  ran  from 

Venta  Siliirum  to  near  St.  David's  Head  ; 

another  to  the  Sam  Helen  up  the  western  ' 

Welsh  coast  to  Carnarvon. 

Dr.  Qaest,  Four  RovMn  Way»,  republished  in 
Oritftnes  C^ticaet  vol.  ii. ;  Barton,  Itinera  of 
Anton^nua;  Elton,  Ornriiu  of  Bnghth  Htatory; 
Soartb,  Eoman  Bnlam.  [T.  F.  T.] 


in  Britain.  Direct  inter- 
course hetwcen  the  Romans  and  Britons  began 
with  the  two  expeditions  of  Julius  Caesar  in 
B.C.  56  and  54,  but  he  rather  prepared  the 
way  for  future  conquest,  by  exacting  the 
submission  of  the  tribes  of  the  south-east,  than 
began  the  conquest  himself.  Though  British 
kings  sought  the  protection  of  Augustus,  it 
was  reserved  for  Claudius  to  add  Britain  to 
the  Empire.  The  campaign  of  Aulus  Plautius 
in  43  A.D.,  the  Emperor's  own  conquest  of  the 
stronghold  of  Cunobelin,  Ostorius  Scapula's 
completion  of  the  conquest  of  the  south  and 
east  (50),  Suetonius  rauUnus^s  great  cam- 
paign against  Caractacus  and  the  Silures  (58), 
the  suppression  of  the  revolt  of  the  Iceni  after 
the  inactive  governments  of  Aulus  Didius  and 
Veranins,  the  reduction  of  the  Brigantes  by 
Petilius  Cerealis  (69 — 70),  and  the  final  submis- 
sion of  the  Silures  to  Julius  Frontinns  {eirea 
77),  prepared  the  way  for  the  fimd  triumpns  of 
Julius  Agricola  (78 — 85).  That  great  general 
successively  defeated  the  Ordoyices  and  the 
Brigantes,  and,  advancing  to  the  north, 
ravaged  the  district  as  far  as  the  Tay,  fortified 
the  isthmus  between  the  Forth  and  Clyde, 
Tisited  the  Western  Highlands,  and  finally, 
after  a  three  years'  war,  defeated  the  Caledo- 
nians at "  Mons  Grampius."  But  these  northern 
districts  were  never  really  subdued,  and  the 
building  by  Hadrian  of  tiie  first  Roman  Wall 
between  the  Tyne  and  the  Solwaj  (120)  marks 
the  northern  limit  of  the  organised  province. 
But  in  139  Lollius  Urbicus,  the  governor  for 
Antoninus  Pius,  built  a  second  wall,  or  rather 
an  earthen  rampart,  between  the  Forth  and 
the  Clyde,  which  now  became  the  ultimate 
northern  boundary  of  the  Roman  dominions. 
A  series  of  incursions  of  the  northern  bar- 
barians led  to  its  being  further  strengthened 
by  Severus,  from  whom  it  often  takes  its 
name.  One  remarkable  featuro  in  the  later 
history  of  the  province  is  the  constant  tendency 
df  the  legions  in  Britain  to  sot  up  Emperors  of 
their  own,  such  as  Carausius,  who  governed  the 
province  from  287  to  294,  when  he  was  slain 
by  AUectus,  while  Britain  was  reconquered 
in  296  b^  Constantius  Chlorus.  That  prince 
effected  important  reforms  in  the  government, 
and  fought  successful  campaigns  against  the 
Picts,  as  the  inhabitants  of  the  unconquered 
north  now  be^an  to  be  called;  In  369  Theo- 
dosiuB  restored  the  province,  after  it  had  been 
ravaged  by  Picts  and  Scots,  Saxons  and  Atta- 
cots.  In  388  the  revolt  of  Maximus,  and  his 
onfortunato  attempt  to  win  for  himself  the 
whole  Empire,  led  to  the  withdrawal  of  the 
army,  and  to  frosh  barbarian  inroads  on  the 


unprotected  land.  In  396  Stilicho  sent  a  eingle 
legion  to  help  the  struggling  provincials,  bat 
its  withdrawal  in  402  Iwl  to  &e6h  invasioQB. 
In  406  Stilicho  again  restored  the  army,  bat 
the  successive  usurpations  of  Constantinos  and 
Oerontius  showed  the  feeble  HonorioB  that 
the  army  in  Britain  was  a  danger  rather  thm 
an  assistance  to  his  struggling  Empire.  In 
answer  to  a  request  for  help  he  bade  the  pro- 
vincials defend  themselves.  In  despair  the 
Britons  rose,  and  drove  out  the  civil  governon. 
The  unity  of  the  state  at  once  dimppeared. 
The  Roman  rule  in  Britain  was  at  an  end. 

During  moro  than  three  centuries  the 
Romans  had  governed  Britain,  but  they  wen 
unable  to  effect  more  than  a  military  occa* 
pation.  They  had  lost  that  capacity  for 
assimilating  the  conquered  races  with  them- 
selves, which  had  made  Gauls  and  Spaniards 
more  Roman  than  even  the  Italians.  Th& 
Roman  civilisation,  which  Agricola  had  found 
the  best  means  of  enslaving  the  Britons,  bad 
never  penetrated  very  far.  A  series  of  mili- 
tary pcKsts,  connected  by  a  magnificent  system 
of  highways,  a  few  commercial  and  mimn; 
centreis,  an  occasional  urban  settlement,  wen 
all  that  could  really  be  called  Roman  in  Britain. 
The  summer  villas  of  the  conquerors  woe 
planted  amidst  British  tribes,  who  retained 
their  old  language  and  customs,  and,  so  fiir 
as  it  was  compatible  with  the  central  govern- 
ment, their  old  tribal  organisation.  The 
continued  existence  of  the  Welsh  language  in 
a  district  nearly  three  hundred  years  a  Roman 
province,  the  few  traces  of  Roman  inflnence 
in  the  earliest  Welsh  laws  and  institutioni, 
their  similarity  to  those  of  the  Irish,  nerer 
subdued  by  the  Romans,  show  very  deoriy 
the  limited  extent  of  their  power.  The 
influence  exerted  by  the  Romans  in  Britain 
was  analogous  to  that  of  the  Eng-lish  in  India, 
and  the  diffusion  of  a  thinly-spread  veneer  of 
culture  is  less  important  than  the  great  mate- 
rial works,  such  as  walled  towns,  paved  road% 
aqueducts,  and  great  public  buildings,  or  the 
development  of  trade  and  commerce.  These 
remained  to  testif}*  to  the  greatness  of  Rome 
long  after  the  more  direct  civilising  influences, 
and  long  after  the  political  organisation  of 
Rome  had  ceased  to  have  much  influence  in 
Britain.  There  is  no  need  to  suppose  that 
everything  that  was  Roman  left  the  ooontry 
in  410,  or  to  think  that  the  English  neces- 
sarily made  a  clean  sweep  of  all  that  bad 
previously  existed.  Yet  the  contention  that 
the  direct  influence  of  the  Roman  province  on 
sabsequent  English  history  was  really  great, 
or  that  there  was  any  real  continuity,  ss,  for 
example,  in  munidpEd  institutions,  cannot 
really  be  sustained,  despite  the  brilliant  theo- 
ries and  solid  stores  of  learning  that  hare 
been  wasted  in  the  attempt. 

It  remains  to  speak  of  the  miHtaiy  and 

g>litical   organisation    of   the    province  of 
ritain.    The  number  of  troops   quartered 
there  seems  always  to  have  been  large.  Sane 


(891  ) 


were  planted  throughout  the  country  in 
garriaons,  but  the  gpreater  number  were  masaed 
along  the  northern  wall,  and  on  the  east 
coast,  which  was  so  exposed  to  the  assaults  of 
Saxon  pirates.  The  sixth  legion  had  its  head- 
quarters at  York,  the  twentieth  at  Chester, 
the  second  at  Caerleon,  the  second  for  a  time 
on  the  Wall,  afterwards  at  Rutupiss  (Rich- 
borough).  Troops  of  nearly  every  known 
nation  were  comprised  within  their  numbers. 
The  practice  of  the  same  legion  being  stationed 
for  a  long  time  at  the  same  place  must  have 
led  to  a  good  deal  of  intercourse  between  the 
Britons  and  their  conquerors.  Not  unfre- 
quently  the  soldiers  married  native  women, 
and  settled  down  when  their  term  of  service 
was  expired  upon  the  lands  allotted  to  them  in 
their  adopted  country.  The  Roman  soldiers 
took  a  prominent  part  in  road -making,  build- 
ing dykes,  working  mines,  and  in  the  other 
great  engineering  operations  which  marked 
the  Roman  rule.  The  chief  towns — most  of 
which,  such  as  Tork,  London,  Chester,  Lin- 
coln, Bath,  Colchester,  have  continued  ever 
since  to  be  centres  of  population — very  largely 
owed  their  origin  to  their  importance  as 
military  stations. 

The  system  of  government  of  the  province 
more  than  once  was  radically  changed.  The 
province  as  a  definite  administrative  district 
was  begnm  under  Aulus  Plautius.  Its  exposed 
position  naturally  caused  it  to  be  an  imperial 
rather  'than  a  senatorial  province,  and  its 
govemoir  was  the  legate.  Its  great  extent  and 
the  diflS.culty  found  in  properly  defending  it 
led  to  it8  division  into  two  districts  by  Severus, 
which  Dio  calls  Upper  and  Lower  Britain. 
Their  relative  situations  are  not  certainly 
known.  Diocletian's  reorganisation  of  the 
Empire  involved  the  division  of  Britain  into 
four  provinces — Britannia  Prima,  Britannia 
Secunda,  Maxima  Csesariensis,  and  Flavia 
Cwsariensis — the  positions  of  which  are  quite 
undetermined.  In  369  a  fifth  province,  called 
Valentia,  the  result  of  Theodosius's  victories, 
was  added.  The  two  latter  were  consular, 
the  three  former  each  under  a  prm»es.  The 
whole  were  under  the  Vicar  Britanniarumf 
and  he  was  subject  to  the  Prafeettu  Pnetorio 
Oailiarum.  The  troops  were  under  the 
command  of  the  Dmt  Britanniarum  and  the 
Comet  Litorit  Saxoniei. 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  Roman  occu- 
pation, Christianity  crept  silently  into  Britain. 
Before  the  legions  left,  it  was  the  religion  of  the 
Roman  State ;  but  the  Britons  seem  only  to 
have  been  partially  converted,  and  the  traces 
of  an  organised  British  Church  are  few, 
thoogh  distinct.  But  the  Roman  Church  in 
Britain  depended  on  Qaul  almost  as  much  as, 
after  Diocletian's  reforms,  the  governors  of 
Britain  necessarily  did.  * 

Horsl^,  Britannia  JKomatui,  and  Camden's 
Briiannia,  the  early  part  of  the  Mcmtcm«nta  Hts- 
toriea  Brttannioo,  and  HQlmer's  edition  of 
the  Briiii^  fi4nium  Inaeripttoiu  in  the  seventh 
volume   of   the   Berlin   Cvrpu*   InMnptionum 


LoHnamm,  are  the  great  repoeitoriee  of  the 
materials  for  the  hutory  of  Boman  Britain. 
HUbner's  profaoe  to  the  In«oriptum«,  and 
treatise  Da»  RSmxMche  Swr  in  Hritannien,  give 
the  best  aooount  of  the  oivil  and  militarr  govern- 
ment. Coote's  Mcmana  in  Britain  ooIlMts  all 
that  can  be  said  for  the  permanence  of  fioman 
inflaenoe.  Skene's  C«ttic  Seotland  and  Elton  s 
Origins  of  Bng.  Ktst.  are  modem  authorities 
of  great  valne  on  the  general  hi8t<nry.  Scarth's 
fioman  Britain  gives  a  oaef ol  sammary  of  the 
whole  subject.  [T.  i*.  T.] 

HouMlSy  Kino  of  ths.  [Ricua&d  of 
Cornwall.] 

Bom-feoh,  or  Bome-scot,  afterwards 
known  as  Pbteu's  Pence,  was  a  tax  of  a  penny 
on  each  hearth,  which  is  said  to  have  been 
first  imposed  by  Ini,  and  sent  to  the  Pope  to 
provide  for  the  support  of  the  English  school 
at  Rome.  But  for  tbis  there  is  little  evidence, 
llie  payment  of  the  tribute  probably  com* 
menced  under  Offa,  who  in  this  way  gained 
papal  sanction  for  the  establishment  of  a  new 
archbishopric  at  Lichfield.  From  the  begin- 
ning of  the  tenth  century,  Rom*feoh  was 
exacted  from  the  whole  country,  and  sent 
annually  to  Rome.  In  the  confusion  of 
Stigand's  primacy,  and  of  the  first  years  of 
Norman  rule,  it  seems  to  have  fallen  into 
arrears;  but  William  I.  promised  about  1076 
that  it  should  be  paid  regularly.  It  suc- 
cumbed to  the  general  tendency,  and  became 
fixed  at  a  comparatively  small  amount.  In 
1218  Innocent  III.  complained  that  the 
bishops  retained  1,000  marks  out  of  it,  and 
only  sent  300.  In  1306  Clement  V.  exacted 
a  penny  from  each  household  instead  of 
£201  9s.,  which  had  for  a  long  time  been  the 
customary  payment.  The  threat  of  with- 
holding Peter  s  Pence  became  a  useful  instru- 
ment in  the  king's  hands;  thus  in  1366,  and 
for  some  time  after,  it  was  not  paid,  in  order 
to  induce  the  Pope  to  acquiesce  in  the  Statute 
of  Prsemunire  (q.v.).  Peter's  Pence  is  to  be 
clearly  distinguished  from  the  annual  tribute 
of  1,000  marks  promised  by  John. 

Stabbs,  CoiMt.  Hi$t.  [W.  J.  A.] 

Bomilly,  Sib  Sakukl  (b.  1757,  d,  1818), 
the  son  of  a  jeweller  of  French  extraction, 
was  bom  at  Westminster.  He  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1783,  but  was  at  first  much  impeded 
by  nervous  diffidence.  When  he  had  over- 
come this  difficulty,  he  rose  rapidly,  and  in 
1797  he  had  come  to  be  recognised  as  a 
brilliant  leader  of  the  bar.  In  1800  he  was 
made  a  kind's  counsel,  and  in  1806  was 
appointed  Solicitor-Greneral  by  Fox,  being 
returns i  to  Parliament  for  Queenborough. 
In  this  position  he  was  one  of  the  managers 
of  the  impeachment  of  Lord  Melville,  and 
also  took  an  active  part  in  procuring  the 
abolition  of  the  slave  trade.  When  he  had 
been  successful  in  accomplishing  this  object, 
he  turned  his  attention  towards  the  reform  of 
the  penal  code ;  and  though  he  was  prevented 
from  carrying  out  his  reforms  as  he  desired, 
he   succeeded   in    mitigating   some    of    its 


Soo 


(  892  ) 


fieveritjT.  In  1812  he  was  defeated  at  Bristol, 
but,  being  returned  for  Arundel,  he  continued 
to  support  every  measure  that  tended  to  im- 
prove the  condition  of  the  people.  He  was 
returned  for  Westminster  in  1818,  but  did 
not  live  long  enough  to  take  his  seat.  His 
wife  died  on  Oct.  29  of  the  same  year; 
and  Sir  Samuers  mind  was  so  shattered 
by  the  blow  that  he  lost  all  self-control, 
and  within  four  days  committed  suicide. 
*•  Year  after  year,"  says  Sir  Erstine  May. 
**  he  struggled  to  overcome  the  obduracy  of 
men  in  power.  The  Commons  were  on  his 
side ;  Lords  Grenville,  Lansdowne,  Grey, 
Holland,  and  other  enlightened  peers  sup- 
ported him;  but  the  Lords,  under  the  guid- 
ance  of  Lord  Eldon,  Lord  Ellenborough,  and 
their  other  judicial  leaders,  were  not  to  be 
convinced.  He  did  much  to  stir  the  public 
sentiment  in  his  cause ;  but  little,  indeed,  for 
the  amendment  of  the  law." 

Lift  ofRomUlyt  Twiss,  Life  ^Lord  Eldon; 
Walpole's  HiMt.  of  Em.  from  1815 ;  Lord  Holland, 
Meinioin ;  lAfe  of  WuhtrfoTc: 

Booke,  Sir  Gborob  {h,  1650,  d.  1709), 
entered  the  navy  at  an  early  age,  and  in  1689 
became  rear-admiral  of  the  red.  He  took 
part  in  the  battle  off  Beachy  Head,  was  made 
vice-admiral  of  the  blue  in  1692,  and  com- 
manded under  Russell  at  La  Hogue  (May  19). 
For  the  skill  with  which  he  led  a  night , 
attack  upon  a  part  of  the  French  fleet  which 
had  escaped  into  the  harbour  out  of  reach  of 
the  English  ships,  he  was  rewarded  with  knight- 
hood, and  the  post  of  vice-admiral  of  the  red. 
TTpon  peace  being  made  with  France  in  1697, 
Kooke  gained  a  seat  in  Parliament  for  Ports- 
mouth, and  supported  the  Tory  party.  In 
1702  he  was  created  by  Anne  "  Vice- Admiral 
and  lieutenantof  the  Admiralty*'  under  Prince 
C^eorge.  When  war  was  renewed,  Rooke  took 
command  of  the  English  fleet,  stormed  Vigo, 
and  in  1704  took  Gibraltar.  In  the  same 
year  he  fought  a  great  but  indecisive  battle 
off  Malaga.  On  his  return  to  England  he 
found  himself  treated  with  coldness  by  the 
^^^£r  government,  and  retired  to  his  country 
feat  in  Kent,  where  he  died. 

Soot  and  Branch.  This  phrase  was 
derived  from  a  petition  asking  that  episcopacy 
might  be  destroyed  "  root  and  branch,"  signed 
by  15,000  citizens  of  London,  and  presented 
on  Dec.  11,  1640,  by  Alderman  Pennington. 
The  party  in  the  Commons  which  supported 
this  petition  was  called  from  it  the  Root  and 
Branch  party.  *'0f  the  chief  leaders,"  says 
Clarendon,  **  Nathaniel  Fiennes  and  young 
Sir  H.  Vane,  and,  shortly  after,  Mr.  Hampden 
(who  had  not  before  owned  it)  were  believed 
to  be  for  root  and  branch,  which  grew  shortly 
after  a  common  expression,  and  discovery  of 
the  several  tempers,  yet  Mr.  Pym  was  not  of 
that  mind,  nor  Mr.  HoUis,  nor  any  of  the 
northern  men,  or  those  lawyers  who  drove  on 
most  furiously  with  them."    The  Root  and 


Branch  Bill  was  drawn  by  St.  John,  and  th«a 
through  Vane,  Cromwell,  and  Hazelrig  hand«d 
to  Sir  Edward  Dering,  who  brought  it  in  oa 
May  27,  1641.  It  was  read  a  fiirst  and  second 
time  on  the  Bam.e  day,  and  passed  the  second 
reading  by  135  to  108  votes.  The  bill  pro- 
posed  to  appoint  in  each  diocese  a  numbor 
of  commissioners,  half  lay,  half  clerical,  to 
exercise  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  in  place  of 
the  bishops.    It  was  dropped  in  Augu^  1641. 

Gkurdiner,  Bit^  ofSng.,  1608^1942;  Oanuitm, 
Eut,<iftheRelMlxon. 

Sosamond  difford,  commonly  called 
the  Fair  Rosamund  {d,  cirea  1175),  was  the 
daughter  of  Walter,  Lord  Clifford,  and  mis- 
tress of  Henry  II.,  by  whom  she  had  two 
sons,  William  Lonesword,  Earl  of  Salisbuzy, 
and  G^eoffrey,  Archbishop  of  York.  The  stoiy 
of  her  being  poisoned  b^  Queen  Eleanor  has 
no  authority ;  and  nothing  is  loiown  of  her 
death.  She  was  buried  at  Godstow  nunnery, 
but  in  1191  Hugh,  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  ordered 
her  body  to  be  removed  to  the  Chapter-honae, 
where  it  remained  till  the  Reformation. 

Tindal'fl  Bapio,  toL  v..  Appendix ;  LjtfeeltflB, 
Biat.  ofEnury  IL 

Soaeb^ryi  Archibald  Philip  Pbihboss, 
5th  Earl  of  {b.  1847),  succeeded  his  grnnd- 
father  in  the  title  in  1868.  In  1872  he  mt 
appointed  a  commissioner  to  inquire  into  eo- 
dowments  in  Scotland,  and  in  1880  was  elected 
Rector  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  In 
188 1  he  joined  Mr.  Gladstone's  second  Govern- 
ment as  Under-Secretary  for  the  Home  Of&ce, 
resigning  in  1883,  and  returning  in  1886  ai 
Lora  Privy  Seal  and  First  CommisaioDer  of 
Works.  For  a  few  months  in  1886  he  vss 
Foreign  Secretary,  and  held  the  same  portfolio 
from  August,  1892,  to  March,  1894,  when  be 
succeeded  Mr.  Gladstone  as  Premier,  remain- 
ing  in  office  until  July,  1 895.  Lord  Rosebery, 
who  was  twice  Chairman  of  the  London  County 
Council,  has  written,  a  monograpli  on  Pitt 

SoseSy  Thb  Wars  of  the,  is  the  nine 
commonly  given  to  the  dynastic  ciTil  war  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  which  may  be  considered  to 
begin  with  the  first  battle  of  St.  Albans  in 
1455,  and  to  end  with  Bosworth  Field  in  14Do, 
though  during  this  period  of  thirty  yean  then 
were  long  intervals  of  peace.  The  name  wtf 
g^ven  to  these  wars  on  account  of  the  badgei 
worn  by  the  representatives  of  the  boiua 
of  York  and  Lancaster,  the  Torkists  taking 
as  their  cognisance  the  white  rose,  iinb  Lan- 
castrians the  red  rose.  The  ostensible  canse  of 
the  wars  was  the  rival  claims  to  the  throot 
of  the  families  of  York  and  I^oicaster, 
both  descended  from  sons  of  Edward  in.; 
the  former  could  show  strict  heredita^ 
right,  while  the  latter  had  possession  w 
Parliamentary  title.  But  there  were  oUw 
causes,  without  which  it  may  fairly  be  aaid 
that  the  struggle  would  never  have  oc- 
curred.   It  was  not  till  some  years  after  ftt 


(  893  ) 


first  battle  of  St.  Albans,  that  York  put  for- 
iNrard  bis  claims,  and  even  then  such  a  com- 
promise as  was  come  to  in  1460  might  very 
fairly  have  been  adhered  to,  but  the  other 
causes  which  were  at  work  prevented  this,  and 
the   controvei'sy  was  decided  by  the  sword. 
The  house  of  Lancaster  had  in  great  measure 
lost  its  hold  on  the  sympathies  of  the  people ; 
the  loss  of  France,  the  marriage  with  Margaret 
of    Anjou,    her    haughty    and   overbearing 
spirit,  the  suspicious  death   of  the  popular 
favourite  Gloucester,  all  combined  to  estrange 
the  people  from  the  Lancastrian  dynasty.  The 
two  minifitertf  of  the  latter  part  of  Henry  yi.*s 
reiffn,  Suffolk  and  Somerset,  were  unfortunate 
aad  unpopular,  and  the  one  strong  man  who 
aeemed  at  all  able  to  restore  good  government 
to  the  country  was  the  Duke  of  York.    The 
nobles  who  for  so  many  years  had  been  rang* 
in^  over  France,  now  found  themselves  cooped 
up  in  England,  and  mutual  jealousies  arose 
which  made  them  only  too  ready  to  take 
part  in  a  civil  war,  while  the  birth  of  Prince 
Edward  in  1463  perpetuated  the  Lancastrian 
daims,  and  so  rendered  any  compromise  im- 
possible.   With  regard  to  the  character  of  the 
two  parties :  ever  since  the  time  of  Richard  II. 
there  had  been  some  branches  of  the  royal 
house  which  were  opposed  to  the  reigning 
branch;  and  the  opposition  princes  usually 
found  it  convenient  to  associate  themselves 
with  the  party  in  the  country  that  cried  out 
for  reform  and  good  government,  as  Thomas  of 
Gloucester  and  Henry  of  Lancaster  had  done 
tinder  Richard  II.  In  Henry  VI.'s  reign,  besides 
the  opposition  branch  of  the  royal  house,  the 
York  princes  who  were  naturally  antagonistic 
to  the  rival  Lancasters  and  Beauforto,  there 
existed  the  great  family  of  the  Nevilles,  which 
had  absorbed  the  territorial  possessians  of  the 
Beauchamps,  and   now   held   a   semi-royal 
position  in  the  country.    They  were  allied  by 
marriage  with  the  family  of  the  Duke  of  York. 
In  the  north  of  England  the  Nevilles  were 
great  rivals  of  the  powerful  family  of  the 
Percies ;  and  since  the  latter  were  firmly  Lan- 
castrian, this  alone  would  almost  have  sufficed 
to  make  the  Nevilles  Yorkist.    The  war  was 
mainly  a  quarrel  among  these  and  the  other 
great  houses.    But  it  is  possible  to  find  certain 
geographical  and  political  issues.    There  was 
general  discontent  with  the  government  of 
Henry  YL,  its  failures  abroad,  and  its  close 
connection  with  the  clerical  party ;  and  on  this 
account  York  was  hailed  as  the  champion  of 
reform,  and  was  very  popular  in  the  towns 
and  among  the  mercantile  population  of  the 
southern  counties.    The  Lancastrians,  more 
closely  connected  with  the  Church  and  the 
nobility,  excluding  a  few  of  the  great  families, 
were  sfaronger  in  the  north,  where  feudalism 
was  strong,  trade  undeveloped,  and  reforming 
ideas  had  made  little  headway.    The  effects 
of  these  wars  upon  our  history  were  very 
great.    They  almost  entirely  destroyed  the 
<^  nobility,  and  so  paved  the  way  for  the 


absolutism  of  the  Tudors,  for  the  new  nobiUiy 
owed  its  rise  entirelyto  the  crown,  and  so  was 
extremely  servile.  The  people  had  no  leaders^ 
and  were  moreover  glad  of  a  strong  govern- 
ment to  pre8ei*ve  them  from  the  horrors  of 
another  civil  war.  The  Church,  too,  which  had 
rested  on  the  support  of  the  barons,  became 
greatly  weakened,  and  was  unable  to  resist  the 
crown.  The  commercial  classes  and  the  great 
towns  had  taken  but  little  part  in  the  wars,, 
but  had  steadily  increased  in  power  and  in- 
fluence,  and  wita  this  goes  the  gradual  rise  of 
the  House  of  Commons  as  one  ofthe  great 
powers  of  the  realm,  no  longer  to  be  de- 
pendent on  the  nobles,  but,  thouf^h  at  first 
apparently  considerably  weakened,  in  reality  a 
gamer  by  baring  to  sttmd  alone.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  chronological  list  of  the  battles 
fought  during  the  wars  ;  a  description  of  each 
of  them  .will  be  found  in  its  place. 


First  Battle  of  St.  Albans . 
Battle  of  Blore  Heath 
Battle  of  Northampton 
Battle  of  Wakefield     . 
Battle  of  Mortimer's  Cross 
Second  Battle  of  St.  Albans 
HkirmJHh  at  Feixy  Bridge 
Battle  of  Towton 
Battle  of  Hedgeley  Moor 
Battle  of  Edgeoote      . 
Battle  of  Looseooat  Field 
Battle  of  Bamet  . 
Battle  of  Tewkeebnrx . 
Battle  of  Bosworth     • 


May  28.  145& 

Sept.  28, 14S» 
July  10,  I4ao 
Dec.  90,  1460 
Feb.  2.  1461 
Feb.  17, 1461 
Mar.,  1461 
Mar.  29,1461 
April  85, 1461 
Jaly26,  1469 
Mar.  19, 1470 
April  14, 1471 
May  4,  1471 
Aug.  22, 14B5 

Histcry;  Polydore 


Fabyan,  Chrcmicl^;  Hall, ^, ^ 

Yix|ril  (Camden  Soc.) :  Stowe,  AnnaU  ;  The  Pm- 
t<m  X«tters  (with  Mr.  Qaixdner'e  Introductions); 
Conthraator  of  the  Croyland  Chroniele;  Warh- 
vxnih  ChronicU;  Brouffhom,  Stm,  wider  the 
HouMo/LancoBter;  QaixaaBt,ThtH<nunofLan' 
caster  and  York.  [F.  S.  FJ] 


I,  Alexandeb,  Eabl  op,  was  named, 

from  the  character  of  his  retainers,  **  the  Wolf 
of  Badenoch ; "  he  was  the  brother  of  Robert  II. 
of  Scotland,  and  lord  of  Badenoch,  Buchan» 
and  Boss.  He  was  governor  of  the  northern, 
part  of  Scotland,  where  he  ravaged  the  lands 
of  the  Bishop  of  Moray,  for  which  act  of 
impiety  he  was  excommunicated, 

B088,  Sm  Jambs  Clabk  (b,  1801,  d.  1862), 
entered  the  navy  1812,  under  Ids  uncle.  Sir 
John  Boss,  with  whom  he  continued  to  serve 
in  the  Baltic,  the  White  Sea,  and  on  the  cosst 
of  Scotland.  He  accompanied  his  unde,  as  a 
midshipman,  in  his  first  voyage  in  search 
of  the  North-west  Passage.  Subsequently, 
from  1819  to  1825,  he  was  engaged  with  Cap- 
tain Parry  in  his  three  voyages,  being  pro- 
moted during  his  absence  in  1822  to  the  rank 
of  lieutenant.  He  again  accompanied  Captain 
Parry  in  1827,  and  on  his  return  was  ap- 
pointed  commander.  He  also  joined  his  uncle 
Captain  John  Ross  from  1829  to  1833,  on  his 
second  voyage  in  search  of  a  North-west  Pas- 
sage, and  on  his  return  was  elevated  to  the 
rank  of  a  poet-captain,  in  recognition  of  hia 
valuable  services,  among  which  was  the  dis- 
covery of  the  Magnetic  Pole.    He  was  after* 


not 


(894) 


'Bou 


wards  employed  by  the  Admiralty  in  a  mag- 
netic survey  of  Great  Britain  and  Irelana. 
In  1839  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of 
an  expedition  in  the  Erebus  and  Terror  to  the 
Antarctic  Seas,  the  chief  purpose  in  view  being 
magnetic  investigations.  This  voyage,  which 
occupied  a  pericd  of  four  yean,  was  rich  in 
additions  made  to  the  previous  knowledge  of 
the  Antarctic  regions  in  geography,  geology, 
zoology',  and  botany.  In  1 844  he  was  knighted. 
In  1847  he  published  the  results  of  his  dis- 
coveries and  researches  in  the  southern  and 
Antarctic  regions,  in  two  volumes.  In 
January,  1848,  he  made  a  voyage  in  the  JSii- 
terpriee  to  Baffin^s  Bay  in  search  of  Sir  John 
Fnmklin,  but  was  unsuccessful. 

Rotherailly  Thomas,  Archbishop  of 
York  (1480—1600),  had  been  one  of  Edward 
IV.*8  chaplains,  and  in  1468  became  Bishop 
of  Bochester.  In  1476  he  was  translated 
to  Lincoln,  and  in  1474  was  made  Lord 
Chancellor.  He  held  the  Great  Seal  till  1483, 
when  he  was  obliged  to  resi^  it  by  the  Duke 
of  Gloucester.  He  was  imprisoned  by  Richard 
for  some  little  while,  and  after  his  release 
does  not  seem  to  have  taken  any  parti  in 
public  afEairs.  In  1480  he  had  been  created 
Archbishop  of  York. 

HotheSy  John,  6th  Earl  op,  was  taken 
prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Worcester.  After 
the  Restoration  he  became  Lord  Treasurer 
and  Chancellor  of  Scotland,  and  in  1680  waa 
createdaduke.  Onhisdeath, however,  in  1681, 
without  male  heirs,  the  duchy  became  extinct. 

Hothesay,  David,  Dukb  of,  the  eldest 
son  of  Robert  III.  of  Scotland,  was  a  man  of 
profligate  and  idle  habits;  in  1398  he  was 
appointed  lieutenant  of  the  kingdom  by  a 
Scotch  Parliament,  and  two  years  afterwards 
successfully  defended  the  castle  of  Edinburgh; 
the  same  year  he  married  Marjory,  daughter 
of  Archibald,  Earl  of  Douglas.  Soon  after- 
wards he  was  seized  at  the  instigation  of  his 
uncle,  the  Duke  of  Albany,  and  imprisoned 
in  Falkland  Castle,  where  he  died  of  starva- 
tion (March,  1402). 

Bothsohild's    Case   (1847).     Baxon 

Lionel  N.  de  Rothschild,  a  Jew,  was  returned 
as  one  of  the  membcm  for  the  City  of  London 
in  1847.  His  return  was  perfectly  legal,  but 
he  was  unable  to  take  the  oath  because  it 
contained  the  words,  "  on  the  true  faith  of  a 
Christian.'*  He  therefore  sat  below  the  bar 
for  four  sessions  in  expectation  of  relief  from 
the  legislature.  Being  disappointed,  he  re- 
solved to  try  his  rights  by  the  existing  law. 
He  therefore,  in  1850,  presented  himself  to  be 
sworn.  After  some  discussion  he  was  allowod 
to  be  sworn  on  the  Old  Testament,  but  omitted 
the  words,  "  on  the  true  faith,  &c."  He  was 
immediately  directed  to  withdraw,  and  after  a 
learned  discussion  it  was  resolved  that  he 
could  neither  sit  nor  vote  till  he  had  taken  the 
oath  in  the  usual  manner.    In  consequence, 


hewas  prevented  from  sitting  until  1858,vhaL 

the  disability  was  removed.     [Jews.] 

CwMMnnM  Journal;  Hanaard.  3rd  kt..  f^i. 
207,  396,  486,  76B. 

Honndhead.  The  name  of  Boondhead 
took  its  rise  at  the  same  time  as  the  nuae 
of  Cavalier,  in  the  tumults  which  occarred 
during  the  discussion  of  the  Bishops  ^u^lusion 
Bill'  at  the  end  of  1641.  Like  Cavalier,  it 
referred  originally  to  the  external  character- 
istics of  the  men,  whose  party  name  it  after- 
wards became.  "  These  people,  or  citisens," 
sa^s  Lilly,  "who  used  to  flock  unto  West^ 
mmster,  were,  most  of  them,  men  of  a  mean, 
or  a  middle  quality.  .  .  .  They  were 
modest  in  their  apparel,  but  not  in  theii 
language ;  they  had  the  hair  of  their  beads 
very  few  of  them  longer  than  their  eaia, 
whereupon  it  came  to  pass  that  those  who 
usually  with  their  cries  attended  at  West- 
minster, were  by  a  nickname  called  Koond- 
heads."  Aooording  to  Ruahworth  the  word 
was  first  used  on  Dec.  27,  1641,  by  David 
Hide,  a  disbanded  officer,  who  in  one  of  the 
riots  drew  his  sword,  and  swore  to  "  cut  the 
throats  of  those  round-headed  dogs  that 
bawled  against  bishops,*'  "which  passionatij 
expression  of  his,  as  far  as  I  could  ever  learn, 
was  the  first  mentioning  of  that  term  or  com- 
pellation  of  Roundheads,  which  afterwards 
grew  so  general"  "From  theeo  contestations," 
says  Clarendon  of  the  tumults,  **the  two 
terms,  Roimdhead  and  Cavalier,  came  to  he 
received  in  discourse,  and  were  afterwaids 
continued  <for  the  most  succinct  distinction  d 
affections  throughout  the  quarrel."  A  dif- 
ferent story  of  the  origin  of  the  namB  ^ 
given  by  Baxter.  **  Some  say  it  was  beoaose 
the  queen  at  8trafford*s  trial  asked  who  that 
round-headed  man  was,  meaning  P3nn,becaiue 
he  spoke  so  strongly.'*  The  name  did  not 
go  out  of  use  till  after  the  Revolution. 

Clarendon,  Hi$t.  oftke  RAiXLitm;  Boahwortl). 
Hittorioal  CoUeeti»ne;  Baxter,  X^e;  Lilly, 
Monarohy  or  no  Mcnarekg,  [C.  H.  F.] 

Bound  Bollill,  Thb  (Febroaiy,  1789), 
an  engagement  in  writing  between  twenty 
Irish  peers  and  thirty-seven  oonomoners,  with 
the  Duke  of  Leinster  at  their  head.  It  bound 
all  who  signed  it  to  make  government  impos* 
sible  if  the  viceroy  punished  any  one  of  ^em 
by  loss  of  office  or  pension  for  their  conduct 
on  the  regency  question.  Lord  Buckinghan 
encountered  them  by  an  increase  of  the 
pension  list,  and  the  majority  being  frightened 
consented  to  give  up  their  engagement  'Hw 
Duke  of  Leinster  and  the  Ponsonbys,  how- 
ever, held  out  and  lost  their  places. 

IROIUI,  John  {d.  1491),  chaplain  at  Guy- 
diff-upon-Avon  in  "Warwickshire,  wrote  » 
SiBiory  of  England  from  the  earliest  times  to 
the  accession  of  Henry  VII.  It  is  of  »me 
importance  for  the  reigns  of  Edward  IV.  and 
Richard  III.  This  work  has  been  puhliabed 
by  Heame. 


(  895  ) 


^<^*w 


is  said  to  have  been  the  daughter 
of  Hengest,  and  to  have  become  the  wife  of 
Vortigfem.  But  there  is  absolutely  no  autho- 
nty  for  her  existence,  and  her  name  is  cer- 
tainly not  Teutonic.  The  legend  of  Eowena 
and  Vortigem  is  told  by  Oeoffrey  of  Mon- 
mouth. 

Aowton  Saathf  The  Battle  of,  was 
fought  during  the  Great  Hebellion  (Sept.  24, 
1645).  After  Naseby  Charles  I.  tooic  refuge 
in  Wales,  where  he  strove  to  collect  fresh 
troops.  In  the  middle  of  September  he 
formed  the  plan  of  marching  northwards  to 
join  Montrose,  and  raisiug  the  siege  of  Ches- 
ter on  his  way.  The  king  himself,  with  part 
of  his  forces,  succeeded  in  entering  Chester, 
'which  was  not  completely  invested.  But  the 
besiegers  under  Sir  WUliam  Brereton  were 
reinforced  by  a  body  of  Yorkshire  horse 
under  Colonel  Poyntz  and  Sir  Marmaduke 
Liangdale,  who  commanded  the  troops  charged 
with  the  duty  of  raising  the  siege,  attacked 
raahly,  and  was  taken  between  the  forces  of 
Brereton  and  Poyntz,  and  utterly  routed. 
He  lost  300  killed  and  wounded,  and  1,000 
prisoners.  This  defeat,  and  the  news  of 
Montrose's  defeat  at  Philiphaugh,  obliged 
the  Icing  to  abandon  his  plan. 

FhiUipe,  Civa  War  tn  WaUt, 


^vrtflly  one  of  the  four  burghs,  was 
surrendered  to  the  English  (1 1 74),  as  security 
for  the  fulfilment  of  the  Treaty  of  Falaise  (q.v.), 
being  restored  to  Scotland  by  Kichard I.  (11 86) . 
In  1216  it  was  burnt  by  John.  In  1296  it 
was  given  up  to  Edwai'd  I.  In  1312  it  was 
surprised  by  the  Black  Douglas;  and  having 
been  regained  by  the  English,  was  in  1342 
stormed  by  Sir  Alexander  Kamsay.  In  1346 
it  was  retaken  by  the  English,  who,  although 
the  town  was  destroyed  in  the  reign  of 
James  I.,  held  the  castle  until  1460,  when  it 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Scotch  after  a 
severe  siege,  in  which  James  II.  was  killed  by 
the  bursting  of  a  cannon.  The  abbey  of 
Hoxburgh  was  destroyed  by  the  Earl  of 
Hertford  (1545). 

Royal  ConuniiSions  of  inqmry  may 
be  appointed  by  the  crown  at  its  discretion, 
or  upon  the  direction  of  an  Act  of  Parliament, 
or  upon  the  address  of  one  or  both  Houses  of 
Parliament ;  and  it  is  only  to  obtain  an  inquiry 
into  corrupt  practices  at  elections  that  it  is 
necessary  (by  the  Act  16  &  16  Vict.,  c.  57) 
that  both  Houses  should  unite  in  the  address. 
It  is  not  usual  to  appoint  members  of  the 
government  unless  the  inquiry  affects  their 
own  departments,  or  is  non 'political ;  and 
members  of  a  commission  who  subsequently 
enter  office  are  usually  superseded,  or  abstain 
from  signing  the  report.  In  commissions 
appointed  under  an  Act  of  Parliament  the 
members  are  sometimes  nominated  in  the  Act 
itself  (the  first  example  of  this  being  the 
Commission  on   Land   Tax   Assessment   in 


1692).  But  in  a  Eoyal  Commission  strictly 
so  called,  names  are  not  usually  conmiuni- 
cated  to  Parliament  beforehand.  A  commis- 
sion cannot  compel  the  production  of  docu- 
ments, or  the  giving  of  evidence,  nor  can  it 
administer  an  oath,  except  by  special  Act  of 
Parliament.  The  most  notable  cases  of  the 
conferment  of  such  authority  are  ( 1 )  the  Act  of 
1867,  which  not  only  gave  the  above  powers  to 
the  Trades  Union  Commission,  but  also  em- 
powered it  to  Indemnify  witnesses  upon  con- 
dition of  complete  confession,  and  (2)  the  Act 
of  1888,  relating  to  the  Irish  Parliamentary 
party,  and  conferring  similar  powers. 

A  good  accoant  of  the  procedure  in  Soyal 
Couiiniasioiui  will  be  foand  iu  Alpheas  Todd, 
ParUamsaiary  GowmmmU  in  England,  ii.,  p. 
345.  [W.  J.  A.] 

Boyal  Sociaty,  The,  grew  out  of  two 
small  groups  of  friends  who  met  occasionally 
in  London  and  Oxford  to  discuss  scientific 
questions  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  These  were  organised  into  a  definite 
society  in  1660;  in  1662  it  was  granted  a 
charter  by  Charles  II.,  and  incorporated  aa 
the  Royal  Society.  The  king,  as  well  as  his 
brother  James,  placed  their  names  in  the  list 
of  members.  Its  early  meetings  took  place 
in  Gresham  College,  and  afterwards  in  (>ane 
Court;  they  were  transferred  in  1782  to 
Somerset  House,  and  to  Burlington  House  in 

1867. 

Spiat,  Hist,  of  Roval  Society,  1067 ;  Weld,  Ht$t, 
<lf  Boyal  8oci€ty,  1847;  TranMctvms  (from  1665). 

Rudyard,  Sir  Bbkjamin.  In  the  Parlia- 
ment of  1621  Kudysurd,  who  had  recently  been 
appointed  Surveyor  of  the  Court  of  Wards, 
was  one  of  *^  that  band  of  politicians  who 
hoped  to  reconcile  a  stirring  foreign  policy 
with  the  fullest  devotion  to  the  crown.*'  In 
1624  he  was  put  forward  as  the  exponent  of 
Buckingham's  new  policy  of  war  with  Spain,, 
and  in  subsequent  Parliaments  was  *Hhe 
usual  mouthpiece  of  the  government."  At 
the  beginning  of  the  Long  Parliament  he  was 
so  far  convinced  of  abuses  in  the  government 
that  he  proposed  the  removal  of  evil  coun- 
sellora  from  the  king,. though  without  punish- 
ing anyone ;  and  when  the  Bishops  Exclusion 
Bul  was  being  discussed,  he  advocated  in  a 
vague  way  a  return  to  primitive  episcopacy. 
He  seems  to  have  been  a  well-meaning  dealer 
in  useless  commonplaces,  without  any  force  of 
character. 

The  index  to  QaTdiner,  Hist,  of  England,  giveB 
references  to  his  chief  speeches. 

Bnfiui.    [William  II.] 

Rnllioii  Greeii,THB  Battle  of  (Novem- 
ber, 1666),  resulted  in  a  defeat  of  the  insurgent 
Covenanters  under  Colonel  Wallace  at  the 
hands  of  the  royal  troops  led  by  Greneral 
Dalziel.  Bullion  Crreen  is  a  valley  dividing 
the  Pentland  Hills. 

Rmnbold,  Kichard  {d.  1686),  was  an 
officer  in  Cromweirs  regiment.    He  guarded 


Sum 


(  896  ) 


the  scaffold  at  Charles  I.'s  execution,  and  was 
present  at  Dunbar  and  Worcester.  After  the 
Bestoration  he  settled  down  at  the  Rye  House 
near  Hoddesdon  in  Hertfordshire.  Here,  in 
conjunction  with  others,  he  planned  the  as- 
sassination of  Charles  II.  and  the  Duke  of 
York.  The  conspiracy  was  discovered,  and 
Rumbold  had  to  flee.  In  1685  he  took  part  in 
Argyle^s  invasion,  was  captured  and  put  to 
death.  "  Surrounded  by  cowardly  and  factious 
associates,"  says  Macaulay,  "  he  had,  through 
the  whole  campaign,  behaved  himself  like  a 
soldier  trained  in  the  school  of  the  groat  Pro- 
tector, had  in  council  strenuously  supported 
the  authority  of  Argyle,  and  had  in  the  field 
been  distinguished  by  tranquil  intrepidity." 

Sump.    [Long  Pabliambnt.] 

SuneSf  or  Eunic  characters,  comprise  the 
alphabet  used  by  the  Teutonic  nations.  There 
were  sixteen  letters  in  this  alphabet,  which  was 
ascribed  to  the  god  Odin  (b.c.  608).  Probably  . 
it  was  introduced  by  Phoenician  traders  to  the 
people  living  on  the  Baltic  coast. 

Snineet  Singh   {b.   1780,  d,   1839). 

Upon  the  fall  of  the  Mogul  empire,  its  terri- 
tories were  divided  between  the  Mahrattas  in 
the  south  and  the  Sikhs,  a  religious  sect,  in 
the  Punjaub.  It  was  the  work  of  Runjeet 
Singh,  the  son  of  a  sirdar  of  one  of  the  Sikh 
principalities,  to  weld  the  loose  Sikh  con« 
federacy  into  a  kingdom.  Ghuning,  in  1799, 
the  governorship  of  Lahore  in  return  for  the 
aid  he  had  given  to  Zeman  Shah  of  Afghan- 
istan, he  practised  upon  the  religious  fana- 
ticism of  his  Sikh  countrymen,  and  organised 
the  **  khalsa  "  or  **  the  liberated  *'  into  an  army 
under  European  officers,  which  resembled  in 
many  points  the  Ironsides  of  Cromwell.  He 
speedily  conquered  the  neighbouring  sirdars, 
bat  he  found  himself  shut  in  on  the  east  by 
the  river  SuUej,  the  boundary  of  the  British 
territory.  He  was  wise  enough  to  make  a 
treaty  of  peace  with  the  English  in  1809,  and 
to  this  he  was  faithful  till  his  death.  He 
captured  Moultan  in  1817,  Peshawur  in  1819, 
and  Cashmere  in  1819,  .and  in  that  year  as- 
sumed the  tiUe  of  Maharajah  (King  of 
Kings).  The  Afghans  inflicted  upon  him  a 
defeat  in  1836,  but  his  authority  was  too  firm 
to  be  shaken  by  disaster,  and  he  seemed  to 
leave  behind  him  a  firmly -established  power 
on  his  death  in  1839. 

Hunter,  Indian  Empire,  p.  312. 

Sunnymede  was  the  name  of  the  small 
island  inthe  Thames  near  Staines,  at  which 
the  Great  Charter  was  signed  by  John,  June 
15,  1215.    [Magna  Cabta.] 

Supert,  P&iNCE  {b.  1619,  d.  1682),  was 
the  third  son  of  Frederick  V.,  Elector  Pala- 
tine, and  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  James  I. 
Upon  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  between 
king  and  Parliament,  Rupert  received  the 
command  of  the  Hoyalist  cavalry,  and  took 
part  in  all  the  important  engagements  of  the 


first    Civil   War.     He    showed    impetoooi 
courage,  but   littie   judgment,  and  to  this 
defect  tiie  Eoyalist  defeat  at  Matston  Moor 
was  largely  due.    His  surrender  of  Bristol  in 
August,  1615,  caused  Charles  to  deprive  him  of 
his  command.     In   1648,   however,  he  was 
g^ven  command  of  the  Boyalist  fleet,  and 
showed  considerable  skill  in  eluding  Blake. 
At  last,  in  1651,  Blake  inflicted  on  him  & 
crushing  defeat  and  destroyed  most  of  hut 
vessels.    With  the  remnant,  Rupert  escaped 
to  the  West  Indies,  where  he  carried  on  t 
buccaneering  warfEire  against  English  mer- 
chantmen till   1653,   when  he  managed  to 
reach  France.    After  the  Bestoration  he  again 
obtained  high  naval  command,  and  did  good 
service  under  Monk  in  the  war  against  the 
Dutch.    The  later  years  of  his  life  were  spoit 
in  scientific   researches,  Rupert  taking  the 
neatest  interest  in  the  proceedings  (rf  the 
Royal  Society,  of  which  he  was  a  leading 
member. 

Clarendon,  Hist,  o/  Uu  RtUXHen;  Priser 
Ritpwt  and  (fc«  Cavaliers;  Sanfdard,  StwUmtj 
ih9  Great  ROMUm, 

Snshwoxth,  John  {b,  1607,  d.  1690),  i 
member  of  Lincoln's  Inn,  was  appoizited 
Assistant  Clerk  to  the  Commons  at  the  open- 
ing of  the  Long  Parliament,  became  in  1644 
secretary  to  his  relative,  Sir  Thomas  Fair&i. 
in  1652  one  of  the  committee  iox  the  refoim 
of  the  common  law,  and  M.P.  for  Berwick  in 
the  Parliaments  of  1658  and  1660.  After  the 
Restoration  he  was  for  some  years  in  ob- 
scurity, but  in  1677  he  was  appointed  secre- 
tary to  Lord  Keeper  BridgemMn,  and  appears 
in  1679  and  1681  again  as  M.P.  for  Berwick. 
In  1684  he  was  arrested  for  debt,  and  died  in 
the  King's  Bench  Prison  in  1690.  His 
position  gave  him  opportunities  for  witnessing 
the  most  important  events  of  the  period,  and 
his  Colleetiona  of  Private  FoMoge*  of  SUte, 
Weighty  Matters  of  Law,  and  Bemarkuble  Fn- 
eeedingt  in  Five  ParliamenU,  diiefly  drawn  up 
from  his  own  shorthand  notes  of  debates  and 
from  State  papers,  is  one  of  the  most  valoahle 
sources  of  information  for  the  years  it  covers. 

The  CoIUctibtu  ia  in  eight  vola.  Thev  are  thus 
arraiig«d  :~Vol.  1.  a61fr-1089),  ppbluhed  169: 
Tols.  li.  and  iii.,  forming  Fart  H.  (162»-lSi(>l 
1680 ;  Trial  o/Lord  Btraffwd,  nsnallv  coonted  tf 
vol.  Tiii. ,  in  the  same  vear  1680 ;  vou.  iv.  and  t^ 
forming  Part  IIL  (1640—1645).  169S ;  vols,  vi 
and  vii!,  forming  Part  IT.  <1645>-1648),  1701- 
Though  fairljr  impartial,  an  ontcTj  was  need 
againit  them,  and  Nalaon'a  Jmpariud  CtXititiisiM 
appealed  in  1682—83  as  a  ooirective  trooi  the 
loyalist  aide.  [W.  J.  A] 

&n88el,  Ladt  Frances  {b.  1638,  d,  1721]. 
the  youngest  child  of  Oliver  CromwelL  Ac« 
cordmg  to  Burnet,  Charles  11.  thought  of 
asking  for  her  hand  to  secure  his  own  rest^ 
ration,  but  this  is  scarcely  probable.  In  1657 
she  became  the  wife  of  Robert  Bich,  grandson 
of  Lord  Warwick,  who,  however,  died  in  three 
months.  She  subeequentiy  married  Sir  John 
EuBsel,  by  whom  i^e  had  a  large  family. 


(.  897  ) 


SuMiOllt  The  Family  of,  was  ono  of  the 
most  ancient  in  Dorsetshire.  In  1606,  during^ 
the  brief  stay  of  Philip  of  Austria  on  the 
coast  of  Dorsetshire,  where  he  was  compeUed 
to  put  in  by  stiess  of  weather,  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Mr.  John  Kussell,  and  re- 
commended him  for  employment  to  Henry 
VII.  Russell  received  an  appointment  in 
the  Privy  Chamber,  and  was  henceforth  con- 
stantly employed  in  the  public  service.  In 
1539  he  was  made  Lord  Kussell,  and  in  1542 
Karl  of  Bedford,  receiving  large  grants  of 
tho  confiscated  lands  of  the  abbeys  of  Wobum 
and  Tavistock.  In  May,  1694,  William, 
fifth  earl,  was  created  Duke  of  Bedford. 

BiUiSell,    Edwa&d,    Eakl    of    Oupokd 
(d.  1651,  d,  1727),  was  the  grandson  of  Francis 
Russell,   fourth    Duke  qi   Bedford.     When 
his  kinsman  William,  Lord  Russell,  was  be- 
headed, he  retired  from  court.    He  joined  the 
Opposition,  and  was  one  of  the  seven  who 
signed  the  invitation  to  William  III.    On 
the  accession  of  William  he  was  placed  on 
the    Privy   Cotmcil.     He  began  in   1691  to 
intrigfue  with  James,  and  complained  bitterly 
to  'William  of  the   neglect  of   the    Whigs. 
In  1692  he  fought  the  battle  of  La  Hogue. 
James  had  imagined  that  the  English  fleet 
was    friendly   to  him,   and  trusted  the  as- 
surances   01    RusseU.      But   the    ill-timed 
declaration  of  the  exiled  kin?,  and  the  queen's 
spirited  letter  to  the  fleet,  had  quite  changed 
tho  mind  of  the  admiral.     He  went  from 
ship    to  ship   encouraging  the  crews,    who 
fought  bravely  and  won   a  great    victory. 
In  th«9  same  year  he  had  a  violent  quarrel 
with  Nottingham  because   he  decided  that 
the   summer  was  too  far  spent  for  further 
enterprise.    WiUiam  found  it  impossible  to 
keep  both  ministers  in  office,  and  therefore 
gave  Russell  a  rich  place  in  the  household. 
He  was  sent  to  the  Mediterranean  with  most 
of  the  English  and  Dutch  ships.     On  his  re- 
turn he  was  exceedingly  popular,  and   was 
elected  for  Middlesex  without  opposition.  On 
the  accession  of  the  Whig  Junto  to  power 
in  1696   Russell  became  First  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty.     In    1697  he    became    Earl    of 
Orford  and  Viscount  Barfleur.    In  1701  he 
was    impeached,    together    with    Portland, 
Somers,    and  Montague,   by  the   victorious 
Tories,    and  charged  with   complicity  with 
the  crimes  of  Captain  Kidd,  an  accusation 
so  absurd  that  it  soon  fell  to  the  ground. 
During  the  reiga  of  Anne  he  was  excluded 
from  office  imtil  1709,  when  he  became  First 
Lord  of  the  Admiralty  tiU  1710.     On  the 
accession  of  George  I.  (1714)  he  was  again 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  Admiralty  Com- 
mission, but  henceforth  he  took  but  little 
part  in  politics. 

Burnet,  Hi»L  of  hit  Own  Time;  Coze.  Marl- 
horough, 

AlUMelly  John  (d.  1494),  was  frequently 
ni8Tv-29 


employed  in  afiairs  of -state  by  Edward  IV., 
and  in  1476  was  made  Bishop  of  Rochester. 
He  was  translated  to  Lincoln  in  1480,  and' 
was  one  of  the  executors  of  Edward's  wilL. 
In  1483  Gloucester  appointed  him  Chancellor, 
which  oflioe  he  held  till  1486,  when  Richard, 
suspecting  him  of  treachery,  took  the  Great 
Seal  from  him.  The  rest  of  his  life  was  spent 
in  the  afEairs  of  his  bishopric. 

Bussell,  John,  Ea.kl  {b.  1792,  d.  1878), 
was  the  third  son  of  the  sixth  Duke  of  Bed- 
ford. He  was  educated  at  Edinburgh,  and 
entered  Parliament  in  1813  as  member  for 
Tavistock  in  the  Whig  interest.  In  1818  he 
took  up  the  question  of  Parliamentary  Reform 
and  moved  four  moderate  resolutions,  hence- 
forth specially  associating  himself  with  the 
Reform  movement,  and  annually  moving  a 
resolution  on  the  subject.  In  1828  he  carried 
a  motion  for  the  repeal  of  the  Test  and 
Corporation  Acts,  and  a  bill  was  subsequently 
passed  to  that  effect.  In  1830  he  beoEune 
Favmaster  of  the  Forces  under  Lord  Grey, 
and  was  entrusted  with  the  presentation  of 
the  Reform  Bill  to  the  House  (March  1, 1831}. 
His  reputation  was  greatly  increased  by  the 
ability  which  he  displayod  in  the  passage  of 
the  bill ;  and  when  Feel  gained  office,  Russell 
was  recognised  as  leader  of  the  Opposition. 
In  1835  he  became  Home  Secretary  under 
Melbourne,  and  in  1839  Secretary  for  War 
and  the  Colonies.  At  the  general  election  of 
1841  Russell  was  returned  for  London,  a  seat 
which  he  retained  for  twenty  years.  In  1845 
he  declared  himself  in  favour  of  the  repeal  of 
the  Com  Laws,  in  a  letter  to  his  constituents, 
and  in  1846  he  became  Prime  Minister. 
Four  years  later,  in  1850,  he  made  the  great 
mistake  of  countenancing  the  No-Popery 
agitation  by  his  Letter  to  the  Bishop  of  Durham 
upon  the  creation  of  a  Catholic  episcopate  in, 
England,  and  by  carrying  the  Ecclesiastical 
Titles  Bill,  which,  however,  remained  a  dead 
letter.  At  the  end  of  1851  he  quarrelled 
with  and  dismissed  Palmerston,  who  in  the 
next  year  brought  about  the  fall  of  the 
Russell  ministry.  In  Aberdeen's  ministry 
Russell  was  at  first  Foreign  Secretary,  and 
afterwards  President  of  the  Council ;  in  1855 
he  resigned,  and  came  hac-k  to  the  Foreign 
Office  under  Palmerston  in  1859.  In  1861 
he  was  created  Earl  RussoU,  and  became  again 
Prime  Minister  on  Palmerston*s  death  in 
1865.  He  was  defeated  in  1866  on  the 
Reform  Bill,  and  resigned.  He  never  after- 
wards held  office,  though  he  continued  to 
take  an  active  part  in  politics,  and  in  1869 
introduced  a  bill  empowering  the  crown  to 
confer  life -peerages.  Earl  Russell  was  a 
voluminous  writer,  and  edited  himself  selec- 
tions from  his  Speeches  and  Despatches  with 
introductions,  2  vols.,  1870. 

BuBSell, William,  Lord  {b.  1639,  d.  1683], 
the  third  son  of  the  fifth  Earl  of  Bedford, 


SOS 


(  898  ] 


&1UI 


appears  as  one  of  the  chiefs  of  the  Opposition 
towai'ds  the  dose  of  the  Long  Parliament  of 
Charles  II.  He  commenced  the  attack  upon 
the  Duke  of  York  which  led  up  to  the  Ex- 
clusion Bill,  by  moving  an  address  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  on  Nov.  4,  1678,  that 
the  duke  should  he  removed  from  the  royal 
councils.  So  popular  was  he  in  the  country, 
that  at  the  general  election  in  1679  he  was 
chosen  for  two  counties.  He  was  nominated 
a  member  of  the  Privy  Council  as  reorganised 
by  Temple,  but  it  was  impossible  that  a 
council  containing  such  discordant  elements 
-should  work  together,  and  the  Whig  leaders 
speedily  sought  their  dismissal.  During  the 
l!«xclusion  Bill  debates  Russell  was  practically 
leader  of  the  House,  and  it  was  he  who  took 
up  the  bill  to  the  Lords  (Nov.  15,  1680). 
But  the  court  was  victorious,  and  in  1683 
took  revenge  by  accusing  Bussell  of  partici- 
pation in  the  Rye  House  Plot,  though  it  is 
almost  certain  Ihat  Russell  and  his  friends 
had  merely  discussed  the  possibility  of  a 
popular  agitation  for  a  new  Parliament,  and 
did  not  contemplate  the  employment  of  force. 
He  was  tried  for  high  treason  at  the  Old 
Bailey  on  July  13,  1683,  declared  guilty,  and 
executed  on  the  21st,  refusing  to  the  last,  in 
spite  of  the  arguments  of  Tillotson  and 
Burnet,  to  assent  to  the  doctrine  of  non- 
resistance. 

Buniet,  Hist,  of  hx»  Ovon  Tim*}  Banke,  Kitt, 
of  Eng,,  iv.  ;  Macaulaj,  Hist,  of  Bng. 


Relations  with.  During  the 
Middle  Ages  there  were  practically  no  rela- 
tions between  England  and  tbe  barbarous 
kingdom  of  the  Czars.  The  English  captain, 
Chimcellor,  began  in  1653  both  commercial 
dealings  by  his  voyage  to  the  White  Sea,  and 
diplomatic  intercourse  by  bearing  to  Moscow 
a  letter  of  Queen  Mary  to  Ivan  the  Ter- 
rible. In  1568  this  mission  bore  fruit  in 
Ivan's  proposal  of  a  commercial  treaty  giving 
exclusive  rights  to  English  merchants,  and 
a  political  alliance  against  Poland  and 
Sweden ;  but  neither  of  these  was  ever  exe- 
cuted. In  1645  Alexis  Mikhailovitch  sent 
Gersim  Doktourol  to  England ;  but  on  finding 
the  king  to  whom  he  was  accredited  a  prisoner 
(»f  his  own  subjects,  the  envoy  withdrew  in 
disgust,  and  the  execution  of  Charles  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  expulsion  of  English  merchants 
from  Russia.  After  the  Restoration,  the  em- 
bassy of  Lord  Carlisle  restored  diplomatic  re- 
lations (1663)  ;  but  nothing  of  any  importance 
happened  until  Peter  the  Great's  famous  visit 
to  England  in  1697.  The  distant  friendship 
of  the  two  nations  was  readily  broken  in 
1717  by  the  cailition  of  Peter  with  Charles 
XII.  and  Alberoni,  with  the  intention,  among 
other  objects,  of  depriving  Hanover  of  Bremen 
and  Verden,  and  of  helping  the  Pretender  to 
the  English  throne.  But  these  projects  soon 
passed  away,  and  on  the  whole  friendly 
relations    between    the    two   countries  were 


maintained    for    the    greater    part  of  tbe 
eighteenth    century.     The  cloee  allianoe  of 
Russia  and  Austria,  the  notion  that  the  de- 
velopment of  Russia  would  help  in  keejRng 
down  France  and  its  northern  ally  SwcKlen, 
the  common  policy  of  maintaining  the  Otp 
faction    in    power    in    the    latter  coontiy, 
and  the   importance  of   the  trade  betvea 
the    two    nations,    all   helped    to   establish 
their  alliance.     In   1748  the  advance  of  a 
Russian  force  secured  for  England  and  her 
allies  the  Peac6  of  Aachen.    But  in  the  Seven 
Years'  War  Russia  did  her  beat  to  overthrow 
England's  ally,  Prussia.    Yet  Chatham  alvars 
maintained  the  i)olicy  of  the  Ruasian  alliance, 
and  in   1769  f&gland  assisted  the  fleet  of 
Alexis  Orlof  in  its  long  voyage  from  tk- 
Baltic    to    the  aid  of   the  revolted  Gr^^b, 
and  an  Englishman  conducted  the  fire-ahipf 
which    des^yed  the  Turkish    fleet  in  tk* 
Bay  of  Tchesme.    Less  justifiable  was  tk 
acquiescence  on  the  part  of  TCngland  in  the 
first  partition  of  Poland  in  the  year  1774: 
which  was  ill  requited  by  Catherine  Il/s 
abandonment,  in  the  latter  part  of  her  reign, 
of    the    English    alliance    in    favour  of  a 
connection    with    France.      Thus,  in  1786, 
Catherine    joined    the    Armed    Keutralitv. 
Little  less  offensive  to  England  was  her  cIok 
alliance  with  Joseph  II.,  whose  policy  in  tk 
Netherlands  was    diametrically  opposed  Xo 
that  of  the  English.    The  younger  Pitt  iw 
the  first  English  statesman  who  took  up  that 
position  of  hostility  to  Russia  which  in  lats 
times  became  so  generaL     While  Fox  elo- 
quently pleaded  for  a  continuance  of  the  old 
connection,  Pitt    formed    an    allianoe  inth 
Poland,  Prussia,  and    Sweden,  against  the 
"  Colossus  of  the  North  ; "  but  his  threste 
were  vain  to  prevent  Russia's  triumph  in  the 
Turkish  war,  and  the  inglorious  defeat  of 
Qiistavus  III.    of    Sweden.      The    stmggk 
against  revolutionary  France  brought  hack, 
however,  the  old  relations.     Catherine  in  her 
old  age   was  content  with  denouncing  the 
Revolution.    Paul  I.  joined  the  Second  Coali- 
tion, and  in  1799  English  and  Russian  tnx)p 
joined  to  fight  an  unsucc-essful  campaign  m 
Holland,  which  led  to  mutual  jeidousies  and 
recriminations.  As  a  result  Paul  formed  a  cloee 
connection  with  his  hero  Napoleon,  and  estab- 
lished a  second  Armed  Neutrality  in  the  north. 
After  Paul's  murder,  Alexander  I.   joined 
the  next  coalition,  but  from  1807  to  1812  his 
alliance  with  Napoleon  isolated  England  and 
allowed  the  establishment  of  the  Contuientil 
System.     After   1816  the  Tory  government 
kept  up  a  friendship  with  the  instigator  of 
the  Holy  Alliance.    The  judicious  policy  ^f 
Canning  of   joining  with  Rustda  to  obtain 
the  liberties  of  Greece  was  ignored  by  the 
ministry  which  called  Navarino  an  unlowarf 
event.     The  triumph  of  Liberalism  in  Kn^- 
land,   the  sympathy  excitod  by   the  Polish 
insurgents,  the  antagonism  of  interest  in  the 
Levant,  and,  before  long,  in  Asia  as  well 


But 


(8M  ) 


.gndnaUy  produced  a  BetUed  diyergenoe  be- 
tween the  two  countries,  cnhninating  In  the 
•Crimean  War,  and  nearly  leading  to  a  second 
explosion  in  1877.  [Crimean  Wax.]  In  1886, 
again,  serious  difficulties  arose  in  connection 
with  the  frontier  of  Afghanistan,  but  in  the 
end  it  was  agreed  to  refer  them  to  arbitration. 

Hermaim^«ie]UdU«  d«f  JBiM«ucfc«n  Stoats,  mad 
Bamband,  Migt.  of  Ruaaia,  are  good  general 
aoooanta  of  Soaeian  histoiy.  See  the  naklnyt 
Society's  poblicatioiia,  especially  Fletchers 
RuMo,  Horsley's  Riuaa,  and  Lord  Oarlisle's 
Stflotion  of  tkiriM  BmJbamiM,  for  the  early  irela* 
tions.  Schuyler,  Ufa  of  Pilar  th$  Qnat; 
Xinglake,  lavotion  oftha  Crimsa, 

[T.  F.  T.] 

Suthveily  Albxakder  (the  Master  of 
(yowrie),  conspired,  with  his  brother,  the  Earl 
of  Gowrie,  to  kidnap  King  James  VI.  at 
Oowrie  House,  and  to  convey  him  by  sea  to 
FastcasUe  ( 1 600) .  Ruthven,  having  prevailed 
upon  the  king  to  visit  his  brother's  castle, 
attacked  him  there,  but  was  himself  slain. 
This  affair  is  known  as  the  Gowrie  Conspiracy. 

SutllTeil,  The  Raid  op  (August,  1581), 
was  the  name  given  to  a  plot  formed  against 
Lennox  and  Arran,  the  favourites  of  James  VL , 
which  was  carried  out  by  seizing  the  young 
king  at  Castle  Ruthven,  and  committing  him 
to  the  charge  of  the  conspirators.  In  1682  an 
Act  of  Indemnity  was  passed  in  which  the 
thanks  of  the  nation  were  voted  to  the  Earls 
<jf  Gowrie,  Mar,  and  Gloncaim  for  their 
rescue  of  the  king  from  his  obnoxioas 
ministers.  In  1583,  however,  James  defeated 
the  Ruthven  party,  and  Gowrie  was  executed. 


Ltlaadf  Charles  Makkers,  Duke  op 
{h,  1754,  d,  1787),  was  appointed  Vicerov  of 
Ireland  by  Pitt  in  1783.  He  found  Ireland 
in  a  state  bordering  on  open  rebellion.  His 
firmness,  however,  prevented  a  proposed  con- 
gress from  meeting  (1 784) ;  and,  though  unable 
to  carry  the  commercial  treaty,  he  put  down 
the  Whiteboy  insurrection,  and  restored  in- 
ternal quiet 

SuHaad,  Henry  Manners,  2nd  Earl  of 
(d.  1563),  was  instrumental  in  procuring  the 
condemnation  of  Lord  Seymour  of  Sudely. 
In  1549  he  was  employed  in  the  relief  of  Had- 
dington, besieged  by  the  French ;  and  in  1553 
was  imprisoned  as  a  supporter  of  Lady  Jane 
(ilrey.  In  1558  he  collected  a  small  fleet  for 
the  relief  of  Calais,  but  was  too  late  to  save 
the  town. 

Sutlaildy  John  Jambs  Robrrt  Manners, 
7th  Dukb  of,  Conservative  statesman,  was 
bom  in  1818,  second  son  of  the  fifth  duke. 
In  his  youth  he  was  an  enthusiastic  member 
of  the  Young  England  party.  In  Lord 
Derby's  minisby  of  1852  he  was  first  Com- 
missioner of  Works,  an  office  which  he  held 
again  in  1858—59,  and  also  in  1866 — 67,  when 
he  had  a  seat  in  the  Cabinet.  From  1874  to 
1880,  and  again  in  1885 — 86,  he  was  Post- 
master-General, and  from  1886  to  1892  was 


Chancellor  of  the  Dachy  of  Lancaster.    He 
succeeded  to  the  dukedom  in  1888. 

Bgre  Kouaa  not.  The  (1683),  is  the 
name  given  to  a  conspiracy  f  onned  by  some  of 
the  extreme  Whigs  in  Charles  II.'s  reign,  aftei* 
the  failure  of  the  Exclusion  Bill ;  its  object  was 
the  murder  of  the  king  and  the  Duke  of  York. 
The  king  was  to  have  been  murdered  at  a 
place  called  the  Rye  House^  in  Hertfordshire ; 
but  the  plot  never  came  to  anything,  and  was 
revealed  to  the  court  by  traitors  among  those 
ooncemed  in  it.  It  is  not  probable  that  the 
prominent  Whig  leaders  were  privy  to  this 
scheme,  which  was  chiefly  formeaby  Rumbold 
and  some  of  the  more  violent  and  obscure 
members  of  the  party.  But  William,  Lord 
Russell,  Algernon  Sidney,  and  the  Earl  of 
Essex  were  arrested  for  oomplidty  in  it. 
Essex  died  in  the  Tower,  probably  by  his  own 
hand ;  Russell  was  condemned  on  the  evidence 
of  one  witness  and  executed,  together  with 
Sidney  (July  21,  1683),  at  whose  trial  unpub- 
lished writings  of  his  own  were  admitted  as 
evidence  agamst  him. 

Ttfananlaj,  Hiat.  of  Bna. ;  Burnet,  Htat.  of  hia 
Ohm  Timas  Mamoira  of  iTtUiam,  Lord  Buaaall, 

Bymer,  ThonuM  {b.  1639,  d.  1714), 
was  Dom  at  Northallerton,  and  educated  at 
Sidney  Sussex  College,  Cambridge.  In  1692 
he  received  the  appointment  of  historiographer 
royal,  but  he  died  in  povekty.  Rymer's  chief 
interest  to  the  studeut  of  English  history  is 
his  connection  with  the  work  called  Fadera. 
Early  in  the  seventeenth  century  began  tho 
publication  upon  the  Continent  of  general 
collections  of  treaties.  Such  works  became 
very  popular,  and  the  €k>dez  Jurit  Oentium 
Diplomatieua  of  Leibnitz  (1693)  seems  to  havo 
suggested  to  Halifax  and  Somers  the  ad- 
visability of  publishing  a  similar  collection 
for  England  at  the  national  expense.  The 
government  accepted  the  proposal,  and  en- 
trusted the  work  to  Rymer.  Fifteen  volumes 
appeared  during  his  lifetime,  and  five  subse- 
quently, covering  the  period  1101 — 1654.  It 
contains  an  immense  number  of  treaties, 
charters,  &c 

It  is  neoesaiTy  oaxefolljr  to  distinguish  the 
varioas  editioni*:— (i.)  Original,  15  vols.,  ed. 
Bymer  (ITOi— 1713),  the  later  Tolunes  departing 
from  the  original  plan,  and  inoluding  a  large 
numher  of  doooments  which  touch  only  domestic 
affairs;  10th vol.  (1715),  prepared  from  Bymer^s 
papers  by  hia  assistant,  Sanderson,  who  edited 
the  remaining  volumes ;  17th  (1717) ,  the  last  two 
being  still  more  miscellaneona  in  the  character  of 
their  contents.  An  18th  vol.  appeared  first  in  1726, 
but  was  withdrawn  on  account  of  the  remou> 
siranoes  of  the  Commons  against  the  breach  of 
privilege  committed  bv  printing  part  of  their 
JoiMrNal;  it  was  recalled  and  zeissned  (1731)» 
Two  more  volumes  were  published  in  17^  and 
1735.  Churchill  published  the  first  17  vols. ; 
Tonson  the  last  three,  (fi.)  Toiuon**  (1727— 
1729),  a  reprint  of  the  first  17  vols.  (ed.  Holmes), 
published  by  Tonson  through  subscription, 
(iii.)  Hapite  Q7S7-1745),  an  edition  of  the  first 
17voIs.,with  Hobnea's  correction  s.and  of  Sander- 
son's three  last  vols.,  jwiblished  in  10  vols,  at 
the  £bgue,  with  an  important  abridgment  b/ 


Bys 


(  900  ) 


Bmiii.  (iv.)  BMfrd  Ccmmimum  (1816—1890),  3 
▼olB.  in  6  parts,  and  a  pcnrtion  of  4th  voL  oovering 
the  period  down  to  188S,  with  additions.  To 
theee  mast  be  added :  (▼.)  SyUabut  of  Padera,  in 
Bnslteh,  br  Sir  Tho&  Hardy,  2  toIs.  (1869—1872). 
for  Seoord  Commission.  In  the  prefaces  to  this 
mofit  Talnable  work  a  fall  aoooont  and  criticism 
is  |dven  of  the  Tarioas  editjoniy 

[W.  J.  A.] 


Ths  Tbbaty  of  (Sept  10, 
16977»  teimiimted  the  war  which  had  began 
in  1689  between  France  and  the  coalition 
composed  of  the  Empire,  Spain,  England, 
Hzandenburg,  and  Holland.  Louis  had  opened 
negotiations  in  1696,  but  the  other  powers 
had  broken  them  ofL  At  length,  in  March 
(1697),  the  French  plenipotentiaries  as- 
uemblod  at  the  Hague,  ihoee  of  the  coalition 
at  Delft,  and  conferences  were  held  at  Hys* 
wick.  But,  impatient  of  delay,  Louis  and 
William  appointed  Idarshal  Bonfflers  and  the 
Duke  of  Portland  to  hold  private  meetings 
together.  Terms  of  peace  were  concluded 
(July  6).  Spain  and  the  Emperor  refused  to 
agree  to  them;  but  Spain  soon  gave  way, 
and  on  Sept.  10  the  treaty  was  oohduded 
between  Fnmce,  Holland,  Spain,  and  Eur- 
land.  The  terms  were  that  Fnuice  should 
acknowledge  William  as  King  of  England, 
Anne  as  his  successor,  and  that  all  assistance 
should  be  withdrawn  from  James.  France 
also  surrendered  all  conquests  made  since  the 
Treaty  of  Nimeguen,  and  placed  the  chief 
fortresses  of  the  Low  Countries  in  the  hands 
of  Dutch  garrisons..  A  month  later,  a  treaty 
was  concluded  between  Louis  and  the  Em- 
peror. France  restored  all  towns  captured  since 
the  Treaty  of  Nimeguen,  with  the  exception  of. 
Strasburg,  together  with  Freibuig,  Breisach, 
Philipebnrg,  and  the  French  fortifications  on 
the  nght  :bank  of  the  Rhine.  Lorraine  was 
restored  to  its  duke,  who,  however,  granted  a 
passage  through  lus  dominions  for  French 
troops.  The  Elector  of  Cologne  was  recog- 
nised, and  the  rights  of  the  Duchess  of 
Orleans  upon  the  Palatinate  compromised  for 
money.  '*The  Prince  of  Orange,"  says 
Kanke,  '^who  was  formerly  spoken  of  con- 
temptuously as  the  little  lord  of  Breda,  had 
won  himself  a  position  in  the  presence  of 
which  the  mightiest*  monarch  the  western 
world  had  seen  for  many  a  centu^"  was  com- 
pelled to  give  way." 

Hanke,   Eiat.  of  Eng. ;    Eoch   and   Schoell, 
Hintotre  dn  Traitis  de  Paix, 

a 

8a,  DoM  Pantalbon,  brother  of  the  Portu- 
guese ambassador  in  London,  killed  a  man  in 
a  fray  (Nov.  22,  1653).  He  took  refuge  at 
the  embassy,  where  it  was  maintained  that 
he  was  responsible  only  to  his  own  sovereign. 
Arrested  and  tried,  and  induced  to  plead 
by  the  threat  of  the  peine  forte  et  dure^  he 
was  condemned.  Cromwell,  while  pardoning 
his  accomplices,  was  inexorable  against  the 


prindpaL  *  On  July  10  8a  was  execniedy 
amidst  great  popular  rejoicings.  CromveQ  b 
firm  government  was  no  respecter  of  penoiu, 
and  not  even  the  divinity  which  hedgi4 
ambassadors  suffered  them  to  violate  th» 
municipal  law  of  the  state  in  which  theyven 
sojourning. 

SiaUTrUa»:  Sehiifer,  QeatSkUskte vmPmiutA. 

Saadnt  Ali  {d,  1814),  thebrother  of  Aaaf- 
ul-DowIah,  was  by  a  treaty  made  by  Sir  John 
Shore  in  1788  assigned  the  vacant  throne  of 
Onde,  upon  tenns  which  gave  the  English 
the  right  of  garrisoning  the  importantplacea, 
and  completely  subjected  Oude  to  the  £igM 
power.  Saadut  Au  rapidly  became  so  un- 
popular that  he  lost  all  control  over  lus  ovn 
troops,  who,  while  useless  for  the  defence  o! 
Oude,  remained  a  source  of  great  expense. 
After  the  insurrection  of  Yijder  Ali,  which 
had  to  be  put  down  by  British  troops,  Lcid 
Welleeley  insisted  peremptorily  on  thnr 
dismissal  In  1800  the  Nawab  announced 
that  he  intended  to  abdicate  in  favour  of 
one  of  his  sons.  Lord  Wellesley  infoimed 
him  that  he  would  consent  to  the  abdica- 
tion provided  it  was  made  in  favour  cf 
the  Company.  The  Nawab  thereupon  with- 
drawing his  abdication,  LK}rd  n  ellesley 
ordered  him  to  choose  between  the  cession  of 
the  whole  or  part  of  his  dominions.  After 
trying  every  possible  means  of  escape,  the 
Treaty  of  LucKnow  was  concluded  (Kov.  10, 
1801).  Its  provisions  were  that  the  Vizier 
should  cede  a  large  territory,  and  in  retoni 
should  be  released  from  all  future  demands 
on  account  of  Onde  or  its  dependencies ;  that 
the  Company  should  always  protect  snd  de- 
fend the  Vizier,  and  that  he  should  only 
support  a  few  of  his  own  troops  for  reveno? 
purposes ;  that  the  English  should  guarantee 
to  him  his  remaining  territories ;  &t  io  the 
exercise  of  his  authority  he  should  in  all  case 
be  glided  by  the  advice  of  the  officers  of  the 
Company.  On  Jan.  10,  1802,  Lord  Welleskr 
and  the  Vizier  met  at  Cawnpore,  where  the 
former  insisted  on  such  u  reform  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  Oude  as  should  remove  the 
evils  and  abuses  which  had  so  long  corTupt«d 
all  the  state  machinery.  Various  reniOT- 
strances  were  at  intervals  addressed  to  him 
on  his  government,  especially  during  Lo™ 
Minto*s  administration,  but  he  had  no  mind 
for  reforms  which  would  embarrass  hia  ar- 
rangements and  curtail  his  revenue.  He 
died  in  1814. 

HiU,  AM.  of  India;  WelleOe^  DespaidM. 

Sabert,  King  of  the  East  Saxons,  and 
nephew  of  Ethelbert,  King  of  Kent,  received 
Christianity  from  Augustine,  and  instituted 
the  bishopric  of  London  with  Mellitus forito 
first  bishop.  On  his  death,  his  sons  mlapeed 
into  heathenism. 

Sac  and  8oc  was  an  Anglo-Saxon  P^^'f'^ 
also  extensively  used  in  the  Nfflnnsn  period, 


Sao 


(901  ) 


meaning  the  right  of  juriBdiction  pofiseesed 

by     private    indiTiduals.      When   extenmTe 

tracts  of  f olldand  were  tnmed  in  bookland, 

in  favour  of  churches,   monastic  bodies,  or 

private  individuals,  such  jurisdiction '  as  had 

been  previously  vested  in  the  king,  in  or  out 

of  the  popular  courts,  was  transferred  to  the 

recipient  of  the  grant.     Where  previously 

the  royal  officers  had  sat  in  judgment,  the 

lord   or  the  lord's  reeves  now  sat;  and  the 

profits  of  the  jurisdiction  now  went,  not  to 

the    national  exchequer,  but  to  that  of  ^  the 

lord.     And,  as  in  the  later  Anglo-Saxon  times 

the  tendency  was  for  all  folkland  to  pass  into 

bookland,  **  the  national  courts  became  more 

and  more  the  courts  of  the  landowners.    The 

ancient  process  was  retained,  but  exerdsed 

by  men  who  derived  their  title  from  the  new 

source  of  justice.'*    (Stubhs.)    The  grants  of 

sac  and  toe  did  not  as  a  rule  give  immunity 

{rom  the  county  courts,  though  they  did  from 

the  hundred  coiu-ts.  They  became,  in  fact,  the 

l)asis  of   the  later  manor  court  leet,  which 

exercised  petty  criminal  jurisdiction  over  the 

tenants  of  the  manor.    The  name  is  derived 

from  two  words,  one  of  which  {mch)  properly 

means  a  thing,  and  so  presumably  a  thing  in 

dispute    and    litigation ;    the    other    [soen), 

jurisdiction.     But,  as  Bishop  Stubbs  says, 

**  the  form  is  an  alliterative  jingle  which  wiU 

not  bear  dose  analysis." 

Stubbs,  Const.  Hut.,  i.  $  73 ;  EUis,  Introduo- 
tum  to  Domesday. 

Saolieverell,  Henry,  D.D.   (d,  1724), 
the  son  of  a  Low  Church  clergyman,  entered 
the   Church,  and  early  attached  himself  to 
the  school  of  Laud.     He  became  a  fellow  of 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford.     In  1705  he  was 
elected  chaplain  of  St.  Saviour's,  Southwark. 
In  November,  1710,  he  preached  his  celebrated 
sermon  on  "  The  Perils  of  False  Brethren  both 
in  Church  and  State,"  a  tirade  against  the 
Revolution   principles,  Dissenters,    and    the 
Whig  ministry,  especially  Godolphin,  whom 
he  attacked  under  the  name  of  Volpone,  or 
Old  Fox.     It  is  said  that  40,000  copies  of 
this  sermon  were  sold.    The  ministr}'  were 
naturally  angry,  and  Sunderland  proposed  that 
•Siicheverell  should  be  impeached.    The  idea 
>vas    taken  up  by   Godolphin,  but  opposed 
by  Somers  and  Marlborough.    Sacheverell's 
answer   to    the    articles    was  uncompromis- 
ing.   When  it  was  decided  to  bring  him  to 
tnal,  the  Commons  resolved  to  attend  West- 
minster Hall  in  a  body.    It  was  soon  quite 
clear  that  the  sympathies   of   the  populace 
were  all  on  his  side.     "  Sacheverell  and  the 
Church : ''  became  a  popular  cry.    At  the  close 
of  the  trial,   Sacheverell  read   an    eloquent 
defence,  supposed  to  have  been  writt<m  for 
him  hy  Atterbury.      The  Lords  declared  him 
guilty  by  sixty-nine  to   fifty-two.     He  was 
suspended  for  tluree  years,  and  his  sermon 
was  burnt  by  the  common  hangman;  but  a 
motion  that  he  should  be  incapable  of  prefer- 
ment was  thro#n  out.     The  sentence  was 


considered  an  acquittal;  a  living  was  bestowed 
on  him  in  Wales,  and  his  journey  thither 
was  like  a  royal  progress.  The  queen  saw 
how  unpopular  the  ministry  had  become,  and 
hence  was  encoiuaged  to  carry  out  her  pkns 
for  its  overthrow.  [Anxb.]  After  the  period  of 
Sacheverell's  suspension  was  over,  the  queen 
presented  him  with  the  living  of  St.  Andrew's, 
Holbom.  His  first  sermon,  on  the  text, 
'*  Father,  forgive  them,  for  they  know  not 
what  they  do,"  he  sold  for  £100.  The  Com- 
mens,  to  mark  their  disapproval  of  the  con- 
duct of  the  previous  ministry,  appointed  him 
to  preach  before  them  on  Ascension  Day. 
Burnet's  views  of  his  character  are  hardly 
overdrawn :  *'  He  was  a  bold,  insolent  man, 
with  a  very  small  measure  of  rehgion,  virtue, 
learning,  or  ^ood  sense ;  but  he  resolved  to 
force  himself  into  popularity  and  proferment 
by  the  most  petulant  railings  at  JMssenters 
and  Low  Churchmen  in  several  sermons  and 
libels,  written  without  chasteness  of  style  or 
liveliness  of  expression." 

Burton,  Enyn  of  C^tMnAnnt;  Boyer,  AnndJU; 
Bomet,  Hi«t.  of  his  Own  Timt^ 

Backet's  Harbour,  The  Battle  of 
(1813),  was  fought  on  Lake  Ontario,  between 
the  English  and  Canadians  under  Sir  George 
Prevost,  and  the  Americans  under  the  com- 
mand of  Greneral  Brown.  Ihe  advantage 
lay  with  the  Americans. 

Saekville,  Lord  Gborob  (b.  1716,  d. 
1785),  was  the  son  of  Charles,  Buke  of  Dorset. 
He  served  at  the  battles  of  Bettingen  and 
Fontenoy,  and  fought  under  the  Duke  of 
Cumberland  at  Culloden.  In  1753  he  was 
sent  as  secretary  to  Ireland,  and  quarrelled 
with  the  Speaker,  Boyle.  In  1758  he  refused 
the  command  on  Uie  coast  of  Britanny,  prefer- 
ring to  serve  in  Flanders,  on  the  ground  that 
he  was  ''tired  of  buccaneering."  He  com- 
manded the  English  and  German  cavalry  on 
the  right  of  the  allies  under  Ferdinand  of 
Brunswick  at  the  battle  of  Minden,  and  when 
orders  were  sent  him  to  charge,  he  obstinatelv 
refused  to  do  so,  affecting  to  misunderstand 
the  order,  probably  from  motives  of  jealousy. 
After  enduring  several  slights  from  Ferdi- 
nand, he  resigned  his  command,  and  on  his 
return  home,  a  court-martial  adjudged  him 
unfit  to  serve  in  any  military  capacity.  On 
the  death  of  Greorge  II.,  he  attempted  to 
return  to  court.  In  the  year  1760  he  was 
elected  member  for  Hythe;  and  in  1762  wo 
find  him  complaining  of  the  expenses  of 
the  war.  In  1766  he  was  restored  to  the 
Privy  Council.  In  1770,  in  consequence  of 
inheriting  an  estate,  he  assumed  the  name  of 
Grermain.  In  the  following  year  he  fought  a 
duel  with  Governor  Johnstone.  In  1775  he 
was  made  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Colonies, 
but  his  militar}'  knowledge  and  talents  ill- 
atonod  for  his  rash  and  violent  temper.  Ho 
quarrelled  with  his  subordinates,  especially 
Sir  Guy  Carleton  and  Sir  William'  Howe,  and 


8ae 


(  902  ) 


in  1778  threatened  to  resign,  in  a  fit  of  anger 
on  Carleton's  being  appointed  Governor  of 
Charlemont.  He  superintended  the  prepara- 
tions for  the  American  War.  In  the  year 
1782,  in  order  to  rid  themselves  of  him,  the 
ministry  persuaded  the  king  to  raise  him  to 
the  peerage.  There  was  great  outcry  at  this, 
and  his  first  speech  in  the  House  of  Lords 
was  an  attempt  to  remove  the  imputation  of 
cowardice  at  Minden.  We  subsequently  find 
him  acknowledging  the  fact  that  the  king 
was  his  own  minister.  Lord  Sackville  was  a 
man  of  undoubted  talents  and  great  ambition, 
but  of  a  violent  temperament,  which  urged 
him  to  ill-judged  courses. 

Walpold,  M§moir» ;  Sismondi.  Ht«t.  d«  Franee; 
Leckj,  Hiti.  of  the  BighUenth  Centwy ;  Staa^ 
hope,  Sitt.  of  Eng. 

SftOkTille,  Sir  Richard  (d.  1566),  the 
lather  of  the  mmous  Lord  Buckhurst,  was  a 
man  of  great  financial  abilities,  which  he  so 
made  use  of  to  his  own  advantage  as  to  gain 
the  nickname  of  '*  Fill  Sack."  Under  Queen 
Mary  he  was  a  CSatholic,  and  Chancellor  of 
the  Court  of  Augmentations  ;  under  Eliza- 
beth, a  Protestant,  and  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer. 

Sadleir'8  Case  (1857).  Mr  James 
Sadleir,  member  for  Tipperaxy,  had  been 
deeply  concerned  with  his  brother,  John 
ISadleir,  member  for  SUgo,  in  a  series  of 
fraudulent  banking  transactions.  On  the 
discovery,  John  Badleir  committed  suicide 
and  James  Sadleir  fled.  The  latter  was 
thereupon  formally  expelled  from  the  House 
of  Commons  (Feb.  19),  on  the  motion  of  the 
Attorney-General  for  Ireland. 

A.  M.  SuUivan,  Ntw  IrtHandf  chaps,  ziv.,  xv. 

Sadler.  Sir  Ralph  {b.  1607,  d.  1587),  a 
prot^g6  of  Thomas  Cromwell,  was  much 
thou^t  of  by  Henry  VIII.  for  the  skill  and 
abili^'  which  he  displayed  as  a  diplomatist. 
In  1539  he  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  James 
v.  of  Scotland,  to  endeavour  to  detach  him 
from  his  alliance  with  France,  and  to  aid  the 
cause  of  the  Reformed  religion  in  Scotland, 
and  fulfilled  his  mission  with  such  discretion, 
that  Henry  appointed  him  one  of  the  twelve 
councillors  who  were  to  assist  his  executors 
in  the  government  during  the  minority  of 
Edward  VI.  In  1547  he  was  present  at  the 
battle  of  Pinkie,  and  greatly  distinguished 
himself;  while  in  1549  he  aided  in  suppres- 
sing Ket*s  rebellion.  **  The  able  and  truthful 
Sir  Ralph  Sadler  "  became  one  of  Elizabeth's 
most  trusted  diplomatic  agents,  and  a  strong 
Puritan,  and  was  often  employed  in  Scotch 
negotiations.  In  1559  he  was  sent  to  the 
Scotch  border  with  instructions  "  to  treat  in 
all  secrecy  with  any  manner  of  persons  in 
Scotland  for  the  union  of  the  realms,*'  and  to 
assiBt  the  Froteei^t  party  with  secret  sums 
of  money.  He  was  one  oi  the  English  com- 
missioners at  the  Treaty  of  Leith  (1560),  and 
in    1568  was  on,  the*  commission  of  York 


on  the  occasion  of  the  inquiry  into  the  mnnbi 
of  Damley.    In  1584—85  Sir  Ralph  Sadki 
acted  as  gaoler  to  Mary  Queen  of  Scots  is 
Tutbury  Castle ;  but  found  the  charge  of  has 
whom  "  he  had  held  in  his  arms  as  a  liab)' " 
so  irksome,  that  he  petitioned  to  be  removed 
After  the  execution  of  Mary,  in  whose  tml 
he  took  part,  he  was  again  sent  on  a  diplo- 
matic  errand   to  Scotland    to  annoancx-  U> 
James  VI.  his  mother's  death,  and  to  explaic 
that  EliEabeth  was  in  no  way  to  blame.  Thi? 
delicate  mission,  which  he  successfully  accom- 
plished, was  his  last,  as  he  died  a  monthor 
two  later. 

Paptn  of  Sir  Ralnk  Sadlmr  with  Jfmoir  by 
Sir  Walter  Stett  (UW) ;  Fnrade,  Hut  o/  bf 

Badoolapore,  The  Battls  of  (Bee,  3, 
1848),  was  fought  during  the  Sikh  \!k. 
After  the  failure  at  Ramnuggur,  Lord  GmA 
ordered  Sir  Joseph  Thackwell  to  cross  th^ 
Chenab  at  Wuzeerabad  and  turn  the  STch 
position.  Shere  Sing  thereupon  withdrew 
from  Ramnuggur,  and  the  two  armies  iim  t  A 
the  village  of  Sadoolapore.  For  two  holl^ 
the  British  sustained  the  fire  of  the  eneoi} 
without  returning  till  they  were  fully  in 
range,  when  their  artillery  opened  witb 
deadly  effect.  The  Sikhs  retared  slowlr,  ani 
Sir  Joseph  did  not  deem  it  wise  to  foOov. 
The  advantage  of  the  action  doubtless  resUd 
with  Shere  Sing,  who  had  marched  avsT  at 
his  own  will  to  a  better  position,  but  Lord 
Gough  thought  fit  to  claim  the  victory.  [Sikk 
War.] 

St.  4ITfft*!tf,  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  famous  Roman  mnnidpns 
of  Verulamium,  is  famous  as  the  site  of  one  of 
the  greatest  Benedictine  abbejrs.  It  gains  itt 
modem  name  from  Alban,  said  to  have  betn 
martyred  there  under  Diocletian.  The  abbej 
was  erected  in  his  honour  by  OSb.  of  Hcnv 
in  796.  The  town  dates  from  the  days  of 
Abbot  XnfBuze,  who  built  the  three  psrisi- 
churches,  ^e  oppressions  of  the  abb(^  H 
tiie  town  to  join  me  peasants'  revolt  of  1381- 
In  1455  and  1461  two  oatties  of  more  political 
than  military  importance  were  fought  betvert 
the  Yorkists  and  Lancastrians.  The  abbey 
church,  made  parochial  at  the  I>is8olution,his 
recentiy  been  made  into  a  cathedral. 

8t.  AlbaJlB,  The  Fib9T  Battle  or 
(1455),  was  the  first  engagement  in  the  Wars 
of  the  Roses.  It  was  brought  about  by  tk 
recovery  of  Henry  VI.  in  1455,  and  tht- 
termination  of  York's  protectorate.  Th- 
Somerset  party  were  again  in  power.  a»i 
York,  seeing  his  influence  at  an  end,  deter- 
mined to  secure  by  force  of  arms  the  down- 
Mi  of  Somerset.  Accordingly  ho  collcrted 
troops  in  the  north  and  marched  tovard? 
London.  The  king  advanced  in  force  to 
meet  him,  and  after  a  vaio  attempt  at  nect^ 
tiation,  a  battie  followed  which,  thoogb  only 
lasting  half   an  hour,  had  most  important 


8«i 


(  903  ) 


8«i 


results.  Somerset  was  Blain,  together  with 
other  Lancastrian  nobles,  the  kii^  wounded, 
and  York  completely  victorious. 

St.  Albaas,  The  Second  Battle  of 
(1461),  was  fought  b^  Queen  Margaret  and 
the  Lancastrians  against  the  Earl  of  War- 
wick. After  the  victory  at  Wakefield 
Margaret  marched  towards  London,  and  was 
met  at  St.  Albans  by  Warwick.  The  Lan- 
castrians gained  the  day,  the  king  was  re- 
leased, and  Warwick  compelled  to  retire. 
But  with  incredible  folly  the  results  of  the 
battle  were  altogether  thrown  away.  London 
was  not  occupied,  nor  was  the  Earl  of  War- 
wick prevented  from  efiFecting  a  junction 
with  £dward.  The  Lancastrians  retired  to 
the  north,  and  within  a  fortnight  the  Yorkists 
were  in  possession  of  London,  and  Edward 
recognisea  as  king. 

St.  AlbaiUI,  The  Council  of  (Aug.  4, 
1213),  was  one  of  the  general  councils  of 
John's  reign.  It  is  extremely  important  in 
constitutional  history  as  a  step  in  the  pro- 
gress of  the  representative  system,  smce 
it  was  attended,  not  merely  by  the  great 
borons,  but  by  representatives  (the  reeve  and 
four  others)  of  the  people  of  the  towns  in 
the  royal  demesne.  The  Council  was  called 
by  the  Justiciar  Greoffrey  Fitz-Peter,  who 
promised  to  abide  by  the  laws  of  Henry  I. 
henceforth.  In  the  same  year,  in  a  summons 
to  a  Council  at  Oxford  (of  the  proceedings  of 
which  there  is  no  record ;  indeed,  it  is  possible 
that  it  never  met),  each  of  the  sheriffs  is  or- 
dered to  send  four  discreet  men  from  his  shire. 

St.  Albans,  Francis  Bacon,  Viscount 
(b.  1561  yd.  1626),  often  called  (though  of  course 
incorrectly)  Lord  Bacon,  was  the  son  of  Sir 
Nicholas  Bacon,  Lord  Keeper  under  Elizabeth. 
At  twelve  he  was  sent  to  Cambridge,  at  sixteen 
ho  became  a  member  of  Gray*s  Inn,  and  went 
to  France  in  the  retinue  of  the  y^ngHwh 
ambassador.  Sir  Amyas  Paulet.  Here  he 
stayed  a  couple  of  years,  until  he  was  recalled 
to  England  by  the  death  of  his  father.  Left 
with  but  scanty  means,  he  now  applied  himself 
assiduously  to  the  study  of  law,  and  began 
that  long  struggle  for  preferment  in  which 
was  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life.  In 
1584  he  entered  Parliament,  and  in  1586 
liecame  a  Bencher.  But  for  some  years  after 
this  he  made  no  progpress.  Lord  Burleigh,  to 
whom  he  naturally  looked  for  assistance — ^for 
the  Treasurer  had  married  the  sister  of 
Bacon's  mother — distrusted  him,  and  paid 
no  attention  to  his  frequent  appeals;  while 
the  younger  Cecil  was  probably  jealous  of  his 
cousin's  ability,  and  constantly  threw  obstacles 
in  his  way.  In  1593,  however,  Bacon's 
friendship  with  Essex  seemed  about  to  open 
to  him  the  path  to  distinction.  The  place  of 
Attorney-General  became  vacant,  ana  Essex 
demanded  it  for  him,  but  in  vain:  for  the 
influence  of  the  Cecils  was  victorious,  and 


their  nominee  Coke  was  appointed.  From 
this  time  dates  that  bitter  rivalry  between 
Bacon  and  the  great  master  of  the  common 
law,  which  was  ultimately  to  bring  about  the 
fall  of  both.  Essex  failed  even  to  gain  for 
his  friend  the  Solicitor's  place,  and  attempted 
to  console  him  by  the  gift  of  an  estate  worth 
some  £1,800.  xet  in  spite  of  the  many 
services  Essex  had  rendered  to  him.  Bacon 
took  a  prominent  part  on  the  side  of  the 
crown  in  the  prosecution  of  the  earl  for  high 
treason,  and  was  employed  to  write  a  pamphk>t 
to  justify  the  action  of  the  government. 

At  James's  accession,  Bacon,  with  a  crowd 
of  others,  was  knighted.  He  was  a  pro- 
minent figure  in  the  Parliament  of  1604, 
and,  while  acting  as  spokesman  of  the  Com- 
mons, pleased  the  king  by  flattery,  and  by 
the  skul  with  which  he  arranged  compro- 
mises, especially  in  the  matter  of  the  Buckmg- 
hamshire  election.  On  the  question  of  the 
union  of  the  two  kingdoms  Bacon  heartily 
sympathised  with  the  king;  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  •  draw  up  the  proposals  to  be 
laid  before  the  commission,  and  as  a  member 
of  it  argued  ably  in  support  of  James's  project. 
In  1606  he  married  Alice  Bamham,  an 
alderman's  daughter.  In  June,  1607)  he  at  last 
gained  a  foothold  upon  the  ladder  of  promotion, 
and  became  SoUcitor-GeneraL  As  such  his 
work  was  chieflv  of  a  routine  character ;  in 
the  Commons,  however,  he  took  a  leading 
part  in  the  discussions  upon  the  Great 
Contract.  After  Salisbury's  death,  in  1612, 
Bacon  was  able  to  come  into  closer  contact 
with  the  king,  and  henceforth  his  rapid  rise 
was  certain.  In  Oct.,  1613,  he  was  made 
Attomey-Greneral ;  but  though  this  office 
gave  him  a  prominent  place  among  the  royal 
ministers,  his  work  was  but  to  carry  out  and 
defend  royal  decisions,  and  he  had  no  in- 
fluence upon  the  general  policy  of  the  govern- 
ment. He  took  part  in  the  trials  of  Peacham 
and  Somerset,  tended  the  benevolence  of 
1614 — 15,  and  assisted  in  the  humiliation  of 
Chief  J'ustice  Coke  in  1616.  Having  suc- 
ceeded in  gaining  the  favour  of  Buckingham, 
Bacon  beoune  Lord  Keeper  in  March,  1617, 
in  Jan.,  1618,  Chancellor,  in  the  July  of 
the  same  year  Baron  Verulain,  and  in  Jan., 
1621,  Viscount  St.  Albans.  He  was  still 
a  mere  agent  of  the  government,  and  when 
he  chanccxl  unintentionally  to  offend  Bucking- 
ham in  the  matter  of  the  marriage  of  Coke's 
daughter,  he  had  to  make  a  degrading  8ub> 
mission. 

When  Parliament  met  in  January,  1621. 
there  was  no  eign  of  any  public  hostility  to 
the  Chancellor.    The  Commons  were  eager  to 

J'oin  the  king  in  a  contest  with  Spain,  but 
^ames  ref us^  to  declare  for  a  war  policy ; 
whereupon  the  Commons  in  disgust  turned 
to  the  discussion  of  'domestic  grievances. 
Foremost  amongst  these  were  the  monopolies. 
An  attack  began  upon  the  referees,  «.«.,  those 
law  officers  (including  Bacon)  and  others  who 


8«i 


(904) 


had'certifiod  to  the  legality  of  the  monopolies ; 
and  Coke,  now  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
House,  turned  the  tissault  especially  upon 
the  Chancellor.  Meantime  a  committee,  had 
been  sitting  to  inquire  into  abuses  in  the 
courts  of  justice.  Apparently  to  the  surprise 
of  the  world,  Bacon  was  in  March  accused 
of  having  received  bribes ;  th&  Lords,  after 
hearing  witnesses,  were  convinced  of  his 
guilt ;  and,  what  is  most  strange  of  all,  Bacon 
made  no  attempt  to  defend  himself,  but  threw 
himself  on  the  mercy  of  the  Lords  and  the 
king.  Yet  it  is  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Grardinor, 
who  has  given  a  detailed  account  of  the  most 
important  accusations  brought  against  him, 
that  "  the  charge  that  Bacon  knowingly  and 
corruptly  sold  or  delayed  justice  falls  entirely 
to  the  ground. '  The  only  possible  explanation 
of  his  conduct  is  that,  witn  his  usual  careless- 
ness of  forms,  he  contented  himself  with 
knowing  that  the  immediate  reception  of  the 
money,  which  he  believed  himself  to  have 
fairly  earned,  would  not  influence  his  decision ; 
in  otiier  words,  that  without  a  corrupt  motive 
he  accepted  money  corruptly  tenderea  **  {HuL^ 
iv.  81).  Bacon  saw  that  the  attack  was  due 
to  political  animosity,  and  that  no  defence 
would  save  him ;  by  complete  submission  he 
might  escape  with  a  more  lenient  sentence. 
Moreover,  though  he  was  confident,  and  justly, 
of  his  own  integrity,  he  could  not  fail  to  see 
how  evil  was  the  practice  which'- he  had 
allowed    to  continue :    **  I  was  the   justest 

1'udge  that  was  in  England  these  fifty  years. 
)ut  it  WHS  the  justest  censure  in  Parlia- 
ment that  was  these  two  hundred  years." 
He  was  sentenced  to  a  heavy  filne,  to 
imprisonment  during  royal  pleasure,  to 
exclusion  from  Parliament,  office,  and  court 
The  fine  was  remitted  and  Bacon  was  re« 
leased  from  the  Tower  after  two  or  three 
days*  imprisonment ;  but,  though  his  advice 
was  occasionally  sought  by  the  govern- 
ment, he  never  again  obtained  office,  and 
spent  the  remaining  years  of  his  life  entirely 
in  literary  work. 

More  important,  perhaps,  than  the  events 
of  his  life  are  the  political  theories  which 
he  consistently  advocated.  His  ideal  was  a 
paternal  monarchy.  The  king,  aiming  at 
the  good  of  his  people,  able  to  employ  the 
wisest  counsellors,  and  possessed  of  wide 
information,  must  be  better  able  to  guide  the 
nation  aright  than  the  unorganised  body  of 
well-meaning  country  gentlemen  called  the 
House  of  Commons,  though  he  ought  to  use 
their  help  and  explain  his  purponos  to  them. 
The  work  of  government  demanded  an  intel- 
lectual power  such  as  trained  statesmen  alone 
possessed ;  the  king,  unmoved  by  the  interests 
of  any  class,  could  provide  for  the  welfare  of 
all  classes  better  than  lawyers  or  squires. 
Tet  facts  proved  too  strong  for  Bacon,  as 
they  afterwards  proved  too  strong  for 
Strafford,  who  may  be  regarded  as  a  Bacon  in 
power.     Baoon  was  employed  as    u    useful 


•tool ;  he  was  seldom  seriously  consulted  on 
important  matters.  None  of  his  great  projeeto 
were  carried  out,  and  while  he  was  helding 
up  in  many  a  carefully  written  state  paper 
the  picture  of  a  patriot  king,  the  country-  w 
being  governed  by  Buckingham.  Baoon'a 
life  was  a  dual  one.  His  dominant  interen 
was  the  increase  of  human  knowledge  by  the 
new  way  which  he  could  teach  {Advmer- 
ment  of  Learning ^  1605;  Novum  Orya»um, 
1620).  There  will  always  be  a  question  as  tu 
the  relation  between  Bacon's  active  and  specu- 
lative life.  Probably  he  wished  for  powet 
chiefly  because  it  would  enable  him  to  cairy 
out  his  great  plans  for  the  social  good, 
alike  in  politics  and  philosophy ;  yet  he  was 
^ot  without  a  real  fondness  for  the  pomp  of 
office,  and  for  political  activity  for  its  own  sake. 

The  main  sociToes  of  inf  ormatiou  about  Baoos 
are  his  IForfct,  edited  with  most  TaliuUe 
introductions,  Jbo.,  by  Bpedding  and  EUia.  For 
Baoon  in  relation  to  the  history  of  the  tboe, 
Oardiner,  Hi^.  <^  Eng.,  emcimUy  vol.  iv.,  must 
be  oonsolted.  See  also  Ghsrles  de  Remnatk 
Baoon  aa  VU,  Jtc  A  very  nsefol  ahort  biognplv 
is  written  by  B.  W.  Choroh.  funo  Fiscaer, 
FranM  Bae<m  von  Vtrvlam  wnd  Seine  Naei^tifir, 
is  an  ezhauBtive  statement  of  Bacon's  poiloao* 
phioal  portion.  [W.  J.  A.] 

St.  Brioe's  Baj,  Thb  Massac&s  of 

(Nov.  13,  1002),  is  said  to  have  been  occs- 
sioned  bv  the  report  that  the  Danes  in  Eng- 
land had  formea  a  plot  for  murdering  the 
king  and  the  Witan.  Accordingly  orden 
were  sent  forth  that  all  the  Danes  should  be 
slain.  Mr.  Freeman  thinks  the  story  of  the 
massacre  has  been  greatly  exaggerated,  and 
that  it  only  indud^  those  Danes  who  had 
stayed  behind  from  Sweyn's  army. 

St.  Carilef^  William  op,  or  Sauct 
Calais,  was  first  Prior  of  St.  Calais  in  Maine, 
and  then  Abbot  of  St.  Victor's  in  Le  Maoa. 
and  ultimately  became  Bishop  of  Durham  in 
1080.  Famous  in  the  history  of  his  see  for 
substituting  monks  for  secular  canons  in  hie 
cathedral  church,  he  has  a  place  in  history  as 
the  foremost  adviser  of  William  Rufus  in  the 
beginning  of  his  reign.  The  chronicler  of 
Peterborough  says  {s.a.  1088),  «  So  well  did 
the  king  to  the  bishop  that  aU  England  fol- 
lowed his  counsel  and  did  so  as  he  would." 
But  in  a  few  months  he  joined  the  feudal 
movement  against  William,  apparently  under 
circumstances  of  great  treachery.  Involved  in 
the  general  failure,  his  temporalities  were 
seized,  his  lands  were  ravaged,  and  he  him- 
self brought  to  trial  before  the  king's  couit. 
"  His  trial,"  says  Mr.  Freeman,  "  is  of  great 
constitutional  importance,  both  as  illnstntting 
the  procedure  of  the  Norman  courts  at  an 
early  stag^  of  development,  and  because  in 
the  course  of  it  William  made  the  first  re- 
corded appeal  to  Rome  against  the  judgment 
of  the  'Wise  Men.'"  After  every  legal 
subtlety  had  been  exhausted,  William  was 
banished  to  Normandy.  But  in  1091  he  was 
restored  to  his  see,  and  again  exercised  great 


8ai 


(  906  ) 


influence  over  Rufufi.  The  first  appellant 
to  Borne  now  figures  as  the  king*s  adviser 
against  Anselm.  But  in  1095  he  reverted  to 
his  old  policy  by  joining  the  feudal  rising  of 
Mowbray,  and  only  his  death  on  Jan.  1,  1096, 
saved  him  from  a  second  trial  before  the 
Witenagemot.  He  was  buried  in  the  chapter- 
house, that  the  monks  who  loved  their  founder 
might  ever  have  his  tomb  before  their  eyes. 
Apart  from  his  liberality  to  his  church,  he 
appears  in  history  as  a  thoroughly  unscrupu- 
lous man. 

The  only  fall  acooimt  of  William  of  St. 
Calais  is  in  Freeman's TTtlUam  Rvfus.  vol.  L,  and 
ToL  ii.,  note  c.  Mr.  Freeman  complains  of  the 
scanty  notice  taken  of  the  stoxy  by  modem 
mitera. 

St.  CharleSf  in  Lower  Canada,  was  the 
scene  of  the  defeat  of  the  Canadian  rebels  in 
1837  by  Colonel  WetheraU. 

St.  DeniSy  in  Lower  Canada,  was  the 
scene  of  a  partial  victory  of  the  Canadian 
rebels  in  1837  over  the  government  troops 
under  Colonel  Gore. 

St.  ElurtaclLe,  in  Lower  Canada,  was  the 
scene  (1837)  of  the  total  defeat  of  the  rebel 
Canadians  under  Girod  by  Sir  J.  Colbome. 
This  was  the  last  skirmish  in  the  Canadian 
insuirection. 

St.  Giles's  XHelds,  The  Hbetxno  in 
(1414),  was  planned  by  the  Lollards.  A  large 
body  (repoii;  said  a  hundred  thousand  in 
number)  was  to  assemble  in  St.  Giles's  Fields 
outside  London,  where  they  would  be  met  by 
thousands  of  city  apprentices,  and  headed  bv 
Sir  John  Oldcastle.  Their  design,  it  was  said, 
was  to  murder  the  king  and  his  brothers, 
make  Oldcastle  regent,  and  destroy  all  the 
cathedrals  and  monasteries  in  the  land.  The 
vigilance  of  Henry  Y.  defeated  their  designs ; 
the  gates  of  the  city  were  closed,  and  St. 
Giles's  Fields  occupied  by  troops,  who  easily 
put  the  insurgents  to  flight. 

St.   Helena,   an   island    in  the    South 

Atlantic,  was  discovered  (1501)  by  Juan  de 

No\'a   Castella,  a  Portuguese  navigator;   in 

1513  a  small  settlement  was  formed  by  some 

Portuguese,  but  had  only  a  short  existence. 

In  1588  the  island  was  visited  by  Captain 

Cavendish,   and    in    1645  was  occupied  by 

the  Dutch,  who,  however,  relinquished  it  in 

1651    for  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.    About 

1662   the  East   India   Company   obtained  a 

charter  for  the  occupation  of  the  island  from 

Charles   II.,    and    a    large    settlement    was 

speedily  formed.      In   1672   the  island   was 

surprised   and  captured  by  the  Dutch,   but 

was  retaken  in  the  following  year.     It  was 

held  by  the  East  India  Company  until  1833, 

when    it    was    surrendered    to    the    British 

government.      St.    Helena    is   celebrated   as 

having  been  the   place  of  imprisonment  of 

Xapoleon  Bonaparte,  who  died  there  (1821). 

The  climate  is  very  healthy,  and  the  island  is 

much  frequented  by  ships,  which  use  it  as  a 

HMT.-29* 


victualling  station.  It  hardly  possesses,  how- 
ever, at  present  the  importance  which  it  once 
had. 

St.  John,  Oliver  {b.  circa  1598,  d.  1673), 
a  prominent  lawyer  and  politician  of  the 
time  of  Charles  I.,  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1626,  and  soon  identified  himself  with  the 
popular  party.  He  distinguished  himself  by 
his  defence  of  Hampden  in  the  question  of 
Ship-money.  He  was  an  active  member  of 
the  Short  and  Long  Parliaments,  and  in 
January,  1641,  the  king,  with  a  view  of 
conciliating  the  popular  party,  made  St.  John 
Solicitor-General.  Notwithstanding  this,  ho 
was  one  of  the  managers  of  Strafford's 
impeachment,  and  on  every  occasion  opposed 
the  wishes  of  the  king,  till  at  last,  in  1643,  he 
was  removed  from  his  office.  He  was  made 
by  Parliament  one  of  the  Commissioners  of 
the  Great  Seal  in  1643,  and  held  this  office 
till  1646.  In  1648  he  was  appointed  Chief 
Justice  of  the  Common  Pleas,  and  was  soon 
after  made  a  member  of  the  Council  of  State. 
He  was '  ctosely  connected  with  Cromwell  by 
marriage,  and  supported  him  in  his  expulsion 
of  Parliament,  but  was  opposed  to  the  Pro- 
tectorate, though  we  subsequently  find  him 
favouring  the  idea  of  kingship,  and  he  was 
one  of  the  members  of  Cromwd.l's  House  of 
Lords.  After  Cromwell's  death  he  supported 
the  Parliament  against  the  army,  and  on  the 
Restoration  he  very  narrowly  escaped  being 
excepted  from  the  Act  of  Indemnity.  The 
rest  of  his  life  was  passed  in  retirement.  His 
character  is  painted  in  unfavourable  colours 
by  all  historians.  Mr.  Carlyle  speaks  of  him 
as  "a  dusky,  tough  man,  whose  abstruse 
fanaticisms,  crabbed  logics,  and  dark  am- 
bition issue  all  in  dreaded  avarice  at  last ; " 
and  Clarendon  describes  him  as  being  "a 
man  reserved,  of  a  dark  and  clouded  coun- 
tenance, ver}'  proud  and  conversing  with  very 
few,  and  those  men  of  his  own  humour  and 
inclinations." 

Carlyle,  CromwAVti  Letters  and  Speeches  ; 
Clarendon,  Hist,  of  the  Rebellion;  May,  Bist.  tj 
the  Long  Parliament, 

St.  Kitfs  (St.  Christopher's),  one  of 
the  Leeward  Islands,  was  discovered  by 
Columbus,  1493,  and  was  the  first  West 
Indian  island  colonised  by  the  English ;  they 
settled  there  under  Sir  Thomas  Warner  (1623), 
'  who  three  years  later  was  made  governor  of 
the  island  bv  Charles  T.  In  1629  the  colony 
was  attacked  by  the  Spaniards,  and  many  of 
the  settlers  killed.  Part  of  the  island  was 
occupied  by  French  planters,  between  whom 
and  the  English  there  was  a  perpetual  in- 
ternal war ;  which  lasted  until  the  island  was 
finally  ceded  to  the  English  by  the  Peace  of 
Utrecht,  1713.  In  1782  St.  Kitt's  was  taken 
by  the  French,  and  in  1805  was  again  ravaged 
by  a  party  of  marauders  of  the  same  nation. 
The  government,  which  was  representative, 
was  vested  in  a  lieutenant-governor,  a  legis- 


Sai 


(  906  ) 


8«i 


latire  and  executive  council,  and  a  house  of 
representatives.  In  1871  St.  Kitt*8  joined 
the  federation  of  the  Leeward  iBlands;  its 
local  government  is  that  of  a  Crown  colony, 
but  it  sends  reprepenUitives  to  the  Federal 
Council  of  the  Leeward  Islands.  The  chief 
production  of  the  island  is  sugar. 
B.  M.  Martin,  Brituh  Colonies, 

St.  JtBgBTf  Sib  Anthony,  was  sent  over 
to  Ireland  in  1540  as  commissioner  of  for- 
feited lands,  and  in  August,  1540,  became 
Lord  Deputy.  His  government  was  vigorous 
and  successful.  He  subdued  the  Kavanaghs, 
and  their  chief  had  to  give  up  the  title  of 
"The  MacMurrough."  At  a  Parliament 
held  by  him  about  this  time,  even  Desmond 
attended,  and  this  was  considered  a  great 
achievement.  He  was  able  to  send  Irish 
troops  to  Scotland  and  France  to  take  part  in 
the  king's  wars.  In  1546  he  subdned  the 
long  reoractory  clans  of  the  O'Moores  and 
O'Connors.  In  1550  Sir  James  Croft  suc- 
ceeded him  as  Lord  Deputy,  but  he  was  again 
Lord  Deputy  from  1553  to  1558.  His  sons 
both  in  turn  became  Lord  Presidents  of 
Munster. 

St.  ^effer,  Sia  Warham,  son  of  Sir 
Anthony  St.  Leger,  succeeded  in  relieving 
Haddington,  1548,  when  besieged  by  the 
French  and  Scotch.  In  1566  he  defeated 
Shane  O'Neil,  and  in  1579  did  good  service 
in  the  Desmond  rebellion  in  spite  of  Ormonde's 
opinion  of  him,  that  he  was  "  an  old  alehouse 
Imight,  malicious,  impudent,  void  of  honesty; 
an  arrogant  ass  that  had  never  courage, 
honesty,  or  truth  in  him.'' 

St.  Xi60nard8«  Edward  Burtenshaw 
SuoDBN,  Lord  {b^  1781,  d.  1875),  was  the  son 
of  a  hairdresser  of  Duke  Street,  West- 
minster. He  was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lin- 
coln's Inn  (1807).  In  1822  he  became  a 
king's  counsel  and  bencher  of  Lincoln's 
Inn.  He  at  different  times  was  returned 
to  the  House  of  Commons  for  Weymouth, 
Melcombe  Regis,  and  St.  Mawes ;  took  a  pro- 
minent part  in  Parliamentary  discussions,  and 
was  foremost  among  those  who  opposed  the 
Reform  Bill.  In  June,  1829,  when  the  Duke 
of  Wellington  was  Prime  IVfinistcr,  he  was 
appointed  Solicitor-General;  and  in  18.34, 
when  Sir  R.  Peel  formed  a  ministry.  Sir 
Edward  Sugden  went  to  Ireland  as  Lord 
Chancellor.  Resigning  that  office  on  the 
retirement  of  the  cabinet,  he  was  returned 
for  the  House  of  Commons  for  liipon,  and 
vacated  his  seat  in  September,  1841,  on 
resuming  under  Sir  R.  Peel's  ministry  his 
position  as  Lord  Chancellor  of  Ireland,  in 
which  he  continued  until  the  disruption  of 
the  Conservative  party  in  1846.  For  some 
time  he  did  not  figure  prominently  in  public 
affairs,  but  accepted  the  post  of  Iir)rd  Chan- 
cellor in  Lord  Derby's  first  administration  in 
1862,  and  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Lord 


St.  Leonards.  In  1858  Lord  Derby 
desirous  that  Lord  St.  Leonards  should  again 
receive  the  Great  Seal,  but  he  dedined  tiu 
responsibility  in  consequence  of  his  advanced 
age»  though  he  afterwards  took  an  active  and 
influential  part  in  the  business  of  Parliament, 
and  exerted  himself  to  keep  up  the  character 
and  efficiency  of  the  House  of  Lords  as  a 
judicial  tribunal,  and  to  correct  by  legislation 
several  anomalies  in  the  law  of  property. 
Campbell,  Lives  of^tB  CkamcMon. 

St.  XiUOia,  one  of  the  Windward  Islaads, 
was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1501  la 
1635  it  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  French, 
and  four  years  later  an  English  settlement 
was  formed  on  the  island,  though  the  colonists 
were  almost  all  murdered  shortly  aftervards 
by  the  natives.  In  1664  the  island  was  taken 
by  an  English  expedition  from  Barhadoei^ 
headed  by  Lord  Willoughby,  but  vas 
evacuated  in  1667.  In  1718  8t.  Lucia  was 
granted  by  Louis  XV.  to  Marshal  D'Estrees, 
and  in  1722  by  George  I.  to  the  Duke  of 
Montague.  The  result  was  a  collision  between 
the  two  parties  of  colonists  (1723),  which 
ended  in  a  compromise ;  by  the  Trea^of  Aix* 
la-Chapelle  (1748)  the  neutralit}"^  of  the  island 
was  recognised,  but  in  1766  it  was  seised  and 
•garrisoned  by  the  French,  to  whom  it  wai 
given  up  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris  (1763J.  la 
1778  it  was  again  taken  by  the  English,  and 
held  by  them  for  five  years,  at  the  end  of 
which  time  it  was  exchanged  for  Grenada. 
In  1794  it  was  taken  by  Lord  St  Vincent, 
but  evacuated  in  the  following  year,  though 
in  1796  it  again  fell  into  the  hands  of  a 
British  expedition,  under  Sir  Ralph  Aber- 
cromby.  In  1802  St.  Luda  was  restored  to 
France  by  the  Peace  of  Amiens,  but  the  next 
year  was  taken  by  General  Greenfield,  and 
has  ever  since  remained  under  British  role. 
The  government  of  the  island  is  exerdsed  b; 
an  administrator  and  an  executive  councB. 
The  climate  is  very  unhealthy.  The  chief 
product  of  St.  Lucia  is  sugar. 

Martin  ColonieB ;  B.  Edwardes,  Wat  IiJm- 

*  8t.  Masy's  Clyst,  The  Battle  op 
(Aug.  3,  1549),  was  fought  near  Topsham  in 
Devonshire,  between  the  royal  troops  under 
Lord  Russell  and  the  West  country  insnrgpots 
under  Humphrey  Arundel;  the  latter  were 
defeated  after  a  severe  engagement. 

St.  Bnth  {d,  1691),  a  distinguished 
French  general,  and  a  merciless  persecutor  of 
the  Huguenots,  arrived  at  Limerick  in  1691, 
with  D'Usson  as  his  lieutenant,  to  take  com- 
mand of  the  Irish  army.  He  had  commanded 
Irish  troops  in  Savoy,  and  did  his  best  to 
discipline  his  forces.  Unfortunately,  he 
quarrelled  both  with  Sarsfield  and  TyrconneL 
Irritated  at  the  capture  of  Athlonc,  he  dete^ 
mined  to  give  battle  to  the  Englidi  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  advice  of  his  Irish  officen.  At 
Aghrim,  at  the  critical  moment  of  the  bsttlei 


Sid 


(907) 


falB  head  was  carried  off  by  a  cannon-ball.  If 
he  had  lived,  the  result  of  the  battle  might 
well  have  been  different.  He  waa  buried  in 
the  monastery  of  Loughrea. 

Maeana  Arcidivm ;  Maoanlay,  flift.  of  Eng, 

St.  Vinoenty  one  of  the  Windward 
Islands,  was  discovered  by  Columbus  (14d8). 
In  1627  it  was  granted  by  Charles  I.  to  Lord 
Carlisle,  but  no  permanent  settlement  was 
made  in  the  island  until  1719,  when  some 
French  colonists  came  from  Martinique.  In 
1748  the  neutiiility  of  St.  Vincent  was  recog- 
nised by  the  Peace  of  Aix-Ia-Chapelle,  but  in 
1762  the  island  was  taken  by  the  English 
and  confirmed  to  them  by  the  Treaty  of  Paris 
in  the  following  vear ;  in  1779  it  again  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  French,  but  was  restored 
to  England  by  the  Treaty  of  Versailles  (1783). 
In  1794  an  insurrection  broke  out  amongst 
the  natives  owing  to  the  intrigues  of  the 
French  planters,  and  on  its  suppression  5,000 
negroes  were  sent  out  of  the  island.  The 
government  of  St.  Vincent,  which  extends  to 
some  of  the  Grenadine  Islands,  is  vested  in 
an  administrator,  an  executive  council,  and 
a  legislative  council  of  four  official  and  four 
unofficial  members.  The  chief  wealth  of  the 
island  is  derived  from  sugar,  coffee,  and 
cotton. 

Shephaid,   Hiat,    o/   St    Ftnomt;    Kartia, 
Colontm. 

0t«  Vincent,  John  Jb&vib,  Eabl  {b. 
1736,  d.  1823),  entered  the  navy  at  the  early 
age  of  ten,  and  first  saw  active  service  in  the 
•expedition  against  Quebec  in  1769,  after 
which  he  was  promoted  to  be  a  commander. 
In  }774  he  was  appointed  to  command  a  ship 
of  eighty-four  guns,  and  in  1778  took  a  dis- 
tinguished part  in  Keppel's  engagement  off 
Brest.  In  1782  he  was  knighted  for  captur- 
ing a  large  French  ship  when  separated  from 
the  rest  of  his  fleet  by  a  fog.  In  1784  he 
was  returned  to  Parliament  for  North  Yar- 
mouth. In  1790  he  was  returned  for 
Wycombe,  and  was  at  the  same  time  pro- 
moted to  be  rear-admiral.  He  vacated  his 
seat  on  the  outbreak  of  war,  and  was  des- 
patched to  the  West  Indies.  His  health 
suffered  considerably,  but  in  1794  he  took  the 
command  in  the  Mediterranean,  where  he  won 
the  battle  off  Cape  St.  Vincent.  Created  Earl 
tSt.  Vincent,  he  rendered  invaluable  service  in 
the  mutiny  of  the  sailors,  by  his  resolution 
and  prudence.  In  1800  he  was  appointed  to 
command  the  Channel  fleet  in  succession  to 
Lord  Bridport,  but  threw  up  the  com- 
mand in  the  next  year  on  being  appointed  to 
preside  over  the  Admiralty.  There  he  set  to 
work  to  reform  some  of  the  many  abuses 
which  had  long  existed  in  the  management  of 
the  navy.  In  May,  1804,  he  was  superseded 
by  Viscount  Melville,  and  on  Fox's  accession 
to  oflice  in  1806,  again  took  the  command  of 
the  Channel  fleet.  In  that  year  he  was 
accnifled  in  the  House  of  Commons  of  *'  gross 


neglect  in   the  building   and  repairing   of 

ships."    The  charge  was,'  however,  rwited 

by  most  convincing  details :  and  Fox  moved 

that  "  the  conduct  of  the  Earl  St.  Vincent,  in 

his  late  naval  administration,  has  given  an 

additional  lustre  to  his  exalted  character,  and 

merits  the  approbation  of  the  House."    The 

motion  was  agreed  to  without  a  division.    In 

the  following  March,  Earl  St.  Vincent  retired 

from  his  command,  but  devoted  some  of  his 

time  to  politics,  and  was  a  keen  opponent  of 

the    Perceval    ministry.     In    1814    he  was 

appointed  Gk)V6mor  of  Marines,  and  in  1821 

Acuniral  of  the  Fleet.    A  great  and  original 

commander  at  sea.  Earl  St.  Vincent  sained  by 

his  impartial  justice  the  love  and  admiration  of 

his  men,  and  when  he  was  appointed  to  the 

Admiralty  he  devoted  all  his  energies  to  pat 

an  end  to  the  terrible  abuses  which  were 

almost  undermining  the  strength  of  the  navy. 

Allan,  BaltUs  of  tlte  Britiah  Havy;   James, 
Naval  Kitt.  ;  Alison,  Htet.  ofSurope. 

St.  Vinoent,  The  Battle  op  Cape  (Feb. 
14,  1797),  ended  in  the  complete  defeat  of 
the  Spanish  fleet.  The  Spanish  admiral, 
having  been  falsely  inf ormea  that  Sir  John 
Jervls  had  onlv  nine  ships,  determined  to 
attack  him  with  his  twenty-seven.  Nelson, 
sailing  to  join  the  English  fleet,  had  fallen  in 
with  the  Spaniards,  and  on  arriving  at  Sir 
John's  station  off  Cape  St.  Vincent  on  Feb. 
13,  informed  him  of  the  enemy's  movements. 
The  next  morning  the  Spaniards  hove  in 
sight,  and  were  attacked  before  they  could 
form  in  line.  By  a  rapid  movement.  Sir 
John  passed  through  their  fleet,  and  thus  at 
once  cut  off  nine  ships,  which  were  unable  to 
join  their  companions,  and  soon  took  to  flight. 
The  admiral  then  devoted  his  attention  to  the 
main  body,  and  gave  the  signal  to  attack  in 
succession.  Nelson,  in  the  rear,  using  his 
own  judgment,  disobeyed  the  oider,  and  at 
once  came  into  action  with  seven  Spanish  ships 
at  once.  He  was  joined  by  Trowbridge,  and 
together  for  nearly  an  hour  they  supported 
this  unequal  contest.  Then  Collingwood 
came  up,  and  took  two  of  the  ships  off  his 
hands.  By  these  tactics  Nelson  prevented 
the  main  body  from  joining  the  nine  separated 
ships,  or  from  getting  off  without  an  engage- 
ment. The  battle  was  confined  chiefly  to 
that  part  of  the  fleet  which  Nelson  had  en- 
^laged.  These,  however,  formed  the  most 
important  part  of  the  fleet,  and  they  were 
nearly  all  captured.  The  greater  number  of 
the  enemy's  ships  got  safely  away  without 
being  severely  engaged.  Sir  John  Jervis 
fully  recognised  the  great  service  rendered  by 
Nelson,  and  publicly  thanked  him.  The 
victory  was  decisive,  and  for  some  time 
rendered  the  Spanish  fleet  almost  powerless. 
The  news  of  it  was  received  in  England  with 
rapturous  applause,  and  Jervis  was  created  an 
earl. 

James.  Ufaval  Hi«f . ;  Sontbey,  Lif§  of  ITiilaon  ; 
Harrison,  Li/«  ofUf^mm ;  Alison,  fltaC.  ofEvmg^ 


(  908  } 


Balabnt  Jung  (d.  1 782),  son  of  the  Nizam- 
ul-Mulk,  was  appointed  to  the  sovereignty  of 
the  Deccan  on  the  death  of  Mirzapha  Jung,  in 
1751,  without  gfrown-upchildTen.  His  eleva- 
tion was  the  result  of  Bussy's  influence,  and 
his  close  adherence  to  the  enterprising  French- 
man made  the  French  masters  of  the  whole 
Deccan.  A  quarrel  soon  broke  out  between 
the  Nizam  and  Bussy,  which,  though  healed 
for  a  time,  became  permanent  in  1759.  This 
threw  Salabut  Jung  into  the  hands  of  the 
English,  with  whom  he  speedily  concluded  a 
treaty,  and  was  recognised  as  lawful  Nizam 
by  the  Treaty  of  Paris. 
Mill,  Hid.  of  India. 

Saladin  Tithe.  The,  was  levied  in  118S 
for  the  support  of  the  Crusaders  against  the 
powerful  Saracen  chief,  Saladin.  Its  chief 
importance  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  is  the  first 
insikance  of  a  tax  on  personal  property,  a 
tenth  of  all  movables  being  exacted  hcom. 
clergy  and  laity  alike,  except  those  who  had 
themselves  taken  the  cross.  It  is  also  in- 
teresting as  illustrating  the  employment  of 
jury  to  assess  doubtful  cases. 
Stubbs,  £MmC  Chart§n. 

Salamanca,  The  Battle  of  (July  22, 
1812),  was  one  of  the  most  decisive  of  Wel- 
lington's victories  in  Spain.  At  noon,  Mar- 
mont,  whose  object  was  to  cut  off  the  ^[iglish 
retreat,  despatched  the  whole  of  his  left  wing 
to  seize  the  road  from  Salamanca  to  Ciudad 
fiodrigo,  while  many  of  his  troops  were  still 
marching  through  a  thick  forest  of  cork  trees. 
WeUin^on  at  once  perceived  the  opportunity 
of  cuttmg  off  the  entire  left  wing  thus 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  army.  The 
English  hurried  down  from  their  vantage- 
ground  on  the  hills,  and  at  five  o'clock 
I^akcnham  fell  upon  the  head  of  Marmont's 
division,  which  was  marching  in  disorder, 
under  the  idea  that  the  British  were  in  full 
retreat.  In  half  an  hour  the  French  left  was 
utterly  overwhelmed,  and  fell  back  in  hope- 
less confusion  upon  the  centre  and  right,  both 
of  which  were  already  retiring  before  the 
attacks  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  divisions.  The 
chief  French  generals  had  fallen,  and  the 
command  devolved  on  Clausel,  who  tried  to 
.form  a  connection  with  the  remnants  of 
Marmont's  division.  But  before  the  French 
could  rally,  the  English  cavalry,  supported 
by  infantry,  were  upon  them ;  and  what  the 
former  left  imdone,  the  latter  completed. 
Even  now  Clausel  attempted  to  retrieve  the 
disaster.  Bringing  up  some  fresh  troops,  he 
made  so  fierce  an  attack  on  the  fourth  and 
fifth  divisions,  already  exhausted  by  their 
previous  struggles,  that  they  were  only  saved 
from  destruction  by  the  arrival  of  Clinton 
with  the  sixth  division,  which  had  been 
hitherto  unengaged.  Their  arrival  finally 
decided  the  battle.  The  French  were  hope- 
lessly routed,  and  it  required  g^reat  skill  on 
f  oy's  part  to  save  even  the  relics  of  his  army. 


Meanwhile  the  road  to  Madrid  was  now  open 

to  Wellington.    [Pexcinbulab  Wak.] 

Napier,  PminnUar  Wart  CUntofD,  Pmottikr 
War. 

Salar  Jnng,  Sm  {d.  1883),  was  descended 
from  the  great  Meer  Allum.  In  1853  he  vas 
appointed  minister  to  the  Nizam.  Under  his 
able  management  the  Hyderabad  State  con- 
tinued to  prosper.  He  never  swerved  in  hi» 
allegiance  to  England,  even  during  the  Indian 
Mutiny.  In  1860  he  was  made  a  Knight  of 
the  Star  of  India.  He  continued  to  nile  the 
Hyderabad  State  with  judgment  and  benufi- 
cence  until  his  death. 

Salbhye,  The  Treaty  of  (MJay  17, 178-2;. 
was  concluded  between  the  East  India  Com- 
pany and  Scindia  on  behalf  of  the  Malusttas. 
Its  stipulations  were  that  all  territorv  aoqund 
by  the  English  since  the  Treaty  of  i'oonmder 
should  be  restored ;  that  the  Guicowar  should 
be  replaced  in  his  original  position  in 
Ghizerat;  that  Ragoba  should  be  aUoired 
three  lacs  of  rupees  a  year;  that  Hyder 
should  be  required  to  relinquish  all  his  con- 
quests in  the  Camatic,  and  to  release  all  hv 
prisoners  within  six  months,  and,  in  esse  of 
refusal,  should  be  attacked  by  the  foroee  of 
the  Peishwa. 

8ale»  Sib  Robebt  (Jb.  1782,  d.  1845),  aft^ 
a  long  and  distinguished  noilitary  career, 
commanded  a  column  in  the  second  Burmese 
War.  He  went  with  the  Afghan  expedition 
in  1839,  and  was  present  at  the  si^-  of 
Ghuzni,  where  he  was  severcl}^  wounded  in  a 
hand-to-hand  encounter.  After  the  occajn- 
tion  of  Cabul  and  the  evacuation  of  Afghan- 
istan, he  retired  into  Jellalabad  for  winter 
quarters.  Here  he  was  besieged  by  Akliar 
Khan  (1842),  but  was  relieved  by  Genml 
Nott  after  a  gallant  defence.  He  was  killed 
at  Moodkee. 

Salisbury  was  the  seat  of  a  bisho^^^ 
whidi  was  transferred  to  it  from  the  adja* 
cent  town  of  Old  Sarum  in  1217.  The  Sarum 
bishopric  had  been  founded  in  1058.  In 
1295  Old  Sarum  returned  a  member  to  Par- 
liament, though  Salisbury,  or  New  Sanuu. 
was  even  then  a  more  important  place,  and 
did  so  regularly  from  1360  to  1832,  till  di; 
franchised  by  the  Reform  Act  of  1832.  Th«. 
cathedral  of  Salisbury  was  begun  in  1220. 

Salisbuxyy  Cottmcha  at.  (i)  In  I0S6, 
after  the  completion  of  the  Doomsday  Snn'er. 
William  I.  summoned  a  meeting  of  all  tho 
landowners  of  England,  **of  whomsoever  thtv 
hold  their  lands,"  to  take  the  national  oath  of 
allegiance  to  himself.  (2)  In  1116  a  similar 
gathering  was  convoked  by  Henry  I.  to  swuir 
to  the  succession  of  the  Etheling  T\lllianL 
These  councils  were  of  great  constitational 
importance  as  illustrating  the  permanenci^ 
of  the  national  element  in  the  EngM 
state  during  the  most  flourishing  period  oi 
feudalism. 


(  900  ) 


Saliflburyf  John  db  Moiytacutb,  Eaki 
OP  (d,  1400),  was  the  son  of  Earl  William, 
and  one  of  Bachard  II.'b  chief  friends.  He 
took  part  in  the  proceedings  against  Glouces- 
ter in  1397,  and  in  1400  joined  the  conspiracy 
against  Henry  lY .  He  was  seized  by  the  ^ople 
at  Cirencester,  and  beheaded  without  trial. 

Salisbury,  John  of  {d.  1180),  studied 
at  Paris  under  Abelard,  and  other  great 
philosophers  of  the  day.  On  his  return  to 
England  he  was  made  Secretary  to  Arch- 
bishop Theobald,  and  through  his  influence 
was  employed  by  the  king  on  diplomatic 
errands.  He  was  the  confidential  adviser  of 
Becket,  and  shared  his  disgrace  and  exile. 
In  1176  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Chartres, 
which  see  he  held  for  four  years.  His  most 
important  work  is  the  FolpenUieut,  in  which 
he  attacks  the  vices  of  the  age,  and  parti- 
cularly those  of  the  court.  Besides  this,  he 
wrote  a  life  of  his  friend  Becket,  and  numerous 
letters  of  his  have  been  preserved,  and  are  of 
considerable  historical  value. 

Saliflbury,  Ricua&d  Kbvillb,  Eaiil  of 
ifi.  1400,  d.  1460),  was  a  son  of  Balph  Neville, 
Earl  of  Westmoreland,  and  obtained  the 
earldom  of  Salisbury  by  manring  Alice, 
heiress  of  Thomas  Montacute.  He  served  in 
France  under  his  brother-in-law,  the  Duke  of 
York,  became  Warden  of  the  West  Marches, 
and  strenuously  opposed  the  surrender  of  the 
English  princes  in  France.  He  was  a  strong 
opponent  of  Somerset,  and  in  1459  Loid 
Audley  was  commissioned  to  arrest  him,  but 
he  defeated  Audley  at  Blore  Heath.  For  this 
he  was  attainted  and  obliged  to  flee  to  Calais. 
In  the  next  year  he  returned  and  joined  the 
Duke  of  York,  but  being  defeated  and  taken 
prisoner  at  Wakefield,  he  was  beheaded.  His 
eldest  son  was  the  famous  Earl  of  Warwick. 

Salisbury,  Robert  Cbcil,  Earl  of  (b. 
1550,  d.  1612),  the  son  of  Lord  Burleigh  by 
his  second  wife,  after  a  somewhat  distinguished 
Parliamentary  career,  was  appointed  a  Secre- 
tary of  State  in  1596,  in  spite  of  the  intrigues 
of  the  Earl  of  Essex  to  procure  that  office  for 
Sir  Thomas  Bodley.  On  the  death  of  his 
father,  Sir  Robert  managed  to  obtain  a  large 
share  of  the  queen's  confidence,  and  so  roused 
the  enmity  of  Essex  as  to  cause  him  to 
attempt  his  removal  from  court:  Cecil  was 
subsequently  a  chief  instrument  in  the  earl's 
disgrace  and  fall.  During  the  last  few  years 
of  Elizabeth's  life,  Cecil  was  engaged  in  a 
secret  correspondence  with  James,  and  on  her 
death  was  the  first  to  proclaim  the  new  king, 
by  whom  he  was  confirmed  in  all  his  offices. 
Cecil,  who  was  the  bitter  enemy  of  Spain, 
found  himself  at  variance  with  James  on  that 
point,  bnt  nevertheless  managed  to  become  so 
indispensable  a  minister  that  he  was  created 
in  1604  Viscount  Cranbome,  and  in  the 
following  year  Earl  of  Salisbury.  In  1608,  on 
the  deam  of  the  Earl  of  Dorset,  he  became 
Ixxrd  Treasurer,  and  acquired  immense  power, 


being  practically  the  king's  only  minister ;  he 
died  in  1612,  as  it  was  said  "of  too  much 
business."  The  four  years  of  his  government 
were  marked  by  vigorous  administration,  and 
by  disputes  on  the  question  of  the  prerogative 
of  the  crown  in  ta)cation,  the  crowning  example 
of  which  was  the  issue  of  the  Book  of  Hatet, 
[Jambs  I.J  Salisbury  was  a  man  of  wisdom 
and  experience,  who  kept  up  the  traditions  of 
Elizabeth's  government  in  the  court  of  James. 
Qttxdiner,  Hut.  qf  Bng.,  1903—1642;  Tytler. 

Salisbury,  Robbrt  Arthur  Talbot 
Gascoione  Cxcil,  3rd  Marquis  op  (b.  1830), 
was  educated  at  Eton  and  Christ  Church,  Ox- 
ford ;  was  elected  to  a  fellowsl^  at  All  Souls' 
College,  and  was  returned  to  Ru'liament  for 
Stamford  in  the  Conservative  interest  (1853). 
He  represented  that  borough  till  1 868,  when  he 
succeeded  to  the  marquisate.  In  Lord  Derby's 
third  administration  he  was,  in  July,  1866, 
appointed  Secretary  of  State  for  In(iia,  but 
resigned  on  the  Reform  Bill  in  the  followmg 
year.  In  1869  he  was  elected  Chancellor  of 
the  University  of  Oxford,  to  succeed  Lord 
Derby.  In  1874  he  again  took  office  as  Secre- 
iary  of  State  for  India.  During  his  tenure  of 
office  he  introduced  and  carried  the  University 
Commission  Bill  for  the  reform  of  the  colleges 
of  the  two  universities.  In  1878,  on  the 
resignation  of  Lord  Derby,  he  was  appointed 
Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs,  and 
in  that  capacity  accompinied  Lord  Beacons- 
field  to  the  Conference  at  Berlin.  He  retired 
from  office  with  his  chief  (1880) ;  and  on  the 
death  of  the  latter  became  leader  of  the 
Conservative  party  in  the  House  of  Lords.  In 
1885  he  became  Premier  and  Foreign  Secre- 
tary, and  was  again  Prime  Minister  in  1886, 
afterwards  taking  in  addition  the  Foreign 
Secretary's  portfolio.  In  1895  he  once  more 
became  Premier  and  Foreign  Secretary. 

Salisbuxy,  Thomas,  one  of  the  six  con- 
spirators in  the  Babington  Plot  who  went 
specially  told  off  to  assassinate  Elizabeth,  was 
executed  at  T>'bum  (September,  1586). 

Salisbury,  William  Montacute,  Eabl 
OP  {d.  1346),  was,  as  Lord  Montacute,  one  of 
Edward  III.'s  chief  friends  and  advisers,  and 
devised  the  plan  for  seizing  Mortimer.  For 
his  services  ho  was  made  Seneschal  of  Aqui- 
taine  and  Lord  of  Man,  and  in  1337  was 
raised  to  the  earldom  of  Salisbury.  He  wan 
admiral  of  the  fieet,  and  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  Scotch  and  French  wars. 

Salomons'  Case.  In  185l  Mr.  Alder- 
man Salomons,  a  Jew,  was  returned  for  the 
borough  of  Ghreenwich,  made  his  appearance 
in  Parliament,  and  took  the  oaths,  omitting 
the  words  '*  on  the  true  faith  of  a  Christian.'' 
He  was  directed  to  withdraw.  Later,  how- 
ever, he  entered  the  House  and  took  his  seat 
above  the  bar,  and  was  only  removed  by  the 
interposition  of  the  Serjeant-at-Arms.  The 
House  of  Commons  agreed  to  a  xesolution  in 


(910  ) 


San 


the  same  form  as  in  the  case  of  the  Baron  de 
RothBchild.  *'In  the  meantiine,  however," 
says  Sir  Erskine  May,  **  he  had  not  only  sat  in 
the  House,  but  had  voted  in  three  divisions ; 
and  if  the  House  had  done  him  an  injustice, 
there  was  now  an  opportunity  for  obtaining  a 
jndicial  construction  of  the  statutes  by  the 
courts  of  law.  By  the  judgment  of  the 
Court  of  Exchequer  affirmed  by  the  Court  of 
Exchequer  Chamber,  it  was  soon  placed 
beyond  further  doubt  that  no  authority 
short  of  a  statute  was  competent  to  dispense 
with  those  words  which  Mr.  Salomons  had 
omitted  from  the  oath  of  abjuration.*'  [Jews; 
Oaths.] 

Hanaaid,  Debates,  8rd  ser.,  cxriii.  979, 1380. 

Sampford  Courtenayt  '^^^  Battle  op 
(Augpist,  1649),  was  fought  between  Lord 
Rusaell  and  the  Western  insurgents,  resultins 
in  the  final  defeat  of  the  latter.  Sampfoid 
is  a  village  on  the  slopes  of  Dartmoor.  On 
Whit  Sunday  the  revolt  had  beg^n  at  the 
nme  place  by  the  people  compelling  the 
priest  to  read* mass  in  Latin  instead  of  the 
new  service  book. 

Fronde,  Hi$t.  of  Eng.,  vol.  ▼. 

Sampson,  Thomas  {b,  1517,  <f.  1589^,  one 
of  the  Reformers  of  the  reign  of  Edwara  VI., 
was  compelled  to  live  abroad  during  the 
Marian  persecution  on  account  of  his  religious 
opinions.  After  the  accession  of  Elizabeth 
he  returned  to  England  and  became  Dean  of 
Christ  Church.  In  1567  he  was  imprisoned 
for  Nonconformity. 

Neal,  Uiat,  ofPuritatu, 

Sanohia^  second  wife  of  Richard  of 
Cornwall,  King  of  the  Romans,  was  the 
daughter  of  Count  Raymond  of  Provence, 
and  the  sister  of  Eleanor,  wife  of  Henry  III. 

Saaoroft,  Williah  {b,  1616,  d.  1693), 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  bom  at 
Fressin^eld,  in  Suffolk,  and  educated  at 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge.  Ejected 
from  his  fellowship  in  1649  for  royalism,  he 
remained  in  exile  till  Charles  II.*s  accession. 
In  1662  he  was  made  master  of  his  college, 
afterwards  Dean  of  York  and  Bishop  of  Lon- 
don, and  in  1677  archbishop.  Soon  after  the 
accession  of  James  II.  he  came  into  collision 
with  the  king.  On  the  promulgation  of  the 
Declaration  of  Indulgence,  Sancroft  and  six 
of  his  suffragans  presented  a  petition  to  the 
king  against  the  measure.  In  consequence, 
the  seven  prelates  were  committed  to  the 
Tower  fJune,  1688),  and  tried  in  the  Court 
of  King's  Bcmch  for  misdemeanour  (June  28), 
bat  the  jury,  in  spite  of  pressure  from  the 
government,  acquitted  them.  Sancroft  was 
an  honest  but  narrow-minded  nuin,  a  strong 
Tory  and  High  Churchman.  Though  he  led 
the  Seven  Buhops  against  James  II.,  he  ad- 
vocated the  regency  scheme  in  the  Convention 
Parliament,  and  ended  by  refusing  to  take  the 
oatiis  to  William  and  Mary.      He  was  sus- 


pended from  biB  see  in  1691,  and  died  two 
years  later  at  Fressingfield. 

MiM  Strickland,  LivM  of  O*  j£mM»  JMdbeyt; 
Macanlaj,  Eiet.  f^Eng. 

Saaictliary  was  the  name  given  to  a  place 
privileged  as  a  safe  refuge  for  criminals  and 
political  offenders.  Ail  churches  and  church- 
yai'ds  were,  down  to  Henry  VIH.^s  time,  in- 
vested with  this  protective  power.  The  possible 
stay  in  sanctuary  of  any  fugitive  was  strictly 
limited  to  a  period  of  forty  days,  at  the  ex- 
piration of  which  time  he  was  bound  to  quit 
the  realm  by  the  nearest  port  assigned  him  by 
the  coroner  to  whom  he  had  communicated  the 
circumstances  of  his  case.  During  his  journey 
to  the  sea-coast  for  the  purpose  of  carryinir 
out  this  self-banishment,  the  daimant  a( 
sanctuary  privileges  was  guaranteed  imxnimity 
from  molestation  as  he  joutneyed  on,  <axMi8  in 
hand.  In  Henry  III.'s  reign,  Hubert  de 
Burgh*8  non-compliance  with  the  forty  days* 
sanctuary  regulation  placed  him  in  the  hands 
of  his  enemies.  By  Henr>'^  VII.'s  time,  the  cu^ 
tom  of  sanctuary  was  very  much  abused,  having 
become  the  means  of  shielding  criminals  of  all 
kinds  from  justice,  and  at  his  request  Pop> 
Innocent  VIII.  made  three  important  altera- 
tions in  it.  First,  that  if  a  man,  while  enjoying 
the  privileges  of  sanctuary,  should  take  advan- 
tage of  his  position  to  commit  some  further 
offence  against  the  laws  of  his  country,  he 
should  at  once  and  for  ever  forfeit  the  Iwnefit 
of  sanctuary;  secondly,  that  the  benefit  of 
sanctuary  should  be  strictly  limited  to  a  man's 
personal  safety,  and  in  no  degfree  apply  to  the 
protection  of  his  private  property;  thirdly, 
that  when  treason  was  the  motive  for  seeking 
sanctuary,  the  king  might  have  the  offender 
specially  looked  to.  By  27  Henry  VIII.,  c 
19,  sanctuary  men  were  ordered  to  wear  dis- 
tinctive badges,  and  were  forbidden  to  carry 
weapons,  or  to  be  out  at  nights,  on  pain  A 
forfeiture  of  their  privileges.  TJn^  the 
twenty-first  year  of  James  I.,  the  costom 
still  continued,  and  criminals  continued  to 
seek  refuge  in  the  places  to  which  the  pri- 
vilege of  sanctuary  was  attached ;  at  this  time» 
however,  a  statute  was  passed  abolishing 
sanctuary  privileges  altogether. 

Saaders,  Db.  Nicholas  {d.  1581),  was 
educated  at  Winchester,  and  afterwards  be- 
came fellow  of  New  College,  Oxford.  An 
ardent  Ronuinist,  he  left  England  in  1558, 
and  was  present  at  the  Council  of  Trent.  In 
1572  the  English  refugees  sent  him  to  Rome 
to  try  and  get  help.  In  1575  he  had  to  leave 
Bome  without  having  accomplished  anything. 
In  1677  he  was  in  Spain,  but  was  again  un- 
successful. He  in  the  same  year  published  a 
book  called,  The  Origin  and  JProprm  ef  tA^ 
EnglM  Schism.  He  aooompanied  Stukeley* 
but,  unable  to  persuade  Philip  to  send  more 
men,  he  remained  in  Spain.  On  July  17, 
1579,  he,  as  legate,  landed  with  Fitamaarice 
at  Dingle.  He  attached  himself  to  the  Bail 
of  Desmond,  had  many  narrow  eecapes,  and 


San 


(911  ) 


Baa. 


by  1580  he  had  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
Ireland  could  not  be  saved  by  the  Irish.    He 
left  Smerwick  before  the  siege.    The  manner 
of  his  death  is  uncertain. 
Fronde,  Hist,  of  Eng. 

SaaiAilli  was  a  Kaffir  chief  who  took  an 
active  part  in  the  war  against  the  colonists  in 
1846. 

San  Domingo  is  the  name  given  by  the 
Spaniards  to  the  island  of  Ha}'ti.  It  wps 
discovered  by  Christopher  Columbus  about 
1493,  and  soon  became  a  valuable  plantation. 
In  1686,  war  having  broken  out  between 
England  and  Spain,  Sir  Francis  Brake  took 
the  town  of  San  Domingo.  Meanwhile  the 
westom  part  of  the  island  had  been  colonised 
by  the  French,  and  was  ceded  to  them  by  the 
Treaty  of  Ryswick  (q.v.).  It  was  off  San 
Domingo  that  Admiral  Eodney,  in  1782,  de- 
feated and  captured  the  French  admiral,  De 
Grasse.  After  the  English  expeditions  against 
the  island  ceased,  it  was  contended  for  by  the 
French  and  Spaniards,  the  native  population 
being  ready  to  rebel  whenever  a  chance 
presented  itself.  The  struggle  for  freedom  on 
their  part,  under  Toussaint  L'Ouverture,  in 
1801,  aroused  great  admiration  in  this  country. 
San  Domingo  is  now  a  free  republic. 

Saadwicll*  Edward  Montagu,  Earl  of 
(3.  1625,  <f.  1672),  son  of  Sir  Sidney  Montagu, 
took  the  popular  side  in  the  Civil  Wars,  fought 
at  Marston  Moor,  and  commanded  a  regiment 
in  the  New  Model.  In  1645  -he  entered  the 
House  of  Commons  as  knight  of  the  shire 
for  Huntingdon,  an(i  acted  with  the  Indepen- 
dents till  1648.  In  the  years  from  1648  to 
1653  he  took  no  part  in  political  life,  but  in 
1653  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners of  the  Admiralty,  and  joined  Blake  in 
the  command  of  the  fleet.  In  1659  he  com- 
municated with  the  king,  and  used  his  com- 
mand of  the  fleet  charged  to  arbitrate  between 
Denmark  and  Sweden,  to  forward  the  Restora- 
tion. For  this  service  he  was  made  Earl  of 
Sandwich.  In  the  first  Dutch  War  he  com- 
manded a  squadron  at  the  battle  of  Harwich 
(June  3,  1665],  and  commanded  at  the  attack 
on  the  Dutch  fleet  at  Bergen  (Aug.  12). 
Obliged  by  attacks  in  Parliament  to  give  up 
the  command  of  the  fleet,  he  was  appointed 
ambassador  to  Spain,  and  succeeded  m  1668 
in  bringing  about  the  treaty  which  secured 
the  independence  of  Portugal.  He  was  killed 
in  the  battle  of  Southwold  Bay. 

Churendon,  Hiat,  <{f  the  RtbMion  and  Lif^t 
Pepys,  Diary, 

Baadwieliy  John,  4th  Earl  op  {b,  1718, 
d.  1792),  early  in  life  obtained  public  offices' 
of  importance.  Ab  plenipotentiary  to  the 
States-General,  he  signed  in  1748  the  pre- 
timinaries  of  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle. 
He  was  made  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty 
OQ  his  return  to  England,  and  became 
so  intimately  oonnectei  with    the    Bedford 


faction,  that  when  Pelham  wished  in  1751 
to  rid  himself  of  that  faction,  he  began 
by  the  dismissal  of  Lord  Sandwich.  During 
the  next  twelve  years,  Lord  Sandwich  was 
out  of  office,  and  was  much  more  congenially 
employed  with  the  gay  brotherhood  of  Med- 
menham,  of  which  he  was  a  conspicuous 
member.  In  1763  he  became  First  Lord 
of  the  Admiralty,  and  the  same  year  was 
made  one  of  the  Secretaries  of  State  as  a 
colleague  of  Lord  Halifax.  In  this  post  he 
signalised  himself  by  his  violent  denunciation 
of  Wilkes,  of  whom  he  had  but  lately  been 
a  boon  companion.  As  the  head  of  a  de- 
partment, he  was  in  his  proper  sphere,  for 
his  industry,  as  Walpole  says,  was  so  remai*k- 
able  that  the  world  mistook  it  for  abilities. 
In  1765  he  was  guilty  of  using  the  meanest 
misrepresentation  to  the  king  in  order  to 
induce  him  to  strike  out  the  name  of  the 
Princess  of  Wales  from  the  Regency  Bill. 
The  king  was  furiously  indignant :  and 
within  two  months  dismissed  the  ministry. 
In  1767,  when  the  Duke  of  Grafton  made  an 
alliance  with  the  Bedford  faction.  Lord  Sand- 
wich "  took  over  the  salary  and  the  patronage 
of  the  Post  Office."  He  remained  in  that  office 
until  the  Grafton  ministry  gave  way  to  Lord 
North's  administration,  in  which  Sandwich  re- 
turned to  the  Admiralty.  He  failed  signally 
both  in  the  general  conduct  of  business  and  in 
reducing  the  revolted  colonies.  In  April,  1779, 
Fox  attacked  him  fiercely.  Narrowly  escaping 
a  direct  vote  of  censure,  Sandwich  fell  with 
Lord  North  in  1782,  and  thenceforth  lived  in 
retirement,  unrespocted  and  unloved. 

Walpole'B     LeUfr$;    QrenvxUe   Papers;    Tre- 
velyan.  Early  Life  oj  C.  J.  Fox. 

SaadySy  Edwin,  Arehbishop  of  York 
{b.  1519,  d.  1588),  was  at  the  time  of  Edward 
VI.'s  death  Vico-Chancelloi'  of  Cambridge 
and  a  zealous  Protestant.  He  favoured 
Northumberland's  scheme,  and  preached  a 
powerful  sermon  in  favour  of  Lady  Jane 
Grey,  for  which  he  was  sent  to  the  Tower, 
and  subsequently  compelled  to  leave  the 
country.  On  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  he 
returned  to  England  and  became  Bishop  of 
Worcester,  and  in  1570  Bishop  of  London,  in 
which  capacity  he  exhibited  much  rigour 
towards  the  Nonconformists.  In  1576  he 
was  made  ^Vrchbishop  of  York. 

Sandys,  Samuel,  was  first  returned  for 
Woreester  in  1717,  but  did  not  become  pro- 
minent until  1741,  when  he  was  chosen  to 
bring  forward  a  motion  for  the  removal  of 
Sir  Robert  Walpole  from  the  king's  council. 
His  speech,  "  probably  concerted  with  the 
principal  Opposition  leaders,  was  elaborate 
and  able.'*  But  the  motion  was  lost  by  a 
large  majority.  On  the  fall  of  Walpole  he 
became  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  under 
Wilmington,  but  soon  afterwards  resigned 
office,  being  raised  to  the  peerage  and  receiv- 
ing a  plaoe  in  the  royal  household. 


(  »12) 


San  Joan  Award.  The  question  as 
to  the  boundar}'  westwards  between  Canada 
and  the  United  States  having  been  submitted 
to  the  arbitration  of  the  German  Emperor 
"William,  the  following  award  was  given: — 
That  according  to  the  Treaty  of  Wa^ington 
(1846)  the  boundary,  after  it  had  been  con- 
tinued westward  along  the  forty-ninth  parallel 
of  north  latitude  to  the  middle  of  the  channel 
which  separates  the  continent  from  Van- 
couver's Island,  and  had  further  been  drawn 
southerly  through  the  middle  of  the  said 
channel  and  of  Fuca  Straits  to  the  Pacific, 
should  run  through  the  canal  of  Haro  as 
claimed  by  the  United  States,  and  not  through 
the  Rosario  Straits  as  claimed  by  the  British 
government.  San  Juan  itself  was  a  small 
island  near  Vancouver's  Island,  and  by  this 
award  became  American  territory.  It  was 
evacuated  by  Eogland  in  consequence  (1873). 

Saaqnliar    Beolaration,   The,  was 

issued  by  Richard  Cameron,  Donald  Carg^U, 
and  others  of  the  extreme  Covenanters  at 
Sanquhar  in  Dumfriesshire  (June,  1680).  It 
declared  that  Charles  II.  had  forfeited  the 
crown  of  Scotland  "  by  his  perjury  and 
breach  of  covenant  both  to  God  and  His 
kirk."  Charles  was  at  the  same  time  ex- 
communicated by  Cargill.     [Came&onians.] 

Baa  Sebastiajl,  The  Sieob  of,  during 
the  last  campaign  of  the  war  in  the  Peninsula 
(Aug.  31, 1813),  was  necessary,  to  enable  Wel- 
lington to  cross  the  Pyrenees  and  conduct  the 
war  in  France.  The  first  siege  was  beg^n  on 
July  10,  1813 ;  but  an  assault  on  the  town  on 
the  25th  was  repulsed  with  terrible  loss.  Wel- 
lington, repairing  to  San  Sebastian,  ordered 
Graham  to  turn  the  siege  into  a  blockade. 
During  nine  days  of  ceaseless  movement,  ton 
engagements  had  been  fought,  the  effect  of 
which  was  that  Soult  was  in  retreat,  while 
Wellington's  position  was  so  strong,  that  he 
was  secure  from  offensive  action  on  the  part  of 
the  French,  and  could  resume  the  siege  of  San 
Sebastian  under  the  direction  of  Graham. 
The  natural  and  artificial  difficulties  of  the 
siege  were  very  grt^t,  but  they  were  intensi- 
fiea  by  the  negligence  of  the  government  at 
home,  who  would  not  supply  a  sufiicicntly 
large  fleet  or  suitable  ammunition.  Still  the 
works  went  on  gradually,  under  the  energetic 
commander  ;  various  positions  were  succes- 
sively won,  and  on  the  30th,  600  yards  of  the 
eastern  sea-front  were  laid  open*  On  the 
morning  of  the  31st,  the  assault  was  made, 
and  after  a  terible  attack  the  town  was 
carried,  though  the  castle  held  out.  For  some 
days  the  town  became  the  scene  of  atrocities 
**  which  would  have  shamed  the  most  ferocious 
barbarians  of  antiquity."  When  the  troops 
had  in  some  measure  recovered,  batteries  were 
raised  against  the  castle,  which  surrendered 
on  Sept.  8,  leaving  Wellington  free  to  transfer 
the  war  into  the  south  of  France. 

Napier,P«nm«ular fKar;  Clinton,  Peninaular  War.    [ 


Santal  Sevolt.  The  Santals  were  a 
tribe  inhabiting  the  hill  ranges  of  Bajmahal 
Being  harassed  by  the  processes  and  bailifb 
of  the  courts,  and  by  the  demands  of  Ben- 
galee money-lenders,  they  suddenly  rose  in 
rebellion  (July,  1855),  and  carried  fire  and  d€«- 
truction  among  the  villages  of  the  Europeani. 
No  troops  were  available  but  Ihe  hill  rangen, 
who  were  driven  back.  The  railway  mm 
for  the  first  time  brought  up  troops;  the 
rebels  were  hemmed  in  and  hunted  down; 
the  cholera  likewise  made  great  havoc  among 
them.  The  rebellion  was  extinguished  on  the 
last  day  of  the  year.  The  district  was  now 
converted  into  a  non-regulation  province,  and 
placed  in  charge  of  a  commissioner. 

Saragossa,  The  Battle  of  (1710),  ww 
fought  during  the  War  of  the  Succession  in 
Spain.  After  the  defeat  at  Almanza,  King 
Philip  hastily  retreated  on  Saragossa.  The 
allies  followed  with  difficulty.  On  Aug.  19 
Stanhope  found  the  Spaniards  drawn  up  before 
Saragossa,  with  the  Ebro  on  their  left,  a 
range  of  hills  upon  their  right,  and  a  deep 
ravine  on  their  front.  The  Archduke  Chark« 
determined  to  risk  a  battle.  Stanhope  com- 
manded the  left  of  the  allies  formed  of  the 
English,  Dutch,  and  Palatines,  and  eked  oat 
his  cavalry  by  interspersing  among  them  some 
battalions  of  foot.  The  allies*  right  wing  con- 
sisted of  Portuguese  foot,  and  a  part  of 
the  Germans  under  Count  Atalaya.  The 
Spaniards  had  about  twenty-five,  and  the 
allies  about  twenty-three,thou6and  men.  The 
left  was  the  first  to  engage.  Then  the  Porta- 
guese  at  once  made  off,  attracting  large  bodies 
of  the  enemy  in  pursuit.  The  remainder  of 
the  allies  steadily  stood  their  ground,  and  at 
length'  drove  back  the  enemy.  On  the  right, 
the  l)utoh  and  Germans  loon  threw  the 
enemy  into  confusion.  In  the  centre  the 
veteran  Spaniards,  after  a  steady  resistanoe 
to  Staremberg,  retreated  in  good  order.  Six 
thousand  prisoners  were  taken,  with  a  large 
number  of  cannon,  and  possession  of  Sara- 
gossa was  secured  to  the  victors.  After  con' 
siderable  debate,  the  aUies,  in  accordance  with 
Stanhope's  dedre,  advanced  on  Madrid. 

Beyer,  ^nnal« ;  Stanhope,  War  o/tht  SMConno* 
in  Spain. 

Sardinian  ConTention  (1855).    On 

Jan.  26  the  King  of  Sardinia  acceded  to  the 
convention  between  the  English  and  French 
govemmente  of  April  10,  1854,  and  agreed 
to  furnish  and  maintain  at  full  for  the 
requiremento  of  the  war  15,000  men  under 
the  command  of  a  Sardinian  general.  By  a 
separate  article  England  and  France  agreed 
to  guarantee  the  integrity  of  the  king's 
dominions.  England  undertook  the  charges 
of  transporting  the  troops  to  and  from  the 
Crimea,  and  under  the  treaty  a  recommenda- 
tion was  to  be  made  to  Parliament  to  ad^^nce 
a  million  sterling  to  the  King  of  Sardinia  it 
four  per  cent.    [Chixban  Wah.] 


Sar 


(913) 


Bmr 


Saratogai  Thb  Convention  of  (Oct., 
1777),  duriiig  the  American  War  of  Indepen- 
•dence,  was  the  closing  scene  of  Greneral  Bur- 
goyne's  disastrous  campaign,  which  resulted 
in  his  retreat  on  Saratoga,  where  ho  found 
himself  (Oct.  10,  1777)  with  3,500  men 
opposed  to  Giates  with  13,216  men.  Bur- 
g03me,  receiving  no  tidings  of  Clinton,  with 
scarcity  in  his  army  developing  almost 
into  famine,  made  proposals  for  negotiations. 
Ghites  offered  terms  which  were  at  once  re- 
jected as  degrading,  and  not  wishing  to  drive  to 
despair  a  body  of  brave  men,  he  finally 
agreed  to  the  terms  proposed  by  Burgoyne. 
The  chief  of  these  were  that  the  troops  should 
lay  down  their  arms,  and  should  be  allowed  a 
free  passage  to  England,  on  condition  that 
they  would  not  again  engage  in  the  war,  and 
that  the  treaty  should  be  called  a  convention, 
and  not  a  capitulation.  These  terms  were 
agreed  to  on  the  17th,  and  on  that  day  the 
British  troops  marched  out.  The  importance 
of  the  surrender  was  felt  throughout  the 
world,  as  was  shown  by  the  &ct  that  France 
at  once  acknowledged  the  ''Independent 
United  States  of  America,'*  and  entered  into 
a  treaty  with  them.  Spain  followed  the  lead 
of  France,  and  Holland  did  not  long  remain 
neutraL  Lord  Stanhope  has  said  of  it,  that 
"even  of  those  great  conflicts,  in  which 
hundreds  of  thousands  have  been  engaged, 
and  tens  of  thousands  have  fallen,  none  has 
been  more  fruitful  of  results  than  this  sur- 
render of  thirty-five  hundred  fighting  men  at 
"Saratog^a." 

Bancroft.  Hi$t,  of  Avmt.  Bev„  fii.,  c.  24; 
Stanhope,  Hitt.  tf  ^^-s  ^-j  ^-  ^*  (Sordon, 
American  War  ;  Creasy,  Becinve  B<MIm, 

Sarsflald,  Patrick  (d.  1693),  was  an 
Irish  Jacobite  of  great  military  genius.  He 
held  a  commission  in  the  English  life-guards^ 
and  served  under  Monmouth  on  the  continent. 
He  fought  brilliantly  at  the  battle  of  Sedge- 
moor  against  his  former  general.  Soon  after 
the  landing  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  he  was 
defeated  in  a  skirmish  at  Wincanton.  He 
sat  for  the  county  of  Dublin  in  the  Irish 
Parliament  of  1688.  In  1689  he  was  sent  by 
Jamee  II.  as  commander  into  Connaught.  He 
secured  Oalway,  and  drove  the  English  from 
Sligo.  Shortly  afterwards  James  created  him 
Elarl  of  Lucan.  He  was  present  at  the  battle 
of  the  Boyne,  and  insisted  on  making  a  stand 
at  Limerick  against  the  advice  of  Tyrconnel. 
He  surprised  the  English  artillery  and  com- 
pelled William  to  raise  the  siege  (Aug.,  16d0). 
His  administration  of  that  town  was  not  alto- 
gether successful.  On  the  arrival  of  the 
French  general,  St.  Ruth,  he  soon  quarrelled 
with  him ;  and  his  advice  to  avoid  a  battle, 
given  after  the  fall  of  Athlone,  was  pertina- 
ciously disregarded.  At  the  battle  of  Aghrim 
he  command^  the  reserve,  and  through  some 
misunderstanding  never  received  orders  to 
charge.  He  covered  the  retreat.  Once  more 
Yob    arrangements  for   making   a  stand  at 


Limerick  were  hampered  by  his  colleaguea 
The  death  of  Tyrconnel,  however,  left  him  in 
supreme  command,  but  he  soon  despaired  o| 
the  defence.  He  therefore  opened  negotia- 
tions with  Ginkell.  Limerick  capitulated 
on  Oct.  3,  1691,  and  the  majority  of  its  garri- 
son chose  to  follow  Sarsfiela  into  the  French 
service.  He  was  given  a  command  in  the 
intended  French  invasion  of  England  in 
1692.  He  fought  with  great  galSintiy  in 
the  French  ranks  at  the  battle  of  Steinkirk, 
and  was  mortally  wounded  at  Landen.  "  A 
perishing  nationality/'  says  Ranke,  referring 
to  Sarsfield,  '*  has  sometimes  men  granted  to 
it  in  whom  its  virtues  are  represented." 

C.  T.  Wilson,  JamM  11.  and  ihe  DiOm  of  Bet- 
viA;  ICaoanlay,  Hitt,  of  Eng.;  Banke,  Hid.  of 
Bng. 

Sanohie  Burn,  The  Battle  of  (June 
18,  1488),  residted  in  the  defeat  and  death  of 
James  III.  of  Scotland  at  the  hands  of  his 
insurgent  barons,  headed  by  Angus  "  Bell  the 
Oat,"  Home,  Hepburn,  and  Bothwell,  who  had 
plotted  to  get  hold  of  James's  son  to  make  use 
of  him  against  his  father's  authority. 

SannderSy  Admikal  Sib  Charles  {d. 
1775),  served  under  Anson  in  his  expedition 
to  the  South  Seas.  In  1741  he  became  post- 
captain.  In  1747  he  aided  Hawke  in  his 
victory  over  the  French,  and  in  1760  was 
returned  for  Plymouth.  He  became  T^'easurer 
of  Greenwich  Hospital  (1754),  and  Comp- 
troller of  the  Navy  (1766).  In  1767  Saundera 
was  appointed  commander-in«chief  of  the 
Mediterranean  squadron,  and  in  the  following 
year  became  rear-admiral.  In  1769  he  com- 
manded the  fleet  which  conveyed  Wolfe  to 
Quebec.  He  received  the  thanks  of  the 
House  of  Commons  for  his  co-operation, 
Pitt  calling  him  a  man  ''equalling  those 
who  have  taken  armadas."  In  1760  he  went 
to  the  Mediterranean  as  commander-in-chief. 
He  was  made  vice-admiral.  In  1766  he  be- 
came Lord  of  the  Admiralty.  Saunders  sub- 
sequently became  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty 
and  Privy  Councillor  (1766),  and  admiral 
in  1770.  He  was  buried  in  Westminster 
Abbey. 

Savile,  Sir  Georob  (6.  1721,  d,  1784), 
came  of  an  old  Yorkshire  family,  which 
county  he  represented  through  ^ve  successive 
elections.  He  did  not  often  speak  in  Parlia- 
ment, but  there  was  perhaps  no  one  in  the 
House  more  thoroughly  respected  as  a  man  of 
liberal  principles  and  unbending  integrity; 
and  he  was  one  of  the  most  reliable  bulwarks 
of  the  Whig  party.  Ho  was  a  strenuous  and 
consistent  opponent  of  the  American  War  in 
all  its  stages.  He  resisted  the  prosecution  of 
Wilkes.  He  was  the  flrst  to  relieve  in  some 
measure  the  disabilities  of  Boman  Catholics, 
by  carrying  a  bill  for  that  puipose  in  1778; 
and  he  was  consequently  one  of  the  principal 
sufferers  by  the  Gordon  Riots.  Lsiter,  he 
brought  in  a  bill  against  Popish  conversionfl. 


Uw 


(914) 


But  perhaps  the  most  celehrated  measure 
cozmected  with  the  name  of  Sir  George  8a vile 
18  the  Nullum  Tempus  Bill,  which  had  its 
origin  in  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  the 
ministry'  and  the  crown  to  put  into  force 
against  the  Duke  of  Portland  tiie  old  maxim 
"Nullum  tempus  occurrit  regi" — "that  no 
length  of  continuance  or  good  faith  of  pos- 
session is  availahle  against  a  claim  of  the 
crown.*'  SavUe's  hill  abolished  this  maxim 
—"the  opprobrium  of  prerogative  and  the 
disgnu^  of  our  law  " — by  providing  that  an 
uninterrupted  enjoyment  for  sixty  years  of 
an  estate  derived  from  the  crown  should  bar 
the  crown  from  reclaiming  its  gift   under 

Sretence  of  any  flaw  in  the  grant  or  other 
efect  of  title. 

Trevelyan,  Early  Lif$  of  C.  J.  Fox;  Chatham 
Comtpcndtnoe, 

Savile,  Sm  Henby  {b,  1649,  d.  1622),  a 
man  of  great  learning,  was  tutor  in  Greek  to 
Queen  Elizabeth.  In  1585  he-became  warden 
of  Merton  College,  and  in  1596  provost  of 
Eton.  At  Oxford  he  founded  the  Savilian 
professorships  of  geometry  and  astronomy. 
This  "magazine  of  learning,''  as  he  was 
called,  edited,  amongst  other  works,  four 
^oks  of  the  History*  and  the  Agricola  of 
l^citus,  the  works  of  St.  Chrysostom,  and 
a  useful  collection  of  the  old  chroniclers, 
which  he  styled  Rerum  Angliearum  Seriptorea 
poet  Bedam  Fraeipui  (1596). 

Savoy,  Boniface  of,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  (1245 — 1270),  was  a  prince  of 
the  reigning  house  of  Savoy,  and  uncle  of 
Henry  III.'s  queen.  To  this  he  owed  his 
early  advancement  to  the  archbishopric,  for 
which  ho  had  very  few  qualifications.  His 
rule  was  intensely  unpopular,  as  that  of  a 
foreigner  and  dependent  of  the  court.  He 
Has  made  little  mark  in  the  historv'  of  his  see. 
The  palace  of  the  Savoy  in  the  otrand  took 
its  name  from  his  brother  Peter. 

Hook,  ArchhithopB  qf  CanUrbury,  vol.  iii. 

SaToy  Conference,  The  (I66i),  was 

held  in  tne  ^voy  Palace  for  the  purpose  of 
discussing  the  relations  of  the  Puritans 
towards  the  Church,  and  the  proposed  changes 
in  the  Liturgy.  It  consisted  of  twelve 
bishops,  among  whom  were  Cosin,  Sanderson, 
Pearson,  and  Sparrow;  and  twelve  Puritan 
divines,  including  Baxter,  Calamy,  Reynolds, 
and  Lightfoot.  After  sitting  from  April  15 
to  July  24,  they  came  to  no  practical  con- 
clusion, and  reported  that  "The  Church's 
welfare,  unity,  and  peace,  and  his  majesty's 
satisfaction,  were  ends  upon  which  they  were 
all  agreed ;  but  as  to  means,  they  could  not 
come  to  any  haimonv."  The  failure  of  the 
Savoy  Conference  excluded  a  large  number  of 
Puritans  from  the  Church.  [For  the  altera- 
tions in  the  Liturgy,  which  so  far  as  they  had 
any  effect  emphasised  rather  than  minimised 


the  differences  between  Anglican  and  Paritan, 
aee  Praybb  Book.] 

Cardwell,   Hittory  of    Confermeu   ccmudei 
vUh  ths  Book  of  Common  Frayer, 

Sawtrey^  William  {d.  1401),  a  clergy- 
man  at  one  time  beneficed  at  Lynn,  am 
later  in  London,  was  the  first  penon  burnt  in 
England  for  LoUardy.  Proceedings  w:?re 
taken  against  him  during  the  same  session  in 
which  the  Act  J)e  heretieo  comhurendo  was 
embodied  in  the  statute  of  the  year ;  bat  his 
execution  on  the  simple  authority  of  tht" 
king's  writ  has  given  some  occasion  for  con- 
troversy as  to  whether,  before  the  passing  of 
the  new  Act,  the  king  had  power  to  issuo 
writs  De  heretieo  comburendo.  The  absence  of 
precedent,  however,  makes  the  supposition  im- 
probable. 

Stubbs,  Coiut.  Hist.,  vol.  iit 

Sawyer,  Sir  Robert,  an  eminent  Ton- 
lawyer,  was  Attorney-General  at  the  time  of 
the  Rye  House  Plot,  and  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  zeal,  if  not  rancour,  in  prosecuting 
the  Wliigs  concerned  in  that  nieasuie.  Con- 
tinuing long  in  office,  in  1686  he  refused  to 
help  James  II.  in  vindicating  the  dispensing 
power,  yet  such  was  his  &me,  and  the  diffi- 
culty of  getting  a  successor,  that  he  was  not 
alsmissed  till  1688.  He  was  leading  conn- 
tuQ^  ^or  the  Seven  Bishops,  and  after  raising 
difficulties,  accepted  the  Revolution.  In 
1690  he  was  violently  attacked  for  his  coo- 
duct  in  relation  to  the  trial  of  Sir  R.  Aim- 
strong,  a  Rye  House  Plotter,  was  excepted 
from  the  Act  of  Indemnity,  and  was  ex- 
pelled the  House  of  Conunons. 

Saatons,  Thb.  The  earliest  contemporary 
reference  to  Saxons  in  extant  literature— tlmt 
of  the  geographer  Ptolemy,  who  wrote  about 
120  A.D.— describes  them  as  dwelling  in  the 
country  now  called  Holstein,  and  three  ad- 
joining islands.  They  are  next  mentioned  as 
fringing  the  sea-board  of  the  ocean.  In  287. 
when  the  first  authentic  notice  of  their  piracies 
and  plunderings  was  written,  they  had  not 
only  stamped  &eir  name  on  the  British  coast 
[SA.XON  Shore],  but  extended  it  over  the 
northern  lands  between  the  Elbe  and  the 
Ems ;  and  in  the  seventh  century  broad  tracts 
of  Britain,  and  broader  tracts  of  Germaoy 
between  the  Rhine  and  the  Oder,  were  in  the 
possession  of  people  called  by  their  name. 
Those  that  stayed  in  Germany  were  long 
known  as  Old  Saxons,  to  distinguish  them 
from  the  settlers  beyond  the  sea.  Those 
clung  tenaciously  to  their  primitive  usages 
and  national  forms  of  rule  after  the  others 
had  begun  to  abandon  them.  Whether  the 
expansion  of  the  Saxon  name  on  the  Conti- 
nent was  due  to  immigration  and  conqaeBt, 
as  it  was  in  Britain,  is,  though  possible, 
extremely  doubtfuL  It  is  thought  more 
likely  that  it  was  merely  extended  to  a 
number  of  separate  but  neighbouring  tzibet 
already  inhabiting    those   regions,  as  the 


(916) 


Soil 


eommon  defdgnation  of  a  huge  confederacy. 
Such  peoples  as  the  Chaud  and  Gherusci, 
while  keeping  their  proper  tribe  names  among 
themselres,  would  be  called  Saxons  b^  those 
that  were  outside  the  confederacy,  just  as 
Salii  and  TJbii  were  known  as  Franks.  This 
is  the  readiest  way  of  explaining  the  sudden 
spring  of  the  Saxons  from  an  obscure  tribe, 
confined  to  a  narrow  territory,  into  a  great- 
ness and  notoriety  that  have  left  a  broad 
mark  on  human  destiny.  From  the  third  to 
the  sixth  centuries  these  Saxons  were  swarm- 
ing in  their  '*  keels  "  over  and  up  and  down 
the  narrow  seas,  spoiling  and  wasting  the 
property,  and  at  length  depopulating  and 
seizing  the  soil  of  civilised  peoples  within 
their  reach.  If  Claudian  be  oeheved,  they 
watered  the  Orkneys  with  their  blood ;  they 
certainly  founded  several  kingdoms  in 
Britain,  and  at  least  one  settlement  in  Gaul. 
So  deep  was  the  impression  made  by  their 
8treng:tb,  ferocity,  and  persistence  on  the  men 
whose  lands  they  took  that  these  men  gave 
their  same  to  all  the  German  invaders,  and, 
later  still,  their  subjugation  in  their  native 
homes  cost  Charlemagne  a  generation  of  effort. 
Ethnolop^  classes  them  as  a  Low  German 
race,  witn  fewer  and  fainter  afi^ties  of 
lang^uage  and  character  to  the  High  German 
than  their  partners  in  conquest,  the  Angles, 
llie  fair  hair,  blue  eye,  and  robust  animal 
nature,  characteristic  of  the  southern  English 
peasant,  are  ascribed  to  his  Saxon  ongin.. 
The  derivative  meaning  of  the  name  is 
disputed ;  it  has  been  variously  interpreted  as 
seamen,  users  of  the  short  knife  {»eax)f  settlers 
(«<m),  adversaries  (sa»A«),  and  other  things. 
Their  efficiency  as  makers  of  history  in  early 
days  is  -traced  to  their  having  been  untouched 
by  Roman  civilisation,  to  their  long  continu- 
ance, aa  Professor  Freeman  words  it,  '*in  a 
state  of  healthy  barbarism." 

Lappenbeiiff ,  Anglo-Saxon  King9 ;  Palgiave,  Sng, 
ComnumwtdLth;  Skene,  CMHo  SeoUand;  Elton, 
Origins  o/Sng.  fl<aC.;  Stabbe,  Const,  Hist. 

[J.  R.] 

Saxon  Shore,  Thb,  was  in  Boman  timee 
that  nart  of  Britain  espNBcially  liable  to  the 
inroads  of  the  Saxon  pirates.  This  neces- 
sitated the  presence  of  a  large  force  of  Boman 
soldiers.  Their  commander  was  the  Comes 
Litoris  Saxomei  (Count  of  the  Saxon  Shore), 
whose  jurisdiction  extended  from  Norfolk  to 
Sussex.  There  is  no  reason  for  believing,  as 
some  have  maintained,  that  the  Saxon  Shore 
was  inhabited  by  '* Saxon"  colonies.  The 
expression  ''litus  Saxonicum"  is  exactly 
analogous  to  the  Welsh  March  of  later  times, 
which  meant  the  district  specially  open  to 
Welsh  attacks. 

Ghxest,  Originm  CtUiem;  Coote,  Romans  in 
BriMm, ;  Bh^s,  (Miic  Brftain. 

Say,  WnXIAM  FiBNNBS,  ViscorNT  (h.  1686, 
d,  1662),  educated  at  Winchester  and  at  New 
College,  Oxford,  succeeded  his  father  as  Lord 
Say  in  1613,  and  was  created  viscount  in  1624. 


He  was  a  strong  Puritan,  '*for  many  yean 
the  oracle  of  those  who  were  called  Puritans 
in  the  worst  sense,  and  steered  all  their 
counsels  and  designs  "  (Clarendon).  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  colony  of  Con- 
necticut, and  thought  of  emigrating  himself. 
He  was  also  one  of  the  foremost  opponents  of 
ship-money,  but  the  government  preferred  to 
try  Hampden's  case  rather  than  his.  In  1639 
he  was  committed  to  custody  for  refusing 
to  take  the  military  oath  against  the  Scots 
required  by  the  king.  He  was  appointed  in 
May,  1641,  Master  of  the  Court  of  Wards, 
when  the  king  thought  of  winning  the  popular 
leaders  by  preferment,  but  remained  firm, 
voted  for  the  exclusion  of  the  bishops,  became 
a  member  of  the  committee  of  safety,  and 
raised  a  regiment  of  foot  for  the  Parliament. 
He  continued  to  sit  in  the  House  of  Lords 
until  its  abolition.  In  1648  ho  acted  as  one 
of  the  Parliamentary  commissioners  at  the 
Treaty  of  Newport,  and  voted  in  favour  of  an 
accommodation  with  the  king.  Cromwell 
appointed  him  to  sit  in  his  House  of  Lords, 
but  he  refused  to  accept  the  ofi'er.  In  1660 
he  took  part  in  the  intrigues  to  bring  about 
the  Bestoration,  and  was  rewarded  by  being 
made  Lord  Privy  Seal.  His  contemporaries 
charged  him  with  duplicity,  and  nicknamed 
him  "  Old  Subtlety." 

Clarendon,  Hut.  ofiWs  fiobellwm;  Wood,  Aihsnm 
OxonisMSs. 

Say  and  SelOp  James  Fiennes,  Lord 
(d,  1450),  was  Treasurer  of.  England  from 
1448  to  1460,  and  a  strong  supporter  of  the 
Duke  of  Suffolk.  Hence  he  gained  great 
tmpopularity,  and,  on  the  insurgents  under 
Jack  Cade  reaching  London,  he  was  seized, 
and  after  a  mock  tnal  beheaded. 

Say  and  SalOp  William  Fiennes,  2nd 
Lord  {d,  1471),  son  of  the  preceding,  fought  on 
the  Yorkist  side  at  Northampton.  He  was  sub- 
sequently made  Lord  High  Admiral  by  £d- 
wiurd  IV.,  fled  with  the  king  in  1470,  and, 
returning  in  the  next  year,  was  slain  in  the 
battle  of  Bamet. 

Scales,  Thomas,  Lord  {d,  1460),  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  French  wars  and  in 
repressing  Jack  Cade*s  rebellion.  He  was  a 
faithful  follower  of  the  Lancastrian  cause, 
and  in  1460,  after  the  battle  of  Northampton, 
was  captured  by  the  Yorkists,  and  put  to  death. 

Soandalnu  Kai^atiun  was  the  use 

of  language  derogatory  to  a  peer  or  great 
officer  of  the  realm.    It  was  created  a  special 
offence  with  special  punishments  in  1275. 
Sir  J.  Stephen,  flwt.  of  tks  Criminal  Imu. 

Soliaubp  Sir  Lvke,  was  a  Swiss  in  the 
British  service.  He  first  appears  in  1718  as 
the  confidential  secretary  to  Stanhope  in 
Spain.  In  1720  he  was  knighted,  and  sent  as 
minister  to  Paris  in  1721,  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year  received  from  the  regent  communi- 
cations concerning  Atterbury*s  Jacobite  plot 


Boh 


(916) 


Sch 


which  led  to  its  detection.  He  returned  to 
England  in  1724,  having  attempted,  as  the 
friend  of  Carteret,  to  obtain  a  dukedom  for 
the  intended  husband  of  a  daughter  of 
Madame  de  Platen,  the  sister  of  the  king's 
mistress,  the  Countess  of  Darlington.  Horace 
Walpole  was  sent  bv  Townshend  to  counter- 
act his  designs,  and,  as  the  affairs  were  at  a 
deadlock,  George  was  compelled  to  recall 
him.  His  subsequent  diplomatic  career  was 
unimportant. 

Schisili  Act,  The,  was  passed  in  May, 
1714.  It  was  a  measure  devised  by  the 
extreme  Qigh  Church  party,  and  encouraged 
by  Bolingbruke  as  a  party  move  a^iainst 
Oxford.  It  was  introduced  by  Sir  William 
Wyndham.  Its  object  was  to  confirm  a 
clause  in  the  Act  of  Uniformity  which 
precluded  schoolmasters  and  tutors  from 
giving  instruction  without  previously  sub- 
scribing a  declaration  of  conformity  to  the 
Established  Church.  This  restriction,  although 
not  abolished  by  the  Toleration  Act,  had  long 
been  practically  suspended.  The  Schism  Act 
therefore  imposed  severe  penalties  on  all 
tutors  and  schoolmasters  who  presumed  to 
instruct  without  having  first  received  a 
licence  from  a  bishop.  It  easily  passed  its 
two  first  stages,  but  at  the  third  reading  it 
was  vigorously  opposed  by  the  Whigs.  In 
the  Upper  House  several  amendments  were 
made  in  committee.  Teachers  merely  of  read- 
ing, writing,  arithmetic,  and  navigation  were 
excluded  m>m  its  operations.  The  power 
of  convicting  offenders  was  lodged  in  the 
superior  courts  alone.  By  an  absurd  clause, 
the  tutors  of  the  sons  of  noblemen  were  de* 
dared  exempt  from  its  restriction.  But  the 
bill  was  most  unjustly  e^^tended  to  Ireland. 
This  iniquitous  measure  was  repealed,  together 
with  the  Occasional  Conformity  Act,  in  spite 
of  much  opposition,  in  1717. 

Boyce,  L#Mres  flutorvmM;   W7011,  Beign  of 
Qu««n  Anne  ;  Stanhope,  Rrign  of  Quern  Anne* 

Sbhleswig-Kolstein  Question,  Thb 

(1863).  The  long  desire  of  the  patriotic  party 
in  G^ermanv  to  detach  from  Denmark  the  Grer- 
man  Elbe  duchies,  which  already  in  1848  had 
caused  a  serious  war,  came  to  a  he^d  in  the 
quarrel  between  the  two  countries  in  1863. 
Throughout  the  negotiations  Lord  Russell 
had  given  the  Danish  government  sound  and 
sensible  advice,  to  the  effect  that  they  mtist 
treat  the  German  populations  of  those  two 
provinces  fairly,  and  g^ve  no  ground  of  com- 
plaint to  the  German  government.  On  July  23, 
1863,  when  the  struggle  seemed  approaching, 
Lord  Palmerston  was  questioned  as  to  the 
course  England  intended  to  pursue  during 
the  struggle,  if  such  should  arise,  and  he 
replied :  "  We  are  convinced — I  am  con- 
vinced, at  least — that  if  any  violent  attempt 
were  made  to  overthrow  the  rights  and  inter- 
fere with  the  independence  of  Denmark,  those 
who  made  the  attempt  would  find  in  the 


result  that  it  would  not  be  Denmaik  akce 
with  whidi  they  would  have  to  contend** 
This  statement  Ix>rd  Palmerston  aftemrdi 
explained  to  be  merely  intended  to  oonvoj 
his  own  impression  that,  in  the  eveot  of 
Denmark    being    attacked,  some   European 
power  would  interfere ;  but  it  was  undoabtedly 
taken  at  the  time  to  mean  that  England  woold 
support  Denmark.    The    Danes,    therefore, 
counted  on  England,  and  the  English  public 
was  eager  for  war.    The  English  government 
proposed  to  France  to  intervene  with  anns,  bnt 
the  French  emperor  refused.    The  Danes  were 
consequently  left  to  take  care  of  thenoselvee. 
The    English     conduct,     however,    though 
prudent,  had  been  decidedly  open  to  oensore, 
for,  whether  intentionally  or  not,  the  govern- 
ment  had  certainly  led  Denmark  to  bdieve  in 
English  assistance.    When,  therefore,  the  war 
was  ended  and  Denmark  crushed,  a  vote  of 
censure  was  proposed  in  both  Houses  by  the 
Opposition.    In  the  Lords  the  vote  was  carried ; 
in  the  Commons  Mr.  Disraeli  made  a  mort 
telling  speech  against  the  government  policy, 
and  the  vote  was  only  averted  by  an  amend- 
ment which  evaded  the  question  entirely. 

Bryoe,  Holy  Roman  Bmp,,  sapplem.  ch.:i»- 
ntial  JUgieter;  Hantard;  McCaraLj,  HitL  ofO» 
Own  Timee. 

Sdumibwrff,  Fredbbick.  Hesmann, 
CouNt  OF  (b,  1618,  d.  1690),  was  bora  at 
Heidelberg.  His  father  was  an  officer  in  the 
household  of  the  Elector  Palatine,  his  mother 
an  English  lady  of  the  Dudley  £amily.  As  a 
Protertant,  he  fought  against  the  Imperialist! 
in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  for  the  Dutch, 
Swedes,  and  French.  After  the  Peace  of 
Westphalia  f  1648)  he  became  chamberlain  to 
the  Prince  of  Orange.  In  1660  he  repaired  to 
France,  and  served  under  Turenne  until  the 
Peace  of  the  Pyrenees  (1 660).  He  then  entered 
the  Portuguese  service,  and  it  was  chiefly  by 
his  assistance  that  that  country  compellod 
Spain  to  recognise  the  sovereignty  of  the 
house  of  Braganasa  (1668).  He  £en  retained 
to  France,  where  he  was  naturalised,  and  ob- 
tained the  b&ton  of  a  marshal  of  France  (1675). 
During  the  next  yean  he  served  in  Flanden. 
The  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  caused 
a  complete  change  in  his  fortunes.  After  a 
short  visit  to  Portugal,  to  negotiate  a  mar- 
riage between  Pedro  II.  and  Maria  Sophia, 
daughter  of  the  Elector  Palatine,  he  entered 
the  service  of  Frederic  William,  the  "  Great 
Elector"  of  Brandenburg.  On  the  death  of 
that  piince,  his  successor,  Frederic,  generously 
gave  up  the  great  commander  to  aid  Wilh'am 
of  Orange  in  the  execution  of  his  plans.  He 
was  immediately  made  William's  second  in 
command,  and  rode  side  by  side  with  him 
through  the  streets  of  London.  He  was 
made  Knight  of  the  Garter,  created  duke, 
and  appointed  Master  of  the  Ordnance. 
The  Commons  voted  £100,000  to  him  in 
gratitude  for  his  services.  In  1689  he  w 
placed   at   the   head   of  an   expedition  to 


Sch 


(917) 


Sei 


Ireland,  his  forces  consisting  mainly  of  raw 
recruits.  He  landed  in  the  north  of  Ulster, 
took  Garrickfergus,and  marched  into  Xjeinster. 
Outside  Dundalk  he  declined  battle  with  the 
enemy,  who  were  greatly  superior  in  numbers. 
Still  James's  army  did  not  attack,  and  the  duke 
retired  into  Ulster  for  winter  quarters.  His 
conduct  was  severely  but  unjustly  critidsedin 
England.  In  June,  1690,  William  landed  at 
Carrickfergus  at  the  head  of  a  large  army. 
Schombergmet  himnear  Belfast,  andtheunited 
troops  marched  on  the  Boyne.  He  pronounced 
strongly  against  William's  intention  of  attack- 
ing the  liSh.  there.  The  battle  was  won ;  when 
Schomberg,  seeing  the  enemy's  cavalry  making 
a  gallant  resistance,  rushed  at  them,  cry- 
ing aloud  to  his  Huguenot  troops,  *'Come 
on,  gentlemen;  there  are  your  persecutors." 
They  were  his  last  words.  "  His  military 
skill,"  says  Macaulay,  "was  universally 
acknowledged.  For  his  religion  he  had  re- 
signed a  splendid  income,  had  laid  down  the 
truncheon  of  a  marshal  of  France,  and  had, 
at  nearly  eighty  years  of  age,  begun  the  world 
a^n  as  a  needy  soldier  of  fortune.''  [Boyne.] 

Mananlay,  Hi$t.  of  Eng. ;  Banke,  Hitt.  ofEng,; 
Martin,  Hwtoir«  <2<  France;  Schafer,  Geschiehte 
von  Po^'tugal. 

Schombergr  ^isiNHABt  {d,  1709),  second 
son  of  Marshal  bchomberg,  commanded  Wil- 
liam II I. 's  right  wing  at  the  battle  of  the 
Boyne.  He  marched  some  miles  up  the  river, 
and  crossed  it  by  the  bridge  of  slane,  thus 
turnings  the  French  flank  and  rear.  In  1691 
his  father's  services  and  his  own  were  re- 
warded by  creating  him  Buke  of  Leinster. 
In  1693  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  an  ex- 
pedition against  the  coast  of  Britanny.  But 
Russell  and  the  other  English  admirals  de- 
cided that  the  year  was  too  far  advanced  for 
such  an  enterprise.  Consequently  the  arma- 
ment never  set  out.  After  the  outbreak  of 
the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  he  was 
placed  at  the  head  of  an  English  and  Dutch 
lorce,  which  disembarked  at  Lisbon.  He 
proved  inefficient,  and  was  soon  afterwards 
recalled,  and  Gralway  sent  out  in  his  stead. 
"Schomberg,"  says  Mr.  Wyon,  <* seems  to 
have  been  one  of  those  weak  men,  who, 
when  beset  with  difficulties,  can  do  nothing 
but  sit  down  and  complain." 

Mftcaulay,  Hid.  of  Eng.  ;  Wyon,  Qrwt  Britain 
during  the  B^ign  of  (^en  Amu. 

Schwan,  Martin  {d.  1487),  wasa  Gennan 
veteran,  commanding  the  foreign  auxiliaries  of 
Lambert  Simnel.  He  was  slain,  with  most  of 
his  followers,  at  the  decisive  battle  of  Stoke, 
which  ruined  the  Yorkist  cause. 
Bacon,  Henry  VII, 

Sdlly  Islands,  The,  were  inhabited  in 
the  earliest  times,  as  the  abundance  of  pre-his- 
toric  remains  found  there  shows.  They  were 
probably  the  Cassiterides  of  the  Greek  writers. 
Their  position  exposed  them  to  Danish  occu- 
pation.   In  938  they  were  conquered,  either 


from  the  Danes  or  the  Cbmish  Welsh,  by 
Atholstan,  and  were  gpunted  to  the  monks  of 
Tresco.  Afterwards  they  were  transferred  to 
the  Abbey  of  Tavistock.  They  became  part 
of  the  Duchy  of  Cornwall.  Queen  Elizabeth 
granted  them  on  lease  to  the  Grodolphin  family. 
They  afterwards  were  leased  by  the  Duke  of 
Leeds.  The  lessee  has  very  considerable 
powers.  In  the  Ci\-il  War  tiiey  held  out  for 
Charles  under  Sir  John  Granville,  and  became 
a  centre  for  privateers.  In  1651  Blake  reduced 
them  to  obedience  to  the  Commonwealth. 

Scmde  is  the  country  comprising  the 
lower  valley  and  delta  of  the  Indus.  It  was 
divided  into  three  principalities,  Upper  Scinde, 
Meerpoore,  and  Lower  Scinde.  The  rulers  of 
these  provinces  were  called  Ameers,  and  were 
almost  as  independent  of  each  other  as  the 
princes  of  Rajpootana ;  and  Lord  Auckland, 
in  consequence,  entered  into  separate  treaties 
with  them  in  1839,  which  imposed  on  them  a 
subsidiary  force  and  tribute.  They  had  for- 
merly been  dependent  on  Cabal,  but  had  not 
paid  any  tribute  since  1800.  Their  secret 
hostility  to  the  English  during  the  Afghan 
expedition  of  1839  compelled  the  latter  to 
take  some  steps  againist  them,  and  they 
were  forced  to  accede  to  a  subsidiary  alliance. 
During  the  three  subsequent  years  in  which 
Afghanistan  was  occupied  by  our  troops,  and 
Scinde  had  become  the  basis  of  our  operations 
beyond  the  Indus,  their  conduct  was  marked 
with  good  faith  if  not  cordiality.  They  per- 
mitted a  free  passage  to  tl;e  troops ;  they  sup- 
plied the  garrisons  of  Cabul  and  Candahar 
and  other  places  with  provisions.  But  two  or 
three  of  the  Ameers  ^ere  emboldened  to  hos- 
tility by  our  reverses ;  and  Lord  Ellenborough, 
on  hearing  of  this,  determined  to  inflict  signal 
chastisement  on  them.  Sir  Charles  Napier  (q.  v.) 
was  sent  to  Scinde  to  inquire  into  the  matter 
(September,  1843).  Violently  prejudiced 
agamst  the  Ameers,  he  soon  declared  that  the 
treaty  of  1839  had  been  violated,  and  the 
draft  of  a  very  disadvantageous  treaty  was 
forwarded  to  be  negotiated  with  the  Ameers. 
The  intrigues  of  Ali  Moorad,  one  of  the 
Ameers,  who  desired  to  become  rais,  or  lord 
paramount  of  Upper  Scinde,  to  the  exclusion 
of  Meer  Hoostum,  caused  Sir  Charles  to  believe 
that  all  the  Ameers,  except  Ali  Moorad,  were 
disaffected.  Meer  Roostum  was  so  alarmed 
by  his  attitude  that  ho  fled  to  the  camp  of  Ali 
Moorad.  The  double  traitor  thereupon  per- 
suaded Sir  Charles  that  this  was  intended  as 
an  insult,  and  a  proclamation  was  issued  de- 
posing Meer  Roostimi,  and  appointing  Ali 
^Moorad  rais  in  his  place.  To  show  his  power. 
Sir  Charles  captured  Emangurb,  a  fort  deemed 
inaccessible.  A  conference  was  now  held  at 
Hyderabad  between  Major  Outram  and  the 
assembled  Ameers,  who  denied  that  they  had 
infringed  the  treaty.  The  city  was  in  a  state 
of  commotion,  and  on  the  15th  a  large  body 
of  Beloochee  troops  attacked  the  Residency. 


8ei 


(918) 


800 


After  a  gallant  defence  of  three  hoars,  Major 
Outram  retired  with  the  loss  of  seventeen 
killed,  wounded,  and  miaaing,  to  the  armed 
steamer  anchored  in  the  river.  Sir  Charles 
Napier  now  marched  on  Hyderahad,  and 
came  upon  the  Beloochee  army  at  Meanee 
(Feb.  17,  1843),  where  a  complete  victory  was 
gained.  Lord  Ellenborough  now  issued  a 
iiroclamation  annexing  Scinde.  This  was  fol- 
lowed (March  22,  1843)  by  a  decisive  victory 
near  Hyderabad.  The  ooxnplete  subjugation 
of  the  country  followed,  llie  Ameers  were 
pensioned  off  at  Benares,  and  are  State  pen- 
sioners still.  Sir  Charles  Napier  himsdf  re- 
marked of  these  proceedings,  *<We  have  no 
right  to  seize  Scinde,  yet  we  ^lall  do  so,  and  a 
very  advantageous,  useful,  and  humane  piece 
of  rascality  it  will  be." 

Kapier,  Soindt;  Annwd  RsgiMter;  Thonntoii, 
Htft.  ^  India, 

Scmdia,  the  name  of  one  of  the  chief 
Mahratta  princes.  The  first  of  the  house 
was  Banojee  Scindia,  a  feudatory  of  the 
Peishwa,  who  in  1743  received  as  a  fief  from 
that  chieftain  a  considerable  territorr  in 
Malwa.  His  son  Mahdajee  Sdndia  (1760 
— 1794),  after  nearly  losing  life  and  territory 
in  the  Afghan  War,  became  th6  most  impor- 
tant of  the  Mahratta  princes.  As  guarantee 
of  the  Treaty  of  Salbhye  (1782),  as  conqueror 
of  Gwalior  m  1784,  as  the  champion  of  the 
Mogul  against  the  Sikhs,  and  as  the  first 
native  prince  who  endeavoured,  with  the  aid 
of  French  officers,  to  discipline  his  army  after 
the  European  mod^l,  he  plays  a  great  part  in 
the  history  of  his  times.  **He  was,*  says 
Gh»nt  Bun,  "  a  man  of  great  political  sagacity 
and  considerable  genius,  of  deep  artifice,  rest- 
less ambition,  and  implacable  revenge."  He 
handed  on  his  power  to  his  grand  nephew, 
Dowlut  Rao  Sdndia  (1794  —  1827).  The 
latter  joined  the  great  Mahratta  contederacy, 
which  waa  broken  up  at  Argaum  and  Asaaye. 
He  had  to  surrender  much  of  his  territ(nry, 
and  ruled  quietly  over  the  diminished  terri- 
tory of  Gwalior  until  his  death.  The  next 
important  event  in  the  history  of  the  Scindias 
is  the  minority  of  Bhagerat  Bao  Scindia, 
when  British  intervention  to  stop  the  anarchy 
which  the  minority  occasioned  led  to  the 
Mahratta  War  of  1843,  and  the  temporary 
occupation  of  Gwalior  by  the  English.  At  a 
later  date  Bhagerat  Rao  did  his  best  for  the 
English  during  the  mutiny  of  1858. 

Orant  Doff,  MahraWu;  Welletiey  DmpQ£6ke$; 
Kill,  India ;  Malleson,  NaHw  UtateBtn SuhMiary 
AlliaAe$  vUh  fh§  British  6o««mm«nt. 

Scone,  situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Tay 
in  the  old  district  of  Gowrie,  became  the  capital 
of  the  Pictish  kingdom,  and  continued  to 
be  regarded  as  the  seat  of  royalty  in  later 
history.  The  Moot  Hill,  or  Hill  of  Belief,  at 
Scone  was  the  place  of  assembly  for  the  king's 
counsellors,  and  it  was  at  Scone  that  the 
Coronation  Stono,  or  Stone  of  Destiny,  was 


**  reverently  kept  for  the  consecration  0!  the 
Kings  of  Alban  '*  until  it  was  remored  to 
Westminster  by  Edward  I.  In  729  Soone 
was  the  scene  of  a  confiict  between  Alpm, 
King  of  the  Ficts,  and  Nectan.  Many  of 
the  later  Kings  of  Scotknd,  notably  Mai. 
colnt  Canmore,  Alexander  III.,  Robert  Bruce, 
Robert  II.,  and  James  L,  were  crowned  thciv, 
as  well  as  Charles  II.  in  1651. 
BkwM^  Gittie  Seatland. 

Uoory,  John,  Bishop  of  Hereford,  obtuned 
the  see  (3  Rochester  (1651)  as  a  rewutifor  his 
support  of  the  Reformation.  He  was  after- 
waras  translated  to  Chichester,  but  was  de- 
prived of  his  preferment  on  the  acoessian  of 
Alary.  He  subsequently  assisted  at  the  con- 
secration of  Bishop  Parker  in  1559,  receiving 
as  the  price  of  his  support  the  see  of  He^^ 
ford.  He  then,  in  conjunction  with  Bishop 
Barlow,  assisted  the  ar^bishop  to  consecrate 
the  other  prelates  appointed  by  Elizabeth. 
He  was  a  man  of  indifferent  character,  and  of 
no  very  great  influence. 

Sootale  is  an  obscure  term  denoting  an  op- 
pressive local  custom  in  towns,  which  was  levied 
by  the  sheriff  for  his  own  profit.  Some  bate 
thought  that  the  sheriff  could  compel  the  bur- 
gesses to  grant  him  quantities  of  malt,  from 
which  the  Seotale  was  brewed,  and  wbidi 
belonged  to  him.  Others  maintain  that  the 
name  simply  indicates  a  meeting  of  the  towiw- 
men,  in  which  they  were  forced  to  contribute 
to  the  same  object,  or  at  which  heavy  fines 
were  exacted  on  those  absent.  To  obtain 
exemption  from  teotale  was  a  great  object  for 
the  towns  in  the  early  stages  of  the  historY  of 
corporate  town-life.  It  was  probably  so  im- 
portant because  a  step  towards  their  hesn^ 
xreed  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  sheriff. 
The  etymology  ox  teotale  is  uncertain.  Fko* 
bably  it  simply  comes  from  scot  and  ak, 
though  some  have  thoug|it  that  the  lattff 
ayllable  comes  from  taUiaf  a  payment,  or  M^ 
as  in  gQdhall. 

Scot  and  JjOt  literally  fngnifies  "taxes  in 
general,"  and  *'  the  share  paid  by  each  house- 
holder." In  many  towns  municipal  privileges 
were  vested  in  all  those  who  paid  "  scot  aiid 
lot,"  i.«.,  those  who  bore  their  rateable  pro- 
portion in  the  pa}'ments  levied  from  the  town 
for  local  or  national  purposes. 

Scotlaad.  The  history  of  Scotland  has 
been  more  influenced  than  that  of  most  otber 
countries  by  the  physical  features  of  the  land. 
The  southern  part  of  the  modem  kingdom 
differs  little  in  character  and  conformation 
from  the  north  of  England.  Tliis  part,  known 
as  the  Lowlands,  is  ^easantly  diversified  witb 
hill  and  dale,  well  watm^  and  well  wooded, 
affording  rich  tracts  of  pastura  and  arable 
land.  Sorth  of  the  Lowlands  the  country  is 
almost  intersected  by  the  two  Firths  of  Forfh 
and  Clyde,  and  beyond  the  firths  it  wholly 


8oo 


(919) 


800 


changes  its  character  and  becomes  barren  and 
moantainous  in  the  west  and  north.  A  strip 
of  lowland  runs  north  along  the  eastern  coast. 
The  early  inhabitants  of  these  districts  dif- 
fered as  much  in  race  as  the  country  in  aspect. 
While  the  indigenous  Celts  inhabited  their 
native  mountains,  the  southern  and  eastern  low- 
lands were  peopled  by  Kngh'sh  or  Scandi- 
navian  invaders.  When  first  Scotland  emerges 
from  pre-historic  obscurity,  it  is  as  Cale- 
donia, a  country  of  woods  and  mountains, 
so  stem  and  wild  that  the  Romans  abandoned 
their  attempted  conquest,  and  had  great  diffi- 
culty in  protecting  the  southern  province  from 
the  inroads  of  the  fierce  inhabitants.  They 
were  of  the  Celtic  race,  and  are  vaguely  spoken 
of  as  Ficts  and  Scots.  The  first  event  of 
which  we  have  any  certain  knowledge  is  the 
introduction  of  Christianity.  It  came  in  the 
wake  of  the  Scots  from  Ireland.  In  the  sixth 
century  these  Soots  settled  on  the  western 
coast>  and  founded  the  nucleus  of  the  Scottish 
kingdom.  Columba,  Abbot  of  Duirow,  came 
over  to  join  them.  The  King  of  the  Scots 
gave  him  the  islet  of  lona  to  settle  on.  Here 
he,  and  the  twelve  monks  who  shared  his  for- 
tunes, made  a  monastery  of  the  rudest  kind — 
a  few  wattle  huts  clustered  round  a  wooden 
church.  From  this  centre  they  went  forth 
on  missionary  journeys  to  the  neighbouring 
mainland  and  islands.  By  this  means  the 
Ficts  and  the  English  of  rforthumbria  were 
converted  to  Christianity.  In  843  the  King 
of  Scots,  Kenneth  MacAlpin,  became  king 
of  the  Ficts  also.  Thus  the  Celtic  peoples 
north  of  the  firths  were  nominally  united  into 
one  kingdom,  though  the  chiefs  of  the  north, 
whether  Celts  or  Norsemen,  were  virtually  in- 
dependent sovereigns.  In  the  tenth  century 
Malcolm  I.,  the  King  of  Scots,  got  possession 
of  Strathclyde.  It  was  granted  to  him  as  a 
territorial  fief  by  Edmund  of  England.  His 
grandson,  Malcohn  II.,  was  invested  with  Lo- 
thian, hitherto  part  of  the  Engliah  earldom  of 
Northumbria  (1018).  This  acquisition  in- 
fluenced the  whole  after-history  of  the  king- 
dom. At  first  merely  a  dependence  of  the 
Celtic  kingdom,  Lothian  finally  overshadowed 
it.  The  Kings  of  the  Scots  identified  them- 
selves with  this,  the  richest  part  of  their 
dominions  and  with  its  Teutonic  inhabitants, 
while  the  Celts  of  the  original  kingdom  came 
to  be  looked  on  as  a  subiect-race,  the  natural 
enemies  of  the  richer  and  more  civilised  people 
of  the  Lowlands.  The  reign  of  Malcolm  III., 
sumamed  Canmore  (1057 — 1093),  is  a  turning 
point  in  the  history  of  Scotland.  His  mar- 
riage with  Margaret,  sister  of  Edgar  Atheling, 
introduced  an  £ngliah  element  which  gave  its 
colour  to  the  national  development.  There 
were  also  other  influences  at  work  which  all 
turned  in  the  same  direction.  The  Norman 
Conquest  dirolaced  many  Englishmen.  Such 
of  these  exues  as  turned  northward  were 
well  received  at  the  Scottish  court.  Ter- 
ritorial grants  were  conferred  upon  them. 


The  English  system  of  land  tenure  was  in- 
troduced, and  led  to  the  ecclesiastical  division 
into  parishes.  The  Scottish  clergy  were 
induced  to  give  up  their  distinguishing 
peculiarities,  and  were  brought  into  confor- 
mity with  Rome.  Malcolm  repeatedly  in- 
vaded England,  and  his  army  brought  back 
so  many  captives,  that  English  slaves  fell  to 
the  lot  of  the  poorest  households.  Those 
slaves,  more  civilised  than  their  Celtic  masters, 
influenced  the  domestic  manners  of  the  people. 
The  frequent  aggressions  of  the  Scots  provoked 
retaliation  from  the  Normans.  William  the 
Conqueror  invaded  Scotland  (1072),  and  at 
Abernethy  he  compelled  Malcolm  to  acknow- 
ledge him  as  over-lord.  This  submission  was 
a  fertile  source  of  dissension  in  later  times. 
On  the  strength  of  it  the  English  sovereigns 
laid  claim  to  supremacy  over  the  whole 
kingdom  of  Scotland,  while  the  Scots  main- 
tained that  Malcolm  did  homage  for  Strath- 
clyde and  Lothian,  which  he  held  from  the 
English  crown,  but  in  no  respect  violated  the 
independence  of  his  hereditary  kingdom.  The 
purely  Celtic  period  of  Scottish  history  con- 
cludes with  the  accession  of  Edgar,  son  of 
Malcolm  (1097).  The  second  period,  during 
which  English  influence  was  in  the  as- 
cendant, was  one  of  continued  development. 
The  three  sons  of  Malcolm,  Edgar,  Alexander, 
and  David,  reigned  in  succession,  and  carried 
out  more  fully  the  Anglicising  policy  of  their 
parents.  The  marriage  of  their  sister  Matilda 
with  Henry  I.  of  England  strengthened  the 
friendly  relations  between  the  kingdoms.  The 
accession  of  David  (1124),  who  held  also  the 
English  earldom  of  Huntingdon,  led  to  a 
great  influx  of  Normans,  to  whom  the  king 
made  large  territorial  grants.  Thus  the 
feudal  fsvetem.  was  introduced,  and  took  firmer 
root  in  Scotland  than  it  ever  did  in  England. 
Most  of  the  ecclesiastical  foundations,  as  well  as 
the  social  and  }>olitic^  institutions  of  the  later 
kingdom,  date  from  the  reign  of  David.  He 
founds  or  restored  the  six  bishoprics  of  Dum- 
blane,  Brechin,  Aberdeen,  Ross,  Caithness,  and 
Glasgow.  He  endowed  many  religious  houses 
affiliated  with  the  great  monasticorders.  Among 
his  foundations  was  the  Abbey  of  the  Holy  Rood, 
which  afterwards  became  the  favourite  palace 
of  the  Scottish  sovereigns.  He  introduced  a 
new  code  of  laws,  framed  on  the  English 
model,  appointed  sherifb  for  the  maintenance 
of  order,  favoured  and  encouraged  the  royal 
burghs,  and  added  to  their  ntimber  and  their 
pri^eges.  Under  Malcolm  IV.  (1163), 
David^s  grandson  and  successor,  Galloway  was 
reduced  to  direct  dependence  on  the  crown, 
and  the  isles  and  western  coast  were  brought 
to  subjection  by  the  defeat  and  death  of 
Somerled,  Earl  of  Argyle,  so  that  the  kingdom 
now  ext^ded  to  the  boundaries  of  modem 
Scotland.  William  the  Lion  ( 1 166),  Malcohn*s 
brother,  in  his  efforts  to  regain  the  English 
earldom  of  Northumberland  was  taken  pri- 
soner, and  to  regain  his  liberty  saorifioed  the 


Boo 


(  920  ) 


Sco 


independence  of  his  kingdom,  agreeing  in  the 
*'  Convention  of  Falaise  "  to  hold  it  as  a  fief 
from  the  English  king.  About  the  same 
time  the  Scottish  Church  rejected  the  claim 
to  superiority  over  it  put  forward  by  the 
Archbishop  of  York,  and  procured  a  papal 
bull  (1188)  confirming  their  claim  of  inae- 
depence  of  any  spiritual  authority  save  that 
of  Rome.  The  reigns  of  the  Alexanders 
^.  and  m.)  were  a  period  of  peace  and  social 
miprovement.  The  border  line  between 
Scotland  and  England  was  fixed  for  the  first 
time  (1222).  The  last  and  most  formidable 
invasion  of  the  Northmen  was  repelled  in 
the  battle  of  Lar^  (1263).  The  long  peace 
with  England,  which  lasted  nearly  a  century, 
was  marked  by  rapid  internal  development. 
Agriculture  flourished,  and  the  proportion  of 
arable  land  was  much  increased.  The  country 
was  opened  up  by  the  making  of  roads  and 
bridges.  The  extension  of  trade  and  com- 
merce brought  wealth  and  consequence  to  the 
trading  towns.  This  prosperity  was  suddenly 
checked  by  the  sudden  death  of  the  king 
(1286).  His  grandchild  and  heir,  Margaret, 
was  a  young  child,  absent  in  her  father's 
kingdom  of  Norway.  This  child-queen  died 
before  she  reached  her  kingdom.  A  swarm 
of  competitors  appeared  to  claim  the  vacant 
crown.  Edward  of  England,  who  was  ap- 
pealed to  as  arbiter,  placed  it  on  the  head  of 
John  Baliol  (1292),  whom  he  compelled  to 
acknowledge  him  as  over-lord.  John's  weak- 
ness and  incapacity  soon  embroiled  him  with 
his  subjects,  who  compelled  him  to  revolt 
against  England.  This  gave  Edward  a  pre- 
text for  carrying  out  his  cherished  scheme  of 
conquering  Scotland.  With  a  large  army  he 
crossed  the  Border,  deposed  the  king,  received 
the  homage  of  the  nobles  and  prelates,  placed 
English  garrisons  in  the  strongholds,  and 
enlarusted  the  government  to  Englishmen. 

These  measures  roused  a  spirit  of  -patriotism 
among  the  people,  and  the  War  of  Indepen- 
dence began.  They  revolted  against  the 
English  authority,  and  under  the  leadership 
of  William  Wallace,  defeated  the  English  at 
Stirling  (1297),  and  slew  or  expelled  the 
Elnglish  gOYemors.  A  second  time  fklwardin 
person  ^ubdued  Scotland,  Wallacewas  defeated 
at  Falkirk  (1298),  taken  and  put  to  death ;  the 
English  rule  was  re-established.  Henceforth 
Scotland  was  to  be  incorporated  with  England. 
But  just  when  the  subjection  of  the  Scots 
was  deemed  complete,  they  rose  again  under 
Robert  Bruce,  the  next  heir  to  the  crown  after 
Baliol.  Had  Edward  lived,  it  is  most  likely 
that  this  effort  would  have  been  crushed  like 
the  former  one.  But  he  died  on  the  Border 
(1307)  just  as  he  was  about  to  enter  Scotland  for 
the  third  time,  to  subdue  it  more  utterly  than 
before.  For  seven  years  the  struggle  lasted, 
till  the  total  rout  of  the  English  at  Bannock- 
bum  (1314)  re-established  tiie  national  inde- 
pendence. The  "War  of  Independence" 
had  lasted  twenty  years,   and  during  that 


time  Scotland  had  suffered  fearfully.  Thrice 
she  had  been  laid  waste  by  foreign  invaaons. 
She  had  been  torn  in  pieces  by  internal  cod* 
tests,  for  the  struggle  had  much  of  the  cha- 
racter of  a  civil  war,  as  many  of  the  Scottish 
nobles  fought  on  the  English  side.  This  var 
completely  changed  the  current  of  Soottuh 
history  by  implsmting  among  the  people  that 
bitter  hatred  of  England  and  every  thing 
English,  which  was  the  most  strongly  marked 
feature  of  the  national  character  for  centuriff 
to  come.  This  drove  them  into  close  allianc-e 
with  France,  the  sworn  enemy  of  England. 
France  became  the  model  for  imitation,  which 
England  had  been  during  the  previous  period, 
and  French  influence  tinged  the  manners,  the 
arts,  the  learning,  and  the  laws  of  the  suc- 
ceeding centuries. 

This  French  alliance  involved  Scotland  in 
the  frequent  wars  between  the  French  and 
English.  Whenever  war  broke  out,  Scotland 
took  up  arms,  and  invaded  England  in  favoor 
of  her  ally.  By  the  Treaty  of  NorthamptoD 
(1328)  England  acknowledged  the  indepen- 
dence of  Scotland.  By  this  treaty  the  old 
vexatious  claims  of  superiority  were  swept 
away.  Henceforward  the  Lothians  and  Strath- 
clyde  were  on  the  same  footing  as  the  Celtic 
kingdom.  The  war  had  welded  more  finnly 
into  one  the  different  races  of  which  the  nation 
was  composed.  Throughout  the  contest  it 
was  the  Lowlanders  who  were  most  deter- 
mined not  to  be  annexed  to  England,  but  to 
maintain  the  independence  of  the  Celtic  king- 
dom to  which  they  were  joined.  The  Celts 
in  the  north  cared  little  whether  the  king,  to 
whom  they  owed  a  nominal  alleg^nce,  reigned 
in  Edinburgh  or  London.  The  struggle  al^o 
brought  the  }>eople,  for  the  first  time,  promi- 
nently forward  in  the  state.  It  was  by  the 
support  of  the  people  and  the  church  that 
Robert  Bruce  succeeded  in  winning  the  crown. 
This  had  two  important  results.  The  people 
obtained  a  voice  in  the  National  AssemUy. 
In  the  Parliament  of  Cambuskenneth  (1326) 
the  third  Estate,  the  deputies  of  the  burghers, 
appear  for  the  first  time.  The  baronage  was 
in  great  part  renewed,  as  Bruce  granted  to 
his  friends  the  forfeited  estates  of  his  op- 
ponents. A  law  passed  to  prevent  the  taking 
of  the  produce  or  revenue  of  the  land  out  of 
the  kingdom,  compelled  the  holders  of  land 
in  both  England  and  Scotland  to  make  a 
definite  choice  of  nationality.  Those  who» 
estates  in  England  were  the  richer  left  Scot' 
land  altogether.  Bruce  also  greatly  increased 
the  power  of  the  baronage  by  granting  powen 
of  regality  along  with  the  lands.  During  his 
life  Bruce  did  what  he  could  to  consoHdate 
the  kingdom  and  repair  the  ravages  of  the 
war.  But  his  death  (1329)  placed  a  child,  his 
son  David,  on  the  throne,  and  left  the  country 
a  prey  to  invasion  from  ^without  and  anarchy 
within. 

The  next  stage  in  the  history'  of  Scotland 
extends  to  the  Keformation.     During  that 


Boo 


(  921  ) 


period    relianoe    on     France    and  -distrust 
of  England  were  the  principles  of  foreign 
policy.      Within  the  longdom  there   was  a 
constant  struggle  between  the  crown  and  the 
baronage,  under  whose  tyranny  the  people 
groaned  in  vain.     The  crown  was  too  weak  to 
redress  grievances  or  to  maintain  law.    The 
king  was  little  better  than  a  chief  with  a 
nominal  sovereignty  over  other  chiefs,  often 
more  powerful  than  himself.    His  onl^  means 
of  reducing  a  rebel  baron  to  subjection  was 
by  empowering  another  to  attack  him.    In  a 
country  thus  torn  by  the  feuds  of  a  lawless  and 
turbulent  baronage  there  was  little  room  for 
social  improvement.    Hence  Scotland  at  the 
Reformation  was  little  if  at  all  beyond  the 
point  of  civilisation  reached  before  the  out- 
break  of  the  War  of  Independence.      The 
urcession  of  the  infant  son  of  Bobert  Bruce 
was  the  signal  for  the  revival  of  the  claims  of 
Eialiol.     His  son  Edward  was  crowned  king 
by  his  adherents,  and  civil  war  again  broke 
)nt.     David  was  taken  bv  the  English,  and  as 
he  passed  most  of  his  life  either  in  captivity 
)r  in  France,  he  was  the  mere  shadow  of  a 
cing,  and  the  government  was  carried  on  by 
i  regency.     On  his  death  Bobert,  the  grand- 
ton  of  Bruce  by  his  daughter  Margery,  and 
he  first  sovereign  of  the  family  of  Stuart, 
nounted  the  throne.  In  this  family  the  crown 
)as8ed  from  lather  to  child  without  a  break 
or  nearly  three  centuries.    Bobert  III.  suc- 
eeded  his  father.    He  was  so  weak  both  in 
nind  and  body  that  his  brother  Albany  held 
he  reins  of  government.     To  maintain  him- 
clf  in  power  he  contrived  that  his  nephew, 
he  heir  to  the  kingdom,  should  fall  into  the 
lands  of  the  English,  and  on  the  death  of 
iol)ort,  acted  as  regent  in  his  nephew's  name. 
?o  maintain  his  own  positiozi  he  winked  at 
he  misdeeds  of  the  barons,  and  when  James  I. 
r'as  at  length,  released  and  came  to  claim  his 
rown  (1424),  he  found  himself  surrounded  by 
ostile  subjects,  each  one  of  whom  was  as 
owerfnl  as  himself.     His  first  care  was  to 
reak  their  power  by  numerous  executions, 
le   then   turned  his  attention  to  maintain- 
ig  c;ffectivelv  law  and  judicial  reform.    By 
ammoning  frequent    Parliaments,   he  gave 
nportanoe  to  the  National  Assembly,  which 
1  his  reig^  first  became  defined  in  the  form 
f  the  '<  Estates.*'    The  lesser  barons  who  felt 
ic  duty  of  attending  Parliament  a  g^evous 
urden    w^ere    relieved    of  it,    and    allowed 
>  send  commissaries,  two  for  every  shire. 
'hcsG,    with   the  members  for  the  burghs, 
>mied  the  third  Estate.     But  they  were  in 
3   sense   representatives  of    the  Commons, 
ideod,  the  Commons  of  Scotland,  outside  the 
iirghs,  could  not  be  said  to  be  represented  in 
arliament  until  the  passing  of  the  Beform 
ill.     The  Estates  met  in  one  chamber.    In 
lis  roig^  the  custom  of  delegating  the  chief 
asiness  of  the  Parliament  to  a  committee 
^came  recognised  as  a  regular  part  of  Par- 
unentary  procedure.     This  committee  was 


called  the  Lords  of  the  Articles. .  Its  oiembew 
were  elected  by  the  three  Estates,  ^d  to  it 
was  confided  the  work  of  maturing  JOi&  mea- 
sures to  be  passed,  which  were  then,  approved 
and  confirmed  in  a  full  Parliament. 

From  this  reign  dates  also  the  publication 
of  the  Acts  of  Parliament  in  the  spoken  lan- 
guage of  the  people,  and  the  beginning  of 
statute  law.    Tke  king  caused  a  collection  of 
the  statutea  to  be  made,  and  separated  those 
which  had  fallen  into  disuse  from  those  still- 
in  foroe.    He  also  established  the  office  of 
treasurer,  and  set  up  the  Suprome  Court  of 
Law,  wbdich  afterwurds  developed  into  the 
Court  of  Session.     This    court,  which  met 
three  times  a  year,  consisted  of  the  Chan- 
cellor, who  was  president,  and  three  other 
Sersons  chosen  from  the  Estates.    They  wero 
eputed  to  hear  and  decide  the  causes  which 
until  then  had  come  before  the  Parliament. 
James  also  established  schools  of   archery, 
and  patronised  and  encouraged  learning  and 
letters.     He  was  barbarously  murder^  by 
a  band  of  malcontento  on  the  verge  of  thi^ 
Highlands  (1436).     Five  kings  of  tiie  same 
name  succeeded  James  I.    There  is  little  to 
distinguish  one  reign  from  another.     The 
genenJ  characteristics  of  all  aro  the  same. 
Each  was  ushered  in  by  a  long  minority,  and 
closed  by  a  violent  death.    These  frequently 
repeated  minorities  wero  very  disastrous  to 
Scotland.    The  short  reign  of  each  sovereign 
after   he   reached   manhood    was    spent    in 
struggling  to  suppress  the  family  uiat  had 
raised   itself  to  too  great  a  height  during 
the  minority.     He  could  only  do  this  by 
letting  loose  on  the  offender  a  rival,  who  in 
turn  served  himself,  becoming  heir  not  only  to 
the  former's  estates  but  to  his  arrogance,  and 
proving  himself  the  disturber  of  the  succee^dinff 
reign.     Fruitless  invasions  of  England,  and 
abortive  attempts  to  bring  the  Celts  of  the 
north  within  the  power  of  the  law,  alternated 
with  the  feuds  of  the  rival  barons.     Under 
James  III.  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  Isles  wero 
annexed  to  Scotland.      They  had    hitherto 
belonged  to  Norway,  and  were  made  over 
to  the  King  of  Soots  as  a  pledge  for  the 
dowry  proimsed  with  his  wife,  Margaret  of 
Norway,    but   they  were    never    redeemed. 
James  Y.  worked  out  more  fully  the  project 
of  his  ancestor,  James  I.,  of  establishing  a 
supreme  court  of  law  by  founding  the  Court 
of  Session  or  College  of  Justice.     It  was 
formed  on  the  model  of  the  Parliament  of 
Paris,  and  was  composed  at  first  of  thirteen 
judges,  though  the  number  was  afterwards 
mcreased  to  fifteen.    As  the  members  of  the 
court  were  chosen  from  the  Estates  it  was 
supreme  in  all  civil  cases,  and  there  was  no 
appeal  from  its  decisions  to  Parliament,  nor 
could  it  be  called  upon  to  review  ite  own 
judgments.   Scottish  law  was,  like  the  French, 
bas^  upon  the  Civil  Law,  which  was  adopted 
and  received  as  authority  except  where  the 
feudal  law  had  forestalled  it.      The  three 


8oo 


(  922  ) 


800 


umrenitioB  (St.  Andrews,  Glasgow,  and 
Aberdeen)  which,  were  founded  during  this 
period  were  modelled  on  that  of  Faria,  which 
differed  widely  from  the  English  univer- 
sities. Provision  had  also  been  made  for 
the  advancement  of  elementary  education. 
Grammar  schools  were  founded  in  the  burghs, 
and  by  Act  of  Parliament  (1496)  all  "  barons 
and  freeholders  "  were  commanded  to  make 
their  sons  attend  these  schools  until  they  were 
« competently  founded,"  and  have  ''perfect 
Latin,"  under  penalty  of  a  fine  of  £20.  The 
introduction  of  the  printing  press  by  Walter 
Chapman  gave  a  further  stimulus  to  the 
pursuit  of  letters.  A  purely  mythical  history 
of  Scotland  was  fabricated,  which  was  sup- 
posed to  add  to  the  dignity  of  the  kingdom 
by  assuming  for  it  an  important  position  in 
times  of  remote  antiquity.  These  ridiculous 
legends  were  put  into  form  by  Hector  Boece, 
first  Principal  of  the  University  of  Aberdeen, 
whdse  Hiftory  of  Scotland  is  wholly  unworthy 
of  bdief.  Unfortunately  these  legends  took 
root  in  the  national  mind,  and  were  accepted 
as  fact  by  all  subsequent  historians,  who  based 
their  works  upon  them,  and  it  is  only  in  our 
own  days  that  research  has  sifted  fact  from 
fiction.  In  the  front  rank  of  the  Scottish 
poets  stand  the  two  kings,  James  I.  and 
James  V.  The  favourite  themes  of  the  poet's 
satiro  wero  the  backsliding  and  corruption  of 
the  priesthood.  The  Church  had  become  too 
powerful  to  be  popular.  All  classes  of  the 
community  wero  eager  to  attack  it,  and  tried 
to  incite  the  king  to  follow  the  example  of 
his  uncle,  Henry  VIII.  The  danger  was  only 
warded  off  by  the  adroitness  of  Beaton,  who 
was  the  most  powei'ful  man  in  the  State. 
He  turned  to  account  the  long-cherished 
jealousy  of  England  to  spoil  the  schemes 
of  Henry,  and  induced  the  king  to  turn  a 
deaf  ear  to  all  their  suggestions  of  roligious 
roformation.  The  discussion  of  the  subject 
ended  in  an  outburst  of  war.  The  attack  on 
the  temporalities  of  the  Church  had  already 
begun.  The  benefices  in  the  gift  of  the 
crown  were  conferred  on  laymen,  generally 
the  king's  natural  children,  who  held  them  in 
eoimnendam  with  the  title  of  Commendator. 
Since  the  War  of  Independence  the  Church 
had  totally  changed  its  character.  In  the 
incessant  internal  struggles  that  disturbed 
the  ensuing  period  the  Churoh  always  sup- 
ported the  crown,  which  in  return  conferred 
estates  and  privilege  'on  the  Church.  On 
account  of  their  superior  learning  the  g^reat 
offices  of  state  wero  filled  by  Churchmen. 
This  gave  them  a  political  infiuence  which  in 
addition  to  their  wealth  was  a  constant  cause 
of  offence  to  the  barons.  The  two  principal 
sees— St.  Andrews  (1471)  and  Glasgow  (1492) 
— ^had  been  raised  to  the  dignities  of  arch- 
bishoprics, and  their  holders  vied  with  each 
other  in  an  arrogant  display  of  pomp  and 
state  to  support  their  dignity  as  princes  of 
the  Churoh.    The  two  Beatbns   (uncle  and 


nephew),  who  succeeded  one  another  in  the 

Snmacy^  swayed  the  affairs  of  Uie  rtite 
uring  the  entire  reign  of  James  Y.  and  the 
beginning  of  that  of  Mary.  They  held  & 
great  number  of  benefices  in  France  as  well 
as  Scotland.  This  gave  them  wealth  &r 
beyond  that  of  any  ol  the  temporal  peers, 
and  corresponding  power.  They  used  this 
power  to  retard  the  movement  of  religiotb 
reform  by  persecuting  the  teachers  of  the  nev 
doctrines,  which  had  made  their  way  vm  the 
kingdom  from  England  and  Genuany,  and 
were  rapidly  becoming  popular.  The  fim 
sufferer  for  liberty  of  opinion  in  Scotk&d 
was  Beseby,  a  Lollard,  who  was  burnt  to  daiuii 
in  1408.  After  this  there  are  casual  notice  of 
persons  being  called  in  question  for  alkged 
heresy.  But  Patrick  Hamilton,  who  was 
burnt  by  Beaton,  is  called  the  proto-mait}T, 
as  he  was  the  first  to  suffer  for  the  doctriDes 
which  were  afterwards  embodied  in  the 
Established  Church.  His  death  did  moK 
than  any  other  measure  to  hasten  the  im- 
pending Reformation.  The  unexpected  death 
of  the  king  just  after  a  disastrous  defeat  on 
the  Border,  leaving  only  an  infant  of  a  &v 
days  old  to  suooeed  him,  gave  it  an  oppor- 
tunity for  breaking  forth.  The  first  open  act 
of  violence  was  the  murder  of  the  Fiimatfi* 
Cardinal  Beaton  j^l645}.  The  doers  of  tbr 
deed  were  taken  after  sustaining  a  long  ai^ 
in  the  cardinal's  own  castle,  but  it  was  onlr 
a  manifestation  of  the  ferment  that  coold  be 
no  longer  controlled,  and  which  now  broke 
forth  into  the  civil  war  which  e&cted  the 
Reformation. 

The  Reformation  effected  a  complete  reso- 
lution in  the  policy  of  Scotland,  and  in  the 
current  of  popular  opinion.  With  the  change 
of  religion  the  French  influence  came  to  an 
end,  and  religious  sympathy  did  much  to 
stifle  the  hatred  of  England  that  had  becooie 
hereditary.  This  great  national  movement 
had  much  of  the  character  of  the  peasant 
wars  of  France  and  England.  It  was  the 
protests  of  an  oppressed  peasantry  agoioit 
the  exaggerated  feudalism  under  which  ther 
groaned:  the  struggle  of  the  people  for  hie 
and  liberty  disguised  under  a  show  of  reli- 
gious opinions.  The  movement  in  the  be- 
ginning was  a  popular  one.  But  the  baroitf 
turned  it  to  their  own  advantage  by  taking 
the  lead  under  the  specious  title  of  Ix>id^ 
of  the  Congregation,  and  appropriating  the 
greater  part  of  the  spoil.  The  refusal  of  the 
Regent  Mary  of  Lorraine  to  reform  the 
Churoh  in  accordance  with  the  principles  of 
the  First  Covenant  (1657)  was  followed  by 
the  Reformation  riots,  in  which  the  religious 
houses  and  cathedrals  wero  sacJced  by  the 
mob.  The  regent  employed  French  troops 
for  the  restoration  of  order.  The  comgroga* 
tion  called  English  auxiliaries  to  their  aid. 
Scotland  was  turned  into  the  ))attle-field  »& 
which  French  and  English  fought  out  th«tf 
differences.    The  death  of  the  regent  brought 


8oo 


(  923  ) 


800 


a  teuworary  lull.    The  foreigners  withdrew. 
The  &tate6  seized  the  opportonitv  of  paasing 
the   Beformation  Statutes,  so    that  by  the 
time  Queen  Mary  returned  from  France  the 
old  church  had  been  formally  overthrown, 
and  the  faith  of  Gteneva  established  in  its 
stead.    Mary  was  an  ardent  Romanist,  and 
would  not  give  up  her  own  form  of  wor- 
ship, although  she  did  not  interfere  with  the 
form  her  subjects  had  chosen.    Though  she 
did  not  confirm  she  did  not  reverse  the  Refor- 
mation Statutes,  nor  did  she  openly  favour 
her  co-religionists.     Still  she  did  not  choose 
her   advisers  from  among  the   Protestants. 
Murray  and  some  other  leaders  of  the  con- 
gregation   rose    in    open   rebellion    on    the 
queen*s  marriage  with  ner  cousin  Henry,  Loi<d 
Damley,  and  finally  withdrew  to  England. 
Mary's  suspected  complicity  in  the  murder 
of    her    husband,    the    favour  she  lavished 
upon.  Bothwell,  and  her  marriage  with  him, 
gave    the  disaffected    among   her    subjects 
an  excuse  for  her  deposition  (1567).    They 
placed  her  infant  son  upon  the  throne,  while 
Murray,  as  regent,  was  at  the  head  of  the 
government.    For  eighteen  years  Mary  was 
held  a  prisoner  in  England.    This  kept  the 
two  countries  at  peace.    The  government  of 
Scotland  dared  not  disagree  with  England 
for  fear  of  having  the  queen  let  loose  upon 
them.    Four  regents,  Murray,  Lennox,  Mar, 
and  Morton,  three  of  whom  died  deaths  of 
violence,  held  the  reins  of  government  in 
succession  until  the  majority  of  James  YI. 
Thoo^  Protestantism  was  still  in  the  as- 
cendant, the  episcopal  form  of  Church  govern- 
ment was  restored  under  the  regency  oif  Mar. 
In  1688  the  Protestant  re-action,  excited  by 
the  Spanish  invasion  of  England,  found  vent 
in  OD.00  again  abolishing  episcopacy,  and  the 
Presbyterian  polity  was  re-established.    After 
the  accession  of   the  king  to    the  EngUsh 
throne  (1603),  he  again  restored  episcopacy. 
And  on  the  one  occasion,  after  the  union  of 
the  crowns,  when  he  revisited  his  native  king- 
dom, he  gave  great  offence  by  reviving  a 
ritualistic  service  in  his  private  chapel.     He 
also  made  the  Assembly  pass  the  "  Five  Ar- 
ticles of  Perth.*'    These  enjoined  kneeling  at 
the  Sacrament,  the  keeping  of  Saints'  days 
and  Holy  da3''8,  and  other  observances  con- 
sidered Popish.    The  attack  thus  begun  on 
the  liberty  of  the  people  through  their  reli- 
gion was  continued  by  Charles  I. 

The  attempt  to  displace  the  liturgy  of  John 
Knox  by  that  of  England  drove  the  Scotch  to 
rebellion  (1637).  The  Covenant  was  renewed 
and  signed  all  over  the  land.  It  became  the 
war-cry  of  the  Protestant  party.  The  fiamo 
kindled  in  the  north  soon  spread  to  England, 
and  both  countries  were  once  more  plunged 
into  the  horrors  of  civil  war.  The  attempt  of 
the  Scots  to  place  Charles  II.  on  his  father's 
throne  failed,  and  Cromwell  accomplished 
what  had  baffled  an  earlier  conqueror — a  legis- 
lative union  of  the  two  kingdoms  of  Britain 


(1654).  But  under  the  Commonwealth  the 
Scotch  did  not  enjoy  perfect  religious  liberty. 
The  Assembly  was  dosed,  and  the  power  of 
the  ohurch  courts  abolished.  At  tiie  same 
time  the  obnoxious  bishops  wore  removed. 
The  Restoration  (1660)  threw  the  country 
into  a  ferment  by  re-installing  the  bishops 
and  the  episcopal  clergy-.  No  change  was 
made  in  the  form  of  the  service^  and  as 
the  service-book  of  John  Knox  had  fallen 
out  of  use,  the  Church  now  presented  the 
anomaly  of  a  church  with  bishops,  but  with- 
out a  liturgy.  Party  spirit  ran  high,  and 
though  the  cause  of  dispute  was  really  little 
more  than  a  question  of  words,  it  roused  a 
spirit  of  persecution  on  the  one  side,  and 
obstinacy  on  the  other,  that  set  the  whole 
country  in  a  fiame.  When  the  Revolution 
(1688)  set  William  on  the  throne,  the  Epis- 
copal clergy  were  in  their  turn  ejected,  and  the 
Piresbyterian  polity  finally  established.  The 
union  of  the  crowns  had  not  been  beneficial 
to  the  people  of  Scotland,  for  the  kings  iden- 
tified themselves  with  the  richer  kingdom, 
and  only  used  the  increase  in  their  power  to 
assume  despotic  power  and  influence  on  the 
liberty  of  their  Scottish  subjects.  This  state 
of  things  could  not  continue.  It  was  impera- 
tively necessary,  to  preserve  peace  between 
the  two  nations,  that  they  should  become  one 
in  law  and  in  interest.  'This  could  only  be 
done  by  a  legislative  union,  which  was  effected 
in  1707.  By  this  union  Scotland  was  in  every 
respect  the  gainer.  She  was  allowed  to  share 
in  the  EngUsh  trading  privileges.  The 
energy  of  the  Scottish  people  had  now  for  the 
first  time  free  scope  for  development.  The 
rebellions  in  favour  of  the  Stuarts,  twice  in 
the  eighteenth  century,  disturbed  the  peace  of 
the  country.  Qood,  however,  here  came  out  of 
evil.  The  Highlanders  were  still  half  savages 
and  looked  on  by  the  Lowlanders  as  an  alien 
race,  and  their  country  as  an  unknown  region. 
The  breaking-up  of  the  clan  system  and  .the 
making  of  roads  which  followed  the  rising  of 
1745,  first  opened  up  these  wild  regions  for 
the  entrance  of  civilisation.  The  abolition 
of  heritable  jurisdictions  (1748)  at  last  broke 
the  chain  of  feudalism,  which  till  then  had 
curbed  the  progress  of  the  people.  [Hioh- 
LAxns.]  Since  the  interests  of  Scotland  and 
England  have  become  one,  Scotland  has  risen 
to  the  level  of  the  sister  kingdom  in  agricul- 
ture, commCTce,  and  manufactures. 

Earlj  histonr :  Chnmielet  of  the  Pieta  and  SeoU  ; 
Adamman,  Life  of  St.  Cclumha  (ed.  BeeTes); 
Chronielee  and  MemoriaXe  relating  to  Scotland, 
iamed  by  the  Lord  Clerk  Begister ;  Bede,  £ocI«m- 
a«Cical  Siet, ;  Father  Innea,  Criticoi  Seaay  on 
Ancient  InkabUante  of  Scotland ;  Bobertaon, 
Earlxi  Kinga  of  Scotland ;  Skena,  CeiUe  Scotland; 
THupiuh  Chroniolea  of  Lanerooat  and  Melroae, 
and  of  Hemingford  and  Langtoft;  Wyntonn, 
Chronicle.  Medteral  Period:  Fordnn,  8ccU- 
ehronicim;  Pitsoottie,  C'ii'onicl«;  ilet«  of  the 
Soots  Parliamonte ;  State  Papere,  Henry  VtlL; 
Sadler  Pajtere.  Beformation  and  anbaequent 
period:  John  Knox,  Hietory  (ed.  Laing)  and 
Piunial  of  Oeenn'ents :  HiMt,  of  Jamee  ihe  SfCt; 


8oo 


(  924  } 


Boo 


»  Sir  James  Melville's  Memoin;  Mary  Stuart's 
Letteralin  LabanofTsand  Tealet's  Collectioius) ; 
Chnib,  Ecdetia^ieal  Hist,  (if  Scotland;  Woodrow, 
Analicta  and  Hiat.  of  the  Sufftringe  ;  Bannatyne's 
Monoriala  ;  gfpalding'B  MmnoriiUa  of  the  TroubUs. 
The  best  general  history  is  Dr.  J.  Hill  Barton, 
Hist,  of  ScoUand.  See  also  Cosmo  Innes,  Sketches 
<lf  Early  Scottieh  Htitory  and  L«cturM  on  Seottieh 
Legal  Antiquitiee.  Also  the  Pnblioations  of 
the  Banoatyne,  Maitland,  and  Spalding  Clubs. 

[M.  M.] 

Scotlaild,  Church  of.  Ohristianity  was 
introduced  into  Celtic  Scotland  by  the  Scots 
who  came  over  from  Ireland  in  the  sixth 
.century.  Columba,  Abbot  of  Durrow,  left  his 
native  land  of  Ireland,  and  with  twelve 
monks  founded  a  mission  station  on  the  islet 
•of  lona,  lying  off  the  west  coast.  From  this 
germ  the  Church  of  Scotland  sprang.  A 
group  of  wattled  huts  clustered  round  a 
wooden  church  formed  the  monastery,  and 
from  this  centre  the  missionary  zeal  of  the 
monks  carried  the  Christian  faith  to  the 
Orkneys  and  adjacent  islands;  eastward  to  the 
kingdom  of  the  Picts,  and  southward  to  the 
English  kingdom  of  Northumberland.  The 
Church  thus  founded  was  quite  independent 
of  the  see  of  Rome,  and  differed  in  some 
points  from  the  general  usages  of  Western 
Christendom.  The  fashion  of  the  tonsure  and 
the  mode  of  reckoning  the  date  of  Easter  were 
two  of  those  points.  The  system  of  Church 
government  was  monastic.  The  power  of 
controlling  ecclesiastical  affairs  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  abbots,  to  whom  the  bishops  were 
subordinate.  It  was  not  until  the  eleventh 
century  that  these  peculiarities  were  abolished, 
and  the  Scottish  Church  brought  into  con- 
formi^  with  the  rest  of  Christendom.  This 
was  effected  by  Margaret,  the  English  queen 
of  Malcolm  Canmore.  By  that  time  the 
Church  had  fallen  from  its  primitive  purity 
and  simplicity.  The  dignity  of  abbot  had  be- 
come hereditary  in  lay  families.  A  body  of 
irregular  clergy  called  "  Culdees"  were  in 
possession  of  the  religious  foundations.  The 
reforms  begun  by  Margaret  were  more  fully 
carried  out  by  her  son  David,  whose  bounty 
to  the  Church  won  him  the  honour  of  canoni- 
sation. He  established  the  bishoprics  of  Dun- 
.  blane,  Brechin,  Aberdeen,  Boss,  Caithness, 
and  Glasgow,  founded  the  Abbey  of  the  Holy 
Rood,  which  afterwards  became  the  favourite 
palace  of  the  later  sovereigns,  and  many  other 
religious  houses.  The  Archbishop  of  York  laid 
claim  to  the  spiritual  superiority  over  Scot- 
land on  the  ground  that  the  country  came 
within  the  limits  of  his  province.  This  claim, 
which  was  closely  intertwined  with  that  of 
the  English  ovcrlordship,  had  from  time  to 
time  been  hotly  contested.  At  length,  in  the 
council  of  Northampton,  1176,  the  archbishop 
formally  summoned  the  Scottish  clergy  to 
acknowledge  their  dependence.  This  led  to 
an  appeal  to  Rome.  The  Pope  Clement  III. 
vindicated  their  indei>cndence,  and  declared 
Scotland  to  be  in  immediate  dependence  on 
the  Holy  See  (1188). 


During  the  War  of  Independence  Uk 
Church  was  strongly  opposed  to  the  Bngtish 
annexation ;  and  it  was  in  great  measure  due 
to  the  support  of  the  d^rgy  that  Bmoe  was  in 
the  end  succeasfuL  During  the  sacceedin^ 
period,  which  was  a  time  of  almost  oontinaed 
struggle  between  the  baronage  and  the  crown, 
the  Church  is  invariably  f  oimd  on  the  side  of 
the  crown.  In  an  age  of  ignoiance  the  superior 
learning  of  the  clergy  gave  them  great  infln- 
ence,  as  it  threw  all  the  chief  offices  of  state 
into  their  hands.  The  see  of  St  Andrew 
was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  an  archbishopric 
by  Sixtus  IV.  (1471) ;  Glasgow  received  the 
same  honour  some  twenty  years  later.  This 
led  to  continual  strife.  St.  Andrews  ckimed 
the  superiority  over  the  see  of  Crlasgow  on 
the  ground  of  seniority,  while  Glasgow  as- 
serted its  independence.  The  brawls  between 
their  respective  adherents  penetrated  to  the 
steps  of  the  altar,  and  the  appeals  to  Borne 
were  so  constant  tiiat  the  Estates  at  last  for- 
bade them  as  being  the  cause  of  "  inestimabk' 
dampnage  *'  to  the  realm.  During  this  period 
the  Church  did  much  to  promote  the  welfarc 
of  the  people.  The  regular  clergy  were  the 
fosterers  of  education  and  letters,  and  the  pro- 
moters of  all  agricultuzal  and  indns^ 
advancement.  The  schools  in  connection 
with  the  cathedrals  and  religious  houses  were 
the  germs  from  which  have  grown  the 
grammar  schools  of  later  times ;  and  it  wu 
the  monks  who  awakened  the  taste  for  the  fine 
arts,  of  poetry,  painting,  music,  and  archi- 
tecture. It  was  they  sJso  who  showed  the 
people  how  to  make  the  most  of  the  barren 
soil  and  ungenial  climate  by  skilful  cultiva- 
tion. They  naturalised  foreign  fruits  and 
vegetables,  first  discovered  the  great  coal- 
fields that  have  since  been  such  a  source  of 
wealth  to  the  country,  and  showed  how  the 
coal  could  be  used  for  fuel.  It  was  they  also 
who  introduced  the  making  of  glass  and 
other  profitable  industries.  The  foundation 
of  the  universities  was  likewise  due  to  the 
liberality  of  Churchmen :  that  of  St.  Andrews 
was  founded  by  Wardlaw  (1410):  that  of 
Glasgow  by  TumbuU ;  and  that  of  Aberdeen 
by  Elphinstone,  in  the  same  century.  In  each 
instance  the  founder  was  bishop  of  the  see. 
During  the  long  minority  of  James  V.  th*" 
Church  was  at  the  zenith  of  its  powor.  Jaine« 
Beaton,  the  primate,  swayed  the  state  at  hii 
will,  and  on  his  death  his  nephew  David,  the 
cardinal,  succeeded  to  all  his  preformenta,  and 
to  even  more  than  his  influence  and  power. 
The  policy  pursued  hj  the  two  Beattms  was 
to  foster  the  old  ennuty  to  England,  and  to 
widen  the  breach  if  possible,  while  ther 
strove  to  knit  more  closely  the  long-standing 
alliance  with  France.  Their  aim  in  so  dcoig 
was  to  stave  off  if  possible  the  Reformation, 
which  in  England  and  Germany  was  sapping 
the  foundations  of  the  Church.  But  the 
causes  which  provoked  a  similar  movonent 
in  Scotland  wore  already  at  work,  and  bad 


Sco 


(  925  ) 


coiginated  within  the  Church  itself.  The 
weiJth  and  extent  of  the  Church  lands; 
the  political  influence  which  their  tenure  of 
the  highest  offices  of  state,  and  the  riches 
resulting  from  the  custom  of  conferring  many 
preferments  gave  to  the  prelates,  aroused  the 
jealousy  of  the  haxonage,  and  even  of  the 
crown.  Already  the  pnctioe  had  hegun  of 
conferring  the  richest  abheys  and  priories  on 
la^en  who  held  the  land  in  eomtnendam^ 
with  the  title  of  Commendator.  The  natural 
sons  of  the  king  wei'e  commonly  provided  for 
in  this  way.  On  the  other  hand,  the  priest- 
hood had  alienated  the  people  b^  the  abuse  of 
excommunication,  and  by  the  ngoroue  extor- 
tion of  tithes  and  church  dues.  They  were, 
therefore,  ready  to  lend  a  willing  ear  to  the 
proposals  of  reform,  which  promised  to  free 
them  from  this  spiritual  tyranny.  The  first 
indication  of  the  striving  after  religious 
freedom  is  the  burning  of  John  Reseby  as  a 
heretic  (1408J,  and  at  the  close  of  the  century 
we  find  thirty  persons  accused  of  being 
Lollards.  From  England  in  the  sixteenth 
century  the  reformed  doctrines  came  into 
Scotland,  and  spread  rapidly  among  the 
people.  The  Beatons  were  both  persecutors 
of  the  so-called  heretics.  The  burning  of 
George  Wishart  (1545)  provoked  the  murder  of 
Cardinal  Beaton,  which  was  the  first  outbreak 
of  the  revolutionary  movement.  [Rbforma- 
TioN  IN  Scotland.]  This  was  the  first  re- 
ligious war  from  which  Scotland  suffered, 
bat  it  was  not  to  be  the  last.  The  contest 
between  Poper}'  and  Protestantism  may  be 
called  a  question  of  doctrine.  The  second 
religious  war  was  waged  for  the  disputed 
form  of  a  liturgy,  and  &e  third  was  based  on 
the  contention  whether  the  overseers  of  the 
Church  should  be  styled  bishop  or  presbyter. 
The  Act  of  1690,  confirmed  by  the  Act  of 
Security  at  the  TTnion,  settled  the  dispute  for 
ever  by  establishing  Presbyterianism.  Since 
then  the  Church  has  been  shaken  to  its 
foundations  by  the  contention  as  to  the  rights 
of  patrons  to  induct  ministers  to  parishes 
without  consulting  the  wishes  of  the  congre- 
gation. The  Veto  Act,  passed  by  the  General 
Assembly,  1834,  declared  it  to  be  a  "funda- 
mental law  of  the  Church  that  no  pastor 
shall  be  intruded  on  a  congregation  contrary 
to  the  will  of  the  people."  This  Act,  however, 
was  proved  to  be  illegal,  and  had  to  be 
rescinded.  This  led  to  the  Disruption,  when 
more  than  a  third  of  the  clergy,  the  promoters 
of  the  Veto  Act,  left  the  Church  and  founded 
another  sect,  known  as  the  Free  Church, 
which  differs  only  from  the  Establishment  in 
having  no  state  support,  and  giving  to  each 
congregation  the  ri^t  of  electing  its  own 
minister.  Since  the  majority  of  patrons 
have  now  voluntarily  resigned  their  rights  of 
presentation,  even  Uiis  slight  cause  of  differ- 
ence has  been  removed.  [Church,  Celtic; 
Scotland;  Reformation  in  Scotland.] 

J.Hill  Borton,  Hilary  <^Sectland  ;  Grnb,£ccle- 


sioMtieal  Hist,  of  Scotland;  John  Knox,  Kistory  ^ 
(ed.  Laing);  Bishop  LesUe,  Uitioryi  Cosmo 
Innes,  Sktiehn  of  Early  Seottiah  History ;  Skene, 
C«Uto  Seottond.  The  St.  Giles  Lecture*  (first 
aeries)  give  a  good  popular  saxniaary  of  8ootti8h 
Chnroh  history.  [M.  M.] 

ScotSy  The,  was  a  name  originally  be- 
stowed upon  the  inhabitants  of  Ireland,  a 
&ct  which  until  recently  has  hardly  been 
sufficiently  appreciated  by  historians.  After 
numerous  previous  expeditions  a  colony  of 
Scots  (who  were  Gaelic  in  race)  from  Ulster 
crossed  over  to  Arsyle  (498),  where  they 
established  the  kingdom  of  Dalriada.  There 
was  for  long  a  close  connectioti  between  the 
Irish  and  Scotch  Balriadas,  two  members  of 
the  same  family  often  ruling  in  Irish  and 
Scotch  Dalriada  at  the  same  time.  The  inde- 
pendence of  the  Soots  was  asserted  by  Aidan 
(575)  at  Drumcat ;  it  whb  not  till  the  tenth 
centurv  that  the  name  Scotia  ceased  to  be 
applied  to  Ireland,  and  was  transferred  to 
Scotland;  it  was  even  later  before  tiie  term 
Scot  acquired  a  national  signification.  Besides 
this  the  independence  of  Strathclyde  ceased 
altogether.  Sh(»rtly  afterwards  Constantino 
II.  procured  the  throne  for  his  brother  Donald, 
thus  paving  the  way  for  the  amalgamation  of 
the  ISritons  and  the  Soots,  and  tor  the  sub- 
sequent annexation;  a  branch  of  the  Mac- 
alpin  family  continued  to  rule  in  Strathclyde 
till  the  time  of  Malcolm  II.  In  945  Cumbria, 
%,e.f  Strathclyde,  which  had  already  in  924 
chosen  Eadward  the  Elder  **to  father  and 
lord,"  was  hairied  by  Eadmund,  and  given 
up  to  Malcolm  to  be  held  on  condition  of 
fealty.  On  the  death  of  Edgar  in  1107  he 
left  Strathclyde  to  his  youngest  brother 
David,  to  the  chagrin  of  Alexander  I.,  who 
saw  that  his  kingdom  would  be  much 
weakened  in  consequence.  Alexander,  how- 
ever, died  without  heirs,  and  David  suc- 
ceeded to  the  whole  kingdom ;  from  his  reign 
dates  the  rise  of  Southern  Scotland. 

Soof  8  Water  was  a  name  given  to  the 
Firth  of  Forth,  the  old  boundaa*y  between 
the  Anglian  Lothians  and  the  Celtic  kingdom 
of  Scotland. 

Scotty  Sir  Waltbr,  of  Buccleuch,  tried 
unsuccessfully  to  rescue  James  V.  from  the 
custody  of  Angus  in  conjunction  with  the 
Earl  of  Lennox.  He  was  murdered  at  Edin- 
burgh by  a  member  of  the  Clan  Ker,  who 
were  his  hereditary  enemies. 

ScrOMSy  Sir  William  (d.  1683),  of  whose 
birth  and  parentage  nothing  is  known,  was 
called  to  the  bar  in  1653.  In  1676  he  was 
appointed  by  Danby  to  a  judgeship  in  the 
Common  Pleas,  and  in  1678  was  advanced  to 
the  chief  justiceship  of  the  King^s  Bench. 
He  was  one  of  the  worst  judges  that  ever 
disgraced  the  English  bench.  While  the 
national  madness  of  the  Popish  Plot  lasted,  he 
made  a  point  of  accepting  all  the  evidence  of 
the  most  infamous  informers  without  question* 


(  926  ) 


To  be  brought  before  him  in  1679  and  1680  was 
equivalent  to  being  convicted.  HiB  inhuman 
conduct  towards  the  supposed  conspirators 
in  the  Popish  Hot  was  omy  equalled  by  his 
gross  bruteliihr  towards  the  other  party  when 
he  discovered  that  the  tide  was  turning 
against  Shaftesbury  and  his  associates.  In 
1680  he  was  impeached  by  the  Commons. 
The  Lords  refusi^  to  commit  him,  but  the 
king,  perceiving  how  unpopular  the  chief 
justice  had  become,  removed  him  from  his 
office  in  1681,  though  allowing  him  a  pension 
of  £1,600  a  year. 
~     State  TriaU, 

y 

ScropOy  RiCHABD,  AjKihbishop  of  York 
{d.  1405),  was  the  brother  of  Richard  II.*s 
minister,  the  Earl  of  Wiltshire.  He  was 
made  Archbishop  of  York  in  1398.  He  was 
strongly  opposed  to  Henry's  aooession,  and 
advocated  the  claims  of  the  Earl  of  March. 
Jn  1405  he  joined  Northumberland  and 
others  in  a  conspiracy  against  the  king.  He 
was  entrapped  into  a  conference  with  the  Earl 
of  Westmorland,  when  he  was  seized  and  be- 
headed at  York.  He  was  regarded  by  the 
people  as  a  martyr,  and  pilgiimages  were 
made  to  his  tomb.  The  execution  of  Scrope 
was  the  first  instance  in  England  of  a  prelate 
being  put  to  death  by  the  civil  power. 
Stabbs,  Cotut.  Hut.,  vol.  iii. 

Beroj^f  Richard  lb  {d,  1403),  after  dis- 
tinguishmg  himself  by  his  gallantry  in  the 
French  and  Scotch  wars  of  Edward  lll.'s 
reign,  was,  on  the  accession  of  Richard  II., 
appointed  Steward  of  the  Household,  and  in 
1378  he  held  the  chancellorship  for  a  brief 
period,  and  again  in  1381-2.  He  conducted 
himself  with  great  moderation  during  the 
troubles  of  Richard's  reign,  and  though  he 
took  part  in  the  trial  of  Tresilian  and  the 
other  royal  ministers  in  1387,  he  was  declared 
innocent  in  1397. 

Scrope  of  Bolton,  Lord  {d.  1592),  War- 
den of  tne  West  Marches  under  Queen  Elissa- 
beth,  and  Governor  of  Carlisle,  was  entrusted 
for  a  short  time  with  the  charge  of  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots.  He  aided  in  crushing  the 
rebellion  of  1569,  and  in  the  following  year 
was  one  of  the  commanders  in  the  raid  on 
Scotland. 

Scrope  of  Masham,  Lord  {d.  1415), 

was  a  nephew  of  Archbishop  Scrope,  and  one 
of  Henry  V.*8  most  intimate  friends.  He 
was  employed  by  the  king  on  many  diplo- 
matic errands,  but  in  1415  was  apparently 
implicated  in  the  conspiracy  of  Cambridge  to 
place  the  Earl  of  March  on  the  throne.  His 
guilt  is  somewhat  doubtful,  but  he  was  con- 
victed by  his  peers  and  executed. 

Scullaboffne,  The  Massacre  at,  took 
place  on  the  oth  of  June,  1798,  during  the 
Irish  Rebellion,  while  Bagcnal  Harvey  and 
Father  Roche  were  attacking  New  Ross. 
All  the  Protestants  taken  prisoners  by  in- 
surgent bands  were  here  confined  in  a  bam, 


some  300  men  being  left  there  to  guard  them. 
At  nine  in  the  morning,  thirty  or  forty  of  tike 
men  were  murdered,  but  those  in  the  barn  wen 
iiH  yet  spared.  When,  however,  the  rebels  had 
been  fiiudly  repulsed  at  New  Boas,  the  rabble 
set  fire  to  the  bexn,  and  184  old  men,  womai, 
and  children  (sixteen  Catholics  amongst  them.i 
were  either  burnt  to  death  or  piked  as  they 
tried  to  escape. 

MnsgiraYe,  HUt.  cftU  BAMiMi. 

Scutate  first  appears  in  1156  as  &  tax 
of  twenty  shillings  on  the  knight*s  fee  or 
aeutum,  imposed,  in  spite  of  the  protest  of 
Archbishop  Theobald,  upon  knights  holding 
estates  from  churches.  In  1169  two  marb 
were  taken  from  every  knight's  fee  in  liea  of 
personal  ser^dce  in  the  war  of  Toulouse ;  and 
henceforth  the  term  scutage  bore  the  meaning 
of  a  payment  in  conunutation  of  service. 
To  the  majority  of  the  knights  it  would  be 
more  convenient  to  pay  the  tax  than  to  go 
upon  a  distant  expedition,  and  the  money  was 
welcome  to  the  king  as  enabling  him  to  hire 
more  trustworthy  troops.  It  was  indeed  one  of 
the  most  important  of  Henry  II.*b  anti-feodal 
measures,  and  may  be  compared  in  its  general 
policy  with  Edward  I.*s  distraint  of  knight- 
hood. It  was  again  levied  under  Henry  11. 
in  1171  and  1186,  each  time  at  twenty  shil- 
lings on  the  knight's  fee,  and  three  times 
under  Richard  I.,  once  at  ten,  and  twice  at 
twenty  shillings.  Like  all  other  taxes  it  wftt 
used  as  a  means  of  extortion  by  John :  i^* 
marks  on  the  fee  were  demanded  as  often  as  ten 
times;  and  therefore  the  Great  Qiarter  de- 
clared that  no  scutage  should  henceforth  be 
imposed  save  by  the  conmion  counsel  of  the 
nation.  But  this  restriction  was  apparently 
irksome  to  the  advisers  of  the  young  Heniy 
III.,  and  therefore  in  the  second  re-iasae  d 
the  Charter  in  1217  an  article  was  inserted 
to  the  effect  that  scutage  should  be  taken  as 
in  King  Henry's  time,  i.e.  (probably)  without 
needing  the  consent  of  the  eommuM  eoneilium. 
Scutage  was  exacted  nine  times  between  1218 
and  1233,  but  after  that  more  rarely.  By 
Edward  I.  it  was  resorted  to  only  as  an 
afterthought,  and  often  appears  several  yean 
after  the  war  for  which  it  is  demanded.  In 
the  following  reigns  it  was  seldom  collected, 
and  then  only  when  the  king  himself  went  to 
war.  After  1385,  when  it  was  remitted  after 
the  Scotch  expedition,  it  disappears. 

Stubbe,  CoMt.  Hut.,  espec.  i.,  §161. 

|_W.  J.  A.J 

Sealy  Thb  G&bat,  is  the  emblem  of  sove- 
reignty, and  is  used  on  all  solemn  oocasians 
when  the  will  of  the  sovereign  is  to  be  ex- 
pressed. A  new  Great  Seal  is  provided  by  tht* 
king  in  council  at  the  beginmng  of  a  new 
reign,  or  whenever  a  change  is  made  in  tht* 
Toyid  arms  or  style,  and  the  old  one  ispuUidy 
broken.  It  was  introduced  into  Eo^and  by 
Edward  the  Confessor,  who,  following  the 
example  of  the  Carlovingian  kings,  placed  it 


(927  ) 


in  the  keeping  of  a  chancellor.    From  the 
time  of  Becket  and  onwards  the  office  was 
one  of  varied  importance,  and  accordingly  we 
find  that  the  i>er8onal  custody  of  the  b(»1  was 
not  unfreqaently  placed  in  the  hands  of  a 
vice-chancellor.     Kichaid  I.  violently  took 
possession  of  the  seal,    ordered  a  new  one 
to  be  made,  and  proclaimed  that  all  charters 
which  had  been  sealed  with  the  old  one  were 
null  and  void.      In  order  to   prevent  this 
practice,  a  statute  was  passed  on  the  28th 
of  Henry  III.,  proclaiming  the  nullity  of  any 
document  sealed  by  ,the  Great  8eal  during 
its  absence  from  the  hands  of  the  chancellor. 
This  law  was,  however,  often  broken,   and 
it  was   not    unusual  for  the  chancellor  to 
entrust    the    seal    to    one    oc    more    vice* 
chancellors   when  he  was  engaged  on  the 
business  of  his  diocese,  or  absent  from  Eng- 
land.    Also  during  the  interval  between  the 
death  or  resignation  of  one  chancellor,  the 
Great  Seal,  instead  of  reverting  to  the  sove- 
reign, passed  into  the  hands  of  a  temporary 
keeper.     Gradually  this  official  acquired  the 
right  of  discharging  all  the  duties  connected 
with  the  Great  Seal,  and  in  the  case  of  Sir 
Nicholas    Bacon,  Lord  Keeper  during    the 
earlier  part  of  EHsabeth^s  reign,  a  statute  was 
[>asscd   declaring   him   to  have  *'  the  same 
place,  pre-eminence,  and  jurisdiction  as  the 
Lord  Chancellor  of  England."    During  the 
following^  reigns  the  Great  Seal  continued  in 
:he  custody  of  the  lx>rd  Keeper  in  the  first 
instance,    but    this    officdal    was    generally 
r&ised    to    the    title    of    Lord    Chancellor 
md  kept  the  seal;    since   the  accession  of 
jreorge   III.,    however,  tiie  office    of   Lord 
ieeper  has  been  discontinued.     The  Great 
$eal   was   also  occasionally  placed  in  com- 
nission.      Under    the   Tudors    and   Stuarts 
he    earlier   ordinance   passed    in    1443,  re- 
[uiring  that  the  chancellor  should  not  fix 
he  Great  Seal  without  authority  under  the 
*ri\'y   Seal,    was    seldom   observed.     When 
!jord  Keeper  Littleton  fled  to  Charles  I.  at 
fork  in  1642,  taking  with  him  the  Great  Seal, 
he  Long  Parliament  illegally  ordered  a  new 
Treat  Seal  to  be  made,  to  which  after  some 
.<'lay  the   Lords  gave  their  consent,  in  spite 
f  a  prodaniation  by  the  king,  charging  those 
oncemed  in  making  it  with  high  treason, 
n  1648  a  new  Great  Seal  was  ordered  with 
tepublican  insignia,  and  soon  afterwards  it 
ras  declared  high  treason  to  counterfeit  it. 
L  rival    Great  Seal  was,  however,  used  by 
/harlea  II.  immediately  after  the  death  of 
lis  father,   which  was  lost  after  the  battle  of 
Vorcester.      James  II.  on  his  flight  from 
^ndon  threw  the  Great  Seal  into  the  Thames, 
ut  it  was  fished  up  again  near  Lambeth, 
ince   the   Revolution  the  use  of  the  Great 
oal  has  been  strictly  confined  to  the  Lord 
Ihancellor,  Lord  Keeper,  and  Lords  Commis- 
ioners,  and  the  regulations  for  its  employ- 
lent  have  been  carefully  observed.     By  the 
Lct  of  Union  with  Scotland  one  Great  Seal 


for  the  United  Kingdom  is  used  for  tha> 
writs  by  which  Farliiunent  is  summoned,  lor 
foreign  treaties,  and  for  all  public  acts  of 
state,  while  a  seal  in  Scotland  is  used  for 
private  grants.  The  Act  of  Union  with 
Ireland,  however,  made  no  express  provision 
for  establishing  one  Great  Seal  for  the  United 
Kingdom.  By  the  Great  Seal  (Offices)  Act 
of  1874,  a  number  of  offices  connected  with 
the  Great  Seal  were  abolished,  having  become 
obsolete. 

Campbell,  Imu  of  ih»  Lord  ChaneeSLon  ;  see 
also  for  lists  of  Lord  Chanoellors  and  Lord 
Keepers,  Haydn,  Bock  Hjf  DigmtiM. 

[L.  C.  S.] 

Scaly  The  PaiTT,  is  affixed  to  all  letters- 
patent  for  the  grant  of  charters,  nardons, 
&c.,  before  they  come  to  the  Great  Seal,  and  to 
some  things  of  minor  importance  which  do 
not  pass  the  Great  Seal  at  all.  The  office  of 
Clerk  or  Keeper  of  the  Privy  Seal,  now  called 
Lord  Privy  Seal,  is  of  Norman  origin.  By 
the  reign  of  Edward  III.  he  had  become  one 
of  the  chief  officers  of  state  and  a  member  of 
the  king^s  counciL  The  dignity  was  fre- 
quently conferred  on  an  occledastic;  for 
instance,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  lY.  John 
Russell,  Bishop  of  l^ncoln,  united  the  offices 
of  Keeper  of  the  Privy  Seal  and  President  of 
the  Council.  Hie  keeper  was  a  member  of 
the  Court  of  Star  Chamber  as  organised  by 
Henry  VII.  In  the  reigt*.  of  Henry  VIH. 
the  Privy  Seal  was  made  the  warrant  of  the 
legality  of  letters  patent  from  the  crown,  and 
authorised  Ihe  Lord  Chancellor  to  affix  the 
Great  Seal.  Letters  patent  formerly  passed 
from  the  Signet  Office  to  the  Privy  Seal 
Office  in  the  form  of  Signet  Bills,  and  were 
then  sealed  and  sent  to  the  Lord  Chancellor ; 
but  on  the  abolition  of  the  Signet  Office  in 
1848,  it  was  enacted  that  warrants  under  the 
royal  sign-manual,  prepared  by  the  Attorney- 
General  and  Solicitor-General,  setting  forth 
the  tenor  and  effect  of  the  letters-patent  to 
be  granted,  addressed  to  the  Lord  Chancellor, 
and  counter-signed  by  one  of  the  principal 
Secretaries  of  State,  would  be  a  sufficient 
authority  for  the  Privy  Seal  being  affixed. 
At  the  same  time  the  appointments  of  Clerks 
of  the  Signet  and  Clerks  of  the  Privy  Seal 
were  abolished.  The  Lord  Privy  Seal  is  the 
fifth  great  officer  of  state,  a  Privy  Councillor 
in  virtue  of  his  office,  and  takes  precedence 
after  the  Lord  President  of  the  Council.  The 
office  of  Loid  Privy  Seal  of  Scotland  was 
established  by  James  I.  after  his  return  from 
imprisonment  in  England.  It  was  directly 
modelled  on  the  parallel  dignity  in  the 
English  court.  The  seal  had  been  previously 
kept  by  the  Lord  Chancellor. 

Haydn,  Boo\i  of  Dtgnittes;   11  »nd  12  Yict., 
c.  82.  [L.  C.  S.] 

Seaarch  Warrants  are  issued  by  justices 
of  the  peace  to  the  officers  to  whom  they  are 
addressed,  requiring  them  to  seareh  a  house 


(  928  ) 


orbthei  sj^ecified  place  for  property  suspected 
to  kavebeen  stolen.  The  conditions  of  their 
issue  aire  regulated  by  the  Laroenjr  Act  of 
1861  land  the  Pawnbrokers'  Act  of  1872. 

Saaioilf  John  Colborke,  Lord  {b,  1779, 
d.  1863),  one  of  the  most  famous  generals 
of  bis  age,  distinguished  himself  in  his  fizst 
campaign  in  Holland  (1799).  In  1801,  he 
was  present  at  the  battle  of  Maida,  andserVed 
throughout  the  Peninsular  War  with  great 
distinction.  It  is  said  that  his  handling  of 
the  52nd  Regiment  at  Waterloo  contributed 
in  no  small  degree  to  the  English  Tictory. 
In  1828  he  was  made  Lieutenant-Grovemor  of 
CSanada,  and.Qovemor-G^eneral  of  the  same 
province  in  1837.  He  was  also  commander 
of  the  forceis  at  the  same  time,  and  to  his 
energetic  action  the  easy  suppression  of  the 
Canadian  Rebellion  of  1838  was  mainly  due. 
In  the  following  year  his  services  were  re- 
warded by  a  peerage,  and  in  1860  Lord  Seaton 
became  a  fleld-marshaL  In  1843  he  was 
made  Lord  High  Commissioner  of  the  Ionian 
Isles,  an  office  which  he  held  for  six  years. 

Sebastopol  was  a  strongly  fortified  city 
in  the.  Crimea,  which  the  Emperor  Nicholas 
made  the  head-quarters  of  the  Russian  fleet. 
When  the  Crimean  War  broke  out'its  siege  was 
resolved  upon..  When  the  southern  side  of 
it  was  evacuated  by  the  Russians,  and  the 
town  was  occupied  by  the  allies,  the  Crimean 
War  practically  ended  (Sept.  9,  1855).  [Cri- 
mean War.] 

Saokar,  Thomas,  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury {b.  1693,  d.  1768),  was  bom  of  Dissent- 
ing parents  at  Sibthorpe,  in  Nottinghamshire. 
Abandoning  the  Dissenting  ministry  for 
medicine,  and  ultimately  persuaded  by  his 
school  friend,  Butler,  to  jom  the  ministry  of 
the  Established  Church,  he  entered  Exeter 
College,  Oxford,  was  ordained  in  1723,  and 
was  made  in  1735  Bishop  of  Bristol;  was 
translated  in  1737  to  Oxford,  and  in  1758 
made  archbishop.  Ho  was  an  energetic  and 
respectable  archbishop. 

Portecw,  Lift  of  Seeker  prefixed  to  his  Woria, 

Secretary  of  State,  The  Office  op, 
is  supposed  to  be  first  mentioned  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  III.,  when  we  find  a  secretariut 
noHter  in  existence,  who  carried  out  the  duties 
which  had  been  previously  fulfilled  by  the 
king's  clerk.  There  continuod  to  be  one 
principal  secretary  of  state  until  towards  the 
end  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  when  two 
were  appointed  of  equal  powers  (15S9).  In 
the  same  reign  secretaries  of  state,  who 
had  previously  been  mere  clerks  who  pre- 
pared business  for  the  Privy  Council,  but 
were  not  admitted  to  its  debates,  became 
members  of  that  body.  Sir  Robert  Cecil  had 
the,  recognised  title  of  "  Our  Principal  Secre- 
tary of  State,"  and  the  office  of  secretary 
attained  its  present  importance  when  after 
the  Revolution  the  Cabinet  began  to  displace 


the  Privy  Council.  On  the  union  with  Sooi* 
land  a  Secretary  of  State  for  Scotch  affain 
was  created,  among  those  who  held  the  oiBc« 
being  the  Earl  of  Mar,  but  it  expired  in 
1746.  In  1768  a  secretary  was  appointed  for 
American  and  Colonial  affun,  which  from 
1660  had  been  managed  by  tlie  Conndl  of 
Trade,  but  this  office  was  abolished  in  ITS'! 
In  the  some  'year  an  important  cfaao^  took 
place.  Hitherto  the  two  secretaryshipf  hid 
been  known  as  those  of  the  northern  ud 
the  southern  department,  of  which  the  fonDer, 
besides  the  superintendence  of  the  foreign 
a£fiairB  of  Norttiem  Europe,  was  supposed  to 
be  concerned  with  those  of  IrelandC  This 
clumsy  arrangement  was  now  abolished,  and 
their  duties  deyolved  upon  Home  and  Foreign 
Secretaries.  In  1794  a  Secretary  at  War  was 
i^pointed,  and  he  received  in  addition  tlw 
business  of  the  colonies  in  1801,  but  the  tvo 
functions  of  colonial  and  militaiy  administn- 
tion  were  finally  separated  in  1854.  The 
secretaryship  for  India  was  created  in  1868 
on  the  abolition  of  the  double  system  of 
government.  The  Chief  Secretary  for  Ire* 
land  does  not  as  a  rule  have  a  seat  in  the 
Cabinet,  and  is  not  reckoned  as  one  of  the 
principal  secretaries  of  state.  His  official 
title  IS  the  Chief  Secretary  to  the  Lord 
Lieutenant.  There  are  also  Parliamentarr 
Under-Secretaries,  and  permanent  searetarit^, 
who  are  the  heads  of  the  working  staffs  of  the 
government  departments. 

Securi'^y  The  Bill  op  (Scotljixd),  vis 
passed  in  1703  by  the  Scottish  Parlianumt 
during  the  agitation  that  preceded  and  nece^ 
sitated  the  union  of  the  two  kingdoms.  It  pro- 
\'ided  that  Parliament  should  fix  a  successor 
to  the  Scottish  crown  on  the  death  of  Annt 
from  among  the  Protestant  members  of  the 
royal  family,  provided  that  he  should  under 
no  circumstances  be  the  same  person  as  th^ 
successor  to  the  English  crown,  unless  ful! 
security  was  given  for  the  religious  and  com- 
mercial independence  of  Scotland,  and  it.'' 
equality  in  tode  with  England.  The  royal 
assent  was  naturally  refused  to  such  a 
measure ;  but  this  step  proved  so  unpopular 
that  Parliament  had  to  be  immediately  dis- 
missed without  hope  of  subsidy. 

Burton,  Hut.  <^  ArotUmd  and  Bm^  of  Qma 
Anno, 

8ed|pemoor,  The  Battle  of  (July  h, 
1686),  was  fought  between  the  Duke  of  Mon- 
mouth and  the  royal  troops  und^  the  Earl  of 
Feversham.  After  marching  through  the  AVfft 
country  and  failing  to  capture  Bath,  Monmouth 
determined  to  risk  all  in  a  general  engagement 
with  the  royal  troops,  who  were  encamped  on 
Sedgemoor,  about  three  miles  south  of  Bridge- 
water,  while  Monmouth  was  then  in  Bridee^ 
water.  Sedgemoor  is  a  swampy  pkin,  croaked 
by  wide  ditches  called  "  rhines.**  In  front 
of  Lord  Feversham*8  camp  was  one  of  thaje 
called  the  Sussex  Bhine.   It  was  Mcmmooth'fi 


(  929  ) 


intention  to  attack  the  royal  army  in  its 
camp  at  night.     His  army  was  in  motion 
by  midnight,  and  his  gaidt:8  brought  him  to 
the  brink  of  the  "rhine/*  fronting  Fever- 
sham's  encampment.   This  was  too  deep  to  be 
crossed.     The  insurgents  halted    in    doubt, 
and  by  accident  shots  were  fired  across  the 
'*rhine,"and  these  roused  Feversham's  troops. 
Making  a  detour,  they  fell  on  Monmouth's 
army.  Lord  Grey  and  his  horso  were  the  first 
of  the  insurgents  to  give  way.     The  peasants 
and  miners  of  the  West  country,  however, 
fought  with  more  courage.     But  the  flight  of 
the  cavalry,  under  Grey,  had  made  the  (uiuse 
of   Monmouth  hopeless.    The  duke  himself, 
at    dawn,  rode    awav  towards    Hampshire. 
Deserted  by  their  leaders,  the  insurgents  en- 
deavoured to  fly ;  but  Colonel  Kirke,  at  the 
head  of  his  Tangier  troops,  followed  them 
in  close    pursuit.    A    great    and  barbarous 
slaughter  of  the  fugitives  by  the  royal  troops 
ensued.     The  battle,  of  course,  put  an  imme- 
liate  end  to  Monmouth's  rebellion. 

Maoanlay,  Hiti.  qf  Eng, ;  Boberts,  Manmcuih, 

Seditions  Meetings  Bill  (1795)  was 

provoked  by  the  same  state  of  popubx  ex- 
:itement  which  caused  the  Treasonable  Prac- 
tices Bill.  The  measure  was  introduced  by 
Pitt.  It  prohibited  the  meeting  of  more  than 
ifty  persons  (except  county  and  borough 
neetings  duly  called)  for  the  consideration  of 
>etitions  or  aiddresses  for  reform  in  Church  or 
hute,  or  for  the  discussion  of  any  grievance, 
without  the  sanction  of  a  magistrate.  It 
'estcd  large  discretionary  powers  in  the 
uagistrates,  both  as  to  sanctioning  such 
lootings  and  dispersing  them.  Pitt  even 
proposed  to  restrict  the  liberty  of  discussion 
•y  only  permitting  debating  societies  to  meet 
1  duly  licensed  rooms.  The  bill  was  pro- 
.'ssedly  a  measure  of  coercion,  and  was  as 
ich  opposed  by  Fox  and  aU  his  party  with 
von  more  than  their  wonted  vigour.  Only 
>rty-two  members  followed  him  in  opposing 
le  introduction  of  the  bill ;  and  on  its  last 
lading  only  fifty-one  could  be  found  to 
>pose  it,  as  against  266  who  supported  it. 
ICaj,  Const  Hist.  .-.Masaey,  Hut.  of  Eng. 

Sedley,  Sir  Charles  (6. 1639, <;.  1701), was 
witty  but  profligate  play- writer  of  the  Re- 
:>ration  period ;  he  was  the  father  of  Catherine 
rdl(>y,  James  II. 's  mistress,  and  took  some 
rt  in  politics  as  member  for  Komney.  TJlti- 
itoly  he  became  a  strong  partisan  of  the 
^vorution,  though  his  speech  in  1690  against 
icemen  showed  that  he  retained  his  inde- 
ndence  under  the  new  government. 

BeedaJMieery  The   Battlb   of    ^March 

1799),    was  an  English    victory    in    the 

^'sore  War  against  Tippoo  Sultan.     General 

lart,    with   the   Bombay   division    [Wel- 

>LEY,    Marquess    of^,  had   ascended   the 

auts,    and    posted   himself  at  8eedasseor. 

tho   morning  of  March   5   Tippoo   was 

nd  to  be  approaching.     Preparations  were 

Hist.— 30 


instantly  made  to  receive  him  by  Genc^ 

Hartley,  second  in  command.   On  the  mommg 

of  the  6th  the  advanced  brigade  was  assailed 

vigorously   by    the    Sultanas    entire    force, 

and  three  battalions  under  tho  gallant  Colonel 

Montresor  sustained  the  assault  for  six  hours 

with  such  determination  that  Tippoo^s  officers 

could  do  nothing.     Greneral  Stuart,  who  was 

ten  miles  in  the  rear,  hastening  up,  found  them 

exhausted  and  reduced  to  their  last  cartridge. 

In  half  an    hour  Tippoo's  army   retreated 

through  the  wood  with  a  loss  of  2,000  men. 

W0a»A0y   DupaUhet;  MiU,   Higt.  of  India: 
Wilks,  My$or$, 

Seetabnldee,  The  Battle  of  (Nov.  24, 
1817).  The  result  of  the  intrigues  of  Appa 
Sahib  with  Bajee  Rao  was  an  attack  on  the 
British  Residency.  This  lay  to  the  west  of 
Nagpore,  from  which  it  was  separated  by  a 
small  ridge  running  north  and  south,  with 
two  hills  at  the  extremity  called  the  Seeta- 
buldee  Hills.  It  was  garrisoned  by  two  bat- 
talions of  Madras  infantry,  two  companies  of 
the  Resident's  escort,  three  troops  of  Bengal 
cavalry,  and  a  detachment  of  l^Iadras  artillery' 
with  four  six-pounders.  The  raiah  had  18,000 
men  and  thirty- six  guns.  The  guns  were 
brought  to  bear  on  the  English  position,  and 
a  vigorous  assault,  which  wiis  repelled  with 
great  gallantry,  was  made  all  through  the  night 
to  the  next  morning.  At  last  the  Nagpore  troops 
captured  the  lower  hill,  and  the  English  am- 
munition was  running  short,  when  a  gallant 
charge  of  the  Bengal  cavalry,  under  Captain 
Fitzgerald,  resulted  in  capturing  two  gxma 
and  cutting  up  the  infantiy.  At  this  moment 
one  of  the  enemy's  tumbrils  exploded,  and  amid 
the  confusion  they  broke  and  fled.  The  conflict, 
which  had  lasted  eighteen  hours,  thus  ter- 
minated in  the  triumph  of  tho  British. 


w^y^m.mmw^j  Stbphen  {d,  Hrca  1241),  was  a 
partisan  of  King  John  during  his  struggles 
with  the  barons,  and  on  Henry  III.'s  acces- 
sion he  allied  himself  with  the  party  of  Peter 
des  Roches.  On  the  dismissal  of  Hubert  de 
Burgh  in  1232,  the  office  of  Justiciar  was 
given  to  Segrave.  His  administration  was 
unsuccessful;  he  failed  to  ingratiate  himself 
with  the  king,  and  at  the  same  time  incurred 
tho  hatred  of  the  barons  and  the  people.  He 
fell  in  1234,  with  his  patron  Des  Roches,  and 
was  called  upon  to  give  an  account  of  his 
stewardship.  Subsequently  he  made  his  peace 
with  the  kmg  by  the  payment  of  a  thousand 
marks,  retymed  to  court,  and  became  one  of 
the  royal  advisers,  but  was  not  reinstated  in 
his  office.  He  retired  at  the  end  of  his  life 
to  the  abbey  of  Leicester,  where  he  died. 
Segrave  was  one  of  the  first  of  the  merely 
legal  Justiciars.  Though  so  bad  a  politician, 
he  was  a  good  lawyer,  lie  marks  the  transi- 
tion to  the  chief  justices  of  later  times. 
FoflB,  Judges  of  England. 


^        J,  The    Battle    of    (635),   was 
fought  at  Dalguise,  near  Dunkeld,  between 


I 


Sal 


0  930  ) 


CM 


^e  descendants  of  Nectan,  the  Pictish  king, 
who  had  been  driven  from  the  throne  in 
612,  and  Gamaid,  son  of  Firth,  king  of  the 
Picts,  who,  together  with  Lochene,  son  of 
Ncctan,  was  killed. 

Salboma^  Roundell  Palmeb,  Eaul  of 
(b.  1812,  d.  1895),  son  of  the  Kev.  William 
Palmer,  of  Mixbur>',  Oxfordshire,  was  edu- 
cated at  Rugby  and  Winchester  Schools, 
and  Trinity  College,  Oxford.  He  was 
elected  to  a  fellowship  at  Magdalen,  and 
was  called  to  the  bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn 
(1837).  In  1847  he  was  first  returned  to 
Parliament  for  Plymouth  as  a  Peelite.  He 
itipresented  Plymouth  till  1852,  when  he 
was  defeated;  but  regained  his  seat  (1853), 
and  held  it  till  1857.  In  1861  he  was  ap- 
pointed Solicitor-General  in  Lord  Palnior- 
ston's  government,  though  he  had  not  a  scat 
in  the  House.  He  was  then  knighted,  and 
shortly  afterwards  elected  for  Richmond, 
which  he  continued  to  represent  till  his  eleva- 
tion to  the  peerage.  In  1863  he  became 
Attorney-General  imder  Lord  John  Russell. 
In  1868  he  was  offered  the  Chancellorship, 
but  refused,  as  he  could  not  agree  with  the 
administration  on  the  Irish  Church  question. 
He  continued,  however,  to  be  an  independent 
supporter  of  the  government  on  most  ques- 
tions, and  represented  it  at  Geneva  (1871). 
[Genbva  Convention.]  He  was  appointed 
Lord  Chancellor  on  the  retirement  of  Lord 
Hatherley,  on  which  occasion  he  was  raised  to 
the  peei-uge  as  Baron  Selbome,  retiring  with 
the  Liboml  party  in  1874.  He  again  became 
Liberal  Chancellor  in  1880,  but  refused  the 
same  office  in  the  Home  Rule  Cabinet  of 
1886.     He  was  created  an  Earl  in  1883. 

Selby,  The  Battle  of  (April  11,  1644), 
was  fought  during  the  Great  Rebellion.  Ool. 
John  Bellasis,  the  Governor  of  York,  during, 
the  absence  of  the  Marquis  of  Newcastle,  who 
was  facing  the  Soots  in  Durham,  oocupied 
with  1,500  horse  and  1,800  foot  the  town  of 
Selby,  with  the  object  of  preventing  the 
junction  of  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax  with  the 
Scots.  He  was  attacked  on  April  II  by 
Fairfax,  with  rather  superior  forces,  and  his 
position  stormed.  Bellasis  himself  was  taken 
prisoner,  and  he  lost  his  baggage,  artillery, 
and  1,600  men.  Clarendon  says : — "  This  was 
the  first  action  for  which  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax 
was  taken  notice  of,  who  in  a  short  time  grew 
the  supreme  general  under  the  Parliament." 
Markliam,  Li/e  of  Fairfax. 

Seldau,  John  (b.  1584,  d.  1654),  was  edu- 
cated at  Hart  Hall,  Oxford,  and  became  a 
member  of  Clifford's  Inn  in  1602,  After  he  had 
continued  there  a  sedulous  student  for  some 
time,  he  "did  by  help  of  a  strong  body  and 
vast  memory,  not  only  run  through  the  whole 
body  of  the  law,  but  became  a  prodigy  in  most 
parts  of  leai-ning  ...  so  that  in  few  years  his 
name  was  wonderfully  advanced,  not  only  at 
home,  but  in  foreign  countries,  and  he  was 


usually  styled  '  the  great  dictator  of  kaniini 
of  the  English  nation'"  fWood).  1b  1618 
he  published  a  HUtory  of  Tithe^y  stronglT 
Eiustian  in  its  tendency,  and  basing  the  claim 
of  the  clergy  to  them  on  the  grant  of  the  m-il 
power.  The  book  was  suppressed  by  the 
Court  of  High  Commission,  and  the  author 
was  obliged  to  make  a  public  acknowledgment 
of  his  error.  Sclden  sat  in  the  Parliamenu 
of  1624,  1626,  and  1628.  He  took  part  in 
the  impeachment  <d  the  Duke  of  Bucking* 
bam,  and  had  the  4th  and  5th  articles  en- 
trusted to  him  (1626).  Ho  also  helped  to 
prepare  the  Petition  of  Right.  In  1629  he 
was  summoned  before  the  Council  for  his  ahkii' 
in  the  disturbances  of  the  last  day  of  that 
Parliament,  and  was  imprisoned  until  \^^ 
Two  years  later  he  published  Mare  CUuaum, 
asserting  the  English  sovereignty  of  the  6e»s, 
which  had  originally  been  written 'in  anawtt 
to  the  Mare  Liberum  of  Grotius.  WTien  thf 
Long  Parliament  assembled  Sdden  «« 
chosen  member  for  Oxford.  He  btou^ 
forward  the  bill  for  the  abolition  of  Shi{v 
monev,  and  other  measures  limiting  the  pr* 
rogative;  but  he  opposed  the  bill  for  (ii^ 
attainder  of  Straffonl,  and  the  Root  aifi 
Branch  Bill.  In  1643  he  was  appointed  ock 
of  the  representatives  of  the  House  d 
Commons  in  the  Westminster  Assembh. 
where  he  played  a  disting^shed  part,  antl 
two  years  later  was  selected  as  a  member  of 
the  Joint  Commission  to  administer  tU' 
Admiralty.  He  died  on  Nov.  30,  16>>4, 
leaving  ids  library  to  his  executore,  vh>^ 
gave  it  to  the  Bodleian  libraiy  at  Oxford. 

Wood,  AikewB  0«oni«fUM;  Jdmaon,  1>>  H 
SeW«n.  [C.  H.  F.] 

Self-denying  Ordinanoe,  Thb.  ««f 

a  measure  pi-oposed  in  the  Long  Puln* 
ment  on  Dec.  9,  1644,  by  3ir.  Zouch  Tatt, 
member  for  Northampton.  The  words  of 
the  resolution  were  **that  no  member  o* 
either  House  of  Pjirliament  shall  duiinc 
the  war  enjoy  or  execute  any  office  or 
command,  military  or  civil,  and  that  j«b 
ordinance  bo  brought  in  to  that  effect.*'  -^ 
ordinance  was  brought  in  and  pawwl  xy 
Commons  on  Dec.  19,  by  the  small  niajority 
of  seven  votes.  After  some  discussion  ^^ 
hesitation  the  Lords  rejected  it,  giving  a-''  * 
reason  that  they  did  not  know  what  ahap 
the  army  would  take.  The  Commons  at  oon 
produced  a  scheme  "for  new  modelling  ^^ 
the  army  '*  [New  Model],  which  passed  th« 
Commons  on  Jan.  28,  1645,  and  the  Lords  i« 
Feb.  15.  A  second  Self-denying  Ordinanoi 
was  now  introduced,  which  passed  the  I/>idj 
on  April  3,  1646,  It  provided  that  aU 
members  of  either  House,  who  had  since  ihf 
beginning  of  the  present  Parliament  b«« 
appointed  to  any  offices,  military  or  civiL 
should  vacate  those  offices  within  forty  ^)'^ 
But  it  differed  from  the  first  ordinanre  in 
that  it  did  not  prevent  memben  from  takii  if 


Sal 


(931  ) 


Sep 


office  on  any  future  occasion.      The  name 

given  to  this  ordinance  is  perhaps  derived 

from  a  phrase  used  by  Cromwell,  who  was 

one  of  its  strongest  supporters.    "  I  hope,"  ho 

ijaid,   ''wo    have   such  English    hearts    and 

zealous  affections  towards  the  general  weal  of 

our  mother  country,  as  no  members  of  either 

house  will  scruple  to  deny  thetnselvesy  and  their 

own  private  interests,  for  the  public  good." 

Carlvle,  CromtMll;   May*  Long  ParUanMnt ; 
^hitelooke,  Memoruda. 

Sal^fOTS^  Tub,  were  an  ancient  British 
tiibo  occupying  Annondale,  Nithsdale,  and 
Eskdale,  in  Dumfriesshire,  with  the  east  of 
(.J  alio  way. 

Selvach  (d.  730),  King  of  the  Picts,  son 
of  Fearchan  Fada,  succeeded  his  brother 
Ainccllach,  whom  he  expelled,  as  head  of 
the  Cinel  Loam  (698).  In  701  he  destroyed 
the  rival  tribe  of  Cinel  Cathboth,.  and  in  711 
defeated  the  Britons  at  Loch  Arklet,  in  Stir- 
lingshire. The  following  year  we  find  him 
figliting  against  the  Cinel  Gabran  in  Kintyre, 
and  in  717  again  defeating  the  Stratiiclyde 
Britons.  In  719  he  was  defeated  in  the  naval 
buttle  of  Ardaneebi.  In  723  Selvach  resigned 
the  crown  to  his  son  Dungal,  and  entered  a 
monastoTy,  from  which,  however,  he  emerged 
in  727  to  fight  the  battle  of  Ross  Forichen  on 
his  son's  behalf. 

Sepoy  Mutinies,    (i)  1764.    There  is 

no  instinct  of  obedience  in  native  armies 
in  India,  and  the  British  army  of  Sepoys 
was  in  its  earlier  days  no  exception  to  the 
rule.  Having  been  instrumental  in  deposing 
two  Nabobs  of  Bengal,  the  Company's  Ben- 
Bpil  Sepoj's  became  inflated  witii  a  sense  of 
their  own  importance,  and  demanded  a  large 
ionation  and  increased  pay.  It  was  refused ; 
vvh(»reupon  a  whole  battalion  marched  off  to 
;lio  enemy.  Major  Munro  pursued  them  and 
u'ought  them  back.  Twenty-four  ring- 
caders  were  selected,  tried  by  court-martial, 
tnd  condemned  to  be  blown  from  guns.  Four 
vrro  executed  in  this  way;  whereupon  the 
>opoY8  announced  that  no  more  executions 
vould  be  allowed.  Munro  loaded  his  guns 
v'ith  grape,  placed  his  European  soldiers  in 
he  intervals,  and  commanded  the  native 
mitaliona  to  ground  arms,  threatening  to 
ischarf2^e  the  guns  on  them  if  a  single  man 
I  as  8een  to  move.  The  Sepoys  were  awed  by 
is  i-esolution :  sixteen  more  were  blown  away ; 
h(»  mutiny  was  quenched  in  their  blood: 
nd  discipline  was  restored.  [For  second 
nd  third  mutinies  see  articles  Yel^oke 
IiTiNY  and  Barrackpore  Mutiny/]  (4)  The 
>urth  mutiny  broke  out  in  1844.  Scinde  be- 
ime  a  Britii!^  province,  and  the  Sepoys  thus 
>st  the  extra  allowances  which  had  been 
ranted  thorn  while  on  active  ser\'ice  in  an 
nomy's  country.  The  weakness  of  the  com- 
landers,  who  tried  to  induce  the  revolted 
I'DOvs  to  return  to  their  duty  by  promising 
Ktra"  allowances,  only  aggravated  the  mutiny. 


The  men  on  arriving  in  Scinde  complained 
that  they  had  been  allured  there  by  false 
pretences,  which  was  indeed  true.  It  was 
determined  to  bring  up  regiments  from 
Madras;  and  the  Madras  governor  induced 
them  to  undertake  the  voyage  by  promising 
them  extra  pay.  On  their  arrival  they  found 
that  the  rogulations  of  the  Bengal  army  did 
not  permit  of  this;  and,  thus  disappomted 
of  t^eir  expectations,  they  broke  out  into  open 
mtitmy  on  parade.  The  loaders  wero  confined, 
and  a  small  advance  of  money  was  made.  The 
Madras  rogiments  were  returned ;  the  mutinies 
were  hushed  up ;  and  Scinde  was  made  over 
to  Bombay  to  be  garrisoned  from  thence.  (5) 
The  Punjaub  was  the  scene  of  the  fifth.  As  in 
Scinde  in  1844,  the  13th  and  22nd  Native 
Infantry  broke  into  mutiny  on  the  with- 
drawal of  extra  allowances  when  the  Punjaub 
became  a  British  province.  The  41st  at 
Delhi,  after  the  order  of  reduction  had  been 
road,  rofused  to  march,  and  only  coiftcnted  on 
threat  of  dismissal.  At  Wuzeerabad  the 
Sepoys  of  the  32nd  hesitated  to  receive  their 
pay,  but  were  brought  to  order  by  the  seizure 
and  ironing  of  the  flrst  four.  The  66th  at 
Govindgur  mutinied,  Feb.  1,  1850.  One 
Sepoy  endeavoured  to  close  the  gate,  but 
Lieutenant  Macdonald  cut  him  down,  and  a 
small  squadron  of  cavalry  under  Colonel 
Bradford  restored  order.  (6)  1857.  In  this 
year  took  place  the  great  Indian  Mutiny  (q.v.). 

Sapon  are  the  troops,  natives  of  India, 
in  the  JSnglish  pay.  At  an  early  date  the 
Company  found  out  that  the  natives,  properly 
disciplined  according  to  European  methods, 
formed  excellent  soldiers,  and  largely  used 
them  as  cheaper  and  moro  efficient  than  the 
produce  of  the  crimp-houses  and  ale-shops  of 
London.    By  their  arms,  rather  than  by  Euro- 

E^an  troops,  India  was  conquered  by  the 
nglish ;  but  their  religious  caste  prejudices 
and  dislike  of  innovation,  and  someAimes  the 
want  of  consideration  shown  to  them,  have 
produced  mutinies,  of  which  the  chief  are 
mentioned  above. 


The  importance  of  the  native  troops  in  English 
employ  is  clearly  shown  in  Seeley's  Expansion 
of  England. 

Septennial  Act,  The  (1716),  which 

increased  the  length  of  Parliament  to  seven 
years,  was  passed,  partly  because  the  Triennial 
Act  of  1694  had  not  worked  well  in  practice, 
but  still  moro  because  the  very  excited  state 
of  popular  feeling  in  consequence  of  the 
Jacobite  revolt,  made  it  unsafe  for  the  AVhig 
ministry  to  run  the  risk  of  a  general  elec- 
tion. The  right  of  a  sitting  Parliament  thus 
to  lengthen  its  own  existence  was  violently 
contested  at  the  time ;  and,  indeed,  could  only 
be  lustified  by  the  critical  condition  of  the 
nation,  and  the  bad  state  of  the  repre8f*nta- 
tion,  which  made  an  appeal  to  the  people 
almost  a  farce.  Often  violently  attacked  as 
fixing  to  the  life  of  Parliament  a  limit  too 
long  for  popular  freedom,  the  Septennial  Act 


{  932  ) 


has  neveiiheless  continued  law  up  to  the 
present  day,  although  reoent  usage  has  piac* 
tioally  reduced  the  length  of  Parliament  to  a 
imtximnin  of  SIX  years. 

t^^trg^Blnty  ^tts  a  peculiar  tenure,  the 
eaaence  of  which  was  a  **  peculiar  service  of 
special  duty  to  the  person  of  the  lord.*' 
'Hiere  were  two  sorts  of  sergeanty— (I)  grand 
sergeanty  {per  magmm  servitium),  sucli  as 
holding  an  estate  on  condition  of  acting  iu 
butler  or  chamberlain  at  the  royal  coronation, 
a  tenure  analogous  to  knight  service,  but 
esteemed  more  honourable,  and  not,  so  far  as 
the  form  goes,  abolished  in  1660;  and  (2) 
petit  sergeanty,  which  consisted  in  holding 
lands  of  the  kmg  by  the  service  of  rendering 
some  small  implement  of  war,  such  as  a  bow  or 
sword,  and  which  was  very  similar  to  free 
socage. 

SerilltfaMtaill,  The  Sieges  of.  (1)  On 
Feb.  5, 1762,  the  army  of  Lord  Comwallis,  con- 
sisting of  22,000  men,  forty-four  field-pieces, 
and  forty-two  siege  g^uns,  and  reinforced  by 
Mahratta  and  Mogul  contingents  from  Poonah 
and  Hyderabad,  reached  an  elevated  ground 
commanding  a  view  of  Soringapatam,  the 
capital  of  Tippoo*s  State  of  Mysore.  Its 
defences  were  three  lines  protected  by  300 
pieces  of  cannon,  the  earthwork  being  covered 
by  a  bound  hedge  of  thorny  plants  so  as  to  be 
absolutely  impenetrable.  Tippoo^s  force  was 
encamped  on  the  northern  side  of  the  stream 
in  a  position  admirably  fortified.  Lord  Com- 
wallis reconnoitred  on  the  6th,  and  that  same 
night  moved  his  army  to  the  assault  in  three 
main  divisions.  The  centre  moved  straight 
into  Tippoo's  camp ;  part  forced  its  way 
through  the  river,  and  seized  a  village  and 
the  guns  on  the  island;  part  attacked  the 
redoubts  within  the  camp;  while  the  reserve, 
gathering  up  the  other  divisions,  advanced 
under  Lord  Comwallis,  fighting  its  way 
through  Tippoo*8  army,  across  the  river 
to  the  islandl  Thus  in  the  morning  the 
TCngliab  had  gained  all  the  redoubts,  and 
established  themselves  in  the  island,  with  a 
loss  of  530  men ;  Tippoo's  loss  killed,  wounded, 
and  deserters  being  estimated  at  20,000. 
Tippoo  now  began  to  treat  insincerely.  On 
Feb.  16  General  Abercromby  and  the  Malabar 
umv  joined  Lord  Comwallis ;  the  operations 
of  the  siege  were  pushed  with  vigour,  and 
fifty  pieces  of  cannon  were  brought  to  bear 
on  the  fortifications.  Tippoo,  alarmed,  con- 
sented to  treat,  and  even  sent  his  sons  to 
Lord  Comwallis  as  hostages.  After  a  fresh 
dispute  over  the  cession  of  Coorg,  the  treaty 
of  peace  was  signed  (1792).  (2)  April  6, 1799. 
This  took  place  during  Lord  Wellesley's  cam- 
paign against  Mysore.  The  advanced  post  of 
General  Harris's  army  established  itself  within 
1,600  yards  of  the  fort  of  Seringapatam  on  the 
south,  west  side  of  the  river  and  fort.  The 
works  south  of  the  river  were  gi:adually  taken, 
and  batteries  established  on  the  north  and 


south  banks,  and  on  an  island  in  the  Ckverjr 
commanding  the  western  an^le  of  the  forL 
On  May  3  the  breach  was  pncticable 
The  troops  destined  for  the  aseanlt,  4,376  is 
number,  took  up  their  stations  in  the  trenches 
next  morning,  and  General  Baird  waa  selected 
to  lead  them.  At  one  o^dock  the  word  was 
given,  and,  in  spite  of  a  desperate  resistance, 
within  seven  minutes  the  British  ensign  wa.< 
floating  over  the  breach.  The  column  now 
wheeled  in  two  divisions,  to  the  left  and  right 
along  the  outer  ramparts,  exposed  to  a  rakmg 
fire  from  the  inner  circle.  The  right  rf**^!"*"** 
reached  the  east  or  M^re  gate,  and  storouxig 
the  inner  ramparts,  directed  a  flanking  fire  on 
the  defenders  of  the  enter  north  rampazt.  A 
general  stampede  followed,  and  in  Uie  flight 
Tippoo  was  slain.  Grenend  Baird  succeeded 
in  securing  the  £unily  of  Tippoo,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  search  for  the  dead  body  of  thi* 
Sultan,  of  whose  death  he  was  iniormed. 
Thus  in  the  space  of  a  few  hours  fell  thi? 
capital  of  Mysore,  though  garrisoned  bv 
20,000  troops,  defended  by  287  pieces  of  otd- 
nanoe,  and  provided  with  well-stoied  arsenal^ 
and  every  munition  of  war.  ''  On  the  4th 
of  May,"  says  Sir  John  Malcolm,  ''all  our 
labours  were  crowned  by  the  completest 
victoiy  that  ever  crowned  the  British  annab 
in  Lidia.  A  State  that  had  been  the  rival  of 
the  Company  for  nearly  thirty  years  was  on 
that  day  wholly  annihilated." 

WUkB,   Jf^pr«;     Hill,     Iiidta;    Comwallis. 

Berin^pataniy  The  Treaty  of  (Mar.  S. 
1792),  was  concluded  between  the  parties  i'> 
the  triple  idliance  of  1790  and  Tippoo.  Its 
stipulations  were  the  cession  of  the  old 
Mahratta  provinces  north  of  the  Tunga- 
buddra  to  the  Peishwa;  the  cession  to  the 
Nizam  of  Tippoo*8  provinces  north  of  XhaX 
river;  the  cession  to  the  English  of  the  districts 
of  Malabar,  Coorg,  Dindigul,  Baraniahal,  and 
Salem ;  and  the  restoration  of  the  Engli^i 
prisoners. 

ComvaUi's  Dtvpaiehn;  WOks,  Ifyaore. 

SessioiL,  The  Court  of,  the  highest  dril 
judicial  tribunal  in  Scotland,  was  institnted 
by  statute  of  James  Y.  in  1532.  Its  foncticms 
had  previously  been  discharged  by  the  Council 
and  a  committee  of  Parliament.  Its  original 
composition  included  fourteen  judges,  called 
Lords  of  Session,  and  a  president.  Besidf^ 
this  the  crown  could  appoint  three  or  four 
peers  as  assessors.  In  1808  the  oooit  wa» 
divided  into  two  courts  with  separate  juri^ 
diction,  called  the  first  and  second  divisions : 
the  former  presided  over  by  the  President, 
the  latter"  by  the  Lord  Justice  Clerk.  In 
1810  the  junior  judges  were  appoint<Hi  to  »t 
as  Lords  Ordinary  in  the  Outer  House.  In 
1830  the  number  of  judges  was  reduced 
to  thirteen,  and  the  quorum  was  also  reduced. 
An  appeal  lies  to  the  House  of  Lords. 


8«t 


(  983  ) 


8«t 


Satoily  LoBD,  was  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Catholic  party  in  Scotland  against  the 
teaching  of  Knox.  He  was  a  staunch  sup- 
porter of  Queen  Mary,  whom  he  entertained 
in  his  castle  in  Haddingtonshire  immediately 
after  Damley^s  murder.  He  was  one  of  the 
first  to  come  to  her  assistance  on  her  escape 
from  Lochleven  Castle  (1568). 

Sattlailieilty  Thb  Act  of,  or,  as  its  proper 
title  is,  the  "  Act  for  the  further  limitation  of 
the  crown  and  bettor  securing  the  rights  and 
liberties  of  the  subject,"  was  passed  in  the 
year  1700.     It  was  necessitated  by  the  un- 
timely death  of  the  young  Duke  of  Gloucester, 
Kon    of    the  Princess  Anno,  in    this    year. 
'*  There  was  no  question,**  says  Hallam,  **  that 
the  Princess  Sophia  was  the  fittest  object  of 
the  nation's  preference.     She  was  indeed  very 
far    removed    from    any    hereditary    title. 
Besides  the  pretended  Prince  of  Wales  and 
his  sister,  whose  legitimacy''  no  one  disputed, 
there  stood  in  her  way  the  Duchess  of  Savoy, 
diiughter  of  Henrietta,  Duchess  of  Orleans, 
and  several  members  of  the  Palatine  family.  .^ . 
According  to  the  tenor  and  intention  of  this 
statute,  all  prior  claims  of  inheritance,  save 
that  of  the  issue  of  King  William  and  the 
Princess  Anne,  being  set  aside  and  annulled, 
the  Princess  Sophia  became  the  source  of  a 
now  royal  line.     The  throne  of  England  and 
Ireland   stands   entailed  upon  the  heirs  of 
her  body,  being  Protestants  ....  Itwasde- 
tormined  to  accompany  this  settlement  with 
additional  securities  of  the  subject's  liberty. 
Ei/^ht  articles  were  therefore  inserted  in  the 
Act  of  Settlement,  to  take  effect  only  from 
the  commencement  of  the  new  limitation  of 
the  house  of  Hanover.**     These  eight  articles 
were,  however,  an  unreasonable  vote  of  censure 
oi   the   Tory  Parliament  which  passed  the 
Act,  on  many  of  the  Acts  of  the  reign  of 
William  III.    They  are :  (1)  That  whosoever 
shall  hereafter  come  to  the  possession  of  this 
crown   shall  join  in  communion    with    the 
Church  of  England  as  by  law  established ; 
(2)    That   in  case  the  crown   and  imperial 
dignity  of  this  realm  shall  hereafter  come  to 
finy  person  not  being  a  native  of  this  king- 
dom of  Cnghmd,  this  nation  be  not  obligeid 
to  engage  in  any  war  for  the  defence  of  any 
ioniinions  or  territories  which  do  not  belong 
to  the  crown  of  England,  without  the  consent 
}f  Parliament ;  (3)  That  no  person  who  shall 
icrcafter  come  to  the  possession  of  the  crown 
diall  go  oat  of  the  dominions  of  England, 
Scotland,  or  Ireland  without  the  consent  of 
Parliament ;  (4)  That  from  and  after  the  time 
:hat  further  limitation  of  this  Act  shall  take 
)ffpct,  all  matters  and  things  relating  to  the 
T^ell- governing  of  this  kingdom  which  are 
)roperly  cognisable  in  the  Privy  Council  by 
iie  laws  and  customs  of  this  realm  shall  be 
lansacted    there,  and  all  resolutions  taken 
.hereupon    shall  be  signed  by  such  of  the 
Privy  Council  as  shall  advise  and  consent  to 


the  same ;  (6^  That  ...  no  person  bora  out 
of  the  kingaoms  of  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland,  or  the  dominions  thereunto  belong- 
ing (though  he  be  naturalised  or  made  a 
denizen,  except  such  as  are  born  of  Engbsh 
parents),  shall  be  capable  to  be  of  the  Privy 
Council,  or  a  member  of  either  House  of 
Parliament,  or  to  enjoy  any  office  or  place  of 
trust,  either  civil  or  military,  or  to  have  any 
grants  of  lands  .   .  .  from  uie  crown  .    .  . ; 

(6)  That  no  person  who  has  an  office  or  place 
of  profit  under  the  king,  or  receives  a  pension 
from  the  crown,  shall  be  capable  of  serving 
as  a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons; 

(7)  That  .  .  «  judges*  commissions  shall  be 
made  guatndiu  »e  bene  geuerintj  and  their 
salaries  established  and  ascertained ;  but  upon 
the  address  of  both  Houses  of  Parliament  it 
may  be  lawful  to  remove  them ;  (8)  That  no 
pardon  under  the  Great  Seal  of  England  be 
pleadable  to  an  impeachment  by  the  Com- 
mons in  Parliament.  The  first  of  these  pro- 
visions needs  no  comment.  The  second  was 
frequently  called  in  question  during  the  reign 
of  George  II.,  in  regard  to  subsidiary  treaties 
for  the  defence  of  Hanover.  Certainly  if  a 
power  at  war  with  England  chose  to  consider 
that  Electorate  as  part  of  the  king's  do- 
minions it  ought  to  be  defended  from  attack. 
The  real  remedy — the  separation  of  Hanover 
from  England — was  effected  on  the  accession 
of  Victoria.  The  third  was  repealed  shortly 
after  the  accession  of  George  I.,  who  fre- 
quently abused  it  by  his  journeys  to 
Hanover.  The  next  articles  are  extremelv 
important.  The  fourth  is  a  reactionary 
measure,  being  an  attempt  to  suppress  the 
growth  of  the  cabinet  as  distinct  from  the 
Privy  Council,  which  became  more  fully 
established  in  the  reign  of  William  III.  The 
signature  of  the  privy  councillor  was  devised 
as  a  method  of  obviating  the  irresponsibility 
of  the  cabinet  minister.  [Cabinet.]  The 
article  is  also  a  protest  against  William's 
Partition  Treaty  [Spanish  Succbssion],  which 
was  concluded  by  the  instrumentality  of  Port- 
land and  Somcrs,  without  his  consulting 
even  the  cabinet.  It  was  repealed  in  1705. 
The  fifth  article  is  a  protest  against  Wil- 
liam*s  partiality  for  Portland  and  Albemarle. 
It  was  too  sweeping  in  its  application, 
although  it  had  a  beneficial  effect  in  tho 
reign  of  George  I.  It  was  afterwards  modi- 
fied, especially  with  regard  to  admission 
to  Parliament,  and  was  finally  repealed  by  7 
k  8  Vict.,  c.  66,  Mr.  Hutt's  Naturalisation 
Act.  The  next  article  was  a  most  short- 
sighted measure.  Had  it  continued  in  force, 
the  ministry  would  have  been  excluded 
from  Parliament:  that  is,  there  would  have 
been  a  complete  separation  between  the 
executive  and  legislative.  Hence  the  Com- 
mons, who  alone  can  grant  supplies,  would 
either  have  roused  the  people  to  subvert 
the  monarchy,  or  they  would  have  sunk 
to  the  condition  of  the  Estates-G^eral  of 


Set 


(  934  .) 


8«t 


France.  The  evU  of  the  influence  of  the 
crown  was  partially  remodiod  by  Place  Bills, 
but  more  affectively  by  limiting  the  royal 
rerenue.  The  article  was  revised  in  1705, 
when,  however,  the  following  provisions  were 
inserted :  That  any  member  of  the  Commons 
accepting  an  office  of  the  crown,  except  a  higher 
commission  in  the  army,  shall  vacate  his  seat, 
and  a  new  writ  shall  be  issued;  secondly, 
that  no  person  holding  an  office  created  since 
Oct.  25, 1705,  shall  be  capable  of  election  or  re- 
election. Parliament  excluded  at  the  same  time 
all  such  as  held  pensions  during  the  pleasure 
of  the  crown ;  and,  to  check  the  multitude  of 
placemen,  enacted  that  the  numbers  of  com- 
missioners appointed  to  execute  any  office 
should  not  be  increased.  The  efficacy  of  the 
seventh  clause  was  increased  by  the  exclusion 
of  judges  from  Parliament. 

12  A  13  WiU.  III.,  c.  2;  StatuUs  Revised,  il 
93;  Hallam,  Con^.  Hist,  c.  zv. 

[L.  C.  S.] 

Settlementy  The  Act  of  (1652^,  was  the 
Cromwellian  measure  for  the  Settlement  of 
Ireland.  The  following  were  its  chief  pro- 
visions : — (1)  A  free  pardon  was  granted  to  all 
whose  estates  did  not  exceed  £10  in  annual 
value.  (2)  All  the  land  in  Ulster,  Munster, 
Leinster  was  declared  confiscated.  (3)  The 
Irish  proprietors  in  these  three  provinces 
were  divided  into  three  classes :  {a)  All  rebels 
before  Nov.  10th,  1642,  all  who  sat  in 
the  Kilkenny  Council  before  May,  1643, 
all  the  leaders  mentioned  by  name,  and  all 
concerned  in  the  massacre  of  1641,  to  lose 
their  lives  and  estates ;  (b)  All  other  persons, 
who  fought  against  the  Parliament,  to  lose 
two-thirds  of  their  estates ;  {e)  All  persons 
who  had  resided  in  Ireland  between  1641  and 
1650,  and  who  had  not  served  with  the  Par- 
liamentary forces  since  1649,  to  lose  one-third 
of  their  estates.  An  Act  of  the  Little  Parlia- 
ment in  1653,  however,  declared  that  those  pro- 
prietors who  were  to  get  part  of  their  estates 
restored  to  them,  must  accept  equivalents  in 
Connaught  and  Clare.  (4)  The  greater  part  of 
the  forfeited  lands  was  then  set  apart  in  equal 
shares  to  satisfy  the  claims  cf  the  adventurers 
and  of  the  Puritan  soldiery,  the  counties  of 
Dublin,  Cork,  Kildare,  and  Carlow  being  re- 
served for  the  future  disposal  of  Parliament. 
The  soldiers  were  to  be  kept  together  in 
regiments ;  but  the  designs  of  the  Protector 
in  this  direction  were  frustrated  by  the  sol- 
diers themselves,  who  sold  their  lands  to 
speculators  like  Sir  W.  Petty,  before  the 
allotment.  Mr.  Leek}'  says  of  the  Cromwellian 
Settlement,  *'  It  is  the  foimdation  of  that  deep 
and  lasting  aversion  between  the  proprietary 
and  the  tenants,  which  is  the  chief  cause  of 
the  political  and  social  evils  of  Ireland." 

Prendergast,  The  CromiceUian  Settlement; Carte, 
OrmoncU ;  Froude,  EngU»h  in  Ireland. 

Sottlamailt,  The  Act  of  ( 1 4  &  1 5  Charles 
II.-*-1662),  was  passed  in  the  second  session  of 


Charles  II.*sfirst  Irish  Parliament, andms sub- 
stantially based  on  the  Declaration  of  1666. 
It  declared  that  innocent  Irish  were  to  regain 
their  estates,  while  the  Cromwellian  and  (^€r 
settlers  also  had  their  land  confirmed  to  them. 
It  was  found  that  there  was  not  enoogh  Itoi 
in  Ireland  to  satisfy  all.  Ever}'thuig  de- 
pended on  the  construction  of  the  irord 
"innocent"  by  the  Court  of  Claims.  The 
term  innocent  was  not  to  include  anyoof 
who  had  been  on  the  rebel  side,  or  evec 
resided  within  their  lines  before  the  cessatkn 
nor  anyone  who  had  sided  with  Rinuccini 
against  Ormonde.  Yet,  despite  this  not  ten 
liberal  construction,  too  much  land  w 
restored  by  that  court  to  the  natives,  and  it 
was  found  necessary  in  1665  to  pass  a  second 
Act,  the  Act  of  Settlement  and  Explanstioii 

Fronde,  Bnglith  in  IrOemi  ;   Carte,  Ormftkir, 
Stottttcg. 

Settleiiiaut  aad  Bxplmiation,  'Tn 

Act  of  (17  &  18  Charles  II.  — 1665),  became 
necessary,  owing  to  the  action  of  the  Cooit 
of  Claims  and  its  construction  of  the  KfA 
of  Settlement  in  favour  of  the  natives.  Ia 
accordance  with  the  new  Act,  adventurers  lo^ 
soldiers  were  to  content  themselves  with  two- 
thirds  of  what  belonged  to  them;  Catholics 
were  to  make  good  tiheir  claims  as  innocent 
within  the  year.  All  doubtful  cases  were  to 
be  construed  in  favour  of  Protestants,  and 
some  twenty  persons  were  to  be  restored 
to  their  estates  by  special  favour,  and  at 
once.  The  result  of  this  Act,  thus  avowedl)r 
designed  to  protect  the  Protestant  interest,  aid 
especially  of  the  second  clause,  was  to  depiirt^ 
3,000  CathoHcs  of  all  their  rights  without  a 
trial.  The  result  of  the  Act,  when  canied 
out,  was  to  leave  but  one-third  instead  of  tvo- 
thirds  of  the  good  land  in  Ireland  in  Catho]i<* 
hands.  An  attempt  at  inquiry  into  the  woit- 
ing  of  this  Act  in  1670  had  to  be  given  up  is 
deference  to  the  English  Parliament. 

Carte,  Ormonde;  Fronde.  Englitk  w  If«Jo«i 
Leoky,  Htst.  of  the  EighXeenik  Cenhiry. 

Settlement  of  India*  Thb  Act  m 

THE  (or,  as  it  is  more  correcuy  called,  "Tb 
Act  for  the  better  Government  of  India";, 
became  law  in  1858  after  vigorous  debates « 
Lord  John  Russell's  resolutions,  upon  wbH 
it  was  based,  and  a  strong  protest  from  the 
directors  of  the  East  India  Company.  It 
provided  that  all  the  territories  prenoialy 
under  the  government  of  the  Company  weif 
to  be  vested  in  the  Queen,  who  was  to  govas 
through  one  of  the  principal  secretaries  of 
state,  assisted  by  a  council  of  fifteen,  of  who© 
seven  were  to  be  elected  by  the  conit  » 
directors  and  eight  nominated  by  the  cro«^ 
After  a  certain  time  the  right  of  the  directo* 
to  appoint  members  was  to  be  transferred  to 
the  secretary'  of  state.  The  GovTemor-G«ia«j 
received  the  new  title  of  Viceroy.  The  drn 
ser>ice  was  made  competitive,  the  mihtarv 
forces    were   amalgamated  with   the   royi^ 


(  936  ) 


8«v 


service,  and  the  navy  aboliBhed.  It  was  also 
provided  that  Indian  revenues  should  not  be 
applied  towards  defraying  the  cost  of  an 
extra-fit)ntier  military  expedition  without  the 
consent  of  Parliament  [India.] 
Act  21  3(22  Vict,  o.  106. 

Seven  BisbopSf  The,  were  Archbishop 
Bancroft  of  Canterbury,  Bishops  Ken  of  Bath 
and  Wdls,  White  of  Peterborough,  Lloyd  of 
St  Asaph,  TreUwney   of  Bristol,   Lake   of 
Chichester,  and  Turner  of  Ely.    They  drew 
up  at  Lambeth  a  petition  against  James  II.'s 
n^iuiring  the  clergy  to  read  his  Declaration 
of  Indulgence  during  divine  service  in  their 
churches  (May,  1687).    Arrested  and  accused 
of  publishing  a  seditious   libel,   thoy  were 
tried  before  venal  judges  and  a  packea  jury. 
Hut  on  June  30  they  were  acquitted  in  the 
midst  of  great  ^pular  rejoicings.    The  very 
same  day  an  invitation  to  invade  England  was 
sent  to  the  Prince  of  Orange.    It  is  remark- 
able that  the  Seven  Bishops  were  such  strong 
Tories  and  High  Churchmen,  that  the  majority 
of  them,  including  Sancroft  and  Ken,  became 
^  on- jurors. 

Macaular,  Hi$t.  of  Bng.;  Burnet,  Hitt.  qf 
hU  Own  Tim$;  StrioUand,  Lwm  of  the  Seven 
Bishopo. 

Seven  Earls,  Thb,  were  dignitaries  of 

early  mediaeval  Scotland.    The  appearance  of 

the  term  earl  as  a  title,  and  of  the  Seven  Earls 

as  representing  yarious  parts  of  the  country 

in.  the  council  of  the  kingdom,  begins  with 

the  rei^n  of  Alexander  I.    The  same  officiids 

had,  if  Celts,  been  previously  styled  mormaers; 

if  Norsemen,  jarls.    The  appearance  of  the 

8oven  Earls  is  an  important  step  in  thefeuda- 

lis&tiotk  of  Scotland,  and  in  the  AngUcisation 

of  the  northern  districts.    Under  Alexander 

II.  the  Seven  Earls  appear  as  a  recognised 

constitutional  body,  and  then  includ^  the 

Karls    of  Fife,  Stratheame,  Athole,  Angus, 

Menteith,  Buchan,  and  Lothian,  but  the  Usts 

vary    at    different   times.     The  Seven  Earls 

claimed  of  Edward  I.  the  right  of  constituting 

and  appointing  the  king.      But  at  lekst  as 

CMirly  afl  this  their  functions  were  extended  to 

the  Estates,  and  the  creation  of  additional 

earldoms  put  an  end  to  the  Seven  Earls. 

Skene,  Celtic  Scotland,  vol.  iii. 

Seven  Tears' War,  The  (1756—1763), 
•wtLB  caused  by  the  alarm  entertained  by  the 
Continental  powers  of  Europe  at  the  aggres- 
sive dosig^ns  of  Fi'ederick  the  Great,  and  by 
the   desire  of  Maria  Theresa  to  recover  the 
province  of  Silesia  from  the  King  of  Prussia. 
Austria  -wsls  readily  joined  by  Louis  XV.  of 
France,  the  Czarina  Elizabeth,  and  the  King 
of  Poland,  who  was  also  Elector  of  Saxony ; 
whi  le  fVedcrick  obtained  promises  of  assistance 
from  BSng-land—  which  was  nervously  afraid  of 
isolation,  and  was  already  at  war  with  France  in 
the  colonies — besides  some  money,  and  an  army 
in  l£axiover.  Throughout  the  Continental  war, 


however,  the  British  troops  played  a  secondaiy 
part.  The  first  campaign  was  a  groat  triumph 
for  Frederick.  Assuming  the  offensive,  he 
overran  Saxony,  defeated  the  Austrians,  who 
were  advancing  to  its  relief  at  Lobositis,  and 
compelled  the  Saxon  army  to  surrender.  In 
1757  the  attention  of  Frederick  was  at  first 
confined  to  Bohemia,  which  he  invaded;  he 
invested  the  Imperialists  in  Prague,  until 
Marshal  Daun  defeated  him  decisively  at 
Kolin  in  June,  and  compelled  him  to  evacuate 
the  country.  Meanwhile,  in  Hanover,  the 
English-Hanoverian  army,  under  the  Duke  of 
Cumberland,  was  opposed  to  the  French  under 
Marshal  d'Estrees.  After  allowing  the  French 
to  cross  the  Weser,  he  was  utterly  defeated  at 
Hastenbeck  ^July  26),  and  compelled  to 
capitulate  unoer  the  Convention  of  Kloster- 
Seven.  This  arrangement,  however,  was 
repudiated  by  the  British  government,  and 
the  defeated  army  placed  under  Ferdinand  of 
Brunswick,  who  drove  back  the  French  on 
that  side.  Aided  by  this  timely  diversion, 
Frederick  succeeded  in  making  head  against 
the  coalition,  the  Imperialists  being  routed  at 
Bossbach  in  November,  and  Silesia  reoccupied 
after  the  victory  of  Leuthen.  The  sudden 
withdrawal  of  the  Russians  from  the  cam- 
paign, owing  to  the  illness  of  the  Czarina, 
set  the  Prussians  who  had  been  employed 
against  them  free  to  chastise  the  Swedes,  who 
had  joined  the  allies  in  this  year.  At  the 
same  time  dive  in  India  had  won  the  great 
victory  of  Plaasey  over  the  French.  The  next 
campaign  Q758)  was  one  of  considerable 
changes  of  fortune.  Ferdinand  of  Bruns-wick, 
after  defeating  the  French  at  Crefeld  in 
June,  retired  before  Marshal  Contades, 
only  to  advance  again  and  drive  the  enemy 
belund  the  lUiine.  On  his  side  Frederick 
was  driven  out  of  Moravia,  but  won  a  bril- 
liant victory  over  the  Russians  at  2k)mdorf ; 
and  though  defeated  by  Daun  with  loss,  at 
Hofkirchen,  ho  managed  before  the  end  of 
the  year  to  free  Saxony  and  Silesia  from  the 
enemy.  Meanwhile  the  English  had  taken 
Louisburg  and  Fort  Duquosno  in  America, 
and  made  successful  descents  upon  Cherbourg 
and  St.  Male.  In  1759  the  cfl'oils  of  Frede- 
rick were  on  the  whole  unfortimate.  Tho 
battle  of  Kunersdorf,  at  first  a  victory,  was 
converted  into  a  crushing  defeat  by  the 
approach  of  Marshal  Loudon :  his  general. 
Fink,  surrendered  in  November,  and  at 
the  end  of  the  year  Saxony  and  Lusatia 
were  occupied  by  tbo  Austrians.  Ferdinand 
of  Brunswick,  however,  though  frustrated 
in  an  attempt  to  recover  Frankfort,  won 
a  g^reat  victoir  at  Minden  on  Aug.  1,  over 
Contades  and  Broglie,  and  aided  by  tho  ^-ic- 
tory  of  his  relative  the  hereditary  Prince  of 
Brunswick,  on  the  same  day,  succeeded  in 
clearing  Westphalia  of  tho  enemy.  At  the 
same  time  the  resources  of  tho  French  wore 
being  weakened  by  the  English  successes 
in   tho   East  and  West,  by  the  capture  of 


8#v 


(  936  ) 


«V 


Uuebec  in  September,  by  the  yictories  of 
Boscawen  at  Lagos,  and  of  Hawke  at  Qui- 
beron,  and  by  the  sucoesses  of  Coote  in  India, 
which  terminated  with  the  battle  of  Wande- 
wash.  In  1760  the  English  subsidy  alone 
enabled  Frederick  to  resist  his  encircling 
enemies.  Berlin  was  occupied  by  the  Rus- 
sians in  October,  and  though  by  the  brilliant 
victory  of  Liegnitz  in  August,  Silesia  had 
been  partially  recovered,  they  came  up  again 
in  November,  and  the  fearful  battle  of  Torgau 
only  just  saved  Prussia  from  destruction. 
It  was  followed  by  the  retirement  of  the  allies 
on  all  sides.  Soon  after  the  death  of  Greorge 
II.  all  subsidies  from  England  ceased,  and  so 
exhausted  were  both  sides,  that  no  operations 
of  particular  moment  were  undertaken.  On 
the  Bhine,  Ferdinand  of  Brunswick  and  the 
French  alternately  advanced  and  retreated,  and 
the  Russians  and  Austrians  were  unable  to 
rrush  Frederick's  remnant  of  an  army,  owing 
to  the  desolation  of  the  countr}\  A  double 
series  of  negotiations  had  already  begun, 
those  between  England  and  France,  and  those 
between  Russia  and  Austria  on  the  one  side, 
and  Prussia  on  the  other.  Tho  former,  in 
Hpite  of  the  opposition  of  Pitt  and  the  outbreak 
of  tile  war  with  Spain,  ripened  into  the 
Treaty  of  Paris  (q.v.)  of  1 763.  The  latter  were 
broken  off  by  Austria,  and  the  war  was  re- 
sumed. The  death  of  the  Czarina  Elizabeth, 
in  Jan.,  1762,  however,  totally  changed  tho 
balance  of  affairs,  and  Maria  Theresa,  thus 
Ic^ft  alone,  was  compelled  to  conclude  the 
Peace  of  Hubertsburg  in  1763,  by  which 
tVederick  retained  Silesia.  The  war,  there- 
fore, had  effected  but  little  change  in  Europe ; 
but  it  had  settled  the  question  of  the  rivalry 
of  England  and  France  in  America  and  India, 
decisively  in  favour  of  this  country. 

Carlyle.  f  recUrtdb  the  Qnat ;  Martin,  Higf.  of 
France;  Ameth,  if  aria  IW«ia;  Brackenbury, 
Frederick  the  Great;  Lecky,  HwC.  o/Eng.;  Stan- 
hope, Hiet.  o/Eng.;  Seeley,  TheEzpaneion  cfEng. 

Sevenui,  L.  Septimius,  Roman  Emperor 
(193 — 211),  is  famous  in  British  history  for 
his  expedition  to  Britain  in  208,  his  subdivi- 
sion of  the  island  into  two  provinces,  his 
building  the  wall  which  goes  by  his  name 
between  the  Solway  Firth  and  the  TjTie, 
following  the  line  of  the  vallum  of  Hadrian. 
Soon  after  he  died  at  York  (211). 

Seville,  The  Treaty  op  (Nov.  9,  1729), 
settled  for  awhile  the  difficulties  which  had 
l)een  raised  in  Europe  by  the  intrigues  of 
the  Spanish  minister,  Don  Ripperda,  in  op- 
position to  the  Quadruple  Alliance.  The 
question  most  difficult  to  arrange  was  that  of 
the  cession  of  Gibraltar.  This  possession  the 
ministry  were  not  unwilling  to  surrender, 
provide  an  equivalent  was  given,  but  feared 
opposition  from  the  nation,  which  ^*as 
violently  ag^itated  on  the  subject,  owing  to 
the  publication  of  a  letter  of  Georgo  I.,  in 
which  it  had  been  vaguely  pi-omised.      The 


government  therefore  sent  William  Stanhope 
to  Spain,  who  succeeded  in  concluding  the 
treaty.  He  was  aided  by  French  mediaticm. 
It  was  a  defensive  alliance  between  Eng- 
land, Spain,  and  France,  and  subseqaently 
Holland.  Spain  revoked  all  the  privileges 
granted  to  Austrian  subjects  by  the  treaties 
of  Vienna,  re-established  English  trade  in 
America  on  its  former  footing,  and  restored 
all  captures.  The  Assiento  was  confirmed  to 
the  South  Sea  Company,  and  arrangements 
were  made  for  securing  the  succession  of  Piinna 
and  Tuscany  to  the  infant  Don  Carios,  by 
substituting  Spanish  troops  for  the  neutnl 
forces,  which  since  the  preliminaries  had  been 
occupying  those  countries.  Gibraltar  vas 
not  mentioned  in  the  treaty,  and  this  alcnn 
was  regarded  as  a  renunciation  of  the  claims 
of  Spain.  "  The  Xcaatyunf  Seville,''  sap  Mr. 
Lecky,  "  has  been  justly  regarded  as  one  of 
the  great  triumphs  of  Fr«i<^  dtiplomacv.  It 
clos^  the  breach  which  h^d  long  divided  thf 
courts  of  France  and  o^^ Spain,  and,  at  tfat 
same  time,  it  detaplnsa  botii  England  and 
Spain  from  the  Eslperor,  and  left  Imn  isolated 
in  Europe.  He  zesented  it  bitterly,  prote^itin; 
against  the  introduction  of  Spanish  troops  into 
Italy  as  a  violation^f  the  Quadruple  Allianct. 
thxmtened  to  resist  it  by  force,  and  delaye<i 
the  execution  of  this  part  of  the  treaty  daring 
the  whole  of  1730." 

Stanhope,  Hist,  c/Eng.,  ch.  stii. ;  Goxe,  S|M«uik 
Bourhone  ;  Koch  and  Schoell,  Traits  de  Poix. 

Sezlmrli,  Queen  of  Wessex  (672),  mc- 
ceeded  on  the  death  of  her  husband  Cenwealh. 
and  reigned  one  year.  She  is  reinarkaU<- 
as  affoxding  the  sole  instance  of  a  womso 
obtaining  &e  crown  in  Anglo-Saxon  tirot^. 
William  of  Malmesbuiy  says  of  her,  "  ^he 
ruled  her  subjects  with  moderation,  and  over* 
awed  her  enemies ;  in  short,  she  conducted  ail 
things  in  such  a  manner  that  no  difference  vi^ 
discernible,  except  that  of  her  sex."  [Quees] 
Anglo-Saxcfti  Chron, ;  William  of  Hahnrsbaj' 

SayoheUeSy  Thb,  are  a  gproup  of  islands 
in  the  Indian  Ocean,  which  were  formerly  in 
the  possession  of  the  Portuguese  and  French- 
On  Uie  acquisition  of  Mauritius  by  the  English 
in  1810,  the  Seychelles  were  made  a  dejM'u* 
dency  of  that  colony,  together  with  the  i^n<I 
of  Rodriguez. 

BejJUOXa,  SiK  Edward  [b.  1633,  d.  ITOS;. 
a  descendant  in  the  elder  line  of  the  LonI 
Protector  Somerset,  was  a  strong  Tory.  He 
was  made  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Common^ 
in  1673 ;  he  was  subsequently  created  Prin 
Councillor  and  Treasurer  of  the  Navy.  Hf 
opposed  the  Exclusion  Bill,  but  soon  after 
the  accession  of  James  11.  spoke  against  tht> 
abrogation  of  the  charters  of  towns,  and  aJi^) 
against  the  maintenance  of  a  standing  army. 
He  joined  the  Prince  of  Orange,  and  «»» 
left  in  command  at  Exeter.  In  the  Con- 
vention he  would  have  be«i  chosen  Spcalf<?r 


8ey 


(  987  ) 


Slia 


had  he  not  voted  for  a  regency.  However, 
he  took  the  oath  of  allegiance,  and  in  1692 
he  was  placed  on  the  Treasury  Commission, 
when  he  soon  quarrelled  with  his  colleagues 
on  questions  of  precedence,  and  in  1694 
was  dismissed  from  office.  In  1697,  exasper- 
ated at  not  being  appmnted  Speaker,  he 
made  a  violent  speech  on  the  election  of 
Littleton,  and  went  beyond  the  bounds  of 
moderation  in  his  persecution  of  an  officer 
named  Kirke,  who  had  slain  his  eldest  son  in 
a  duel.  In  Queen  Anne's  reign  he  was  made 
Comptroller  ot  the  Palace.  He  was  dismissed 
from  office  in  1704  for  his  opposition  to  the 
war  with  I<Vance.  Seymour  was  a  man  of 
great  influence,  wealth,  and  debating  power, 
but  he  was  a  shifty  politician,  and  his  private 
character  was  bad. 

Hacaular,  HUt,  of  Eng.;    Burnet,  Hut   of 
Hi*  Own  Ttme, 

Seymour,  Jane.    [Afpkndix.] 

Bejiaoxa^  of  Sudblet,  Thomas  Loan 

{d.  1549),  brouer  of  Protector  Somerset,  was 

a  man  of  g^reat  ambition,  uimrincipled  in  the 

attainment  of  his  ends.    Made  a  peer  and 

Lord  High  Admiral  of  England  by  his  brother, 

he  shortly  afterwards  married  Catherine  Parr, 

the  queen  dowager,  and  utilised  his  improved 

position  to  set  the  young  king  against  his 

brother,  of  whose  power  he  was  envious.    He 

nought  allies  even  among  the  debasers  of  the 

:x)inage  and  the  pirates  in  the  channel.    He 

Pormed  a  plot  to  carry  ofE  Edward,  and  to  drive 

lis  brother  from  the  protectorship,  but  his 

>]an  was  betrayed  and  Seymour  was  bribed  to 

emain  quiet.     On  the  death  of  Catherine 

he  admiral  endeavoured  without  success  to 

btain  the  hand  of  the  Princess  Elizabeth, 

nd  formed  fresh  plans  of  violence  against 

is  brother.    At  the  end  of  1548  Seymour's 

rococdings  became  so  threatening  that  he 

as  arrested  and  sent  to  the  Tower,  attainted 

*   high  treason,  and  executed,   March  27, 

')49.      **He  was,"  says    Mr.   HaUam,   "a 

tngerous  and  unprincipled    man;  he  had 

urted   the  favour  of  the  young  king  by 

lall  presents  of  money,  and  appears  beyond 

icstion  to  have  entertained  a  hope  of  marry- 

^  the   Princess  Elizabeth,   who  had  lived 

ich   in  his  house  during  his  short  union 

th  the  queen   dowager.    It  was  surmised 

it   this  lady  had  bec-n   poisoned  to  make 

>m  for   a  still  nobler  consort."     Latimer 

d  of   him  that  "  the  admiral  was  a  man 

thcst  from  the  fear  of  Grod  that  ever  he 

3W  or  heard  of  in  England." 

Stowe,    AnnaU ;    Fronde,    Hi$t.    of    Biig,  i 
Hallam,  Const  Hitt. 

Ihttfbeslnunr,  Anthony  Ashley  Coopeb, 
9Jj  OF  (b.  1621,  d.  1683),  was  the  son  of 
John  Cooper  and  Anne,  daughter  of  Sir 
;hony  Ashley.   He  was  educated  at  Oxford, 

in  1 640  entered  Parliament.  At  first  he 
>ii8ed.  the  cause  of  the  king,  and  on  the 
liTBak  of  the  Civil  War  he  was  placed  in 

Hi»T.— 30» 


command  of  Weymouth,  l)ut  being  superseded 
in  this  office  ho  went  over  to  the  Parliament, 
by  whom  he  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
forces  in  Dorsetshire.  He  sat  in  the  fiarebones 
and  the  first  Protectorate  Parliaments,  but 
subsequently  had  some  quarrel  with  Cromwell, 
and  was  excluded  from  the  Parliament  of  1656. 
He  was  a  member  of  Richard  Cromwell's 
Parliament,  and  on  the  restoration  of  the 
Long  Parliament  he  was  made  one  of  the 
Council  of  State.  He  was  one  of  the  deputa- 
tion sent  over  to  the  Hague  to  invite  Charles 
II.  to  return,  and  was  elected  to  the  Conven- 
tion Parliament.  In  1660  he  was  made 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  and  in  the  next 
year  was^  created  Lord  Aahley.  In  1667  the 
Cabal  ministry,  of  which  he  was  a  promi- 
nent member,  was  formed,  and  in  1672  he 
was  made  Earl  of  Shaftesbury  and  Lord 
Chancellor.  All  the  wrong-doings  of  th(i 
Cabal  ministry  have  been  attributed  to  him, 
but  it  is  now  clearly  proved  that  he  had  no 
share  in  advising  the  closing  of  the  Exchequer, 
while  in  foreign  pob'cy  his  wish  seems  to 
have  been  to  preserve  the  Triple  Alliance. 
The  last  lay  lord  chancellor,  as  a  judge,  atoned 
for  want  of  knowledge  of  law  by  great  impai- 
tiality  and  acumen.  The  passing  of  the  Test 
Act  occasioned  the  downfall  of  the  Cabal  ad- 
ministration in  1673,  and  Shaftesbur}'  at  once 
joined  the  opposition  and  commenced  in- 
trigues with  Monmouth.  In  1677  he  brought 
himself  into  collision  with  the  crown  on  the 
question  of  the  prorogation  of  Parliament. 
He  was  in  consequence  sent  to  the  Tower, 
and  remained  there  for  twelve  months.  Tht* 
year  1678  is  memorable  for  the  pretended 
i^opish  Plot,  of  which  Shaftesbury  has  been 
accused  of  being  the  inventor,  and  whether 
this  be  so  or  no,  he  was  certainly  one  of  the 
chief  supporters  of  the  violent  attack  upon 
the  Catholics,  and  especially  upon  the  Duke 
of  York.  In  1679  he  was  made  President  of 
the  Council,  devised  by  Temple  for  carr}'ing 
on  the  government,  but  only  held  office  for 
six  months,  his  strong  support  of  the  Ex- 
clusion Bill  rendering  him  objectionable  to 
the  king.  It  was  during  this  brief  tenui-e 
of  office  that  he  got  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act 
(q.v.)  passed,  which  was  generally  known  at 
the  time  as  Lord  Shaftesbury's  Act.  In  1680 
he  made  an  attempt  to  impeach  the  Duke  of 
York  as  a  Popish  recusant,  but  he  was  foilcnl 
by  the  judges  suddenly  dismissing  the  grand 
jury.  In  1681  he  attended  the  Osdord  Parlia- 
ment with  a  large  body  of  followers,  many  of 
whom  were  armed;  and  this  violence,  to- 
gether with  the  palpable  lies  disseminated 
by  Oates  and  other  informers,  did  much  to 
destroy  his  influence,  and  Charles  committed 
him  to  the  Tower.  He  was  indicted  for  high 
treason,  but  the  grand  jury  ignored  the  bill, 
and  he  was  released.  He  now  plotted  with 
Sydney,  Kussoll,  and  others  to  effect  a  change 
of  government,  probably  desiring  to  place 
Monmouth  on  the  throne ;  but  the  conspiracy 


ttha 


(  938  ) 


ShA 


'bang  discovered,  he  fled  to  Holland  in  No- 
vember, 1682,  where  he  died  two  months  after. 
Shaftesbury  is  the  Achitophel  of  Dryden*s 
satire,  where  he  is  thus  described — 

*'  For  oloM  dedlgos  and  crooked  oouiflels  fit, 
Sagacious,  bold,  and  turbulent  of  wit ; 
Bestlees,  unfixed  in  principles  and  plaoe, 
In  power  displeased,  impatient  of  di8grao&" 

Macaulay  practically  accepts  Dryden's  cha- 
racter, but  Kanke  considers  that  ohaftesbury 
logically  followed  the  principle  of  toleration 
all  through  his  life. 

Christie,  Life  of  Shafle9hury;  Banke,  Hist,  of 
Eng.;  Macaulaj,  Hut.  of  Eng,       [F.  8.  P.] 

Shaftosbuzyy  A.  A.  Coopbb,  7th  Earl 

OF.     [Appendix.  J 

Shah.  Scxif  ah  was  the  brother  of  Zcmaun 
Shah,  King  of  Cabul,  whom  he  succeeded  in 
1802.  In  1808  Mr.  Elphinstone  was  sent  by 
Lord  Minto  to  negotiate  a  treaty  of  defence 
with  Shah  Soojah.  During  the  negotiations 
an  expedition  which  ho  had  sent  to  recover 
Cashmere  was  defeated,  and  his  brother  Mah- 
mood  took  advantage  of  this  to  seize  Cabul 
and  Candahar,  and  threaten  Feshawur,  Shah 
Soojah's  capital.  Shah  Soojah  thereupon 
solicited  help  from  the  EngUsh.  In  1810, 
however,  he  was  totally  defeated  by  his  rival, 
and  fled  across  the  Indus.  After  remaining 
some  time  in  captivity  in  Cashmere,  he  sought 
refuge  with  Rimjeet  Singh,  who  subjected  Mm 
to  cruelties  in  order  to  obtain  the  Koh-i-noor 
from  him.  He  succeeded  at  length  in  escaping 
in  disguise  to  Loodiana,  where  the  British  go- 
vernment allowed  him  a  pension  of  50,000 
rupees  a  year.  In  1833  he  was  encouraged  by 
the  treachery  of  Dost  Mahomed's  brothers  to 
make  an  effort;  to  reco  ver  his  throne.  He  in  vain 
asked  help  of  the  English.  He  thereupon  con- 
cluded a  treaty  with  Runjeet  Singh,  guarantee- 
ing him  all  his  conquests  beyond  the  Indus  on 
condition  of  his  support.  He  marched  success- 
fully through  Scinde  to  Candahar,  whero  he  was 
attacked  and  utterly  beaten  by  Dost  Mahomed. 
In  July,  1834,  he  fled  to  Beloochistan,  and  in 
March,  1835,  he  returned  to  Loodiana.  In 
1838,  on  the  failure  of  the  mission  to  Cabul, 
a  triple  alliance  was  concluded  between  the 
English,  RuDJeet^and  Shah  Soojah,  for  the 
deposition  of  Dost  Mahomed,  and  the  re-es- 
tablishment of  the  Shah,  on  the  condition  that 
the  possessions  of  Runjeet  across  the  Indus 
were  guaranteed.  The  Shah,  however,  had 
no  desire  to  be  carried  into  Cabul  bv  British 
bayonets.  All  he  wanted  was  British  gold. 
Therefore  he  did  not  contemplate  the 
Afghan  expedition  (q.v.).  On  April  26, 1839, 
he  entered  Cabul  unopposed.  In  1840  he  es- 
tablished the  order  of  the  Dooranee  empire 
to  decorate  his  English  supporters  with. 
During  his  residence  at  Cabul  he  insisted 
that  the  Bala  Hissar,  the  citadel,  in  which  he 
had  placed  his  zenana,  should  not  be  profaned 
by  English  troops,  and  thus  it  was  left  de- 
fenceless.     He  was    thoroughly   unpopular, 


owing  to  the  cessions  to  Runjeet  Singii,  aad 
was  merely  supported  by  British  bayonets. 
In  1842  Uie  la!st  survivor  of  the  English 
garrison  at  Cabul  reached  Jellalabad.  Sbak 
Soojah  still  remained  ostensibly  head  of  the 
Afghan  government,  continuing  to  occupy  the 
Bala  Hissar.  He  endeavoured  to  keep  fnendly 
both  with  the  English  by  professing  unaUeifil 
attachment,  and  with  the  chiefs  by  profeasmg 
devotion  to  the  national  cause.  The  latter 
distrusted  him,  and  desired  him  to  prove  his 
sincerity  by  heading  the  army  destined  to 
expel  Greneral  Sale  from  JeUallabad.  Od 
April  5,  1842,  after  an  oath  of  safe-conduct 
from  Zemaun  Khan,  he  descended  from  the 
citadel  decked  out  in  all  the  insignia  of  royalty, 
and  was  shot  dead  by  a  body  of  matchlork 
men  whom  Zemaun  Khan's  son  had  placed  in 
ambush  without  his  father's  knowledge. 

Kaye,  JJfghan  War;  Abbott,  Affghn  ITcr. 

ShanilOlLy  Hbnbt  Botlb,  Eajil  of,  w 
for  twenty-five  years  Speaker  of  the  Iii^ 
House  of  Commons  (from  1733  to  17o6l 
He  was  the  chief  leader  of  the  IrL^h 
patriot  party,  and  practically  comnuuided  a 
majority  in  the  House.  He  at  fiist  took  the 
leaa  against  the  government  in  the  inqoiiy 
into  the  pension  list,  but  was  bought  off  by 
being  elevated  to  the  peerage,  and  by  the 
grant  of  a  pension  of  £2,000  per  year.  He 
died  in  1764,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  ioo 
Richard  as  second  earl. 

Shaimon.  Richard  Botlb,  2hd  E.ibl, 
married  the  daughter  of  Speaker  PonmnbT. 
and  in  dose  union  with  him  endeavonnd  to 
control  the  Castle.  In  1770  he  lost  his  office 
at  the  head  of  the  ordnance  department,  bat 
in  1 772  the  Castle  again  made  terms  with  him. 
He  was  enormously  rich  and  an  excellent 
landlord.  He  died  in  1807.  The  Earls  d 
Shannon,  together  with  the  Ponflonbys,  Ber»- 
fords,  and  the  Duke  of  Leinster,  were  tbr 
real  rulers  of  the  Irish  Parliament  during  the 
greater  part  of  Oeorge  IIL's  reign. 

SlLaarington,  Sm  William,  was  mast^ 
of  the  Mint  at  Bristol,  and  one  of  the  paity  a 
Lord  Seymour  of  Sndeley  (q.v.),  for  ▼!«« 
service  he  coined  £100,000  of  base  money. 
He  was  arrested  in  Feb.,  1549,  and  attainlal 
the  same  time  as  Seymour,  though  he  BobA> 
quently  obtained  a  pardon. 

Sharp,  Jack  (d.  1431),  was  the  real  ^ 
assumed  name  of  a  Lollard  leader  who.  is 
1431,  formed  a  plot  which  had  for  its  ostfu- 
sible  object  the  disendowment  of  the  Chim  it- 
He  was  captured  and  put  to  death  at  Oxford- 

Sharpe,  Jakes,  Archbishopof  St  AndreV « 
(6.  1618,  rf.  1679),  was  the  agent  of  the  Resolu- 
tioners  to  Cromwell  in  1656,  and  yas  otf 
of  the  leading  Pre8b3rterian  mimstsrs  in  Scot^ 
land.  He  was  in  favour  of  the  restoration  of 
Charles  II.,  who  appointed  him  in  1660  oof  « 
the  royal  chaplains.    In  1661  he  was  sent  to 


Sha 


(  939  ) 


Bhm 


London  by  the  Presbyterians  to  beg  for  the 
establishment  of  Presbyterianism  in  Scotland, 
bat  he  was  bribed  to  betray  his  cause,  and 
returned  to  Scotland  as  Archbishop  of  St. 
Andrews,  with  the  full  determination  to  do 
everything  in  his  power  to  further  episcopacy. 
He  was  one  of  the  chief  persecutors  of  the 
Covenanters,  and  in  1668  he  was  shot  at,  but 
«'8caped  without  injury.  His  oppressions  and 
cruelties  were  so  great  that  in  1679  he  was 
murdered  by  a  band  of  Covenanters  under 
Hackston  of  Bathillet  on  Magus  Muir,  near 
St.  Andrews. 

Burton,  Hitt.  of  Scotland. 

SliarMy  Samvbl,  was  one  of  the  leaders 
and  chief  instigators  of  the  slaves  in  the 
Jamaican  rebellion  of  1831 — 32.  [Jamaica.] 
It  was  owing  to  his  ability  that  the  rebels 
wore  enabled  to  gain  the  few  temporary  sue- 
<:(*8se8  they  did.  Ue  was  executed  at  the  dose 
of  the  insurrection. 

SltaWf  DocToa,  was  brother  to  Sir  Edward 
Shaw,  Lord  Mayor  in  1483.  He  had  high 
ropute  for  learning  and  sagacity,  and  was  em* 
ployed  by  Richard,  Duke  of  Gloucester,  to 
pr^ch  a  sermon  at  Paul's  Cross,  to  ad- 
vocate the  tatter's  claim  to  the  crown. 
Accordingly,  on  June  22,  he  delivered  a 
H^'rmon,  talnng  his  text  from  the  fourth 
ihapter  of  the  Book  of  Wisdom,  in  which  he 
impugned  the  validity  of  Edward  IV.'s  mar- 
riage with  Elizabeth  Woodville  on  the  ground 
of  a  precontract  with  Lady  Elizabeth  Butler, 
daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Shrewsbury.  From 
this  he  adduced  the  inference  that  Edward  Y. 
and  his  brother  were  illegitimate,  and  there- 
fore, as  Clarence's  family  were  attainted  and 
incapable  of  succeeding,  Richard  was  the 
rightfol  sovereign. 


;,  Bishop  of  Salisbury  {d,  eirea 
1556),  was  a  prelate  who  was  for  some  time 
associated  with  Latimer.  Bishop  of  Worcester, 
in  a  determined  opposition  to  the  merciless 
statute  of  the  Six  Articles  (q.v.).  On  his 
resignation  of  his  see  rather  than  subscribe  to 
the  articles,  Shaxton  was  thrown  into  prison 
as  an  obstinate  sacramentarian  heretic;  he 
subBcquently,  however,  found  it  advisable  to 
conform  to  tibe  new  opinions,  and  signalised 
his  conversion  by  preaching  at  the  burning  of 
leveral  more  determined  heretics  than  he  had 
proved  to  be,  his  most  notable  appearance 
n  this  way  being  at  the  burning  of  Anne 
%skew.  From  the  fact  that  he  was  in 
■eceipt  up  to  1556  of  a  crown  pension  of 
£66  13s.  4d.y  he  must  have  survived  till  that 
late  at  least,  but  the  exact  year  of  his  death 
a  unknown. 

SlieAeldy  Edmund,  1st  Loan  {d.  1549), 
rsa  second  in  command  to  the  Marquis  ol 
lortbampton  when  he  was  engaged  in  sup- 
tessin^  the  Norfolk  rebellion  of  1649 :  he 
ma  killed  by  the  insurgents  whilst  attempting 


to  hold  Norwich  against  them.   Lord  Sheflleld 
was  created  a  peer  by  Edward  VI.  (1547). 

ShefiLeld,  Edmvnd,  Loan  {d.  1646),  one 
ol  the  oonmianders  of  the  English  fleet  which 
defeated  the  Spanish  Armada,  was  knighted 
for  his  services,  and  subsequently  became 
Grovemor  of  Brille  in  the  Low  Countries.  He 
was  created  Earl  of  Mulgrave  by  James  I. 

Shof&eld  was  the  seat  of  a  castle  which 
was  built  probably  by  the  family  of  De  Love- 
lot  during  the  twelfth  century,  and  which 
passed  from  the  Fumivals  and  Talbots  into  the 
possession  of  the  Earl  of  Arundel  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  castle 
wasbumt  by  John  d'Eyville  during  the  Barons' 
War  (1266).  It  served  as  the  prison  of  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots  from  November,  1570,  to  Sep-; 
tember,  1584.  It  was  occupied  for  the  Parlia- 
ment at  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War,  but 
abandoned  in  1643,  and  held  for  the  king  by 
Sir  William  Sa\'ille.  In  August,  1644,  it  was 
captured  by  Major-General  Crawford,  and  in 
1646  demolished  by  order  of  Parliament.  The 
town  was  famous  for  its  cutlei^  as  early  as 
the  fifteenth  century,  and  its  Cutlers'  Com- 
pany was  incorporated  bv  Act  of  Parliament  « 
In  1624.  In  1685  its  population  was  estimated 
to  be  about  4,000,  in  1760  it  had  increased  to 
something  between  20,000  and  30,000,  and  in 
1891  to  324,000.  By  the  Beform  BUI  of  1832 
it  was  enfranchised,  while  in  1843  it  became 
a  municipal  borough.  It  was  the  scene  of 
some  serious  trades-union  outrages  in  1867. 
[Sheffield  OrTEAOBS.]  In  1893  it  was 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  city. 

SheflUId  Outraffes.  In  1867  a  Com- 
mission  was  appointea  to  inquire  into  the 
trades-union  outrages,  and  the  organisation 
and  rules  of  these  societies.  Sheffield  had 
long  been  conspicuous  as  a  centre  of  trades- 
union  tyranny  of  the  worst  kind.  When  a 
workman  had  made  himself  obnoxious  to  the 
leaders  of  a  local  trades  union,  some  sudden 
misfortune  was  sure  to  befall  him.  His  house 
was  set  on  fire;  gunpowder  was  exploded 
under  his  windows ;  an  infernal  machine  was 
flung  into  his  bedroom  at  night.  The  man 
himself,  supposing  him  to  have  escaped  with 
his  life,  felt  convinced  that  in  the  attempt  to 
destroy  him  he  saw  the  hand  of  the  union ; 
his  neighbours  were  of  his  opinion ;  but  want 
of  evidence,  and  fear  of  ttie  consequences, 
made  it  impossible  to  punish  or  even  find  out 
the  offendcov.  The  secretaries  of  the  trades 
unions  indignantly  denied  all  these  statements, 
alleged  the  beneficial  nature  of  their  societies, 
and  demanded  an  inquiry  into  their  rules 
and  organisation.  Ultimately  the  demand 
was  granted.  Three  examiners  were  sent 
down, with  Mr.  Overend,  Q.C.,  at  their  head. 
A  searching  inquiry,  and  the  offer  of  a  free 
pardon  to  any  one,  even  the  actual  offenders, 
who  would  reveal  full  particulars  of  the 
crimes,  elicited  full  evidence  that  most  of 
these  outrages  were  perpetEsted  at  the  com* 


She 


(940) 


Bhm 


mand  of  some  union,  that  of  the  unions  the 
Baw-grinden  deserving  the  most  infamous 
notoriety.  It  was  remarkable  that  the  secre- 
tary of  this  union,  a  person  named  Broad- 
head,  had  the  most  indignantly  protested  the 
innocence  of  his  union,  while  it  was  proved 
by  the  evidence  of  a  man  named  Hallam  that 
the  murder  of  linley,  an  obnoxious  workman, 
was  done  by  Broadhead*s  especial  instructions. 
The  crimes  were  in  most  cases  regularly 
ordered,  arranged,  and  paid  for  by  the 
unions.  The  actual  men  who  committed 
them  were  merely  agents  of  the  union,  and 
^oU^uninfluencedby  personal  f eeUngagainst 
the  victim.  Broadhead  at  last  had  the  ef- 
frontery to  come  before  the  examiners  him- 
self, and  explain  the  whole  system  of  villany 
of  which  he  had  been  the  mainspring. 

Ann,  B^g.;  Hansard,  Parliawsntary  MmotU; 
Maoarthy.  Hist,  tf  Our  Own  TitM;  Hoivell, 
ConJUct  ofCapiial  and  Labour  ;  Tvne%^  1867, 

SheHmmay  Lord.    [Lansdownb.] 

Slieldon,  Gilbert  {b.  1598,  <f.  1677),  was 
a  native  of  Staffordshire,  and  became  Warden 
ol  aU  Souls'  College,  Oxford,  in  1635.  He 
•  was  one  of  the  royal  commissioners  at  th^ 
Treaty  of  Uxbridge,  and  in  1647  was  deprived 
of  his  wardenship.  On  the  Restoration  he 
was  made  Bishop  of  London,  and  on  the  death 
of  Juxon  in  1663  was  advanced  to  the  Arch- 
bishopric of  Canterbury.  He  was  a  strong 
High  Churchman,  and  rigorous  in  carrying 
out  the  Act  of  Uniformity,  a  patron  of  learn- 
ing, and  the  builder  of  the  theatre  of  the 
University  of  Oxford. 

Hook,  Livw  of  tht  Arehbuh/op9  of  Canterbury. 

Sliore  Ali  ^as  the  son  of  Dost  Mahomed, 
Ameer  of  Afghanistan.  On  Dost  Mahomed's 
death  (1863)  a  series  of  struggles  ^ued 
for  the  succession  between  Shere  Ali  and 
his  brothers,  Afasool  and  Azim.  In  one 
of  these  Shere  Ali  was  deposed,  and  Af  zool 
Khan  became  ruler.  He  did  not  live  long 
afterwards, '  and  his  son,  Abdool  Bahman, 
waived  his  claim  in  favour  of  his  uncle, 
Azim  Shan,  who  had  been  for  some  time  a 
fugitive  in  English  territory.  Ultimately, 
however,  Shere  Ali  regained  his  throne,  and 
the  opposing  faction  was  overcome.  In  1870 
Shere  Ali  visited  India,  and  met  the  Viceroy, 
Lord  Mayo,  at  Umballa,  where  the  lattePs 
generous  conduct  went  a  long  way  to  ensure 
friendly  relations  with  the  Anioor.  In  1876, 
however,  began  a  series  of  events  which  pro- 
duced the  Afghan  mission  of  ^ir  Lewis  Pelly, 
and  gradually  led  up  to  the  second  Afghan 
War  (q.v.). 

Slioro  Sinfflif  one  of  the  most  influential 
chiefs  of  the  Punjab,  joined  the  insurrection' 
of  Moohaj,  Sept.,  1848.  This  was  followed 
by  a  general  insurrection  known  as  the  second 
Sikh  War.  Successful  at  Ramnagur  and 
Sadoolapore,  owing  to  the  bad  generalship 
of  Lord  Gough,  Shere  Singh  was  beaten  at 


Chillianwalla,  but  the  defeat  was  a  piacCical 
victory,  so  much  did  it  elevate  the  charscier 
of  the  Sikhs  for  prowess.  The  root  at 
Guzerat,  however,  destroyed  all  his  hopeb, 
and  he  surrendered  to  the  English,  March  12, 
1849.    [Sikhs.] 

Shore  8ilL|f h  was  the  reputed  son  of  Rmi- 
jeet  Singh,  on  whose  death,  1839,  followed  by 
that  of  ^  son,  Khnrruk  Singh,  aiid  grandson, 
Nao  Nihal  Singh,  in  1840,  Shere  Singh  be- 
came regent  of  the  Punjab  in  oonjunctioai 
with  Chand  Kowur,  the  widow  of  Khnrmk 
Singh.  In  1841  Shere  Singh,  with  the  help 
of  the  army,  attained  supreme  power.  In 
1843,  during  the  anardiy  which  followed,  he 
was  assassinated  by  a  discontented  chief. 
[Sikhs.] 

SheridaiLy  Richard  Brinslev  (^.  1751, 
d.  1816),  was  bom  in  Dublin.     His  parents 
having  come  over  to  England,  the  boy  was  sent 
to  Harrow.    After  leaving  school   he  ^lent 
several  years  in  idleness,  till,  stimulated  by 
the  straits  to  which  a  runaway  match  had  re- 
duced him,  he  applied  himself  vigorously  to  the 
oomposition  of  plays,  the  result  bein^  the  pro- 
duction of  three  of  the  best  comediea  in  our 
language.    But  in  1780,  having  reached  the 
height  of  his  ambition  in  the  region  of  the 
drama,  he  aspired  to  politics,  and  was  elected 
member  for  Stafford.  His  first  attempt  in  the 
House  was  a  ^ilure,  but  on  the  subject  of  the 
emplojnnent  of  the  military  in  civil  distur- 
bances Sheridan  gave  some  si^ns  of  hia  great 
oratorical  powers.     His  abilities  were  so  far 
recognised  by  Uie  Whig  party  that  on  North's 
fall  he  was  appointed   one  of   the    under- 
secretaries  in    Rockingham's  ministry,  and 
was  subsequently  Secretary  to  the  Treasury 
in  the  Coalition.    On  Pitt  coming  into  powta- 
Sheridan  went  into  opposition,  and  very  aoou 
rose  to  the  first  eminence  as  a  debater  and 
speaker.     But  the  occasion  of  his  greatest 
oratorical  triumph  took  place  in  1787,  when 
he    presented    his    charge  "relative   to  the 
Begum  Princesses  of  Oude  *'  against  Warren 
Hastings.     Even  Pitt  allowed  his  speech  to 
have  "  suipassed  all  the  eloquence  of  ancient 
and  modem  times.*'    In  the  rupture  which 
occurred    between  Fox  and    Burke  on  th« 
subject  of  the  French  Revolution,  Sheridan 
adhered  to  his  earlier  friend,  Fox,  and  himseh' 
incurred  the  hostility  of  Burke.     In  1794,  as 
conductor  of  the  impeachment  of  Hastings. 
he  made  his  reply  on  the  Begum  charge,  xad 
again  astonished  his  hearers  by  a  marvel- 
lous display  of  the  most  brilliant  eloquence, 
sustained   before    the    Lords    through    foor 
whole  days.    When  Fox  retired  from  Pkiha- 
mentary    life,    carrying  off    sevend    of   his 
devoted  followeis,  Sheridan  still  maintained 
his  post  in  the  opposition,  and,  perhaps,  never 
spoke  with  more  vigour  and  power  than  in 
the  debates  on  the  Irish  rebellion  and  thr 
Union.     In   1804  he  was  appointed  by  his 
boon  companion,  the  Prince  Regent,  to  be 


Bhm 


(941) 


She 


xeoeiver  of  the  Buchy  of  Cornwall.  When 
on  Pitt's  death  Fox  and  Lord  GrenviUe 
formed  a  government,  Sheridan  was  rewarded 
for  his  long  fidelity  to  his  party  by  the 
treasurership  of  the  navy,  a  lucrative  but 
subordinate' post.  On  Fox's  death  Sheridan 
succeeded  him  in  the  representation  of  West- 
minster, but  Was  next  year  driven  to  a  less 
conspicuous  constituency.  On  the  passing  of 
the  Regency  Bill  he  was  admitted  to  extra- 
ordinary intimacy  and  confidence  by  the 
regent,  and  his  own  party  seem  to  have  been 
not  without  suspicions  as  to  integrity.  In 
the  next  year  he  unfortunately  confirmed 
their  fears  by  acting  in  an  indefensible 
manner  towards  the  chiefs  of  that  party  when 
negotiations  wore  proceeding  with  them  after 
the  death  of  Perceval.  Always  a  very  bad 
manager  of  his  own  affairs,  an  expensive 
election  in  1812  brought  them  into  hopeless 
confusion.  The  last  four  years  of  his  life 
were  spent  in  miserable  attempts  to  evade 
the  pursuits  of  his  creditors.  He  died  on  the 
7th  of  Jul^,  1816.  The  chax^e  of  being 
a  mere  pohtical  adventurer,  which  has  been 
brought  against  Sheridan,  is  sufficiently  re- 
futed by  the  consistent  fidelity  which  he 
displayed  towards  his  party,  more  than  once 
from  a  mere  sense  of  honour  towards  it  re- 
fusing to  accept  a  place  under  others.  This 
was  especially  the  case  in  1804,  when  he  was 
offered  a  place  by  Addington,  with  whom  he 
agreed  in  his  general  policy,  but  would  not 
accept  it  on  scrupulous  grounds  of  obligation 
to  stand  by  the  Whigs.  As  a  statesman  he 
has  no  claim  to  permanent  fame,  but  his  name 
will  live  in  history  as  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
of  a  group  of  orators  whom  the  world  has 
never  seen  surpassed  at  any  one  period. 

Moore,  Life  of  Shmidan;  Boiaell,  Life  of  For; 
Fellew,  Life  of  Lord  Sidmouth;  Lord  HoUaad, 
Memoirs  qf  the  Wlug  Party;  Haanxd,  DAatee; 
Sheridan,  Speechee. 

Shoriff.  This  officer,  the  teir^ferefa,  or 
flhire-reeve,  appears  before  the  Omqxiest  as 
nominated  by  the  crown,  though  in  very 
early  times  he  may  have  been  chosen  by  the 
I)eople  in  the  folkoioot.  He  acted  as  the  king's 
steward,  collecting  and  administering  the  royal 
dues  in  his  shire,  and  presiding  over  the  shir^- 
moot,  or  assembly  of  freeholders,  which  met 
twice  a  year  to  transact  fiscal  and  judicial 
business.  By  the  Normans  the  sheriff  was 
identified  with  the  viscount  {viceeomes),  and 
the  shire  was  called  a  county.  In  order  to 
counteract  feudal  tendencies,  the  Norman 
kings  increased  the  power  of  the  sheriffs, 
sometimes  giving  the  sheriffdom  of  several 
counties  to  one  man,  or  granting  the  office  as 
4in  inheritance.  Under  their  rule  the  sheriff 
was  the  representative  of  the  crown  in  judicial, 
fiscal,  and  military  affairs.  Besides  presiding 
in  the  county  court,  he,  or  his  substitute,  held 
a^  court  in  each  hundred  twice  a  year  for 
view  of  f  rank-pledgo,  called  the  dieriff 's  toum 
snd  leet.    He  collected  the  king's  dues  from 


his  shire,  and  twice  in  each  year,  at  Easter 
and  at  Michaelmas,  accounted  at  the  exche- 
quer for  the  ferm  or  rent  at  which  he  farmed 
the  ancient  profits  of  the  county  from  the 
crown,  and  for  the  sums  arising  frcmn  taxation, 
feudal  rights,  jurisdiction,  and  the  side  of 
offices.  In  his  military  capacity  he  led  the 
posse  eomitatuSf  and  the  lesser  tenants  of  the 
crown.  The  vast  power  exercised  by  men 
holding  the  sheriffdom  of  several  counties 
waB  injurious  to  the  interests  both  of  the 
crown  and  of  the  people,  and  when,  as  was 
sometimes  the  case,  the  king's  justices,  to 
whom  the  sheri^  had  to  render  their  accounts, 
were  themselves  made  sheriffs,  they  had 
ample  oj^portunities  for  fraud.  The  adminis- 
trative vigour  of  Henry  II.  was  displayed  by 
the  Inquest  of  Sheriffs  (q.v.),  a  strict  scrutiny 
into  the  conduct  of  these  officers,  made  by  his 
orders  in  1170.  After  this  inquest  all  the 
sheriffs  in  England  were  removed  from  their 
offices,  though  several  of  them  were  after- 
wards restored.  By  this  time  most  of  the 
hereditary  sheriffdoms  had  been  done  away, 
and  the  office  of  sheriff  was  held  over  one  or 
two  counties  by  local  magnates.  In  place  of 
those  sheiifb  who  were  not  restored  Henry 
appointed  men  whom  he  could  trust.  Even 
after  this  date  hereditary  sheriffdoms  were 
occasionally  granted  by  the  crown.  Bobert  of 
Vieuxpont,  for  example,  was  made  hereditary 
sheriff  of  Westmorland  by  John,  and  his 
descendants  continued  to  hold  the  office  until 
the  death  of  the  Earl  of  Thanet  without  issue 
in  1849,  when  hereditary  sheriffdoms  were 
abolished  by  statute,  13  &  14  Vict.,  c.  30. 
By  a  charter  of  Henry  I.  the  citizens  of 
London  obtained  the  privilege  of  electing 
their  own  sheriff,  and  other  boroughs  gained 
by  fine  or  charter  the  right  to  collect  their 
own  ferm  without  the  shenff's  interference. 

The  importance  of  the  sheriff's  office  was 
curtailed  during  the  administration  of  Hubert 
Walter,  for  in  1194  sheriffs  were  forbidden 
to  act  as  justices  in  their  own  shires,  and  the 
office  of  coroners  to  hold  pleas  of  the  crown 
was  instituted.  A  further  step  in  the  same 
direction  was  taken  by  art.  24  of  Magna 
Gharta,  which  forbade  sheriffs  to  hold  pleas  of 
the  crown.  By  the  provisions  made  at  Oxford 
in  1258  sheriftdoms  were  to  be  subject  to  an 
audit,  and  were  to  be  held  for  one  year  only. 
An  attempt  was  made  the  next  year  to 
gain  a  share  in  the  election  of  these  officers 
for  the  freeholders.  This  privilege  was  granted 
by  Edward  in  1300,  where  the  office  was  not 
or  fee  or  hereditary,  but  was  withdrawn  in 
the  next  reign.  The  limitation  of  the  tenure 
of  office  to  one  year,  enforced  by  statutes  of 
Edward  III.  and  Ridiard  II.,  made  the  right 
of  appointment  a  matter  of  small  consequence. 
The  nomination  was  made  in  the  Exchequer 
on  the  morrow  of  AU  Souls*  Day,  changed  by 
24  Geo.  n.,  c.  48,  to  the  morrow  of  St. 
Martin's.  Complaints  haying  been  ■  made  of 
the  high  rent  at  which  the  aherifliB  let  the 


Bhe 


(942) 


Slii 


hondredfl,  tbey  were  ordered  by  4  Ed.  111., 
c.  15,  to  adhere  to  the  ancient  fenns,  and 
their  power  in  this  respect  was  abolished  by 
23  Bien.  YI.,  c.  9.  The  remains  of  their 
criminal  jurisdiction  were  swept  away  by 
1  Ed.  IV;,  c.  15.  Their  military  functions 
were  taken  away  by  the  institution  of  lords 
lieutenant  in  the  reign  of  Mary,  and  some 
acts  of  extortion  were  met  by  29  Ehz.,  c.  4, 
limiting  the  amount  they  might  take  on  levy- 
ing an  execution.  A  person  assigned  for 
sheriff  must  by  13  &  14  Car.  II.,  c.  21,  have 
sufficient  lands  within  the  county  to  answer 
to  the  kiug  and  the  people.  In  his  judicial 
capacity  the  sheriff  still  holds  a  county  court 
for  the  election  of  members  of  Parliament, 
and  for  a  few  other  purposes.  As  keeper  of 
the  king's  peace,  he  is  the  first  man  in  the 
county,  and  takes  precedence  of  any  noble- 
man, and  in  his  ministerial  capacity  he  is 
charged  with  the  execution  of  all  civil  and 
criminal  processes  and  sentences.  Nearly  all 
the  duties  of  his  office,  however,  are  fulfilled 
by  an  under-sheriff,  an  officer  whom  he  is 
compelled  by  3  &  4  Will.  IV.,  c.  99,  to  appoint. 
The  inferior  officers  of  the  county,  such  as 
gaolers,  are  reckoned  as  his  servants,  and 
until  40  &  41  Vict.,  c.  21,  he  was  to  some 
extent  liable  for  the  escape  of  a  prisoner. 

The  office  of  sheriff  existed  in  Scotland  as 
mrly  as  the  reig^n  of  Da^dd  I.,  and  is  men- 
tioned in  the  laws  of  that  king.  It  appears 
to  have  been  an  office  of  inheritance  until 
20  Goo.  II.,  c.  43,  and  has  long  been  purely 
nominal,  the  title  being  generally  borne  by 
the  lord  lieutenant.  The  sheriff  depute,  on 
the  other  hand,  holds  an  office  of  great  im- 
portance. He  is  appointed  by  the  crown  for 
life  or  good  behaviour  {ad  vitam  aut  ad  eulpam)^ 
and  is  the  chief  judge  of  the  county.  His 
jurisdiction  extends  to  all  personal  actions  on 
contract  and  obligation,  to  actions  relating  to 
heritable  rights  up  to  £1,000  value,  to  all 
matters  not  belongmg  to  any  other  court,  and 
to  suits  about  small  debts.  He  has  also  a 
criminal  jurisdiction,  and  hears  serious  cases 
under  the  direction  of  a  crown  council.  The 
last  capital  sentence  passed  by  a  sheriff  was  at 
Glasgow  in  1788.  By  40  4  41  Vict.,  c.  60, 
the  appointment  of  the  sheriff  substitute  was 
taken  from  the  sheriff  depute,  and  vested  in 
the  crown. 

StubH  C<m«e.  Hist.  1.,  pMBim.  ii.  78,  207, 
and  iii.  403;  Reeves,  l^i«^  of  Bnglhh  Law; 
Wharton,  Lav  Lexicon;  Chitty,  CollectUm  cf 
Staivittt ;  Banday,  D%g9$t  of  Scotch  Law. 

[W.  H.] 

SherifCllillir,  The  Battle  of  (Nov.  13, 
1716),  was  fought  between  the  Boyalist  army 
commanded  by  the  Duke  of  Argylc,  and  the 
clans  which  had  risen  in  favour  of  the  Pre- 
tender under  Mar.  The  former  included 
about  3,500  regulars,  the  latter  9,000  High- 
landers. The  Macdonalds,  who  foi*med  the 
centre  of  the  Jacobite  army,  defeated  the  left 
wing  of  their  enemies  and  drove  them  to 


Stirling ;  but  Argyle  and  the  disgooos  had 
simuhaneously  defeated  the  left  ving  dt 
Mar's  army.  But  unable  to  withstand  a  i«ir 
attack  from  the  Highland  right  and  centre,  he 
also  contrived  a  dextevous  retreat  to  Stirliog. 
The  victory  of  the  Highlanders  was,  however, 
in  no  respect  decisive.  8herifimuir  is  in 
Perthshire,  on  the  north  slope  of  the  OchiU 
two  miles  from  Dunblane. 

Sheriib.  The  G&eat  Inquest  op  (1170). 
On  Henry  II.'s  return  from  France  in  thu 
year  he  was  met  with  loud  complaints  of  the 
exactions  of  the  sherifEs.  This  afforded  liiai 
a  good  opportunity  for  curtailing  the  powt^r 
of  these  functionaries,  and  he  proceeded  tu 
issue  a  commission  to  inquire  into  the  truth 
of  these  grievances,  the  accused  sheriffs  being 
meanwhue  suspended  from  their  offices.  The 
Conmiissioners  were  to  inquire  whether  tht 
sherifb  had  administered  jua^oe  iairly.whettt^ 
they  had  taken  bribes,  whether  the  Assise  uf 
Clarendon  had  been  properly  carried  oat,  and 
whether  the  aids  and  other  taxes  had  been 
equitably  levied.  They  "were  also  to  inqoiR 
into  the  condition  of  the  crown  lands,  and  to 
make  a  list  of  those  persons  who  had  not  a.« 
yet  done  homage  to  the  king  and  his  son. 
The  result  of  the  inquiry  was  the  acquittal 
of  the  sheriffs,  but  they  were  not  restored  to 
their  offices,  and  their  places  were  filled  by 
officers  of  the  Exchequer. 
Stubba,  Sdect  Ckarten. 

SlMrstone,  The  Battle  op  (1016),  fought 
between  Edmund  Ironside  and  Cani^^  sfter 
two  days'  hard  fighting,  resulted  in  a  drawn 
engagement.  Sherstone  is  five  and  a  half 
miles  west  of  Malmesbury. 

Sharwin  {d.  1581^,  a  Catholic  priest,  vu 
indicted  before  Sir  Christopher  Wray  at  the 
same  time  as  Edmund  Campian  and'  Brvant 
for  compassing  and  imagining  the  qoeen'.< 
death.  He  was  executed  in  their  company  st 
Tyburn. 

Ship-money.  Before  the  Conquest  thf 
navy  was  furnished  by  the  levy  of  ships  od 
the  counties  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
hundreds  contained  in  each  shire.  Under  the 
Flantagenets  the  port  towns  and  the  coast 
counties  were  callea  on  to  furnish  ships  and 
men.  To  this  was  added  the  royal  navy,  a 
mercenary  force  paid  by  the  kin^,  which  wa^ 
the  beginning  of  the  permanent  navy.  As 
late  as  1626  the  fleet  collected  for  the  expedi- 
tion to  Cadiz  was  got  together  by  contingents 
from  the  sea-ports.  In  1634  the  position  of 
foreign  affairs  suggested  to  Charles  1.  the  nec^ 
sity  of  raising  a  fleet  in  order  to  maintain  the 
sovereignty  of  the  seas,  assert  the  ownership 
of  the  North  Sea  fisheries,  prevent  the  French 
from  capturing  Dunkirk,  and  secoro  the  co- 
operation of  Spain  for  the  restoration  of  the 
Palatinate.  Noy,  the  Attomey-GenersI,  sa/B' 
gested  that  money  for  the  equipment  of  ships 
would  be  levied  from  the  coast  towns.   & 


(943) 


8ho 


first  writ  was  iasued  in  Oct.,  1634,  and  after 
flome  remonstiance  from  the  Lord  Mayor  of 
London,  generally  Bubmitted  to.     Next  year 
a  second  writ  was  issued  bv  which  the  inland 
towns  and  counties  were  also  required  to  con- 
tribute.   There  was  considerable  opposition, 
and  Charles  obtained  from  ten  of  the  judges 
a  general  opinion  that  the  levy  of  ship-money 
from  all  was  lawful  (Dec.,  1636).    A  third 
writ  was  issued  in  Oct.,  1636,  and  called  forth 
still  stronger  opposition,  which  even  a  second 
opinion  from  the  judges  in  the  king^s  favour 
(Feb.,  1637)  could  not  stiU.     A  fourth  writ 
was  issued  in  the  autumn  of  1637,  but  none  in 
1638,  and  in  Jan.,  1639,  the  sum  demanded 
in  the  fifth  writ  was  only  about  a  third  of  the 
amount  asked  in  previous  years,  but  in  the 
next  year  the  government,  for  the  second 
Scotch  war,  return^  to  the  full  amount  of 
the  earlier  assessment,  ue.,  about  £200,000. 
It  was  by  the  second  of  these  writs  that  a 
ship  of  460  tons,  manned  and  equipped  for 
six  months,  or  the  sum  of  £4,600,  was  de- 
manded from  Buckinghamshire.    Hampden's 
trial  took  place  with  respect  to  the  twenty 
shlUingB  due  from  lands  in  the  parish  of 
Stoke  Mandeville.      The  argument  on  the 
point    of   law   began    in    Nov.,    1637,  and 
judgment  was  finally  given  in  June,  1638. 
[Hampdbn.I    Ship-money  was  vigorously  at- 
tacked in  the  Short  Parliament  by  Pvm  and 
GlanviUe;    and   Charles,  by   the  advice  of 
Strafford,  was  willing  to  allow  the  judgment 
to  be  carried  before  the  House  of  Lords  upon 
a  writ  of  error,  and  there  reversed.     But 
the  question  of  the  abolition  of  the  illegal 
military  charges,  and  other  things,  prevented 
an  agreement.    When  the  Long  Parliament 
met,  the  House  of  Conunons  on  X)ec.  7,  1640, 
the  House  of  Lords  on  Jan.  20,  1641,  agreed 
to  resolutions  pronouncing  the  levy  of  ship- 
money   illegal.     A  bill    declaring  this  was 
brought  in  by  Selden  on  June  8,  1641,  and 
received  the  king's  assent  on  Aug.  7. 

Gardiner,  Hist  of  Sng.,  ISOS—lMai  Hallam, 
CanBt.  HiMt.  [C.  H.  F.] 

nippen,  William  (b.  1672),  who  first 
sat  in  T&liament  in  1707,  was  distinguished 
throughout  his  life  for  his  uncompromising 
Jacobitism.  In  1 7 1 6  he  attacked  Lord  Towns- 
hend*8  mimstr^'  on  the  ground  that  govern- 
ment WBB  conducted  by  means  of  a  standing 
army.  In  1718  he  was  sent  to  the  Tower  for 
remarking  that  the  only  infelicity  in  his 
majesty's  ^George  I.)  reig^  was  that  he  was 
ignorant  of  oxir  language  and  constitution.  He 
vigorously  opposed  Walpole's  measures  for 
tho  restoration  of  public  credit  in  1720  [South 
Sba  Compaxt]  on  the  ground  that  they  were 
too  lenient.  During  these  years  he  had  led 
a  small  body  of  about  fifty  Jacobites,  who 
together  with  the  High  Tories  and  discon- 
tented Whigs  formed  the  opposition  to  Wal- 
pole*8  ministry.  [Walpolb.]  During  the  wild 
mtrignes  of  1740  he  was  not  consulted  by  tho 


Jacobite  emissary,  Lord  Barrymore,  as  he 
was  generally  considered  a  weak  conspirator. 
In  1741,  when  the  motion  for  the  dismissal  of 
Walpole  wasjkrought  forward,  he  left  the  House 
with  thirty-four  of  his  friends,  saying  that  he 
did  not  care  what  minister  was  in  and  what 
out.  He  indirecQy  aided  Walpole  by  pro- 
posing that  his  majesty  might  be  entreated 
not  to  .involve  the  country  in  war  for  the  sake 
of  his  foreign  dominions.  On  the  fall  of 
Walpole,  Shippen  continued  in  opposition. 
He  has  been  well  called  "  downright "  Ship- 
pen.  '*His  reputation,"  says  Stanhope, 
**  grew  much  more  from  his  courage,  his  in- 
corruptibility, his  good  humour  and  frank- 
ness of  purpose,  than  from  any  superior 
eloquence  or  talent."  He  always  had  a  per- 
sonal regard  for  Walpole,  and  was  accustomed 
to  say  "  Robin  and  I  are  two  honest  men.'* 

Shirley  v.Fa2g,THB Case  of(1676— 7). 
This  was  an  appeal  to  the  Lords  from  the 
Court  of  Chancery,  the  legality  of  which  the 
Commons  denied,  resisting  it  principally  be- 
cause one  of  the  parties  in  this  particular 
case  was  a  member  of  their  House.  A  quarrel 
ensued  between  the  two  Houses,  which  was 
only  terminated  by  their  dissolution.  The 
case  was  not  proceeded  with,  but  the  appellate 
jurisdiction  of  the  Lords  in  Equity  cases  was 
never  again  denied. 

Shoqjah-ood  Dowlah  (<'.  1775)  suc- 
ceeded te  the  vice-royalty  of  Oude  (1754). 
He  joined  Ali  Gkthur,  the  Prince  Boyal  of 
Delhi,  in  his  invasion  of  Bengal  (1758),  and 
besieged  Allahabad.  The  advance  of  Clive, 
however,  easily  drove  back  the  invasion.  In 
1759  he  became  Vizier  to  the  Great  Mogul, 
while  his  great  power  and  wealth  made  him 
practically  independent.  In  1760  he  joined 
Shah  Allum  in  his  invasion  of  Bengal,  but 
was  defeated  by  the  English  at  Patna.  He 
assisted  Meer  Cossim  (1763)  after  the  mas- 
sacre at  Patna,  but  was  utterly  beaten  at 
Buxar  by  Munro.  His  dominions  were  re- 
stored to  him  by  Clive,  except  Corah  and 
Allahabad  (1765). 

Shore,  Jane  (<(.  eirea  1509),  is  said  to 
have  been  the  wife  of  a  London  goldsmith, 
and  to  have  become  one  of  Edward  IV.'s 
mistresses,  about  1470.  After  tho  king's 
death  she  lived  with  Lord  Hastings,  and  in 
1483  was  accused  by  Richard,  Duke  of  Glou- 
cester, of  conspiring  to  injure  him  by  sorcery, 
but  the  real  reason  of  his  attack  upon  her 
seems  to  have  been  that  she  was  used  as  a  ^li- 
tical  agent  and  go-between  by  the  Hastmgs 
and  WoodvUle  party.  Bichaxtl  caused  her 
to  be  brought  before  the  ecclesiastical  courts, 
where  she  was  sentenced  to  do  open  penance 
in  the  streets  of  London  for  her  incontinent 
Ufe.  After  the  death  of  Hastings  she  found 
a  new  protector  in  the  Marquis  of  Dorset, 
but  after  his  banishment  she  was  imprisoned 
at  Ludgate,  where  her  beauty  seems  to  have 


Sho 


(  M4  ) 


■^ 


of  Toulon ;  the  attempt  was,  however,  ai 
During  his  return  home  Shovel  was  cang^ 
by  a  storm  off  the  Seilly  IsbtndSy  and  his  ship, 
the  Aiioeiatumy  struck  on  the  CHlstone  RocL 
His  body  was  washed  on  shore,  rescued  from 
the  wreckers  who  had  .plundei^  it  and  hid- 
den it  in  the  sand,  and  was  honoured  with  « 
public  funeral  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Campbell,  JAou  of  ihs  AdmiroU;  Stsabope, 
JETut.  oJMng, 


captivated  the  king's  solicitor,  one  Thomas 
Lyons,  who  apparently  married  her. 

SKore,  Sir  John  (b,  1761,  d,  1834),  was  tit 
distinguished   member   of    the^ndiiui  Civil 
Service,  and  for  some  time  one  m  the  Council 
at  Calcutta,  in  which  capncity  he  originated 
the  idea  of  the  revenue  settlement  of  179S. 
He  succeeded  Lord  Comwallis  as  Governor- x 
General  (1793^,  and  was  created  a  baronet. 
He  detorminea  on  non-intervention  in^  the., 
affairs  of  the  native  princes,  and  especially^ 
of  the  Mahrattas.     The  latter  prepared  for.  ; 
war  with  the  Nizam  to  settle  old  grievances. 
Shore,  regarding  the  defection  of  one  ally  at 
productive  of  the  dissolution  of  the  Tnplo 
Alliance  of  1790,  refused  to  assist  the  Nizam,^ 
and    allowed    him   to    be    crushed    by    the  ^ 
Mahrattas  in  the  Kurdlah  cammign.    The  " 

result  of  this  defection  of  the  English  was  *  ''Worcester,  taken  prison^, 
greatly  to  increase  the  power  of  the  Mah- 


mttas,  the  audacity  of  Tlppoo,  and  the  de-J' 
pendence  of  the  Nizam,  who  now  fell  entirely  - 
mto  the  hands  of  a  French  officer  (Raymond),  . 
The  disputed  succession  at  Poonah  in  1795,  ""^ 
and  the  events  which  followed,  neutralised 
for  some  time  the  power  of  the  Mahrattas,  at  a 
time  when  the  Bengal  mutiny  rendered  the 
English  powerless.    With  regard   to  Oude, 
his  conduct    was  equally    injudicious.      On 
the  death  of  Hyder  Bey  Khan  (1796),  th^v, 
government  became  utterly  effete,  the  Vizier^ 
merely  living  for  sensual  gratification.   On  his 
death  (1797)  Sir  John  Shore,   without  due 
consideration,  first  installed  his  reputed  son 
Vizier  Ali,  and  then  on  more  mature  con- 
sideration and  evidence,  at  the  expense  of  a 
revolution,  deposed  him  in  favour  of  Saadut 
Ali,  the  brother  of  the  last  Vizier.     [Oudb.I 
Sir  John  was  created  Lord  Teignmouth,  and 
embarked  for  England  March  25,  1798.     He 
devoted  his  later   years  largely  to  philan- 
thropic work. 

Malcolm,  Polit.  Hut  of  India;   Onmt  Duff, 
Mahratlaa ;  C.  J.  Shore,  Life  of  Lord  Ttiifnmnuth. 

Shovel)  ^^^  Cloudeslbt  {b.  1650,  d. 
1707),  bom  of  humble  parents  in  Suffolk, 
gradually  raised  himself  from  the  position  of 
a  cabin  boy  to  be  one  of  the  leading  seamen 
of  his  time.  He  distinguished  himself  in  Ban- 
try  Bay  in  1689,  and  was  knighted  by  William 
III.  In  1690  he  conveyed  the  king  and  his 
army  to  Ireland,  and  was  made  a  rear-ad- 
miral. Shovel  was  present  at  the  battle  of 
Tja  Hog^e.  In  1693  he  was  placed  on  the 
Admiralty  Commission.  On  the  accession  of 
Anne,  Shovel  served  under  Sir  George  Rooke 
in  the  Mediterranean,  and  made  a  resultless 
descent  on  Valencia.  He  brought  home  the 
treasure  from  Vigo  Bay,  and  fought  at  the 
liattle  of  Malaga,  '*  with  a  courage  closely 
bordering  on  rashness."  The  Whig  party 
pTooured  his  i^pointment  as  (x>mmander-in- 
chief  of  the  fleet  in  place  of  Rooke.  He 
accompanied  Peterborough  on  his  expedition 
to  Spain.  In  1707  he  co-operated  with  Prince 
Eugene  and  the  Duke  of  Savoy  in  the  siege 


SbrewsbuiJ.  Thb  Battlb  of  (July  23, 
1403),  was  fought  between  Heniy  IV.  and  the 
insurg^ts  under  Henry  Percy.  Percy^s  objei^ 
was  to  join  his  forces  with  those  of  Glen, 
dower,  but  the  king  intercepted  him  about 
three  miles  from  Sirewsbu]^.  The  royai 
troops  woro  completely  victorious*  Henir 
Peroy  was  slain,  and  his  uncle,  the  Karl  ik 


Slirewsbiixy,  Chablbs  Talbot,  Eabi.  or, 
afterwards  Duke  of  (b.   1660,  d,  1718),  was 
of  a  Roman   Catholic   family,  but    adopted 
the  Reformed  faith  as  early  as  1679.     He 
was  one  of  the  seven  who  signed  the  invi* 
tation  to  William  of  Orange.     He  became 
Secretary  of  State  in  William   III.'s  fint 
ministry ;    but    he    early    quarrelled    with 
Nottingham,  and  finding  himself  powerlesi 
iE^;:ainst    the    superior    powers    of    Garmar- 
then  [^Lbbds],  he  began  to  intrigue  with  the 
Jacobite  court  at  St.   Gtermains.    In    1690 
/- William  was  obliged  to  dismiss  him.     But  at 
length,  in  1694,  the  personal  request  of  Wil- 
liam overcame  his  roluctance  to  resnme  office, 
and  he  was  rewarded  with  a  dukedom  and 
the  garter.      In   1696  he  was  gravely  im- 
plicated   in    the    confession    of    Sir    John 
Fenwick.    He  at  once  wrote  to  the  king  de- 
claring that  Fenwick's  charges  were  exag- 
f crated.    William  forgave  him ;  but  Shrews- 
ury,    overwhelmed   with    remorse,    retired 
from  London.    Again,  a  spy  named  Blatthew 
Smith  accused  him  of   having  been   privy 
to  the  Assassination  Plot.     William  himself 
offered  to  prove  his  innocence,  and  he  was 
declared  guiltless  bv  the  Peers.     But  unable 
to  endure  his  recollections,  he  left  Eni^^and. 
For  five  years  he  lived  at  Rome.    On  his 
return  he  deserted  the  Whig  party,  being 
angiy  because  he  could  not  get  offioe.    As 
member  of  the  Opposition  he  defended  Sach- 
everell  (q.v.)  in  the  House  of  Lords.    In  1710 
the  queen,  wishing  to  drive  Godolphin  from 
office,   made  Shrewsbury  Lord  Chamberlain 
without  consulting  that  minister.     In  1711 
he  deserted  the  ministry,  and  joined  his  nld 
colleague,  Nottingham,  in  an  attack  on  the 
propo^  peace.     But  in  1713,  on  the  death 
of   the    Duke    of    Hamilton,    he    went   to 
Paris  as    ambassador,   with   instructions  to 
inform  M.  de  Torcy  tiiat  peace  must  be  con- 
cluded.   During  the  last  year  of  Anne's  life 
his  views  on  the  succession  question  seemed 
doubtful.    In  Oct.,  1713,  Bolingbroke, prob- 
ably imagining  that  he  was  in  favour  of  a 


81ir 


(  945  ) 


Sid 


Stuart  restoraticm,  sent  him  to  Ireland  as 
Lord-Lieutenant  Ho  himself  declared  he  ac- 
cepted the  office,  **  because  it  was  a  place  where 
a  man  bad  business  enough  to  prevent  him 
falling  asleep,  but  not  enough  to  keep  him 
awake."  But  the  elections  going  against  the 
.government,  and  a  contest  impending  between 
the  two  houses  of  the  Irish  Parlisunent,  he 
returned  to  England  to  watch  the  course  of 
events.  At  Queen  Anne's  deathbed  he  was 
introduced  by  a  deputation  and  the  white 
staff  of  Treasurer  put  into  his  hands.  "  Use 
it,"  she  said,  **  foi^  the  good  of  my  people." 
This  coup  d^etat  was  the  result  of  a  consultation 
between  himself  and  the  Dukes  of  Argyle  and 
Somerset.  By  this  stroke  on  the  part  of  the 
Whig  leaders  Bolingbroke's  schemes  were 
overthrown.  [Bolinobkoke.]  Until  George 
arrived  in  England  several  great  offices  were 
united  in  Shrewsbury's  hands.  But  hence- 
forth he  ceased  to  take  an  active  part  in 
politics. 

Shrewsbury  Corr9tpondenee ;   JAfe  of  Cluii'lea, 
Ihike  of  Shrewi^ry,  1718 ;  Coxe,  Marlocrough. 

[L.  C.  S.] 

BhxeWBhujejf  Francis  Talbot,  5th 
Eaill  op  {d.  1560),  a  distinguished  soldier, 
did  good  service  in  suppressing  the  rebellions 
of  1536.  In  1544  he  was  associated  with 
Lord  Hertford  in  an  expedition  to  Scotland, 
and  again  led  an  army  thither  four  years 
later.  During  the  reign  of  Mary  he  was 
much  favoured  by  me  queen,  though  he 
opposed  her  marriage  with  Philip.  In  spite 
-of  his  religion  ho  was  admitted  by  Elizabeth 
to  her  Privy  Council,  but  his  unqualified 
opposition  to  the  Supremacy  Bill  lost  him  her 
favour. 

ShrBvruhuxy,  Gborob  Talbot,  6th  Earl 
OF  {d.  1590),  was  appointed  guardian  of  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots  (1569),  whom  he  treated  so 
well  as  to  incur  the  suspicion  of  disloyalty 
towards  Elissabeth.  In  1571  he  was  privy  to 
the  Ridolfi  conspiracy,  but  subsequently  re- 
turned to  his  allegiance.  He  presided  at  the 
trial  of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk  in  the  capacity 
of  Ijord  High  Steward,  and  afterwarcu  was 
present  as  Earl  Marshal  at  the  execution  of 
Mary.  "  He  was  to  the  last,"  says  Miss  Aikin, 
"unable  so  to  establish  himself  in  the  con- 
fidence of  his  sovereign  as  to  be  exempt  from 
such  starts  of  suspicion  and  fits  of  displeasure 
as  kept  him  in  a  state  of  continual  apprehen- 
sion." 


AJkln,  Court  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 

ShrewilTmry;  John  Talbot,  Earl  of 
(5.  1373,  d.  1463),  was  a  younger  son  of  Sir 
Gilbert  Talbot,  a  knight  on  the  Welsh  border. 
He  married  the  daughter  and  heiress  of  Lord 
Fumivall.  For  some  unknown  reason  he  was 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower  early  in  Henry  V.*s 
reign,  but  was  soon  afterwards  released  and 
appointed  Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  a  post  which 
he  held  for  some  years,  though  frequently 
serving  in  France,  where  he  was  one  of  the 


strongest  supports  of  the  English  rule.  In 
1429  he  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner 
in  the  battle  of  Fatay,  but  three  years 
later  was  exchanged.  In  1442  he  was  created 
Earl  of  Shrewsbury,  and  in  1447  Earl  of 
Waterford  and  Wexford.  In  1452  he  was 
sent  out  with  troops  to  France,  and  captured 
Bordeaux ;  but  in  the  next  year  he  was  de« 
feated  and  slain  at  OasUllon.  His  bravery 
gained  for  him  the  title  of  ''the  English 
Achilles,"  and  with  his  death  the  loss  of  the 
English  conquests  in  France  was  assured. 

SiOck  Xaili  The,  was  a  term  applied 
by  the  Emperor  Nicholas  of  Russia  to  the 
Ottoman  Empire  in  a  conversation  with  Sir 
Hamilton  Seymour,  the  English  ambassador 
(1853).  **  We  have  on  our  hands,"  said  the 
Emperor,  '*  a  sick  man — a  very  side  man ;  it 
will  be  a  great  misfortune  if  one  of  these 
days  he  should  slip  away  from  us  before  the 
necessary  arrangements  have  been  made." 

Sidneyy  Algernon  (d.  1683),  son  of 
Robert,  second  Earl  of  Leicester,  bom  pro- 
bably in  1622,  served  under  his  brother  in 
the  suppression  of  the  Irish  rebellion  (1642), 
afterwards  entered  the  Parliamentary  army, 
and  was  wounded  at  Marston  Moor.  He  was 
given  the  command  of  a  regiment  in  the  New 
Model,  elected  M.P.  for  Cardiff  in  1645,  and 
held  for  a  few  months  the  post  of  Lieutenant- 
General  of  the  Horse  in  Iieland.  He  opposed 
the  king's  trial,  but  continued  to  sit  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  and  became  in  1652  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  State.  During  the 
Protectorate  he  took  no  part  in  public  a^irs, 
but  on  the  fall  of  Richu^  Cromwell  became 
again  a  member  of  the  Council,  and  was  sent 
as  ambassador  to  Denmark  to  mediate  between 
that  power  and  Sweden  (1659).  The  Restora- 
tion prevented  his  return  to  !E!ngland,  and  he 
remained  in  exile  until  1677.  In  1679  and 
1680  he  twice  unsuccessfully  attempted  to 
obtain  a  seat  in  Parliament.  His  name 
appears  about  this  time  in  the  accounts  of  the 
f^nch  ambassador  Barillon  as  the  recipient 
of  the  sum  of  1,000  guineas  from  him.  After 
Shaftesbury's  flight  Sidney  became  one  of  the 
council  of  six  which  managed  the  afbirs  of 
the  Whig  party,  organised  its  adherents,  and 
considered  the  question  of  armed  resistance. 
In  1683  he  was  accused  of  complicity  in  the 
Rye  House  Plot,  tried  by  Qiief  Justice 
Jeffreys,  condemned,  and  beheaded.  The 
ei'idence  against  him  was  insufficient,  and  the 
manuscript  of  his  work  on  government,  in 
which  doctrines  inclining  to  republicanism 
were  laid  down,  was  used  to  supply  the  absence 
of  the  second  witness  necessary  in  cases  of  high 
treason.    His  attainder  was  reversed  in  1689. 

Xiwald,  Life  of  Algernon  Sydney;  Sidney, 
Letters  to  H.  SavUle  and  Discourses  concerning 
Qovemment.  [C.  H.  F.] 

Sidney^  Henrt,  afterwards  Earl  of 
Romney,  was  a  brother  of  Algernon  Sidney. 
In  1680  he  went  as  envoy  to  Holland,  and 


Sid 


(  946  ) 


Big 


there  succeeded  in  gaining  the  friendship  of 
WUUam  of  Orange.  He  was  recalled  in  1681. 
In  1688  we  find  him  aiding  Admiral  Russell 
in  persuading:  the  Whig  leaders  to  invite 
William  to  England.  He  was  one  of  the 
seven  who  signed  the  invitation  to  William. 
In  1690  Henry  Sidney,  now  Viscount  Sidney, 
was  appointed  one  of  the  justices  for  the 
government  of  Ireland.  Shortly  afterwards 
he  was  appointed  Secretary  of  State.  In  1692 
he  was  appointed  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland, 
but  was  soon  recalled,  and  became  Master  of 
the  Ordnance  and  Earl  of  Bomney.  The 
grants  of  Irish  land  made  to  him  were  among 
tiiose  attacked  in  the  Resumption  Bill. 

Sidn^,  Sir  Hbn&t  {d.  1686),  the  son-in- 
law  of  John  Dudley,  Duke  of  Northumber- 
land, a  great  favourite  of  Edward  VI.,  was 
slightly  implicated  in  the  scheme  to  place 
Lady  Jane  Grey  on  the  throne,  but  was 
pardoned  by  Mary.  He  subsequently  became 
one  of  Elizabeth's  most  valued  servants,  and 
is  described  by  De  Quadra,  the  Spanish 
ambassador,  as  '*a  high-spirited,  noble  sort 
of  person,  and  one  of  the  best  men  that  the 
queen  has  about  the  court."  In  1562  he  was 
sent  on  a  special  embassy  to  Mary  of  Guise, 
the  Scottish  Regent,  and  in  1666  was  trans- 
ferred from  the  Presidency  of  Wales  to  the 
post  of  Lord  Deputy  of  Ireland,  where  he 
discharged  his  duties  with  great  administrative 
ability,  and,  in  spite  of  the  enmity  of  the 
queen  and  Lord  Sussex,  who  endeavoured 
to  thwart  all  his  plans,  achieved  considerable 
successes  against  the  rebels,  defeating  Shane 
O'Neil  with  great  slaughter  at  Loch  Foyle. 
In  1671  Sidney  obtained  his  recall  from  a 
position  which  had  become  extremely  un- 
pleasant to  him,  but  four  years  later  was 
prevailed  upon  to  return  to  Ireland,  though 
he  only  retained  his  office  a  little  more  than 
a  year.  "Sir  Henry  Sidney,"  says  Fronde, 
**  was  a  high-natured,  noble  kind  of  man,  fierce 
and  overbearing,  yet  incapable  of  deliberate 
unfairness." 

Froude,  JETist.  of  Eng.;  BiTchAU,  Tudon. 

Sidney,  Sm  Philip  {b.  1564,  d.  1586), 
who  was  "  regarded  both  at  homo  and  abroad 
as  the  type  of  what  a  chivalrous  gentleman 
should  be,"  was  the  son  of  Sir  Henry  Sidney, 
the  nephew  of  the  Earl  of  Leicester,  and  the 
son-in-law  of  Sir  Francis  Walsingham  (q.v.). 
After  passing  some  years  abroad,  he  returned 
to  England  m  1575,  and  at  once  obtained  the 
favour  of  Elizabeth,  by  whom  ho  was  in  the 
following  year  sent  on  a  special  mission  to 
Vienna,  to  endeavour  to  form  a  Protestant 
league  against  Spain.  In  1579  he  penned  his 
Remonstrance  against  the  Alen<;on  mar- 
riage, and  shortly  afterwards  wrote  his 
Arcadia^  which  was  not,  however,  published 
until  four  years  after  his  death.  In  1585  he 
proposed  to  offer  himself  as  a  candidate  for 
the  throne  of  Poland,  but  was  forbidden  to  do 
80  by  the  queen,  who  in  the  same  year  sent 


him  to  the  Netherlands  as  Governor  of  Flnalh 
ing.  Whilst  in  the  Low  Countries,  Sidney 
disting^shed  himself  as  greatly  as  a  soldier  t& 
he  had  previously  done  as  a  courtier.  He 
received  a  wound  at  the  battle  of  Zatphai 
(having  stripped  off  some  of  his  own  annoar 
to  lend  it  to  another  officer),  from  which  he 
died.  The  universally-known  story  of  hi^ 
refusing  a  draught  of  wator  when  £unting  o& 
the  field  of  batUe,  in  order  that  it  might  be 
given  to  a  wounded  soldier,  well  illustrates  his 
character. 

Camden,  AnnaU;  Fronde,  UiA,  ofSng.:  Hal 
Um,  LU,  Hiet. 

Sierra  ^one,  on  the  West  Coast  of 
A&ica,  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in 
1463,  and  was  visited  in  1562  by  Sir  Jolm 
Hawkins.  In  subsequent  years  several  slaTe 
factories  were  established  in  the  vidnity.  In 
1787  the  territory  was  ceded  to  Great  Britun 
b^  the  native  chiefs,  and  certain  philanthrc*- 
pists,  foremost  amongst  whom  were  Granrill!' 
Sharp  and  Dr.  Smeathman,  established  a 
colony  there  for  the  reception  of  slaves  who 
had  obtained  their  liberty  by  coming  to  England 
in  the  service  of  their  masters.  In  1789  in 
attack  was  made  upon  the  new  colony  by  a 
neighbouring  chief,  and  the  settlement  wis 
for  a  few  months  broken  up.  In  1791  the 
Sierra  Leone  CSompanv  was  fbrmed  under  the 
direction  of  Granville  Sharp  and  Wilber- 
force,  and  the  colony  was  reorganised.  In  1794 
it  was  again  nearly  destroyed  by  an  attack  of 
the  French,  and  for  many  years  frequent 
attacks  were  also  made  upon  it  by  tiie  oatiTeL 
In  1808  the  Sierra  LiBone  Company  had 
become  so  much  embarrassed  as  to  be  glad  to 
hand  over  the  colony  to  the  British  goveni- 
ment.  From  this  time  great  additioos  weit 
made  to  the  population  by  the  introductioo 
of  slaves  who  had  been  liberated.  T^ 
government  of  Sierra  Leone  at  first  extended 
to  Gambia  and  the  Gold  Coast ;  in  1821  these 
separate  governments  were  united,  only  to  be 
divided  again  in  1842.  In  1866  tiie  goven- 
ment  of  Gambia  was  again  made  subor- 
dinate to  that  of  Sierra  Leone.  The  affair 
are^  at  present  administered  by  a  govemar. 
assisted  by  an  executive  council  ox  six  membtn 
and  a  legislative  council  of  six  official  and 
four  unofficial  members.  *' There  are  dvil 
and  criminal  courts,  acc(»ding  to  the  proti- 
sions  of  the  charter  of  justice  of  1821 ;  and 
courts  of  chancery,  vice-admiralty,  ecclesias- 
tical or  ordinary,  and  quarter  sessions,  and 
also  one  for  the  recovery  of  small  debts.^*  Tli^ 
climate  is  exceedingly  unhealthy,  especially 
to  Europeans,  and  no  European  settlement  on 
anjrthing  like  a  large  scale  can  therefore  be 
looked  for. 

Martin,  OoU>nie$, 

Sigebert,  King  of  Bast  Anglia  (631-- 
634),  was  the  son  of  Bedwald,  and  brother  of 
Eorpwald,  whom  he  succeeded.  Having  been 
banished  by  his  father,  he  went  to  Ffuic^ 


Kg 


(947) 


where,  under  the  instruction  of  Bishop  Felix, 
the  Burgundian,  he  "  was  polished  &oin  all 
harbarianism,"  and  on  his  return  to  England 
encouraged  learning  by  instituting  schools  in 
many  places.  He  eventually  became  a  monk 
in  one  of  the  monasteries  he  had  himself 
founded.  Some  while  after,  in  order  to  en- 
courage his  soldiers,  he  was  led  out  to  battle 
against  Penda,  and  was  slain. 

Florenoe  of  Worcester;  Henxy  of  Hnnting- 

dOB. 

Sigebert  {d.  755),  King  of  Wessex, 
succeeded  his  kmsman  Cuthred.  He  is  said 
to  have  ^^  evil-intreated  his  people  in  every 
way,"  and  to  have  **  perverted  the  laws  to  his 
own  ends,"  the  result  being  that  before 
he  had  been  king  more  than  one  year  we 
read  that  "C^newulf  and  the  West  8axon 
Witan  deprived  him  of  his  kingdom  except 
Hampshire,  and  that  he  held  till  he  slew  his 
faithful  follower  Cumbra,  when  they  drove 
him  to  the  Andredes-weald,  where  a  swine- 
herd stabbed  him  to  avenge  Cumbra." 

AngU>-8iuton  Chronicle;  Henry  of  Huntiaffdon. 

SifferiCy  Archbishop  of  Ganterbary  (990 

— 994),  has  justly  obtained  an  evil  reputation 

in  oTir  history  as  having  been  one  of  those 

who  advised  King  Ethelred    to  adopt    the 

fatal  policy  of  buying  off  the  Danes.    This 

was  first  done  in  the  year  991.    Nothing  else 

that  can  be  considered  worthy  of  record  is 

known  of  Sigeric. 

William  of  Malxnesbnzy ;  Hook,  Lives  of  the 
AreiMthopB. 

Sihtrio.  King  of  Northumberland  (d,  927), 
g;rand8on  of  Ingwar,  the  son  of  Regnar  Lod- 
brok.  About  the  year  920  Sihtric  seems  to 
have  left  Dublin  (where  his  brother  Godfrith 
reigned,  918 — 933)  and  to  have  established 
himself  in  Northumberland.  He  slew  his 
brother  Nial  921,  and  in  923  succeeded 
another  brother,  Reginald,  as  head-king  over 
the  English  and  Danish  earls  and  captains. 
He  appears  as  a  suitor  for  Elf wyn,  £thelfleda*8 
daughter,  which  alliance  Edward  refused,  but 
after  the  accession  of  Athelstan  he  went  to 
meet  him  at  Tamworth  in  Feb.,  925,  and  was 
married  there  to  the  English  king*s  sister. 
A  year  later  he  died.  Athelsten  now 
wished  to  rule  over  Northumberland  imme- 
diately. But  Godfrith,  Sihtric's  brother,  came 
over  from  Ireland  and  tried  to  establish  him- 
self on  his  brother's  throne.  After  a  brief 
rule  he  was  forced  to  leave  England,  by 
Athelstan,  the  same  year. 

AngloSamm  Chron. ;  Irith  AwmIb. 

Silch  Wars,  (l)  In  1846  the  Sikh 
army,  60,000  strong,  with  a  large  and  ad- 
mirably served  artillery,  crossed  the  Sutlej, 
and  by  Dec.  16  were  encamped  within  a  short 
distance  of  Ferozepore.  On  Dec.  12  Sir 
Hugh  Gough,  the  commander-in-chief,  left 
Umbeyla  with  the  British  and  native  army, 
and  after  a  march  of  150  miles,  accomplished  in 


six  days,  reached  the  front.  On  the  13th  the 
Govemor-Greneral  published  a  declaration  of 
war,  and  confiscated  all  the  Sikh  districtb 
south  of  the  Sutlej.  The  Sikh  army  (Dec. 
17)  divided ;  Lall  Singh  pushed  on  to  Feroze- 
shar;  Tej  Singh  remained  before  Feroze- 
pore. On  Dec.  18  Lall  Singh  took  Sir  Hugh 
Gough  by  surprise  at  Moodkee,  but  lost  the 
advantage  by  cowardice  and  incapacity.  This 
was  followed  by  the  terrible  two  days'  struggle 
at  FeroKOshar,  at  which  the  two  divisions 
of  the  Sikh  army  were  beaten  in  detail,  and 
driven  beyond  the  Sutlej.  Towards  the  end 
of  Jan.,  1846,  however,  Runjoor  Singh,  attri- 
buting the  inactivity  of  the  British  to  fear, 
crossed  the  Sutlej,  defeated  Sir  Harry  Smith 
(Jan.  20)  at  Buddowal,  and  took  up  a 
position  at  Aliwal,  where  he  received  heavy 
reinforcements.  On  Jan.  28,  he  suffered  here 
a  complete  defeat  at  the  hands  of  Sir  Harry 
Smith.  This  was  followed  by  the  total  rout 
of  the  grand  Khalsa  army  at  Sobiaon  (Feb. 
10),  and  that  same  night  the  English  army 
entered  the  Punjaub.  Negotiations  were 
opened  on  the  11th;  on  the  17th  Dhuleep 
Singh  himself  came  and  made  his  submission; 
on  the  20th  the  English  encamped  outside 
Lahore  and  occupied  the  citadeL  On  Mar.  9 
a  treaty  was  concluded  by  which  the  cis- 
Sutlej  districts,  and  the  JuUunder  Doab 
were  annexed  to  the  English  territory; 
the  province  of  Cashmere,  the  highlands  of 
Jummoo,  and  half  a  crore  of  rupees,  were 
to  be  given  up  for  the  expenses  of  the  war ; 
the  Sikh  army  was  to  be  limited  for  the 
future  to  20,000  infantry  and  12,000  horse; 
and  all  the  g^uns  which  had  been  pointed 
against  the  English  were  to  be  surrendered. 
(2)  The  intrigues  of  the  Maharanee  Jhindnu 
developed  a  ^irit  of  sedition  at  Lahore 
which  her  removal  to  Benares  only  in- 
tensified. Chutter  Singh  and  Shore  Singh, 
two  influential  chiefs  of  the  Punjaub,  were 
both  strongly  disaffected  (1848),  and  only 
waited  for  a  favourable  opportunity.  In 
Sept.,  1848,  Greneral  Whish  sat  down  before 
Mooltan  fMooLiiAj]  and  summoned  it  in  the 
name  of  the  Queen,  thus  alarming  the  national 
feeliug^  of  the  Sikhs.  Shore  Singh  imme- 
diately passed  over  to  the  enemy  and  pro- 
claimed a  religious  war,  and  the  whole 
Punjaub  broke  out  in  revolt.  On  Oct.  1 0  Lord 
Dalhousie  proceeded  to  the  front.  On  the 
9th  Shore  Singh  marched  up  the  Chenab, 
gathering  men  as  he  advanced  till  he  had 
collected  an  army  of  15,000  troops.  Chutter 
Singhopened  negotiations  with  Dost  Mahomed, 
for  whose  alliance  he  consented  to  code  the 
province  of  Peshawur.  In  October  the 
English  grand  army  assembled  at  Ferozepore 
under  Lord  Gktugh,  and  on  the  16th  crossed 
the  Ravee.  The  English  had  to  act  on  two 
lines,  against  Mooltan  in  the  south,  and  the 
insurrection  in  the  superior  delta  of  the  five 
rivers  in  the  north,  and  for  this  they  had  not 
enough  infantry.    The  superior  position  and 


Sil 


(  948) 


artUlery  of  Shore  Singh  enabled  him  to  win 
the  battles  of  Bamnuggur  and  Sadoolapore,  in 
which  he  was  aided  by  the  rashness  of  Lord 
Gough.  After  a  considerable  delay,  Lord 
Gough  moved  forward  again  (Jan.  11,  1849) 
to  Dingee;  attacked  the  Sikhs  in  a  very 
strongly  entrenched  position  at  GhiUian- 
wallah,  and  after  a  long  and  sanguinary 
straggle  succeeded  in  compelling  tihem  to 
retreat.  The  Court  of  Directors  now  deter- 
mined on  a  change.  Sir  diaries  Napier  was 
requested  to  proceed  to  India  to  supersede 
Lord  Gk)ugh.  Before  he  arrived,  General 
Whish  had  captured  Mooltan  and  the 
war  had  ended  at  Guzerat.  All  through 
January  the  two  armies  remained  watching 
each  other.  On  Fob.  6  it  was  found  that  the 
Sikhs  had  marched  round  the  British  camp, 
and  were  strongly  entrenched  at  Guzerat. 
In  the  battle  that  ensued  the  persistent  with- 
holding of  the  troops  till  the  Sikh  line  was 
broken  by  the  constant  fire  of  eighty-four 
heavy  guns,  caused  a  total  victory  with 
little  loss  to  the  English.  *The  rebellion 
was  over.  On  Mar.  6  the  Sikh  chiefs 
restored  all  their  prisoners ;  on  the  12th 
Shere  Singh  and  Chutter  Singh  surren- 
dered, and  the  Khalsa  soldiers  laid  down 
their  arms;  and  Sir  Walter  Gilbert  com- 
pleted the  matter  bv  chasing  the  Afghans 
across  the  Indus  to  tne  very  portals  of  their 
mountain  range.  On  Mar.  29,  1849,  the 
Punjaub  was  annexed  to  the  British  territories. 

Cnnnizurhiimp  Hitt.    of  the   8ikha;  HardingB 
De^patchet;  Marshman,  Hitt,  of  Briiiik  India. 

Silistria,  The  Defence  of  (1864).  Be- 
sieged by  the  Russians,  Silistria  was  defended 
by  earthworks,  and  garrisoned  by  a  Turkish 
force.  Fortunately  there  were  present  two 
young  English  officers.  Captain  Boiler  and 
lieutenant  Nasmyth,  who  took  the  command, 
and  conducted  the  defence  with  remarkable 
skill  and  ability.  The  whole  efforts  of  the 
Russian  generals  were  concentrated  on  this 
siege,  and  just  when  the  tidings  of  its  fall 
were  looked  forward  for  as  a  matter  of 
certainty,  came  the  news  of  repulse  after 
repulse  inflicted  upon  immense  masses  of  the 
besiegers.  It  was  felt  that  the  loss  of  Silistria 
after  this  gallant  defence  would  not  only  be 
intolerable,  but  would  produce  a  bad  effect  at 
the  seat  of  war,  and  in  Europe.  The  allied 
governments  of  England  and  France,  espe- 
cially the  former,  were  urgent  that  some 
assistance  should  be  sent  to  relieve  the  town. 
Lord  Raglan,  however,  found  it  impos- 
sible, owing  to  lack  of  land  transport,  to 
effect  cmything,  and  Silistria  was  left  to  its 
fate.  On  June  22,  however,  worn  out  by 
the  gallantry  of  the  garrison,  and  their  own 
unavailing  attempts,  the  Russians  raised 
the  siege,  and  retreated,  having  lost  upwards 
of  12,000  men  in  their  unsuccessful  assaults 
on  the  works. 

AnnVfOl  lUffitUr;   Kinglake,  Invasion   of  th» 
OrivMO. 


Silk  Biotat  Tub  (1765).  In  1764  a  com. 
mission  had  been  appointed  to  inquire  into  tbe 
grievances  of  the  silk- weavers.  It  reoommended 
the  common  remedy  of  those  days,  namely,  the 
exclusion  of   foreign  silks.    A  bill  to  that 
effect  was  accordingly  brought  into  the  Com- 
mons, and  passed  by  them  without  discDfison. 
But  in  the  Lords  it  was  so  vigorously  oppo^ol 
by  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  on  the  ground  that 
it  was  wrong  in  principle,  and  could  only 
increase    the    evil  which  it  was  meant  X*> 
lessen,  that  it  was  thrown  out.    The  di.«- 
appointment  of  the  Spitalfieldji  weavers  took 
the  form  of  a  riot.   They  first  made  their  vay 
into  the  king*s  presence,  and,  meeting  with  i 
kind  reception  from  him,  directed  all  thnr 
wrath  agamst  the  peers,  especially  against  tht 
Duke    of    Bedford.    A  riotous   meeting  in 
Palace  Yard  was  dispersed,  only  to  reafsembk 
in  the  front  of  Bedford  House,  which  va 
threatened  with  destruction.  The  discontent  of 
the  weavers,  which  was  encouraged  by  the; 
masters,  was  only  at  length  paciSed  by  the 
promise  of  the  redress  of  their  grievance, 
and  Lord  Halifax  in  the  following  year  fnl- 
filled  the  promise  by  adopting  the  remedy 
which  had  been  rejected  in  1765,  and  bring- 
ing in  a  bill  prohibiting  the  importation  of 
foreign  silks. 

Masaey,  HiaL  of  Buy. ;  ICajp  Coiut.  Htat.;  Lard 
Staohope,  Hist,  of  Eng, 

SilnreSf  Thb,  were  a  British  tribe  who 
inhabited  tne  modem  counties  of  Hereford, 
Radnor,  Brecknock,  Monmouth,  and  Ght- 
moi^;an.  They  belonged  to  the  earlier  Celtic 
stock,  and  probably  included  a  consideralle 
pre-Geltic  element.  The  Silures  were  among^ 
the  most  warlike  of  the  British  tribes,  wA 
held  out  against  the  Romans  till  subdued  h' 
Frontinus  shortly  before  78  a.d. 

Simeon  of  Durham  {d.  eirca  1130),  «v 

an  early  English  historian,  precentor  of  th^* 
church  of  Durham.  His  history,  largely  b«K<i 
for  the  earlier  portion  on  the  JmglO'SAxiM 
ChronieUy  is  especially  valuable  for  the  light 
it  throws  on  l^rthem  afiiairs.  It  goes  dows 
to  1130,  and  was  continued  till  1166  by  Joha 
of  Hexham.  It  has  been  several  times  pnnt»i- 

Simnelf  Lambe&t,  was  the  son  of  « 
baker,  and  is  only  &mous  historically  a> 
having  been  the  puppet  leader  of  one  of  tl» 
earlier  revolts  against  Henry  VII.  In  tii» 
revolt  he  figured  as  Edward  Plantagenet,  Eail 
of  Warwick,  son  of  the  murdcrea  Duke  of 
CUurenoe,  and  he  is  commonly  reported  to 
have  been  trained  to  play  his  part  by  a  priert 
named  Richard  Simon,  perhaps  at  the  in- 
stigation of  l^e  queen-dowager.  Irelass 
was  fixed  upon  for  tiie  scene  of  the  revolt,  ia 
consequence  of  the  support  of  Thomas  Rti- 
gerald,  Earl  of  Kildare,  the  Lord  D^>iiiyi 
and  the  popularity  of  the  House  of  Yorktherp. 
In  England  John  de  la  Pole,  Earl  of  Lim«hi, 
the  son  of  Edward  IV.'s  eldest  sister,  Ejuj- 
both,  the  acknowledged  heir  of  Bichaid  uU 


Sin 


(949) 


was  his  chief   supporter.      In  Flanders  he 
had  a  powerful  friend  in  Margaret,  Duchess 
of  Burgundy,  another  sister  of  Edward  IV. 
Under  her  auspices  the  Burgundian   court 
.  was   made  the  general    rendezvous  of    the 
conspirators.     Henry  meanwhile  imprisoned 
the  queen^dowager  in  the  nunnery  of  Ber- 
mondsey,  and  h^  furnished  an  unmistakable 
proof  of  the  baseless  nature  of  the  conspiracy 
by  parading  the  real  Earl  of  Warwick  through 
ail  the  principal  streets  of  London.    He  in- 
flicted summary  punishment  on  those  noble- 
men whom  his  spioe  had  detected  in  corre- 
Hpondence  with  Simnel's  friends,  and   sent 
troops  to  repel  any  rebel  landing.    But  when 
after  a  bri^  stay  in  Ireland,  where  Simnel 
was  crowned  at  Dublin,  the  rebels — under 
the  command  of  the  Earl  of  Lincoln,  the  Earl 
of  Kildare,  and  Lord  Level,  accompanied  by 
2,000   '*  Almains,"  under  Martin  Schwarz,  a 
German  general — landed  at  Fouldiy  in  Lan- 
cashire, they  found  no  assistance.    With  the 
exception  of  a  small  company  of  English,  under 
Sir  Thomas  Broughton,  the  rebelB  marched 
all  the  way  to  York  without  gaining  a  single 
adherent.    A  determined  attack  on  Newark 
was  resolved  upon.    Henry  decided  upon  an 
immediate  battle,  and  with  that  object  took 
up  a  position  between  the  enemy's  camp  and 
Newark.    Thereupon  the   Earl    of    Lincoln 
advanced  to  a  little  village  called  Stoke,  where 
on   the    following  day,  June   16,  1487,  the 
battle  was  fought.    Three  hours  elapsed  before 
victory    appeared    to    incline    either    way. 
Finally  the  rebels  were  utterly  defeated,  and 
nearly  all  their  leaders  perished,  the  slaughter 
being  especially  great  among  the  German 
and    Irish    mercenaries.      Among    the    few 
survivors  of  the^^camage  were  Simnel  and 
Simon.     Their  lives  were  spared  as  a  matter 
of  policy.    Simon  was  imprisoned  for  life, 
but  Siinn.el  was  contemptuously  taken  into  the 
royal  service  as  a  scullion.    Later  he  was  pro- 
moted to  be  a  falconer.    We  have  no  record 
of  the  date  of  his  death. 

Baoon,  Li/e  ofHmry  VU. 

Sinffaporef  an  island  off  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  was  bought 
by  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  on  behalf  of  the  iSist 
India  Company  in  1819  ;  in  1825  its  possession 
was  confirmed  to  the  British  government.  In 
1867  Singapore  was  transferred  from  the 
control  of  the  Indian  government  to  that  of 
the  Colonial  Office,  and  was  made  the  seat  of 
government  for  all  the  Straits  Settlements. 
The  area  of  the  island  is  206  square  miles, 
the  population  140,000.  The  city  at  its 
southern  extremity  is  a  place  of  great  trade, 
fis  the  entrepdt  of  the  Malay  Peninsula. 

Sixikixi^  Fund,  Tm,  is  a  fund  collected 
with  the  object  of  paying  off.some  part  of  the 
national-  debt.  Perhaps  the  most  celebrated 
scheme  for  a  sinking  fund  in  English  history 
was  that  of  the  younger  Pitt.  In  1784  that 
minister  f oimd  Uiat  peace,  financial  refonn, 


and  commercial  prosperity  had  brought  the 
revenues  into  a  vexy  flourishing  condition. 
He  had  a  surplus  of  one  million,  and,  alarmed 
at  the  immense  development  of  the  debt,  ho 
proposed  that  the  surplus  should  be  put  aside 
at  compound  interest,  and  the  proceeds  ulti- 
mately devoted  to  the  diminution  of  the  debt. 
He  directed  that  a  million  should  be  laid  aside 
every  year,  apparently  imder  the  belief  that 
every  year  would  produce  a  similar  suiplus. 
For  the  first  few  years  the  plan  was  very 
successful,  but  the  long  wars  against  revolu- 
tionary France  soon  made  it  necesnury  for  the 
nation  to  spend  far  more  than  its  income. 
Yet  until  1807  the  million  a  year  was  solemnly 
set  aside  for  the  sinking  fund,  although  the 
nation  borrowed  many  millions  at  a  higher 
rate  of  interest  than  it  could  get  for  the  fund. 
A  belief  in  the  mysterious  wisdom  of  the  step, 
and  of  the  magical  power  of  compound  in- 
terest, blinded  men  to  the  obvious  absurdity 
of  borrowing  at  a  higher  interest  to  lend 
out  at  a  lower  one.  But  in  1807  the  trans- 
parent delusion  of  borrowing  for  the  govern- 
ment from  the  sinking  fund  practically  ended 
the  svstem.  In  1828  the  whole  tJan  was 
consiaered  fallacious,  and  abandoneo.  Later 
sinking  funds,  with  less  ambitious  objects, 
have  proved  fairly  successful,  despite  the 
temptation  to  shift  the  nation*s  burden  upon 
posterity.  At  present  the  debt  is  being 
steadily  reduced,  among  other  methods,  by  the 
creation  of  terminable  annuities. 
Stanhope,  Li/eqfPttt. 

SinopBy  The  Battle  op.  In  1853  a 
squadron  of  Turkish  ships  was  stationed  at 
Sinope.  The  Russians,  hearing  that  the  Turks 
had  begun  the  war  on  the  Aimeuian  frontier, 
proceeded  to  attack  them.  The  Sebastopol 
fleet  advanced  in  order  of  battle  into  the 
harbour  of  Sinope.  The  Turks  struggled 
gallantly,  and  maintained  the  defence  tor  a 
long  time.  In  the  end  they  were  overpowered, 
destroyed,  and  it  was  reported  that  4,000  men 
had  been  killed.  The  tidings  of  this  massacre 
produced  the  greatest  excitement  in  England. 
It  brought  the  war  fever,  already  great,  to 
its  height,  and  by  throwing  public  opinion 
strongly  in  favour  of  Lord  Palmerston's  war 
policy,  practically  forced  the  hands  of  the 
ministry,  and  dragged  the  country  into  war. 

Six  Acts,  The,  were  six  coercive  measures 
passed  in  rapid  succession  at  a  special 
autumnal  session  of  Parliament  in  1819,  with 
the  object  of  suppressing  the  seditious  spirit 
which  commercial  depression  and  reactionary 
government  had  excited.  They  were  respec- 
tively aimed  at  preventing  delay  in  punishing 
riot  and  sedition,  at  preventing  the  training 
of  persons  in  the  use  of  arms  and  military 
evolutions,  at  preventing  and  punishing  sedi- 
tious libels,  at  preventing  seditious  assemblies 
at  empowering  justices  to  search  for  and 
seize  arms,  and  at  extending  the  stamp  duty, 
and  imposing  further  restrictions  on  the  preaa. 


(  960  ) 


Owing  to  their  severity  and  coercive  cha- 
racter the  Six  Acts  were  violently  opposed  by 
some  of  the  Whigs  and  the  Kadicals;  but 
were  supported  by  the  whole  strength  of  the 
government  and  the  Tories. 

S.  Walpole,  Hut.  of  Bng,  rince  1816;  Mar- 
tineau,  R\ai  of  the  Peace, 

Six  AxtioleSf  Tub  Statute  of,  nassed 
ih.  1539,  marks  the  beginning  of  the  re- 
actionary period  that  continued  until  the 
close  of  Henry  VIII.'s  feign.  It  enumerated 
precisely  and  clearly  six  points  of  medisBval 
doctrine  and  practice  which  the  Protestants 
had  begun  to  assail,  and  imposed  severe 
penalties  on  all  who  would  not  accept  them. 
S^Q  first  article  expressed  the  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation.  Those  denying  this  were 
to  be  burnt.  If  the  other  five  articles  were 
impeached  the  penalties  were,  for  first  offence, 
confiscation  of  property,  for  the  second,  exe- 
cution as  a  felon.  The  five  articles  declared 
{2)  that  communion  in  both  kinds  was  un- 
necessary' ;  (3)  that  priests  ou^ht  not  to  marry; 
(4)  that  the  vows  of  chastity  ought  to  be 
obMTved  in  both  sexes;  (5)  that  private 
masses  were  allowable ;  (6)  that  auricular  con- 
fession was  necessary.  Tins  sanguinarv  Act, 
called  by  the  Protestants,  "  the  whip  with  six 
strings,**  continued  in  force  for  the  rest  of 
Henry's  reign. 

J.  H.  Blunt,  Hist,  of  the  Reformation;  Burnet, 
But,  of  the  Seformation ;  Froude,  Hist.  cfEng. 

Skiimer  v.  The  East  India  Com- 
pany, Case  of.  Skinner  was  a  private 
merchant  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II. ,  who, 
finding  that  the  India  Company,  at  a  time 
when  the  Indian  trade  was  open,  molested 
him  in  his  business,  and  took  away  from  him 
an  island  bought  &om  a  native  prince,  peti- 
tioned the  king  to  give  him  that  redi^ss  which 
he  could  not  get  in  the  ordinary  courts. 
Charles  handed  the  affair  over  to  the  House  of 
Lords,  but  the  Company,  when  called  upon 
to  defend  itself,  denied  their  jurisdiction. 
This,  however,  was  overruled,  and  £6,000 
damages  were  awarded  Skinner.  The 
Company  then  petitioned  the  Commons,  who 
had  already  some  disputes  with  the  Upper 
House.  They  resolved  that  Jhe  Lords  had 
acted  illegally  in  depriving  the  Company  of 
the  benefit  of  the  law  courts.  The  Lords,  in 
rc<tum,  voted  the  Commons'  reception  of  a 
*'  scandalous  petition  "  against  them  a  breach 
of  privilege.  A  furious  quarrel  ensued. 
Two  conferences  of  the  Houses  only  added 
fuel  to  the  flame.  At  last  the  Commons  voted 
Skinner  into  custody  for  violating  their 
privileges,  and  the  Lords  in  return  imprisoned 
and  fined  Sir  S.  Bamardiston,  the  chairman 
of  the  India  Company.  The  king,  by  succes- 
sive adjournments  for fifteenmonths,  attempted 
in  vain  to  appease  the  quarrel.  When  the 
Houses  again  met  they  took  it  up  at  once,  but 
as  the  Lords  had  let  out  Barziardiston,  the 
■Commons    were    slightly    appeased.     Both 


Houses  passed  bills  censuring  the  other  side, 
which  were  promptly  rejected  by  the  otha 
Houses.  At  last  the  king's  advice  to  both 
Houses  to  end  the  dispute,  and  erase  aH 
reference  to  it  in  their  journals,  ended  one  of 
the  most  important  disputes  in  English 
history  between  the  Upper  and  Lower  Houses. 
As  the  Lords  never  again  claimed  an  onginal 
jurisdiction  in  civil  suits,  the  victory  may  be 
said  to  have  rested  with  the  Commons. 
Hallam,  ComL.  Htat.;  Hataell.  PrtoedraU. 

Skippon,  Philip  {d.  1660),  served  in  the 
wars  injSolland,  and  rose  from  tiie  ranks  by  his 
services.  Clarendon  describes  him  as  **  s  mm 
of  order  and  sobriety,  and  untainted  with  any 
of  those  vices  which  the  ofScers  of  that  anny 
were  exercised  in. "  In  1 64 1  he  was  Captain  of 
the  Artillery  Grarden,  and  was  on  Jan.  10, 1641 
appointed,  with  the  title  of  sergeant-major- 
general,  to  command  the  city  train-bands,  and 
the  guard  to  be  raised  for  the  protection  of 
Parliament.  Ho  served  as  sergeant-major- 
general  under  Essex  as  long  as  that  geoeral 
retained  his  command.  In  Sept.,  1644,  he  vas 
left  by  Essex  in  command  of  the  azmy  which 
was  cooped  up  in  Cornwall,  and  proposed  that 
they  should  cut  their  way  out  at  all  oo8ts>  at 
the  horse  had  done,  but  he  was  overruled  by 
the  council  of  war,  and  forced  to  cajntulate. 
In  1645  he  was  appointed  major-genezal  of 
the  Now  Model,  and  was  present  at  the  battle 
of  Kascby,  where  he  was  severely  wounded. 
In  April,  1647,  ho  was  voted  the  command  of 
the  army  destined  for  Ireland,  and  in  the 
summer  of  the  same  year  he  was  actively 
engaged  in  trying  to  reconcile  the  army  and 
the  Parliament.  Skippon  disapproved  of  the 
king's  execution,  and  refused  to  sit  in  the 
High  Court  of  Justice,  but  became  a  membtT 
of  the  first  Council  of  State,  sat  in  the  Pbt- 
liaments  of  1654  and  1656,  acted  as  one  of 
Cromwell's  major-generals,  entered  his  Privr 
Council,  and  accepted  a  seat  in  his  House  of 
Lords.  He  died  either  just  before,  or  imme- 
diately after,  the  Hestoration. 

Slavery,  AnoLiTioir  op.  Slavery  in  Eng- 
land is  of  very  ancient  standing.  It  existed 
as  an  institution  among  the  Scucons  as  well  as 
the  Celts.  Among  tiie  former  the  slares 
consisted  chiefly  of  captives  taken  in  war,  or 
of  members  of  the  subject  race.  [Thsov.] 
After  the  Conquest,  the  distinct  slave  dass 
ceased  to  exist,  and  was  merged  with  the 
lower  class  of  ceorls  into  the  genenl  body 
of  villeins.  [Villbnagb.!  Though  tk 
Church  had  early  succeeded  in  potting 
an  end  to  the  traffic  in  English  slava 
{e.ff.,  by  the  canons  of  the  Oonncil  oi 
1102),  da  very  itseU  in  England  was  never 
aboli^ed  by  any  positive  enactment.  The 
decision,  therefore,  of  Lord  Mansfield,  in 
the  case  of  the  negro  Somerset  (1772),  that 
slavery  could  not  ^dst  in  England,  had  no 
legal  foundation,  and  merely  reflected  ^ 
public  opinion  of  the  time,    aegro  slarery  in 


81ft 


(961) 


Sme 


English  colonies  was  not,  however,  touched 
by  this  decision.  It  was  of  comparatively 
recent  growth;  the  first  im}>ortation  of 
negroes  to  America  is  said  to  have  been 
made  by  the  Portoguese  in  1603,  and  the 
other  nations  of  Western  Europe  took  part  in 
the  trade  as  soon  as  they  had  gained  any  share 
in  the  New  World.  Among  Englishmen,  the 
name  of  the  adventurer  John  Hawkins,  who 
made  his  first  voyage  in  1662,  is  especially 
associated  with  the  beg^inning  of  the  trade. 
The  merchants  of  Bristol  long  had  an  evil 
fame  in  this  matter.  One  of  the  most  sub- 
stantial advantages  which  England  gained  at 
the  Peace  of  Utrecht  was  the  Assiento,  which 
gave  it  a  monopoly  of  the  supply  of  slaves  to 
the  Spanish  possessions  in  America. 

The  movement  for  the  abolition  of  the 
slave  trade  was  started  by  Thomas  Clarkson, 
some  ten  years  after  the  Somerset  decision. 
His  efforts  were  assisted  by  the  Society  of 
Friends  and  by  individual  philanthropists 
such  as  Zachary  Macaulay,  father  of  the 
historian,  and,  above  all,  Wilberforce.  In 
1792  Wilberforce  gained  the  support  of  Pitt, 
and  a  motion  was  carried  in  the  House  of 
Commons  for  the  gradual  abolition  of  the 
trade.  But,  though  something  was  done  to 
l(.>ssen  the  atrocities  of  *'the  middle  passage," 
bills  prohibiting  the  trade  itself  were  re- 
peatedly defeated  by  the  West  Indian  interest. 
In  1806  the  first  step  was  gained  by  the  issue 
of  an  order  in  council  prohibiting  the  traffic 
with  colonies  acquired  during  the  war,  and  in 
1 806  a  bill  was  passed  against  the  trading  in 
Hlaves  by  British  subjects  either  with  these 
4'olonies  or  with  foreign  possessions.  Thus 
the  traffic  with  the  older  British  possessions 
was  stiU  allowed;  but  this  also  was  at  last 
jibolished  by  the  General  Abolition  Bill  in 
1807.  For  a  few  years  offenders  against  the 
Act  were  liable  only  to  fine,  but  in  1811  slave 
trading  was  createa  a  felony  punishable  with 
fourteen  years'  imprisonment;  in  1824  it  was 
declared  piracy  and  punishable  with  death, 
but  in  1837  this  was  altered  to  transportation 
for  life. 

The  success  of  this  movement  encouraged 
its  supporters  to  go  on  to  demand  the  total 
abolition  of  slavery  in  the  British  dominions. 
For  some  years  they  made  no  progress ;  but 
in  1823  Canning,  though  he  r^sed  to  con- 
sider the  matter  one  of  pressing  importance, 
gave  his  support  to  resolutions  aeclaring  that 
it  was  exp^ent  to  improve  the  condition  of 
the  slaves  in  order  to  fit  them  for  freedom. 
In  consequence,  a  government  circular  was 
issued  to  the  West  Indian  Islands  directing 
that  women  should  no  longer  be  flogged,  nor 
the  whip  used  in  the  fields.  It  was  greeted 
with  sullen  discontent,  and  some  of  the 
planters  began  to  talk  of  declaring  themselves 
independent.  In  Demerara  the  negroes,  be- 
lieving  the  English  government  had  set  them 
free,  and  being  prohibited  from  attending 
church,  rose  in  reliellion,  but  without  violence. 


The  rising  was  put  down ;  and  a  missionary, 
John  Smith,  who  had  taken  no  part  in  the 
insurrection,  but  who  had  done  much  to 
civilise  the  slaves,  was  tried  by  court-martial 
and  died  in  prison.  The  real  meaning  of  his 
prosecution  was  shown  by  the  complaint  in 
the  planters*  paper  that,  "  to  address  a  pro- 
miscuous audience  of  black  or  coloured  people, 
bond  and  free,  by  the  endearing  appellation 
of  'my  bretliren  and  sisters'  is  what  can 
nowhere  be  heard  except  in  Providence 
ChapeL*'  The  news  of  Smith's  martyrdom 
gave  a  great  impulse  to  the  abolitionist  move- 
ment in  England.  In  1826 — 26  Protectors  of 
Slaves  were  appointed  by  orders  in  council  to 
watch  over  their  interests,  and  in  1827  one  of 
these  protectors  gained  the  recognition  of 
the  right  of  a  slave  to  purchase  his  liberty. 
Finally,  in  1833,  the  great  Emancipation  AJct 
was  passed.  After  Aug.  1,  1834,  all  children 
under  six  years  of  age  became  free  at  once ; 
field  slaves  were  to  serve  their  present  masters 
as  **  apprenticed  labourers  "  for  seven  years, 
and  house  slaves  for  five,  and  after  that  were 
to  become  free ;  these  terms  were  shortened 
by  subsequent  enactment.  Twenty  million 
pounds  were  to  be  paid  to  the  planters  as 
compensation.  It  may  be  added  that  from 
1816  onward,  English  i|fuonce  caused  the 
other  European  nations  a^i  Brazil  to  prohibit 
the  slave  trade,  and  to  recognise  a  mutual 
right  ci  search. 

Clarkson,  Hiat.ofthe  Abolition  (1834) ;  Marti- 
nean,  Htst.  of  the  Peaces  bk.  ii..  chap.  6,  bk.  iv., 
ch.  &  {^^.  J.  A.] 

Slhlgnbj,  Sm  Henry,  of  Scriven, 
in  the  coimty  of  York,  represented  Knares- 
boroup^h  in  the  Long  Parliament,  and  followed 
the  king  to  York.  He  fought  at  Wetherl^, 
Marston  Moor,  Naseby,  and  other  battles,  m 
the  BoyaHst  ranks.  In  1666  he  entered  into 
negotiations  with  officero  of  the  garrison  of 
Hull  for  surrendering  it  to  the  Royalists.  For 
this  he  was  tried  by  a  high  court  of  justice 
in  1668,  and  sentenced  to  be  beheaded.  His 
execution  took  place  June  8,  1668. 

Diary  of  Sir  Henry  SHingAy,  ed.  by  Parsons,  1836. 

Small^y.  John,  was  the  servant  of  a 
member  of  Parliament  who,  in  1676,  was 
arrested  for  debt.  The  Commons  sent  their 
sergeant  to  deliver  him,  *' after  sunchry 
reasons,  arguments,  and  disputations."  But 
discovering  that  Smalley  had  fraudulently 
contrived  his  arrest  to  get  the  debt  cancelled, 
he  was  committed  and  fined.  His  case  is 
interesting  as  showing  privilege  of  Parliament 
in  its  fullest  extent,  and  able  even  to  protect 
the  ser\'ants  of  members.  A  statute  of  Greorge 
m.,  however,  took  away  this  unnecessary  and 
invidious  immunity. 

Holliun,  Conat,  Hitt.  ;  Hatsell,  Preoedmta. 

Smwrwiok,  a  bay  and  peninsula  in  Kerry, 
was  the  scene  of  the  landing  in  July,  1629, 
of  a  Papal  legate  and  James  Fitzmaurice^ 


Smi 


(  952  ) 


8ol 


who  built  a  fort  there.  Next  year  the  fort 
was  enlarged  and  made  the  head-quarters 
6i  about  800  Italian  and  Spanish  soldiers, 
sent  to  support  the  Catholic  cause  in  Ireland. 

Fronde,  Hist.  o/Eng.,  vol.  zi. 
• 
Bmitll,  Admiral  Sm  Sidney  {b,  1766,  d, 
1841),  entered  the  navy  at  an  early  age,  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  American  War.  During 
the  long  peace  which  followed,  he  served 
in  the  Swedish  navy  against  Russia.  He 
afterwards  served  at  Toulon,  was  for  two  years 
imprisoned  in  France,  and  subsequently  made 
his  greatest  mark  in  history  by  his  defence 
of  Acre  in  1798  against  3onaparte.  He 
concluded  the  Treaty  of  El  Arish  with  Kleber, 
but  the  government  refused  to  ratify  the 
compact.  He  was  constantly  employed  on 
various  services  till  the  end  of  the  war. 

Smitll,  Sir  Thomas  {b.  1514,  d.  1577),  an 
eminent  statesman  of  the  reign  of  Queen 
Elizabeth.  At  Cambridge  he  was  in  early 
life  the  associate  of  Cheke  in  promoting  the 
study  of  Greek,  and  also  of  civil  law,  which 
he  studied  at  Padua.  A  zealous  friend  of 
the  Reformation,  he  took  ^deacon's  orders, 
became  Doan  of  Carlisle,  and  was  made  by 
Somerset  Provost  of  Eton,  and  in  1548  Secre- 
tary of  State.  Tlmiaced  under  Mary,  he 
was  restored  by  BUzabeth  to  his  deanery, 
sent  on  various  important  missions,  and  em- 
ployed as  a  sort  of  assistant  secretary  to 
Cem,  with  whose  policy  he  sympathised.  He 
wrote,  besides  other  works,  a  book  on  the 
English  Commonwealth,  which  is  interesting 
as  keeping  up  the  constitutional  tradition 
even  at  a  time  of  the  greatest  depression  of 
English  liberty. 

Btrype,  AnnaU. 

Smollett,  Tobias  (b.  1721,  d.  1771),  the 
eminent  novelist,  published  in  1758  a  History 
of  Englafid  from  the  time  of  Julius  CsBsar 
to  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  Written 
within  fourteen  months,  this  history  has 
naturally  no  pretensions  to  permanent  value, 
and  the  old  custom  of  printing  the  latter  part 
as  a  continuation  of  Hume,  has  perhaps 
unduly  raised  its  literary  reputation.  StiU, 
with  all  its  faults,  vigorous  writing  and 
clear  delineation  of  character  give  Smollett's 
history  some  small  place  in  literature.  Smol- 
lett was  a  strong  Tory,  edited  a  Tory  review 
called  the  Critical  Review^  and  defended  Bute 
against  Wilkes. 

Sobraon,  The  Battle  of  (Feb.  10, 1846), 
was  fought  during  the  first  Sikh  War.  The 
Sikhs  had  entrenched  themselves  in  semi- 
circular fortifications  with  the  Sutlej  as 
their'  base,  and  their  outer  line  surroimded 
by  a  deep  ditch.  The  ramparts  were  de- 
fended by  sixty-seven  pieces  of  heavy  ord- 
nance and  25,000  soldiers  of  the  Khalsa.  A 
bridge  of  boats  united  this  encampment  with 
another  across  the  river  where  heavy  g^uns 


had  also  been  planted  which  completely  gveot 
the  left  bank.  On  the  10th  Sir  Hugh  Goo^ 
moved  his  army  in  three  divisions,  the 
main  attack  being  led  against  the  westea 
comer,  which  was  weakest.  The  pUn  vu 
to  draw  the  Sikhs  to  the  sham  attacks  of  the 
centre  and  right,  and  effect  an  entruice  at 
the  west,  thus  turning  the  whole  entrench- 
ment and  rendering  the  guns  nseleM.  After 
an  inefEective  though  terrific  fire  on  both 
sides,  the  main  division  advanced  at  &  nm, 
leaped  the  ditch,  and  mounted  the  rampait 
The  g^uns  were  instantly  turned  on  the  SiUu, 
who  now  concentrated  their  attack  on  thk 
part  and  turned  their  guns  in  the  interior  oa 
the  assailants.  A  furious  hand-to-huui 
struggle  ensued ;  but  the  gallant  chargeB  of  the 
English  centre  and  right  drew  off  many  of 
the  Sikhs ;  the  entrenchment  was  pierced  in 
three  places,  and  the  Sikhs  were  driven  head- 
long to  the  river,  where,  finding  the  brid^ 
broken,  they  plung^  in  and  perished  br 
hundreds.  Horse  artillery  was  Inought  up 
along  the  river,  and  its  cannonade  completed 
the  destruction  of  the  enemy.  The  loss  of 
the  Sikhs  was  estimated  at  8,000,  our  own  at 
2,383 ;  but  the  victory  was  complete. 
Cimning^ham,  BQclu. 

800,  or  Solca,  18  a  word  of  very  difierest 
meanings.  Originally  it  seems  to  have  meant, 
in  Anglo-Saxon  law,  a  sanctuary  or  pkce  of 
refuge;  but  it  came  to  be  applied  to  any 
privilege  or  exemption  granted  by  the  king 
to  a  subject,  and  eventually  the  territory  (z 
precinct  within  which  these  privileges  coold 
be  exercised.  From  "  soc "  in  the  sense  of 
privilege  or  franchise  is  derived  the  term 
"  socage  "  (q.v.),  because  land  held  by  that 
tenure  was  exempt  from  all  services  excejs 
those  specified  and  enumerated.  The  word 
is  also  used  in  the  technical  phrase,  "sac and 
soc"  (q.v.). 

Thorpe,  Aftglo-Saton  Law»  ;  KemUe,  Samu. 

Socaffe  ^B&  a  tenure  of  lands  characterised 
by  the  fficedness  of  the  service  doe  from  it 
There  wore  three  kinds  of  socage — ^freeand 
common  socage,  socage  in  ancient  tenure,  aod 
.socage  in  base  tenure.  The  latter  sorts  can 
only,  however,  be  improperly  called  socagf. 
The  latter  is  the  same  as  copynold,  the  fonoer 
as  tenure  in  ancient  demesne.  The  .^<^ 
12  Car.  n.,  c.  24,  which  aboHshed  knigbi 
service,  made  free  socage,  except  in  the  caf 
of  portions  of  the  Church  lands  still  held  is 
frank-almoign,  the  universal  land  tenoi^ 
in  England.  The  socage  was  bound  to 
fealty,  and  to  attendance  at  the  lord'» 
courts.    [Land  Txncre.] 

Socman  (Sochemannus)  was  a  tenant  in 
socage.  Originally  it  meant  a  man  who  is 
bound  to  pay  suit  to  a  soken. 

Solebay,  The  Battlb  of  (1665),  ^ 
fought  bv  the  English  fleet  under  the  coin- 
mand  of  'the  Duke  of  York,  and  the  Datcb 


Sol 


(  953  } 


Soni 


under  Admiral  Opdam.  The  English  were 
completely  victorious,  only  losing  one  ship 
and  about  700  men,  while  on  the  Dutch  side 
eighteen  ships  and  7,000  men  were  lost, 
among  the  latter  heing  Opdam  himself.  Sole- 
bay  (nouthwold  Bay)  is  on  the  Suffolk  coast. 

Solicitor  -  GonoraL  The  Solicitor- 
General  is  an  assistant  to  the  Attorney- 
General  (q.v.).  The  earliest  evidence  of  the 
existence  of  the  office  of  solicitor  to  the  king 
occurs  in  the  first  year  of  Edward  IV.,  and 
there  seems  little  doubt  that  before  that  reign 
there  was  no  such  officer.  In  the  reign  of 
Mury,  Rokeby,  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth, 
T.  Ifleming,  and  in  the  reign  of  James  1., 
Doderidge,  wei*e  severally  discharged  from 
the  office  of  Serjeant  in  order  that  they  might 
be  capable  of  serving  the  crown  in  the  capa- 
city of  Solicitor-General. 

FoflB,  lAvn  of  ihe  Judgw,  voL  It.,  p.  386  ;  Man- 
ning and  Oronger^B  Jieport*,  p.  589^  art.  Attomey- 
tieneroL 

Solmes,  Count  of  (d.  1693),  was  one  of 

the  Dutch  favourites  oi  William  III.     He 

occupied  Whitehall  in  favour  of  the  Prince 

of  Orange,  the  guards  of  James  II.  retiring 

before    him.      He   commanded   the    Dutch 

troops  during  William's  campaign  in  Ireland, 

and  led  the  charge  across  the  stream  at  the 

battle  of  the  Boyne.  On  William's  departure 

for  England  he  was  left  for  a  short  while  in 

command.   He  commanded  the  English  troops 

at  the  battle  of  Steinkirk,  and  his  failure  to 

support   Mackay's  division  was  in  a  great 

measure  the  cause  of  that  defeat.    The  out^ 

<rry  against  him  was  great,  and  Parliament 

commented  severely  on  his  conduct.    He  was 

mortally  wounded  at  Landen,  and  fell  alive 

into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.      *'Solme8," 

says  Macaulay,  **  though  he  was  said  by  those 

who  knew  him  well  to  have  some  valuable 

<luAlitie8,  was  not  a  man  likely  to  conciliate 

soldiers  who  were  prejudiced  against  him  as 

a  foreigner.    His  demeanour  was  arrogant, 

his  temper  ungovernable." 

Burnet,  Htst.  of  hU  Own  TiaM;  HacanlBy, 
Hut.  of  Eng, 

SolllTay  Mo88,  Thb  Battle  of  (Dec.  14, 
1<542),  resulted  in  the  defeat  of  the  Scotch 
army,  which  was  about  to  invade  England,  at 
the  hands  of  some  600  borderers  headed  by 
Thomas  Dacre  and  John  Musgrave.  The 
attack  was  made  when  the  Scotch  were 
quarrelling  amongst  themselves  about  the 
appointment  of  Oliver  Sinclair,  one  of  the 
favourites  of  James  V.,  to  the  office  of  Com- 
mander-in-Chief. Solway  Moss  is  just  on 
the  English  side  of  the  E^. 

Barton,  Hist,  of  Scotland ;  Fxotide,  Hut  of  Eng. 

ScWiOrledy  Lord  of  Argyll,  married  the 
daughter  of  Olaf,  King  of  Man,  and  espoused 
the  cause  of  Malcolm  MacHeth,  invading 
Scotland  in  conjunction  with  the  sons  of 
Malcolm  (Nov.,  1163).    In  1156  he  was  at 


war  with  Godred,  the  Norwegian  King  of  the 
Isles,  and  in  1164  arnin  attacked  Scotland; 
he  was,  however,  defeated  and  killed  at 
Renfrew.  He  represents  the  Celtic  reaction 
which  succeeded  on  the  Norse  conquest  of 
the  Hebrides.  The  Lords  of  the  Isles  traced 
their  descent  from  him. 
Skene,  Celtic  SooUand, 

Somem,  John,  Lord  (b,  1652,  d.  1716). 
was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  and 
became  a  barrister.    At  the  trial  of  the  Seven 
Bishops  he  pleaded  as  their  junior  counsel, 
and  made  a  short  but  weighty  speech  in  their 
favour.     Together  with  Montc^e  he  took 
his  seat  for  the  first  time  in  the  Convention 
Parliament    At  the  conference  between  the 
Lords  and  Commons  he  maintained  that  James 
had  ''abdicated"  the  throne.     He  framed 
the  Declaration  of  Right.    Shortly  afterwards 
he  was  appointed  Solicitor-GeneraL    In  169b 
he  was  made  chairman  of  the  committee  for 
considering  the  rights  of  those  corporations 
who  had  forfeited  their  charters  in  the  last 
'  two  reigns.    He  conducted  the  prosecution  of 
the  Jacobite  conspirators  Preston  and  Ashton 
with  great  moderation.    In  1692  he  became 
Attomey-Greneral,    and    subsequentiy    Lord 
Keeper    of    the    Privy    Seal.      Meanwhile 
William  was  gradually  discarding  Tories  and 
forming  a  united  Whig  ministry.    It  was  led 
by  the  Junto,  consisting  of  Somers,  Halifax, 
Russell,  and  Wharton.    In  1695  the  arrange- 
ments for  the  restoration  of  the  currency  were 
placed    in    his    hands.     Shortly    afterwards 
the  Whig  ministry  was   established,  and  he 
was  made  Lord  Chancellor.     In  1697,  when 
Parliament  wished  to  reduce  the   standing 
army,   Somers  wrote   a  treatise,  known  as 
the  Balaneing  Letter,  in  which,  while  he  con- 
demned a  standing  army,  he  approved  of  a 
temporary  army  annually  fixed  by  Parliament. 
By  Somers'  adnce  William  agreed  to  the  Bill 
for  the  disbanding  of  the  army.  But  the  coun- 
try  was  rapidly  becoming  discontented.    In 
1697  Somers  was  assailed  for  complicity  in  the 
piracies  of  Kidd,  because  he  had  subscribed 
to    the   expedition  Kidd   proposed  to  start 
against  piracy.     Again  attacked  on  the  ques- 
tion of  grants  of  crown  lands,  he  and  his 
colleagues  were  compelled  to  retire  in  1700. 
In  1701  he  was  impeached  for  his  share  in  the 
Partition  Treaties  and  in  Kidd*s  misdeeds; 
but  the  Commons  decUned  to  appear  before 
the  Whig  majority  of  the  Lords,  who  there- 
upon declared  him  acquitted,    llie  accession 
of  Anne  deprived  him  for  some  years  of  any 
hope  of  a  return  to  power;    but  in  1706 
he  joined,  with  other  members  of  the  Junto, 
the  GKxlolphin  ministry  as  President  of  th(' 
Council.    He  fell  with  the  ministry,  and  soon 
after  was  attacked  by  paralysis,  which  put 
an  end  to  his  political  activity.    Yet,  on  the 
accession  of  George,  Somers  was  sworn  of  the 
Privy  Coundl,  and  given  a  seat  in  the  Cabinet. 
"In  his  public  capacity,'*  says  Archdeacon 


Sou 


(  9^4  ) 


Goxe,  '^  Lord  Somen  was  a  true  patriot. 
Of  the  real  Whigs  he  was  the  only  one  who 
possessed  the  favour  of  William.  Though  con- 
stitutionally impetuous  and  irritable,  he  had  so 
far  conquered  nature  as  to  master  the  move- 
ments of  his  ardent  spirit  at  the  time  when 
his  mind  was  agitated  by  contending  passions. 
His  elocution  was  powerful,  perspicuous,  and 
manly ;  his  reasoning  clear  and  powerful.  As 
a  lawyer  he  attentively  studied  tiie  principles 
of  the  constitution.  Nor  were  his  acquire- 
ments confined  to  internal  relations;  ho 
attentively  studied  foreign  aifairs,  and  was 
profoundly  versed  in  diplomatic  business,  as 
well  as  in  the  political  interests  of  Europe." 
This  character,  though  from  a  Whig  source, 
is  only  a  little  too  strong  praise  of  one  of  the 
greatest  statesmen  of  the  Revolution  epoch. 

Ck>ze,  MarJbornHgh ;  IDicaulav,  Hi$t  of  Sng, ; 
Campbell,  ChanceUort;  ICaddock,  Life  of 
Somen;  Cookaey,  Kuay  on  Life  and  CKarcu^er 
of  Somen.  [S.  J.  L.] 

Sonieniet,  Edmund  Bbauport,  Dukb  op 
jd.  1455),  was  the  son  of  John,  Earl  of 
Somerset,  and  grandson  of  John  of  Gaunt.  He 
fought  in  the  French  wars,  and  was  taken 
prisoner  in  the  battle  of  Beauj6.  In  1447  he 
was  made  Lieutenant  of  France,  but  acted  very 
feebly  in  this  capacity.  Under  his  rule  the 
whole  of  Normandy  was  lost.  He  returned 
to  England  in  1450,  and  was  at  once  made 
High  Constable,  and  succeeded  Suffolk  as 
chief  minister  and  opponent  of  the  Duke  of 
York.  In  1452  the  Duke  of  York  brought 
forward  a  series  of  charges  against  Somerset, 
accusing  him  of  the  loss  of  Normandy,  of 
embezzlement  of  public  money,  and  other 
offences.  Things  seemed  on  the  verge  of 
civil  war  when  a  compromise  was  effected, 
and  for  a  time  the  charges  against  Somerset 
were  dropped.  At  the  end  of  1453  the  Duke 
of  Norfolk  made  a  fresh  attack  upon  him, 
and  he  was  arrested  and  imprisoned.  He 
remained  in  prison  for  more  than  a  year, 
during  which  the  Yorkists  were  in  the  as- 
cendant, but  in  the  beginning  of  1455  he  was 
released  and  restored  to  office.  York  pro- 
tested against  this,  and  raised  an  army,  with 
which  ho  marched  towards  London ;  he  was 
met  by  the  royalists  at  St.  Albans,  where  he 
was  completely  victorious,  and  Somerset  was 
among  those  who  were  slain. 

Somerset,  Edmund  Beaufort,  Dukb  op 
(</.  1471),  was  the  son  of  Henry  Beaufort, 
Duke  of  Somerset.  On  the  restoration  of 
Henry  VI.  he  was  restored  to  his  dukedom, 
and  commanded  the  archers  at  the  battle  of 
Bamet.  He  was  subequently  in  command  at 
Tewkesbury,  where  he  was  taken  prisoner  and 
beheaded.  With  him  expired  the  male  line 
of  the  Beauforts. 

Somerset,  Hekkv  Bsauport,  Duke  of 
(d.  1463),  fought  in  the  French  wars,  and  on 
the  Lancastrian  side  at  the  battle  of  Towton. 
After  the  defeat,  he  escaped  to  Scotland,  but 
was  subsequently  pardoned  by  Edward  IV. 


But  having  once  more  joined  the  Laucastziut^ 
he  was  taken  prisoner  m.  the  battle  of  HexLn 
and  beheaded. 

Somereety  Edward  Sbymoub,  Dru  or 
{d,  1552),  Lord  Protector  of  England,  vm 
into  importance  with  the  marriage  of  his  d4a, 
Jane   Seymour,  to  Hcsnry   VI U.,  in  ld36. 
Henceforward  he  became  one  of  the  leaden  d 
the  Reformed  party  at  the  court,  and  wm 
constantly  employed  in  nulitazy  and  admiiu?. 
trative  services,  in  which  he  displayed  co&- 
siderable  capacity.    He  was  created  £aii  of 
Hertford  (1637).     In  1544  he  was  sent  in:. 
Scotland  at  the  head  of  10,000  men,  and  a,]- 
tured    and    sacked    Edinburgh    and   Leith 
(May,  1^444.    Immediately  afterwards  HeU- 
ford  and  the  greater  part  of  his  army  wetv 
transported  to  Calais  to  prosecute  the  w 
against  France,  and  met  with  some  siicoea^ 
near    Boulogne.      In    the    dosing  year  i^ 
Henry's  reign  Seymour  was   actively  ts- 
ployed  in  counteracting  the  intrigues  of  th- 
Ho^mrds,  and  succeeded  so  well  that  Stirrev, 
his  great  rival,  was  put  to  death,  and  Norfolk 
narrowly  esoaped  with  his  life.    ByHearf 
VIII.*s  will  Hertford  was  appointed  one  •!' 
the  council  of  sixteen  executors.    But  tk 
will  was  immediately  set  aside,  and  HcitfoH 
(now  created  Duke  of  SomcraeQ  wasappoinU^l 
President  of  the  Ck)unGal  and  Protector  of  (bf 
Kingdom.    A  fleet  and  army  having  been  col- 
lected to  assist  the  Protestants  in  Scotland,  anl 
force  on  the  marriage  between  Edwaid  VL  «ihi 
the  young  Queen  Mary,  Somerset  at  the  bead 
of  a  great  army  invaded  Scotland,  and  won 
the  battle  of  Pinkie  (Sept.  10,  1547),  with  tfat 
result,  however,  of  completely  alienating?  tfa» 
Scots,  and  hastening  the  marriage  cootnct 
between  Mary  and  the  Dauphin  of  Fnncr. 
In  France  the  Protector  was  obliged  to  k- 
open  the  war,  and  his  forces  were  wonted  in 
several  actions    near    Boulogne.     In  hoo^ 
affairs  it  was  the  aim  of  Somerset  and  his 
followers  in  the  council  to  push  on  the  ^i<«- 
mation  as  speedily  as  possible.    Aconipi«'% 
English  service  book  was  drawn  up  [Piuta 
BookI  and  the  first  Act  of  Unifonnity  w 
passed  (1549).    At  the  same  time  an  atUim\^ 
was  made  to  reverse  the  arbitrary  govpmnnsit 
of  Henry    VIII.'s    reign.      But  Soment^' 
own  conduct  was    in    some    respects  mor' 
arbitrary  than  that  of  the  late  king.    !& 
1549  the  Protector's  brother.  Lord  Sem*-' 
of  Sudeley,  was  engaged  in  designs  for  ovvr- 
tuming  Somerset's  government,  and  gottiiu* 
the  guardianship  of  the  king  and  kmgdt'C 
himself.      A  Bill  of  Attainder  was  brouft: 
against  him,  and  he  was  condemned  of  treasor. 
and  executed  without  being  allowed  thf  op- 
portunity of  speaking  in  his  own  defpnoe 
(1 549) .    Somerset  also  made  some  attempts  U- 
relieve  the  social  distresses  of  the  kingd^ot. 
and  issued  a  commisBion  to  inquire  into  thrm- 
The  result,  however,  was  only  that  of  ia- 
creasing  popular  excitement,  and  of  looang 


Som 


(  965  ) 


Son 


the  enmity  of  the  whole  body  of  the  new 
nobility  who  had  protited  by  the  recent 
changes.  In  1549  a  rebellion  of  an  agrarian 
character  broke  out  in  Norfolk,  while  another 
in  Devonflhire  was  caused  by  the  advance  of 
the  Reformation.  Somerset  displayed  no 
vigour  in  suppressing  the  insurrections,  while 
his  rivals  in  the  council  acted  with  energy. 
John  Dudley,  Earl  of  Warwick,  his  principal 
n2>ponent,  put  down  the  Norfolk  rising  with 
much  severity,  and  at  once  gained  great  in- 
fluence in  the  council.  Somerset  attempted 
to  bring  matters  to  a  crisis,  by  declaring  the 
council  treasonable;  but  he  was  compelled 
to  submit  to  the  majority,  and  to  resign  the 
Protectorship  (1649).  He  was  sent  to  the 
Tower,  but  released  in  February,  1660.  In 
the  following  year  he  was  gradually  regain- 
ing influence,  with  the  failure  of  the  council's 
administration.  Northumberland  (Warwick), 
aftaid  of  his  designs,  had  him  seised  and  tried 
for  treason  and  felony.  He  was  found  guilty 
on  tho  latter  indictment  and  executed  (Jan. 
22,  1552).  A  man  of  patriotio  feeling,  and 
much  ability,  Somerset  s  failure  was  chiefly 
duo  to  want  of  judgment  and  foresight. 

Hi^ward,  lAfe  and  R^igm  of  Sdward  VI,  ;  Ed- 
ward VL'a  Journal ;  MMhyn,  Diary  (Camden 
Soo.) ;  Edeu,  Stale  qfthe  Poor.       [8.  J.  L.] 

Somerset,  Chasles  Setmoitr,  Dvke  of 
(6. 1662,  d,  1748),  succeeded  to  the  titles  of  his 
brother  Francis  in  1678.  As  Gentleman  of  the 
Bod-chamber  to  James  II.,  he  refused  to  intro- 
duce the  papal  nuncio  at  Windsor,  and  was  in 
consequence  dismissed  from  his  office.  In  1688 
he  joined  the  Prince  of  Orange,  was  appointed 
IVesident  of  the  Council,  and  on  the  de]>arture 
of  William  to  Ireland  was  one  of  the  Lords 
Justices  who  administered  the  kingdom.  On 
tho  accession  of  Queen  Anne,  he  was  created 
Master  of  the  Horse.  He  was  one  of  the 
commis0ionerB  for  treating  of  the  Union  with 
Scotland  (1708).  Through  the  influence  of 
his  wife,  he  became  a  favourite  with  Anne. 
After  being  connected  with  Harley  and  the 
Tories  for  some  years  ^l  708— 1711),  he  began 
to  intrigue  with  the  Whigs  (1711),  and  was 
in  consequence  dismissed  from  his  office  in 
the  following  year.  As  Queen  Anne  lay  on 
her  death-b^,  he  repaired  to  the  council, 
and,  in  conjunction  with  Argylc,  proposed 
that  the  Lord  Treasurer's  staff  should  be 
entrusted  to  Shrewsbury.  Thus,  by  taking 
power  out  of  BoUngbroke's  hand,  he  did  a 
gi*ctit  service  to  the  house  of  Hanover.  Before 
V«(K>i^  arrived  in  England,  Somerset  acted  as 
one  of  the  guardians  of  the  realm.  He  again 
became  Mt^ter  of  the  Horse,  but  resigned  in 
the  following  year,  and  took  no  important 
part  in  politics  subsequently. 

Burnet.  Hist,  of  hU  Own  Timg ;  Boyer, 
Anndlt ;  Stanhope,  Btign  of  Annt, 

8oili0m0t.  Robert  Garb,  Eakl  of, 
\i*as  descendea  from  the  great  border  &mily 
of  the  Kers  of  Ferniehurst.  As  a  boy  he 
had   served  James  VI.   as    a    page,   and  a 


short  time  after  that  monarch  became  King 
of  England,  Carr  succeeded  in  attracting 
his  notice  and  winning  his  favour.  In 
1611  his  creation  as  Viscount  Bochester  made 
him  the  first  Scotsman  who  took  a  seat  in 
the  House  of  Lords.  He  became  a  Privy 
Councillor,  and  though  without  office  and 
ignorant  of  business,  he  soon  became  the 
confidential  minister  of  James.  About  1613 
he  formed  that  connection  with  Frances 
Howard,  Countess  of  Essex,  which  resulted  in 
her  divorce  from  her  husband,  the  imprison- 
ment and  murder  of  Sir  Thomas  Overbury 
(q.v.),  her  husband's  confidant,  and  ultimately 
in  her  marriage  with  Carr  (Dec.  26),  who  was 
made  Earl  of  Somerset  that  the  lady  might  not 
lose  in  rank.  Somerset  became  the  tool  of  the 
Howards,  his  wif c^s  relations,  and  squandered 
the  immense  sums  of  money  which  flowed  to 
him  on  ever}'  side.  At  last,  a  courtiers'  in- 
trigue against  him  endangered  a  power  preca- 
rious in  its  very  nature.  The  circumstances 
attending  Overbur^^'s  death  were  brought  to 
light.  The  complicity  of  Somerset  was 
thought  to  be  involved  in  the  ascertained 
g^ilt  of  his  wife.  Ho  was  convicted,  but 
after  a  long  imprisonment  was  pardoned.  H(t 
ended  his  life  in  an  obscurity  only  broken  by 
a  Star  Chamber  prosecution. 

State  TriaU:  Gardiner,  HUt.  of  Eng.,  1008- 
1648,  voL  ii. 

Soudan.    [See  Appendix.] 

South  African  Colonies.    The 

Cape  Colony  was  founded  in  1652  by  the 
Dutch  East  India  Company,  and  remained 
under  the  rule  of  Holland  for  a  considerable 
period,  which  was  marked  bv  the  cruel 
oppression  of  the  Hottentot  tribes,  and  tho 
vexatious  restrictions  imposed  on  Uie  Boers, 
liie  latter,  in  consequence,  revolted  in  1796, 
but  the  Prince  of  Orange  gained  the  support 
of  the  Englie^  fleet,  and  the  country  was 
ruled  by  British  governors  until  1802,  when 
it  was  restored  to  Holland  by  the  Treaty  of 
Amiens.  Cape  Colony  was,  however,  again 
occupied  by  the  English  in  1806,  and  was 
finally  given  up  by  the  Dutch  government  in 
1815.  The  first  half  of  the  century  was 
marked  by  the  five  bloody  Kaffir  wars  ((811 — 
1853),  terminated  by  the  erection  of  British 
Kaffraria  into  a  crown  colony,  which  was 
absorbed  into  the  Cape  Colony  in  1866,  by 
the  foundation  of  the  settlements  about 
Algoa  Bay  {eirea  1820),  by  the  abolition  of 
slavery  in  1834,  and  by  the  commencement 
of  the  Dutch  exodus.  The  first  party  of 
rebellious  Boers  crossed  the  Orange  River  in 
1835,  and  a  portion  of  them  penetrated  to 
NataX  where  they  founded  a  republic.  The 
land  occupied  by  the  remainder  was  annexed 
to  the  English  government  in  1848,  under  the 
title  of  the  Orange  River  Sovereignty.  But 
a  number  of  malcontents,  under  Pretorius, 
hai-ing  been  defeated  by  the  British  troops, 
retreated   still  further  north,   and  founded 


8aa 


(  966  ) 


Son 


the  third  Boer  aettlement  in  the  Transvaal. 
These  hut  were  granted  independence  in 
,1852,  and  the  Orange  Biyer  Sovereignty 
was  abandoned  by  the  British  two  years  later, 
and  became  the  Orange  Free  State.  In  the 
Gape  Colony  the  Dutch  landrost  and  his 
assessors  had  been  abolished  in  1827,  and 
their  places  had  been  taken  by  a  governor, 
assisted  by  a  general  and  an  executive  council 
composed  of  government  officials.  An  agita- 
tion, begpin  in  1860,  in  consequence  of  an 
unwise  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  British 
government  to  land  convicts  at  Gape  Town, 
speedily  developed  into  a  movement  in  favour 
of  free  institutions.  A  constitution  was 
accordingly  granted  to  the  Gape  Colony  in 
1853,  and  this  has  since  been  modified 
by  Act  28  Vict.  cap.  5,  and  the  Colonial 
Act,  III.  of  1865,  and  by  the  ♦•Con- 
stitution Ordinance  Amendment  Act "  of  the 
Colonial  Parliament  of  1872.  In  its  final 
form,  the  government  is  vested  in  an  execu- 
tive council,  composed  of  the  governor  and 
office-holders  appointed  by  the  crown  but 
holding  office  at  the  pleasure  of  the  Colonial 
Parliament,  while  the  legislative  power  rests 
with  a  legislative  council  of  twenty-two 
members  elected  fOr  seven  years,  and  a  House 
of  Assembly  of  seventy-six  members  for  the 
districts  and  towns  elected  for  five  years.  The 
division  of  the  colony  for  administrative  pur- 
poses into  western  and  eastern  provinces  was 
abolished  in  1873,  and  seven  provinces  substi- 
tuted. Between  1853  and  1877  there  was  con- 
tinued peace  with  the  native  races,  and  the  Cape 
government  was  occupied  in  works  of  pubUc 
utility,  such  as  the  harbour  breakwater  of 
Table  Bay,  and  the  making  of  various  rail- 
ways, of  which  that  from  Cape  Town  to  Beau- 
fort West  is  the  most  important.  These 
works  caused  the  public  debt  to  increase  wiUi 
startling  rapidity  from  less  than  a  million 
in  1872  to  twenty-six  millions  in  1893,  an  in- 
crease that  was  partly  due  also  to  wars  with 
the  native  tribes  of  the  Gralekas  and  Gkikas 
in  1877  and  1878,  and  the  Basutos  in  1880 
and  1881.  The  territory  of  the  latter  was 
annexed  in  1868  in  consequence  of  their 
border  warfare  with  the  Boers,  and  in  1874 
and  1875  Griqualand  East  and  the  Transkei 
lands  of  the  Fingos  and  their  neighbours 
came  under  British  rule.  Griqualand  West, 
with  its  diamond-fields,  had  become  part  of 
our  colonial  empire  in  1872.  The  idea  of  the 
federation  of  the  South  African  colonies,  pro- 
jected while  Lord  Kimberley  was  Secretary 
of  State  (1870 — 74),  was  adopted  by  his  suc- 
cessor. Lord  Carnarvon,  and  Sir  Bartle  Frere 
was  sent  out  in  1877  to  arrange  the  settle- 
ment. He  found,  however,  that  his  repre- 
sentations were  coldly  received,  and  they 
were  definitely  rejected  by  the  Cape  Parlia- 
ment in  1880. 

Natal,    which   was    settled,  as  has  been 

.said  above,  by  Boers  who  "trekked"  from 

the  Cape  Colony,  was  annexed  by  the  British 


government   in    1842,    and   erected  into  ft 
separate  colony  in  1856.    By  its  cbaiterol 
constitution,  as  modified  in  1876, 1879, 1683, 
and    1893,  the    government   connsU  of  a 
governor,  a  leg^islative  council,  and  a  legis- 
lative   assembly.     The   former  oonsigU  of 
eleven  members,  nominated  by  the  goremor 
in  council ;  the  latter  of  thirty-seven  members 
elected  by  popular  vote.     Owing  to  the  vail 
superiority  in  numbers  of  the  native  oTer  th< 
white  population  Natal  has  never  been  in  a 
progressive  condition.    The  colony  was  od) 
indirectly  affected   by  the    Transvaal  war. 
caused  by  tiie  attempt  of  the  Boers  in  1S8<' 
to  shake  off  the  yoke  which  had  been  imposts 
upon  them  in  1877.    By  the  Convention  o( 
Pretoria,  the  Transvaal  Boers,  while  retainin;: 
self-government,  acknowledged  the  surcrainty 
of  Britain.     At  the  beginning  of  1896  tky 
successfully  repelled  a  raid,  headed  by  Dr. 
Jameson,  administrator  of  the  British  South 
Africa    Company.      In    1879    the    EngliA 
government  thought  it  expedient  to  breal^ 
the  power  of  the  strong  Zulu  tribe,  bnt  tk 
victory  of  XJlundi  was  not  gained  until  oni 
troops'  had  suffered  a  disastrous  surprise  at 
Isandlwana.     In  1887  about  two-thirds  of  tb' 
country  was  annexed.     Basutoland  became  a 
British  colony   in   1884,  and  Bechuanaland 
(so  much  of  it  as  was  not  annexed  to  Otpr 
Colony)  in  1885.     In  1889  the  British  Soath 
Africa  Company  received  a  charter  for  ihe 
administration  of  some  750,000  square  mfle^  of 
land  lying  south  of  the  Zambesi,  colloqoiall; 
known  as  Bhodesia. 

Chase  and  Wflmot,  Hiat.  <^  Vu  Co(o»ir  cf  (k< 
CajM  of  Good  Hop*  ;  Noble,  SknctM/rioa ;  CbesKW; 
The  Dutch  BepvMlc9 ;  Statham,  Btadt$,BotT$y  «4 
BrUith;  TroUope,  SoiOK  Africa;  Pw/ce,  Of 
CiAowg  ofNaUa;  Brooks,  Natal;  Colflns),  lU 
Zviu  War;  Carter,  !%•  Botr  Ww,  TM  ^tote- 
man'a  Yeair  Book,  i 

Sonthamvton.  from  its  geogTaphi«l 
position,  has  playea  an  important  part  ib 
English  history.  The  English  who  settled 
in  Wessex  founded  the  town,  called  Hamtan<' 
and  Suth-Hamtun  in  the  Angh-Saxm  Ckn- 
niele,  near  the  site  of  the  Homan  town  of 
Clausentum.  It  was  frequently  attacked  Ij 
the  Danes  (in  837,  980,  and  994),  and  Canute 
used  it  as  his  chief  point  of  embarkation.  Is 
1338  it  was  sacked  by  a  fleet  of  French  and 
Genoese,  and  was  afterwards  fortified  with 
care,  ^uthampton  was  frequently  used  » 
a  port  of  embarkation  during  the  HundrpJ 
Years'  War ;  it  was  there  that  Henry  V.. 
in  1415,  just  before  sotting  out  for  Fran«. 
executed  the  Earl  of  Cambridge,  LordScrope, 
and  Sir  Thomas  Grey  for  treason.  South- 
ampton espoused  the  Yorkist  cause  dnring 
the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  after  the  Lancastrians 
had  made  an  attempt  to  take  it.  Heniy  VIII- 
used  the  town  as  a  basis  of  operaiicn^  ^ 
sea  in  his  attacks  on  France;  Philip  d 
Spain  landed  therein  1554.  Since  then  South- 
ampton  has  been  important  chiefly  as  the  pns- 
cipal  commercial  port  of  the  south  coast. 


8aa 


(967; 


Spa 


Sonthamptoiiy   Hbnrt  Wriothbsley, 

(rd  Eakl  of  (a.  1624),  a  fayourite  of  Queen 
SUzabeth,  ana  a  bosom  friend  of  Efisex,  was 
;he  grandson  of  Lord  Chancellor  Wriothealey. 
[n  1597  he  took  part  in  the  disastrous  er- 
>edition  to  the  Azores,  and  two  years  later 
bUowed  Essex  to  Ireland,  where  he  was 
ippointed  Greneral  of  the  Horse,  to  the  anger 
>i  Elizabeth,  whose  good- will  he  had  forfeited 
m  his  marriage.  In  1601  his  impetuosity 
ind  generous  support  of  his  friend  led  him  to 
uke  an  active  ptu*t  in  Essex's  rebellion,  and 
10  was  put  on  his  trial  for  high  treason.  He 
vas  condemned,  but,  owing  to  the  intercea- 
ion  of  Sir  Robert  Cecil,  was  not  executed ; 
le  was,  however,  confined  in  the  Tower  until 
he  death  of  the  queen.  He  is  described  as  a 
aan  of  ''high  courage,  great  honour,  and 
ntegrity."  His  literary  relations  invest  his 
areer  with  particular  interest. 

Soutliailiptoiiy  Thomas  Wsiotheslbt, 
•]arl  op  {d,  1549),  was  appointed  Lord  Chan- 
cUor  in  the  place  of  Lord  Audley  in  1544. 
ic  was  a  zealous  Catholic,  and  is  said  to  have 
ortured  Anne  Askew  with  his  own  hands. 
Earned  one  of  the  council  of  regency  in  the 
eill  of  Henry  VIII.,  he  was  created  Earl  of 
(outhampton,  but  failed  to  obtain  the  confi- 
lence  of  Somerset,  to  whom  he  had  long  been 
n  opposition.  In  1647  Wriothealey  of  his 
»wn  authority  put  the  great  seal  in  com- 
niasion,  and  appointed  four  individuals  to 
lischarge  the  duties  of  chancellor.  This  act, 
vhich  was  declared  by  the  judges  to  amount 
o  a  misdemeanour,  enabled  the  council  to 
lemand  his  resignation.  Shortly  after  this 
jord  Seymour  of  Sudeley  tried  to  draw  him 
ntoa  plot  against  the  Protector,  but,  probably 
rom  caution,  he  refused  his  overtures,  and 
;ave  information  of  the  intrigue.  In  1549 
le  entered  into  negotiations  with  Warwick, 
nd  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  deposition  of 
>omerset,  but  soon  afterwards  retired  from  the 
council  in  disgust  at  the  treatment  he  received, 
.nd  died,  it  is  said,  of  disappointment. 

Froude,  flue,  of  Eng. ;  Campbell,  ChanoeUor$. 

South  Sea  Scheme,  The.    In  1711  a 

ompany  was  formed  for  trading  to  the 
'  South  Seas,"  which  was  induced  to  lend  ten 
(lillions  to  the  government  during  Harley's 
reasurership,  and  to  allow  the  debt  to  be 
unded,  in  return  for  a  monopoly  of  the  trade 
trith  the  Spanish  colonies.  In  1717  Walpole 
>er8uaded  the  South  Sea  creditors  to  make  a 
urther  advance  of  five  millions  to  the  govern- 
ricnt.  In  1720  the  South.Sea  Company,  de- 
irons  of  further  government  credit,  agreed 
o  bike  up  thirty-two  millions  of  the  govern- 
nent  annuities,  and  to  perstiade  the  holders 
o  take  in  exchange  South  Sea  stock.  The 
government  annuities  had  borne  seven  or 
i^ht  per  cent,  interest ;  the  company  was 
o  receive  five  per  cent,  till  1727,  and  four 
>er  cent,  afterwards.    In  order  to  outbid  the 


offers  of  the  Bank  of  Ekigland  and  other  as- 
sociations, the  South  Sea  Company  agreed  to 
pay  to  government  a  heavy  premium  of  more' 
than  seven  millions.  The  company  had  thus 
weighted  itself  heavilv,  and  it  was  doomed  to 
failure  if  the  public  did  not  subscribe  for  its 
shares  readily.  At  first  there  seemed  no  danger 
of  this.  The  public  rushed  in  to  subscribe, 
and  the  company*s  stock  was  taken  with  the 
utmost  eagerness.  But  the  success  of  tho 
South  Sea  scheme  had  developed  a  spirit  of 
speculation  in  the  nation.  Companies  of  all' 
lands  were  formed,  and  the  public  hastened  to 
subscribe,  to  sell  their  shares  at  a  premium, 
and  to  buy  others.  A  frenzy  of  gambling  and 
stock-jobbing  took  possession  of  the  nation. 
Many  of  the  schemes  formed  were  fraudu- 
lent or  visionary.  The  South  Sea  Company, 
whose  own  shares  were  at  900  per  cent, 
premium,  took  action  against  some  of  the 
bubble  companies  and  exposed  them.  This 
produced  an  instantaneous  effect.  A  panic 
set  in.  Everybody  was  now  anxious  to  sell. 
All  shares  fell  at  once,  and  the  South  Sea 
Company's  own  stock  fell  in  a  month  (Sept., 
1720)  from  1,000  to  176.  The  ruin  was  wide- 
spread, and  extended  to  all  classes  of  the 
nation.  Popular  feeling  cried  out  for  ven- 
geance on  the  South  Sea  directors,  though  in 
reality  the  calamity  had  not  been  caused  by 
them,  but  by  the  reckless  speculation  which 
had  been  indulged  in.  A  retrospective  Act  of 
Parliament  was  passed,  remitting  the  seven 
millions  due  to  the  government,  appropriating 
the  private  property  of  the  directors  for  the 
relief  of  those  who  had  suffered,  and  dividing 
the  capital  of  the  company,  after  discharg^g- 
its  liabilities,  among  the  proprietors.  Aislabie, 
the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  Charles 
Stanhope,  and  Secretary  Craggs  and  his  son, 
were  tried  and  implicated  in  the  matter ;  and 
an  inquiry,  ordered  by  the  Commons,  resulted 
in  the  expulsion  of  Aislabie,  and  the  acquittal 
of  Stanhope  .by  three  votes.  The  younger 
Craggs  died  before  the  inquiry  was  over,  and 
the  elder  committed  suicide. 

Sonthwold  Bay,  The  Battlb  of  (1672), 
was  fought  between  the  English  fleet  under 
the  Duke  of  York,  and  the  Dutch  under 
De  Ruyter.  After  a  desperate  struggle  the 
English  gained  the  day,  though  with  the  loss 
of  some  vessels,  and  one  of  their  commanders, 
the  Earl  of  Sandwich.  Southwold  Bay  is  on 
the  coast  of  Suffolk. 

Spa  Fields  Blots,  Thb  (Dec.  2,  I8I6), 

were  the  result  of  the  extreme  depression  of 
trade,  the  severity  of  the  government,  and  the 
intrigues  of  the  Spejicean  philanthropists.  A 
great  meeting  was  convened  in  Spa  Fields, 
Bermondsoy,  which  was  to  be  addressed  by 
"  Orator  "  Hunt,  but  before  he  came  there  the 
mob  had  started  on  a  career  of  riot,  which, 
however,  was  easily  suppressed  by  the  Lord 
Mayor  with  only  seven  men  to  help  him. 


Spa 


(  968  ) 


8pa 


Relations  with.  iSerious  rela- 
tions between  England  and  the  Spanish 
Idn^om  began  witii  the  reign  of  Henry  II. 
The  marriage  of  his  second  daughter,  Eleanor, 
to  Alfonso  YIII.  of  Castile ;  his  arbitration 
between  Alfonso  and  King  Sancho  of  Na- 
varre ;  even  the  younger  Henry's  pilgrimage 
to  ComposteUa — always  a  favourite  shrine 
with  Englishmen — Richard  I.'s  marriage  with 
Berengaria  of  Navarre,  all  contributed  to 
foim  a  close  friendship  between  the  two 
countries  that  became  traditional  all  through 
the  Middle  Ages.  The  marriage  of  Blanche 
of  Castile  to  Louis,  son  of  PhiHp  Augustus, 
was  regarded  as  a  safe  means  of  insuring 
peace  between  John,  her  uncle,  and  the  French 
king.  The  continued  possession  of  Gascony 
by  the  English  kings  made  them  almost 
neighbours  of  some  of  the  Spanish  monarchs. 
The  appointment  by  Henry. I II.  of  his  son, 
Edward,  as  regent  of  Ouienne  in  1260  was 
quickly  followed  by  the  marriage  of  Edward 
with  Eleanor,  sister  of  Alfonso  X..  whose 
claims  through  the  elder  Eleanor  to  that 
•duchy  made  it  necessary  to  conciliate  him, 
but  wliose  legislative  instinct  may  well  have 
established  sympathy  between  him  and  his 
brother-in-law.  Edward  I.  had  constant 
dealings  with  Spain.  He  sought  earnestly  to 
mediate  between  France  and  Castile  in  1276. 
In  1288  he  visited  Catalonia  in  order  to  re- 
concile the  French  and  Aragonese  claimants 
to  Naples ;  but  Alfonso's  X.'s  death,  and  the 
want  of  success  of  a  policy  which  rested 
entirely  on  mediation,  caused  Edward's  rela- 
tions to  Spain  to  become  less  cordial  towards 
the  end  of  his  reign,  despite  the  political 
necessity  of  seeking  in  the  south  a  counter- 
piiise  to  French  influence.  Again  under 
Edward  III.  the  relations  were  renewed.  The 
Black  Prince  marched  with  a  g^reat  army  into 
Castile  to  protect  Peter  the  Cruel  against 
Henry  of  Trastamare,  and  his  victory  at 
Navarette  (April  3,  1367)  for  a.time  kept  the 
tyrant  on  his  throne.  Peter's  final  discom- 
fiture  led  to  fierce  hostility  between  England 
and  the  house  of  Trastamare,  which  thus 
gained  possession  of  the  Castilian  throne.  John 
of  (4aunt  and  Edmund  of  Cambridge  both 
married  daughters  of  Peter.  Through  his 
wife,  Constance  de  Padilla,  John  claimed  to  be 
King  of  Castile,  but  the  brilliant  naval  victory 
of  the  Spaniards  over  the  Earl  of  Pembroke, 
which  restored  La  Rochelle  to  the  French 
(1375),  the  practical  failure  of  Edmund  in 
Portugal  [Portugal,  Relations  with],  the 
ecjually  unlucky  expedition  of  John  to  Spain 
(1385)  as  pretender  and  crusader,  showed  that 
his  chances  were  hopeless.  At  last  he  con- 
cluded a  treaty  with  John  II.  of  Castile,  in 
which  by  marrying  Catherine,  his  daughter 
by  Constance,  to  the  heir  of  Castile,  he  prac- 
tically resigned  his  claims.  This  marriage 
renewed  the  old  friendliness.  The  kings  of 
Castile  sympathised  with  the  misfortunes  of 
the  house  of  Lancaster  as  with  those  of  their 


own  kin.    Edward  IV.  in  1467  condnded  i 
treaty  with  Castile  that  gave  equal  tndisg 
rights  to  Castilians  and  Kngliah.    The  Ithi 
of  English  Foliey  shows  how  important  Spanish 
trade  was.     Yet  Edward  would  not  marry  ha 
daughter  to  a  Spanish  prince,  apd  not  until 
the  final  Lancastrian  triumph  under  Heniy 
YII.  was  the  alliance  of   the  two  countn<j« 
really  renewed,  and  then  on  condLtions  tbii 
made  England  almost  a  satellite  of  Bpain. 
The  marriage  of  Catharine,  daughter  of  Fci- 
dinand  and  Isabella,  with  Princes  Arthur  ulJ 
Henry  in  succession  was  the  most  imporUnt 
result  of  the  restoration  of  intimate  rdations. 
Although  Ferdinand  hardly  treated  Henry 
well,  and  although  his  L^igue  of  Cambni 
isolated  England  from  foreign  politics,  Heuy 
VIII.,  after  breaking  up  the  Cambnd  ojb- 
federation  by  the  Holy  League,  fully  rcnev>^l 
the  Spanish  connection.     During  the  war  ct 
the  Holy  League,  and  the  war  which  bn>kc 
out  in  1621,  Henry  was  the  decided  suppoit>T 
of  Ferdinand  and  Charles  his  successor.   Ai 
last  fear  for  the  Ijalance  of  power  led  Hauy 
to  a  neutral  attitude  after  the  battle  of  Pavii 
(1626).    The  divorce  of  Catharine  involved 
personal  and  religious  differences,  which  for  st 
time  dissolved  the  Spanish  alliance.  For  sook 
years  England  feared  a  Spanish  invasion^  hot 
so  strong  were  the  ties  which  bound  the  tvt) 
states  tluit  in  1641  the  English  and  8paniari« 
were  again  fighting  side  by  side  against  the 
French.     Charles's    desertion    of   Henry  al 
Crdpy,  and  the  strongly  Protestant  policy  A 
Edward  YI.,  again  producetl   coolnesB,  nntil 
Mary's  marriage  with  Philip,  and  her  sab- 
sequent  participation  in  the  last  of  Charles's 
great  wars  against  France,  brought  the  natiou 
more  together  than  ever.  But  the  catastrophe 
of  Mary's  reign  was  the  death-blow  of  the 
traditional  connection  with  Spain.    Though 
it  was  Elizabeth's  policy  to  keep  on  idxr  terms 
with  Spain,  the  prevalence  of  religious  ovtr 
political  considerations  during  the  crisiBof  the 
Catholic  counter-Reformation,  the  aUianc-o  of 
England  and  the  revolted  Netherlander^,  thja 
of  Spain  with  the  pretender  to  the  Enfrli^' 
throne,  and  the  rise  of  an  English  naval  pover 
that  saw  in  the  Spanish  colanies  an  easy  asai 
rich  prey,  and  whose  piratical  forays  won 
more  tluui  counteracted  the  friendliness  which 
long  and  settled  trade  between  the  two  naticns 
had  produced,  brought  about  a  state  of  chronic 
irritation  worse  thwi  war,  and  a  series  of  »<<•' 
of  hostility,  which  in  any  other  period  Ix'th 
parties  would  have  regarded  as  e«uM9  belii  At 
last,  on  the  very  eve  of  the  Armada,  the  loog- 
threatened  war  broke  out.    Henceforth  hatred 
of  Spain  became  a  mark  of  the  patriotic  &nd 
Protestant  Englishman.    James  I.'s  Spanish 
policy  and  Spanish  mairiage  scheme  in»^^ 
him    intensely  unpopular,    and    Charies  I-* 
though    leas    decided   tluui  his  father,  9J» 
actually  at  war  with  Spain  in  the  beginB'^ 
of  his  reign,  and  often  rather  opposed  to  it, 
was   regarded  with  some  suspicion  for  thd 


Spa 


(  969  ) 


Spa 


«me  reason.  Cromwell  revived  Elizabeth's 
policy  of  uncompromising  hostility  to  Spain, 
18  the  centre  of  Catholicism  in  Europe. 
Though  successful  in  execution,  his  policy  was 
juite  obsolete  in  idea,  and  tendea  to  pro- 
note  the  ambitious  schemes  of  Louis  XIV. 
Jlarendon,  who  also  pursued  the  Elizabethan 
radition,  incurred  disg^ce  and  exile  for  what 
lad  brought  glory  to  the  Protector.  Still,  the 
lostility  to  France,  which  began  with  the 
Triple  Alliance,  and  the  marriage  of  William 
ind  Mary,  and  culminated  in  the  Revolution, 
lid  not  involve  any  very  cordial  alliance  with 
he  Spaniards,  though  the  effect  of  the  anti- 
?Vench  policy  was  to  help  them.  So  little 
lid  William  regard  Spain  as  his  ally  that 
le  joined  with  Louis  XIV.  in  the  Partition 
Treaties.  The  mismanagement  of  the  allies 
n  the  Spanish  Succession  War  made  the  French 
\.m^  of  Spain  the  representative  of  Spanish 
lational  feeling,  and  consequently  renewed  an 
olive  hostility  between  the  two  countries, 
rhich  the  retention  of  Minorca  and  Gibral- 
ar,  as  the  spoils  of  the  English  triumph, 
lid  much  to  increase.  After  the  Treaty  of 
Jtrecht,  Alberoni  plotted  to  restore  the  pre- 
onder,  though  the  collapse  of  Cape  Passaro 
1720)  showed  that  the  Spaniards  were 
imible  to  cope  directly  with  the  English, 
iipperda's  Austrian  alliance  was  equally 
lostile  to  England,  and  involved  a  short  war 
hat,  but  for  Walpole's  peace  policy,  would 
lave  proved  serious  (1727).  The  commercial 
lauses  of  the  Utrecht  treaty  gave  the  Eng- 
ish  a  limited  permission  to  trade  in  South 
America,  which  involved  constant  disputes 
rith  Spanish  revenue  officers,  and  resulted  in 
he  war  of  1739,  the  prelude  of  the  more  general 
Lustrian  Succession  War.  The  family  com- 
•aet  of  the  Bourbon  Kings  of  France  and 
'pain  involved  England  in  a  new  hostility 

0  the  Spaniards  at  the  close  of  ^the  Seven 
c'ears*  War.  Spain  took  advantage  of  the 
American  Revolution  to  try  to  regain  what 

1  or  former  ill  success  had  caused  her  to  lose. 
Int  the  long  siege  of  Gibraltar  proved  a 
ailure.  The  affairs  of  the  Falkland  islands 
1770),  and  of  Nootka  Sound  (1789),  again 
Imost  involved  a  conflict.  During  the  French 
U.' volution  the  wi^kness  of  Spain  soon  com- 
>ellcd  her  to  lend  her  still  imposing  fleet  to 
he  Republican  and  Napoleonic  governments, 
nd  thus  to  enter  into  a  naval  war  with 
England  which  lost  many  of  her  colonies. 
It  last  Napoleon's  reckless  imposition  of  his 
trother  on  the  Spanish  throne  involved  'a 
lational  insurrection  in  Spain,  which  led  to 
he  establishment  of  a  new  alliance  with 
Cngland.  During  the  whole  of  the  Penin- 
ular  War,  Spanish  troops  assisted  the  armies 
•f  Wellington,  but  the  relations  between 
englishmen  and  Spaniards  were  always  very 
loubtful,  and  the  pride,  inefliciency,  and  pro> 
rastination  of  his  allies  were  one  of  Wel- 
ington's  greatest  difficulties.  The  Spanish 
>opular    movement,    however,  showed    how 


Napoleon  could  be  beaten,  and  without  their 
irr^^ar  forces  the  Peninsular  campaigns 
would  hardly  have  turned  out  as  they  did. 
Subsequent  political  relations  between  Eng- 
land and  Spain  have  been  of  inferior  impor- 
tance. Canning  recognised  the  independence 
of  the  revolted  S)uth  American  colonies.  The 
Bkiglish  gave  considerable  help  to  Queen 
Christina  against  the  Carlists. 

Mariana's  D«  Rebus  Hispanice  is  a  standard 
general  authority  for  the  Middle  Ages.  Dun- 
ham's Sitt,  of  Spain  and  Portugal  is  a  useful 
oompilatiou  in  jESnghah.  The  relations  with 
Ei^Uknd  may  be  found  in  Fault,  EngliscKe  Ott- 
ohichiSt  and  in  the  QetchxehU  v<m  Spanien^  by 
vaiioos  authors,  in  the  Heeren  and  Kert  series. 
Preeoott's  work  on  jP«rdtnaiMl  and  iMhiAXa^  his 
edition  of  Robertson's  CharUs  F.,  and  his  Hid,  of 
FhHip  11. ,  with  Brewer's  Henry  Vril.»  Scbanz, 
BnghseheHandAifpolitikf  and  Froude,  Higt.ofTSng. 
oover  the  sixteenth  century.  See  also  Ghtrdiner, 
Hiat.  ofEng.,  1903—40,  and  his  later  works,  1642— 
50y  tor  that  period ;  Banke,  Eng.  Hi»t.  for  the 
whole  seventeenth  oentory ;  Mignet,  La  Succm- 
sion  d'EtpOgne  ;  Stanhope,  War  of  the  StiMeeri&n 
in  Spain,  and  Ck>xe,  Spanieh  Bourbonn,  for  the 
eighteenth  century;  Kapier,  Penineular  War 
and  the  Wellington  Detpatche$,  for  the  stru^le 
against  Napoleon.  [T.  F.  TT] 

Spanisll  BlaxikSy  The,  was  the  name 
given  to  eight  papers  seized  on  the  person  of 
a  man  named  Kerr,  who  was  about  to  convey 
them  to  Spain.  These  papers  were  blank 
sheets,  signed  by  the  Earls  of  Huntl}%  Errol, 
Angus,  and  by  Gordon  of  Auchendoun.  It 
was  proved  by  the  confession  of  Kerr  that 
the  sheets  were  to  have  been  filled  up  by  two 
Jesuits,  named  William  Crichton  and  James 
Tyrie,  and  were  to  have  contained  assurances 
that  the  persons  who  signed  them  would  not 
fail  to  render  material  aid  to  the  Spanish 
armies  on  their  landing  in  Scotland.  The 
result  of  this  discovery  was  immediate  action 
on  the  part  of  the  government  against  the 
Popish  lords,  who  were  compelled  to  fly,  and 
were  finally  defeated  at  Glenlivat. 
Burton,  Sist.  of  8e(Mand. 

Spanisll  Karriages.    From  1840  the 

mamage  of  Queen  Isabella  of  Spain  had 
become  a  question  of  interest  to  Europe,  and 
especially  to  England  and  France.  The  French 
plan  was  that  Isabella  should  marry  the 
Duke  of  Cadiz,  and  her  sister  the  Due  de 
Montpensier,  having  in  view  the  eventual 
succession  to  the  Spanish  throne  of  the  child- 
ren of  the  latter  couple.  The  English,  who 
strongly  disliked  this  scheme,  contended  that 
Isabella  should  marry  the  man  whom  she 
and  the  Spanish  people  selected,  and  that  the 
welfare  of  Spain,  and  not  the  interest  of  the 
Orleans  house,  should  be  chiefly  consulted. 
The  English  government  therefore  declined 
to  actively  recommend  any  candidate,  even 
Leopold  of  Coburg,  who  was  desirable  in 
every  way,  and  who  would  have  been  the 
English  candidate  had  there  been  one.  In 
1841  Prince  Albert  and  Lord  Aberdeen  both 
declared  that  England  would  not  interfere. 
In  1846,  during  the  Queen  Victoria's  visit  to 


Spa 


(  960  ) 


Spa 


the  King  of  the  French,  the  latter  declared 
"  that  he  would  never  hear  of  Montpensier's 
marriage  with  the  Infanta  of  Spain."  Thia 
pledge  was  kept  as  long  as  Aberdeen  re- 
mained in  office,  bat  the  accession  of  Pal- 
merston  in  1846  changed  the  views  of  the 
French.  The  defeat  of  their  Eastern  policy 
by  that  statesman  still  rankled  in  their 
minds,  and  he  was  an  object  of  their 
settled  distrust.  Use  was  theraore  made  of 
an  indiscretion  committed  by  Liord  Bailing, 
the  British  ambassador  at  Madrid,  and  also 
of  a  somewhat  violent  despatch  of  Palmerston, 
and  on  Aug.  29,  1846,  the  double  marriage 
between  the  Dukes  of  Cadiz  and  Hontpensier, 
and  the  Spanish  Queen  and  Infanta,  was 
announced.  This  statement,  communicated 
shortly  by  H.  Guizot  to  Lord  Normanb^, 
British  ambassador  at  Paris,  was  received  in 
England  with  a  great  deal  of  indignation. 
An  official  protest  was  made  by  the  English 
government,  and  an  unofficial  one  by  the 
Queen;  but  they  were  disroffarded,  and  the 
double  marriage  was  celebrated  simultaneously 
at  Madrid  (Oct.  10).  The  conduct  of  Louis 
Philippe  gave  an  immense  shock  to  his  repu- 
tation in  Europe,  and  did  a  great  deal  to 
break  off  the  hitherto  friendly  intercourse 
with  England*  Indignation  at  his  perfidy 
was  increased  by  sympathy  for  the  young 
queen  thus  heartlessly  sticrineed  to  his  policy, 
and  a  coolness  in  consequence  arose. 

ilnYittol  Rsgigter,  1846;    MarUn,  Prtnc«  Con^ 
sort ;  Guizot,  Jffnunrs. 

Spanish  Snecesnon,  The  War  of 

THE,  was  caused  by  the  refusal  of  Louis  XIV. 
to  abide  by  the  settlement  of  the  succession 
question  agreed  on  by  him  and  WiUiam  III. 
in  the  Partition  Treaties  (q.v.).  Besides  ac- 
cepting the  wiU  of  Chai'les  V.,  which  made 
his  grandson,  Philip  of  Anjou,  King  of  Spain, 
Louis  had  reserved  his  grandson's  right  to 
succeed  to 'the  French  crown,  had  put  French 
garrisons  into  the  towns  of  the  Spanish 
Netherlands,  and  had  acknowledged  the  Pre- 
tender as  successor  to  the  English  throne  at 
the  death-bed  of  James  II.  This  last  pro- 
ceeding had  roused  the  English.  William  III. 
in  1701  had  laid  the  foundation  of  a  grand 
alliance  between  England,  Holland,  and  the 
empire.  It  was  now  concluded.  But  on 
March  8,  1702,  William  died.  War  was  at 
once  declared  on  the  accession  of  Anne.  The 
emperor,  with  the  Electors  of  Brandenburg, 
Hanover,  and  the  Elector  Palatine,  Denmark, 
Holland,  and  in  1703,  Savoy  and  Portugal, 
were  the  allies  of  England.  France  had  only 
the  electors  of  Cologne  and  Bavaria,  and  the 
Duke  of  Mantua  in  Italy.  Marlborough, 
commander  of  the  English  and  Dutch  armies, 
at  once  went  to  Holland  with  the  object  of 
capturing  the  Netherland  fortresses  occupied 
by  the  French.  Venloo,  Liege,  and  other 
towns  on  the  Meuse,  were  taken,  and  the 
French  cut  off  from  the  Lower  Rhine.     On 


the  Upper  Rhine,  Louis  of  Baden  had  taken 
Landau,  but  was  defeated  by  Villus  tt 
Friedlingen.  In  Italy,  Eugene  had  defau^ 
Villeroi  at  Cremona,  but  the  French  gtill 
held  the  Milanese.  [For  the  war  in  Spiin 
see  below.]  In  France  the  Proteetanta  of 
the  Cevennes  had  broken  into  open  rebdliac 
under  Cavalier.  In  1703  but  liUle  wu  doot. 
Yillars  wished  to  march  on  Vienna,  hat  ww 
thwarted  by  the  Elector  of  Bavaria.  Manibl 
Tallazd  re-captured  Landau.  Mailhorough. 
who  had  formed  a  great  plan  to  reooDqiitT 
Antwerp  and  Ostend^  was  foiled  by  thJb  Dntdi. 
and  had  to  content  biTnuftlf  with  the  captim- 
of  Bonn  on  the  Rhine,  and  Huyand  Liiobiur 
on  the  Meuse.  In  1704  Louis  set  on  foot  nx 
less  than  eight  different  armies.  His  chi«i 
effort  was  to  be  in  the  direction  of  Yieona  m 
concert  with  the  Elector  of  Bavaiia.  The 
Hun^iuians  had  been  incited  to  revoU.  The 
position  of  the  emperor  seemed  despente: 
Marlborough,  however,  in  a  famous  manik 
from  the  Lower  Rhine  to  the  Danube,  jaiiud 
Eugene  in  Bavaria,  and  marched  upon  thf 
French  commanders  Marsin  and  Tallard.  In 
August  the  battle  of  Blenheim  was  foo^iit. 
After  that  disastrous  defeat  the  French  with- 
drew beyond  the  Rhine.  Landau  was  takes. 
and  Marlborough,  marching  into  the  Moacdr 
valley,  conquered  Treves  and  Trarbach.  Is 
this  year  Gibraltar  was  captured  hy  Sir 
George  Rooke;  while  the  merciful  pobi) 
of  vSleroi  put  an  end  to  the  rebellion  of  tht 
peasantry  in  the  Cevennes.  In  Italy,  Ven- 
a6me  had  nearly  reduced  the  Duke  of  San  r 
to  despair.  Eugene  was  sent  thither  vitb 
Prussian  troops  ( 1 706).  Marlborough  -wi^ 
to  invade  France  by  the  MoscUe  vallev.  Ut 
was  thwarted  by  the  weak  co-operation  of 
Louis  of  Baden.  Villeroi  suddenly  inie^ 
liege,  but  on  Marlborough's  return  to  Flsoden 
affairs  were  re-established  there.  Tovari* 
the  end  of  the  year  Louis  of  Baden  von  t 
great  battle  at  Hagenan.  In  1706  Marl- 
borough determined  by  a  vigorous  effort  in 
Flanders  to  make  a  diversion  to  Eugene  is 
Italy.  In  Brabant  he  encountered  Msisbi 
Villeroi  at  RamiUies.  By  that  victonr  ik* 
allies  gained  the  whole  of  the  NetherlaD<k 
Marlborough  wished  to  besiege  Mens,  butvi$ 
deterred  by  the  slowness  with  which  the 
Dutch  forwarded  suppUes.  In  Italy,  £ag«^ 
by  his  brilliant  relief  of  the  siege  of  Tuiit 
accomplished  a  work  hardly  inferior  to  thii 
of  RamiUies.  Italy  was  lost  to  Franct\  aou 
compelled  to  join  the  Grand  Alliance,  h)^ 
offered  terms  of  peace,  but  they  were,  soim- 
what  unreasonably,  rejected  byAIarlboroupt 
The  campaign  of  the  next  year  (1707)  '^•^' 
unsuccesfthiL  Marlborough  in  vain  attempU- 
to  bring  on  a  pitched  battle.  On  the  Khin;- 
Villars  took  and  destroyed  the  lines  of  St<:<j- 
hofcn.  Eugene  attempted  to  attack  Toul^^ 
by  invading  France  frwn  the  south-east ;  bo' 
ho  had  no  supplies,  and  withdrew  befuR 
Marshal  Tesse.     In   1708  Marlborough  r^ 


Spa 


(961) 


Spa 


olved  to  complete  the  conquest  of  the  Nether- 
ands  in  conjunction  with  Eugene.    But  the 
atter  exp^enced  great  difficulty  in  raising 
in  army.     Yendome  suddenly  assumed  the 
tffensive,  deceived  Marlborough  by  a  feint  on 
[jouyain,  captured  Ghent  and  Bruges,  and 
at  down  before  Oudenarde.     In  July  the 
)attle    of    Oudenarde    was     fought.      The 
esults,   though    it  was   a    victory  for   the 
English,  were  not  decisive.    Eugene's  troops 
it  length  joined  Marlborough;  Berwick  re- 
nforc^.the  EVench.    The  allies  determined 
o  besiege  Lille.    It  fell  in  October,  Marflhal 
Boufflers  having  made  a  gallant  resistance, 
xhent  and  Bruges  were  reconquered.  General 
Stanhope    had    captnred   Port    Mahon    in 
Minorca.     France  was  now  absolutely  ez- 
lausted.    Louis  once  more  proposed  terms. 
)nce  more  the  demands  of  the  allies  were 
ntolerable,  consisting  of  the  surrender  of  the 
!)utch  frontier  towns,  and  all  claims  to  the 
Spanish   succession.     Louis  appealed  to  the 
Trench    people.      YiUars  was    sent  against 
liarlborough.     He  allowed  Toumay  to  faU, 
mi  when  the  allies  invested  Mons  he  was 
hliged  to  risk,  a  battle.     By  the  advice  of 
Dugene  the  attack  was  deferred  until  troops 
oiHd  be  brought  up  from  Toumay.     The 
esult  was  that  Villars  had  time  to  entrench 
dmself,  and  that  the  victory  of  Malplaquet 
ras  almost  as  disastrous  for  the  allies  as  for 
he  French.   Mons  f  eU,  but  the  campaign  was 
losed.     A  conference  was  opened  at  Ger- 
ruydenberg;   the  FiUglish  and  Dutch  con- 
ented  to  treat,  but  were  opposed  bv  Austria 
nd  Savoy,  and  the  war  was  resumed.   Douay 
vas  captured.    The  next  year  Marlboi*ough 
ought  his  last  campaign.    He  was  hampered 
)y  the  withdrawal  of  Eugene  to  superintend 
ind  guard  the  Diet  summoned  to  Frankfort 
o  elect  a  successor  to  the  Emperor  Joseph. 
)y  skilful  manoeuvres  he  passed  Villars*  lines 
i  Arras,  which  the  French  commander  called 
he  non  piua  ultras  and  besieged  and  took 
k)uchain.    But  the  Tory  ministry  had  already 
troposed  terms  of  peace.    Marlborough  was 
lismissed    on    his  return  to  England,  and 
)rmond    appointed    in   his   place.    He  re- 
eivcd    orders    to    undertake   no    offensive 
tperatiouB  against  the  French,  but  he  could 
Lot    refuse    to   join  Eugene  in   an   attack 
tn   Quesnoy.     Iji  June,  1712,  an  armistice 
vas  declared,  and  the  English  troops  ordered 
o    separate    from    Eugene.      The    imperial 
general  continued  the  campaign  alone.     But 
le    ^as     defeated    at    Denain,    and    com- 
pelled to  raise  the  siege  of  Landr^cies.     In 
darch,  1713,  the  Peace  of  Utrecht  was  signed. 
Che  Germans  fought    on.      But    they  lost 
Jandau  again,  and  soon  after  Speyer,  Worms, 
kud  Kaiserslautem.   Villars  stormed  the  lines 
it  Freiburg,  and  took  the  town  in  spite  of 
Sugene*s  efforts.     In  the  course  of  1714  the 
Treaty   of    Bastadt  was  concluded  between 
^nce  and  Austria,  that  of  Baden  between 
?^rance  and  the  princes  of  the  empire.     Such 

HIRT.—  31 


was  the  war    in    Continental  Europe.     In 
Spain  meanwhile,  in  1702,  after  hostilities  had 
been  proclaimed,  an  armament,  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  Duke  of  Ormond,  appeared  off 
Cadiz.  It  was  ill-conducted,  and  after  plunder- 
ing the  town  the  English  sailed  off.     On  his 
way  back  Ormond  destroyed  a  fleet  of  treasure 
ships  in  Vigo  Bay.     Some  millions  of  dollars 
were  captured,  some  millions  more  were  sunk. 
Next  year  it  was  determined  to  attack  Spain 
from  the  east  and  west.    The  army  from  the 
west  consisted  of  Portuguese  and  English 
troops  commanded  by  the  Earl  of  Galway. 
The  Archduke  Charles,  whose  claims  to  the 
Spanish  throne  were  supported  by  the  coali-^ 
tion,  appeared  in  the  camp.     But  Berwick, 
the  commander  of  the  French,  held  Galway 
in  check    throughout  the  year    1704.      On 
Aug.  3  Admiral  Rooke  succeeded  in  taking 
Gibraltar.    In  1705  Peterborough  was  sent  to 
Spain  with  5,000  Dutch  and  English  soldiers. 
He  was  joined  by  the  Archduke  Charles.    He 
wished  to  march  at  once  on  Madrid,  but  was 
compelled  by  his  instructions  to  attack  Bar- 
celona.   The  tewn  was  almost  impregnable ; 
supplies  were  wanting ;  he  quarrelled  with  his 
feUow-commander,  the  Prince  of  Hesse.    He 
determined  to  raise  the  seige,  but  suddenly 
resolved  to  attack  the  fortress  of  Montjuich ; 
it  fell.     On  Oct.  23  Barcelona  was  captured. 
Catalonia  and  Valencia  at  once  declared  for 
the  Archduke.  Peterborough,  with  1,200  men, 
advanced  to  raise  the  siege  of  San  Mattheo, 
where  a  force  of  600  men  was  surrounded 
by  7,000  Spaniards.    Peterborough  deceived 
the  Spanish  general  as  to  his  numbers,  relieved 
the  town,  and  entered  Valencia  in  pursuit  of 
the  Spanish  army.  Meanwhile  an  army  under 
the  command  of  Anjou,  who  was  advised  by 
Marshal  Tess^,  and  a  fleet  tmder  the  Coimt  of 
Toulouse,  were  blockading  Barcelona.   Peter- 
borough   attempted  to  raise  the   siege  but 
failed.      A  new  commission  was    sent  him 
placing  him  in  command  of  the  fleet  as  well  as 
of  the  army.    He  failed  to  entice  the  French 
to  battle,  but  they  sailed  away,  and  were 
followed  by  the  army.    In  this  year  Berwick 
fell  back  before  Galway,  and  that  general 
occupied  Madrid   (1706).      Philip,  Duke  of 
Anjou,  fled,  and  Arragon  declared  for  the 
Archduke  Charles.      This  was  the  highest 
point  of  the  success  of  the  allies.      But  the 
hostility  of  the  natives,  and  the  cowardice  of 
Charles,  made  it  impossible  to  hold  the  town. 
GMway  fell  back  and  effected  a  junction  with 
Peterborough  at  Guadalaxara.     Berwick  im- 
mediately occupied  Madrid.     Peterborough 
soon  quarrelled  with  Charles,  and  left  tho 
army.    The  allies  retreated  on  Valencia.     In 
1707   Galway   was    rash    enough  to   atteck 
Berwick  in  a  disadvantageous  position  on  the 
plain  of  Almanza,  and  was  utterly  defeated. 
Valencia    and  Arragon  surrendered    to  the 
French,  and  the  Archduke  Charles  was  reduced 
to  the  province  of  Catalonia.     "  The  battle  of 
Almanza  decided  the  fate  of  Spain."  Stanhope 


8p# 


(  M2  ) 


8p# 


was  sent  to  command  in  Spain  with  Starem- 
berg,'  a  methodical  tactician,  as  his  col- 
leag:ae.  For  two  years  nothing  was  done. 
At  leneth,  in  1710,  Stanhope  and  Starem- 
berg  advanced  on  Madrid.  Philip's  troops 
were  defeated  at  Almenara,  and  \gam  at 
Saragossa.  Madrid  was  occupied,  and  Philip 
was  once  more  a  fugitive.  Again  it  was 
found  impossible  to  hold  the  town.  The 
allies  retroated  to  Toledo,  and  thence  to 
Catalonia.  Vendome,  the  new  Frenen  com- 
mander, followed  hard  after  them.  Stanhope, 
who  had  separated  from  Staremberg,  was  suiv 
rounded  at  firihuega,  and  had  to  capitulate ; 
Staremberg,  who  marched  to  his  rescue,  was 
defeated  aS«r  an  obstinate  resistance  inVilla- 
Yiciosa.  He  fled  through  Catalonia  to  Bar- 
celona. Philip  was  now  safe  on  the  throne  of 
Madrid.  The  war  was  practically  over ;  for, 
although  Argyle  was  sent  to  Catalonia  in 
1711,  he  could  effect  nothing  with  a  de- 
moralised army  and  no  supplies.  Perhaps,  in 
view  of  the  impending  negotiations,  it  was 
not  intended  that  he  should  affect  anything. 
The  Peace  of  Utrecht  was  signed  on  March  31, 
1713.  The  Catalans,  faithful  to  a  hopeless 
cause,  deserted  by  their  allies,  still  fougnt  on. 
But  in  Se^t.,  1714,  Barcelona  fell,  and  the 
war  in  Spam  was  at  an  end. 

llarlborough'B  DupctohM:  Coxe,  Biarlborough 
and  8pani$h  Bourbons ;  Btaxinope,  B«toii  of  OuMn 
Anne;  Alison,  Li/'eo/MarllH>ro«oH;  wjon.Queen 
Anns;  Bvaton,  Queen  Anne;  Martin,  Uiiloire 
de  France  iAxoBta,  Princ  Eu/gen  von  Savoyen; 
Kahon,  War  <^  the  Sueceieicn  in  Spain; 
Kaoanlaj,  Assays.  [S.  J.  L.] 

Speaker,  The,  is  the  name  given  to  the 
officers  who  preside  over  the  House  of  Lords 
and  the  House  of  Commons.  The  Speaker  of 
the  House  of  Lords  is.the  Lord  Chancellor  or 
the  Lord  Keeper  of  the  Great  Seal ;  his  office 
is  not  nearly  so  important  as  that  of  the 
Speaker  of  the  Lower  House.  He  is  allowed 
to  take  part  in  debates,  and  to  vote  as  an 
ordinary  member;  his  official  duties  being 
chiefly  confined  to  putting  the  question  to 
the  House.  The  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  on  the  contrary,  is  an  official  of 
the  highest  importance ; .  his  duties  are  not 
only  to  preside  over  the  debates  and  to  put 
the  ^estion,  but  to  maintain  order,  to  enforce 
the  decrees  of  the  House,  and  to  act  generallv 
as  its  representative  or  **  mouth "  :  through 
their  Speaker  the  Commons  have  the 
privilege  of  access  to  the  sovereign.  Un- 
like the  Speaker  of  the  Lords  the  Speaker 
of  the  Lower  House,  who  holds  rank  as 
the  first  commoner  of  the  realm,  can  take 
no  part  in  debates,  and  has  no  vote  unless 
the  numbers  are  equal,  when  "fye  has  a 
casting  vote.  The  office,  which  is  filled  by 
vote  of  the  Commons  subject  to  royal  appro- 
bation, is  of  very  ancient  origin.  That  some 
spokesman  was  necessary  from  the  first 
institution  of  Parliament  is  sufficiently 
obvious,  but  the  position  and  title  of 
Speaker   were   only  settled  in   1376.     But 


Henry  of  Keighley,  who  in  1301  bcfre  the 
petition  of  the  Lincoln  PtoHwrnwit  to  Uka 
royal  presence;  Sir  William  TnuBeU,  who 
answered  for  the  Commons  in  l^S,  though 
not  a  member  of  the  House  itself ;  Sir  Peter ' 
de  la  Mare,  the  famous  leader  of  the  Good 
Parliament  in  1376,  who  dischaxged  the 
functions  without  the  title,  must  aJl  piadi- 
cally  have  been  in  much  the  same  poaitiaa  as 
the  later  speaker.  But  in  1376  the  title  it 
definitely  given  to  Sir  ThonLaa  Hungerfoid, 
and  from  mat  date  the  list  is  complete. 


Spkaxbbs  op  thm  Houeb  op  CoxMinn. 

Sir  Tbomas  Hungerford 
Sir  Peter  de  la  Mare  . 
Sir  James  Pekenruff  . 
Sir  John  GQdenbuivh 
Sir  Bicbard  de  Waldsgiave 
Sir  Jamee  Pickering 

Sir  John  Boaay  • 
Sir  John  CheyuB 
John  Dorewood  . 
Sir  Arnold  Savage 
Sir  HeniT  de  Bedef ord 
Sir  Arnold  Savage 
Sir  John  Cheyney 
Sir  John  Tivetot 
Thomas  Chancer 
John  Dorewood  . 
Wantir  Hungerford 
n&omaa  Chaucer 
Bichazd  Bedman 
Sir  Walter  Beaoohamp 
Boger  Flou 
IKoger  Hunt 
Thomas  Chaucer 
Bichaxd  Banjrard 
Boger  Floa . 
John  Bnseel 
Sir  Thomas  Wanton 
Biehard  Vernon  . 
John  Tyrrell 
William  AWngton 
John  Terrell 
johnBoaad        • 
Boger  Hunt 
John  Bowee. 
Sir  John  TyneU  . 
William  Boerlfij . 
William  Treaham 
William  Burley  . 
William  Treaham 
John  Say 
Sir  John  Popham 
William  Treaham 
Sir  William  Oldham 
Thomas  Thorp    . 
Sir  Thomas  Cnarleton 
Sir  John  Wenlok 
Thomas  Treaham 
John  Grene  . 
Sir  James  StrangwBjyB 
John  Say 
William  Alyngton 
John  Wode  . 
William  Catesby 
Thomas  Lorell    . 
John  Mordaunt  . 
Sir  Thomas  Fitawilliam 
Biehard  Empeon 
Sir  Beginald  Bray 
Sir  Bobert  Drory 
Thomas  Ingelfield 
Edmnnd  Dudelcy 
Thomas  Ingelfield 
Sir  Bobert  Sheffield 
Sir  Thomas  Nevile 
Sir  Thomas  Hore 
Thomas  Audel^ . 
Sir  Hnm^irey  Wingfleld 
Biehard  Bioh 


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(  968  ) 


8pi 


«ir  NioholM  Ban 
Thomas  Mo^le    . 
Sir  John  Baker  . 
Sir  James  Diar    . 
John  PoUaxd 
Robert  Brooke    . 
Clement  Heicfham 
John  Pollard 
William  CordeU  . 
Sir  Thomas  Qargrave 
Thomas  WjlUoms 
JSiohard  Onslow  . 
Christo^er  Wn^ 
Bobert  Bell . 
John  Po]^bam 
Serieant  JPTK^eriag 
.Sei^eant  Snagg    . 
£dward  Coke 
■Serieant  Telverton 

leant  Croke   . 

leant  Philips 
SirBandolphl^we  . 
Sir  Thomas  Biohordson 
>Sir  Thomas  Ciewe 
Sir  Heneace  Finch 
Sir  John  l^noh   . 
John  aianviU      . 
William  LenthaU 
Francis  icons 
WilJiam  Lenthal 
Sir  Tuomas  Widdrington 
Chaloner  Chnte  . 
Thomas  Bamiield 
Sir  Harbottle  Qximston 
Sir  Edward  Turner 
•Sir  Job  Charlton 
JESdward  Seymoor 
Sir  Bobert  Sawyer 
Edward  Seymoor 
Serjeant  Qregory 
William  Williams 
Sir  John  Trevor . 
Heniy  Powle 
Sir  John  Trevor . 
fanl  Foley  . 
Sir  Thomas  Littelton 
Bobert  Harley     . 
John  Smith . 
Sir  Biohard  Onslow 
William  Bromley 
Sir  Thomas  Hanmer  • 
Spenoer  Compton 
ArthnrO^low   . 
Sir  John  CoBt 
Sir  Fletcher  Norton 
Charlee  Cornwall 
William  GrenviUe 
Henry  Addington 
Sir  John  Mitfozd 
Charles  Abbot 
Charles  Manners-Sntton 
James  Abercrombj 
Charles  Shaw^Lef ene 
John  Eveljn  Denison 
Sir  Heniy  Brand 
Arthur  Peel 
William  Court  OnUj  . 


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1 


1805 


Speedy  John  (3. 1552,  d,  1629),  alaboriouB 
antiquarian,  was  a  native  of  Cheshire,  who 
became  a  tailor  in  London,  until  Sir  Fulk 
Greville  gave  him  an  allowance  to  enable  bim 
to  parsae  his  favourite  researches.  His 
Theatre  of  the  Empire  of  Great  Britain  (1606) 
was  a  well-executed  series  of  maps  of  counties 
and  towns ;  and  his  chief  work,  The  History 
of  Great  Britain  (1614),  was  a  laborious 
and  voluminous  compilation  from  preceding 
authors.  Though  in  no  sense  an  authorita- 
tive work,  Speed's  compilation  is  not  without 
value  to  Uie  historian. 


Speights  Bay,  The  Battle  of  (1651), 
was  lougnt  in  Baroadoes  between  the  colonists 
(who  were  Royalists)  under  Lord  Willoughby 
of  Parham,  and  a  Parliamentary  force  under 
Admiral  Ayscoe  and  Colonel  AUeyno.  The 
victory  lay  with  the  Royalists. 

SpelnUUi,  Sir  Hbnet  {b.  1562,  d.  1641),  a 
Norfolk  squire,  was  an  eminent  antiqtiary, 
whose  learned  works  are  still  useful.  Such 
are  his  GlotBurium  Areheeologieum^  his  treatise 
on  Kniffht's  Tenures^  his  Histori/  of  English 
CouneiU,  etc  A  very  strong  Anglican,  Spel- 
man,  wrote  a  Hietory  of  Sacrilege  to  show  tho 
fate  which  holders  of  church  lands  were  likely 
to  incur,  a  Treatise  eoneeming  Tithes^  and  a 
book  De  non  temerandis  Seelesiis,  The  Relu- 
quite  Spelmanniana  contain  a  large  number  of 
his  posthumous  works. 

Spenoean  Philantbropiste  was  the 

eccentric  name  given  to  a  body  of  men  who 
followed  the  teaching  of  a  revolutionary  and 
communistic  teacher  named  Spence.  They 
arranged  the  Spa  Fields  Meeting  of  Bee.  2, 
1816.  Thistlewood  and  other  notorious  dema- 
gogues were  members  of  the  society,  whose 
members  were  largely  connected  with  the 
subsequent  Oato  Street  Glonspiracy. 

SpenoeTy  John  Potntz,  6th  Eael  {h. 
1835),  was  elected  M.P.  for  South  NorUi- 
amptonshire  in  1857,  but  was  summoned  to 
the  House  of  Lords  in  the  same  year.  From 
1868  to  1874,  and  from  1882  to  1885,  he  was 
Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland;  from  1880  to 
1883,  and  again  in  1886,  Lord  President  of 
the  Council;  and  from  1892  to  1895,  First 
Lord  of  the  Admiralty.  In  1892  he  became 
Chancellor  of  the  Victoria  University,  Man- 
chester. 

Spenser,  Edmund  (5.  1553,  d.  1599), 
author  of  the  Fairie  Queen,  was  a  friend  of 
Sir  Philip  Sidney  (q.v.),  who  introduced 
him  to  the  notice  of  the  Earl  of  Leicester. 
Jn  1580  he  was  appointed  Secretary  to  the 
Lord  Deputy  of  Irehuid,  Lord  Grey  do  Wilton, 
and  obtained  large  estates  in  that  country. 
In  1598  his  property  was  plundered  and  de- 
stroyed by  the  insurgents  m  T3Tone*8  rebel- 
lion, and  Spenser  was  obliged  to  return  to 
England,  where  he  died  shortly  afterwards. 
His  View  of  the  State  of  Ireland^  written  in 
1596,  is  a  valuable  source  of  information  for 
the  condition  of  the  country  at  that  period,  and 
illustrates  the  stem  measures  by  which  the 
English  colonists  were  prepared  to  maintain 
their  position. 

Spithead  Kntmy,  The,  took  place  in 
1797.  and  was  the  result  of  the  legitimate 
grievance  of  the  seamen  at  a  naval  system 
honeycombed  with  corruption  and  abuses, 
which  subjected  the  sailors  to  barbarous  treat- 
ment, while  keeping  their  pay  at  the  rate 
fixed  under  Charles  IL,  and  leaving  their 
commiiisariat  to  the  control  of  venal  and 
greedy  pursers.  In  conjunction  with  the 
still  more  famous  Mutiny  at  the  Noro,  it  was 


Spo 


(  964  ) 


Ste 


a  formidable  danger  in  the  midst  of  the  war. 
Every  ahip  refused  to  obey  the  order  to  sail. 
At  a  council  on  board  the  Queen  Charlotte^ 
the  meeting  was  organised,  and  petitions 
addressed  to  the  Admiralty.  Lord  Howe 
suoeeeded  by  great  tact  in  winning  the  muti- 
neers back  to  their  duty,  and  even  persuaded 
them  to  express  f^oU  sorrow^  a  confession 
which  resulted  in  an  Act  that  removed  their 
worst  grievances. 

Spozts,  The  Book  of,  is  the  name  generally 
given  to  James  I.'s  Declaration,  issued  in 
1618,  which  permitted  tiie  use  of  '^lawful" 
recreations  on  Simday  after  Church  time. 
Dancing,  the  setting  up  of  maypoles,  archery, 
leaping,  Whitsunales  were  among  the  list  of 
lawful  sports.  3ear  baiting,  bowling,  and 
interludes  were  declared  unlawful.  Those 
not  attending  chiuxh  were  not  allowed  to 
join  in  the  sports.  In  1633  Charles  I.  re^ 
issued  his  Declaration,  and  enforced  the  read^ 
ing  of  it  in  all  churches.  It  was  bitterly 
opposed  by  the  Puritans,  and  the  Long  Par» 
luunent  ordered  all  copies  of  the  Decliuutipo 
to  be  burnt. 

8potti«WOOcL,  John  {b,  1565,  d,  1639), 
Archbishop  of  St.  Andrews,  accompanied 
James  VI.  to  England  (1603),  recei\'ing  th^ 
Archbishopric  of  Glasgow  in  the  same  year, 
and  that  of  St.  Andrews  in  1615.  In  1633  he 
crowned  Charles  I.  at  Holyrood,  and  two  years 
later  was  made  Chancellor  of  Scotland. 

Spottiswoode  Gang,  The  (1837),  was 
the  name  given  to  an  association  in  London 
which  was  formed  to  collect  subscriptions  to 
test  the  legality  of  Irish  elections.  ^Ir. 
Spottiswoode,  one  of  the  Queen's  printers, 
presided  over  it,  and  from  this  circumstance 
the  name  arose.  Sir  F.  Burdett  (q.v.)  was  a 
zealous  supporter  of  the  association.  It  was 
attacked  in  the  House  by  Mr.  Blewitt,  member 
for  Monmouth,  but  he  met  with  little  support. 

Spragge,  Sir  Edwakd  (d.  1673),  was  a  dis- 
tinguish^ naval  commander  during  the  reign 
of  Charles  II.  He  took  a  prominent  share  in 
many  battles  against  the  Dutch,  and,  in  par- 
ticular, gallantly,  though  unsuccessfully,  de- 
fended Sheemess  in  1667.  In  1671  he  took 
part  in  an  expedition  against  the  Algerine 
pirates.  In  1673  he  was  killed  in  action 
against  Van  Ti'omp. 

Sprat,  Thomas,  Bishop  of  Rochester 
(^.  1^36,  d.  1713),  was  educated  at  Wadham 
College,  Oxford,  and  took  deacon's  orders 
in  1660.  He  became  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  in  1662.  He  was  created 
by  rapid  promotion  Prebendary  of  West- 
minster (1668),  Canon  of  Windsor  (1680), 
Dean  of  Westminster  (1683),  and  Bishop  of 
Rochester  (1684).  He  was  weak  enough  to 
accept  a  seat  in  tJames's  ecclesiastical  commis- 
moD.  board  in  hopes  of  obtaining  the  Arch- 
hiahopric  of  York.  With  trembling  voice 
he  roflul  the  Declaration  of  Indulgence  in  West- 


minster Abbey.  Soon  afterwards  he  reeig&ed 
his  place  on  the  commission.  When  William 
of  Orange  landed  he  declined  to  sign  a  decbn- 
tion  of  fidelity  to  Jamee.  He  voted  for  a  re- 
gency, but  took  the  oaths  of  fidelity  with- 
out hesitation,  and  assisted  at  the  coionatio& 
of  William  and  Mazy.  In  1692  he  was  in- 
volved in  a  supposed  Jacobite  conspiracy,  de> 
signed  by  one  Robert  Young,  and  for  a  vhfle 
imprisoned;  but  his  innocence  was  cleaily 
proved.  His  chief  works  are  A  Eistorjf  of  tht 
Moyal  Soeiety  (1667),  and  An  Account  of  tk 
RyeSouee  Plot  (1 685) .  Macaulay  thinks  that 
his  prose  writings  prove  him  to  have  been  "a 
great  master  of  our  language,  and  possessed  at 
once  of  the  eloquence  of  the  preacher,  of  the 
controversialist,  and  of  the  nistorian.  His 
moral  character  might  have  passed  with  liUk 
censure  had  he  belonged  to  a  less  sacred  pro- 
fession ;  for  the  worst  that  can  be  said  of  him 
is  that  he  was  indolent,  luxurious,  and  worldly: 
but  such  failings,  though  not  commonly  ^^ 
garded  as  very  heinous  in  men  of  secular 
callings,  are  scandalous  in  a  prelate." 

Birch,  Life  of  TiIZot«on ;  Macaukiy.  Hut-  ^  ^«f • 

Sprinep  Joshua  {b.  1618,  d.  1676),  vw 
bom  at  fianbury,  entered  at  New  Town 
Hall,  Oxford,  in  1634,  became  a  preacher  in 
London,  afterwards  chaplain  in  the  Nev 
Model,  and  Fellow  of  All  Souls  Collefe, 
Oxford.  He  was  author  of  Anglia  Bedmn^ 
a  history  of  the  successes  of  the  New  Mode). 
of  which  book,  according  to  Clement  Walker, 
Nathaniel  Fiennes  was  diief  compiler. 
Wood,  AUhmm  Qcohmiism. 

Sprot,  George,  a  notaiy  of  Eyemonth. 
was  legal  adviser  to  Logan  of  Restalrig,  from 
whom  he  acquired  information  oanoeming  the 
Gpwrie  conspiracy.  Having  incautiously  re- 
vved his  knowledge,  he  was  tortured,  and, 
having  confessed  all  he  knew,  was  executed. 

SmirSy  Battle  of  the,  is  the  name 
usually  given  to  the  action  fought  at  G-uise- 
gate,  near  Terouenne,  Aug.  16,  1513,  during 
the  campaign  of  the  English  under  Henrr 
Yin.  and  the  Imperialists  under  Maximiiian 
in  Flanders.  The  allies  had  formed  the  si^ 
of  Terouenne  and  a  body  of  French  cavahr 
came  up  to  relieve  the  town.  The  allies 
advanced  in  order  of  battle,  and  the  French 
on  seeing  them  were  seized  with  panic,  puJ 
spurs  to  their  horses,  and  fled  without  a  blov. 

Stafford,  John,  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury {d.  1452)  was  a  member  of  on*- 
of  the  most  illustrious  families  in  England 
in  the  fifteenth  century.  After  holding 
several  minor  preferments,  he  was  made 
Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells  in  U25,  and  in 
1443  was  translated  to  Canterbury.  He  held 
many  important  civil  offices,  being  appointed 
TVeasurer  in  1422,  Keeper  of  the  Privy  Seal 
in  1428,  and  Lord  Chancellor  in  1432.  H« 
held  the  great  seal  till  1450.  Stafford  «i 
Strang  supporter  of  Beaufort  and  the  peM» 


8te 


(  066  ) 


^^^^F 


ysatyt  and  was  zealous  in  promotizig  the 
marriage  of   Henry  VI.  with  Margaret  of 
.Anjou.    In  Jack  dode's  rebellion  he  showed 
.great  intrepidity,  and  did  much  to  restore 
tranquillity  to  the  country  by  a  judiciouB  ad- 
mixture of  firmness  and  leniency.  His  conduct 
as  a  statesman  and  judge  is  worthy  of  consi- 
-derable  praise,  and  while  he  lired  he  was  able 
to  keep  the  rivalry  between  the  Yorkists  and 
Lancastrians  within  bounds.    He.  would  seem 
to  deserve  higher  praise  than  is  bestowed  upon 
him  by  Fuller,  who  says — "  No  prelate  hath 
•either  less  good  or  less  evil  recorded  of  him." 
Hook»  ArehbitihopB  qf  Canterbury. 

Stafford,  Snt  Humfrbt  {d.  1460]  was 
cousin  to  the  first  Duke  of  Buckingham^  and 
nephew  of  John  Stafford,  Archbishop  of 
'Canterbury.  On  the  outbr«ik  of  Jack  C&de^s 
rebellion  he  was  sent  with  a  detachment 
against  the  insurgents,  whom  he  met  at  Seven- 
oaks,  and  an  encounter  took  place,  in  'W'hich 
Stafford  was  defeated  and  slain. 

Stafford.  Snt  Thomas  (d.  1667),  was  the 

son  of    Lord  Stafford,   and  the  nephew  of 

Cardinal  Pole.     He  was  for  a  long  time  an 

exile  at  the  Court  of  France  during  the  reign 

of  Mary,  but  in  April,  1567,  headed  an  ezpe« 

•dition  to  the  Yorkshire  coast,  and  took  the 

castle  of  Scarborough,  with  the  object  ''of 

•delivering  his  country  from  foreign  tyranny," 

though  *'  not  to  work  his  own  advancement 

touching^    possession    of   the   crown."    The 

castle  was  retaken  at  once  by  the  Earl  of 

Westmorland,  and  Stafford  was  put  to  death. 

StiTpe,  AnnaU ;  Froode,  Siat,  of  Bug. 

Staffovdy  William   Howabd,  Viscount 
{h.  1612;  <^.  1680),  was  a  Roman  Catholic  peer 
of  high  personal  character,  who  in  1678  was 
accused,  by  OatesandBedloe  of  complicity  in  the 
Popish  Plot.   He  was  committed  to  the  Tower 
-with  foor  other  Catholic  peers,  and  in  1680 
was  the  one  chosen  to  be  tried.    He  was  im- 
peached  of  high  treason  by  the  Commons, 
and  tried  by  the  House  of  Lords,  and,  although 
Che  only  witnesses  against  him  were  Gates, 
and  other  perjured  wretches,  he  was  found 
guilty  by   66  votes  to  31.    His    execution, 
which   took  place  in  Dec.,  1680,  marks  the 
turn  of  the  tide  against  Shaftesbury,  and  the 
other  upholders  of  the  Popish  Plot,    Stafford 
protested  his  innocence  on  the  scaffold,  and  the 
populace  avowed  their  belief  in  his  assertion. 

Stair*     Jambs     Dalrymplb,     Viscount 
(5,  1 6 1 9, 1^.  1 696) ,  had  borne  arms  in  his  youth, 
and  w^as  subsequently  a  professor  of  philo- 
sophy  at    Glasgow   University.    He  was   a 
znember  of  Cromwell's  commission  of  justice, 
-which  in  1651  superseded  the  Court  of  Session. 
After   the    Bestoration  he  sat  in  the  Privy 
Oouncil,  and  became  President  of  the  Court 
of  Session,  and  was  knighted  by  Charles  II. 
On  refusing*  to  make  a  declaration  against  the 
covenant,    he  was  condemned  to  forfeiture. 
4>n   passing   through  London,  however,  he 


had  an  interview  with  Charles  II.,  and  hit 
office  and  estates  were  restored  to  him.  In 
1676  he  became  Lord  President,  and  boldly 
opposed  the  severities  which  preceded  the  &uL 
of  the  Stuarts.  He  was  deprived  of  office^ 
and  felt  it  advisable  to  retire  to  Holland. 
There  he  composed  his  Inttitutea,  a  legal 
work  of  great  value.  He  assisted  with  his 
counsel  and  purse  the  unfortunate  enterprise 
of  Argyle.  Mis  estates  would  probably  have 
been  confiscated  had  not  his  eldest  son  taken 
the  Stuart  side  on  j^litical  affiurs.  At  the 
revolution  Stair  assisted  William  with  his 
advice.  He  became  President  of  the  Court  of 
Session,  and  William's  trusted  agent  in  Scot- 
land. An  attempt  was  made  by  the  opposition 
to  rid  themselves  of  him  and  his  son  by 
passing  a  law  to  the  effect  that  all  who  had 
(Glared  in  the  proceedings  under  the  Stuarts 
were  to  be  excluded  from  office,  but  the  royal 
assent  was  refused  to  the  bill.  William  wished 
to  make  him  Lord  President  of  the  judicial 
bench,  but  the  estates  claimed  the  appoint- 
ment. Next  year,  however,  the  opposition 
was  overcome.  Dalrymple's  attempts  to 
reform  the  bench  do  not  seem  to  have  been 
particularly  successful  On  the  fall  of  Mel- 
ville the  government  of  Scotland  passed 
entirely  into  the  hands  of  the  Dalrymples. 
Sir  James  was  raised  to  the  peerage,  with  the 
title  of  Viscount  Stair  (1691).  It  is  not 
generally  asserted  that  he  took  any  active 
part  in  organising  the  massacre  of  Glencoe. 
In  1696  he  died.  Stair,  as  well  as  his  son, 
were  thoroughly  unpopular  in  Scotland.  **  He 
was,"  says  Mr.  Burton,  <<the  unapproached 
head  of  the  Scotch  law  •  .  .  To  the  field 
of  Scotch  jurisprudence,  such  as  it  was,  Stair 
brought  so  entire  an  intellectual  command, 
both  in  knowledge  and  genius,  that  he  made 
his  labours  withm  it  illustrious." 
Burton,  Hi$t.  of  Scotland. 

Stair,  John  Dalrtmplb,  Earl  {b.  1648, 
d,  1707),  son  of  the  above,  1b  known  in  his- 
tory by.  the  title  of  the  Master  of  Stair. 
He  took  office  under  James  II.,  and  became 
Lord  Advocate  of  Scotland.  By  this  means 
he  saved  the  estates  of  his  father  from  confis- 
cation. The  coldness  that  ensued  between 
father  and  son  was  merely  affected.  At  the 
revolution  he  early  changed  sides.  He  was 
one  of  the  Scotch  commissioners  who  were 
sent  to  offer  the  crown  to  William.  On  his 
return  he  was  falsely  accused  by  the  opposi- 
tion of  having  betrayed  the  liberties  of  his 
country.  Shortly  afterwards  he  became  Lord 
Advocate,  and,  on  the  fall  of  his  rival  Mel- 
ville, Secretary  of  State  for  Scotland  (1696). 
In  conjunction  with  Argyle  and  Breadalbane, 
he  planned  the  infamous  massacre  of  Glencoe. 
An  inquiry  in  1695  clearly  traced  the  design 
to  him,  but  the  Scotch  Estates  simply  censured 
him  in  vague  terms,  and  left  his  treatment  to 
the  wisdom  of  the  king.  William  contented' 
himsdf    with   dismissmg  the   Master   from 


(  066  ) 


Star 


office.  On  the  death  of  his  lather  (1696) 
he  became  viacoont,  and  vas  created  Earl 
Stair  in  1703.  As  one  of  the  commiflsionen 
of  the  Scotch  Union  he  displayed  his  great 
legal  talents.  In  1707,  during  the  debate  on 
article  22  he  spoke  with  success,  and  with 
considerable  earnestness.  But  the  strain  on 
his  nerves  was  too  great :  he  returned  home, 
and  died.  '<  The  Master  of  Stair,"  says  Mao- 
aulay,  "  was  one  of  the  first  men  of  his  time — 
a  j  urist,  a  statesman,  a  fine  scholar,  an  eloquent 
orator.  His  polished  manners  and  lively  con- 
versation were  the  delight  of  aristocratical 
societies,  and  none  who  met  him  in  such 
societies  would  have  thought  it  possible  that 
he  could  bear  the  chief  part  in  an  atrocious 
crime."  The  defence  that  is  offered  for  his 
complicity  in  the  massacre  of  Glencoe  may  be 
given  in  the  words  of  Mr.  Burton : — '*  If  it  is 
to  be  called  malignity,  it  was  no  more  personal 
than  the  desire  of  a  chief  of  police  to  bring  a 
band  of  robbers  to  justice." 

Macaulay,  Uitt,  of  Bng.;  Burton,   Hid,  qf 
Sootland. 

Stair,  Thomas  Balrtxple,  Earl  of  (son 
of  the  foregoing)  (6. 1673,^.  1747),  served  under 
William  ill.  in  Ireland  and  the  Netherlands, 
and  was  one  of  Marlborough's  officers,  becom- 
ing a  lieutenant-colonel  in  1701.  He  shared 
his  ^neral's  disgrace.  In  1707  he  succeeded 
to  his  father's  earldom.  In  1715  he  was  sent 
as  ambassador  to  France.  There  his  friend- 
ship with  the  regent  stood  the  English  ^vem- 
ment  in  good  stead.  The  fortifications  at 
Mardyk  were  discontinued  owing  to  his  re- 
presentations. Hearing  that  ships  were  being 
fitted  out  for  the  Pretender  by  the  French 
government,  he  requested  that  they  might  be 
given  up,  and  the  rep^ent  went  so  ftur  as  to 
unload  them.  It  is  said  that  he  tried  to  bring 
about  the  assassination  of  the  Pretender  before 
he  started  for  the  expedition  of  1716.  On 
his  return  from  that  fruitless  attempt  he 
was  dismissed  from  France  on  Stair's  demand. 
In  1718  Stair  successfully  negotiated  the 
quadruple  alliance  between  England,  France, 
Austria,  and  Holland.  In  1720  ho  was  re- 
called owing  a  dispute  with  his  fellow-cotm- 
tryman,  Law,  the  financier.  For  twenty  years 
he  was  kept  out  of  employment.  At  length 
^741)  he  was  sent  as  ambaffiador  to  Holland, 
in  order  to  induce  the  States  G^eral  to  take 
part  in  the  war  of  the  Austrian  succession. 
As  commander  of  the  EngUsh  army  in  Flan- 
ders (1743)  he  displayed  great  incapacity.  It 
was  only  by  exti^me  good  fortune  that  the 
English  army  escaped  destruction  at  Dettingen. 
After  the  battle  jealousy  sprang  up  between 
him  and  the  German  commanders.  J[)i8gusted 
at  the  rejection  of  his  advice  he  sent  in  his 
resignation.  In  1745  he  was  reappointed 
commander-in-chief  on  the  occasion  of  Prince 
Charles  Edward's  in'V'asion,  but  took  no  active 
part  in  the  campaign. 

Stanhope,    Hi$t,    of  Eng.i    Arneth,   Mario 
Tlurena, 


Stamford  Bridge.  Ths  Battlb  of  (Sept 

25,  1066),  was  fought  between  the  En)^ 
under  King  Harold  II.,  and  the  KorwQgia&a^ 
led  by  Harold  Hardrada  and  Tostig.  The 
early  success  of  the  invaders  at  Fulford,  and 
the  submission  of  York  had  not  prepsied  than 
for  the  sudden  advance  of  Harold,  and  they 
seem  to  have  been  taken  unawares,  as  ihej 
were  encamped  on  the  banks  of  the  Berweni 
east  of  York.  The  party  on  the  right  bank 
were  completely  surprised,  and  could  nub 
but  little  resistance,  and,  having  defeated 
these,  the  English  proceeded  to  press  acros 
the  bridge,  which  was  for  awhile  gaUantlj 
defended  by  a  single  Norwegian  cbampioo. 
The  main  fight  took  placo  on  the  left  bank, 
and,  after  a  hard  struggle,  the  English  gained 
a  complete  victory.  HGUx>ld  Hiudiada  and 
Tostig  lay  dead  on  the  field,  and  of  the 
Norwegian  host  very  few  escaped  to  their 
ships. 

Freeman,  Norman  ConqattL 

Stamp  Act.  Thb  (1764, 1765,17e6|,«» 
one  of  the  chief  causes  of  the  war  witk  the 
American  colonies.  In  it  Geoige  Grenrilk 
as  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  in  1764, 
asserted  for  the  first  time  the  right  of  the 
imperial  legislature  to  impose  taxation  oa 
the  colonies ;  and  by  it  customs  duties  iroe 
charged  upon  the  importation  into  the  colooi«» 
of  various  foreign  products.  The  prooeeds  of 
these  duties  were,  on  a  totally  new  princiid«« 
to  be  paid  into  tiie  imperial  exchequer,  and  to 
be  applied,  under  the  direction  of  FSarliament 
towanis  defraying  **  the  necessary  expenses  of 
defending,  protecting,  and  securing  the  British 
colonies  and  phintations.**  This  Act  was  also 
accompanied  by  a  resolution,  passed  by  the 
Commons,  that  "  it  may  be  proper  to  cbaige 
certain  stamp  duties"  in  America,  as  the 
foundation  of  future  legiskition.  A  yetr's 
delay  was  allowed  by  Qrenville  before  passing 
the  threatened  bill,  but  in  the  following  year, 
in  spite  of  the  unanimous  protests  of  the 
American  colonies,  and  their  assertioQ  of  their 
constitutional  right  to  be  taxed  only  through 
their  representatives,  the  fiatal  bill  pssnd 
almost  without  opposition.  The  odloniirts, 
however,  resisted  its  execution,  and  their  di»- 
oontent  became  so  marked  that  Fftrliamest 
was  reluotantlv  obliged  to  take  notice  of  it- 
Pitt,  who  had  been  prevented  by  illnen  froo 
being  present  at  the  discussions  on  the  IhU> 
now  came  forward,  and,  insisting  that  taxatioa 
without  representation  was  illegal,  urged  the 
immediate  repeal  of  the  tax,  wlule  he  proposed 
to  uphold  the  dignity  of  the  mother  oonntrT 
bv  asserting  the  general  legislative  aathoritt 
of  Parliament  over  the  colonies.  Fromthi? 
Act  he  expresslv  excepted  the  right  of  tantioiL 
but  the  crown  lawyers  were  against  him,  and, 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  Lord  Roddngbao 
was  now  at  the  head  of  the  govenunent,  the 
exception  was  eliminated,  and  the  bill  ^ 
passed   maintaining  the   absolute  ng^  ^ 


Sta 


(  967  ) 


Sta 


England  to  make  laws  for  the  colonies. 
Though  defeated  in  this  particular,  Pitt 
carried  his  original  proposal,  and  in  1766 
the  Stamp  Act  was  repealed,  while  at  the 
same  time  several  of  the  obnoxious  duties, 
which  had  been  imposed  in  1764,  were  with- 
drawn, and  others  were  modified. 

ISaMmrtBtignofehorge  III.;  May,  Const.  Hitt.; 

Adfun  Smith,  WtoUh  of  Nationa,  book  iv.,  c.  7 ; 

Burke,  Am*riean  Taxatxcnj  Baocroft.  fliat.  o/tht 

American  EevalvHon,  vols,  ii.,  iii. ;  £videno6  of 

Franklin,  Pari.  Hist,  trl 

Staadardy  Thb  Battle  of  thb  (1137), 
was  fought  near  Northallerton  in  Yorkshire. 
David  of  Scotland  invaded  England  on  the 
pretext  of  assisting  Maud  against  Stephen ; 
but  the  hatred  and  dread  of  the  Scots  united 
all  the  English  of  the  Korth  agamst  him. 
Under  the  authority  of  Thurstan,  Archbishop 
of  York  and  the  leadership  of  Raoul,  Bishop 
of  Durham,  an  army  was  collected,  while  to 
inspire  courage,  the  consecrated  banners  of  St. 
Cuthbert  of  Durham,  St.  Peter  of  York,  St. 
John  of  Beverley,  and  St.  Wilfred  of  Ripon 
were  entrusted  to  the  army.  "  These  were  all 
suspended  from  one  pole,  like  the  mast  of  a 
vessel,  surmounted  by  a  cross,  in  the  centre 
of  which  was  fixed  a  silver  casket,  containing 
the  consecrated  wafer  of  the  Holy  Sacrament. 
The  pole  was  fixed  into  a  four-wheeled  car, 
on  which  the  Bishop  stood.*'  The  Scots 
were  completely  routed,  and  fled  in  disorder. 

Standing  Orders  are  orders  drawn  up 
hy  the  Houses  of  Parliament  for  the  regula- 
tion of  its  conduct  and  proceedings.  They 
continue  in  force  from  one  Parliament  to 
another,  until  they  are  repealed  or  suspended. 

Stanliopay  Chables,  3kd  Eakl  {b,  1753, 
d.  1816),  took  a  prominent  position  in 
politics,  until  his  extreme  partisanship  of 
the  French  Revolution  lost  him  aU  in- 
fluence. His  advocacy  of  RepubHcanism 
often  left  him  single  in  a  minority  in  the 
House  of  Lords. 

StanhOMf  Jamsb,  General,  1st  muRL 
(i.  1673,  d.  1720),  in  1696  served  as  a  volun- 
teer in  Flanders,  and  was  given  a  coloneFs 
commission  by  William  III.  In  Anne's  first 
Parliament  he  sat  as  member  for  Cocker- 
mouth.  He  was  made  Brigadier-Q«neral  in 
1705.  At  the  siege  of  Barcelona,  he  was 
second  in  command  to  Peterborough,  and 
afterwards  returned  to  England.  In  1708  he 
brought  forward  a  Bill  for  the  dissolution  of 
the  Highland  dans ;  but  as  the  danger  of  a 
Jacobite  invasion  passed  away,  the  Bill  was 
dropped.  Id  the  same  year  he  was  appointed 
Commander  in  Catalonia  [Spanish  Succes- 
sion, Wa&  of].  Unsuccessful  on  the  mainland, 
he  took  Port  Mahonin  Minorca,  and  in  1710 
advanced  on  Arragon.  The  Spanish  were 
utterly  defeated  at  Almenara,  and  again  at 
Saragossa.  Madrid  was  occupied.  But  Stan- 
hope was  caught,  defeated,  and  taken  prisoner 
by  Vendome  at  Brihuega.  He  was  ransomed 
in  17 1 2,  and  became  on  his  return  leader  <^  tha 


Whig  opposition.  Owing  to  his  firmness,  no 
attempt  at  rebellion  was  made  by  the  Jacobites 
on  the  death  of  Anne.  He  was  prepared,  if 
necessary,  to  seize  the  Tower.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  George  I.  he  became  Secretary  of 
State,  ,and  was  despatched  to  Vienna  to  per- 
suade the  Emperor  to  agree  to  the  Bazrier 
Treaty.  His  vigorous  measures  checked  a 
serious  outbreak  in  England  during  the  rebel- 
lion of  1716.  He  went  with  George  to  Hiui- 
over  (1716),  and  began  nejj^ations  with  the 
Abb6  Dubois  for  the  establishment  of  friendly 
relations  with  the  Kegent  of  France.  The 
result  was  the  triple  alliance  between  England, 
France,  and  Holland  (1717).  On  the  retire- 
ment of  Walpole  and  Townshend  from  the 
ministry  in  April,  Stanhope  became  First 
Lord  of  the  Treasury  and  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer.  It  was  thought  that  a  Jacobite 
invasion  was  impending.  Stanhope  was 
removed  from  the  Treasury,  and  became 
Secretary  of  State  for  the  Southern  Depart- 
ment. At  home  he  succeeded  in  repealing 
the  Schism  Act,  but  his  Peerage  Bill  was 
thrown  out  by  large  majorities  in  the  Lower 
House.  In  1720  came  the  downfall  of 
the  South  Sea  scheme.  Stanhope  had  no 
share  in  the  speculation;  and  even  pro« 
posed  that  ministers  who  had  received  bribes 
m>m  the  company  should  be  accounted 
guilty  of  "  notorious  and  dangerous  corrup- 
tion." During  the.  examination  of  the 
directors,  the  young  Duke  of  Wharton  di- 
rected a  violent  attack  against  the  adminis* 
tration,  especially  against  Stanhope  himself. 
He  rose  to  reply ;  but  his  passion  brought  a 
rush  of  blood  to  his  head,  which  next  day 
proved  fatal. 

Stanhoi>e,  Reign  qf  Anne^  Hut.  qf  Bug,,  and 

War  of  Suceetiaiim  in  Spain;  Maoaolay, £May  on 

War  of  Sueeession. 

StanliopOy  Henry,  Eakl  (3.  1805,  d, 
1875),  was  returned  in  1830,  as  Lord  Mahon, 
to  Parliament  as  member  for  Wootton  Bassett^ 
and  afterwards  for  the  Borough  of  Hertford. 
In  the  first  Peel  ministr)'  he  was  Under- 
Secretary  for  Foreign  Affairs,  and  during 
the  last  year  of  Peel's  second  administration 
he  was  Secretary  to  the  Board  of  Control, 
and  supported  the  repeal  of  the  Com  Laws. 
Lord  S&nhope  was  the  author  of  numerous 
important  historical  works.  His  War  of  the 
Stieeeseion  in  Spain  is  full  and  accurate. 
His  History  of  the  Reign  of  Queen  Anne  is 
a  useful  general  history.  His  more  lengthy 
and  elaborate  History  of  England  in  the  EigfU 
teenth  Century  has  taken  its  place  as  a 
standard  work,  and  though  corrected  and 
supplemented  has  not  been  superseded  by  the 
more  recent  work  of  Bfr.  Lecky. 

Stanley,  Sir  William  {d.  1495),  was  the 
brother  of  JHenry  VII.'s  step-father.  Justice 
of  North  Wales,  and  constable  under  Richard 
ni.,  and  the  nobleman  to  whose  treacherous 
conduct  the  king's  victory  at  Bosworth  Field 
was  chiefly  due.    In  coninderation  of  his  irn* 


( ^^  ) 


poitant  servioes  on  this  oocadoiiy  Henry  made 
him  Lord  Chamberlain,  and  one  of  his  coun- 
sellors. Stanley,  however,  was  not  satisfied. 
His  continued  demands  alienated  the  king,  for 
whom  Stanley  conceived  a  growing  dislike. 
He  became  mvolved  in  some  way  with  the 
affair  of  Perkin  Warbeck.  On  the  evidence 
of  the  king's  spy,  Sir  Kobert  Clifford,  he  was 
suddenly  arrested  on  a  charge  of  treason, 
and  after  the  merest  semblance  of  a  trial,  was 
condemned  and  executed  on  that  charge 
(Feb.  16,  1496). 

Baoon,  lAfi  qfHtnry  VIL 

Stanleyp  Sot  William,  who  had  been 
employed  for  some  time  in  Ireland,  was  in 
1586  recalled,  and  sent  to  the  Low  Countries, 
when  he  beoune  Governor  of  Deventer.  He 
was  a  traitor  to  Elisabeth,  and  a  friend  of 
■the  Jesuits,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  privy 
to  the  Babington  Conspiracy.  After  the  dis. 
covery  of  the  plot,  Sir  Wilmm  accomplished 
A  long-meditated  piece  of  treachery,  and  sur- 
rendered Deventer  to  the  Spaniards,  himself 
entering  Philip's  service  with  1,300  men 
(June,  1687). 

Stannaxy  Courts,  Thb,  were  the 
courts  for  the  administration  of  justice 
«mong  the  tinners  of  Cornwall  and  l>evon- 
flhire,  held  before  the  Lord  Warden  and  his 
steward.  The  privilege  of  the  tin-workers 
to  be  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  these 
courts  only  was  confirmed  bv  a  charter  33 
Edw.  I,  and  by  a  statute  50  Edw.  IlL,  pleas  of 
life,  land,  and  member  excepted.  There  was 
no  appeal  to  Westminster,  but  to  the  council 
of  the  Duke  of  Cornwall  after  reference  to  the 
Warden  in  person.  These  courts  became  the 
engines  of  an  arbitrary  prerogative  which 
robbed  the  mining  districts  of  the  west  of  the 
benefit  of  the  common  law.  The  Stuarts 
largely  availed  themselves  of  them ;  and  in 
consequence  of  the  complaints  made,  the  Long 
Parliament  (16  Car.  I.,  c.  15}  passed  an  ex- 
planatory and  regulating  Act  concerning  them, 
at  the  same  time  that  it  abolished  some 
analogous  special  jurisdictions.  Since  that 
ilate  the  proceedings  of  the  Stannaries  Courts 
have  ceased  to  possess  any  great  historical 
importance. 

Stapledoil..  Waltbr  db  {d,  1326),  was 
made  iSshop  of  Exeter  in  1308,  and  in  1319 
Lord  High  Treasurer.  He  sided  with  the 
king  against  Queen  Isabella  and  Mortimer, 
and  soon  after  the  landing  of  the  latter  in 
England  he  was  seized  by  the  citizens  of 
London,  whom  he  seems  to  have  offended 
during  his  tenure  of  the  treasurership,  and 
harbfurously  murdered. 

Staplmi,  or  Karts.  for  the  sale  of  the 
chief  commodities  of  England,  viz.,  wqoI, 
woolfelB  (skins),  leather,  lead,  and  tin,  were 
established  in  certain  places  by  Edward  I. 
and  Ed^^rd  II.  The  foreign  steple  was  fixed 
first  at  Antwerp  and  then  at  St.  Omer.  When 
wo  took  Calais  a  staple  was  set  up  there  which, 


on  the  loss  of  Calais  in  1558  ifss  mo^  to 
Bruges.    Within  England  there  were  st&pka 
at  several  of  the  principal  towns,  at  Lonoon, 
York,   Bristol,  Newcastle,  &c    After  taaa 
changes  the  staple  system   was  cwtoWitJyfl 
by  statute  (27  Edw.  Ill,  c  9.)    InthisBUtatt 
the  staple   towns  are  enumerated,  DaUiii, 
Waterford,  Cork,  and  Drogheda  being  fiied 
on  for  Ireland,  and  Caermiuihen  for  Wsla. 
the  ancient  customs  payable  on  stanle  goods  ir 
recited ;  all  merchants,  save  merchaato  of  th 
staple,  are  forbidden  to  buy  or  export  tfaeie 
goods,  and  arrangemente  are  made  for  the  go- 
vernment of  each  steple  by  ite  own  mayor  ud 
constebles.    The  appointment  of  staple  tons 
was  a  measure  of  considerable  importuux: 
As  a  matter  of  administration  it  &cilitated 
the    collection  of   the    customs.     Constita- 
tionally,  it  bore  on  the  relative  righta  of  the 
crown  and  the  parliament  as  regards  taxBiioL 
Possessing  exclusive  privileges,  and  under  tk 
special  protection  of  the  crown,  the  merdunti 
formed  a  body  apart  from  the  estates  of  tike 
realm,  and  the  king  negotiated  with  then 
separately.      The    various    changes  in  tbt 
policy  relating  to  the  steples  Dr.  Stubbe  cob- 
siders  to  be  evidence  that  parliament  looked 
on  the  dealings  of   the  crown  with  tkie 
merchante  as    infringemente   of  its  n^ 
Regarded  in  this  light,  tiie  authority  giva 
by  stetute  to  the  ordmances  of  the  stapk 
previously  made    by  the   council,  and  the 
recitetion  of  the  ancient  customs,  may  ht 
regarded  as  assertions  of  the  rights  of  tte 
estetes.      Commercially,  the  steples  were  of 
importance  as  insuring  the  qcudity  of  oai 
expoils,  for  at  the  steple  ports  the  officen 
viewed  and  marked  the  goods  of  the  mercfaantB. 
From  the  jurisdiction  of  the  courts  of  the 
steples  arose  a  species  of  eeteto  defeasible  cc 
condition  subsequent,  called  •tatute  it^fUd 
the    same   nature  as  that    founded  on  the 
stetute,     De     MerctUoribut,     13    Edw.   1- 
being  a  security  for  debt  whereby  not  only 
the  person  and  goods  of  the  debtor  might  he 
teken,  but  his  hmds  might  be  delivered  to  the 
creditor  until  out  of   the  profite  the  deU 
should  be  satisfied.     "  So  much  more  readilT 
did  the  feudal  restrainte  on  alienation  yiel<i 
to  considerations  of  a  commerdai  kind  thin 
to  any  others  "  (Stephen^s  Blaekttone,  i.  317 
This    security,  originally    granted  only  to 
traders,  was  extended  as  a  recognisance  in 
the  nature  of  a  stetute  staple  to  all  sabjectt 
by  23  Hen.  VIII.,  c.  6.      Such  secnrititf 
have  been  superseded  by  the  law  of  bank- 
ruptcy. 

Stebb),  C(m<  Hiai.,  i.  4U ;  Stephen.  C^ 
nMniariM.  i.  S14 ;  Baeoa*8  AhridgwmmiX^  art  Str 
plM ;  Macpheraoa,  Ui^t.  of  Comvwre*.  rol  i- 

Star  Cluuiiber  (possibly  from  ^ 
Hebrew  »hetar^  the  Jewish  covenants  thii 
were  kept  in  the  Star  Chamber).  One  of  tht 
main  objecte  of  Henry  VII.  was  to  secaw 
good  "  governance  "  for  the  country  and  to 


Ste 


(  969  ) 


Sta 


keep  the  nobles  in  order.    For  this  purpose 
he  caused  an  Act  (3  Henry  YII.,  c.  1)  to  be 
passed,  which,  after  reciting  the  evils  caused 
by  maintenance,  and  the  giving  of  liveries, 
by  the  abuse  of  the  power  of  the  sherifib,  by 
the    bribery   of  jurors,  and    by    the    riots 
and    unlawful   assemblies    which   prevented 
the  administration  of  justice,   empowers  the 
Chancellor,  Treasurer,   and  Keeper   of    the 
Privy  Seal,  or  any  two  of  them,  with  a  bishop 
and  a  temporal  lord  of  the  Council,  and  the 
Chief  Justices  of  the  King's  Bench  and  Com- 
mon Pleas,  or  two  other  justices  in  their 
absence,  to  call  before  them  persons  offending 
in  the  above-mentioned  re&pects,  and  to  in- 
flict such  punishment,  not  extending  to  death, 
as  might  be  imposed  were  they  convicted  in 
the  ordinary  course  of  law.    This  seems  to 
have  been  not  so  much  the  creation  of  an 
entirely  new  court,  as  a  Parliamentary  recog- 
nition of  certain  powers  of  criminal  jurisdic- 
tion long  claimed  by  the  Privy  Council,  and 
the  limitation  of  their  exercise  to  what  may 
be  regarded  as  practically  a  committee  of  that 
body.      The  Fnvy  Council  had  long  been 
accustomed  to  meet  in  the  Star  Chamber,  but 
now  this  term  Star  Chamber  began  to  be 
definitely  applied  to  the  new  court  which  had 
sprung  out  of  the  Council.    The  words  do  not 
occur  in  the  bill  itself,  only  in  the  head- 
ing, but  in  the  Act  20  Henry  VII.,  which 
extended   the  jurisdiction  of  the  court,   the 
title  is  actually  employed. 

Subsequently,  however,  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  court  was  extended  beyond  the  Act 
3  Henry  YII. ,  so  that  in  the  reigns  of  James  I. 
and  Charles  I.  it  included  most  '*  misdemea- 
nours of  an  aggravated  nature,  such  as 
disturbances  of  the  public  peace,  assaults 
accompanied  with  a  good  deal  of  violence, 
conspiracies,  and  libels.  Besides  these,  every 
misdemeanour  came  within  the  proper  scope 
of  its  inquiry ;  those  especially  of  pubuc 
importance,  and  for  which  the  law,  as 
then  understood,  had  provided  po  sufficient 
punishment."  (Hallam.)  At  the  same  time 
the  limitation  as  to  the  judges  came  to  be 
disregarded,  and  any  member  of  the  Privy 
Council  WHS  allowed  to  sit.  Thus  the  Star 
Chamber  became,  as  has  been  aptly  said,  a 
sort  of  scratch  tribunal  consisting  of  privy 
councillors,  a  change  which,  according  to 
yrallRTn^  probably  took  place  during  the 
reign  of  Edward  VI.  It  can  scarcely  be 
doubted  that  during  a  great  part  at  any  rate 
of  the  ^udor  period,  the  power  of  the  court 
was  beneficially  exercised.  **  It  is  the  effect 
of  this  court,'*  says  Sir  Thomas  Smith  in  his 
Treatise  on  the  Comnumwealth  of  England, 
written  early  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  "  to 
bridle  such  stout  noblemen  or  gentlemen  who 
would  offer  wrong  by  force  to  any  manner  of 
men,  and  cannot  be  content  to  demand  or 
defend  the  right  by  order  of  the  law.*'  He 
ffoefi  on  to  ascribe  much  of  the  praise  to 
WolBey:  "It  began  long  before,  but  took 

HMT.-31* 


augmentation  and  authority  at  that  time  that 
Cardinal  Wolsey  was  Chancellor  of  England, 
who  of  some  was  thought  to  have  fii^  de- 
vised that  coiurt  because  that  he,  after  some 
intermission  by  negligence  of  time,  aug- 
mented the  authority  of  it,  which  was  at  that 
time  marvellous  necessary  to  do  to  repress 
the  insolency  of  the  noblemen  and  gentlemen 
in  the  north  parts  of  England  who  .... 
made  almost  an  ordinary  war  among  them- 
selves." Moreover,  it  was  able  to  provide 
equitable  remedies  for  cases  which  could  not 
be  fairly  dealt  %ith  by  the  ordinary  law 
courts.  But  its  power  had  very  early  been 
abused ;  juries  were  summoned  before  it  for 
verdicts  disagreeable  to  the  government,  and 
were  fined  or  imprisoned,  so  that  although 
the  Star  Chamber  could  not  itself  condenm 
to  death,  the  fear  of  its  displeasure  made 
juries  sufficiently  pliant.  Persons  accused 
before  the  court  were  forced  to  incriminate 
themselves  by  examination  upon  oath,  and,  it 
is  scarcely  necessary  to  aod,  no  jury  was 
employed  to  determine  the  question  of  guilt. 
It  imposed  ruinous  fines  (though  in  many 
cases  they  were  remitted),  and  began  in 
Elizabeth's  reign  to  sentence  to  the  pillory, 
whipping,  and  cutting  off  the  ears.  Under 
James  I.  and  Charles  I.,  the  Star  Chamber 
became  the  chief  weapon  of  defence  used  by 
the  government  against  its  assailants;  the 
punishments  inflicted  by  it  in  such  cases  as 
those  of  Prynne,  Burton,  and  Bastwick, 
excited  general  indignation ;  and  it  was 
abolished  by  Act  of  Parliament  (July,  1641). 
A  committee  of  the  Lords  in  1661  reportcx] 
"  that  it  was  fit  for  the  good  of  the  nation 
that  there  be  a  court  of  like  nature  to  the 
Star  Chamber ; "  but  the  government  did  not 
venture  to  submit  a  bill  to  this  effect  to  the 
Commons. 

Coke.  4th  In«({(ue«,  p.  61  iStubbe,  Contt.  Bitt., 
ui.,  o.  18 ;  Hallam,  Contt.  But.,  cc.  1,  8. 

[W.  J.  A.] 

State  Trials,  Thb.  Collections  of 
trials  for  treason  and  others  of  political 
interest  have  been  made  and  publish^  under 
the  designation  of  State  Trials.  They  are 
often  invaluable  sources  of  historical  informa- 
tion, especially  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
The  earliest  collection  was  in  six  volumes 
folio,  published  early  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. Howell's  edition  in  thirty-four  volumes 
with  index  includes  all  up  to  1820.  A  useful 
series  of  selections  from  the  State  Trials  is 
issued  from  the  Cambridge  Press  under  the 
editorship  of  Mr.  Willis  Bund  (1880). 

Statutes  niay  be  defined  as  written  *law8, 
established  by  the  sovereign,  with  the  ad- 
vice and  assent  of  the  loitiEv  spiritual  and 
temporal,  and  of  the  Commons  in  Parliament 
assembled.  Our  legfislation,  however,  did 
not  take  this  form  for  a  long  time.  The 
edicts,  or  assizes  of  Henry  II.,  are  dedara^ 
tions  of  methods  of  procedure  xather  thiua 


(970) 


mu 


enactmenta,  and  moet  of  the  legislative  work 
of  Edward  I.  was  done  without  the  co-opera- 
tion of  the  Commons.     The  declaration  of 
Edward  II.  in  1322,  that  matters  touching 
the  state  of  the  king,    the    kingdom,   and 
people   should  be  established  in  I'arliament 
by  the  king  with  the  assent  of  the  prelates, 
earls,  barons,  and  the  commonalty,  forms  an 
era  in  the  history  of  our  leg^islation.    Never- 
theless, the  author  of  the  Mirror,  writing  in 
this  reign,  declares  that  ordinances  made  by 
the  king  and  his  clerks,  by  aliens  and  others, 
took  the  place  of  laws  eafp^blished  by  Par- 
liament, and  for  a  long  time  our  kings  con- 
stantly neglected  to  gain  the  full  concurrence 
of  the  three  estates,  legislating  by  ordinances 
or  temporary  regulations  put  forth  by  the 
Council  rather  than  by  statute.    So  long  also 
as  statutes  were  founded  simply  on  petition, 
it  sometimes  happened  that  one  estate  only 
gained  a  statute,  and  more  often  that  the 
statutes  which  were  drawn  after  the  Parlia* 
ment  had  broken  up,  and  which  purported 
to  be  answers  to  the  petitions  presented,  were 
more  or  less  contrary  to  them.    To  obviate 
this,  the  Commons  in  the  reign  of  Henry  Y. 
demanded  and  obtained  that  the  judges  should 
frame  the  statutes  before  the  end  of  each 
Parliament.     In  the  next  reign  the  present 
system  of  making  statutes  by  Act  of  Parlia- 
ment was  introduced.     Statutes  are  written 
laws ;  yet  such  laws  as  were  made  before  legajl 
memor}' — i.e,,  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of 
Richard  I.  — though  written,  form  pnrt  of  our 
lex  turn  seripta.    Some  written  statutes  also 
are  extant  tiiat  are  not  of  record,  being  con- 
tained only  in  chronicles  and  memorials,  yet 
even  though  a  statute  be  not  of  record,  it  is 
still  part  of  the  written  law  if  it  is  within 
legal  memory.    The  earliest  statute  of  record 
is  6  Edward  I.,  called  the  Statute  of  Glou- 
^ter.    The  first  statute  in  the  printed  col- 
lection is  the  Great  Charter,  9  Hen.  III.,  as 
confirmed  and  entered  on  the  statute  roll  of 
25  Edward  I.    The  statutes  from  the  Great 
Charter  to  the  end  of  Edward  II.  are  said  to 
be  incerli  temporise  and  are  called  antiguaf 
while  all  those  that  follow  are  called  nova 
statuta,      A   statute  takes  effect   from  the 
moment    that    it    has    received    the    royal 
assent,  unless  some  special  time  is  expressed 
in  the  statute  itself.    Among  the  rules  to  be 
observed  in  interpreting  statutes,  it  may  be 
noted  that  a  statute  is  to  be  interpreted  not 
by  the  letter,  but  according  to  the  spirit  and 
intention  with  which  it  was  made :   and  so 
judges,  whose  business   it    is   to    interpret 
■  statutes,    sometimes  depart  from    the  mere 
words ;  that  remedial  statutes  are  to  be  in- 
terpreted in  a  wider,  penal  in  a  narrower 
fashion ;  and  that  though  it  was  formerly  held 
that  if  a  statute  repealing  an  earlier  one  was 
itself  repealed,  the  earlier  statute  was  thereby 
revived ;  since  13  &  14  Vict.,  c.  21,  this  is  no 
longer  the  rule.    Statutes  have  been  named 
in  different  ways  at  different  times,  being 


called  sometimes  by  the  name  of  the  plioi 

wheore  they  were  made,  as  the  Statute  o) 

Merton,  sometimes  by  their  subject,  as  Dt 

Donia    Cfonditionalibtu ;    and    sometimes  I7 

their  first  words,  as  Quia  Emptoru.    They 

are  now  described  by  the  year  of  the  Idng'i 

reign  in  which  they  were  made,  with  Uie 

chapter,  and  when  two  sessions  have  beai 

held  in  one  year,  with  the  statute  denoting  the 

session  in  which  it  was  enacted,  as  1  William  & 

MaiV,  St.  2,  c.  2  (the  Bill  of  Righta).  Stal4ilei 

are  now   divided  into  Public  General  Acts; 

Local  and  Personal  Acts,   declared  Public; 

Private  Acts  printed  and  Private  Acts  na 

printed.    Up  to  the  time  of  Edward  I.  our 

statutes  are  in  Latin;  in  his  reign  FreoiJi 

was  also  used,  and  became  the  constant  bo- 

guage  of  legislation  until  Henry  VI.    Some 

of  the  statutes  of  Henry  VI.  and  Edward  IV. 

are  in  English ;  but  Henry  VII.  was  the  first 

king  whose  statutes  are  all  expressed  in  osr 

own  tongue. 

Stubba,  Const.  Hiit.  pasnm;  Stephen,  C»> 
tnentanes,  1.,  Introd. ;  Bacon,  itbnd^iMKt  pj  thi 

»«*«*«.  [W.  H.] 

Steele,  Sm  Richard  (&.  1671,  d-  1T29) 
was  bom  in  Dublin.  At  Oxford  he  bectme 
acquainted  with  Addison,  and  when  after 
failing  there  and  in  the  army,  he  aspired  to 
a  literary  career,  Addison  got  him  introdoe- 
tions  to  the  Whig  leaders,  on  whose  behali 
he  soon  distinguished  himself.  In  1709  he 
entered  Parliament,  but  his  pamphleta»  ^ 
Crina  and  Th4  Englishman,  led  to  his  expoi- 
sion  by  the  irate  Tory  majority.  After  the 
accession  of  George  I.  ne  was  knighted, 
elected  a  member  of  Parliament,  and  wrote 
numerous  political  pamphlets.  He  quanelled 
with  his  party  about  the  Peerage  Bill,  and. 
not  succeeding  in  his  literary  and  stock* 
jobbing  projects,  retired  to  Carmarthen,  his 
wife's  home,  where  he  died.  Of  his  literazj 
eminence  there  is  no  need  to  speak  here.  As  a 
political  writer  Steele  was  one  of  the  bolder 
and  most  sagacious  of  the  Whigs,  and  at  the 
same  time  he  was,  in  a  great  degree,  inx 
from  the  narrowness  which  came  over  boim 
of  the  "  old  Whigs,"  in  George  L's  reign- 
His  political  pam^ets  are  among  the  mtft 
important  contributions  to  the  oontroveisial 
literature  of  the  period. 

Steenie  was  the  pet  name  gi^^^,  ^ 
James  I.  to  his  favourite,  George  Villioii 
Duke  of  Buckingham. 

Steinkirk,  The  Battle  of  (Aag-  i 
1692),  foughtbetween  William  III.  and  tk 
BVench  soon  after  the  naval  victory  of  I^ 
Hogue.  The  enemy  had  taken  Naninr.  (^ 
the  frontier  of  Brabant,  Luxemburg  was  lei^ 
to  oppose  the  English  king.  William**  head- 
quarters were  at  Lambeqne,  Luxemburgj 
about  six  miles  off  at  Steinkirk,  while  ^^ 
farther  off  lay  a  large  force  under  Marshal 
Boufflers.  The  country  between  thearmi» 
was  exceedingly  difficult.    A  traitor  in  ^ 


8te 


( »n ) 


8te 


'Rnglinh  ^my  had  habitually  infornnod  Ma^• 
«hal  Luzemburg  of  the  movements  of  the 
allies.  His  correspondence  was  discovered, 
and  with  pistol  at  his  breast  he  was  forced  to 
write  false  information  dictated  by  William. 
The  French  commander  was  thrown  off  his 
guard.  The  whole  of  the  allied  army  marched 
down  upon  him  in  the  night.  His  outposts 
were  driven  back.  But  the  progress  of  Wil- 
liam's forces  was  obstructed  by  several  fences 
■and  ditches,  and  Luzemburg  was  able  to  get  his 
troops  into  order.  Meanwhile,  BoufiSers  was 
-coming  up.  Mackay's  division  was  the  first 
to  engage.  The  enemy  were  attacked  and 
Touted.  It  was  determined  to  send  Louis' 
household  troops  against  the  English.  After  a 
bloody  struggle  our  men  were  borne  down. 
Count  Solmes  refused  to  bring  up  his  infK&try 
to  their  support,  and  the  division  wa^  nearly 
-destroyed.  The  French  loss  was  about  7,000, 
and  that  of  the  allies  was  not  much  greater. 
The  Bnglish  army  and  the  English  nation 
loudly  expressed  their  resentment  against 
■Solmes. 

Macaalay,  Hi$t,  of  Eng. 

Stephen,  Kino  {b,  eirea  1094,  r.  1136 — 
1154),  was  the  third  son  of  Stephen,  Count 
•of  Blois,  and  Adela,  daughter  of  William  the 
Conqueror.    He  was  brought  up  at  the  court 
of  hu  uncle  Henry  L,  from  whom  he  received 
in  marriage  Matilda  or  ^laud  of  Boulogne, 
niece  of  the  queen.    He  took  the  oath  of 
fealty  to  his  cousin  the  Empress  Maud,  but 
immediately  on  the  death  of  Henry  I.  he 
caused  himself  to  be  proclaimed  king.    The 
•dislike  of  Maud's  husband,  Gkioffrey  of  Anjou, 
•contributed  in  gpreat  measure  to  Stephen's 
auccess,  and  at  first  he  met  with  no  opposi- 
tion.     But  lus  misgovemment,  and  his  con- 
duct  towards  the  Church  and  the  officials 
of  the  administration  rapidly  alienated  his 
friends,  and   in  1138  the  Empress  invaded 
England  in  company  with  her  brother,  Robert 
of  Gloucester.  From  1 1 38  to  1 145  was  a  period 
of  complete  anarchy,  sometimes  one,  some- 
-times  the  other  party  gaining  the  upper  hand. 
£very  lord  of  a  castle  acted  as  king  in  his 
own  domain.    The  fearful  effects  of  feudal 
^vemment  were  for  the  first  and  laA  time 
fully     exemplified    in    England.     In    1146 
Robert    of    Gloucester   died,  and  the  Em- 
press retired  to  Normandy  leaving  Stephen 
master  of  England.     But  in   1152  her  son 
Henry    landed   in    England,  and    the    wur 
was  renewed.    In  1153  a  treaty  was  mside 
At   Wallingford  by   which   Stephen  was  to 
retain  the  crown  during  his  lifetime,  when  it 
was  to  pass  to  Henry.      In   the  next  year 
.Stephen  died  at  Dover  Priory  on  Oct.  25. 
By  his  marriage  with  Matilda,  Stephen  had 
Ihree  sons  and  two  daughters — Eustace,  his 
intended  heir,  who  died  in  1153 ;    William, 
who  received  the  patrimonial  estate  and  the 
•earldom  of  Surrey,  and  died  in  the  service  of 
Henry  H.  at  the  siege  of  Toulouse  in  1160 ; 


M^ry,  who  became  a  nun,  but  leaving  her  con- 
vent married  Matthew  of  Flanders ;  Baldwin 
and  Maud  who  died  young.  Stephen  possessed 
bravery,  generosity,  ana  the  other  simple 
virtues  of  a  soldier ;  but  his  position  required 
him  to  be  false,  and  no  man  trusted  him, 
knowing  that  he  could  trust  no  one.  He 
was  quite  oommonpIaGe,  and  might  have  been 
more  successful  if  more  unscrupulous  or  less 
honest.  A  terrible  picture  of  the  anarchy  of 
Stephen's  reign  is  drawn  by  the  English 
Chronicler.  *'  When  the  traitors  [i.^.,  the 
barons]  perceived  that  he  was  a  mild  man, 
and  soft  and  good,  and  did  no  justice,  then 
did  they  all  wonder  .  .  .  every  powerful  man 
made  his  castles,  and  held  them  against  him. 
Thev  cruelly  oppressed  the  wretched  men  of 
the  land  with  oustle- works.  When  the  castles 
were  made,  they  filled  them  with  devils  and 
evil  men.  Then  they  took  those  men  that 
they  thought  had  any  property,  both  by  night 
and  b^  day,  peasant  men  and  women,  and  put 
them  m  prison  for  their  gold  and  silver,  and 
tortured  them  with  unutterable  tortures  .  .  . 
Many  thousand  they  killed  with  hunger;  I 
cannot  and  may  not  tell  all  the  wounds  or  all 
the  tortures  which  they  inflicted  on  wretched 
men  in  this  land,  and  tnat  lasted  the  nineteen 
years  while  Stephen  was  king ;  and  ever  it 
was  worse  and  worse.  They  laid  imposts  on 
the  towns  continually,  and  when  the  wretched 
men  had  no  more  to  give  they  robbed  and 
burned  all  the  towns,  so  that  thou  mightest 
well  go  all  a  day's  journey,  and  thou  shouldeet 
never  find  a  man  sitting  in  a  town,  or  the 
land  tilled  .  .  .  Never  yet  had  more  wretched- 
ness been  in  the  land,  nor  did  heathen  men 
ever  do  worse  than  they  did.  .  .  .  The  bishops 
and  the  clergy  constantly  cursed  them,  but 
nothing  came  of  it ;  for  they  were  all  accursed 
and  forsworn,  and  forlorn.  However  a  man 
tilled,  the  earth  bare  no  com,  for  the  land 
was  all  fordone  by  such  deeds;  and  they 
said  openly  that  Christ  and  his  saints  slept." 

Quia  StmHani;  Hexham  ChnnieU  (Burtees 
Boo.);  AngU-Saann  ChronicU;  Stubbs,  Con«t. 
Si$t.;  IAngBixd,Hi$t,ofBng.  [F.  S.  P.] 

Steward^  The  Lord  High,  was  a  great 
officer  in  the  court  of  the  Norman  kings,  but 
all  his  important  functions  were  very  early  as- 
signed to  the  Justiciar,  and  the  office  soon  be- 
came  little  more  than  honorary'.  It  was  here- 
ditary in  the  house  of  Leicester,  and  was 
inherited  by  Henry  IV.,  and  so  absorbed  into 
the  royal  dignity.  Since  that  date  it  has  only 
been  conferred  for  some  occasion,  and  the 
office  ceases  when  the  business  which  required 
it  is  ended;  and  this  occasion  has  usually 
been  when  a  person  was  to  be  tried 
before  the  House  of  Lords.  The  Steward 
had  his  own  court,  the  jurisdiction  of  which 
was  defined  in  the  Artieuli  super  Cartas^  but 
despite  this  there  are  many  complaints  in 
subsequent  reigns  of  the  encroachment  of  the 
Steward's  court,  and  in  1390  the  powers  of 
the  court  were  once  more  limited. 


V 


972) 


8to 


■>iiiijfi»  I       I.I.  ■■  — — 

tions  given  to  Wolsey  with  regard  to  the 
treaty  of  marriage  between  Heniy  aod 
3iaTgaret  of  Savoy,  he  Beema  to  have  taken 
some  part  in  the  more  pri\'ate  anangattentB 
oil  the  subject,  and  he  was  also  one  of  Hemy't 
confidential  messengers  with  reference  to  tbe 
king's  matrimonial  plans  in  Naples.  In  1502, 
for  some  unknown  reason,  Jolm  Stile  aeena 
to  have  fallen  temporarily  into  disgrace,  as 
there  ic  a  mention  of  a  pardon  being  granted 
him  on  June  16  of  that  year. 

Btillington,  Hobekt  (d.  1491),  after 
holding  minor  preferments,  was  in  1466  mad^ 
Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells.  He  was  a  strong- 
Yorkist,  and  in  1467  was  entrusted  with  (bt 
Great  Seal.  He  held  it  till  1470,  and  again 
from  1472  to  1475.  After  Edward's  death 
Stillington  became  an  adherent  of  Bichard^ 
and  dxevr  up  the  Act  by  which  EdvaitTa 
children  were  bastardised.  On  the  accesaoa 
of  Henry  YII.  he  was  imprisoned  for  a  short 
while,  but  soon  obtained  pardon.  In  1487. 
however,  he  was  implicated  in  the  attempt  cf 
Lambert  Simnel,  for  which  he  was  kept  m 
prison  till  his  death. 

'  Stirling,  a  town  of  Scotland,  situated  on 
the  Forth,  was  one  of  the  four  buighs  givffi 
up  to  the  English  (1174)  aa  security  for  th^ 
fulfilment  of  the  conditions  of  the  Tresty  oi 
Falaise,  but  was  restored  to  Scotland  hr 
Bichard  I.  (1186).  In  1297  it  was  the  xoif 
of  the  battle  between  Wallace  and  the  Earl 
of  Surrey,  and  in  1 304  was  taken  by  Edward  L. 
after  b^g  defended  for  three  months  by 
Sir  William  Oliphant  In  1313—14  it  was 
besieged  by  Edward  Bruce,  and  after  the 
battle  of  Bannockbum,  which  was  fought  in 
the  endeavour  to  relieve  it,  was  surrendered 
by  the  governor,  Mowbray.  In  1339  it  again 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Scotch,  being  giyn 
up  by  its  governor,  Thomas  Rokeby.  In  1571 
an  attempt  was  made  on  it  by  the  party  of 
Queen  Mary,  and  in  1683  it  waa  taken  by 
the  Ruthven  conspirators.  During  the  dis- 
turbances of  1639  it  waa  in  the  hands  of  the 
(Covenanters,  and  in  1716  waa  occupied  by 
Argyle  against  the  Jacobites.  In  1746  it  was 
unsucces^ully  besieged  by  the  Fretender. 

Stirling^  The  Battle  of  (Sept.  lU 
1297),  resulted  in  a  complete  victory  for  Sir 
William  Wallace  and  the  Scotch  over  the 
English,  who  were  led  by  Warenne,  Eaii 
of  Surrey,  and  by  Cressingham.  WalUw 
fell  on  tiie  English,  who  numbered  aboai 
60,000  men,  as  they  were  in  process  of  cross- 
ing a  narrow  bridge  over  the  Forth,  and  cut 
them  to  pieces,  killing  Cressingham. 

Stockdale   ▼•    Hnntmrflj    Cases  or 

(1837—40),  arose  from  the  publication  by 
Hansard,  by  order  of  the  Commons,  of  a  repoit 
which  described  a  book  published  by  Stockdale 
as  indecent.  Stockdale  suing  Hanaaid  for 
libel,  the  Queen's  Bench  decided  that  ths 
order  of  the  House  was  no  inatifioation.  Af^ 


Btigand,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (1062 
— 1070^,  is  first  heard  of  as  a  chaplain,  adviser, 
and  minister  of  Queen  Emma,  and  in  1043 
was  made  Bishop  of  Elmham,  but  almost 
immediately  afterwards  deposed  on  the  occa- 
sion of  a  quarrel  between  his  patroness  and 
the  king.  But  in  the  next  year  he  made  his 
peace  with  Edward,  and  was  restored  to  his 
see.  During  the  whole  of  the  reign  of  Edward 
the  Confessor  we  find  Stigand  heading  the 
English  party  in  the  Cliurch,  and  strongly 
opposing  the  Normanising  tendencies  of  the 
king.  The  bishopric  of  Winchester  was  given 
to  Mm  in  1047,  and  on  the  flight  of  Robert  of 
Jumi^ges  in  1052  Stigand  obtained  the  arch- 
bishopric. He  still  continued  to  hold  the 
bishopric  of  Winchester,  and  seems  to  have 
been  energetic  and  conciliatory  in  the  per- 
formance of  his  ecclesiastical  duties.  On  the 
death  of  Edward,  Stigand  summoned  the 
Witenagemot  which  elected  Harold,  but  the 
archbishop  did  not  actually  crown  the  king. 
After  Harold's  death  it  was  Stigand  who 
anointed  Edgar  Atheling  as  king,  and  who 
when  the  cause  of  the  young  prince  was 
proved  to  be  hopeless,  made  peace  between 
him  and  the  Conqueror.  Stigand  was  present 
at  William's  coronation,  ana  did  homage  to 
him,  and  was  one  of  the  Englishmen  whom 
the  king  took  over  with  him  to  Normandy 
in  1067.  But  the  oppression  of  the  Norman 
nobles  drove  the  ^glish  to  revolt,  and 
Stigand  fled  with  Edgar  to  the  Scotch  court. 
Subsequently  we  find  the  archbishop  among 
the  small  band  of  patriots  who  held  out 
against  the  Normans  among  the  fens  of  Ely. 
^^dsen  prisoner  with  the  others  in  1072 
he  was  condemned  to  perpetual  imprison- 
ment at  Winchester,  where  he  died.  He  had 
previously  (in  1070)  been  deposed  from  his 
archbishopric,  three  charges  being  brought 
against  him.  (1)  That  he  held  the  bishopric 
of  Winchester  together  with  his  archbishopric, 
this  being  uncanonical;  (2)  that  he  had 
assumed  the  archbishopric  during  the  lifetime 
of  Robert,  who  had  been  unlawfully  deposed, 
and  (3)  that  he  had  received  the  pallium  from 
the  anti-Pope  Benedict.  Of  his  character, 
Dr.  Hook  says,  "  Stigand  was  neither  a  hero 
nor  a  saint.  He  did  not  possess  the  moral 
force  or  the  intellectual  power  which  enables 
a  great  mind  to  make  adverse  circumstances  a 
stepping  stone  to  usefulness  and  honour ;  and 
he  did  not  possess  the  meaner  ambition  of 
those  who,  failing  in  the  arena  of  manly 
contest,  are  satisfied  with  the  effeminate 
applause  which  is  elicited  by  sentimentalism 
and  romance.  But  Stigand  was  a  sturdy 
patriot,  in  whose  breast  beat  an  honest  Eng- 
lish heart." 

Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle;  Wflliam  of  Mahnes- 
lmi7 ;  Hook,  ArchbUhoipB  ;  Freemao,  Norman 
Conque$t, 

Stile,  John,  a  servant  of  Henry  YII.,  and 
his  messenger  on  several  important  occasions. 
From  the  mention  of  hia  name  in  the  instruc- 


Mo 


(  978  ) 


stv 


^ve  suits  had  been  brought,  and  Stockdale  and 
the  sheriils  committed  oy  the  Commons,  an 
Act  was  passed  preventing  any  suit  in  future, 
concerning  papers  printed  by  order  of  either 
House. 

Stoke,  Thb  Battle  of  (June  16, 1487),  the 
last  battle  between  the  rival  houses  of  York 
and  Lancaster,  was  fought  between  the 
Yorkist  adherents  of  Lambert  Simnel  and 
Menry  YII.  at  a  small  village  near  Newark. 
John  de  la  Pole,  Earl  of  Lincoln,  Lords  Level 
and  Fitzgerald  led  the  revolters,  assisted  by 
an  experienced  German  general,  Martin 
8chwarz,  at  the  head  of  2,000  mercenaries. 
After  an  obstinate  conflict  of  three  hours* 
duration,  on  account  of  their  numerical 
superiority  the  royal  forces,  commanded  by 
Henry  Vll.  in  person,  prevailed.  Not  one 
of  the  rebel  leaders  escaped.  Simnel  was 
taken  prisoner,  and  the  revolt  was  thoroughly 
suppressed. 

Stone*  Gbobob,  Archbishop  of  Dublin 
(b,  1707,  d,  1764),  was  the  son  of  a  banker. 
Through  the  influence  of  the  Duke  of  New- 
castle, he  became  in  early  life  Dean  of  Derry, 
And  then  successively  Bishop  of  Kildare 
and  Deny,  and  in  1747  was  made  primate. 
During  Lord  Dorset's  vicereyalty  ne  was 
virtually  governor  of  Lreland,  axid  he  ruled  it 
by  means  of  the  pension  list.  In  1755  he  was 
dismissed  from  the  Privy  Council,  but  in  1759 
again  joined  the  ministerial  party.  He  was 
called  the  **  Beauty  of  Holiness,"  and  was 
very  unpopular.  He  was,  however,  a  liberal 
man,  and  m  favour  of  the  removal  of  Catholic 
disabilities. 

Leokf ,  Higt,  of  Bng.  in  the  Suihtemth  Cm- 
iury;  Plowden,  JBTut.  of  Ireland;  Walpole,  M#- 
motrs  of  th»  Reiifn  i^f  Qtorg*  II. 

Storie.  Du.  John  (d,  1571^,  was  in  Jan., 
1648,  whilst  a  member  of  tne  House  of 
Commons,  committed  to  the  custody  of  the 
Serjeant-at-Arms,  ''probably,"  says  Hallam, 
*'  for  some  ebullition  of  virulence  against  the 
changes  of  religion.''  Under  Mary,  Storie 
became  one  of  the  most  violent  enemies  of  the 
Beformation,  and  a  leading  persecutor.  He 
was  queen's  proctor  at  the  trial  of  Arch- 
bishop Cranmer,  and  in  1559  made  a  violent 
speech  in  the  House  against  the  Supremacy 
Bill.  He  was  subsequently  imprisoned  for 
refusing  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance,  and 
on  his  release  went  abroad,  where  he  occupied 
himself  in  plotting  against  Elizabeth's  govern- 
ment. He  is  said  to  have  been  plotting  the 
death  of  James  VI.  of  Scotland,  in  order  to 
smooth  the  way  '*  for  his  mother's  marriage 
with  some  Catholic  prince,"  when  he  was 
inveigled  on  board  a  vessel  at  Antwerp  b^  a 
man  named  Parker,  one  of  Burleigh's  spies, 
and  carried  to  Yarmouth.  He  was  tortured 
to  extort  his  secrets,  and  shortly  afterwards 
was  hanged. 

StowOi  John  (d.  circa  1525,  d,  1605),  was 


a  London  citizen  and  most  industrious  anti- 
quarian. Besides  minor  works,  such  as  his  Sum^ 
marie  of  Engliah  ChronieUs  (1561),  his  FloreM 
Historiarumf  his  contributions  to  Holinshed, 
and  to  editions  of  Chaucer,  he  is  chiefly  known 
for  his  Survay  of  London^  published  m  1598, 
which  has  been  the  basis  of  all  subsequent 
attempts  at  a  history  of  London.  He  suffered 
f^m  great  poverty  in  his  old  age. 

An  enlarged  edition  of  Stowe's  Survay  wm 

J>abli8hed  bj  Stzype  in  1720,  and  re-iBsaed  with 
Turther  enlwgements  in  2  yok.  folio  (1754). 

Stowellf  William  Scott,  Lord  {b.  1745, 
d.  1836),  was  the  elder  brother  of  Lord  Eldon. 
From  the  Grammar  School  of  Newcastie-on- 
Tyne,  he  went  up  to  Corpus  Christi  College, 
Oxford,  as  a  scholar,  and  obtained  a  fellow- 
ship. In  1774  he  was  appointed  Cam- 
den Reader  in  ancient  history,  while  in 
the  meantime  he  was  studying  for  the  bar. 
For  eighteen  years  he  remained  at  Oxford. 
He  then  practised  in  the  Ecclesiastical  and 
Admiralty  Courts.  Practice  flowed  in  to  him 
at  once.  In  four  years  he  was  appointed 
Registrar  of  the  Court  of  Faculties,  and  five 
years  later  Judge  of  the  Consistory  Court  and 
Advocate-Geneml,  with  the  honour  of  knight- 
hood, and,  ten  years  later,  he  became  Judge  of 
the  High  Court  of  Admiralty.  In  1790  he 
had  been  returned  to  Parliament  for  Downton, 
but  during  a  long  career  in  Parliament  he 
scarcely  ever  made  a  long  speech.  In  1821 
he  was  raised  to  the  peerage.  As  a  judge 
he  cannot  be  too  highly  praised.  He  ranks 
even  higher  than  his  distinguished  brother. 
He  was  painstaking,  clear,  and  logical  in  his 
decisions,  and  displayed  a  breadth  of  learning 
and  research  which  has  done  much  to  form 
our  international  law.  <'  He  formed,*'  says  a 
contemporary  writer,  <<a  system  of  rational 
law  from  the  ill-fashioned  labours  of  his  pre- 
decessors, erecting  a  temple  of  jurisprudence, 
and  laying  its  foundations  not  on  fleeting 
policy,  or  m  occasional  interests,  but  in  uni- 
versal and  immutable  justice." 

Haggard,  BfporU;  itnntuil  Obthiary,  1837. 

Strafford.  Thomas  Wentwobth,  Earl 
OF  {b.  April,  1693,  d.  May  12,  1641),  the  son  of 
Sir  William  Wentworth,  was  educated  at  St. 
John's  College,  Cambridge,  represented  York- 
shire in  Parliament  from  1613  to  1628,  with 
the  exception  of  the  assembly  of  1626,  when 
he  was  incapacitated  by  being  appointed 
sheriff.  In  Parliament  Wentworth  main- 
tained an  independent  position,  inclining 
rather  to  the  popular  party  than  to  the  court. 
In  1621  he  opposed  the  attempt  of  James  to 
limit  the  rights  of  Parliament,  and  proposed 
a  protestation.  In  1627  he  opposed  the  forced 
loan  levied  by  Charles,  and  was  for  a  short 
time  in  confinement.  In  the  Parliament  of 
1628  he  for  a  time  exereised  great  infiuence 
in  the  Commons,  and  attempted  to  embody 
the  liberties  of  the  sabject  in  a  bill,  and 
thereby  to  lay  a  secure  foundation  for  the 


Sir 


(  974) 


future,  and   reconcile  king  and  Commons. 
But  he  did  not  share  in  the  general  passion  for 
war  with  Spain  in  1624,  nor  did  he  sympathise 
with  the  objections  of  the  Puritans  to  the 
king's  religious    policy.      What  he  desired 
was  a  government  intelligent  enough  to  per- 
ceive the  real  needs  of  the  nation,  and  strong 
enough  to  carry  out   practical  reforms,  in 
spite  of   the    opposition  of  local  and  class 
interests.    It  was  in  accordance  with  Uicse 
ideas  that  Wentworth    entered    the    king's 
service.   He  was  created  a  peer  in  July,  1628, 
and  became  in  December  of  the  same  year 
President  of  the  Council  of  the  North.    He 
entered  the  Privj"-  Council  in  November,  1629, 
and  became  Lord  Deputy  of  Ireland  in  the 
summer  of   1636.     Measures  for   the  better 
carrying  out  of  the  poor  law,  for  the  relief 
of  commerce,  and  for  the  general  improve- 
ment of  the  condition  of  the  people  were 
probably  the  results  of  his  presence  in  the 
Council.     In  the  North  his  vigorous  enforce- 
ments of  the  law  without  respect  of  persons 
was  the  chief  characteristic  of  his  adminis- 
^tion.    In  Ireland  his  abilities  had  freer 
scope.     He  protected  trade,  founded  the  flax 
manufacture,  organised  a  respectable  army, 
and  introduced  many  reforms  into  the  Chur^ 
and  the  administration.    But  his  harshness 
to  individuals,  and  his  intolerance  of  oppo- 
sition gained  him  numraous  enemies  amongst 
the  English  colonists,  whilst  his  disregard  of 
the  king's  promises  to  the  native  Iri^,  and 
the    threatened    Plantation    of    Connaught, 
created  feelings  of  distrust  and  dread,  which 
bore  fruit  in  the  rebellion  of  1641.    In  Sept., 
1639,  he  was  summoned  to  England,  and  be- 
came at  once  the  leading  spirit  in  the  com- 
mittee of  eight,  to  whom  Scotch  affairs  were 
entrusted,  and  the  king's  chief  adviser.    In 
Jan.,  1640,  he  was  created  Earl  of  Strafford. 
By  his  advice  the  king  summoned  the  Short 
Parliament,  and  dissolved  it  when  it  became 
unruly.      In  order    to    carrv    on    the    war 
with  Scotland,  he  suggested  expedients   of 
every  kind — a  loan  from  Spain,  the  debase- 
ment of  the  coinage,  and  the  employment 
of  the  Irish  army  to  subdue   Scotiand,    or 
if  necessary  to  keep  down  England.      The 
king  appointed  him   Lieutenant-Gcneral  of 
the  English  army  (Aug.  20,  1640),  but  his 
energy  could  not  avert  defeat,  and  when  the 
council  of  peers  advised  the  king  to  summon 
a  Parliament,  his  fate  was  assured.     In  spite 
of  illness  Strafford  hurried  up  to  London  to 
impeach  the  popular  leaders  for  treasonable 
correspondence.    Pym  moved  Strafford's  im- 
peachment on  Nov.  11,  and  he  was  arrested 
the  same  day.     His  trial  began  in  West- 
minster Hall  oil  March  22,  1641.    The  ex- 
treme   party  in    the  Commons,    dissatisfied 
with  the  slow  and  doubtful  course  of  impeach- 
ment, brought  in  a  bill  of  attainder  (April 
10),  which  passed  its  third  reading  in  the 
Commons  on  April  21,  and  in  the  Lords  on 
Jiay  8.    The  kmg's  attempts  lo  save  Straf- 


■ 

ford,  and  above  all  the  disoovary  of  the  fixA 
Army  Plot,  sealed  his  fate,  and  prevented  the 
acceptance  of  a  suggested  compromise,  vhidi 
would  have  saved  Ms  life,  but  ino^scitBted 
him  from  all  office.  The  king  postponed  his 
answer  as  long  as  he  could,  and  consulted  the 
bishops  and  judges,  but  the  danger  of  a 
popular  rising  induced  him  to  yield,  he  mn 
nis  assent  to  the  bill  (May  10),  and  Struoid 
was  executed  on  May  12.  His  attainder  wu 
reversed  in  1662. 

Gardiner,  Eiat.  oT  Sng.,  leos^lSH;  Soik. 
worth.  Hittorioal  CoUecH'mB ;  Strafford  Ptftn; 
Life  of  Btraiford  In  Forster's  BriUak  Stai$me% 
▼ol.  ii  [C.  H,  F.] 

StraiTordiaiUI.  The  bill  of  attaind^f 
against  Strafford  passed  the  third  reading 
(April  2,  1641)  by  a  majority  of  204  Hgajmt 
69.  Mr.  William  Wheeler,  MJP.  for  We*1- 
bmy,  took  down  the  names  of  the  nunoiity. 
copies  of  the  list  got  abroad,  and  one  vu 
posted  up  in  the  Old  Palace  Yard,  West- 
minster, with  the  addition  "these  are  the 
Straffordians,  betrayers  of  their  oountrr.'* 
The  list  included  the  names  of  Selden,  Lord 
Digby,  Orlando  Bridgeman,  and  Holboioe. 
It  did  not  contain  those  of  Falkland  and 
Hyde,  who  voted  for  the  bill.  The  publica- 
tion of  the  division  lists  was  at  this  time  a 
breach  of  privilege.  The  House  itself  firit 
published  the  names  of  members  voting  in 
the  year  1836. 

Clarendon,  Hue.  of  the  JUbdlian ;  T.  L.  8u^ 
ford,  StitdiM  and  JllitferuKoM  (/(]b«  6r«ai£(W- 
Uoa. 

Straiti  Settlttments.  Thb,  sitoated 

in  the  Straits  of  Malacca,  comprise  Penang. 
Singapore,  with  Wellesley  Province  and  Tb» 
Bindings;  and  Malacca.  These  settlements, 
originally  formed  under  the  Indian  govern- 
ment, were  transferred  to  the  chazge  of  the 
Colonial  Office,  1867.  The  government  of 
the  collective  oolony  at  Singapore  is  veetod 
in  a  governor  and  executive  council  of  ei^ 
members,  and  a  legislative  council  of  nine 
official  and  seven  unofficial  members.  Pepang 
and  Malacca  have  each  a  resident  coundllor, 
under  the  Governor  of  Singapore.  The  popola- 
tion,  numbering  a  little  over  half  a  miOion,  t» 
very  mixed,  and  includes  Mala^  Oiineee. 
Bengalese,  Arabs,  Burmese,  Siamew,  ind 
numerous  other  races. 

Btratfordy  John,  Archbishop  of  Cui- 
terbury  (d,  1348),  first  appears  as  sitting 
in  Parliament  in  1317.  He  was  frequently 
employed  on  embassies  by  Edward  H.,  and 
in  1323  was  made  Bishop  of  Winchester  by 
the  Pope,  contrary  to  the  wishes  of  the  king, 
who,  however,  eventually  recognised  him. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  the  deposition  of 
!E)dward  IL,  but  thou^  he  saw  the  necenty 
of  getting  rid  of  the  infatuated  king,  he  did 
not  wish  to  put  the  power  into  the  hands  of 
Isabella  and  Mortimer.  His  opposition  t» 
the  guilty  pair  led  to  his  persecution,  sod  ^ 


8tr 


(975) 


Str 


i^ji 


was  compelled  to  take  refuge  in  a  forest  in 
Hampshire,  where  he  remained  till  the  fall 
of  Mortimer.  Edward  III.  made  him  Chan- 
cellor in  1330,  and  he  was  translated  to  the 
see  of  Canterbury  in  1333.  He  held  the 
Grreat  Seal  twice  again,  from  1335  to  1337 
and  for  a  short  period  in  1340.  In  this  latter 
year  occurred  the  great  quarrel  between  the 
long  and  the  archbishop.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  Stratford  was  a  faithful  minister  to 
Edward,  but  it  was  impossible  for  him  to  find 
money  sufficient  to  demiy  the  expense  of  the 
costly  French  wars.  Edward,  angered  bj 
his  want  of  money  and  the  ill-success  of  his 
expedition,  turned  round  on  the  archbishop 
and  accused  him  of  malversation.  A  lengthy 
dispute  followed,  in  the  course  of  which  the 
king  being  desirous  of  bringing  Stratford 
before  the  Council,  the  peers  declared  that  a 
peer  could  only  be  tried  by  the  House  ol 
Lords,  thus  incidentally  establishing  an  im- 
portant privilege.  The  archbishop  having 
got  Parliament  on  his  side,  the  king  was  com- 
pelled to  give  in,  and  a  reconciliation  fol- 
lowed. Stratford  was  often  employed  by  the 
king  on  important  affairs,  but  he  never  again 
received  the  chancellorship.  Though  they 
can  hardly  rank  as  statesmen,  the  archbishop 
and  his  brother  were  able  and  faithful  min- 
isters, anxious  to  check  the  extravagance  of  the 
king,  and  to  preserve  the  liberties  of  the  people. 

Hook,  ArchbiBlwM  of  CatU^rhury  ;  *W.  Long- 
man,  Edyeard  tho  Third, 

Stratton,  Thb  Battle  of  (May  16, 1643), 
took  place  during  the  Great  RebelUon.  The 
Parliamentary  forces  under  General  Chudleigh, 
Sir  Richard  Buller,  Sir  Alexander  Carew, 
and  the  Earl  of  Stamford,  were  defeated  by 
the  Cornish  army  under  Sir  Ralph  Hopton 
and  Sir  Bovil  Grenville.  The  Paniamentary 
forces  were  weakened  by  the  detachment  of 
Sir  George  Chudleigh  with  all  their  cavalry. 
They  were  posted  on  the  top  of  Stratton  Hill, 
which  the  Cornish  army  after  several  hours' 
hard  fighting  succeeded  in  storming.  (General 
Chudleigh  and  1,700  prisoners  were  taken, 
together  with  thirteen  guns,  and  all  the 
baggage  and  stores  of  the  defeated  army. 

Strickland,  Agnbs  (6.  1806,  d,  1874), 
the  daughter  of  Mr.  lliomas  Strickland, 
of  Reydon  Hall,  Suffolk,  was  the  author  of 
numerous  works  of  fiction  and  poetry.  She 
published  Livca  of  the  Qi*een*  of  England  from 
the  Norman  Conquest^  12  vols.,  1840 — 48  (new 
ed.,  8  vols.,  1851 — 52),  which  attained  great 
po^ularit^.  The  work  is  interesting,  and 
written  in  a  lively  style,  but  the  author's 

i'udgment  was  not  sufficiently  critical,  nor 
ler  acquaintance  with  general  EngUsh  his- 
tory wide  enough,  for  it  to  be  of  much  value 
as  an  authority.  In  1850 — 59  she  wrote  Livea 
of  the  Queens  of  Scotland,  which  includes  an 
elaborate,  but  not  conclusive,  vindication  of 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots.  In  1866  she  published 
Ziws  of  the  Seven  Bishops, 


Strode,  Willi jji  Ui.  1645),  was  te- 
turned  to  the  House  of  Commons  in  the 
last  Parliament  of  James  I.,  and  the 
five  Parliaments  of  his  son.  In  the  third 
Parliament  of  Charles  he  took  part  in  the 
tumult  caused  in  the  House  of  Commons  by 
the  Speaker's  refusal  to  put  Eliot's  resolutions, 
for  which  he  was  called  before  the  Council 
and  imprisoned  until  January,  1640.  In  the 
Long  Parliament  he  is  mentioned  by  Clarendon 
as  *'  one  of  those  ephori  who  most  avowed  the 
curbing  and  suppressing  of  majesty,"  and 
"  one  of  the  fiercest  men  of  the  party,  and  of 
the  party  only  for  his  fierceness."  On  Dec. 
24,  1640,  he  introduced  the  bill  for  annual 
Parliaments,  and  on  Nov.  28,  in  1641,  moved 
that  the  kingdom  should  be  put  in  a  posture 
of  defence.  He  did  not  scruple  to  avow  that 
the  safety  of  the  Parliament  depended  on  the 
Scottish  army.  "The  sons  of  Zeruiah,"  he 
said  (referring  to  the  cotqrt  party),  "are  too 
strong  for  us."  He  was  on9  of  the  five  mem- 
bers impeached  by  the  king  (Jan.,  1642).  After 
the  Ci>nLl  War  began  he  took  an  active  part 
against  the  king  in  Somerset,  and  in  his  place 
in  the  Commons  opposed  all  proposals  to  treat. 

a  B.  Gardiner,  Hi  t.  of  Em.,  1005—1848,  and 
Qrsat  Civa  War,  1642—16^. 

Strongbow  was  the  surname  of  Richard 
de  ClareT^arl  of  Pembroke,  a  nobleman  of 
ruined  fortunes  and  adventurous  spirit.  It 
was  this  doubtless  that  made  him  eager  to 
accept  the  hand  of  Eva,  daughtei*  of  the  King 
of  Leinster,  and  to  attempt  the  conquest  of 
Ireland.  He  applied  to  Henry  for  leave,  and 
got  a  dubioiiiS  answer,  which  became  finally 
an  absolute  prohibition,  but  in  spite  of  it  he 
sailed  from  Milford  Haven  in  1169.  In  1170 
he  married  Eva,  and  was  probably  elected 
tanist,  and  succeeded  to  the  kingdom  of  Lein* 
ster  in  1 171 .  In  1 172  he  joined  Henry  in  Nor- 
mandy, and  returned  to  Ireland  as  governor 
in  1173.  A  mutiny  of  the  soldiery  compelled 
him  to  supersede  his  friend  Hervey  Mount- 
Maurice  by  Raymond  le  Gros,  but  he  refused 
him  the  luind  of  his  sister.  Being  defeated 
by  the  O'Briens  in  1174  he  found  it  necessary 
to  accept  Raymond  as  a  brother-in-law. 
Though  Henry  himself  had  recalled  that 
leader,  the  voice  of  the  soldiery  again  com- 
pelled Strongbow  to  make  Raymond  their 
commander.  In  1176  he  died  at  Dublin  of  a 
cancer  in  the  leg,  and  was  buried  in  the 
cathedral.  He  left  but  one  daughter,  Isa'bel, 
who  brought  his  vast  lands  to  William 
Marshal  of  Pembroke,  her  husband.  Ac- 
cording to  Giraldus  he  never  originated  an 
enterprise,  but  allowed  himself  to  be  guided 
by  others ;  he,  however,  allows  him  to  have 
been  just  and  even  generous,  and  brave  in 
battle.  He  was  a  munificent  patron  of  the 
Church,  and  was  the  founder  of  the  priory  of 
Kilmainham. 

Qixaldna  Cambrenais,  Sxf^iqMUo  SiberuUs; 
Lyttelton,  Henry  H. 


stv 


(976) 


8ta 


8tryp6y  John  (b.  1643,  d.  1737),  an 
industnouB  compiler  of  materials  for  the 
history  of  the  EiTgliwh  Reformation,  -was  vicar 
of  Leyton  in  Essex.  His  chief  works  are 
£ccle8ia*tical  MemoriaU,  a  Church  hintory 
under  Henry  VIII.,  Edward  YI.,  and  Mu^, 
with  invaluable  original  papers  in  appendices: 
The  Annah  of  the  Iteformation  ;  the  Livee  of 
CranmeTy  Father^  Orifidal,  Whitgifl^  Cheke, 
Smith,  and  Aylmer  ;  and  an  enlarged  edition  of 
Stowe*s  ^Mrf»y  of  LondorC  iyiVS).  A  man  of 
little  ability  and  some  prejudice,  Strype*8  solid 
work  has  made  his  coUeetions  quite  indispen- 
sable for  the  history  of  the  change  of  religion 
in  England.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  the 
Oxford  Press  in  octavo. 

Stuart  Family.  The  Stuarts  were 
descended  from  a  certain  Walter  Fitz-Alan, 
lord  of  Oswestry,  who  entered  the  service 
of  David  I.,  by  whom  he  was  created  High 
Steward  of  ScoUand.  The  office  became 
hereditary  in  thv  family.  Alexander,  the 
fourth  Steward  of  the  Fitz-Alan  stock,  com- 
manded at  the  battle  of  Largs  in  1263 ;  the 
fifth,  James,  was  one  of  the  regents  appointed 
on  the  death  of  Alexander  III. ;  the  sixth, 
Walter,  supported  Robert  Bruce,  commanded 
a  division  at  Bannockbum,  and  was  rewarded 
in  1316  by  the  hand  of  Bruce's  daughter, 
Marjory.  Aiarjory's  son,  Robert,  ruled  Scot- 
land as  regent  during  the  minority  of  David 
II.  and  his  captivity  in  England,  and  upon 
David's  death,  in  1371,  succeeded  to  the 
Scottish  throne.  [For  the  history  of  the 
Stuart  sovereigns  of  Scotland,  see  Robbbt  II. 
and  III.,  Jamss  I.,  II.,  UI.,  IV.,  V.,  and 
Mary.] 

With  the  accession  of  James  YI.  of  Scotland 
to  the  English  throne  (1603)  as  James  I., 
the  history  of  the  Stuart  rule  in  England 
begins;  it  is  that  of  the  transition  from 
the  personal  government  of  the  Yorldst  and 
Tudor  periods  to  the  Parliamentary  system 
of  Hanoverian  times.  Such  a  transition  was, 
in  England,  inevitable ;  but  to  the  character 
and  policy  of  the  Stuart  kings  •  it  was  due 
that  the  change  had  to  be  effected  by 
means  of  a  rebellion  and  a  revolution. 
Parliament  had  already  in  the  later  years 
of  Elizabeth  begun  to  assume  a  more  inde- 
pendent attitude;  but  that  queen  had  tact 
enough  to  keep  it  in  good  temper,  and,  as  in 
the  question  of  the  monopolies,  knew  when  to 
yield.  But  James  I.  was  utterly  devoid  of 
tact,'  and  never  succeeded  in  making  himself 
respected.  More  than  this,  he  continually 
forced  upon  men's  attention  a  doctrine  of 
prerogative  which  cut  at  the  root  of  English 
liberties.  Moreover,  his  Scotch  experience 
had  rendered  him  sing^ularly  unfit  to  deal 
with  English  ecclesiastical  (ufficultiee.  The 
time  had  come  for  concessions  to,  or  at  any 
rate  considerate  treatment  of,  the  Puritans. 
But  James,  though  he  did  not,  as  Charles  I., 
regard    episcopacy  as  a  sacred    institution. 


valued  it  highly  as  a  means  of  keqnog  the 
clergy  in  order ;  any  concession  to  the  Puri- 
tans would,  he  thought,  weaken  episcopil 
authority,  and  so  prepare  the  way  for  that 
independence  of  the  clergy  which  in  Scotland 
had  proved  so  dangerous  to  the  state ;  Uiere- 
fore  he  refused  all  change,  and  so  bmoght 
about  the  union  against  himself  of  the  poli- 
tical  and  religious  oppositions.  His  domestie 
difficulties  were  increased  by  his  ill-adviaed 
foreign  policy.  James  knew  far  better  than 
his  subjects  the  true  position  of  affairs  on  the 
Continent ;  and,  although  his  policy  of  me- 
diation could  never  have  succeeded,  a  frank 
statement  of  reasons  would  have  done  much 
to  lessen  the  opposition  of  the  Commons;  but 
as  he  took  no  pains  to  make  his  people  under* 
stand  him,  it  was  inevitable  that  Uie  Protestmt 
feeling  of  the  country  should  be  offended  bf 
the  marriage  negotiations  with  Spain,  and  W 
the  king*s  refusil  to  interfere  energeticallx 
to  save  the  Palatinate.  So  firm  was  ti» 
distrust  which  his  action  inspired,  that  ev«B 
when,  imder  pressure  from  Buckingham, 
James  declared  war  against  Spain,  Parliament 
would  not  believe  that  a  great  continental 
war  was  seriously  intended,  and  refused  sap- 

Slies.  The  question  more  and  more  clearly 
efined  itself :  could  the  king  persist  in  a 
certain  policy,  or  retain  a  certain  minister, 
against  the  will  of  Parliament  P  The  actual 
Parliamentary  gains  of  Jameses  reign  were 
but  few;  more  important  was  it  that  the 
impositions  had  raised  the  question  of  onpar- 
liamentary  taxation,  and  that  the  revival  d 
impeachment  had  given  Parliament  a  weapon 
against  the  king.  But  it  is  dear  that  if  the 
long  determined  to  carry  out  a  certain  policy 
against  the  wish  of  his  subjects,  and  to  raise 
the  necessary  funds  by  unparliamentarr 
means,  and  if  Parliament  in  vain  attacked 
ministers,  the  ultimate  issue  would  depend  on 
the  preponderance  of  power,  and  this  oonld  he 
decided  only  by  war.  This  is  what  came  to 
pass  under  Charles  I. 

But  while  the  victory  of  Parliament  vis 
inevitable,  it  was  well  that  it  should  not  be 
premature.  Had  Charles  yielded  to  all  the 
demands  of  the  Commons  in  1629,  had  he 
given  them  complete  control  of  taxation,  and 
recognised  the  responsibility  of  mimstcifi,  he 
would  have  handed  over  his  sovereignty  to 
them.  But  the  Commons  were  not  yet  fit  to 
exercise  such  a  power.  Their  supremacy 
would  have  established  a  g^ross  tyranny  in 
ecclesiastical  matters,  for  all  opinions  disliked 
by  the  majority  of  average  Englishmen 
would  have  been  proscribed  in  the  xJational 
Church.  Nor  were  the  Commons  as  yet  fit  to 
govern.  Nothing  existed  comparable  to  the 
modem  system  of  cabinet  and  party  gowra- 
ment;  the  rule  of  the  House  of  Commoni 
would  have  been  the  rule  of  an  imorganised 
mob. 

Then  followed  eleven  years  without  a  P«r- 
liament.    At  first  the  country  was  quiet;  hot 


winK 


(977  ) 


UtG, 


XAud*8  agtioii  upon  beoonung  aichbuhop,  and 
the  attempt  to  raise  Ship«xnoney,  strenguiened 
■and  bound  more  closely  togetiier  the  I^uritan 
and  the  constitutionalist  oppoaition ;  and  when 
the  Scotch  attack  forced  Gharles  to  put  him- 
self into  the  hands  of  Parliament,  the  oppo- 
sition saw  their  own  strength,  and  Charles 
had  to  surrender  one  by  one  the  powers  and 
prerogatives  by  which  he  had  a^mpted  to 
govern. 

But  the  redress  of  political  grievances  left 
the  religious  difficulties  still  unsolved.  It 
became  clear  during  the  struggles  of  1641 — 
42  that  the  main  question  left  was  that  of 
the  existence  of  episcopacy ;  from  the  episco- 
palian party  arose  the  Cavalier  party;  and 
though  the  attempt  to  seize  the  Five  Members, 
and  the  consequent  introduction  of  the  Militia 
Bill  was  the  immediate  cause  of  the  war,  the 
religious  element  was  far  more  important 
than  the  constitutional  in  the  early  years  of 
the  war. 

The  constitutional  questions  of  the  second 
•Stuart  period  differ  from  those  of  the  first. 
Ko  longer  was  there  a  direct  assertion  of 
"absolute  power ; "  no  unparliamentary  taxa- 
tion was  attempted ;  there  was  no  exercise  of 
judicial  power  by  Ck>uncil  or  Star  Chamber. 
Charles  II.  ruled  not  against,  but  through,  a 
Parliament  which  he  tried  to  make  subser- 
vient. Tet  the  judges  were  still  under  court 
influence ;  prerogative  lingered  in  the  "  dis- 
pensing power ;  ^  and  divine  right  reappeared 
under  the  doctrine  of  **  non-resistance."  The 
fall  of  the  Whigs  after  the  dissolution  of  1681 
showed  how  strong  the  Royalist  feeling  of  the 
•country  remained,  in  spite  of  eighteen  years' 
misgovemment ;  and  even  after  the  lessons 
of  tiie  Great  Rebellion,  the  Stuarts  might  at 
the  eleventh  hour  have  succeeded  in  creating 
a  despotism,  had  not  James  II.  attacked  the 
Enghsh  Church,  and  so  united  all  classes 
•against  him. 

The  reigns  of  William  and  Mary,  and  of 
Anne,  though  the  sisters  were  of  the  Stuart 
house,  are  more  closely  connected  with  later 
than  with  earlier  history.  In  them  beg^ins 
the  development  of  party  cabinet  govern- 
ment; and  instead  of  a  shifting  policy  of 
neutrality  or  a  truckling  to  France,  the  great 
struffgle  commences  ^ween  France  and 
England  which  was  to  last  till  the  present 
centurj'.     [Petition  of  Right;  Great  Rb- 

BBLUON,  &c.] 

Gazdiner,  Hui.  ofEng.,  ifl09— 1M0,  and  Ortot 
Civil  War,  1642—1949,  i«  the  orreat  anthoritv  for 
Charles  I.  and  James  I. :  Banke,  ifiai.  i^hna, 
is  speoiallT  valuable  for  the  later  Stcuurta.  Fo. 
Charles  VL  and  Jaine*  II.  we  have  also  Macan 
laj'a  RidL  of  Eng.  The  heet  short  general 
•ketch  Is  in  the  small  volome  bj  Mr.  Qurdiner, 
entitled  Tlu  Puritan  B^Mlion. 

Btnarty  Arabella.    [Arabella  Stuart.] 

Btnaort,  Charles  Edward,  known  as  the 

lorNG  Pretender  {b,  1720,  d,  1788),  was  the 

"^on  of  James  Edward  Stuart,  and  Qementina, 


or 


granddaughter  of  John  Sobieski,  King  of 
Poland,  iie  was  bom  at  Rome.  His  educa- 
tion was  very  much  neglected.  He  became  of 
political  importance  on  the  renewal  of  the 
hostility  between  England  and  France  after 
tbe  &U  of  Walpole.  Cardinal  Tencin,  the 
French  minister,  was  in  favour  of  an  invasion 
of  England,  and  in  1 743  Charles  came  to  Paris. 
Louis  XV.,  although  he  refused  to  see  him, 
was  not  unfriendly  to  his  cause ;  1 5,000  veterans 
under  Marshal  Saxe  were  stationed  at  Dun- 
kirk, while  fleets  were  collected  at  Brest  and 
Toulon.  But  the  French  admiral,  Roqua» 
feuiUe,  feared  to  attack  the  EngUf^  under 
Sir  John  Norris ;  his  ships  were  Aspersed  by 
a  storm,  and  the  French  ministry  abandoning 
the  design,  appointed  Saxe  to  command  in 
Flanders,  llie  Pretender  retired  to  Paris, 
whence  he  communicated  with  bis  Scotch 
adherents  through  Murray  of  Broughton. 
The  results  of  the  battle  of  Fontenoy  (1746^ 
caused  him  to  hasten  his  plans.  He  embarkea 
at  Nantes  (1745)  in  a  privateer,  attended  by  a 
French  man-of-war,  but  the  latter  vessel  was 
attacked  and  disabled  by  an  English  ship,  so 
that  Charles  arrived  in  Scotland  stripped  of 
supplies,  and  with  only  seven  companions. 
[Jacobitbs.]  After  the  battle  of  CuUoden 
Charles  fled,  and  succeeded,  after  five  months' 
wanderings  in  the  Hebrides,  in  escaping  to 
France.  He  owed  his  life  to  Flora  Mac- 
donald.  On  his  return  to  Paris  he  found  that 
no  more  help  was  to  be  expected  from  the 
French  court.  On  one  occasion  Tencin 
proposed  that  he  should  be  supplied  with 
French  troops  on  condition  that  in  the  event 
of  his  success,  Ireland  should  be  given  to 
Louis.  Charles  replied,  "  Non,  M.  le  Cardinal, 
tout  ou  rien,  point  de  partage.*'  In  1747  he 
went  to  Spain,  and  in  1748  to  Prussia,  to  try 
and  get  assistance,  but  without  success.  He 
quaireUed  with  his  father  and  brother  when 
the  latter  became  a  cardinal.  He  was  com- 
pelled to  leave  France  by  the  conditions  of 
the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  but  he  ob- 
stinately refused  to  go,  and  was  imprisoned. 
He  resided  chiefly  after  this  with  his  friend, 
the  Due  de  Bouillon,  in  the  forest  of  Ardennes. 
In  1750,  and  perhaps  in  1753,  he  paid 
mysterious  visits  to  England.  On  the  death 
of  his  father  he  repured  to  Rome.  His 
character  had  become  degraded;  his  former 
chivalrous  promise  had  quite  vanished,  he 
was  a  confirmed  drunkard,  and  his  friends 
were  alienated  by  his  refusal  to  dismiss  his 
mistress,  Mias  Walkinshaw,  who  it  was  said 
betrayed  his  plans.  In  1772  he  married 
Princess  Louisa  of  Stolberg,  a  girl  of  twenty, 
but  the  union  was  unhappy,  and  she  eloped 
with  Alfieri.  Hia  adherents  had  sent  him 
proposals  that  year  of  setting  up  his  standard 
in  America.  •  "The  abiUties  of  Prince 
Charles,"  says  Lord  Stanhope,  ^  I  may  ob- 
serve, stood  in  direct  contrast  to  his  father's. 
No  man  could  express  himself  with  more 
deazness  and  elegance  than  James    •    •    •< 


8ta 


(  »78) 


mwL 


but  on  the  other  hand  his  conduct  was  always 
deficient  in  energy  and  enterprise.  Charles 
was  no  penman ;  while  in  action,  he  was 
superior.  His  quick  inteUigenoe,  his  prompt- 
ness of  decision,  his  contempt  of  danger, 
are  recorded  on  unquestionaole  testimony. 
Another  quality  of  Charles's  mind  was  great 
firmness  of  resolution,  which  pride  and  sorrow 
afterwards  hardened  into  sullen  obstinacy.*' 

Stanhope,  HM.  of  Rng. ;  Lecky,  Hitit,  of  th« 
BigKUtnth  Century ;  Horace  Walpole,  Reign  of 
Qeorge  11. ;  Ewald.  Life  of  Prince  Charlet  Bdfward; 
Yemon  Lee,  The  Oounteae  of  ilI6any. 

Stuart,  Jambs  Edward,  known  as  the  Old 
PBBTBNDBii  {b.  1688,  d.  1765),  was  the  son  of 
King  James  II.  and  Mary  of  Modena.    It  vras 
generally  believed  at  the  time  that  he  was  a 
supposititioua  child ;  but  without  just  cause. 
When  James  II.  contemplated  flight,  the  child 
was  conveyed  to  France  oy  Lauzun.    In  1 70 1 , 
at  his  father's  deathbed,  he  was  acknowledged 
by  Louis  XIV.,  who  undertook  to  upho.d 
his  claims.    In  1703  Louis  fitted  out  an  expe- 
dition against  this  country.     But  James,  who 
was  to  have  accompanied  it,  was  taken  ill 
at   the  measles,  and   the  expedition  failed 
completely.    He  then  joined  the  French  army, 
and  was   present    at   the    battle   of    Oude- 
narde.     On  the  fall  of  the  Whigs  his  pros- 
pects considerably  improved.    In  1711  Harley 
opened  negotiations  for  peace  with  the  French 
court  through  the  Abb^   Ghiutier,  who  was 
also  a  Jacobite  agent.    In  1712  James  ven- 
tured to  write  to  his  sister  Anne.    On  the 
conclusion  of  the  Peace  of  Utrecht,  he  was 
compelled  to  leave  France,  and  removed  to 
Bar  in  Lorraine.     During  this  period  it  was 
constantly  urged  upon  him  that  he  should 
change  lus  reHgion,  but  he  distinctly  refused 
to  do  so.    In  June  23,  1714,  proclamations 
against  him  were  issued  by  both  Houses  of 
Parliament.    On  receiving  the  news  of  the 
death  of  Anne,  he  went  from  Bar-le-Duc  to 
Plombi^res,  where  he  issued  a  proclamation 
claiming  the  crown,  and  from  thence  to  Com- 
mercy.    With  Bolingbroke  as  Secretary  of 
State,  the  Pretender's  schemes  seemed  to  have 
a    chance  of  success.    It    was    hoped    that 
Louis  might  be  induced  to  break  the  peace ; 
the  Jacobites  in  England  were  supposed  to 
be  eager  to  rise.    But  the  flight  of  Ormonde 
from  England  was  followed  by  the  death  of 
Louis  XIV.  Despite  BolingbroKe's  advice  l^lar 
rose  in  Scotland.  [Jacobitbs.1  It  was  not  until 
Mar's  expedition  was  doomed  to  failure  that 
James  arrived  in  Scotland.      He    went    to 
Scone,  where  he  assumed  the  style  of  royalty. 
But  it  was  evident  that  he  lacked  all  energy. 
Arg^le  advanced  on  Perth,  James  and  Mar 
withdrew  before  him,   and,  deserting  their 
followers,  secretly  fled  to  France.     On  his 
return  James  mc^t  imjustly  laid  the  blame 
of   the   failure    on    liolingbroke,    and    dis- 
missed him.     His  place  was  taken  by  Mar. 
In   1717  Charles  XII.    of  Sweden,  and  the 
Spanish  minister  Alberoni,  resolved  to  bring 


about  a  Stuart  Testoration.     But  their  plans, 
failed.  Soon  afterwards  the  Regent  of  France 
was  compelled  by  the  English  goverament  to 
expel  James  from  the  French  dominions.   He 
went  to  Rome  (1717).    He  was  betrothed  to 
Clementina,  granddaughter  of  John  Sobieiki, 
King  of  Poland ;  but  on  her  way  to  Rome,  ahe 
was  arrested  by  the  Emperor,  and  detaiiifid 
prisoner.     In  1719  Alberoni  fitted  oat  aa 
expedition  against  England.    The  Pretender 
was    invited   to  Spain,  and  there  publicij 
received.  The  expedition  under  Ormonde  was 
scattered  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay.     This  year 
Princess  Sobieski  escaped  from  Austria,  and 
went  to  Italy,  where  she  married  the  I^ 
tender.    In  1720  Charles  Edward  was  born. 
In  1722  Atterbury's  plot  seemed  for  a  short 
period  likely  to  succeed.    James  sent  an  eita- 
ordinary  declaration  from  Lucca,  offering  to 
allow  Ghsorge  II.  the  succession  to  the  throne, 
and  the  title  of  King  of  Hanover,  if  he 
would  quietly  surrender  the  English  crown. 
In  1728  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  incite  a 
rebellion  in*  the   Highlands  was   made  bj 
Allan  Cameron.    James  had  quarrelled  with 
Mar,  and  now  had  as  a  favourite  Colonel  Hay. 
who  was  made  Secretary  of  State  and  Earl  of 
Inverness.    Clementina,  jealous  of  Inverness, 
left  her  husband,  which  alienated  the  Empero' 
and  Spain  from  him.    On  Uie  death  of  George 
I.  he  repaired  to   Lonuine  full  of  hope» 
They  were  soon  dashed  to  the  ground,  and 
the  French  government  were  compelled  to 
send  him  from  France.    He  returned  to  Italy 
and  was  reconciled  to  his  wife,  who  died  in 
1736.    He  now  took  as  his  aidviser  James 
Murray,  Inverness's    brother-in-law,  whom 
he  created  Earl  of  Dunbar.    On  the  breaking 
out  of  war  between  England  and  France 
(1740)  the  Jacobite  hopes  revived.    An  agso- 
elation  of  seven  was  formed  in  Scotland ;  the 
Engli^  Jacobites  were  roused;  the  French 
minister  was  friendly  to  his   cause.     T^ 
ultimate  result  of  these  intrigues  was  the 
Toung  Pretender's  expedition  in  1 745.   Jama 
Edward  now  ceased  to  exercise  any  real  in- 
fluence.   He  quarrelled  with  his  son  in  1747. 
James  had  fair  abilities,  but  was  thoroughly 
selfidi,  ftdthless,  and  licentious. 

Jeeae,  Xgmaire  of  the  Pretemder;  Stanhope. 

Siet.  of  Sng.s   I<eokj,  HiaL  of  ihe  Eigidtttii 

Century, 

Stubbe,  Thomas,  a  Puritan  lawyer,  and 
brother-in-law  of  Caitwright,  wrote  in  157§ 
a  pamphlet  against  the  proposed  marriage  of 
KUzabeth  with  the  Duke  of  Anjou.  For  this 
he  was  sentenced  to  have  his  right  hand  cut 
ofP ;  and  on  the  infliction  of  the  penalty  i» 
said  to  have  waved  his  hat  in  his  left  hand, 
crying.  "  L<mg  Uve  Queen  EHzabeth !"  This 
story  is,  however,  doubtfuL  Stubbe  was  in 
1687  employed  by  Burleigh  to  answer  the 
libels  of  Cardinal  Allen.  In  1688  he  was 
elected  M.P.  for  Tannouth. 

Stnbbl,  Thomas  (d,  1878),  a  Domiiii. 
can,  wrote  a  ohronicle  of  the  Ardibiahops 


mwL 


(  979  ) 


Slid 


of  York,  which  contains  mnch  valuable  his- 
torical  matter.  It  has  been  pirinted  by 
Twj'adon. 

Stnkel^,  Sni  Thomas  (d.  1578),  an  ad- 
herent of  the  Protector  Somerset,  was  impli- 
cated in  the  rebellion  of  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt 
(1554),  and  was  compelled  to  leave  England, 
subsequently  becoming  a  noted  pirate  or 
privateer.  He  afterwards  went  to  Ireland 
and  acquired  considerable  possessions  there. 
In  1570  he  betook  himseu  to  Spam,  and 
entered  into  negotiations  with  Pnilip,  de- 
claring that  his  influence  was  sufficient  to 
procure  an  easy  conquest  of  Ireland ;  but  the 
contemplated  mvasion  came  to  nothing.  A 
few  years  later  Stukeley  again  projecteid  an 
attack  on  Ireland,  but  this  time  with  papal 
aid ;  he  was  killed,  however,  on  his  way  at 
Aioazar  in  battle  with  the  Moors. 

Snbinftudation  was  the  process  of 
creating  inferior  feudal  obligations  by  the 
lord  of  a  fief.  For  example,  a  lord  who  held 
m  estate  of  the  crown,  would  g^rant  part  of 
it  to  a  sub-tenant  of  his  own,  who  woidd 
henceforward  stand  in  an  analogous  relation 
to  him  to  that  in  which  he  stood  to  his  lord. 
V^ery  often  the  process  of  sabinfeudation 
xrent  so  far  that  the  nominal  holder  of  a  fief 
lad  not  enough  left  in  his  own  hands  to  per- 
'orm  the  services  required  of  him.  Fraudu- 
ent  acts  of  this  type  were  not  uncommon. 
It  last  the  statute  Quia  Emptorea  (July,  1290) 
tractically  aboUshed  future  cases  of  subin- 
eudation  by  enacting  that  in  future  transfers 
f  land,  the  purchaser  should  not  enter  into 
eudal  relations  of  dependence  with  the  alienor, 
*ut  should  stand  to  me  lord  of  the  fief  in  the 
ime  relation  in  which  the  alienor  had  him- 
elf  stood.     [Feudalism.] 

Submission  of  the  Cl«vgy,  The,  was 

D  agreement  forced  upon  the  (Convocation  of 
!anterbury  by  Henry  YIII.  in  1532,  that  no 
ew  canons  should  be  enacted  without  the 
ing'^s  sanction,  and  that  a  review  of  the 
lasting'  canons  should  be  made,  and  all  dis- 
pproved  of  struck  out.  In  1634  this  sub* 
lission  'was  embodied  in  an  Act  of  Par- 
liRient  called  the  Statute  of  the  Submission 
?  the  Clergy  (26  Hen.  VIII.,  c.  19),  which 
.oreover  gave  the  king  power  to  summon 
onvocation  by  his  own  writ,  annul  all  done 
ithout  his  licence,  and  to  appoint  commis- 
oners  to  review  the  canon  law.  The  exact 
g^ficance  of  these  Acts  was  fiercely  debated 
iring-  the  stormy  period  that  preceded  the 
rtual  suspension  ox  Convocation  in  1717. 

Snbncty,  a  Parliamentary  grant  to  the 
own,  acquired  during  the  sixteenth  century 
fixed  and  technical  sense.  The  custom  of 
•anting'  a  round  sum  of  money  which  had 
•own  up  since  the  days  of  Edward  IV., 
)came  in  the  reign  of  Mary  stereotyped, 
enoeforth  a  subsidy  meant  a  tax  of  4s.  in 
e  pound  far  lands,  and  2i.  8d.  for  goods 


from  Knglishmen,  and  of  double  that  sum 
from  aliens;  in  all  amounting  to  £70,000. 
Besides  this  a  special  subsidy  of  £20,000  was 
levied  on  the  clergy.  From  this  date,  a  Par- 
liament granted  one  'or  two  or  more  subsidies. 
The  Subndy  RolU  give  an  account  of  how  the 
taxes  were  raised. 

Sndbnn^y  Simon  of,  Archbiahop  of  Can^ 
terbury  (1376 — 1381),  was  bom  at  Sudbury, 
studiea  canon  law  at  Paris,  and  became  at- 
tached to  the  Papal  Curia.  He  also  attached 
himself  to  John  of  Gbiunt.  In  1360  he  wa& 
made  Chancellor  of  Salisbury,  and  in  1362 
Bishop  of  London.  He  took  part  in  several 
embassies.  He  incurred  unpopularity  by  hi& 
enlightened  aversion  to  pilgrimages.  In  1375 
he  was  made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He 
was  murdered  in  1381  by  the  insurgent 
peasantry  when  they  took  possession  of  the- 
Tower. 

Hook,  ilrchbiaKopf  of  Oaiitvrbury. 

SudoosailipTHS  Battle  op  ^Jul^  1, 1848), 
was  fought  dining  the  second  Sikh  War. 
After  Kineyiee,  Lieutenant  Edwardes  was 
reinforced  by  4,000  men  from  Cashmere. 
Moolraj,  alarmed  at  the  growing  power  of  his 
op|>onents,  drew  together  his  whole  force, 
which  had  been  augmented  by  11,000  deser- 
ters, and  attacked  them  near  Sudoosain.  The 
battle  began  with  a  furious  cannonade,  which 
lasted  several  hours,  but  at  last  a  brilliant 
charge  by  one  of  Colonel  Cortland*s  regiments 
broke  the  ranks  of  the  Sikhs.  Moolraj  fled,  and 
was  followed  by  his  whole  army  to  Mooltan. 

SudireySy  Thb  (Sudreyjar)^  was  a  name 
given  by  ue  Norwegians  to  the  Hebrides,  or 
Western  Islands,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
Orkneys  or  Norderies.  Some  authorities  say 
that  the  Western  Islands  themselves  were 
divided  into  the  Norderies  and  Suderies,  the 
point  of  division  being  Ardnamurchan.  Peo-^ 
pled  by  a  Gktelio  race,  the  Western  Isles  were 
early  ravaged  by  the  Danes,  and  in  the  ninth 
century  colonised  by  Norwegians,  who  made 
theoiselves  the  lords  of  the  origiual  inhabi- 
tants, though  tiie  islands  preserved  more  Celtic 
than  Norse  characteristics.  There  were  fre- 
quent contests  for  tiie  possession  of  theWestem 
Isles  between  the  Norwegian  jarls  of  Orkney 
and  the  Danish  kings  of  Dublin  about  1070. 
A  new  Norwegian  dynasty  was  founded  in 
these  isles  by  the  Viking,  Gk)dred  Crovan.  In 
1154  a  division  of  the  islands  was  made,  those 
south  of  Ardnamurchan  Point  becoming  the 
territory  of  Somerlaed  of  Argyle.  In  1222 
Argyle  was  absorbed  into  Scotland  proper,  and 
in  July,  1266,  the  rest  of  the  Western  Isles 
were  ceded  to  Alexander  III.  on  consideration 
of  the  payment  of  a  sum  of  money.  The 
name  is  still  preserved  in  the  designation  of 
the  Manx  bishop,  as  Bishop  of  Sodor  and  Man, 
though  none  of  the  Southern  Islands  have  for 
many  centuries  been  included  in  his  diocese. 

Skene,    Celtic  ^SooCland;    Monch,    OKroniooii. 
""T  B^gwM,  If annto. 


BfBL% 


(WO) 


Bnf 


SiMtonilUI  PanliniUI  was  Boman  com- 
mander  in  Britain  from  59  to  62.  His  first 
action  was  the  redaction  of  the  island  of  Mona 
(Anglesey),  the  chief  seat  of  Druidism.  From 
this  he  was  recalled  hy  the  news  of  the  revolt 
of  the  loeni,  under  Boadioea,  the  capture  of 
Verulamium,  Gamulodunum,.  and  other  ports, 
and  the  slaughter  of  the  Romans  and  their 
allies.  After  a  tedious  campaign,  Suetonius 
j^ained  a  decisive  victorv  over  the  Britons 
near  London ;  but  his  harshness  having  greatly 
conduced  to  the  rebellion,  he  was,  despite  his 
ultimate  success,  recalled  in  the  year  62. 
Tiftoitufl,  Vita  AgrieoUa, 

SuifoDc,  Chaklbs  Brandon,  Dukb  op 
{d.  1545),  a  general  and  courtier  of  the  reign 
of  Henr}'  VIII.  As  a  commander  his  success 
in  an  expedition  against  France  was  but  in- 
different, but  as  an  exponent  of  chivalry  he 
was  without  rival.  His  marriage  to  mary, 
Henry*s  sister,  very  soon  after  ttto  death  of 
her  first  husband,  Louis  XII.,  was  with 
Henry's  consent,  and  their  issue  were  preferred 
in  the  king's  will  to  those  of  his  elder  sister, 
Margaret  of  Scotland. 

Suifolk,  Edmund  de  la  Folb,  Dukb  of 
i4.  1513),  was  the  son  of  John  de  la  Pole, 
Duke  of  Suffolk,  by  Elizabeth,  eldest  sister  of 
Edward  IV.  For  consenting  to  take  service 
under  Henry  VII.  he  was  created  Earl  of 
Suffolk,  and  allowed  to  redeem  a  portion  of  the 
estates  of  his  father.  A  few  years  later  he  was 
guilty  of  homicide,  and  resenting  the  notion  of 
being  tried  for  the  crime  as  a  d»&dly  insult,  he 
fled  to  Flanders,  and  entered  into  active  rela- 
tions with  the  Dowager  Duchess  of  Burgundy. 
Henry,  however,  persuaded  him  to  return, 
but  in  the  following  year  he  again  fled  to 
Flanders,  this  time  with  a  view  of  restoring 
his  broken  fortunes  by  some  private  enter- 
prise. On  the  shipwreck  of  the  Archduke 
Philip  in  Jan.,  1506,  Henry  did  not  hesitate 
to  insist  upon  his  surrender  as  a  main  article 
of  the  tr^ty  he  then  extorted  from  Philip. 
He  was  at  once  committed  to  the  Tower,  from 
which  he  did  not  emerge  again  till  the  day  of 
his  execution  in  1513.  It  is  supposed  that 
his  execution  at  this  date  was  chieBy  due  to 
Henry  VIII.'s  anger  at  his  brother,  Richard 
de  la  Pole,  entering  the  service  of  France. 
Bacon,  Lift  oj  Henry  FIX. 

BnfEblk,  Henbibtta,  Countess  of  {b, 
eirca  1688,  <f.  1767),  was  the  supposed  mis- 
tress of  George  II.  bhe  was  the  daughter 
of  Sir  Henry  Hobart,  and  married  a  Mr. 
Howard,  who  afterwards  succ-eeded  to  the 
earldom  of  Suffolk.  When  her  husband  tried 
to  remove  her  from  the  household  of 
Caroline,  then  Princess  of  Wales,  the 
latter  protected  her.  **  Queen  Caroline,''  says 
Stanhope,  "used  to  call  her  in  banter  her 
sister  Howard,  and  was  pleased  to  employ 
her  at  her  toilet,  or  in  menial  offices  about 
her  person.    Lady  Suffolk  was  placid,  good- 


natured,  and  kind-hearted,  bat  very  deaf,  and 
not  remarkable  for  .wit. .  Though  the  king 
passed  half  his  time  in  her  compaoj,  her 
influence  was  quite  subordinate  to  that  of  the 
queen."  She  entertained  a  strong  regard  far 
Swift  and  Pope^  and  was  courted  by  the 
Opposition  partly  in  the  mistaken  expedatiai 
of  gaining  the  royal  ear,  partly  from  real 
regard  for  her  amiable  character.  After  her 
withdrawal  from  court  in  1734,  she  maiiied 
the  Hon.  George  Berkeley. 

Meryej.Mmmoin  and  the  Latten  ^  tJU  Om» 
tctt  qf  iJi^oUc,  both  edited  hj  Crokar. 

SvfEblky    MiCHABL  DB   UL  PoLB,  EaBL  OF 

(d.  1389),  was  the  son  of  William  de  h 
Pole,  a  Hull  merchant,  who  had  ram 
to  be  a  baron  of  the  Exchequer.  He  eaiif 
succeeded  in  ingratiating  himself  with 
Richard  II.,  and  in  1383  was  created  (3tt&- 
cellor.  He  was  extremel}''  unpopular  with 
the  barons,  and  the  misgovemment  of  the 
kingdom  was  in  great  measure  attributed  to 
him.  He  was  made  Earl  of  Suffolk  in  1385, 
and  this  still  further  increased  his  unpopa* 
larity,  so  that  in  1386  the  long  was  obliged  to 
remove  him  from  the  chancellorship,  and  the 
Commons  drew  up  articles  of  impeachmat 
against  him.  The  charges  preferred  were  for 
the  most  part  frivolous,  but  his  condemoatiaD 
was  determined  on,  and  he  waa  sentenced  tc 
imprisonment  till  he  should  ransom  hintfeli 
according  to  the  king's  pleasure.  After  the 
dissolution  of  Parliament  an  attempt  wu 
made  by  the  king  and  his  friends  to  siuibI 
their  decisions,  but  the  barons  were  too 
powerful  for  them,  and  finding  resistance  of 
no  avail,  De  la  Pole  fled  in  1388  to  Fnmce, 
where  he  died  in  the  following  year. 

Suifolk,  Thomas  Howard,  Eabx  or 
{d,  1626),  son  of  Thomas,  fourth  Doke  of 
Norfolk,  was  one  of  the  Tolunteers  who 
assisted  in  attacking  the  Spanish  Armada  afi 
Calais.  In  1691  he  was  in  oonunand  of  the 
fleet  which  attacked  the  Spanish  teasare 
ships  off  the  Asores,  when  Sir  Bicfaard  6ren« 
ville  was  killed,  and  in  1596  was  aeoond  in 
command  of  the  fleet  during  the  cxpeditioD 
to  Cadiz.  In  the  following  year  he  accoo* 
panied  Essex  in  his  disastrous  attempt  on  the 
Azores.  On  his  return  home  he  was  created 
Lord  Howard  de  W^alden,  and  in  1603  Earl  of 
Suffolk.  In  1604  he  was  appointed  one  oi 
the  commissioners  for  executing  the  office  of 
Earl  Marshal,  and  was  mainly  instrumental  in 
the  discovery  of  the  Gunpowder  Plot.  In  1614 
Lord  Suffolk  was  created  Lord  High  Treasorff 
of  England,  but  was  deprived  of  his  office  foot 
years  later. 

Suffolk,  William  db  la  Polb,  Eabl  vs^ 
Dukb  op  {h.  1396,  d,  1450},  grandson  of  Michael 
de  la  Pole,  served  with  distinctioQ  in  tht 
French  wars,  and  took  part  in  the  battle  of 
Vemeuil,  and  the  siege  of  Orleans.  He  «« 
one  of  tile  ambassadors  at  the  Congrev  ^ 


Sxin 


(981) 


Bnp 


Arras  in  1435,  and  was  the  chief  promote!^  df 
the  marriage  of  Henry  YI.  with  Margaret 
of  Anjou,  for  arranging  which  he  received  a 
marquisate  in  1445,  and  fonr  years  later  he 
was  made  a  duke.    From  1445  he  was  practi- 
cally prime  minister  of  England,  and  was 
strongly  inclined  towards  a  peace  poUcy,  which 
brought  great  odium  upon  him,while  the  terms 
of '  the  marriage  treaty  which  he  had  nego- 
tiated were  greatly  in  fevour  of  France,  Anjou 
nnd  Maine  being  ceded  to  King  H6ne,  the 
father  of  Margaret.    Suffolk's  great  rival  was 
the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  whom  he  accused  to 
the  king  of  treachery.  Gloucester  was  arrested, 
and  his  suspicious  death  shortly  afterwards 
was  popularly  attributed  to  Suffolk.  Suffolk's 
administration   was  extremely  unfortunate; 
abroad  disaster  followed  disaster,   while  at 
home  taxation  was  heavy,  and  misery  and 
desolation    prevailed,     llie   popular   anger 
against    Suffolk  culminated  in   1449.     The 
Commons  brought  grave  charges  against  him. 
He  was  accused  of  gross  mismanagement  and 
treachery  in  France,  of  wishing  to  marry  his 
son  to  Margaret  Beaufort,  and  thereby  of 
getting  the  crown  for  his  descendants,  and  of 
appropriating  and  misusing  the  royal  revenue. 
Suffolk,  while  denying  &e  charges,  placed 
himself  at  the  king's  disposal,  who,  without 
declaring  his  guilt  or  innocence,  banished  him 
Erom  the  realm  for  five  years.    It  would  seem 
bhat    Suffolk  assented   to  this  rather  than 
inculpate  the  king  and  the  Council  by  awaiting 
lis  trial  at  the  hands  of  the  Lords.    On  his 
Kray  to   Flanders  he  was  seized  by  the  crew 
>f  a  ship  sent  in  pursuit  of  him,  and  put  to 
Leath.  by  them  as  a  traitor.    He  married  Alice, 
laughter  and  heiress  of  Thomas  Chaucer. 

Brougham,  Bng.  under  fh«  Houae  cfLancatUr  ; 
Gairdner,  Introd.  to  Patton  Letten, 

Sunderlandy  Chahlbs  Spencer,  Srd 
Sarl  of  (b.  1674,  d,  1722),  in  1698  married 
^jine,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Marl- 
>orough.  He  quarrelled  with  his  father-in- 
ftw  (1702).  In  1705  he  was  sent  as  envoy 
ixtraordinary  to  Vienna.  The  Whigs  were 
nxious  that  he  should  be  admitted  to  office, 
a  they  hoped  thereby  to  draw  Marlborough 
tver  to  their  side.  The  queen  disliked  him 
or  his  impetuosity  of  temper.  However, 
rodolphin's  threats  of  resignation,  and  the 
tray  era  of  Marlborough,  induced  her  to  create 
jm  Secretary  of  State  (1706).  In  1710  he 
oolishly  advised  Sacheverell's  impeachment, 
nd  was  therefore  to  a  great  extent  the  cause 
f  his  party's  overthrow.  On  the  accession 
f  Georgfe  L  he  was  much  disgusted  at  being 
ppointed  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  a  post 
o  ima^ned  to  be  inferior  to  his  merits.  He 
egan  to  cabal  with  the  seceders  from  the 
Vhigs  agrainst  Townshend  and  Walpole.  In 
716  he  went  to  Hanover,  where  he  gained 
le  ear  of  George  I.  and  Stanhope.  He  accused 
Walpole  and  Townshend  ox  questionable 
ealmgs  with  the  Duke  of  Argyle.    George 


wds  opposed  to  Townishend  for  his  oppositieti 
to  his  German  plans,  and  dismissed  him'; 
Walpole  followed  his  brother-in-law  out  of 
office.  Sunderland  became  Secretary  of  State, 
and  subsequently  exchanged  offices  with  Stan- 
hope. The  ministry  was  strong;  and  in  1719 
Walpole  and  Townshend  fining  opposition 
useless  formed  a  coalition  with  him.  The 
defeat  of  the  government  on  the  Peerag^ 
Bill,  suggested  by  Sunderlwid  in  order  to 
thwi^^  the  future  king,  had  done  them  but 
little  harm.  In  1720  came  universal  distress, 
owing  to  the  bursting  of  the  South  Sea  Bubble. 
The  original  scheme  had  been  laid  before 
Sunderland,  and  therefore  it  was  chiefly  on 
him  that  odium  fell.  He  was  accused  of 
having  received  £50,000  stock  as  a  present. 
He  was  most  probably  guiltless;  indeed  it 
is.  said  that  he  had  lost  heavily  by  the  trans- 
actions of  the  company.  '  He  was  declared 
innocent  by  the  Lords;  but  the  popular 
indignation  was  so  great  that  he  was  forced 
to  resign.  During  the  last  year  of  his  life  he 
is  said  to  have  intrigued  with  the  Pretender. 
"Lord  Spencer,"  says  Coxe,  " in  person  waa 
highly  favoured  by  nature,  and  no  less, 
liberally  gifted  with  intellectual  endowments. 
In  him  a  bold  and  impetuous  spirit  was 
concealed  under  a  cold  and  reserved  exterior. 
He  was  a  zealous  champion  of  the  Whig 
doctrines  in  the  most  enlarged  sense.  Asso- 
ciating with  the  remnant  of  the  Republicana 
who  had  survived  the  Commonwealth,  he 
caught  their  spirit.  His  political  idol  waa 
Lord  Somers,  although  he  wanted  both  the 
prudence  and  temper  of  so  distinguished  a. 
leader." 

Beyer,  ilnnal*  •  Coxe,  Marlborough  and  Wal- 

poU ;  Stanhope,  Keign  of  QtMcn  Anne ;  Wyon, 

Keign  of  Queen  Anne, 

Sunderland,  Robert  Spencek,  2nd  Eabl. 
OP  {b.  1641,  d.  1702),  was  in  his  eai'lier  career  a 
suj^porter  of  the  Exclusion  Bill,  and  of  the 
Pnnce  of  Orange.  But  a  singularly  ambitioua 
and  self-seeking  disposition  made  him  never 
hesitate  to  change  his  side  when  it  was  likely 
to  be  unprosperous.  He  became  a  strong  Tory, 
the  leading  minister  of  James  II.,  and  ulti- 
mately, though  quite  destitute  of  religious  con- 
victions, professed  his  conversion  to  Catho- 
licism. James  found  in  him  a  subtle  and 
accommodating  minister  of  very  great  ability, 
and  quite  without  scruples,  llie  Revolution 
of  1688  drove  him  into  exile ;  bat  in  a  few 
years  he  returned,  and  managed  to  insinuate 
himself  into  William  III.'s  £vonr.  He  was, 
William's  adviser  in  forming  a  Whig  ministrr,. 
and  was  made  one  of  the  Lords  Justices  in 

1697. 

Macaulay,  RieL  of  Bng,;  Banke,  Hist,  of  Eng4 

Supplicants,  The,  was  the  name  as- 
8ume(r7l637)  by  those  persons  in  Scotland 
who  petitioned  or  **  supplicated  "  against  the 
introduction  of  Laud's  Service  Booky  and  the 
Book  of  Canon*.  The  Supplicants  were  so. 
numerous  and  strong  that  on  the  presentatioa 


Mup 


(982) 


«f  the  Great  SappUc&tion  (which  embraced 
charges  against  the  Serviee  Book^  the  Book  of 
Canoruy  the  biahops,  and  the  govemxnent),  the 
Privy  Council  found  it  necessary  to  authorise 
the  election  of  delegates  from  the  Suppli- 
•cants  to  confer  vrith  the  executive:  these 
delegates  were  called  *<  The  Tables.*'  In  1688 
tiie  Supplicants  signed  the  Covenant,  and 
thenceforward  becune  known  by  the  joame 
-of  Covenanters. 

Bupremacv,  Acts  op.  (I)  26  Hen.  VIII., 
•c.  1,  embodied  the  recognition  of  Convocation, 
•and  enacted  '*  that  the  king  shall  be  taken, 
accepted,  and  reputed  the  only  supreme  head 
on  earth  of  the  Church  of  England,"  and 
that  he  shall  have  ''full  power  to  visit, 
repress,  redress,  reform,  restrain,  and  amend 
•all  heresies,  errors,  and  enormities,  which  by 
«ny  manner  of  spiritual  jurisdiction  ought 
lawfully  to  be  reformed."  (2)  26  Hen.  VIII., 
•€.  13,  or  the  Treason  Act,  made  it  high  treason 
"to  imagine  or  practise  any  harm  to  the 
king,  or  deprive  him  of  any  of  his  dignities 
and  tiUes."  Under  this  Act  More  and  Fisher 
.suffered.  (8)  Elizabeth's  first  Act  **  re- 
storing to  the  crown  the  ancient  jurisdiction 
over  the  state  ecclesiastical,"  and  empowering 
her  to  visit,  reform,  and  amond  errors, 
heresies,  and  schisms  as  in  Henry  VIII.' s 
Act.  But  some  limitations  were  secured  in 
the  clause  that  nothing  was  to  be  judged  as 
heresy  but  what  was  proved  so  out  of  the 
Bible,  the  canons  of  the  four  general  councils, 
or  what  Convocation  and  Parliament  should 
judge  to  be  so.  Elizabeth  was  also  declared 
no  longer  "supreme  head,"  but  "supreme 
^governor"  of  the  Church.  (4)  In  1563  a 
more  stringent  Act  of  Supremacy  was  passed, 
with  sterner  penalties,  and  further  obligations 
in  new  classes  to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy. 
By  all  the  above  Acts  the  oath  of  mpretnacy 
was  enforced. 

Bupremacj,  Thb  Kotal,  was  in  its 
•earlier  forms  merely  the  necessary  result  of 
the  imperial  rights  of  the  English  crown. 
Even  as  against  the  Church,  which  in 
mediaeval  times  was  in  a  sense  a  state 
within  the  state,  there  are  many  medissval 
examples  of  the  exercise  of  the  ro}^ 
^supremacy.  The  Customs  of  William  I., 
preserved  by  Eadmer,  the  Constitutions  of 
Clarendon,  the  Statutes  of  Provisors  and 
Prtemunire  all  embodied  the  principle.  But 
Henry  VIII.  brought  out  the  principle  with 
a  new  clearness  in  his  definite  claim  to  be 
"in  all  causes  and  over  all  persons  as  well 
ecclesiastical  as  civil  supreme."  Admitted  with 
reservation  by  Convocation,  and  enforced  by 
Acts  of  Parliament,  this  newly-formulated 
doctrine  soon  proved  incompatible  with  the 
power  of  the  papacy,  and  even  with  the  in- 
dependence of  the  English  Church.  Henry 
VlII.'s  interpretation  of  the  supremacy 
hardly  put  him  in  an  inferior  position  to 
<}erman  princes  whom  the  Reformation  made 


summi  opi»eopi  of  their  dominioiiB.  XJndsr  it 
Cromwell  received  his  eztzaardinazy  cam- 
mission.  Through  it  Somenet  and  Ncrthnm- 
berland  revolutionised  the  Church.  Never 
abandoned  even  by  Mary,  it  was  ssw  rtrd 
in  a  new  and  less  insidious  form  by  Eliaabeth, 
and  has  ever  since  been  part  ot  Uie  preroga* 
tives  of  the  English  crown. 

Svndali  ]>Owlah  was  ^andBtm  of  AH- 
verdy  Knan,  and  succeeded  him  in  1756.  He 
peipetrated  the  abominable  crime  of  the  Bla<  k 
Hole ;  was  beaten  by  dive  at  Plassey,  whence 
he  fled,  but  was  recaptured,  broug^ht  back, 
and  put  ignominiottuy  to  death  by  Meer 
Jaffier*8  son  (1757). 

Snrat  is  a  town  in  the  Konkan,  in  India, 
Bitoated  near  the  month  of  the  Tapta.  It  was 
the  port  toPersia,  and  one  of  the  laiigeat  cities 
in  India.  It  was  originally  the  chief  English 
factory  on  the  west  coast  The  Guioowar 
and  the  Peishwa  both  had  claims  on  it,  but  ia 
1800,  in  consequence  of  the  misgovemnumt  of 
the  Nabob,  Lrad  Wellesley  ordered  it  to  be 
annexed.  The  Guicowar  was  easily  pei^ 
suaded  to  surrender  his  claim,  and  in  1802  bv 
the  Treaty  of  J^assein  the  Peishwa  ««M»ntga 
also. 

Snratp  Thb  Tkbatt  of  (March  6,  1775], 
was  concluded  between  the  Bombay  IV«6i» 
dency,  without  the  authority  of  C^cutta,  and 
Kagoba,  a  deposed  Peishwa.  Its  stipnlatioDs 
were  that  the  Bombay  government  should 
furnish  Ragoba  with  3,000  British  tioops; 
and  that  in  return  Ragoba  should  par  dghteen 
lacs  of  rupees  a  year,  should  make  an  as- 
signment to  the  value  of  nineteen  lacs^  and 
should  cede  Salsetto  and  Bassein. 

8iir|fe«  A^JMl^aonif  Tub  Treaty  of 

(1)  (Dec.  4,  1803),  concluded  between  tha 
Company  and  Dowlut  Bao  Sdndia,  Its  stiim- 
lations  were,  the  cession  of  all  his  territories 
lying  between  the  Jumna  and  the  Gangea, 
and  north  of  the  Bajpoot  kingdoms  dJey^ 
poor  and  Joudhpoor,  tbe  fortress  and  territory 
of  Ahmednugger  in  the  Deccan,  and  Baroach, 
with  its  dependencies  in  Guserat;  the  re- 
linquishment of  all  claims  on  the  Nizam, 
Peishwa,  Guicov^,  and  British  government : 
the  recognition*  of  the  independence  of 
all  the  Britidi  allies  in  Hindostan.  (2; 
(Nov.  23,  1805),  concluded  between  the 
Company  and  Dowlut  Eao  Scindia.  Its 
stipmations  were  that  all  the  provisiona  of 
the  first  treaty  which  were  not  modified  br 
the  new  arrangement  were  to  remain  in 
force ;  that  Golmd  and  Gwalior  were  to  be 
restoi^Bd  to  him  as  a  matter  of  friendship,  on 
his  engaging  to  assign  three  lacs  of  rupees 
from  the  revenues  to  the  Bana.  Pensions 
which  had  been  granted  to  different  officers  oc' 
his  court  were  relinquished,  and  annuities 
were  settled  on  himself,  his  wife,  his  daughter. 
The  Chumbul  was  to  form  the  boundazy  of 
the  two  states,  but  the  British  govemmeut 


0ttr 


(  988  ) 


SiiJi 


engaged  to  enter  into  no  treaties  with  the 
BajaoB  of  Oodypore,  Joudhpoor,  and  other 
chiefs,  the  tributaries  of  Scindia  in  Mewar, 
Marwar,  or  Malwa,  and  Scindia  agreed 
never  to  admit  Shirgee  Bao  Ghatkay  into  his 
counsels. 

Surrey,  Hsnrt  Howardi  Eabl  op 
{b.  1616,  d.  1647),  was  the  son  of  Thomas 
Howard,  third  Duke  of  Norfolk.  A  promis- 
ing^ scholar  and  soldier,  and  a  poet  of  con- 
siderable power,  his  career  was  brought  to 
a  premature  dose  through  Henr^  VIIT.'s 
jefliions  interpretation  of  some  indiscreet  as- 
sumptions of  royal  arms  and  titles  and  refer- 
ences to  his  relationship  to  royalty,  at  a  time 
when  the  king  began  to  reject  a^;ain  the 
counsels  of  the  oonserrative  Anghcans,  of 
whom  Norfolk  and  Surrey  were  the  chief. 
Though  barely  thirty  years  of  age  at  his 
death,  the  young  earl  had  distinguished  him- 
self in  some  of  the  Scotch  and  French 
campaigns,  besides  winning  fame  as  a  poet  of 
real  if  Hmited  powers.  For  a  short  period  he 
was  entrusted  with  the  governorship  of 
Henry's  French  conquest,  Boulogne,  but  his 
defeat  before  the  city  in  1646  led  to  his  being 
superseded  in  his  command,  and  to  his  en- 
gaging in  a  quarrel  with  his  successor  at 
Boulogne,  Loitl  Hertford,  which  was  one 
main  cause  of  his  incurring  the  king's  dis- 
pleasure. Accused,  at  the  instance  of  Hertford, 
)f  treason,  he  was  condemned,  and  executed 
Jan.  21,  1647).  The  Earl  of  Surrey  was  the 
)rother-in-law  and  frequent  companion  of 
Eienry*B  natural  son,  the  i)uke  of  Bichmond. 

SlUUby  Thb  Peacb  of  (April  14,  1629),  was 

nade  between  England  and  France,  through 

^e  mediation  of  the  Venetian  ambassador, 

C^ontarini,    and  largely   through    the    good 

>ffice8  of  Queen  Henrietta  Mana.    It  tacitly 

i^cognised  the  principle  that  each  king  was 

Tee  to  settle  his  dealings  with  his  own  subjects 

iS  he  thought  fit. 

S.  B.  Gardiner,  Hirt.  o/  Bng„  19(0^164$^  toI. 
▼it 

Suspending  Power,  Thb,  was  the 
"oyal  claim  to  suspend  altogether  the  opera- 
ion  of  any  statute  which  was  found 
ontraiy  to  the  well-being  of  the  state.  Like 
he  anfuogous  Dispensing  Power  (q.v.)  it  ai'ose 
rom  the  necessity  in  the  fourteenth  and 
ifteentii  centuries  of  combining  with  friend- 
hip  with  the  Pope  the  maintenance  of  the 
Lets  of  Provisors  and  Preemunire.  Abused 
ty  the  Stuarts,  especially  by  Charles  II.'s  and 
ames  II.'s  Declarations  of  Toleration,  which 
uspended  manv  statutes,  and  stretched  to  the 
ittennost  by  James  II.'s  suspensions  of  the 
Test  Act  and  others,  this  power  was  finally 
eclared  illegfJ  in  the  Bill  of  Rights. 


KiKODOM  OF.  The  first  Saxon 
ttack  upon  Britain  after  the  conquest  of 
^ent  by  the  Jutes,  was  that  under  ^lla,  and 
lis  three  sons  (one  of  whom,  Cissa,  has  given 
is  name  to  Chichester).    Landing  with  a 


small  foKce  at  Selsey  in  477,  the  South  Saxons 
slowly  fought  their  way  eastward,  conquezinff 
the  strip  of  land  between  the  Andredes-weala 
and  the  Channel,  until  in  491  they  reached 
Anderida.  After  a  desperate  struggle  the 
fortress  was  taken,  and  "  all  that  were  therein 
slain.'^  But  they  wore  unable  to  advance 
further,  for  immediately  to  the  east  of  An- 
derida a  dense  forest  belt  came  down  to  the 
sea  and  barred  further  progress.  The  king- 
dom of  Sussex  was  always  one  of  the  least 
important  of  the  English  powers.  It  fell 
under  the  overlordship  of  Ethelbert  of  Kent, 
and  after  a  period  of  independence,  imder  the 
rule  of  Wufihere  of  Mercia.  Hitherto  it  had 
remained  heathen,  but  in  661  its  king,  ^thel- 
waldi,  was  baptised  in  Wulfhcre's  presence, 
and  at  the  same  time  the  overlord  added  to 
his  dominions  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  the 
lands  of  the  Meonwara  along  Southampton 
Water.  But  the  mass  of  the  people  were 
still  heathen,  and  in  678 — 83  Wilfred  occu- 
pied his  enforced  leisure  among  them  in 
bringing  about  tiielr  conversion.  In  686 
Ceadwalla  brought  Sussex  under  West  Saxon 
supremacy,  and  from  this  time  it  ceases  to 
have  any  separate  history. 

Beds,  Hut.  EccUt,;  Heniy  of  Huntinfirdon; 
Qreeo,  Making  of  BngXanA ;  Lappenbeiv,  Anglo- 
Saxon  King;  [W.  J.  A.J 

SneseZf  Kings  of.  Besides  .£lla  who, 
after  founding  the  kingdom  of  Sussex, 
probably  assisted  the  Gewissas,  and  is  there- 
fore mentioned  by  Bede  as  the  first  English 
prince  who  held  an  imperium  or  dueatus, «.«., 
war-leadership  {v.  Green,  Making  of  England. 
308),  few  of  the  South  Saxon  princes  were  of 
importance.  .Sthelwalch,  the  first  Christian 
king,  and  his  successor,  Eadric,  fell  in  battle 
against  Ceadwalla  of  Wessex.  Lappenberg 
{England  under  Anglo-Saxon  Kings,  ed.  1881, 
i.,  p.  313)  mentions  also  the  names  of  Huna, 
Kuma  or  Nunna,  Nothelm  and  Wattus,  as 
ruling  under  Ine,  and  of  Osmund,  iBthelberht, 
and  Sigeberht  as  later  princes. 

SlUNMK,  Thoicas  Radcliffe,  3ild  Earl  op 
(d,  1583),  though  inclined  to  Catholicism,  was 
the  faithful  and  honourable  counsellor  and 
affectionate  kinsman  of  Elizabeth.  He  was 
made,  on  his  father's  death  in  1557,  Lord 
Deputy  of  Ireland,  where  he  distinguished 
himself  by  his  energetic  government.  He 
became  an  active  servant  of  Elizabeth,  and  on 
his  recall  from  Ireland  (1567),  whore  he  b&d 
quarrelled  with  Sir  Henry  Sidney,  was  sent 
to  Vienna  to  try  to  arrange  the  conditions  of 
the  queen's  marriage  with  the  archduke.  On 
his  return  to  England  he  became  President 
of  the  Council  of  the  North,  and  was  one  of 
the  commissioners  at  York  for  the  inquiry  into 
the  Damley  murder.  Sussex  afterwards 
advocated  the  marriage  of  the  Scottish  queen 
with  the  Duke  of  Norifolk,  and  on  that  account 
was  supposed  by  the  confederate  earls. to  be 
favourable,  to  their  cause.  He  remained  loyal, 
however,  and  as  President  of  the  North  took 


Sni 


(M4) 


mM 


j^art  in  suppresainfi^  the  rebellion  of  1669| 
though  he  incurred  the  charge  of  lack  of 
energy.  He  was  one  of  the  few  peers  who 
were  m  favour  of  the  Alen<;on  marriage,  and 
in  his  capacity  as  Lord  Chamberlain  seems  to 
have  exercised  a  jB^ood  deal  of  influence  at 
court.  Sussex  was  a  man  of  blunt  and  straight- 
forward character,  a  good  soldier,  but  not 
much  of  a  courtier. 

Suttee  was  the  Hindoo  custom  of  burn- 
ing the  live  widow  with  the  dead  husband. 
It  was  practised  for  twenty  centuries,  and 
is  supposed  to  be  of  religious  origin,  but 
was  really  grafted  on  the  original  Hindoo 
law,  owing  to  the  unwillingness  among  the 
Brahmins  that  the  widow  should  acquire  her 
settled  property,  and  celebrate  the  funeral 
rites  of  her  husband.  The  English  were 
at  first  afraid  to  interfere,  fearing  that  it 
would  create  a  religious  excitement  against 
the  English  rule.  Lord  William  Bentinck, 
however,  determined  to  abolish  this  custom, 
and  in  1830  passed  n  regulation  which 
declared  the  practice  of  suttee  illegal,  and 
punishable  by  the  criminal  courts  as  culpable 
homicide.  Not  the  slightest  feeling  of  alarm 
T>r  resentment  was  exhibited.  A  few  attempts 
at  suttee  were  prevented  by  the  police,  and 
now  the  practice  is  a  matter  of  histor}\ 

Sreaborg,  Thb  Bombardmbnt  op  (1855), 
took  place  during  the  war  with  Russia.  The 
second  Baltic  expedition,  under  Admiral 
Dundas,  addressed  itself  to  the  bombardment 
of  Sveaborg.  On  the  morning  of  Aug.  9  the 
bombardment  was  opened.  Shot,  shell,  and 
rockets  rained  into  the  fortress  from  our  g^un 
and  mortar  boats,  and  the  batteries  which  the 
French  had  established  on  one  of  the  many 
neighbouring  islands.  The  bombardment  was 
continued  with  little  intermission  till  four 
o'clock  on  the  morning  of  the  11th,  by  which 
time  it  was  computed  that  no  less  than  one 
thousand  tons  of  shot  and  shell  had  been 
thrown  into  the  place  by  the  English  alone. 
Finding  the  destruction  of  the  stores  and 
arsenals,  and  every  building  of  importance  to 
be  complete,  the  admiral  resolved  to  make  no 
further  attempt  on  the  fortifications  them- 
selves, as  this  must  have  cost  many  lives. 

Swainmote  was  the  court  of  the  free- 
men of  the  forest.  As  the  forest  juris- 
dictions were  arranged  on  the  model  of  the 
ordinary  shire  jurisdictions,  its  organisation 
was  analogous  to  that  of  the  shire  or  hundred 
court.  Swain  is  an  equivalent  of  freeholder 
(libere  tenens). 

Sweating  Sickneii,  Thb,  was  the  name 
given  to  a  most  destructive  malady  which 
ravaged  Europe,  and  more  particularly 
England,  during  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries.  Beginning  in  the  form  of  a  violent 
fever,  accompanied  by  a  profuse  foetid  perspi- 
ration, it  speedily  reduced  its  victimB  to  a  state 
lyf  utter  helplessness  and  prostration,  a  few 


hours  only  sufficing,  as  a  general  mle,  to 
transform  a  healthy,  vigorous  man  into  a 
loathsome  corpse.  The  mortality  caused  by  & 
plague  of  this  mysterious  and  deadly  chancier 
was  enonnously  great,  and  in  Knghiui. 
where  its  efifects  were  more  severely  fdt 
than  in  any  other  part  of  Enrope,  it  resatted, 
according  to  Stowe,  in  a  marked  depopula- 
tion of  the  kingdom.  The  first  appptmnoe 
of  the  ''sweating  sickness*'  in  England 
was  in  Aug.,  1485,  when,  breaking  out  seem- 
ingly among  Henry  VII.*s  troops  at  Milfonl 
Haven,  it  spread  with  fatal  rapidity  to  Loodoa. 
Here,  and  generally,  the  plague  nu^ 
f  uiioufily  till  about  the  end  of  October,  vhea 
its  force  began  to  abate,  tiU  eventually  on  Xev 
Year's  Day,  1486,  all  traces  of  it  disappearei 
In  July,  1517,  it  again  broke  out  among  the 
people,  and  ran  a  violent  course  of  six  montha. 
In  May,  1528,  its  ravages  brought  abont  an 
almost  total  suspension  of  business.  On  thi& 
occaaion  the  plague  hated  on  till  July,  1529. 
Its  next  appearance  was  in  April,  1551,  when 
it  destroyed  in  the  space  of  a  few  days  nine 
hundred  and  sixty  of  the  inhabitants  of  8hrewt- 
buxy,  from  which  town  it  waa  speedily  carried 
over  the  surrounding  countiy.  It  once  again 
took  its  departure  in  September,  and  with  the 
exception  of  a  short  interval  in  1575,  vhen 
the  "sickness "  caused  a  vast  number  of  deathi. 
principally  in  Oxford,  we  have  no  record  of 
any  subsequent  renewal  of  the  visitation.  A 
remarkable  circumstance  connected  with  the 
"sweating  sickness"  was  the  comparatiTe 
freedom  which  foreign  residents  in  England 
enjoyed  from  its  effects ;  upon  the  native-bom 
population  alone,  for  the  most  part,  did  the 
sickness  exercise  its  deadly  influence.  Hence 
it  is  supposed  that  the  malady  was  largely 
due  to  uie  immoderate  indulgence  in  beer  bo 
common  among  all  classes  of  English  people 
in  the  days  of  the  Tudors. 

Baoon,  Hiat.  ofHmry  FIT. ;  Cbambeca,  Btck  i^ 
Iteys. 

Bwedeily  Rblations  with.    There  were 

practically  no  dealings  between  England  and 

Sweden  during  the  Middle  Ages.    Guatarus 

Wasa  at  last  freed  the  merchants  of  Swedes 

from  the  commennal  yoke  of  the  Lubeckers, 

as  he  had  previously  freed  the  country  b^ 

the  politicid  yoke  of  Denmark.     And  in  1651 

a  commercifd  treaty  between  England  and 

Sweden  marks  the  beginning  of  a  trade  that 

ultimately  became  important,    l^e  genenl 

leaning  of  Sweden  to  France,  however,  nade 

really  cordial  political  intercourse  impossihle. 

Half-mad  King    Eric's  proposal  to   maxir 

Queen  Elizabeth  (1560)  must  not  be  takeo 

too  seriously.    Charles  IX.  sought  in  1599 

the  alliance  of  Elisabeth  and  her  mediatioo 

between  Sweden   and    Denmark.    Guatavvs 

AdolphuB  weloomed  Scottish  settlers  into  hii 

new  conunerdal  town  of  Gkythenbuig.   Bvt 

the  weak  and  uncertain  policy  of  Jamea  I- 

and  Charles  I.  determined  Guatavos  not  to 

embioU  himself  in  tha  Thirty  Tsms*  War 


Swo 


(.985) 


Swo 


until  he  had  found  in  Eichelieu  a  Btionger 
ally  than  the  English  kings.  Though  many 
Kngliflh  served  in  his  army,  and  Eng- 
lish subsidies  and  troops  were  slowly  doleid 
out  to  him  he  found  no  substantial  hdp  from 
England,  and  both  his  opposition  to  an  uncon- 
ditional .restoration  of  the  Elector  Palatine 
and  Charles  I.'s  desire  that  Germany  should 
be  freed fromforeign conquerors,  prevented  any 
close  relations  between  the  two  pieties.  Towards 
the  end  of  Christina's  reign,  England  and 
Sweden  drew  nearer  together,  as  is  shown  by 
Whitelocke'sfamous  embassy  in  1654,thetrea^ 
of  amity  concluded  by  him,  and  Christina's 
acceptance  of  Cromwell's  portrait.  Though 
Charles  X.  was  generally  supported  by  Eng- 
land in  his  Danish  war,  his  imexampled  suc- 
cess necessitated  the  union  of  England  and 
QoUand  to  force  on  him  a  peace  which  would 
prevent  his  obtaining  the  exdusive  possession 
>f  the  Sound.  A  common  corruption  and 
iependence  ou  France  united  England  and 
Sweden  under  the  minority  of  Charles  XI. 
[n  1667  both  countries  reversed  their  policy 
md  united  with  Holland  to  check  France  by 
he  Triple  Alliance.  This  wise  policy  was,  how- 
ever, not  pursued  again  until  after  1680,  when 
^Jharles  Al.  became  master  of  his  kingdom, 
nd  declared  against  France,  an  act  which 
ecured  his  friendship  with  the  England  of 
he  Revolution.  His  last  act  was  to  mediate 
t  the  Congress  of  Ryswick  (1697).  But 
Iweden  and  England  really  belonged  to  very 
ifferent  political  systems — ^a  fact  strongly 
lustrated  by  the  very  slight  connection  of 
harles  XII.  and  his  northern  wars  with 
le  'War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  raging 
lat  at  the  same  time.  Charles,  however, 
)und  on  his  return  from  Bender  that  the 
Hector  of  Hanover  had  seized  on  his  German 
achics  of  Bremen  and  Verden;  and  his 
ixiety  to  recover  these  was  one  strong 
lotive  for  his  union  with  Peter  of  Russia 
id  Alberoni  against  George  I.,  and  of  his 
hemes  to  restore  the  Pretender.  Hence 
ngland  welcomed  the  oligarchical  revolution, 
hich,  on  his  death,  rendered  Sweden  power- 
ss  for  nearly  two  generations.  During 
ese  *'  Times  of  Freedom"  the  English  and 
ussian  ambassadors  jointly  bribed  and  in- 
ig^iied  to  obtain  the  supremacy  of  the 
Gaps  "  over  the  "  Hats,"  though  events 
owed  that  the  Swedish  alliance  was  hardly 
>rth  its  cost.  Twice  the  ascendency  of  the 
•ench  party  involved  Sweden  in  war,  first 
ainst  £ngland  and  Russia  in  1741 — 43,  next 
ainst  Prussia,  the  English  ally  during  the 
ven  Years'  War.  The  failure  of  each  war 
itored  the  Caps  to  power.  At  last,  in  1772, 
istavus  III.,  with  French  help,  got  rid  of 
3  corrupt  oligarchy  of  placemen  that  was 
nost  a  parody  of  the  English  Whig  con- 
:;tion.  His  action  was  very  much  resented 
'EnglBLnd^  and  his  share  in  the  Armed 
lutrality  showed  that  he  had  become  anti- 
g^lish  in  policy. 


But  the  abandonment  by  the  younger  Pitt, 
of  the  old  English  policy  of  alliance  with 
Russia,  led  to  a  change  in  our  relations  with 
Sweden,  and  Gustavus's  vain  attack  on  Rus- 
sia (1788 — 90)  was  a  welcome  though  ineffec- 
tual help  to  Pitt's  plans.  At  the  end  of  his 
reign  Gustavus's  fury  against  the  French 
Revolution  brought  him  into  the  coalition 
against  France.  But  he  was  assassinated  in 
1792,  and  Gustavus  IV.,  though  in  1800  he 
joined  the  Armed  Neutrality,  in  1805  united 
with  Pitt  in  the  coalition  against  France. 
But  after  the  Treaty  of  Tilsit,  the  Russians 
deprived  him  of  Finland,  and,  having  offended 
the  English  general  of  the  forces  sent  to  his 
assistance,  he  was  compelled  to  resign  his* 
throne  to  his  undo  Charles  XIII.,  who  soiight 
by  adopting  a  French  marshal  as  his  heir  to 
appease  the  fiiry  of  Napoleon.  Nevertheless 
the  Crown  Prince — as  Bemadotte  was  now 
called — ^joined  in  the  alliance  which  dethroned 
his  old  master  in  1815.  Since  that  period 
Sweden  has  had  no  very  striking  direct 
political  dealings  with  England.  Her  com- 
mercial relations  have  for  the  last  two  cen- 
turies been  of  importance. 

GeyerandCarlgson,  QesehiehUvonSehvMien; 
Wliitelocke,  Swediih  BtnJbiiny:  Bonke,  HUU 
af  Eng.;  G«offrin,  Qtutav9  III.;  MefMnrt  of 
Charles  XlV,  Dunham,  Hiat.  o/Zfoncay,  Steed«n, 
and  Denmark ;  and  Otte,  Scandinavian  History, 
are  the  only  English  histories  of  Sweden. 

[T.  F.  T.] 

Sweyn,  Xinp;  of  Denmark  (d.  1014), 
during  the  lifetmie  of  his  father,  Harold 
Blaatand,  threw  off  the  Christianity  which 
had  been  forced  upon  him,  and  distin- 
guished himself  as  a  Viking  chief.  In  982 
he  made  a  great  expedition  to  England  and 
destroyed  Chester,  Southampton,  and  London. 
Again,  in  994,  tho  hopes  of  a  fresh  Danegeld 
brought  him  anew  to  England.  In  1002  the 
murder  of  his  sister  in  the  massacre  of  St. 
Brice's  Day,  gave  him  a  new  motive  of  hos- 
tility. At  last  he  succeeded  to  the  Danish 
throne,  and  led  a  great  national  invasion  of 
England  with  the  object  of  effecting  a  per- 
manent conquest.  All  the  Danelagh  sub- 
mitted at  once,  and  the  flight  of  Ethelred  to 
Normandy,  and  the  submission  of  the  West 
Saxons  made  him  practically  ruler  of  England 
(1013).  But  as  he  was  never  crowned,  the 
chroniclers  call  him  Sweyn  the  Tyrant.  His 
death  in  the  next  year  left  the  throne  open  to 
his  g^reater  son,  Canute. 

Freeman,  Norman  Conqunt. 

Sweyn  was  the  eldest  son  of  Godwin,  and 
in  1043  was  appointed  to  an  earldom,  which 
included  the  shires  of  Hereford,  Gloucester, 
Oxford,  Berks,  and  Somerset.  We  read  of 
his  wars  with  the  Welsh,  and  in  1046,  on 
his  return  from  one  of  these  expeditions, 
he  abducted  Eadgifu,  Abbess  of  Leominster. 
Being  forbidden  to  marry  her,  he  threw 
up  his  earldom  and  retired  to  Denmark.  In 
1048  he  made  overtures  to  Edward  for  the 


8wi 


(  9^  ) 


sestoration  of  his  earldom,  which  had  been 
diyided  between  Harold  and  Beom,  but 
hii  chances  of  pardon  were  destroyed  by  his 
treacherous  murder  of  Beom.  Declared  a 
nitkinff  by  the  anny,  he  escaped  to  Flanders, 
but  in  the  next  year  he  was  restored  to  his 
possessions  by  Edward.  In  1061  he  was 
outlawed  with  his  father,  and  once  more 
retired  to  flanders,  but  did  not  return  with 
Godwin.  "  The  blood  of  Beom,  the  wrongs 
of  Eadgifu  lay  heavy  on  his  spirit,"  a  pil- 
grimage to  the  Holy  Land  could  alone  expiate 
him  for  his  crimes.  Thither  he  went  bare- 
footed, and  on  his  return  "  breathed  his  last 
in  some  unknown  spot  of  the  distant  land  of 
^ykia." 

Freeman,  Norman  Ccnquat, 

Bwift,  Jonathan  {b.  1667,  d.  1745),  was 
bom  at  Dublin,  and  educated  there  at  l^Hmity 
College.  In  1688  he  was  received  into  the 
family  of  Sir  William  Temple,  to  whom  he 
was  related.  In  1696  he  was  ordained,  but 
soon  resigned  a  small  Irish  living,  and 
returned  to  reside  with  Temple.  During  his 
residence  with  Temple  began  his  mysterious 
connection  with  Hester  Johnson,  the  **  Stella  " 
of  his  Journal.  In  1699,  failing  of  promotion 
to  an  English  living.  Swift  went  to  Ireland 
all  chaplain  to  Lord'  Berkeley,  and  was 
scantily  rewarded  by  receiving,  not  the 
deanery  which  he  had  expected,  but  the 
living  of  Laracor,  in  the  county  of  Meath. 
Swift  began  his  political  career  as  a  Whig. 
In  1704  he  published  the  TaU  of  a  Tub^  a 
satire  on  the  corruptions  of  early  Christianity, 
and  the  results  of  the  Bef  ormation.  Tlie  BattU 
of  the  Books  (1704),  on  the  literary  dispute 
about  the  letters  of  Phalaris,  added  to  his 
reputation.  During  Anne's  reign  he  paid 
frequent  and  protracted  visits  to  England, 
and  became  closolpr  connected  with  the  lead- 
ing Tories.  During  the  last  five  years  of 
Queen  Anne's  reign  he  played  a  very  promi- 
nent part  in  English  politics  as  the  leading 
political  writer  of  the  Tories,  and  the  friend 
and  confidant  of  their  leader3.  He  was  on 
terms  of  the  closest  intimacy  both  with 
Harley  and  Bolingbroke,  and  attempted  to 
allay  the  quarrel  between  the  rival  statesmen. 
His  pamphlet,  The  Conduct  oftheAlliee^  was  of 
immense  service  to  the  Tory  party :  and  in  a 
paper  called  the  Bxaminer^  he  upheld  their 
course  with  seal,  and  supplied  the  ministry 
with  arguments.  In  1713  he  received  the 
deanery  of  St.  Patrick's,  Dublin.  There  he 
is  thought  to  have  been  secretly  married  to 
Stella.  She  died  in  1728.  On  the  death  of 
Anne,  the  dean  retired  to  Dublin  a  disap- 

Sinted  man.  In  1724  he  wrote  the  Brapier 
ttert,  an  attack  on  the  monopoly  to  coin 
halfpence  which  had  been  granted  to  a  man 
named  Wood;  and  this  was  followed  by 
several  other  tracts  on  Irish  affairs  in  which 
the  treatment  of  Ireland  by  the  English 
government  was  satirised  with  unsurpassed 


power.    In  writing  of  Ireland  Swift  tii^aglit 

chiefly  of  the  English  colony  in  Ireland;  bot 

his  writings  made  him  the  idol  of  the  irhold 

Irish  people.    In  1726  appeared  his  gretttit 

work,  GuUiMT^e  TraveU,     It  is  a  aatiie  aa. 

mankind  with  contemporary  allusions.   Swift 

outlived  his  genius,  and  sank  into  idiotcj; 

the  last  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  tUxooet 

complete  mental  darkness.    Apart  from  hii 

literary  renown.  Swift  owes  his  position  in 

history  to  the  fact  that  in  his  writings  we 

have   the  Tory  view  of  politics  in  Qaeen 

Anne*s   reign   set   forth  with  the  greatest 

literary  skiU.     In  Irish  politics  ho  is  the 

typical    representative    of    the    Proteitaot 

ascendency  in  Ireland,  whose  attack  on  th£> 

English  government  prepared   the  way  iot 

Grattan  and  the  Volunteers  of  1779. 

Swiff ■  Works,  edited  by  Scott,  and  repob- 
liahed  1883;  Fofvter,  Life  of  SvUl,  wbieh  mi 
left  nnflniahed;  Craik,  llfs  of  Swi/l,  1862; 
Lecky,  lAoAMts  of  PvMio  CMntoii  m  IrdsiA; 
ICacaalaj,  foay  <m  Sir  YTtttiam  TempU ;  Bol- 
iogbioke,  Corrtsipondenes* 

Swing,  Captain.  During  the  agricultnnl 
outrages  of  the  year  1830,  which  had  their 
origin  in  the  increased  use  of  machinerj  for 
agricultural  purposes,  threatening  letters  were 
frequently  sent  to  thoso  proprieton  who 
made  use  of  machinery,  ordering  them  to 
refrain  from  doing  so,  and  threatening  notic«t 
were  affixed  to  gates  and  hams.  These  lettm 
and  notices  were  usually  signed  '^CapUin 
Swing,"  much  as  Irish  threatening  lettm 
are  signed  "  Rory  of  the  Hills."  This  nick- 
name was  used  in  order  to  identify  the  vaiioai 
documento  vrith  the  same  movement. 

Swinton,  Sm  John,  was  a  Scottish 
knitfht  who  fought  with  great  gallantry  at 
the  hattle  of  Homildon  Hill.  He  crosBed  over 
to  the  aid  of  France  with  the  Earl  of  Bnchis, 
and  was  present  at  the  hattle  of  Beaugi  (1421), 
where  he  unhorsed  the  Duke  of  Clarence.  In 
1424  he  was  killed  at  YemeuiL 

Switl&in  (Swithun),  St.  [d.  862),  was  a 
monk  of  Winchester,  of  which  see  he  became 
bishop  in  852.  He  was  one  of  the  chief 
ministers  of  Egbert  and  Eth^wulf ,  and  and 
of  the  instructors  of  Alfred,  whom  he  accom- 
panied on  his  journey  to  Rome.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  at  his  suggestion  that  Ethelwolf 
bestowed  on  the  Church  the  tenth  part  of 
his  lands. 

Swordsmaii  was  the  name  given  to  the 
able-bodied  Irish  who,  in  1652  were  allowed 
to  leave  their  country  and  enlist  abroad. 
Some  30,000  or  40,000  are  said  to  ha^^ 
availed  themselves  of  this  permission.  At 
first  this  was  only  a  private  airaiuFement 
between  the  Irish  leaders  and  the  Pnzitan 
generals  to  whom  they  surrendered.  Bat 
Parliament  legalised  their  capitulations  by  a 
special  Act ;  at  the  same  time  banishing  all 
officers,  while  allowing  them  to  enlist  moia 
recruits.    Spain,  France,  Austria,  and  Yeoiea 


( W) 


Tai 


took   advantage    of    this    opportunity   for 
itrengthening  their  forces. 

Fxoude,  BnglUh  im  It^and  ;  Lackj,  Hist.  o/Eng. 

Swynfordy  Cathsrinb  (</.  1403),  succes- 
Bively  governess,  mistress,  and  third  wife  to 
John  of  Gaunt,  was  the  daughter  of  Sir  Paon 
de  Bolt,  and  widow  of  Sir  Hugh  Swynford. 
From  her  are  descended  the  Beauforts,  and 
consequently  Henry  YU.  Her  marriage 
with  John  of  Gktunt  took  place  in  1396,  but 
all  her  children  were  bom  previously. 

Sydanliain,  Cuahlbs  William  Poulett 
Thomson,  Lord  (b.  1793,  d.  1841),  was  a 
merchant,  who  first  represented  Dover  (1826 
to  1830),  and  then  Manchester,  in  the  House 
of  Commons.  In  1830  he  entered  Earl  Grey's 
Reform  administration  as  Vice-President  of 
the  Board  of  Trade  and  Treasurer  of  the 
N'avy.  In  July,  1834,  he  became  President 
of  the  Board  of  Trade  and  resigned  with 
Lord  Melbourne's  ministry  in  November  fol- 
lowing. In  April,  1836,  he  resumed  that 
office  until  he  was  selected  to  replace  Lord 
Durham  in  Canada.  As  a  cabinet  minister 
bis  efforts  were  directed  to  amendment  of  the 
Custom  Laws  and  extension  of  our  foreign 
trade  by  a  more  liberal  policy.  On  Lord 
Seaton's  recall  from  Canada,  aBbc,  Thomson 
was  appointed  to  the  supreme  government 
of  Bri&h  North  America.  In  1840  he  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron  Sydenham  of 
Toronto. 


TablaSf  Thb,  was  the  name  given  to 
%  national  ooundl  in  Scotland,  formed  in 
L637  to  represent  all  those  who  objected 
bo  the  New  Service  Book,  and  other 
changes  which  the  Scottish  Council,  under 
>rder8  from  Charles  I.,  was  attempting 
}o  introduce.  It  was  virtually  an  extraordi- 
laiy  Parliament,  its  sixteen  members  being 
dected  equally  from  the  four  classes  of  nobles, 
larons,  clergy,  and  burgesses.  The  creation 
>f  the  Tables  was  san^oned  by  the  Privy 
!?ouncil  in  1637,  as  a  means  of  intercourse 
)etween  the  supplicants  (or  opposition,  which 
ncluded  the  whole  nation  amiost)  and  the 
ax}wn.  The  following  account  of  them  is 
^ven  in  Gk>rdon,  Scots  Affairs  : — **  These  six-* 
een  thus  chosen  were  constitute  as  delegates 
or  the  rest,  who  were  to  treat  with  the 
Council  thereafter  in  name  of  the  rest,  and 
o  reside  constantly  where  the  Council  sat. 
rhese  delegates  thus  constitute  were  appointed 
o  give  intelligence  to  all  quarters  of  the 
dn^om  to  their  associates  of  all  that  passed 
)etwixt  the  king,  the  Council,  and  them ;  to 
iorreopond  with  the  rest,  and  to  receive  in- 
elligenoe  from  them,  aiid  to  call  such  of  them 
rith  the  mind  of  the  rest  as  they  thought  ex- 
)edient."  The  CouncU  soon  discovered  that 
Q  authorising  the  creation  of  the  "Tables" 
hey  had  called  into  being  a  representative 


body  of  an  extremely  troublesome  uid  dan- 
gerous nature.  In  1638,  on  the  publication  of 
a  proclamation  of  the  king  exonerating  the 
bishops,  the  Tables  summoned  their  adherents 
to  meet  at  Stirling,  and  issued  the  famous  Pro- 
testation, declaring  the  "  king  to  be  deceived 
by  the  prelates,  and  to  be  personally  guiltiesB 
of  the  whole."  Shortiy  afterwards  they  is- 
sued the  Covenant,  compelling  persons  to  sign 
allegiancie  to  it  all  over  Scotland.  To  the 
Tables  is  due  the  organisation  of  the  Glasgow 
Assembly  of  1638,  and  the  indictment  of  the 
bishops  in  the  same  year.  It  was  the  Tables, 
moreover,  which  made  preparations  for  the 
war  that  broke  out  the  following  year. 
Oaxdiner,  Hut  ofBng,,  1608—1642, 


Thb  (1704),  was  the  nama 
given  to  a  pexty  of  zealous  Tories,  headed  by 
Nottingham,  who  proposed,  in  imitation  A 
a  plan  whidi  had  be^  resorted  to  in  the 
previous  reign  in  the  case  of  the  Irish  Re- 
sumption Bill,  to  tack  the  Occasional  Con- 
f ormiiT  Bill  to  the  New  Land  Tax  Bill,  <<  sa 
tha^  tne  peers  could  not  fling  out  the  pro> 
posal  of  intolerance  without  losing  the  pro- 
posal of  supply."  The  moderate  Tories,  how- 
ever, headed  by  Harley  and  St.  John,  voted 
against  them,  and  they  were  routed  by  261 
against  134  votes. 

Tahiti  Qiiestion,  1842--44.    In  Sept,. 

1842,  the  French  Admiral  Du  Petit  Thouara 
extorted  a  convention  from  Queen  Pomare,  by 
which  the  French  assumed  ^ssession  of  the 
island  of  Tahiti.  The  question  was  taken  up 
by  England  witii  great  vigour.  The  French 
government  professed  that  they  did  not  desire 
tile  annexation,  but  merely  tbe  protectorate  of 
the  island.  The  French  people  were,  however, 
most  indignant.  Popular  feeling  ran  high  in 
both  countries,  and  it  was  only  the  moderation 
of  the  governments  which  preserved  peace. 
In  1844  the  two  governments  were  once  more 
embroiled  by  the  indiscretion  of  the  French 
officials  in  Tahiti.  They  had  made  them- 
selves most  unpopular  in  Tahiti,  and  on  the 
night  of  the  2na  March  one  of  their  sentinels 
was  seized  and  disarmed  by  the  natives.  This 
was  made  the  pretext  for  seizing  and  im- 
prisoning Mr.  I^tchard,  British  consul,  and 
a  prominent  missionary,  who  was  peculiarly 
obnoxious  to  the  Koman  Catholics.  He  was 
only  released  on  the  condition  of  his  instantiy 
leaving  the  Pacific.    This  outrage  created  a 

frofound  indignation  in  England,  and  Sir  R. 
'eel  denounc^  it  in  Parliament  as  a  gross 
indi^dty.  After  some  months  of  negotiation, 
Sir  K.  reel  was  able  to  announce  that  the 
question  had  been  satisfactorily  settied,  and 
an  indemnity  given  to  Mr.  Pritchard. 

TailboiSf  Ladt  Elizabbth  Blottnt,  was 
the  daughter  of  Sir  John  Blount,  and  the 
wife  of  Sir  Gilbert  Tailbois,  at  one  time 
Qovemor  of  Calais.  She  was  one  of  Henry 
YIII.*s  fayourite  mistresses,  and  the  son  whont 


Val 


.(  988  ) 


Tal 


«he  bore  him  was  specially  distmgaished  by 
the  marks  of  his  father*s  regard,  hSng  created 
aikccessiyely  Earl  of  Nottingham,  and  Doke  of 
Bichmond  and  Somerset. 

Talavora,  The  Battle  of  (July  27  and  28, 
1809),  was  perhaps  the  most  important,  as  it 
certainly  was  one  of  the  most  hard-fought,  of 
the  earlier  battles  of  the  Peninsular  War.  The 
town  of  Taiavera  de  la  Keyna  stands  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Tag^s,  forty-two  miles  west 
of  Toledo,  in  a  small  plain,  which  is  bounded 
on  the  north  and  west  by  a  range  of  low  hills. 
Wellington  extended  his  line  along  these  hills 
and  occupied  an  old  ruined  bmlding,  the 
Casa  des  ISalinas,  in  the  plain,  while  Cuesta 
with  the  Spaniards,  who  composed  two-thirds 
of  the  alli^  army,  was  posted  in  front  of  the 
town  on  his  right.  Early  on  the  27th  the 
British  division  in  the  Casa  dee  Salinas  was 
enrprised  by  French  skirmishers,  but  was 
quickly  rallied  by  Wellington  in  person,  and 
withdrawn  to  the  hills,  where  they  formed  up 
behind  the  troops  already  posted  there.  Victor 
followed  up  his  advantage,  and  opened  a  heavy 
fire  on  the  position,  which  towards  evening 
was  suddenly  attacked.  The  (Germans,  who 
were  in  advance,  were  completely  surprised ; 
but  Donkin  in  the  rear  repulsed  the  attack. 
The  French,  however,  seized  an  unoccupied 
eminence  on  his  left,  from  which  they  an- 
noyed the  English  until  Hill  by  hard  fighting 
drove  them  from  it,  just  as  darkness  put  an 
end  to  the  fight.  At  dawn  on  the  28th  a 
violent  onslaught  was  made  on  the  English 
left,  but  the  French  were  driven  off  with  a 
loss  of  1,500  men.  Both  sides  rested  under 
the  scorching  heat  of  a  midsummer  sun ;  but 
the  English  were  very  short  of  supplies  and 
were  almost  starving.  In  the  afternoon  the 
French  renewed  the  attack,  and  fell  on  the 
British  right,  where  they  were  quickly  re- 
pulsed in  confusion.  Meanwhile  a  threatened 
attack  on  the  left  had  been  checked  by  a 
reckless  charge  of  the  dragons,  while  in  the 
centre  the  French  were  completely  defeated. 
The  English,  however,  were  too  much  ex- 
hausted to  pursue,  and  the  Spaniards  could  not 
be  trusted,  so  that  Wellington  only  achieved 
the  opening  up  of  a  safe  retreat.  He  had, 
however,  gained  a  reputation  which  was  of 
immense  \'alue  to  him.  "  This  battW,"  says 
Jomini,  *^  recovered  the  glory  of  the  suc- 
cesses of  Marlborough,  which  for  a  century 
had  declined.  It  was  felt  that  the  English 
infantry  could  contend  with  the  best  in 
Europe." 

Kapicr,  Peninsular  War ;  Clinton,  PenifMular 
War;  Alison,  SuA.  of  Europe. 

Tallage.  In  the  Pipe  Roll  31  of  Hen.  I. 
appears  a  iotcn  nidj  auxilium  btirgij  or  civittUiSf 
'^hich  seems  to  answer  to  the  Danegeld  in  Hie 
counties.  It  is  set  down  in  the  roll  among 
the  ordinary  receipts,  and  it  is  probable,  there- 
fore, that  it  was  an  annual  payment ;  but  how 
long  it  had  been  exacted  it  is  impossible  to 


I 


determine.  After  1 163  Banegeld  diaappesnd, 
but  its  place  was  taken,  as  far  as  the  towmasd 
demecne  lands  of  the  cro^pi  were  cODcenied, 
by  a  tax  described  loosely  as  donum  or  onut, 
but  to  which  the  term  tallage  came  later  to  be 
definitely  attached.  The  amount  to  be  paid 
by  each  county  and  town  was  assessed  by 
officers  of  the  Exchequer  in  special  ficcal  dr> 
cuits,  or  by  the  justices  in  eyre ;  in  the  tovm 
themselves  the  civic  authorities,  whoever  tbej 
may  have  been,  decided  how  much  each  dijiai 
was  to  pay — a  jx)wer  the  abuse  of  whicli  led 
to  the  rising  in  London  under  William  Fiti- 
Osbert.  As  the  king  had  the  right  of  talhg- 
ing  his  demesne,  so  &e  barons  had  the  ri^ 
of  tallaging  theirs ;  and  towns  frequently  de> 
dared  they  were  liable  to  the  royal  taSagmg 
in  order  to  escape  the  heavier  exactioni  d 
their  lords.  The  Exchequer,  however,  sac- 
ceeded  in  gaining  a  general  control  overtbeee 
seigneurial  tallages ;  special  permission  b^ 
came  necessary  before  an  imposition  could  be 
made,  and  when  escheated  baronies  were  r^ 
granted,  it  was  always  with  the  condition  tbat 
tallage  should  only  be  paid  to  the  lord  when 
the  king  taxed  his  own  demesne.  As  late  ai 
1305  the  king,  probably  to  prevent  opposition 
to  the  tallage  imposed  the  year  before,  gnmted 
leave  to  the  barons  to  taUage  their  own  aS' 
cient  demesnes  as  he  had  tallaged  his.  Tbe 
seigneurial  right  was  gradually  bought  off  br 
the  communities,  and  early  disappean.  In 
the  Confirmation  of  the  Charters  in  1297, 
Edward  I.  promised  only  to  renounce  **  aids, 
tasks,  and  prises,"  words  which  nought  fairly  be 
interpreted  not  to  include  tallage  from  demesne 
lands.  The  document  known  as  Jk  TalUpa 
nan  Coneedtndo,  in  which  the  king  expressly 
renounces  the  right  of  tallage,  and  which  has 
been  accepted  by  Hallam  as  tiie  basis  of  hit 
argument  on  this  point,  was  merely  an  nn' 
authoritative  abstract  of  the  original  articka. 
After  1297  tallage  was  demanded  three  times : 
in  1304,  in  1312 — ^when  it  was  objected  toby 
London,  not  on  account  of  illeguity,  but  on 
the  ground  that  the  metropolis  was  exempted 
from  such  payments  by  Magna  Charta— 
and  in  1332,  when,  upon  the  remonstrance  of 
Parliament,  the  commissions  were  withdrawn, 
and  a  tenth  accepted  instead.  Finally,  by  a 
statute  of  1340,  "  the  real  Act  'Be  Tallagwr 
it  was  enacted  that  the  nation  should  no  more 
"  make  any  common  aid  or  sustain  charge" 
but  by  consent  of  Parliament — words  wide 
enough  to  include  all  unauthorised  taxatioD. 
After  this  date  it  was  never  exacted,  thongb 
until  the  end  of  the  reign  the  Commons  were 
uneasy,  and  occasionally  petitioned  that  it 
might  not  be  imposed. 

Tallage  was,  as  Gteeist  observes,  a  natoni 
product  of  feudalism.  As  military  serrice 
became  the  burden  of  a  particular  class,  it 
seemed  equitable  that  those  who  were  exempt 
should  contribute  by  taxation  to  the  nations! 
defence.  Two  causes  contributed  to  ensnre 
for  the  tallaged  class  in  England  more  ooo- 


Tal 


•(  989 }) 


Biasrate  treatment  tbAn  abroad.  In  the  first 
p2tice  the  fyrd^  or  national  militia,  had  been 
maintained,  though  partly  for  other  purposes, 
)o  that  the  taUaged  had  weapons  in  their 
tiands,  with  which  they  did  good  service; 
ind  secondly,  the  kings  frequently  promised 
lot  to  raise  the  amount  of  tallage  in  order  to 
^in  an  increase  oi  the  firma  hurgi, 

Madoz.Hwf .  o/£icH«ott«r  (1711).  p.480 ;  Stubbs, 
C<m>i.  Htst.,  I.  §  161,  n.  §  275  i  QnaiBt,  JEngluchtf 
Fer/(U«un9t  Q^t^kinYiU  (1882),  pp.  125. 172. 

[W.  J.  A.] 

Talmash,  Thomas  (d,  1694),  first  ap- 
)ears  as  in  command  of  the  Coldstream 
Guards  at  the  skirmish  at  Walcourt,  under 
ho  Duke  of  Marlborough.  He  served  under 
j-inkell  in  Ireland,  and  distinguished  him- 
elf  greatly  at  the  siege  of  Athlone,  and  at  the 
tattle  of  Aghrim.  When  the  notice  of  Par- 
iament  was  directed  to  Solmes^s  conduct  at 
he  battle  of  Steinkirk,  it  was  requested  that 
LIS  place  might  be  filled  by  Talmash,  who, 
text  to  Marlborough,  was  universally  idlowed 

0  be  the  best  ofi^cer  in  the  army.    He  fought 

inder  William  at  the  battle  of  Landen.    He 

ras  soon  afterwards  sent  in  conmiand  of  an 

xpedition  against  Brest.    The    design  was 

•etrayed  probably  by  Marlborough  to  James, 

rom  motives  of  personal  jealousy.     Accord* 

Qgly  when  Tabnash  attempted  to  land   he 

ras  received  by  a  terrible  fire  from  the  French 

roops,  and  received  a  mortal  wound,  "  ex- 

laiming   with  his  last  breath  that  he  had 

een  a  victim  of  treachery." 

LmudM^   Qa»ett0:   Maoaolay,    Hid,   cf  Eng.; 
Banke,  Sid,  of  Eng, 

Taadyf  James  Napfbh,  a  Dublin  trades- 
lan,  commanded  in  1782  the  Phceniz 
*ark   Artillery.    He  was  an    ardent    Irish 

patriot,"  and  as  early  as  1784  began  to  cor- 
3spond  with  France.  He  became  a  member 
f  the  Whig  Club,  and  in  Nov.,  1790,  was 
?cretary  to  the  United  Irishmen.  In  the  year 
792  he  had  the  audacity  to  challenge  the 
olicitor-G^neral ;  he  was  arrested,  escaped, 
ad  re-arrested  the  day  before  the  close  of 
le  session,  so  that  he  was  only  in  prison  for 
day.  In  1 793  he  went  over  to  America,  but 
as  in  France  in  1797,  where  he  represented 
imsolf  as  an  officer.  In  1798,  he,  together 
ith  some  other  Irish  rebels,  followed  Hum- 
ert  in  a  small  vessel,  but  did  not  arrive  in 
reland  till  after  the  defeat  of  the  French  at 
•aUinamuck,  and  at  once  fled  and  reached 
[amburg  in  safety.  On  Nov.  24th,  however, 
e  was  delivered  up  to  the  English.  France 
^rwards  declared  war  on  Hamburg  on  his 
:;count.  He  was  tried  in  Ireland,  but  was 
lought  much  too  contemptible  to  be  made  a 
uurtyr  of,  and  was  liberated  after  the  Peace 

1  Amiens  (1802). 

Tanifiera.  a  seaport  of  Morocco,  was 
ikon  by  the  Portuguese  from  the  Moors  in 
471,  and  ceded  by  them  to  England  in  1662 


as  the  dowry  of  Catherine  of  Bragansa  on 
her  marriage  with  Charles  II.  Colonel  Kirk& 
was  placed  in  command  of  the  garrison.  It 
was  evacuated  by  the  English  in  1683,  on 
account  of  the  badness  of  the  climate  and  the 
expense  of  the  wars  with  the  Mussulmans, 
and  the  works  were  destroyed.  Tangiera 
subsequently  became  a  nest  of  pirates,  wha 
frequently  enslaved  British  subjects,  and 
whom  our  government  was  not  ashamed  to- 
subsidise  in  order  to  keep  them  quiet.  During^ 
the  reign  of  Soliman,  however  (1794 — 1822), 
Christian  slavery  was  abolished  and  piracy 
suppressed. 

Tanistiyp  The  Custom  of,  was  partly  a 
system  of  landholding  and  partly  a  law  of 
succession.  Under  the  Brehon  code  the  land 
was  regarded  as  belonging,  in  the  first  in^ 
stance,  to  the  people  or  tribe  from  whom  the 
chief  held  it  m  trust.  He  held  a  portion  of 
it  as  private  property  in  virtue  of  his  rank  aa 
a  noble,  had  a  life  interest  in  a  second  portion 
in  virtue  of  lus  office,  while  he  possessed 
jurisdiction  over  the  land  of  the  commune. 
This  peculiar  kind  of  tenure  was  called 
tanditteaet  or  tanistry,  but  the  word  waa 
more  generally  applied  to  the  form  of  success 
sion  by  which  the  eldest  and  worthiest 
relative  was  preferred  to  the  eldest  son,  "  aa 
commonly  the  next  brother  or  next  cousin, 
and  so  forth."  The  idea,  of  course,  was  that 
a  man  of  mature  vears  would  be  able  to  resist 
aggression  and  administer  affairs  better  than 
a  minor,  but  as  in  practice  it  produced  endless 
civil  quarrels,  it  became  customary  for  the 
people  of  the  tribe  or  sect  to  elect  tne  succes- 
sor {tanaitie  minor  or  second)  in  the  time  of 
the  ruling  chief.  This  law  of  inheritance 
obtained  among  the  noble  class,  all  the  pro- 
perty of  the  iijerior  orders  being  held  under 
the  law  of  gavelkind  (q.v.).  It  was  from  Uie 
first  ignor^  by  the  English  invaders,  who 
attempted  to  introduce  primogeniture ;  Strong- 
bow,  for  instance,  claimed  the  kingdom  of 
Leinster  on  the  ground  of  his  marriage  with 
Dermot's  only  child,  Eva.  But  the  native 
Irish  clung  tenaciously  to  the  custom,  and 
their  rights  were  acknowledged  more  than 
once  by  the  English  kings.  Henry  III.  tried 
to  abolish  it,  but  without  success,  and  thence 
the  O'Neil  troubles  arose.  Soon  after  the 
accession  of  James  I.,  however,  in  1603,  after 
a  commission  had  been  held  to  inc^uire  into 
defective  titles,  tanistry,  together  with  gavel- 
kind, was  abolished  by  a  decision  of  the 
King's  Bench  in  Dubun  as  a  *'lewd  and 
damnable  custom."  A  variation  of  the  law  of 
tanistry  may  be  seen  in  the  curious  system  of 
alternate  succession  by  which  two  branches  of 
a  race  shared  the  kingship,  e.g.j  the  kingship 
of  Munster  by  the  McCarthys  and  O'Briens. 

Sir  John  Davies,  Com  of  Gavelkind  ;  Spenoer, 
Vimot  of  ili»  SlcJt9  of  Irtland;  O'Currr,  Kann^rt 
and  Ciwtonu  of  tH«  Ancient  Irith ;  Maine,  VUlago 
Communiti99f  Hallam,  Hut.  of'Ekg.,  iii.,  oh.  18; 
Walpole,  Rid,  of  IriA  ^oiion,      [L.  C.  S.] 


(990  ) 


Van 


Tanjore,  The  Statb  op,  was  founded  in  the 
middle  of  the  Beventeenth  century  by  Shahjee, 
the  father  of  Sivajee.  Jn  1769  it  became 
involved  in  hostilities  with  Madras  in  conse- 
quence of  a  quarrel  with  Mohammed  Ali  of  the 
Gamatic.  The  country  was  quickly  subdued 
■and  the  rajah  imprisoned  and  the  soveteignty 
transferred  to  Mohanmied  AIL  The  (^urt 
of  Directors,  however,  disapproved  of  this, 
and  ordered  that  the  rajah  should  be  restored. 
In  1780,  therefore.  Lord  Pigot,  Qovcmor  of 
Madras,  was  ordered  to  restore  him,  and 
-establish  a  Resident  at  his  court.  In  1786,  on 
the  death  of  the  Rajah  Tulfogee  (who  left  an 
adopted  son,  Serfogee),  a  dispute  arose  as  to 
the  succession.  It  was  asserted  that  Tulfogee 
was  in  a  state  of  mental  incapacity  at  the 
time  of  adoption,  and  that  Serifogee  was  an 
•only  son,  and  therefore  the  adoption  was  in- 
vabd.  Ameer  Singh,  half  brother  of  Tulfogee, 
was  placed  on  the  throne.  Serfogee  continued 
to  press  his  claim,  and  the  misg^vemment 
of  Ameer  Singh  induced  Sir  John  Shore  to 
submit  the  matter  to  the  most  renowned  pun- 
dits, and' they  declared  the  adoption  perfectly 
valid.  The  directors  thereupon  ordered  Lord 
Wellesley  to  place  him  on  the  throne  on 

•  condition  that  he  should  accept  any  arrange- 
ment the  government  might  think  fit.    After 

-an  exhaustive  report  of  the  condition  of 
Tanjore,  Lord  Wellesley  assumed  the  entire 
admmistratit>n  of  the  country  (1800),  giving 
the  rajah  a  liberal  pension. 

Tanlcarvillev  Fokd  Gbey,  Earl  of 
(d.  1701),  better  known  as  Lord  Grey  of 
Wark,  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  debates 
-of  1681  as  a  most  zealous  Exclusionist ;  and 
for  his  supposed  share  in  the  design  for  in- 
surrection was  committed  to  the  Tower,  but 
escaped  by  making  his  keepers  drunk.  He 
fled  to  the  Continent  (1682).  There  he  em- 
ployed his  influence  on  his  friend  the  Duke 

•  of  Monmouth  to  urge  him  to  invade  England. 
He  landed  at  Lyme  with  Monmouth,  and 
was  appointed  commander  of  the  cavalry.  He 
was  driven  from  Bridport  by  the  militia.  He 
dissuaded  Monmouth  from  abandoning  the 
enterprise  at  Frome.  At  the  battle  of  Sedge- 
moor  his  cavalry  was  easUy  routed  by  &e 
royal  troops,  chiefly  it  is  said  because  of  his 
pusillanimity.  He  fled  with  Monmouth,  and 
was  taken  in  the  New  Forest.  In  his  inter- 
view with  the  king  he  displayed  great  firm- 
ness, and  would  not  stoop  to  ask  for  pardon. 
He  was  suifered  to  ransom  himself  for  £40,000 
and  went  abroad.  He  returned  to  England 
with  William  of  Orange,  and  attempted  to 
redeem  his  character  by  taking  an  active 
share  in  politics.  In  1695  he  was  created 
Earl  of  Tankerville.  He  supported  the  Asso- 
ciation Bill  in  a  brilliant  speech,  and  also 
spoke  in  favour  of  the  bill  for  Fenwick's 
attainder.  He  vigorously  opposed  the  bill 
;for  disbanding  the  army  (1699).  His  poli- 
tiQal  services  were  rewarded  by  the  office  of 


Lord  Privy  Seal  (1701).    But  his  health  ni 

broken,  and  later  in  the  year  he  died.   '^Hii 

life,"  says  Macaulay,  *'  was  so  miserable  thit 

all  the  indignation  excited  by  his  fioltiiB 

oveipowered  by  pity.** 

Burnet,  Hut.  of  hU  Own   Timt;  Ibtaakj, 
Hiut.  (^Bng.i  Banke,  Riat.  qfBag. 

Tantallon  Castle,  in  Haddingtooshiie, 
the  stronghold  of  the  Douglases,  was  sacces- 
fully  defended  (1628)  agunst  James  Y.  Irf 
the  Earl  of  Angus,  who  bad,  howerer,  snm 
afterwards  to  seek  an  asylum  in  England.  It 
was  destroyed  by  the  Covenanters  in  1639. 

Tantia  Topee,  a  Mahratta  Brahmin  of 
the  revolted  Gwalior  force  (1857).  He  took 
the  command,  and  on  Nov.  28  encoimtend 
General  Windham  at  Cawnpoor  with  wdc 
success.  In  18o8  he  nuunched  to  the  relief  of 
Jhansi,  but  was  routed  at  the  Belwah  by  Sir 
Hugh  Rose.  Joined  by  the  Ranee  of  Jhass 
he  concentrated  his  forces  at  Eooneh,  but  ve 
beaten  utterly.  He  then  proceeded  to  Gvalt:* 
and  excited  an  insurrection  against  Scindk 
He  was  beaten  again  by  Sir  BL  Rose  ouUiv 
Gwalior,  but  escaped,  and  waged  a  predatsj 
war  for  some  time.  His  hiding-place  ^ 
however,  betrayed ;  he  was  seized  when  sska 
(April  7,  1859)  in  the  jungle  in  Halin,i9^ 
he  was  tried  and  executed. 

Tara,  Tm  Hill  of,  situated  in  Mei&. 
was  in  ancient  days  the  residence  of  the 
Kings  of  Tara.  Near  here  on  May  26,  ITSi 
Lord  Fingal,  with  some  400  fendbies  iod 
mounted  yeomen,  routed  several  thooaands  of 
Irish  rebels,  killing  350.  Here,  too,  on  Aag. 
15,  1843,  Daniel  &Connell  held  a  monster 
meeting  in  support  of  Repeal,  said  to  U^ 
been  attended  oy  250,000  people. 

Tara,  Kings  of.  Till  the  seventh  ttotmr 
the  Ard  Ei  Erind,  or  high  king  of  Erin,  re 
sided  in  the  palace  of  Tara.  The  kingdom  d 
Meath,  in  which  it  was  situated,  formed  B 
appanage.  After  the  overthrow  of  tbf 
Hui  Niells  by  Brian  Bom,  the  positi<m  ^ 
King  of  Tara  was  held  by  one  or  another  oj 
the  provincial  kings ;  it  resembled  that  a. 
the  Anglo-Saxon  Bretwalda.  Under  thii 
over-king  there  was  a  complete  hierarciy 
of  provincial  kings,  princes,  and  nobles.  Tht 
nature  of  the  relations  of  these  classes  tosii 
other  was  in  most  cases  of  the  same  sfaadoiry 
nature  as  the  overlordship  of  the  King  ^ 
Tara. 

Taemania.    [Austkalia.] 

Taunton  was  in  all  probability  a  Boman 
station.  It  was  of  considerable  impoitmce  to 
the  kingdom  of  Wessex ;  Ina  built  «  ca«tk 
there,  and  it  was  more  than  once  attacked  K 
the  Welsh.  After  the  Conquest,  the  castk 
was  rebuilt  by  the  Bishops  of  Winchcstfr, 
to  whom  the  town  and  manor  were  gwated. 
It  first  returned  a  member  to  Parliament  m 
1295.  Taunton  was  held  for  some  tirof  c?* 
the  pretender  Warbeck,  and  during  the  (>«•* 


(991) 


Rebellion  Bustaiaed  a  long  fdege  under  Colonel 
Blake  against  the  Royalists  under  Goring, 
until  relieved  bv  Fairfax.  Jeffreys  held  his 
*^  Bloody  Assise  "  at  Taunton  after  the  failure 
of  Monmouth's  rebellion,  the  duke  having 
previouBlv  been  proclaimed  king  there.  The 
charter  of  the  borough,  which  was  granted  to 
it  by  Charles  I.,  was  taken  from  it  by  Charles 
II.,  and  it  remained  unincorporated  until 
after  the  Municipal  Reform  Act  of  1835. 

[A.  L.  S.] 
Taxatioii.    In  Anglo-Saxon   times  the 
Witan  alone  had  the  power  of  imposing  ex- 
traordinary taxation — a  power   which  was, 
however,  rarely  used,  as  the  public  expendi- 
ture was  amply  defrayed  bv  the  rents  of  the 
public  lands  and  by  ttie  obligation  of  trinoda 
neceasitM.    The  only  instance  of  extraordinary 
taxation  before  the  Norman  Conquest  was 
the  Danegeld,  a  tax  of  two  shillings  on  every 
hide  of  land,  levied  to  buy  off  the  attacks  of 
the  Danes ;  this  tax  Continued  to  be  occasion- 
ally levied  down. to  the  reign  of  Henry  II., 
and  under  Richard  was  revived  under  the 
name  of  carucage.     After  the  Norman  Con- 
quest, the  ordinary  revenue  proved  far  too 
small  for  the  wants  of  the  king,  and  as  a  con- 
sequence we  find  the  finance  of  the  country 
occupying    much    of   the   attention   of  the 
executive,  whilst  by  degrees  it  was  found 
necessary  to  increase  extraordinary  taxation 
to  a  very  large  extent.    Up  to  the  reign  of 
Henry   II.    ti^e   indirect    taxation    of    the 
country,  such  as  customs,  was  ummportaut, 
while  the  extraordinary  taxes,  such  as  the 
Danegeld  and   scutage,  fell  only  on  land. 
In  1188,  however,  an  important  innovation 
was  introduced  in  the  Saladin  Tithe,  or  the 
first    tax    on   movables.  ,  This  tax  became 
very  popular  with  succeeding  kings.    Under 
Iticluu:a  I.,  one-fourth  of  their  goods  was  de- 
manded from  every  one;  John  levied  one- 
seventh;  and  subsequent  kings  usually  one- 
fifteenth.    The  imposition  of  taxes  under  the 
Norman  kings  had  been  practically  at  the 
<will  of  the  king,  though  the  consent  of  the 
barons  was  often  asked  as  a  matter  of  form, 
and  the  exaction  grew  so  heavy  that  a  clause 
in    Magna    Charta   provided   that    no    ex- 
traordinary scutage  or  aid  should  be  imposed 
by  the    king   without    the    consent  of  the 
national  council.    The  growth  of  representa- 
tion is  closely  connected  with  the  histor}'^  of 
taxation,  and  it  early  became  a  recognised 
principle  that  the  votes  of  those   who  were 
present  bound  those  who  were  absent ;  whilst 
the  idea  that  taxation  required  the  consent  of 
the  taxed,  which  grew  up  after  it  became 
customary  to  tax  movables,  made  it  necessary 
to  summon  to  Parliament  the  burgesses  and 
clergy  as  well  as  knights  and  barons.    I'he 
fact  that  we  often  find  the  different  classes  in 
the  kingdom  making  grants  of  different  rates 
ie  the  result  of  the  "  right  of  self-taxation 
being  recognised  to  the  extent  of  each  class  of 
the    community  determining,  independently 


of  the  rest,  what  amount  it  would  contribute. 
The  lords  made  a  separate  grant.  The 
knights  voted  their  own  quota,  and  the  bur- 
gesses theirs,  while  the  clergy  decided  for 
themselves  the  amount  of  their  taxation. 
The  Confirmation  of  the  Charters  by  Edward  I. 
declared  that  henceforth  no  extraordinary 
tax  should  be  levied  without  the  consent  of 
the  whole  kingdom,  and  a  hke  promise  was 
made  in  the  statute  Ih  Tallagio  non  Con- 
cedendo  (1297).  From  this  time  the  eX" 
elusive  nght  of  Parliament  to  impose  tax- 
ation, though  often  infringed  by  the  illegal 
exercise  of  prerogative,  became  an  axiom  of 
the  constitution.''  In  spite  of  this,  however, 
Edward  lU.,  in  the  face  of  repeated  remon- 
strances from  the  Commons,  frequently 
resorted  to  arbitrary'  taxation,  whilst  Richard 
II.  raised  forced  loans ;  but  under  the  Lan- 
castrian kings  we  find  but  few  cases  of  illegal 
imposts.  From  Richard  II.  the  old  taxes 
of  hidage,  scuta^,  and  tallage  were  re- 
placed by  subsidies.  A  tax  imposed  upon 
persons  m  respect  of  the  rejputed  value  of 
their  estates  in  1379 — 80,  the  imposition  of  a 
graduated  poll  tax,^  ranging  from  £4  to  4d., 
proved  the  immediate  cause  of  Tyler's  re- 
bellion. Soon  after  this  time  it  became 
customary  to  make  a  grant  to  each  king  for 
life  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign.  This  grant, 
under,  the  name  of  tonnage  and  poundage, 
continued  to  be  made  until  the  time  of 
Charles  I.  The  frequent  demands  for  money 
b^  Heiu'y  VII.  and  Henry  Till,  caused  great 
dissatisfaction  to  the  people.  *' Taxat^m,*' 
says  Hallam,  "  in  the  eyes  of  their  Bubject9 
was  so  far  from  being  no  tyranny  that  it 
seemed  the  only  species  worth  a  complaint," 
and  in  1526  the  arbitrary  exactions  of  Wolsey 
paved  the  way  for  his  downfall.  Up  to  1588 
it  had  been  usual  for  the  Commons  to  vote 
one  subsidy  (£70,000)  and  two-fifteenths  on 
goods;  but  in  that  year  two  subsidies  and 
four-fifteenths  were  granted,  owing  to  the 
expense  occasioned  by  the  Spanish  Armada, 
and  from  that  date  a  larger  number  of  sub- 
sidies were  granted.  The  financial  difiiculties 
of  the  Stuarts  led  them  to  resort  frequentiy 
to  illegal  imposts.  In  1608,  under  James  I., 
Cecil  caused  a  Book  of  Jtatet  to  be  issued, 
which  laid  heavy  duties  on  merchandise,  while 
the  extortions  of  Charles  I.  led  to  the  first 
article  in  the  Petition  of  Right,  which  pro- 
vides that  '*no  person  from  thenceforth  shall 
be  compelled  to  make  any  loans  to  the  king 
against  his  will,  as  having  inherited  this 
freedom,  that  he  should  not  be  compelled  to 
contribute  to  any  tax,  tallage,  aid,  or  other 
like  charge  not  set  by  common  consent  in 
Parliament."  Taxation  under  the  Common- 
wealth was  heav}%  and  on  the  abolition  of 
feudal  incidents  and  aids,  excise  and  customs 
duties  and  hearth-money  were  granted  to  the 
king  as  compensation.  In  this  reign,  too^ 
the  control  of  the  Commons  over  taxation  was 
much  increased  by  tha  introduction  of  the 


Tay 


(  992) 


T«i 


custom  of  appropriation  of  supplies,  while 
at  the  same  time  the  Lower  Mouse  estab^ 
lished  their  right  of  initiating  all  money 
bills.  In  the  roign  of  Charles  II.  the  clergy 
ceased  to  tax  Uiemselves  in  Convocation. 
James  II.  once  more  resorted  to  illegal  and 
arbitrary  taxation,  and  as  a  consequence  the 
Bill  of  Rights  declared  that  the  king,  amongst 
other  things,  had  endeavoured  to  subvert  the 
liberties  of  the  kingdom  **  by  levying  money 
for  and  to  the  use  of  the  crown  bv  pretence 
of  prerogative,  for  other  time  and  m  other 
manner  tiian  the  same  was  granted  by  Parlia- 
ment,'* which  was  illegal.  From  the  reign  of 
William  III.  the  customs  and  excise  duties 
gradually  increased,  while  in  1690  a  land  tax 
of  3s.  in  the  pound  was  imposed,  and  renewed 
annually.  Windows,  dogs,  horses,  and  other 
things  were  taxed.  In  1796  the  legacy  duty 
on  personal  property  was  imposed  by  "Mr, 
Pitt,  the  real  proper^  tax.  not  being  imposed 
till  1833;  and  two  years  later  the  same 
minister  taxed  all  incomes  over  £200.  This 
tax  was  discontinued  in  1816,  but  renewed  by 
Sir  Bobert  Peel  in  1842,  since  which  time  it 
has  continued  to  be  levied,  the  rates  being 
varied  oy  Parliament  from  time  to  time.  In 
1851  the  window  tax  was  replaced  by  a  tax 
imposed  on  houses  in  proportion  to  their 
rental.  The  first  permanent  tax  was  hearts- 
money,  imposed  in  1663,  up  to  which  time 
taxes  had  been  granted  for  a  year,  or  other 
fixed  term,  as  occasion  demanded.  After 
the  Revolution,  however,  permanent  duties 
increased.  ^*  These  duties,"  says  Sir  Erskine 
May,  '*were  generally  granted  as  a  secu- 
rity for  loans,  and  the  financial  policy  of 
Sermanent  taxes  increased  with  the  national 
ebt,  and  the  extension  of  public  credit."  At 
the  present  day  the  power  of  taxation  remains 
as  it  was  in  the  days  of  Lord  Chatham,  who 
said — **  Taxation  is  no  part  of  the  governing 
or  legislative  power.  The  taxes  are  a  volun- 
tary gift  and  grant  of  the  Commons  alone." 
[Assessment;  Customs;  Excise;  Rates; 
Revenue.] 

Stabbs,  Cwt  Hist. ;   Hallam,  Cm^,  Hid. ; 
Maor,  CiyMi.  Hint. 

Tavlor,  Jeremy,  Bishop  of  Dromore, 
and  of  Down  and  Connor  {b,  1613,  d,  1667), 
after  being  educated  at  Oxford  was  made 
chaplain  to  Laud  in  1637,  and  in  1638  was 
appointed  rector  of  Uppingham.  Deprived 
of  his  living  by  the  reoellion,  he  retired  to 
Wales  and  opened  a  school  at  Caimarthen, 
and  afterwards  became  chaplain  to  the  Earl 
of  Carberry.  During  the  Protectorate  he 
was  twice  imprisoned,  in  Chepstow  Castle 
and  the  Tower.  In  1668  he  went  to  Ireland, 
and  in  1661  received  the  bishopric  of  Down 
and  Connor.  Taylor  was  tiie  author  of 
numerous  works  on  theology  and  morals, 
some  of  which  have  enjoyed  extraordinary 
popularity. 

Jeremy  Tavlor^s  WorjfB  were  edited  bgr  Biflfa(9 
Heber,  Vi  voIa.»  18S2» 


Taylor,  Rowland  (d,  Feb.,  LSoa),  vis 
vicar  of  Hadleigh  in  Suffolk,  to  which  liring 
he  was  presented  by  Archbishop  CranxDer  in 
1544.   He  was  condemned  by  Bishop  Gardiner 
and  a  tribunal  composed  of  the  Bisbope  of 
London,  Norwich,  Salisbury,  and  Dmiuun  for 
his  Protestantism ;  and  on  refusing  to  recant 
was  burnt  at  Hadleigh,  Feb.  8, 1555.    Foxe, 
who  gives  an  affectmg  account  of  Taylor*» 
martyrdom,  says  of  him,  that  **  he  was  a  right 
perfect  divine  and  parson." 
Foxe,  AtU  axkd  X<miim«iifs. 

Tea  DntieSy  The,  were  first  imposed  in 
1660.  In  1772  the  East  India  Compaiiy, 
being  in  pecuniary  difficulties,  were  allowed  br 
Parliament  to  export  their  teas  from  London 
warehouses  to  America  free  from  English 
duties,  and  liable  only  to  a  small  duty  to  be 
levied  in  the  colony.  Although  b^^  thii 
arrangement  the  colonists  got  theu  tea 
cheaper  than  they  would  otherwise  have  done. 
they  looked  upon  it  as  a  mere  bribe  to  induce 
them  to  consent  to  the  right  of  England  to 
tax  America.  Accordingly  it  was  rGsolred  t<» 
resist  the  imposition  of  the  duty,  and  wk-s 
the  tea-ships  arrived  at  Boston  on  Dec,  I773> 
they  were  boarded  by  men  disguised  u 
Indians,  and  their  cargoes  thrown  overboari 
This  was  one  of  the  incidents  which  ulti* 
mately  led  to  the  American  War.  In  Eng- 
land the  East  India  Comjtany  retained  it» 
monopoly  until  1834.  In  1836  new  dotitf 
were  imposed ;  these  were  at  first  2s.  Id.  in  the 
pound,  but  they  were  reduced  to  Is.  5d  in  18d7» 
and  to  6d.  in  1865  ;  they  now  stand  at  4d. 

Tea-room  Party,  The  (1867).  On  April 

the  8th  a  meeting  was  held  in  the  tea-room 
of  the  House  of  Commons  of  between  loitr 
and  fifty  members  of  the  Liberal  party,  -^t 
this  meeting  it  was  decided  that  the  persons 
composing  it  should  unite  for  the  purpose  of 
limiting  the  instructions,  to  be  proposed  br 
Mr.  Coleridge  with  regard  to  the  powers  of 
the  committee  sitting  on  the  Reform  Bill, 
to  the  first  clause  of  his  resolution,  ys\afk 
applied  to  the  law  of  rating.  This  was  noti- 
fied to  Mr.  Gladstone,  who  consented  to  it 
Mr.  Disraeli  accepted  the  altered  resolutics. 
and  the  House  went  into  conmiittee  on  the 
bill.  Thereupon  Mr.  Ghuktone  gave  notice 
of  several  important  amendments,  which  Mr. 
Disraeli  declared  to  be  the  relinquished  in- 
structions in  another  fonn,  and  distinctly 
announced  that  if  they  should  be  earned  the 
government  would  not  proceed  with  the  bilL 
As  most  of  the  members  of  the  tea-room 
party  held  together,  the  government  tri- 
umphed by  a  majority  of  twenty-one  on  the 
first  division. 

Telographfl^TuBPuKCHABBOFTHs.  In 
1870  the  government  ventured  on  the  bola 
step  of  acquiring  possession  of  all  the  linea  « 
electric  telegraph  in  the  United  Kingdooi, 
and  "li^lring  the  cootrol  of  communication  hf 


Tem 


(  993  ) 


ilectricHy,  a  part  of  the  general  business  of 
he  Post  Office  (q.v.). 

Texnplaniv  The,  or  the  Order  of  Knights 
»f  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem,  was  a  military 
■eligious  order  of  knighthood  which  had  ito 
origin  in  1118  in  an  association  of  knights  for 
he  protection  of  pil^^rims  to  the  Holy  Land. 
They  did  good  service  in  the  Crusades,  for 
vhich  they  were  rewarded  with  ample  grants 
f  land  in  aifferent  countries — ^England  among 
he  rest.  After  the  final  conquest  of  Palestine 
»y  the  Mohammedans  the  Templars  returned 

0  Europe,  where  their  pride  and  licentiousness 
xcited  considerable  odium.  Philip  the  Fair 
f  France  determined  on  their  suppression,  and 
btainod  the  co-operation  of  his  son-in-law 
]dward  II.  In  England  the  order  was  sup- 
ressed  in  1308  without  the  great  cruelties 
raotiscd  in  France.  The  knights  were 
llowed  to  enter  monasteries,  and  their  pos- 
L*f«8ions  g^ven  to  the  Hospitallers,  or  Knights 
f  St.  John. 

TemplOf  RicHAKD  Grenyille,  Earl 
b.  1711,  <^.  1779),  was  the  elder  brother  of 
roorgc  Grenville,  and  was  elected,  in  173;!, 
y  the  help  of  family  interest,  to  represent 
le  town  of  Buckingham,  but  in  all  subse- 
uent  elections  was  returned  for  the  county. 
D  1752  he  succeeded  to  the  earldom,  and  four 
cars  later  Pitt,  who  had  married  his  sister, 
avo  him.  a  place  in  his  administration  as  First 
lOrd  of  the  Admiralty.  In  the  following 
.pril  ho  was  summarily  dismissed  by  the 
ing,  an<l  Pitt*s  dismissal  followed  within  a 
iw  days.  Pitt,  however,  was  recalled,  and 
ord  Temple  became  Lord  Privy  Seal,  which 
39t  he  retained  until  Pitt*s  resignation  in 
ct.,  1761,  when  ho  too  withdrew.  Lord 
emple  violently  attacked  Bute's  govem- 
icnt,  and  more  especially  made  himself  con- 
>icuous  by  the  very  open  support  which  he 
ive  to  Wilkes.  Like  many  other  peers,  he 
LCurred  on  this  account  the  king's  displea- 
ire,  and  was  dismissed  from  the  Lord 
ieutonancy  of  Bucks.  In  1766  he  broke 
ith  Pitt  on  the  question  of  the  Stamp  Act, 
ord  Temple  upholding  his  brother's  policy 
hilc  Pitt  was  bent  on  obtaining  its  repeal, 
nd  he  went  further,  by  refusing  to  accept 
Kco  under  Pitt  in  1766,  not  wishing  to 
)  "  stuck  into  a  ministry  as  groat  cypher." 
ot  content  with  his  own  refusal,  he  pro- 
eded  to  direct  a  fierce  paper  war  against 
.0  brother-in-law  whom  he  dared  not  en- 
•unter  in  the  House  of  Peers.  A  reconcilia- 
)n,  however,  took  place  between  "  the  three 
others  "  on  Lord  Chatham's  retirement  in 
'68»  But  Lord  Temple's  cherished  hopes  of 
family  cabinet  were  doomed  to  disappoint- 
ent.    His  brother  George  died  in  1770 ;  and 

the  same  year  Lord  North  began  his  long 
ign.     Thenceforth  Lord  Temple  took  but 

1  intermittent  interest  in  political  affairs, 
►w  and  then  actively  opposing  the  ministry. 
1  the  subject  of  reconciliation  with  America 

Hist.— 32 


he  took  the  same  view  as  Lord  Chathun, 
deprecating  any  thought  of  admitting  the 
independence  of  America.  But  his  last  gleam 
of  ambition  faded  with  Lord  Chatham's  death ; 
Lord  Temple  retired  to  Stowe,  and  in  the 
following  year  died  by  a  fall  from  his  horse. 
Lord  Temple  cannot  boast  a  high  reputation 
among  the  statesmen  of  George  III.,  nor  pro- 
bably would  he  have  occupied  any  niche  in 
history  at  all,  had  it  not  been  for  his  able 
brother,  and  still  abler  brother-in-law,  to  both 
of  whom,  at  different  times,  for  his  own  selfish 
ends,  he  acted  as  an  evil  genius.  **  It  was 
his  nature,"  says  Macaulay,  "  to  grub  under- 
ground. Whenever  a  heap  of  dirt  was  flung 
up,  it  might  well  be  suspected  that  he  was  at 
work  in  some  foul  crooked  lab3rrinth  below.' ^ 
Temple,  however,  was  certainly  a  man  of  de- 
cided ability.  He  has  been  suspected,  not 
without  some  reason,  of  being  the  author  of 
the  Lettert  of  Junitt^, 

GrtnviQs  Paptn;  Stanhope,  Hiri.  of  Eng.x 
Chatham  Correwpondmc^ ;  Maasey,  Hiat.  of 
Bng. ;  Macaulay,  Second  Essaj  on  Chatham. 

Temple,  Sir  William  {b,  1628,  d.  1699), 
was  the  son  of  Sir  John  Temple,  Master  of 
the  Rolls  in  Ireland,  and  after  being  educated 
at  Cambridge,  and  having  spent  some  years  in 
foreign  travel,  he  returned  to  Ireland,  becom- 
ing in  1660  a  member  of  the  Irish  Convention. 
In  1665  he  was  first  employed  on  diplomatic 
business,  being  sent  as  an  envov  to  the  Bishop 
of  Munster,  and  the  year  following  he  was 
appointed  ambassador  to  the  Court  of  Brussels, 
and  devoted  himself  to  endeavouring  to  form 
an  alliance  between  England  and  Holland. 
His  exertions  were  crowned  in  1668  by  the 
formation  of  the  Triple  Alliance  against 
France,  and  the  consequent  peace  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle.  But  the  policy  he  had  inaugurated 
was  short-lived,  and  the  Treaty  of  Dover  (q.v.) 
made  it  necessary  for  the  ministers  to  dismiss 
the  author  of  the  Triple  Alliance,  and  he  was 
relieved  of  his  office  m  1671.  On  the  fall  of 
the  Cabal  ministry  Temple  was  offered  by 
Danby,  who  became  Lord  Treasurer,  a  Sec- 
retaryship of  State,  but  he  refused  this,  and 
was  appointed  ambassador  at  the  Hague.  In 
1 675  he  took  an  important  part  in  the  Congress 
of  Nimeguen.  In  1679  Danby  was  impeached, 
and  sent  to  the  Tower,  and  Charles  looked  to 
Temple  as  the  only  man  who  could  help  him 
to  weather  the  storm  caused  by  the  Popish 
Plot.  Temple's  proposal  was  that  a  means 
should  be  adopted  for  including  all  parties  in 
the  government,  and  for  this  purpose  proposed 
that  the  existing  Vxrvy  Council  should  be 
dissolved,  and  that  a  new  Privy  Council  of 
thirty  members  should  be  appointed,  half  of 
whom  to  be  great  officers  of  state,  and  the 
other  half  independent  noblemen  and  gentle- 
men of  the  greatest  weight  in  the  country ; 
that  the  king  should  pledge  himself  to  govern 
by  the  constant  advice  of  this  body,  to  sxiffer 
ail  his  affairs  of  every  kind  to  be  freely  dilated 


Ten 


(  094  ) 


Tew 


there,  and  not  to  reserve  any  part  of  the 
public  busineas  for  a  secret  committee.  An 
attempt  was  made  to  carry  out  this  schemci 
but  it  was  soon  found  to  be  unworkable.  The 
council  was  too  large  for  practical  purposes, 
and  there  was  no  party  tie  to  oind  the 
members  together,  and  before  long  an  interior 
cabinet  was  found,  consisting  of  Temple, 
Halifax,  Essex,  and  Sunderland.  Temple 
himself,  however,  was  gradually  ousted  from 
the  debates  of  the  secret  committee.  In  1681 
he  retired  from  public  life,  and  devoted  him- 
self chiefly  to  literary  work.  His  chief  works 
were  his  well-known  £saays,  an.  Account  o/ths 
United  Provinces^  and  an  Eaaay  on  GovertnnetU. 
Lord  Macaulay  says — '*He  was  no  profound 
thinker.  He  was  merely  a  man  of  lively  parts 
and  quick  observation,  a  man  of  the  world 
among  men  of  letters,  a  man  of  letters  among 
men  of  the  world.  But  neither  as  a  writer,  nor 
as  a  statesman,  can  we  allot  to  him  any  very 
high  place."  Other  writers  have  formed  a 
higher  estimate  of  Temple,  whose  skill  as  a 
diplomatist  was  certainly  very  considerable. 

Temple,  Woria ;  Banke,  Kitt.  of  En,Q, ;  Mac- 
aulajf  o.ifl^'  of  Eng.  and  Essay  on  Temple. 

Tenant-riiflit,  The  Irish,  is  a  custom 
by  which  the  tenant  is  entitled  not  only  to 
compensation  for  unexhausted  improvements 
when  he  relinquishes  hid  holdii^,  but  by 
which  a  sum  is  paid,  sometimes  amounting  to 
as  much  as  the  fee-simple  of  the  land,  by  the 
incoming  to  the  outgoing  tenant  for  the 
goodwill  of  the  farm.  This  tenant-right, 
known  as  the  Ulster  custom,  was  legalised  by 
the  Land  Act  of  1870,  and  extended  to  the 
rest  of  Ireland  by  later  legislation.  It  is 
supposed  to  have  arisen  at  the  time  of  the 
plantation  of  Ubter  (q.v.),  th^  planters  re- 
fusing to  give  definite  leases  of  twenty-one 
years  to  their  English  and  Scotch  tenants, 
and  they  in  disgust  selling  their  interest  in 
the  holdings,  and  the  value  of  their  capital  to 
the  native  Irish — a  practice  which  was  in 
direct  contravention  to  the  spirit  of  the  settle- 
ment. Other  systems  of  tenure  which  obtain 
in  Ireland  ai^ :  the  cottier  system,  by  which 
tenants  bid  against  each  other  for  a  piece  of 
land,  no  fixity  of  tenure  being  recognised 
until  the  Act  of  1881 ;  and  conacre^  a  feudal 
survival,  by  which  land  is  granted  to  the 
tenant  rent-free  in  return  for  so  much  labour. 
(Land  Legislation,  Irish.] 

Tenchebraiy  The  Battle  op  (Sept.  28, 
1106),  was  fought  between  Henry  I.  and  his 
brother  Robert,  and  resulted  in  the  complete 
\-ictorj'  of  Heniy,  who  captured  and  impri- 
soned Robert,  and  annexed  Normandy  to  his 
dominions. 

Tenterden,  Charles  Abbott,  Lord 
(b,  1762,  d.  1832),  was  the  son  of  a  hair- 
aresser.  He  was  educated  at  King's  School, 
Canterbury'',  and  at  Corpus  Christi  College, 
Oxford,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1795. 


His  treatise  on  the  Zato  of  Merchant  bktfi 
and  Seamen  (1802]  was  recognised  as  the 
standard  work  on  its  subject.  Owing  to  tbe 
weakness  of  his  health  he  refused  a  seat  on 
the  bench  in  1808,  but  in  1816  he  was  nudei 
puisne  jud^e  in  the  Common  Pleas.  Is  ISIS, 
on  the  retirement  of  Lord  Ellenborougfa,  k 
became  Lord  Chief  Justice  of  the  Kingi 
Bench,  and  though  a  vigorous  Tory,  he  never 
allowed  his  political  sympathies  to  colour  his 
judgments.     He  was  raised  to  the  pcera^*  in 

1827. 

Campbell,  Liva  of  ih$  ChUf  JtuCieci;  Foa, 
Btogrc^hta  Jurtdtca. 

Tenure.    [Land  Tekvrb.] 

Test  Act,  The  (1673),  was  a  m&sm 
passed  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  and  vtf 
intended  to  excluae  from  office  the  Catholic 
councillors  of  the  king.  It  was  passed  at  the 
instance  of  Shaftesbur}'^  and  the  coimtiy 
party  after  the  king  had  been  compelled  to 
abandon  his  attempt  to  dispense  with  the 
penal  laws  against  Dissenters.  It  rcquirtni  &D 
persons  holding  any  office  of  profit  or  tntft 
under  the  crown  to  take  the  oaths  of  alk« 
giance  and  supremacy,  receive  the  sacrameol 
according  to  the  rites  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
lajid,  and  subscribe  the  declaration  again.4 
transubstantiation.  This  Act  was  directed 
against  the  Catholics,  but  was  equally  opot- 
tive  against  Dissenters.  One  consequence  cf 
it  was  that  Arlington  and  Clifford  had  to 
retire  from  office,  and  the  Duke  of  York  ws» 
obliged  to  resign  his  post  as  Lord  Higli 
Admiral.  It  was  not  repealed  until  182S. 
Banke,  Eiitt.  of  Eng. 

Test  Act,  The,  for  Scotland  (1681)  im- 
posed an  oath  which  was  made  compalsof^' 
on  all  government  and  municipal  ofiimls.  It 
declares  a  belief  in  "  the  true  Protestant  leli; 
gion  contained  in  the  Confession  of  Faith," 
and  disowns  *'  all  practices,  whether  popish  ci 
fanatic,  which  are  contrar}'  to  or  incondslest 
with  the  said  Protestant  religion  and  Con- 
fession of  Faith.'* 

Tewkesbiunr,  The  Battle  op  (Hay  4, 
1471),  was,  strictly  speaking,  the  last  battfe 
fought  in  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  for  tbe 
Battle  of  Bosworth  can  hardly  be  included 
in  those  wars.  Queen  Margaret  landed  ic 
England  the  very  day  that  Warwick  ^ 
defeated  and  slain  at  Bamet,  but  de»pit( 
this  severe  blow  to  the  Lancastrian  cause,  slu 
was  persuaded  by  Somerset  and  other  lords  of 
her  party  to  continue  her  advance.  She  had 
landed  at  WejTnouth,  and  at  first  marched 
westward  to  Exeter,  where  she  was  joined  bv 
reinforcements  from  Devon  and  Cornwall 
She  then  moved  eastward  to  Bath,  but  learn- 
ing that  Edward  was  marching  against  her, 
she  determined  to  march  to  the  north,  vhcrt 
the  chief  strength  of  the  LancasrriaM  lay. 
After  a  tedious  march  she  reached  Tewkes- 
bury on  May  3,  and  the  next  day  Edvaid 


Tew 


(  995  ) 


The 


,gave  battle.  The  LancaBtrians  were  utterly 
routed,  owing  in  no  small  degree  to  the 
treachery  or  folly  of  Lord  Wenlock,  who 
neglected  to  bring  up  the  reinforcements  in 
time.  Queen  Margaret  was  taken  prisoner, 
jind  her  son,  Prince  Edward,  either  f eU  in  the 
battle,  or,  more  probably,  was  put  to  death 
immediately  after.  The  Duke  of  Somerset 
•and  others,  who  had  taken  sanctuary,  were 
beheaded  two  days  after  in  the  market-place 
at  Tewkesbury.  This  decisive  battle  coming 
.80  soon  after  the  victory  of  Bamet  completely 
•established  Edward  IV.  on  the  throne. 

Warkworth.  Chronicle;  Hall,  ChronicUs, 

Tewkesbury  Chronicle.   The,  was 

compiled  by  more  than  one  luEtnd  during  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  kept  in  the  Abbey  of 
Tewkesbury,  whence  it  passed  to  the  Cotton 
collection  in  the  British  Museum.  It  begins 
with  the  death  of  Edward  the  Confessor,  and 
•ends  abruptly  in  1263.  The  first  part  is  very 
meagre,  and  it  is  not  until  after  1200  that  it 
becomes  adequate.  These  annals  are  chiefly 
concerned  with  monastic  events,  such  as  eccle- 
siastical suits,  but  the  war  between  Henry  III. 
^nd  the  Barons  is  treated  very  fully. 

The  Chronicle  has  been  pablished,  imder  the 
editorship  of  Mr.  Luard,  in  vol.  1.  of  the  AnnalM 
MonoKtici,  in  the  Bolls  series. 

Thanet,  The  Isle  of,  in  the  north-east 
of  Kent,  is  still  partly  surrounded  by  the  sea 
•and  the  river  Stour,  but  the  passage  called 
the  Wantsum,  which  formerly  separated  it 
from  the  mainland,  has  been  closed  since  the 
fifteenth  century.  It  was  called  by  the 
J3ritons  JRuifHf  or  the  headland.  As  might  be 
expected  from  its  position  the  island  has  fre- 
quently been  the  landing-phice  for  invaders 
of  England.  It  was  there  that  the  Teutonic 
heroes  Hengest  and  Horsa  are  paid  to  have 
disembarked  in  449,  and  it  was  the  landing- 

filace  of  more  than  one  Danish  invasion, 
ndeed,  those  buccaneers  seem  to  have  held 
part  of  the  is^nd  from  853  to  865,  and  it  was 
irequently  subject  to  their  raids.  Several 
parishes  in  the  isle  of  Thanet  formed  part  of 
the  Liberty  of  Dover. 

Thegn  ^^as  &n  Anglo-Saxon  title  bestowed 
•on  a  class  of  persons  who  were  inferior  to  the 
eorlcu  and  athel^  the  original  nobility  of  blood, 
though  superior  to  the  ordinar}'  landowners 
or  ceoris.  Phe  meaning  seems  to  be  originally 
equivalent  to  vtr,  miles;  the  word  does  not 
seem  to  be  connected,  as  has  been  often  sup- 
posed, with  dimen,  to  serve.  But  in  the 
earlier  times  the  thegns  were,  in  fact,  a  no- 
bility of  service,  and  it  is  scarcely  possible 
to  distinguish  them  from  the  king*s  getith* — 
that  is,  the  members  of  his  "  comitatus,"  or 
personal  following.  Gradually,  however, 
this  characteristic  of  the  thegn  is  lost  sight 
of,  and  he  is  a  landowner  having  a  larger 
quantity  of  land  than  the  ceorl — that  is,  five 
hides  and  upwards.  From  the  end  of  the 
ninth  century  we  scarcely  hear  of  the  geeith. 


The  word  thegn  comes  to  include,  on  the  one 
hand,  those  who  stand  in  ministerial  relation 
to  the  king ;  and  on  the  other,  those  who  are 
simply  limdowners,  having  the  necessar]^ 
qualifications,  whetiier  they  were  connected 
with  the  king  or  not.  In  met,  any  ceorl  who 
acquired  five  hides  of  land  became  "  thegn- 
worthy.'*  Among  the  thegns  themselves 
there  were  numerous  gradations  in  rank. 
The  "  kind's  thegn ''  is  superior  to  the  ordi- 
nary territorial  thegn;  and  it  would  seem 
that  the  possession  of  forty  hides  of  land  en- 
titled a  thegn  to  the  wergUd  and  status  of  an 
earl.  The  wergild  of  the  ordinary  thegn  was 
six  times  that  of  the  ceorl,  namely,  twelve 
hundred  shillings  instead  of  two  hundred. 
The  dignity  of  thegn  was  hereditary,  and  the 
*'thegn-bom"  are  a  semi-noble  class,  con- 
trastmg  with  the  "  ceorl-bom."  "  The  name 
of  thegn,*'  says  Bishop  Stubbs,  "  covers  the 
whole  class  which,  after  the  Conquest,  appears 
under  the  name  of  knights,"  and  thus  it  was 
that  many  of  the  thegns  passed  easily  and 
naturally  into  the  knightly  order  under  the 
Norman  kings. 

Stttbbs,  CoiMi.  Hut.,  ch.  vi. ;  Kemble,  Saxons 
in  Englcoid;  Sohmidt,  G«wtx«  d«r  An^^Sachatn, 

Thelnsscm's  Case  (decided  in  1858}, 
was  of  considerable  importance,  since  it 
settled  the  question  whether  testators  could 
dispose  of  tJieir  estates  so  that  the  income 
should  accumulate  and  form  a  large  fortune^ 
which  should  be  limited  in  favour  of  certain 
descendants.  The  litigation  arising  out  of 
the  will  of  ^Ir.  Thelusson  lasted  for  nearlv 
fifty  years,  and  eventually  the  House  of 
Lords  decided  that  trusts  for  accumulation 
were  legal.  However,  by  the  Act  39  and  40 
George  III.  c.  98  it  was  provided  that  incomes 
should  not  be  allowed  to  accumulate  in  this 
way  for  more  than  twenty-one  years. 

Theobald,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(1139—1161),  was  Abbot  of  Bee,  in  Nor- 
mandy, and  in  1138  came  over  to  England  at 
the  invitation  of  King  Stephen,  by  whose  influ- 
ence he  was  elected  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
His  authority  was,  however,  weakened  by  the 
fact  that  there  was  a  papal  legate  in  England 
at  the  time,  and  that  subsequently  Henry  of 
Blois,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  was  invested 
with  legatine  authority.  In  1148  Theobald, 
contrary  to  the  commands  of  Stephen,  attended 
a  papal  council  at  iUieims,  and  joined  in  de- 
posing William,  the  king's  nephew,  from  the 
Archbishopric  of  York.  In  1160  Theobald 
was  appointed  legate  by  the  Pope.  Throughout 
the  troublous  reign  of  Stephen,  Theobald 
remained  loyal  to  the  king,  and  strongly  advo- 
cated the  compromise  with  Henr^''  of  Anjou 
as  the  best  means  of  putting  an  end  to  anarchy 
and  bloodshed.  As  a  patron  of  learning 
Theobald  occupies  an  interesting  position,  and 
still  more  important  is  it  that  it  was  as 
his  secretary  that  Becket  first  came  into  pro- 
minence.   Theobald  was  not  a  man  of  marked 


TJbe 


(  996  ) 


Tho 


abilit}",    but   he    was   loyal,    generoua,  and 

earnest  in  strivmg  to  do  his  duty. 

William  of  MalmgiBbniy ;  Hook,  Idvn  of  iKe 
Ar€hJbuhop$, 

Theodore  of  TarsuB  (^.  603,  d.  690), 

Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (669—690),  was 
Greek  by  birth,  whom  Pope  Vitalian  selected 
for  the  see  of  Canterbury  on  the  death  of  the 
archbishop-elect,  AVighard,  at  Rome.  Theo- 
dore  is  an  important  personage  in  the  history 
of  the  English  Church,  for  he  it  was  who 
organised  the  Church,  developed  the  Epis- 
copal system,  and  drew  up  the  famous  Peni- 
tential, which  was  the  recognised  text-book 
of  confessors  for  many  years.  He  did  much 
to  encourage  learning,  and  was  the  first  to 
introduce  the  study  of  Greek  into  England. 
His  work  is  well  summed  up  by  Dean  Hook 
in  one  sentence — "He  converted  what  had 
been  a  missionary  station  into  an  established 
Church."  He  was  the  last  of  the  Roman 
bishops ;  henceforth  they  were  English. 

Bede,  EocHm,  Sui.;  Anglo-Saxon    ChronicU; 
Hook,  lAnn  of  i\e  ilrcAbwhopt. 

TheologioRl  Controversy,  Tub,  held 

in  Westminster  Abbey,  March,  1659,  was  tho 
name  given  to  a  discussion  nominally  intended 
to  settle  certain  questions  of  doctrine  and 
ritual ;  but  it  had  been  determined  beforehand 
by  the  Protestant  party  that  the  discussion 
should  be  in  their  favour,  and  that  no  decision 
should  be  arrived  at.  The  subjects  of  contro- 
versy were: — 

1.  The  use  of  prayer  in  a  tongue  unknown 
to  thepeople. 

2.  llie  right  of  local  churches  to  change 
their  ceremonies  if  tho  edification  of  l£e 
people  required  it. 

3.  The  propitiatory  sacrifice  for  the  quick 
and  dead  said  to  be  offered  in  the  mass. 

The  champions  of  Catholicism  were  Bishops 

White,  Baynes,  Scot,  and  Watson,  Archdeacon 

Langdale,  Chedsey,  the  chaplain  of  Bishop 

Bonner,  and  Harpsfeld.   The  Protestants  were 

Scory,  Grindal,   Coxe,  Whitehead,    Aylmer, 

Home,  Guest,  and  Jewel. 

Burnet,  Bsfovmaiion ;  Hook,  Lives  of  the  Arch- 
hiMho-pt, 

Theow  was  the  Anglo-Saxon  name  for  a 
slave.  There  were  various  kinds  of  slave*— 
the  bom  slave,  i.e.,  the  child  of  slave  parents ; 
the  captive,  often  a  Briton;  the  voluntary 
slave,  who  sold  himself  to  avoid  starvation ; 
the  man  who  was  sold  into  slaverv  because 
he  could  not  pay  his  debts,  or  the  fine  for  a 
breach  of  the  peace.  Nominally  the  slaves 
were  the  goods  and  chattels  of  their  lords, 
who  had  power  of  life  and  death  over  them ; 
they  had  no  legal  rights,  and  no  wer«rild. 
But  in  practice  the  theow  had  recognised 
rights.  He  was  entitled  to  regular  food  and 
holiday,  and  any  ill-treatment  of  him  by  his 
lord  was  punished  by  the  Church.  In  addi- 
tion to  this  he  might  purchase  his  own  freedom 
with  his  savings,  or  he  might  be  manumitted 
by  his  lord.    After  the  Conquest  the  slave- 


ohuB  ceases  to  exist,  and  is  merged  Tik 
the  lower  ceorl  into  the  general  das  d 
villeins. 

Kemble,   Th$  SaxonB  ta    England;  Stobbs,. 
Con»t.  Hist, 

Tliirlby,  Tuoxas  {d.  1570),  Bishop  of 
Westminster,  Norwich,  and  Ely,  one  of  the 
commissionerB  at  Gravelines  in  1546,  was  sent 
in  1553,  in  conjunction  with  Sir  Philip 
Hoby,  to  Brussels  on  a  mission  to  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.  Under  Mary  he  took  an  actire 
part  in  the  persecution  of  the  Beformets  in 
1558  ;  was  sent,  with  two  other  commiasionen, 
to  settle  the  preliminaries  of  peace  irith 
France.  He  refused  to  take  the  oath  d. 
supremacy  to  Elizabeth,  and  was  deposed, 
though  he  was  treated  with  great  kindness  br 
Archbishop  Parker. 

Thirty,  The  Battle  of  The  (March  *27. 
1350),  was  the  name  given  to  an  engagemsit 
between  the  English  partisans  of  Montfoii 
and  the  Breton  followers  of  Charles  of  Blok 
It  was  fought  at  Ploermel  in  Britannv,  ani 
by  agreement  the  number  of  combatants  wss 
limited  to  thirty  on  either  side.  The  Engliab 
were  defeated. 

Thiirty-B'me  Artidee.  [Articled] 

Thistlewood*  Arthvr  {b.  1770,  d.  18201 
started  in  life  originally  with  some  for- 
tune as  a  subaltern  officer,  first  in  the 
militia,  and  then  in  a  regiment  of  the  hne. 
stationed  in  the  West  Inmes.  After  haiing 
resigned  his  commission,  and  spent  some  time 
in  America,  he  passed  into  Fiance,  where  hfr 
arrived  shortly  after  the  fall  of  Bobespierre. 
There  he  formed  revolutionary  opiniont 
He  was  deeply  implicated  in  the  scheme  of 
Dr.  Watson,  but  was,  like  him,  aoquittei 
He  then  sent  a  challenge  to  Lord  Sidmoath, 
for  which  he  was  puni^ed  by  fine  and  im- 
prisonment. Upon  his  liberation  (Aug., 
1819),  he  found  himself  excluded  from  re- 
sectable society,  without  resources  or  hopes. 
The  natural  violence  of  his  disposition  va« 
stimulated  by  this,  and  aided  by  a  number 
of  individuals  equally  desperate,  he  p]anne<i 
the  Cato  Street  Conspiracy  (q.v.)  for  whicb 
he  was  executed,  glorying  in  his  attempt  and 
regretting  its  failure. 

TllOSn  was  a  broken-down  brewer  who 
had  gone  mad.  In  1837  he  appeared  in  Can- , 
terbury  and  various  parts  of  Kent,  styling 
himself  Sir  William  Courtenay,  of  Powder- 
ham  Castle,  Knight  of  Malta,  King  of  Jen- 
salem,  and  various  other  titles.  He  was  con- 
fined in  a  lunatic  as^'lum,  but  was  subseqnentK 
released.  When  he  came  out  he  announced 
himself  as  a  second  Messiah  to  the.  peasants, 
and  succeeded  in  impressing  himself  on  their 
excited  imaginations  by  denouncing  the  ne* 
Poor  Law,  which  was  then  intensely  hated  and 
feared.  He  asserted  that  he  had  come  to 
regenerate  iho  whole  world  and  savt?  hif 
followers  from  the  new  Poor  Law.    He  a»- 


Tho 


(  997  ) 


Tbr 


«embled  a  mob  and  led  €hem  against  Oanter- 
bury.  His  followen  proceeded  to  violence, 
■and  he  himjielf  shot  a  policeman.  Two  com- 
panies of  Boldiers  came  out  from  Canterbury 
to  disperse  the  rioters.  Thorn  shot  the  officer, 
4Uid  his  followers  chai'ged  with  such  fury  that 
for  a  moment  the  troops  gave  way.  Then 
-they  recovered,  and  poured  in  a  voUey  which 
•destroyed  the  insurrection  and  put  an  end  to 
Thom  s  life,  and  those  of  many  of  his  ad- 
herents. Several  of  his  followers  were  tried 
.and  convicted  of  murder.  But  long  after 
his  fall  people  in  many  parts  of  Kent  believed 
in  Thom's  pretensions,  and  looked  to  his 
future  return  on  earth. 

Thorough  was  a  phrase  used  by  Strafford 
•and  Laud  in  their  correspondence,  to  describe 
the  spirit  of  their  policy.  It  signified  "  the 
resolute  determination  of  going  through  with 
it,  as  it  might  nowadays  be  expressed,  of  dis- 
regarding and  overriding  the  interested 
•delays  and  evasions  of  those  who  made  the 
pubUc  service  an  excuse  for  enriching  them- 
•selves  at  the  public  expense,  or  the  dry  tech- 
xdcal  arguments  of  the  lawyers,  which  would 
hinder  them  in  their  schemes  for  the  public 
^food  "  (Gardiner).  "  For  the  state,  inaeed," 
writes  Laud,  '*  I  am  for  thorough;  but  I  see 
"that  both  thick  and  thin  stays  somebody, 

^where  I  conceive  it  should  not I 

.am  confident  that  the  king  being  pleased  to 
seV  himself  in  the  business,  is  able  by  his 
wisdom  and  ministers,  to  carry  any  just  and 
honourable  action,  thorough  all  imaginary 
opposition,  for  real  there  can  be  none.'* 
"  Thorough  "  and  "  through  "  are  the  same 
^word,  and  were,  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
^th  spelt  in  the  same  way. 

Gardiner,  Hist,  ofEng.,  2eOS—1642:  Strafford 
Papers. 

Thorpe,  Thomas  {d.  1461),  was  made  a 
l)aron  of  the  Exchequer  about  1453,  and  in 
-the  same  year  was  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
•Commons.    In  the  next  year  he  was_  im- 
prisoned at  the  instance  of  the  Duke  of  lork, 
^ho  brought  a  suit  against  him.    The  Com- 
mons thereupon  claimed  their  privilege,  and 
.appealed  to  the  Lords,  who  referred  the  ques- 
^on  to  the  judges.    The  iudges  declared  that 
they  were  unable  to  decide  on  the  privil^es 
oi  Parliament,  but  that  it  was  usual  l£at 
2)er8ons  should  not  be  prevented  by  imprison- 
ment from  attending  Parliament.     But  the 
Duke  of  York  was  now  in  the  ascendant,  and 
the  Lords  decided  that  Thorpe  ^ould  stay  in 
prison,  the  privilege  of  Parliament  notwith- 
standing.   On  the  king's  recovery  he  was 
released,  and  restored  to  his  office.    In  1460 
he  was  taken  prisoner  in  the  battle  of  North- 
ampton, and  was  the  next  year  beheftded  by 
the  Yorkists.    Thorpe's  case  is  reported  in 
-the  history  of  Parliamentary  privilege. 
Hollam,  Hist.  o/Eng. 

Three-oomered     ConirtitaencieSy 

vere  boroughs,  counties^  or  county  divisions, 


which  were  represented  by  three  members.  In 
these  constituencies  by  an  amendment  pro- 
posed by  Lord  Cairns  in  the  House  of  Lords, 
and  eventually  incorporated  in  the  Heform 
Bill  of  1867,  no  elector  was  allowed  to  vote 
for  more  than  two  candidates.  This  clause 
was  intended  to  afford  some  representation  to 
minorities,  but  was  frequently  defeated  by 
careful  organisation  which  enabled  one  party 
to  carry  aU  the  three  candidates.  They  were 
abolished  by  the  Keform  Bill  of  1885. 

Throgmoxtony  Fkamcis  {d.  1583),  the 
son  of  Sir  John  Throgmorton,  and  the  nephew 
of  Sir  Nicholas  Throgmorton,  was  concerned 
in  the  Spanish  plots  for  the  release  of  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots.  He  was  arrested  (1583)  on 
the  evidence  of  an  intercepted  letter  written 
to  the  Scottish  Queen  by  Morgan,  stating 
that  the  Duke  of  Guise  was  ready  to  invade 
England.  He  was  racked  three  times  without 
effect,  but  on  the  fourth  occasion  made  a  con- 
fession, implicating  the  Spanish  ambassador, 
Mendoza.  This  confession  ho  subsequently 
declared  to  be  false,  but  he  was  nevertheless 
executed;  and  although  the  evidence  at  the 
trixl  was  insufficient,  it  is  probable  that  he 
was  really  guilty  of  treason. 

ThroffinortoiiLf  Sib  Nicholas  {b.  1513, 
d»  1571),  the  son  of  Sir  Greorge  Throgmorton, 
who  incurred  the  displeasure  of  Henry  YIII. 
by  refusing  to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy, 
first  comes  into  notice  during  the  Scotch 
campaign  of  Somerset  (1547),  in  which  he 
greatly  distinguished  himseli.  In  1554  he 
was  implicated  in  the  rebellion  of  Sir  Thomas 
Wyatt,  but  was  acquitted  on  his  trial  as  there 
was  barely  sufficient  evidence  to  convict  him  of 
having  been  an  active  accomplice.  His  trial 
is  noticeable  from  the  fact  that  the  jurors 
were  imprisoned  and  heavily  fined  for  their 
verdict.  After  the  accession  of  Elizabeth, 
Throgmorton  was  restored  to  favour  at  court, 
and  in  1559  was  sent  to  France  as  ambassador, 
where  he  took  an  active  part  in  the  conspiracy 
against  the  Guises,  ms  alliance  wiiSx  the 
Huguenot  party,  and  his  advice  to  them  to 
proceed  to  violent  messures,  caused  his  im- 
prisonment by  the  Duke  of  Guise  in  the 
Castle  of  St.  Grermain  as  **  the  author  of  all 
our  troubles.'*  He  was  one  of  the  strongest 
opponents  of  the  proposed  marriage  of  EHza- 
beth  with  the  Earl  of  Leicester.  In  1561,  in 
his  capacity  of  ambassador,  he  was  employed 
to  demand  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  of 
Edinburgh  from  Mary  Stuart.  In  1565 
Throgmorton  was  sent  to  Scotland  to  protest 
against  the  marriage  of  the  Queen  of 
Scots  with  Lord  Darnley,  and  gave  Mary 
Stuart,  whose  cause  he  warmly  espoused, 
much  advice  as  to  the  most  politic  coursf 
of  action  to  pursue.  Two  years  later  hi 
was  again  sent  to  Edinburgh  to  negotiate 
with  the  rebel  lords  for  the  queen's  release 
and  is  said  by  his  representations  to  have 
saved  her  life  at  Lochleven.    In  1569  he  wat 


Thn 


(  998  ) 


Thu 


r 


arrested  and  sent  to  the  Tower  for  being  im- 
plicated in  the  plot  to  bring  about  a  marriage 
between  Mary  Stuart,  whose  partisan  he  alwavs 
remained,  and  the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  He  ob- 
tained his  release  in  a  short  time,  but  never 
regained  the  queen's  favour,  and  died,  as  some 
say,  of  poison  administered  by  Leicester. 

Lingard,  Hi$t.  of  Eng. ;  Froude,  Hiet,  ofEng. ; 
Burnet,  Hwt.  of  iM  £«formation. 

^hmgrn,  Thb,  were  an  Indian  fraternity  of 
hereditary  assassins  who  subsisted  on  the  plun- 
der of  the  victims  they  strangled.  They  gene- 
rally attached  themselves,  as  if  by  accident, . 
to  the  travellers  whom  they  met,  and  then  at 
a  convenient  spot  strangled  them  and  buried 
the  bodies  in  a  pit  hastily  dug  with  a  pickaxe 
which  had  been  consecrated  by  religious  cere- 
monies. They  were  bound  to  secrecy  by 
oath,  and  had  peculiar  signs  for  recognising 
one  another,  and  a  slang  language  of  their 
own.  They  considered  themselves  the  espe- 
cial favourites  of  Doorga  the  goddess  of 
thieves  and  murderers,  and  celebrated  her 
rites  with  the  most  scrupulous  piety.    The 

rg  was  recruited  by  children  kidnapped 
the  purpose,  and  cautiously  initiated  into 
the  arcana  of  their  society.  Their  victims 
were  counted  by  thousands  annually,  and  no 
district  was  free  from  their  ravages.  Lord 
William  Bentinck  determined  to  suppress  these 
ruffians,  and,  in  1830,  organised  a  regular  de- 
partment presided  over  by  Major  Sleeman.  An 
elaborate  system  was  worked  out.  Every  in- 
ducement was  offered  to  informers ;  and  in  six 
years  more  than  2,000  Thugs  were  arrested 
and  condemned  to  transportation  or  death. 
The  confederacy  was  effectuUy  broken  up, 
and  travelling  in  Loidia  ceased  to  be  dangerous. 
These  efforts  were  crowned  by  the  establish- 
ment of  a  school  at  Jubbulpore  for  the  Thugs 
who  had  turned  informers  and  the  children 
of  convicted  offenders. 

Tlmroytely  or  Thurkell  the  Tall, 
was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Danish  buc- 
caneering  community  of  lona.  Thurkell, 
when  that  community  was  broken  up,  came 
with  fifty  ships  of  his  pirate  foUowers  to 
^Elngland  at  Lammas,  1009,  in  alliance  with 
Sweyn,  and  lay  at  Greenwich.  After  plun- 
dering a  great  part  of  England  in  concert 
with  the  Danish  king  (1010  and  1011), 
and  extorting  large  sums  from  the  English, 
Canterbuiy  was  betrayed  to  them  by  Elfinar. 
They  sacked  the  city  and  captured  the 
Archbishop  Alphege  (^Ifheah),  who  was 
murdered  by  the  drunken  pirates  at  a  moot 
on  Easter  Saturday,  1012,  for  refusing  to  pay 
ransom  for  himself.  He  now,  with  forty-five 
ships  and  their  crews,  having  received  the 
£8,000  agreed  on  with  Ethelred,  went  over  to 
the  English  service,  and  helped  to  defend 
London  against  Sweyn  in  1013.  When  the 
English  resolved  to  forsake  Ethelred,  it  was 
in  Thurkell's  ships  that  the  exiled  king  was 
oarried  to  Normandy.    In  1014  he  seems  to 


have  been  still  in  Ethelred*s  pay;  bat  bft 
joined  Canute  against  Edmund  Ironside  beioi» 
the  battle  of  Assandun,  where  he  is  aaid  to 
have  slain  Wulfcyiel,  the  alderman  of  Eaat 
England,  thus  revenging  a  brother  ▼hom 
Wulfcytel  had  killed  in  battle  some  yeu» 
back.  He  was  installed  in  WulfcyteFB  alder* 
manship  by  Canute  in  1017,  was  outlawed  i& 
1021,  reinstated  in  the  king's  favour  in  1023, 
and  sent  to  act  as  regent  in  Denmark,  where 
he  died  not  long  afterwards. 

AnqlO'Samfm  Chrowicle:   Cowi  Poets  <^  Cotid* 
and  8.  OUtf. 

TlmrloWv  Edward,  Bakox  Thchlot 
{b.  1732,  d.  1806),  was  bom  in  Norfolk,  the 
son  of  Uie  Rev.  Thomas  Thurlow.  He  was 
educated  at  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  iim 
which  he  was  sent  down  in  1 75 1  without  taking 
a  degree.  He  at  once  entered  at  the  Inner 
Temple.  In  1758  he  gained  some  repu- 
tation by  his  spirited  conduct  towards  Sir 
Fletcher  Norton,  who  was  opposed  to  him 
in  a  case.  Lot  1761  he  was  retained  in 
the  Douglas  case,  and  thereby  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Lord  Bute,  who  in  1761  give 
him  silk.  From  this  time  his  practice  m> 
creased,  till  in  1768  he  was  returned  to 
Pai-liament  in  the  Tory  interest  for  Tarn- 
worth.  He  conducted  the  case  of  the  plaintiff 
in  the  Douglas  causo  with  great  success ;  and 
the  next  year,  after  fiercely  denying  the 
legality  of  Wilkes's  election  for  Hiddledex, 
was  appointed  SoHcitor-GeneraL  Li  1771  be 
became  Attorney-General,  and  urged  the 
committal  of  Oliver  and  Crosby  to  the  1\)wer 
in  the  matter  of  Junius's  letters.  In  this 
afEair  he  displayed  a  bitterness  which  was 
still  more  conspicuous  throughout  the  debates 
on  the  American  war.  *'  Of  all  the  o»tai» 
on  the  govenmient  side  he  was  the  most 
violent  and  ezasperatinff."  In  1778  he  was 
appointed  Lord  ChanceUor.  **  la  this  office,** 
says  Lord  Campbell,  ''he  was  above  all  taint 
or  suspicion  of  corruption,  and  in  lus  genenl 
rudeness  he  was  very  impartial ;  but  he  was 
not  patient  and  painstaking,  and  he  did  little 
in  settling  controverted  questions  or  estab- 
lishing general  principles.'*  In  the  meantime' 
he  stfll  warmly  advocated  the  prosecution  of 
the  American  war ;  and,  being  taunted  by  the 
Duke  of  Grafton  on  the  humbleness  of  hL< 
origin,  he  made  so  crushing  a  retort  that  ha 
at  once  became  supreme  in  the  House  of 
Lords.  The  next  year,  perceiving  that  the 
ministry  could  not  last  much  longer,  he  began 
to  coquet  with  the  opposition,  and  was  re- 
warded by  being  continued  in  the  chancellor- 
ship by  the  Marquis  of  Rockingham.  Far, 
however,  from  assisting  the  new  government 
he  actea  as  the  leader  of  the  "  King's  Friends,* 
and  opposed  all  the  government  measores. 
among  others  Burke's  proposal  for  econo- 
mical  reform.  In  spite  of  his  conduct*  Lcffd 
Shelbnme,  on  succeeding  Rockingham,  stili 
retained  him  as  chancellor ;  but  on  the  fo^ 


Thn 


(  999  ) 


mation  of  the  Coalition  the  Great  Seal  was 
put  into  commission.  His  deposition  not- 
withstanding^, "he  was  still  keeper  of  the 
king's  conscience/*  and  did  the  king's  pleasure 
in  bitterly  opposing  every  government 
measure.  He  was  again  rewarded  by  being 
appointed^  Lord  Chancellor  by  Pitt  in  1784, 
and  now  appeared  as  an  advocate  of  a  com- 
mercial union  with  Ireland,  which  he  had 
formerly  opposed.  In  1787  he  presided  at 
the  trial  of  Warren  Hastings.  The  next 
year  he  opposed  the  bill  for  mitigating  the 
horrors  of  the  Middle  Passage.  When  the 
king  became  ill,  Lord  Thurlow  entered  into 
intrigues  with  Carlton  House  and  the  op- 
position, in  order  to  make  his  position  se- 
cure in  case  of  a  regency.  But  Pitt  did 
not  fail  to  discover  the  manoeuvres  of  his 
chancellor,  and  withdrew  his  confidence. 
Already,  in  1791,  Lord  Grenville  had  sup- 
planted Thurlow  as  leader  in  the  House  of 
Lords,  and  Pitt  decided  to  dismiss  him  from 
Kis  office  in  May,  1792.  For  a  few  years  he 
retired  to  indulge  his  chagrin  in  seclusion ; 
but  in  1795  he  opened  negotiations  with  the 
Whigs  and  the  Prince  of  Wales,  and  posed  as 
%  champion  of  the  rights  of  the  people  in  his 
opposition  to  the  Treason  and  Sedition  Bills. 
Tired  of  this,  ho  took  up  the  cause  of  the 
Princess  of  Wales,  and  intrigued  to  obtain 
for  her  a  separation  from  her  husband.  But 
ill  his  efforts  failed  of  success ;  and  in  1 798, 
seeing  no  chance  of  overthrowing  Pitt,  he 
luittud  public  life,  and  remained  in  retire- 
nent  till  the  resignation  of  Pitt  in  1801.  Then 
lis  hopes  brightened  again,  but  they  were 
loomed  to  be  (Ssappointed.  His  day  was  past, 
md  on  Sept.  12,  1806,  he  died.  His  appearance 
ind  manner  in  Parliament  has  been  thus  de- 
icribed:  he  was  "  blunt,  coarse,  and  vigorous, 
lurled  hard  words  and  strong  epithets  at  his 
ipponcnts  in  a  tremendous  voice,  with  a  look 
ind  tone  of  defiance,"  "  Of  statesmanship  he 
limself  declared  that  he  knew  very  little ; " 
nd,  says  Lord  Stanhope,  "  It  must  be  owned 
hat  his  private  life  by  no  means  eminently 
[ualified  him  to  stand  forth  as  tbe  champion 
f  any  Church  or  creed." 

Caxui)bell,  Live»  of  the  ChanceHon  ;  TreTelyaJi, 
JSarlu  Life  of  C.  J.  Fox ;  Jesse,  Mem.  of  Reign 


of  George  III. ;  Stanhope,  Life  of  Piit ;  Parlio- 

[W.  R.  S.] 


mcntary  Hi»t, 


Thnrot,  Invasion  of.  Thurot,  an  Irish- 
lan,  who  had  adopted  a  French  name,  and 
ominanded  in  the  French  n&vy,  became  the 
?rror  of  English  merchant  ships  during  the 
•even  Years*  War.  In  1760,  with  a  small 
miamcnt,  he  appeared  before  Carrickfergus, 
indo(i  1,000  men,  and  plundered  the  town, 
►n  Feb.  28,  1760,  however,  he  was  overtaken 
n  his  way  back  to  France  by  Capt.  Elliot 
dth  three  frigates,  his  ships  were  taken,  and 
e  himself  killed. 

Thynne,  Thomas  (d.  1682),  the  "Issachar" 
f  Dryden*s  Abaalom  and  Achitophely  was  one 


of  Charles  II.'s  favourites.  He  at  first 
attached  himself  to  the  Duke  of  York's  party, 
but  subsequently  joined  Monmouth.  In  1667 
he  was  employed  to  negotiate  peace  with  the 
Dutch.  In  1682  he  was  assassinated  in  the 
streets  of  London  by  three  ruffians  hired  for 
the  purpose  by  Count  Konigsmark. 

Tichboumey  Cuioiock,  one  of  the  con. 
spirators  in  the  Babington  Plot,  and  one  of 
the  six  specially  told  ofi:  to  murder  the  queen. 
He  was  executed  at  Tyburn  (Sept.,  1516). 

Tiemey,  George  {b.  1761,  d,  1830),  was 
of  Irish  descent,  but  was  bom  at  Gibraltar, 
where  his  father  was  a  wealthy  prize-agent. 
He  was  sent  to  Eton  and  afterwards  to  Cam- 
bridge. He  entered  Parliament  for  Col- 
chester in  1796,  and  joined  the  opposition, 
and  very  soon  became  one  of  Pitt's  most  iox* 
midable  opponents.  In  May,  1798,  he  called 
Pitt  out  for  using  language  of  an  insulting 
character  about  him;  but  nothing  came  of 
the  meeting,  which  took  place  on  Putney 
Heath.  When  Fox  seceded  from  Parlia- 
ment in  1798,  Tiemey  became  the  leader  of 
the  opposition  under  Addington.  Tiemey 
became  Treasurer  of  the  Navy  in  1803,  and  a 
member  of  the  Privy  Council,  but  withdrew 
on  Pitt's  resumption  of  ofiice.  In  the  Talents 
Administration  he  became  Irish  Secretary. 
He  was  the  constant  supporter  of  W  hi  thread 
on  the  subject  of  the  Continental  War,  and 
forsook  his  party  in  1814,  when  on  the  escape 
of  Napoleon  from  Elba,  the  Whigs,  as  a  body, 
sided  with  the  ministiy  in  thinking  it  neces- 
sary to  renew  the  war.  On  all  questions  of 
finance  he  was  a  great  authority,  having 
studied  the  question  with  zealous  industry. 
On  Ponsonby's  death,  Tiemey  became  the  re- 
cognised leader  of  the  Whigs  in  the  House  of 
Commons.  He  opposed,  as  was  natural,  the 
proceedings  against  Queen  Caroline,  though 
a  just  appreciation  of  both  sides  of  the  case 
prevented  him  from  being  carried  away  into 
any  enthusiastic  admiration  of  the  queen. 
On  Canning's  becoming  I^me  ^linister,  Tier- 
ney  was  made  Master  of  the  Mint.  He  re- 
tired with  Lord  Goderich  in  Jan.,  1828. 

Wolpole,    £italand   from    1816;    Court    ami 
CdbiniU  of  the  Jaegenq/  ;  Sidmouth's  Life. 

Tilburyf  Gbrvasb  of  (d.  cirea  1210),  an 
Englishman  by  birth,  was  a  favourite  of  the 
Emperor  Otto  IV.,  by  whom  he  was  made 
marshal  of  the  kingdom  of  Aries.  Probably 
at  the  request  of  the  Emperor,  he  wrote  a 
work  entitled  Otia  Iwperialia^  in  which, 
among  much  miscellaneous  information,  are 
some  interesting  particulars  relating  to  the 
history  of  England,  especially  in  the  reign  of 
John. 

Tilney,  Charles,  one  of  the  conspirators 
in  the  Babington  Plot,  was  arrested  in  London. 
He  was  accused  by  Savage  of  having  been 
one  of  the  six  selected  to  murder  the  queen, 
and  was  executed  at  Tybum  (Sept.,  1586). 


Tip 


(  1000  ^ 


Tit 


Tippoo  Sultaii  (b.  1749,  d,  1799),  was 
the  son  of  Hyder  All,  founder  of  the  Moham- 
medan kingdom  of  Mysore.  He  acted  under 
his  father  during  the  first  Mysore  war,  and 
on  the  death  of  the  latter  carried  it  out  suc- 
cessfully, finally  concluding  the  treaty  of 
Mangalore  (1784)  with  the  English.  He  de- 
Totea  himself  to  converting  his  suhjects  to 
Mohammedanism,  reformed  his  army,  and  es- 
tablished foundries  for  cannon  and  other  arms 
at  Seringapatam.  In  1786-7  he  was  engaged 
in  a  war  with  the  Mahrattas  and  the  Nizam, 
which  originated  in  an  aggression  of  his  on 
the  district  of  Kumool.  In  1789,  enraged  by 
the  agreement  of  Lord  Comwallis  with  the 
Nizam,  and  at  the  same  time  inspired  with 
courage  by  the  evident  fear  in  which  he  was 
held,  m  spite  of  the  threats  of  the  English, 
he  attacked  the  state  of  Travancore,  an 
English  ally.  This  conduct  produced  the 
second  Mysore  war,  the  defeat  of  Tippoo  at 
Arikera  (May,  1791),  and  his  submission  and 
the  limitation  of  his  power  and  territory  by 
the  treaty  of  Seringapatam.  He  now  engaged 
in  a  vast  series  of  intrigues  through  India 
and  even  Europe  for  the  destruction  of  the 
English,  in  which  Scindia,  the  Peishwa, 
Zemaun  Shah  of  Afghanistan,  the  French 
troops  of  the  Nizam,  and  France  were  in- 
cluded, and  which  was  considerably  facili- 
tated bv  the  policy  of  Sir  John  Shore,  and 
the  defeat  of  the-  Nizam  in  the  Kurdlah 
campaign.  The  result  of  Tippoo^s  intrigues 
was  the  issue  of  a  proclamation  (1798)  by 
M.  Malartie,  French  governor  of  the  Mau- 
ritius, which  revealed  the  whole  plot  while  it 
was  as  yet  incomplete.  Lord  Wellesley  was 
able  therefore  to  complete  his  preparations,  and 
beg^  the  war  while  Tippoo  was  unprepared. 
The  result  was  the  capture  of  Seringapatam, 
the  death  of  the  Sultan,  and  the  extinction 
of  the  Mohammedan  kingdom  of  Mysore  by  the 
two  treaties  of  Mysore  (1799). 

WilkB,  Higt.  of  My$ore;  MiU,  Eiat.  of  India; 
WellwUy  Detpatches;  Malcolm,  Political  Hist, 
of  India, 

Tithes.  Payment  of  tithes  was  first 
made  compulsory  in  England  by  decrees  of 
the  legatine  councils  of  787,  which  were 
attended  by  kings  and  secular  magnates,  and 
so  had  the  authoritv  of  witenagemots.  The 
Danes  who  settled  in  England  were  rendered 
liable  to  tithe  by  the  "  laws  of  Edward  and 
Guthrum ; ''  and  Athelstan  iesued  a  special 
ordinance  to  the  sheriffs  for  the  payment  of 
tithe  over  the  whole  kingdom  :  the  Donation 
of  Ethelwulf,  often  regarded  as  the  founda- 
,  tion  of  the  tithe  system,  had  nothing  to  do 
with  it.  Though  the  bishop  was  recognised 
as  the  proper  receiver  and  distributor  of 
tithes,  huidowners  were  able  to  pay  them  to 
whom  they  pleased ;  and  it  was  not  till  the 
decretal  of  Innocent  III.  in  1200,  that  it 
became  the  rule  to  pay  them  to  the  parson  of 
the  parish.  Tithes  were  chiefly  praedial — on 
com,  gprass,  hops,  wood,  or  mixed — on  wool, 


milk,  pigs.  Archbishop  WinchoLaey  and  tha 
provincial  councils  of  the  thirteentii  centoi)- 
lailed  to  bring  about  the  general  payment  of 
personal  tithes  (on  the  profits  of  handicnfts, 
commerce,  etc.),  and  these  continued  to  Ve 
very  exceptional.  Another  divisicai  of  tiihs 
is  into  greater  on  com,  hay,  and  wood,  and 
small,  which  were  usually  handed  over  to  tk 
vicar  when  the  benefice  belonged  to  a  monas- 
tery. Tithes  appropriated  by  mooastenes 
passed  at  the  dissolution  to  lay  impropriaton. 
The  Long  Parliament  ordered  the  continu- 
ance of  tithes  by  ordinances  of  1644  and 
1647;  and  Cromwell  thought  them  necesasxr 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  ministry.  By 
the  Tithe  Commutation  Act  of  1836,  titheB 
were  commuted  into  rent-Ksharges,  ammallT 
adjusted  to  the  average  price  of  com;  and 
they  may  be  redeemed  at  not  less  thin 
twenty-five  times  their  average  amoant. 

Seidell,  Hist  of  Tithet,  1618  (whereon  Gazdintr, 
Hi»t.  of  Eng.,  ill ,  253) ;  Schmid,  Ge$etse  der  An^i- 
aaehsenj  Zemble,  Saxon*,  iL;  Stubbs  Ccmd. 
HM.,  1,  ch.  viii. ;  Carlyle,  Cromietll;  Stepbei, 
Commentaries;  Phillimore,  EccL  Lav. 

[W.  J.  A-] 

Tithes  in  Ireland  were  not  levied  from 
grassland,  thus  leaving  only  the  small  Catholic 
tenants  to  bear  the  chief  burden ;  in  Munster 
especially  great  sums  were  ertracted  from  the 
wretched  peasantir  by  the  tithe  proctors,  and 
the  clergy  themselves  received  but  little  of  it. 
The  Whiteboys  in  part  rose  in  oppositim  to 
tithes,  and  in  1787  two  bills — the  Insairectian 
Acts  (q.v.),  which  enabled  the  deigy  to  secure 
tithes  by  a  civil  bill  without  a  jury — had  to  be 
passed.  In  1823  the  question  of  tithes  ag-iin 
became  prominent.  In  1824  an  attempt  ^^as 
made  to  do  away  with  the  obvious  injastict 
of  tithes,  and  with  some  success ;  by  this  Ad 
grasslands  were  no  longer  to  be  exempted,  b 
1830  great  disorders  amounting  to  what  vss 
called  the  "  tithe  war  "  arose  from  the  colkc- 
tion  of  tithe,  and  in  1832  the  Lord  Lieutenant 
was  authorised  to  advance  £60,000  to  th^ 
starving  clergy.  The  government  now,  with 
the  assistance  of  the  military,  tried  to  levy 
the  tithe  itself,  but  could  only  collect  £12,000 
out  of  £100,000  which  were  due.  In  ISSS 
the  government  gave  up  the  attempt  to 
enforce  tithes,  and  Parliament  again  gnntfd 
a  million  fo/the  destitute  clergy.  An  attempt 
was  now  made  to  substitute  a  laiid-tax  for  the 
tithe,  but  in  1833  and  1834  the  goveninient 
failed  in  their  effort,  O'Connell  (q.v.)  threatai- 
ing  the  landlords  with  a  croeade  against  k^ 
if  the  land-tax,  or,  in  other  words,  the  tithes, 
formed  part  of  it.  The  government  thee 
'agreed  to  accept  0*ConneIl*s  own  plan,  in- 
cluding a  reduction  of  40  per  cent. ;  tit  rest 
was  to  be  provided  for  by  a  redeemable  land- 
tax.  On  the  question,  however,  of  what  ws« 
to  be  done  with  the  money  thus  accniing.  ^ 
contest  took  place  between  the  Whigs  and 
the  House  of  Lords,  the  former  "bGitg  in 
favour  of  the  appropriation  of  the  Church 


Tit 


(  1001  ) 


Vol 


property  to  lay  uses,  the  Lords  energetically 
resisting  this.  It  was  in  consequence  of  this 
struggle  that  tithe  commutation  bills  failed 
to  pass  (1834,  1835,  1836).  At  last,  in  1838, 
the  Lords  remaining  firm,  and  it  being  im- 
possible  \o  collect  the  tithes  in  Ireland,  Lord 
Melbourne's  government  gave  way.  Tithes 
were  commuted  for  a  permanent  rent*chai^ 
upon  the  land  reduced  by  one  fourth.  But 
the  security  of  this  new  rent-charge  was  an 
ample  compensation  to  the  clergy  for  their 
loss;  as  further  compensation  the  loan  of  a 
million  adverted  to  above  now  became  a  gift. 

Titles,  BoYAL.   Early  royal  titles  in  Eng- 
land as  in  the  other  kingdoms  of  the  west 
were  national  and  not  territorial.    Thus  Eg- 
bert was  "  King  of  the  West  Saxons,"  and 
in  one  charter  (of  828)  *'  Kingf  of  the  English." 
Alfred  often  used  the  title  "King  of  the 
Saxons.*'    Edward  the  Elder  commonly  calls 
himself  '  "  King    of    the    Anglo-Saxons,"    a 
term  almost  confined  to  this  sovereign  and  to 
Edwy.     From  the  time  of  Athelstan  "King 
of  the  English,"  is  the  usual  title ;  though  in 
one  charter  he  is  described  as  "  Ongol-&ixna 
cyning    and  Brytaenvcalda  ealles  thyses  ig- 
landes,"   which    is  translated  in  the  Latin 
version    **  Angul-Saxonum  necnon  et  totius 
Britanniae  rex."    By  succeeding  kings  up  to 
the  time  of  Canute,  such  titles  as  "Imperator," 
"  Cajsar  totius  Britanniae,"  "  Basileus,"  are 
frequently  used,  expressing  supremacy  within 
Britain,  and  independence  of  all  other  au- 
thority.     "King  of   the  English"    is    the 
3fiScial  etyle  of  the  Korman  kings.    Henry 
[I.   retains  this,    but    also  frequently  calls 
himself    "King  of  England,   Duke  of  Nor- 
tnandy  and  Aquitaine,  and  Count  of  Anjou," 
to  which  was  added  upon  the  conquest  of 
Ireland    "  Lord  of  Ireland,"  "  following  the 
syllables,"  as  Selden  says,  of   the  bull   of 
Adrian  VI.,  which  ordered  the  Irish  to  obey 
'Jenrj'  **  sicut  dominum."   Edward  I.  dropped 
he  title  derived  from  Normandy,  which  had 
)Gen   conquei-ed  by  the  King  of  France  in 
204,  and  was  crowned  as  "  King  of  England, 
jord  of   Ireland,  and  Duke  of  Aquitaine ; " 
,nd  to  this  title  Edward  III.,  in  1339,  added 
hat  of   "  King  of  France,"  which  was  re- 
linod  far  into  the  reign  of  George  III.    By 
bull    dated  Oct.   11,   1521,  the  title  "De- 
»nder  of    the  Faith,"   was  conferred  upon 
[<jnry  VIII. ,  a  title  which  has  been  retained 
ntil    the    present.    Twenty-one  years  later 
[onry    marked  Ms  rejection  of    the   papal 
iithority    by   assuming    the   title  King  of 
reland    (for  according  to  MedisBval  jurists 
le    reg^l  title  could  only  be  conferred  by 
nporor  or  pope ;  see  Bryce,  Holy  Rmnan  Em- 
Ire,  p.  250).   James  T.  was  proclaimed  "  King 
?  Eng-land,  Scotland,  France,  and  Ireland," 
id  waa  wise  enough  to  drop  the  title  "  King 
'  Great  Britain,"  which  he  had  assumed  by 
•oclatnation.    After  the  union  with  Scot- 
nd    (1707),    Anne  was  styled  "Queen  of 


Gi-eat  Britain,  France,  and  Ireland,"  which 
was  exchanged  upon  the  Union  with  Ireland 
(1809),  for  the  style  since  used  "of  the 
United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land King."  By  the  Royal  Titles  Bill  of 
1876,  Victoria  was  empowered  to  add  to  her 
style,  and  on  Jan.  1,  1877,  she  was  proclaimed 
I' Empress  of  India,"  at  Delhi,  a  title  which 
is  now  adjoined  to  those  previously  used. 

Selden,  TUIm  of  Honour  (1614) ;  Freeman, 
Iforman  Coiu^tMst,  Note  fi.,  *'  liie  Bretwaldadom 
and  the  Imperial  Titles."  [W.  J.  A.] 

Tippemmir,  Thb  Battle  of  (Sept.  1, 
1644),  was  fought  four  miles  west  of  rerth  be- 
tween the  Cavaliers,  under  Montrose,  and  the 
Covenanters,  led  by  Lord  Elcho.  Montrose 
gained  a  complete  victory,  and  was  enabled  to 
occupy  Perth. 

Tobago  (Assumption  Island),  the  mosi 
southerly  of  the  Windward  Islands,  was 
discovered  by  Columbus  in  1498.  In  1608 
the  island  was  claimed  by  England ;  and  in 
1625  some  colonists  from  Barbadoes  attempted 
to  form  a  settlement  there,  but  were  prevented 
by  the  natives.  In  1684  the  neutrality  of 
Tobago  was  recognised,  but  in  1749  it  was 
taken  by  the  French,  from  whom  it  was 
wrested  by  the  English  in  1762,  and  kept  by 
them  for  twenty  years.  In  1770  a  slave 
rebellion  broke  out,  but  was  speedily  sup- 
pressed; in  1781  the  island  was  again  occu- 
pied by  the  French  for  two  years,  and  was 
surrendered  to  them  by  the  treaty  of  Paris 
ri802).  The  next  year  it  was  captured  by 
General  Greenfield,  and  finally  ced^  to  Eng- 
land in  1815.  The  government  is  in  the 
hands  of  a  Commissioner  appointed  by  the 
Governor  of  Trinidad. 

Toleration  Act,  Thb  (May  24,  1689), 
was  a  measure  due  to  the  Earl  of  Nottingham. 
It  passed  both  Houses  with  but  little  difficulty, 
and  received  the  hearty  consent  of  King 
William.  In  order  to  be  properly  appre- 
ciated it  must  be  judged  by  the  religious  pre- 
judices of  a  past  age.  It  relaxed  the  stringent 
conditions  of  the  Act  of  Uniformity,  the  Five 
Mile  Act,  and  the  Conventicle  Act.  "  It 
exempts,**  says  Hallam,  "  from  the  penalties 
of  existing  statutes  against  separate  con- 
venticles, or  absence  from  the  established 
worship,  such  as  should  take  the  oath  of 
alleg^nce,  and  subscribe  the  declaration 
against  popery,  and  such  ministers  of  separate 
congregations  as  should  subscribe  the  Thirt}'- 
nine  Articles  of  the  Church  of  England  except 
three,  and  part  of  a  fourth.  It  gives  also  an 
indulgence  to  Quakers  without  this  condition. 
Meeting-houses  are  required  to  be  registered, 
and  are  prevented  from  insult  by  a  penalty. 
No  part  of  this  toleration  extended  to  papists, 
or  to  such  as  deny  the  Trinity.*'  The  incon- 
sistencies of  the  Act  are  that  persecution  con- 
tinued to  be  the  rule,  toleration  the  excep- 
tion: and  that  freedom  of  conscience  was 
granted  in  a  most  capricious  manner.    **  The 


Too 


(  1002  ) 


Tor 


provisions/*  remarks  MacauXay,  "  removed  a 

vast  mass  of  evil  'without  shocking  a  vast 

mass  of  prejudice ;  they  put  an  end  at  once, 

and  for  ever,  to  a  persecution  which  had 

raged  during  four  generations. " 

Macanlay,  Hist,  of  Eng. ;  Hallam,  Const 
Hut.;  Pari  Huts  StongUton,  Religion  in 
Bngland, 

Tooke,  John  Hornb  {b,  1736,  d.  1812), 
was  the  son  of  John  Home,  and  assumed  the 
title  of  Tooke  after  heing  adopted  by  William 
Tooke,  of  Purley.  His  family  persuaded  him, 
after  taking  his  degree  in  1768,  to  enter  the 
Church,  but  his  own  inclination  was  for  the 
law,  and  in  1779  he  tried  to  obtain  admission 
to  the  bar,  but  his  clerical  profession  pre- 
vented him.  Tooke  had  already  become  con- 
spicuous as  a  democratic  politician ;  at  first 
as  a  friend  of  Wilkes,  with  whom,  how- 
ever, he  speedily  quarrelled,  and  was  in 
consequence  attacked  by  Junius.  In  1775 
he  was  sentenced  to  a  year's  imprisonment 
and  a  fine,  for  saying  that  the  Americans 
who  fell  at  Lexington  had  been  "  murdered  ** 
by  the  English  soldiers.  He  plunged  actively 
into  the  political  agitation  which  £>llowed  the 
French  Revolution,  and  in  1794  he  was  com- 
mitted for  trial  on  account  of  his  connection 
with  the  supposed  treason  of  the  Corresponding 
Society,  but  after  an  able  and  witty  defence 
he  was  acquitted.  After  contesting  West- 
minster twice  without  success,  he  was  returned 
for  old  Sarum  in  1801,  but  a  bill  was  passed 
in  the  next  session  rendering  clerical  persons 
ineligible.  His  last  days  were  spent  in  easy 
retirement.  Tooke  had  a  g^reat  social  reputa- 
tion ;  his  Diversions  of  Purley  is  an  original, 
though  somewhat  primitive,  work  on  philology. 

There  are  Lives  of  Tooke  by  J.  A.  Graluun,  A. 
Stephen,  and  W.  Hamilton. 

Toolsjro  Bliye  was  the  favourite  con- 
cubine of  Jeswunt  Rao  Holkar.  During  the 
insanity  of  the  latter  she  carried  on  the 
government  in  conjunction  with  his  chief 
minister,  Baharam  Sett.  On  his  death,  in 
1811,  she  adopted  a  son  of  his  by  another 
concubine,  and  conducted  the  government 
regent.  The  army,  however,  was  too  large 
and  turbulent  for  the  State,  and  the  revenue 
was  totally  unable  to  support  them.  They 
were  therefore  generally  in  a  mutinous  state, 
and  at  last  drove  the  Bhye  to  seek  refuge  in 
KotEih,  by  the  threat  of  actual  violence.  Her 
amours  and  crimes  embroiled  her  with  GufEoor 
Khan,  the  leader  of  the  Patau  horse,  and  in 
the  war&ire  which  followed  she  in  person  led 
her  Mahratta  horse  with  the  most  undaunted 
courage  to  the  assault.  Between  these  various 
factions  the  government  of  the  Holkar  State 
fell  into  complete  anarchy,  the  administration 
being  vested  in  the  Bhye  nominally,  and  all 
real  power  being  in  the  hands  of  the  military 
leaders.  On  the  outbreak  of  Bajee  Rao,  in 
1817,  the  chiefs  assembled  their  forces,  and 
determined   to    support    the    Peiahwa,    but 


Toolsye  Bhye  opened  negotiations  vith  the 
Briti^  government,  offering  to  place  the 
young  Holkar,  and  the  HoUmr  State,  uiuk 
their  protection.  These  proceedings  of  hen 
being  suspected,  the  chiefs  seized  and  im< 
prisoned  her  ministers,  and  she  heiself  vis 
put  to  death. 

TorieSf  The.  The  name  is  derived  from 
an  Irish  word,  meaning  to  pursue  for  the  sake 
of  plunder.  It  was  applied  to  those  Irish  vhu 
in  1654  preferred  to  remain  as  outlaws  in 
their  own  lands  to  emigrating  to  Connaught. 
The  government  offered  prizes  for  their  heads, 
and  a  free  pardon  to  any  Tory  who  brought 
in  the  head  of  a  confederate.  In  1693,  after 
the  civil  war  had  come  to  an  end,  they  agsis 
appear ;  they  are  described  by  the  law  as 
*'out  of  their  keeping."  A  statute  passed 
(7  William  and  Mary)  put  a  reward  of  £20  on 
the  head  of  any  Tory,  and  assessed  the 
Catholic  inhabitants  of  a  barony  for  any  los 
caused  by  them.  This  statute  was  not  re- 
pealed till  1776.  In  English  politics  the  word 
appears  to  have  been  first  used  contemptaoodj 
to  desig^te  the  Court  and  Roman  Catholic 
party  in  the  disputes  between  the  Abhorreis 
(q.v.)  and  Petitioners  in  1679.  In  the  debates 
on  the  Exclusion  Bill  it  was  applied  in- 
sultingly to  the  partisans  of  James  II.  In 
William  III.*s  reign  the  term  was  coming 
into  current  use  without  an  opprobrioos 
meaning,  as  the  title  of  the  party  who 
opposed  the  Whig  interest  in  Church  and 
State ;  and  in  the  reign  of  Anne  it  was  th«> 
common  desig^tion  of  this  party.  On 
account,  however,  of  its  suspicious  connec- 
tion with  Jacobitism,  and  the  hononiubk 
and  respectable  traditions  attaching  to  the 
name  of  Whig,  because  of  the  laxge  share 
borne  by  the  Whigs  in  the  Revolution,  Ton 
was  not  a  title  which  any  party  was  anxioas 
to  assume.  To  the  younger  Pitt  was  due  Uk 
revival  of  a  great  party  in  the  state,  resting 
on  popular  support  as  well  as  on  that  of  the 
crown,  and  opposed  to  the  ^\^g8,  who  had 
become  to  some  extent  an  aristocratic  fectiGa: 
and  under  his  administration  the  name  wss 
generally  acknowledged  by  the  party  whidi 
towards  the  closing  period  of  his  premiership 
probably  included  the  majority  of  the  middle 
and  propertied  classes,  and  was  espedalK 
identified  with  the  continuance  of  the  v^ 
with  France,  and  opposition  to  what  wew 
assumed  to  be  revolutionary  and  radi(^ 
changes  in  domestic  affairs^  Since  that  period 
the  word  has  held  its  own  as  the  designatioa 
of  one  of  the  two  groat  parties  in  Engli^^ 
politics ;  though  in  the  present  centuir  that 
of  Conservative  has  been  often  preferreatoit. 
But  this  name  has  hardly  supplanted  th« 
older  designation  as  that  of  Liberal  has  doiu' 
in  the  case  of  the  rival  party.  A  T«t 
perhaps  is  understood  to  be  a  person  kf 
mdulgent  towards  the  principles  of  his 
opponents  than  a  Conservative.    But  the  t^ 


Tor 


(  2008  ) 


Tor 


terms  are  used  almost   indiscriininately  in 
political  phraseology'. 

Cooke,  Higt,  of  Parly, 

Torres  Vedras,  The  Lines  of  (1810— 
1811),  were  thrown  up  by  Wellington,  in 
order  that  he  might  protect  Usbon  and 
the  army  during  the  winter,  and  thus  baffle 
the  superior  forces  of  Massena,  in  their 
efforts  to  drive  the  British  out  of  Portugal. 
**They  consisted,"  says  Napier,  "of  three 
distinct  ranges  of  defence.  The  first,  extend- 
ing  from  Alhandra  on  the  Tagus  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Zizandre  on  the  sea-coast,  was,  follow- 
ing the  inflections  of  the  hills,  twenty-nine 
tniles  long.  The  second,  traced  at  a  distance 
varying  from  six  to  ten  miles  in  the  rear  of 
the  first,  stretched  from  Quintolla  on  the 
Tagus  to  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Lorenza,  being 
twenty-four  miles  in  length."  The  third 
was  intended  to  cover  a  forced  embarkation, 
And  extended  from  Passo  d' Arcos  on  the  Ta^us 
to  the  coast.  Massena  soon  perceived  the  im- 
possibility of  carrying  the  position  at  any  point 
•or  of  turning  it,  except  from  the  Tagus, 
"Where  a  large  flotilla  of  English  gunboats 
"was  moored.  Throughout  October  Massena, 
though  harassed  by  sickness  and  increasing 
scarcity  of  supplies,  persisted  in  his  efforts  to 
turn  the  position  by  the  Tagus ;  but  he  was 
as  persistently  foiled  by  Wellington's  ma- 
ncjeuvres.  Towards  the  middle  of  the  month, 
Massena  fell  back  on  Santarem,  but  there 
^tood  firm,  and  Wellington,  who  had  thought 
liim  in  full  retreat,  had  to  abandon  the  idea 
•of  attacking  him,  and  drew  back  into  his 
lines.  In  November  Massena  again  resumed 
his  plans  on  the  Tagus,  but  without  success. 
During  December  and  January  the  armies 
Temained  quiet ;  but  the  difficulty  of  obtain- 
ing supplies  and  forage  led  the  French  into 
horrible  excesses  and  marauding  expeditions, 
"which  undermined  the  discipline  of  the  army. 
Had  Wellington  been  vigorously  reinforced 
from  England,  he  would  have  attacked 
]&Iassena*s  weakened  forces;  but  without 
them  he  was  compelled  to  await  Masscna's 
retreat.  On  March  2,  1811,  the  latter  began 
his  retreat,  which  he  executed  with  "  infinite 
ability."  But  for  the  lines  of  Torres  Vedras 
Wellington  could  have  hardly  held  his  ground 
against  Massena's  much  larger  force. 

Kapier,  Peniiuular  War,  bk.  zi,  oc.  8—10. 

Torrintfton,  Akthue  Herbert,  Earl 
OF,  Lord  Sigh  Admiral  {d.  1716),  became 
Kear-Admiial  in  1678.  In  1682  he  raised 
the  siege  of  Tangier.  In  1684  he  was 
placed  on  the  Admiralty  commission^  and 
Bubsequentl}'  returned  for  Dover.  He  be- 
came Vice-Admiral  and  Master  of  the  Robes 
(1685),  but  on  refusing  to  consent  to  the 
repeal  of  the  Test  Act  was  dismissed  from 
his  offices.  He  thereupon  entered  into 
commimication  with  Dykvelt,  the  envoy  of 
William    of    Orange,    and   was    the  bearer  | 


of  the  invitation  to  that  prince.  He  com- 
manded the  fleet  with  which  William  sailed 
to  England,  with  the  title  of  Lieutenant 
Admiral  General.  After  the  revolution  he 
was  placed  first  on  the  Admiralty  Commission. 
In  1689  he  en^;aged  in  a  skirmish  with  the 
French  fleet  m  Bantry  Bay,  but  without 
much  result.  He  was  created  Baron  Herbert 
and  Viscount  Torrington,  and  received  the 
thanks  of  Parliament.  In  this  year  he 
comnumded  the  English  and  Dutch  ships 
against  the  French,  but  retreated  before 
them  up  the  Channel,  and  when  he  re- 
ceived an  order  to  engage  off  Beachy  Head, 
sent  the  Dutch  ships  alone  into  action,  and 
when  they  were  completely  crushed,  fled  into 
the  Thames.  He  was  tried  by  court-martial^ 
but  acquitted  and  dismissed  the  service. 
**  There  seems,"  says  Macaulay,  *'  to  be  no 
sufficient  grounds  for  charging  Torrington 
with  disaffection,  still  less  can  it  be  suspected 
that  an  officer,  whose  whole  life  had  been 
passed  in  confuting  danger,  and  who  had 
always  borne  himself  bravely,  wanted  that 
personal  courage  which  hundreds  of  sailors 
on  board  every  ship  under  his  command  pos- 
sessed. But  there  is  a  higher  courage  of 
which  Torrington  was  wholly  destitute.  He 
shrank  from  all  responsibility,  from  the  re- 
sponsibility of  fighting,  and  from  the  respon- 
sibility of  not  fighting." 

Burnet,  HU(.  of  Hit  Oan  Tima;  Paria 
Qcuette;  Sanke,  Hist  of  Bng. ;  Macaulay,  Hut. 
cfEng. 

Torrington,  George  Btko,  Viscount 
(h,  1663,  d.  1733),  volunteered  for  naval  ser- 
vice at  the  age  of  fifteen.  In  1681  he  left 
the  sea  at  the  request  of  General  Kirke, 
Governor  of  Tangier,  and  became  under  him 
ensign,  and  then  lieutenant.  He  was  em- 
ployed to  carry  assurances  of  friendship  from 
the  English  malcontents  to  William  of  Oiunge, 
to  whom  he  was  privately  introduced  by  Ad- 
miral Russell.  In  1690  he  was  second  in 
command  to  Sir  George  Rooke,  at  the  battle 
of  Beachy  Head.  During  the  next  six  years 
he  served  under  Admiral  Russell.  He  was 
present  at  the  destruction  of  the  Spanish 
treasure  ships  at  Vigo  Bay.  Next  year  he 
was  made  rear-admiraJ,  and  served  under  Sir 
Cloudesley  Shovel.  He  commanded  the 
squadron  who  captured  the  citadel  of  Gib- 
raltar, and  was  laiighted  for  his  bravery  at 
the  battle  of  Malaga.  In  1705  he  was  elected 
member  for  Plymouth.  In  1706  he  helped 
to  relieve  Barcelona,  and  commanded  the 
vessels  detached  for  the  reduction  of  Cartha- 
gena  and  Alicant.  In  1707  he  served  under 
Shovel  at  the  abortive  siege  of  Toulon.  He 
frustrated  the  Pretender's  expedition  to  Scot- 
land, lie  was  placed  in  command  of  an  expedi- 
tion fitted  out  for  a  descent  on  the  French 
coast,  but  owing  to  the  fact  that  he  was  badly 
supplied  with  provisions  and  information, 
could  effect  little.  In  1709  he  was  placed  on 
the  Admiralty  Commission,  but  was  removed 


Tor 


(  i(M  ) 


Ton 


shortly  before  the  queen's  death.  In  1715  he 
was  made  a  baronet  for  his  vig^nce  in  watch- 
ing the  French  coast.  In  1717,  on  the 
oatbreak  of  hostilities  with  the  northern 
powers,  he  shut  the  Swedish  fleet  up  in  the 
Baltic.  In  the  following  year  he  was  made 
admiral  and  commander-in-chief.  He  was 
sent  to  counteract  the  designs  of  Alberoni 
against  the  Italians.  In  order  to  relieve 
Count  Daun,  who  was  besieged  in  Messina, 
he  attacked  and  utterly  destroyed  the  Spanish 
fleet  off  Cape  Passaro,  with  the  loss  oi  only 
one  ship.  On  his  return  he  was  sworn  of  the 
Privy  Council,  and  made  Rear-Admiral  and 
Treasurer  of  the  Navy.  In  1721  he  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  as  Viscount  Torrington. 
In  1727  he  became  First  Lord  of  the  Admi- 
ralty, a  post  which  he  held  until  his  death. 

Borton,  Beign  of  Queen  Anne  ;  Stanhope,  Htef. 
9fBnq. 

Tory.  [ToEiBs.] 

Tostig  (^<  1066)  was  the  third  son  of 
Godwin.  In  1051  he  married  Judith,  sister 
of  Baldwin  of  Flanders,  and  in  the  same  year 
he  shared  his  fathor*s  exile.  In  1055  he  was 
created  Earl  of  Northumbria,  and  was  seem- 
ingly a  great  personal  favourite  of  King 
Edward.  In  1061,  in  company  with  Girth 
and  Archbishop  Ealdred  he  made  a  pil- 
grimage to  Rome,  and  during  his  absence 
Korthumbria  was  invaded  ana  ravaged  by 
the  Scots.  In  1063  he  joined  Harold  in  his 
Welsh  campaign.  In  1065  his  earldom  broke 
out  into  revolt,  his  harsh  and  tyrannical 
government  being  no  longer  bearable.  The 
Northumbrians  held  a  meeting  at  York, 
outlawed  and  deposed  Tostig,  and  chose 
Horkere  as  their  earl;  a  massacre  of  Tos- 
tig*s  foUpwers  ensued,  and  the  insurgents 
marched  southwards  to  support  their  claims. 
With  the  advice  of  Harold,  the  king  yielded 
to  the  demands  of  the  insurgents,  and  Tostig 
was  deposed  and  banished.  He  took  refuge 
at  Bruges,  where  he  heard  of  Harold's  elec- 
tion to  the  throne;  having  failed  to  induce 
William  to  make  an  alliance  with  him,  he  got 
together  a  fleet  and  ravaged  the  Isle  of  Wight 
and  the  southern  coast.  Thence  he  went  to 
Lincolnshire,  probably  with  the  hope  of  re- 
covering Northumbria,  and  failiog  in  this,  he 
retired  to  Scotland,  where  in  all  probability 
he  met  Harold  Hardrada,  whom  he  induced 
to  join  him  in  an  invasion  of  England.  At 
first  they  were  successful,  and  defeated  Edwin 
and  Morkcre  at  the  battle  of  Fulford ; 
but  King  Harold,  hearing  of  the  invasion, 
marched  northwards  promptly,  and  met  them 
at  Stamford  Bridge  (Sept.  25,  1066)  where  the 
Norwegian  force  was  totally  defeated,  and 
Tostig  and  Harold  Hardrada  slain.  Tostig 
left  two  sons,  Ketil  and  Skule,  who  settled  in 
Norway. 

Anglo-Sarxon  Chron. ;  Ltree  t^EdxtarOhe  Comr- 
/elisor  (Rolls  Series);  Freeman,  JHorman  Con- 
quest, 


IfOtmBMBt  GsoROB  Ca&bw,  Earl  or» 
{b.  Id 57,  d.  1629),  son  of  George  Careir,  Deu 
of  Exeter,  served  with  credit  in  IreUnd  dux. 
ing  his  youth,  and  was  entrusted  by  Eliabeta 
with  a  high  command  in  the  expedition  to  CA 
(1596).  The  following  year  he  accompanied 
Baleigh  in  his  disastrous  attempt  on  the 
Azores,  and  on  his  return  yiraa  made  Preadtoit 
of  Munster.  His  government  in  Ireland  «u 
firm,  and  in  1601  he  totally  defeated  a  Spanish 
force,  which  had  landed  at  Einode.  Tvo 
years  later  Sir  George  became  governor  of 
Guernsey,  and  in  1605  was  made  a  peer  bf 
James  I.,  being  subsequently  appointed 
Master  of  the  Or&anoe.  He  was  created  Ead 
of  Totness  by  Charles  I.  as  a  reward  for  hit 
military  services. 

Toulouse*  The  Battlb  of  (April  10,  1814\ 

was  the  last  of  the  battles  of  the  Peoinsnlir 

War.    Soult  had  thrown  himself  intoToa- 

louse,  and  was  resolved  to  hold  the  place  at 

all  hazards.    As  Wellin^;ton  approached  be 

took  up  a  strong  position  m.  front  of  the  tovn. 

which  was  protected  on  the  other  side  by  tfa» 

Graronne,  and  outside  that  by  the  St  Cy^nsn. 

heights,  strongly  fortified.     The  battle'be^ 

early  on  the  morning  of  the  10th.    From  ai 

o'clock  till  four  in  the  afternoon  it  raged,  and 

in  that  time  4,600  men  had  fallen  of  the  allisfi. 

while  the  French  lost  3,000.     RmIIt  th? 

French  were  defeated,  and  slowly  retired  from 

all    their    positions.     The    battle   was— "a 

lamentable  spilling  of  blood,  and  a  useless. 

for  before  this  period  Napoleon  had  abdicated 

the    throne    of    France,    and   a   proTisaoil 

government  was  constituted  at  Paris." 

Napior,  Peninnlar  War;  Clintoo,  PtMnkr 
War;  WMington Detpatchu, 

TonlOQBe,  The  War  of  (1159).  i«  tk 
name  given  to  the  campaign  undertaken  by 
Henry  II.  in  order  to  enforce  his  wife  8  dain 
to  the  county  of  Toulouse.  The  expedition. 
which  lasted  for  some  months,  was  erentnally 
unsuccessful,  though  Henry's  troops  p^* 
formed  some  brilliant  exploits.  This  litt> 
war  is  important  in  English  constitntiacal 
hifitery,  since  it  may  be  taken  as  the  poist 
at  which  the  payment  of  scutage  was  accepted 
as  a  commutation  for  personal  service  K 
feudal  tenants.  The  English  knights  had  &> 
temptation  to  fight  in  a  quarrel  not  their  o« 
in  the  south  of  Prance,  and  willingly  paid » 
tax  of  two  marks  on  the  knight*s  fee,  t> 
enable  Henry  to  equip  a  mercenary  fo^e* 
instead  of  following  him  to  the  war. 
Stubbs,  Coiut.  Hilt.,  chap.  xii. 

Towns,  in  England,  were  probably  in  thf-' 
origin  only  a  development  of  the  rural  to*t- 
ship  or  vicus,  which  Bishop  Stubbs  calls  '*  t^ 
unit  of  constitutional  machinery,  or  local  *> 
ministration.*'  The  ^loi  means  a  q^^' 
set  hedge,  and  in  the  same  way  i**rh,  ft* 
boroughy  "  a  more  strictly  organised  fom  f^ 
township,'*  was  the  fortified  house  and  coffl;- 
yard  of  the  great  noble.    Both  forms  aw  la 


Tow 


C  1006  ) 


Tow 


turn  developments  of,  or  at  all  eyents,  of 
kindred  origin,  to  the  markf  or  community 
•of  free  cultivators.    Before  the  Conquest  the 
«on8titation  of  the  towns  was  very  simple. 
Each  had  its  tun-gemSt,  or  assembly  of  free- 
men, and  its  tun-jferefa,  or  chief  administra- 
tive officer,  who,  originally  elective,  was  soon 
appointed  by  the  lord,  or  in  free  towns  chosen 
by  the  king.    In  its  ecclesiastical  form  the 
township  was  Aparishy  or  part  of  a  parish,  the 
boundaries  of  the  two  communities  usually 
coinciding,  and  as  such  the  free  inhabitants 
assembled  at  vestry  meetinss.    It  also  had 
exercised   judicial    powers,  functions  which 
were  afterwards  usurped  to  a  considerable 
«xtent  by  the  manor  courts,  and  the  larger 
boroughs,  which  had  the  constitution  of  the 
hundred  rather  than  of  the  townships,  were 
exempt  from  the  jurisdiction  of  thenundred 
courts.    The  townships,  on  the  other  hand, 
were  represented  by  the  reeve  and  four  men 
at  the  courts  of  the  hundred  and  of  the  shire. 
As  yet  there  is  no  approach  to  the  modem 
idea  of  a  corporation  with  its  legal  person- 
ality, its  common  seal,  and  its  perpetual  suc- 
cession, and  London  under  its  port-reeve  and 
bishops  was  only  an  aggregate  of  communi- 
ties, townships,  and  parishes.     It  is  impos- 
sible to  describe  with  any  minuteness  the 
various  steps  by  which  the  towns  acquired 
their  municipal  privileges.    From  very  early 
times,  they  had,  as  we  have  seen,  tribunals  of 
iheir  own,  from  which  by  the  time  of  Henry 
[II.   the  sheriff  was  excluded.     Soon  after 
;he  Conquest  they  had  in  several  in^nces 
gained     tiie    right   to    compound   for    taxa- 
ion,  the  collection  of  which  was  by  degrees 
aken  out  of  the  hands  of  the  sheriffs  and 
tssessod  by  the  citizens  themselves.    This  was 
mown  as  the  Firma  Bargi,  or  rent  paid  to 
he  crown  from  the  borough.    As  the  growth 
f  the  town  constitutions  was  never  uniform, 
)ut  varied  in  each  individual  case,  we  must 
e  content  with  indicating  their  broad  features, 
a  most  of  the  commeroAl  towns  the  gilds  or 
ssociations  of   merchants   rapidly  assumed 
Qportance,  and    were    granted   by  charter 
le    privileges  of  owning  property,   and  of 
laking:  bye-laws,  so  that  they  became  prac- 
caJly  the  governing  bodies  of  the  towns: 
1  the  more  as  their  members  would  also  be 
le    members   of    the  township  courts  and 
•urts    leet.     Their  chiefs  were  the  alder- 
en,    and  their  chief  functions  were  to  re- 
ilate  trade.   At  the  same  time  the  communa 
corporation,  probably  of  French  origin,  ap- 
ars  along^de  of  the  gild,  with  the  mayor 
its  representative  officer.    The  first  mayor 
whom  ^we  have  any  historical  knowledge 
IS    Fitz-Alwyn,  the  IMayor  of  London  in 
D   reign    of  Richard  I.,  and  in  1215  John 
stnted    the   citizens  the  right  of  electing 
3ir   mayor  annually,  which,  after  a  severe 
-ug-g-le  with  the  royal  power,  they  succeeded 
making'   good.    The  provincial  towns,  in 
mt    cases,    lagged  behind  the  capital,  and 


we  do  not  find  a  mayor  in  Leicester,  toi 
instance,  until  1246.  By  an  obscure  process 
of  amalgamation  a  municipality  was  evolved 
out  of  the  three  elements  of  the  borouffh,  the 
original  township,  representing  the  pnmitive 
landowning  community,  the  gild,  or  volun- 
tary association  of  merchants,  with  its  alder- 
man, and  the  communa,  with  its  mayor, 
until  by  the  fifteenth  centurv  we  have  a 
dose  corporation  of  mayor,  aldermen,  and 
coundl,  whose  numbers  and  organisation  are 
defined  by  charter.  These  corporate  officers 
acquired  under  Richard  II.  the  right  of  exerr 
cising  the  functions  of  justices  of  the  peace, 
and  the  right  of  each  chartered  borough  or 
city  to  send  members  to  Parliament,  which 
had  been  practically  acquired  during  or  before 
the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  was  definitely  re- 
cognised by  charter  in  the  case  of  Wenlock 
in  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.  By  this  time, 
too,  the  internal  struggle  for  municipal  privi- 
leges, which  had  been  going  on  in  some  cases 
for  nearly  three  centuries  between  the  alder- 
men, representing  the  old  merchant  gild,  and 
the  newer  craft  gilds,  or  trading  companies 
which  had  sprung  up  in  later  times,  was  over. 
The  companies  had  established  their  own  right 
to  form  part  of  the  municipal  governing 
oligarchy.  Under  the  Tudors  began  the  policy 
of  strengthening  the  power  of  the  municipal 
corporations  at  the  expense  of  the  inhabitants. 
In  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.  a  system  of 
close  election  and  irresponsible  government 
was  introduced,  the  mayor  and  councils  being 
in  the  first  instance  nominated  by  the  crown, 
and  subsequently  self -elected  by  co-optation. 
It  often  happened  also  that  the  power  of  elect- 
ing the  borough  members  of  Parliament  was 
made  over  to  &e  corporation  by  charter,  to  the 
material  injury  of  the  power  of  the  burgesses. 
Under  Charles  II.  and  James  II.  the  last 
remnants  of  popular  representation,  by  the 
exercise  of  which  the  towns  still  stoutly 
opposed  the  personal  power  of  the  crown, 
were  vigorously  attacked.  In  1683  the  cor- 
poration of  London  was  remodelled  in  a  way 
that  made  it  the  creature  of  the  court,  no 
mayor  or  sheriff  being  admitted  until  approved 
by  the  king,  and  quo  warranto  informations 
were  soon  Ed^erwards  brought  against  other 
towns  by  Judge  Jeffreys,  many  of  which 
hastened  to  meet  the  government  by  a  volun- 
tary surrender.  The  corporations  were  then 
remodelled  on  an  oligarchical  plan,  by  which 
the  king  was  reserved  the  right  of  appoint- 
ing  the  first  members.  The  object  of  this 
aggression  was,  of  course,  to  control  the 
return  of  members  of  Parliament,  a  course  of 
action  which  had  already  been  inaugurated 
under  the  Tudors  by  the  profuse  creation  of 
rotten  boroughs.  After  the  Restoration  the 
old  charters  of  the  remodelled  corporations 
were  for  the  most  part  restored  to  tl&em,  and 
they  continued  to  exercise  their  narrow  inde- 
pendence. The  Parliamentary  side  of  the 
question  now  came  exclusively  to  the  front, 


Tow 


(  1000  ) 


Tow 


and  the  incompetency  of  the  doae  cozpora« 
tions  for  the  purposes  of  local  government 
were  forgotten,  while  attention  was  turned 
to  the  system  by  which  pocket  boroughs 
flourished,  and  the  franchise  was  limited  to 
small  bodies  of  freemen.  After  this  abuse 
was  remedied  by  the  g^reat  Reform  Act  of 
1832,  reformers  began  to  probe  the  corruption 
of  municipal  institutions.  The  report  of  the 
royal  commission  appointed  in  1832  revealed 
an  incredible  amount  of  jobbery  and  corrup- 
tion, municipal  councils  being  for  the  most  part 
self -elective,  and  holding  office  for  life,  while 
the  freemen,  who  often  formed  a  very  snuiU 
fraction  of  the  population,  alone  had  any 
share  in  the  lo(»l  aiuninistration.  The  result 
of  this  state  of  affairs  was  that  finance  was 
managed  most  negligently  and  dishonestly^ 
and  that  justice  became  a  matter  of  political 
partisanship.  By  the  Municipal  Corporations 
Act  of  1835,  framed  on  the  report  of  the 
commission,  these  abuses  were  swept  awaV) 
and  a  imiform  system  of  government  estab* 
lished  in  the  183  boroughs  to  which  it  applied. 
The  government  was  placed  in  the  hands  of 
the  mayor,  aldermen,  and  councillors,  form- 
ing a  counciL  They  were  to  be  elected 
by  the  burgesses,  i,e,,  the  resident  rate- 
payers, freemen  as  such  having  no  rights 
as  burgesses,  though  they  were  entitled  to 
Parliamentary  franchise.  The  qualification 
for  a  vote  at  first,  three  years'  pa}inent  of 
rates,  was  afterwards  reduced  to  one.  Twenty 
of  the  largest  boroughs  were  to  be  divided 
by  the  king  in  council  into  wards,  and  a 
certain  number  of  common  councilmen  were 
attached  to  each  ward.  Separate  committees 
of  burgesses  were  to  manage  the  charity 
estates,  and,  should  an  adequate  salary  be  pro- 
vided, a  recorder,  who  was  to  be  a  barrister 
of  five  years*  standing,  might  be  appointed. 
There  was  also  a  provision  by  which  new 
municipalities  might  be  created  by  charter 
on  the  petition  of  a  certain  unspecified 
number  of  resident  householders,  but  only 
about  seventy  towns  have  since  availed  them- 
selves of  it,  partly  because  of  the  cumbers 
some  nature  of  the  process,  and  partly  because 
of  the  opposition  of  the  loc»I  authorities.  The 
Munici^  Corporations  Act  has  since  been 
frequently  amended,  and  the  whole  legislation 
bearing  on  the  subject  has  been  consolidated 
by  the  Municipal  Corporations  Act  of  1882. 
London  was  specially  exempted  from  the  Act 
of  1835,  and  was  sdlowed  to  retain  its  old 
constitution.  In  Scotland,  where  the  history 
of  the  boroughs  is  closely  akin  to  that  of 
England,  the  corporations  were  reformed 
in  1833.  Those  of  Ireland  were  regulated, 
and  many  of  them  abolished,  by  the  Irish 
Corporations  Act  of  1840. 

Madoz,  Firma  Burgi;  Brad^,  On  Borovyfca; 
Gross,  Gilda  Mercatoria  (Quttingen,  1^) ; 
Haitland,  Hitt.  of  London;  Thompson,  JIliu- 
trationt  of  Ifunteipai  AntvpuUen;  Stnbbs, 
Con^,  Hi$t. ;  Hallam,  Const.  Hut. ;  Merewether 
and  Stephens,  But.  of  .Besought;    Mr.   Lad- 


low's  article  in  the  F<irtnighay  Bovine  fior  Oct, 
1860 ;  Freeman,  Norman  Conqiutt,  r.  400.  «C  saf. 
See  also  Municipal  Corporationt  Report,  ISSit 
5  ft  6  WiU.  IV.  c  76,  and  M.  D.  Chalmen,  UoA 
Gov«n*nm«nt. 


Townshend.  Charles,  Lord  (6.  1676,  i. 
1738),  entered  public  life  as  a  Tor3%  bat  soon 
joined  the  Whiga.  He  was  one  of  the  oommis- 
sioners  for  the  Union  with  Scotland.  In  1 709  he 
was  sent  with  Marlborough  as  plenipotentiaiy 
to  the  Hague.  There  he  concluded  the 
Barrier  Treaty,  which  Biarlboroug^  refused 
to  sign.  He  completed  his  connection  with 
the  Whigs  by  marrying  Walpole's  sister. 
In  1712  he  was  severdy  censured  by  the 
Tories  as  the  author  of  the  Barrier  Tieaty. 
George  I.,  before  his  arrival  in  England,  ap- 
pointed him  Secretary  of  State  and  Prime 
Minister,  passing  over  the  old  Whig  Jontov 
but  he  soon  became  distasteful  to  the  king. 
He  was  disliked  by  the  Hanoverian  oonitios. 
He  opposed  Greorge's  schemes  with  regard  to 
Bremen  and  Yerden.  Perceiving  that  CStarles 
XII.  of  Sweden  was  threatening  Kngland,  he 
was  anxious  for  peace  with  Russia.  XJvg<ed 
on  by  Sunderland,  the  king  dismiised  him 
from  office,  offering  in  exchange  Uie  lord 
lieutenancy  of  Ireland,  which  he  accepted. 
But  he  was  soon  dismissed  also  from  that  pos- 
tion  when,  on  the  schism  between  Walpoio 
and  Stanhope  breaking  out  in  the  ministtr, 
Ms  followers  voted  against  a  supply  for 
hostilities  against  Sweden.  Finding  opposi- 
tion useless,  he  rejoined  the  ministry  in  1719 
as  Lord  President.  On  Walpole's  becoming 
Premier,  he  was  made  Secretary  of  State. 
He  soon  quarrelled  with  the  king^s  favourite, 
Carteret,  with  whose  more  ambitious  views 
of  foreign  policy  he  could  not  agree.  The 
contest  came  to  an  issue  at  the  marriage 
of  Madame  de  Platen,  sister  of  tiie  king*^ 
mistress,  the  Countess  of  Darlington,  in  Pans. 
There  Townshend  sent  Horace  W^alpofe 
as  rival  ambassador  to  Carteret;  and  the 
latter  was  forced  by  the  king  to  withdraw  to 
the  lord  lieutenancy  of  Ireland.  In  17i> 
Townshend  concluded  the  Treaty  of  Hanovfr 
between  England,  France,  and  Prussia.  This 
was  to  check  the  designs  of  Austria,  Spaxo, 
and  the  Duke  of  Bourbon,  as  formulated  ia 
the  Treaty  of  Vienna  (1725),  namely,  a 
Stewart  restoration  and  the  surrender  cf 
Gibraltar  and  Minorca.  This  treaty,  which 
Walpole  considered  was  too  precipitate,  w»s> 
the  cause  of  his  quarrel  with  Townshend. 
"The  firm,"  he  said,  "should  be  Walpalfr 
and  Townshend,  not  Townshend  and  Wal^ 
pole."  After  a  violent  quarrel  with  Walpok, 
Townshend  retired  from  public  life.  He  passed 
the  remainder  of  his  life  at  Reynham»  re- 
fusing to  take  further  part  in  politics.  T» 
him  we  owe  the  cultivation  of  the  turnip,  aai 
hence  a  proper  rotation  of  crops. 


Coze,  Mmnovn  of   WalpoU:   Balph. 
jBn^. ;    HbrMe  Walpole,  Mmnoin ; 
Hist.  ((fEng, 


HM.  ^ 


Tow 


(  luOT  ) 


Townshend,  Charlzs  (3. 1725,  d,  1767), 
was  the  second  son  of  the  third  YiBCOunt 
Townshend.  In  1747  he  was  returned  to 
Parliament  for  Yarmouth.  On  entering 
Parliament  he  joined  the  Opposition,  hut 
without  much  warmth.  In  1749  his  large 
family  influence  obtained  for  him  a  place  at 
the  Board  of  Trade.  The  next  year  he  was 
nominated  one  of  the  commissioners  for 
executing  the  office  of  Lord  High  AdmiraL 
In  1756  he  became  a  member  of  the  Privy 
Council.  In  March,  1761,  he  became  Secre- 
tary  at  War.  Here  he  fluctuated  between 
Pitt  and  Bute,  at  one  time  supporting  one, 
at  another  the  other.  In  1765  he  accepted 
the  office  of  Paymaster-General  in  the  Rock- 
ingham goyemment,  although  he  had  no 
&ith  in  its  streugth,  and  called  it  *'a  mere 
lute-string  administration,  pretty  summer 
wear."  In  the  following  year  he  became 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  in  the  Chatham 
ministry.  But,  as  usual,  Townshend  was 
not  decided  in  his  support  of  the  cabinet, 
of  which  he  was  now  a  member.  As 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  he  introduced  a 
budget,  in  which  he  pledged  himself  to  the 
reduction  of  the  land-tax  at  the  end  of  a 
year,  but  on  a  motion  of  the  opposition  that 
the  reduction  should  take  place  at  once,  the 
government  was  defeated,  \yith  Chatham  ill, 
the  members  of  the  ministry  broke  away  from 
all  control,  and  Charles  To  wnishend  in  particular 
gave  vent  to  the  wildest  frolics  of  his  genius. 
In  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  his  speeches  he 
Baid  that  the  government  "  had  become,  what 
he  had  often  been  called,  a  weather-cock.'* 
The  revenue  which  he  fsdled  to  obtain 
by.  the  land-tax  he  now  sought  by  taxing 
with  import  duties  many  small  commo- 
dities sent  to  the  American  colonies.  It 
was  a  most  fatal  measure,  the  evil  results  of 
which  TowDshend  did  not  live  to  see,  as  he 
died  of  a  fever  on  Sept.  4,  1767.  Walpole, 
who  was  a  friend  of  his,  says  that  "  Towns- 
hend had  every  great  talent,  and  very  little 
quality.  His  vanity  exceeded  even  his  abili- 
ties, and  his  suspicions  seemed  to  make  him 
doubt  if  he  had  any.  With  such  a  capacity 
he  must  have  been  the  greatest  man  of  his 
age,  and,  perhaps,  inferior  to  no  man  of  any 
age,  had  his  faults  been  only  in  moderate 
proportion." 

Stauhope,  Hts(.  ofEng.;  Gfr«nvtU«  Papen  ;  Chat- 
ham Correapondenee ;  Walpole,  Jfemoti's  of  George 

Townshend,  George,  Ist  Marquis  op 
{h.  1724,  d,  1807),  served  in  the  army,  and 
concluded,  after  Wolfe's  death,  the  capi- 
tulation which  gave  Quebec  to  England. 
In  1767  he  became  Viceroy  of  Ireland,  and, 
in  accordance  with  George  III.*s  instructions, 
tried  to  govern  in  defiance  of  the  Ponsonbys 
and  Shannons;  but,  defeated  on  the  Army 
Bill  in  1768,  had  to  abandon  the  attempt. 
A  new  Parliament  was  no  more  docile  than 


the  last,  and  corruption  was  now  tried.  By 
means  of  the  new  churchy  of  crown  pen- 
sioners, the  great  famihes  were  defeated,  and 
in  1771  Townshend  secured  a  favourable 
Parliament.  But  by  1772  matters  had  so  far 
changed  that  complete  defeat  could  only  be 
averted  by  making  peace  with  Lord  Shannon. 
Disgusted  with  his  office,  the  Lord  Lieutenant 
resigned  ajid  retired  to  England,  leaving  be- 
hind htm  £300,000  of  arrears. 

I'ownshend  Cmreepondenoe ;   Fronde,  Engliah 
in  Ireland, 

Towton,  The  Battle  of  (Mar.  29, 1461), 
was  the  most  important  engagement  in  the  Wars 
of  the  Hoses.  After  the  Becond  battle  of  St. 
Alban's,  Queen  Margaret  and  the  Lancastrians 
had  retired  to  the  north,  while  Edward  and 
Warwick  entered  London,  and  the  former  was 
proclaimed  king.  The  Yorkists  immediately 
determined  on  marching  northwards  and 
completing  the  defeat  of  the  Lancastrians. 
On  March  12  the  Yorkists  were  at  Ponte- 
fract,  the  Lancastrians  at  York.  After  a 
skirmish  at  Ferrybridge,  the  two  armies  met 
near  the  village  of  Towton,  not  far  from 
Tadcaster.  The  battle  was  fought  on  Palm 
Sunday,  March  29,  and  lasted  ten  hours, 
ending  in  the  complete  victory  of  the  Yorkists, 
and  the  rout  and  dispersion  of  the  Lancastrian 
army.  The  Earl  of  Northumberland  fell  in 
the  battle,  Devonshire  and  Wiltshire  were 
beheaded  after  it,  and  it  is  said  that  from 
28,000  to  30,000  men  were  left  dead  on  the 
field.  Henry  and  Margaret,  with  Somerset 
and  Exeter,  fled  into  Scotland,  while  Edward 
returned  in  triumph  to  London. 

TradOf  The  Board  of.  Councils  '<of 
Trade  and  Plantation"  were  created  by 
Charles  II.  after  the  Restoration,  charged 
with  the  concerns  of  the  colonies  and  merchant 
shipping.  The  two  were  united  in  1672,  and 
abolished  in  1676.  The  council  was  re- 
appointed in  1695,  and  continued  to  exercise 
a  certain  control  over  colonial  and  mercantile 
matters  for  nearly  a  century  afterwards.  In 
1782,  having  long  been  found  inefficient,  it  wa« 
abolished.  In  1786  the  Board  of  Trade  with 
substantially  its  present  functions  was  estab- 
lished by  order  in  Council.  Its  functions 
have  been  regulated  by  several  Acts,  notably 
those  of  1845, 1850,  and  1867,  and  it  has  been 
charged  with  the  superintendence  of  Hail- 
ways  (1840)  and  Merchant  Shipping  (1854 
and  1867). 

Trade,  Foreign,  Legislation  on.  False 
notions  about  political  economy,  combined 
with  frequent  European  wars  and  with  the 
conditions  of  early  society,  caused  constant 
legislation  on  the  subject  of  our  trade  with 
other  nations.  Restrictions  were  held  to  bo 
the  best  means  of  increasing  our  own  wealth 
and  diminishing  the  prosperity  of  our  rivals ; 
wealth  was  considered  to  consist  exclusively 
of  gold  and  silver;  and,  when  this  opinion' 


Tra 


(  1008  ) 


was  at  last  overthrown,  it  only  gave  place  to 
the  idea  that  the  progress  of  a  country  de- 
pended on  the  excess  in  value  of  our  ex- 
ports over  our  imports.  The  extent  to 
which  these  ideas  prevailed  and  the  change 
which  has  come  over  our  policy  will  be  best 
understood  by  noting  some  of  the  most  re- 
markable instances  of  legislation  on  this 
flubjoct.  In  1261  the  exportation  of  wool  and 
the  importation  of  cloth  were  alike  forbidden. 
As  the  power  of  the  crown  to  tax  home  mer- 
chandise was  diminished,  the  king  encouraged 
foreign  merchants,  whom  he  could  tax  without 
reference  to  Parliament,  and  in  1303  Edward 
I.  gave  them  licence  to  trade  on  payment  of 
special  duties.  The  Statute  of  Staples  [Staple] 
in  1353,  though  restrictive,  was  not  on  the 
whole  injurious.  By  28  Edward  III.  c.  6 
the  exportation  of  iron  was  forbidden.  In 
1402  all  importers  were  ordered  to  invest 
their  money  in  English  goods,  and  the  ex- 
portation of  gold  and  silver  was  forbidden. 
Our  craftsmen  having  in  1463  complained  to 
Parliament  of  the  injury  done  to  them  by 
the  importation  of  goods  of  better  quality 
than  were  produced  in  England,  the  importiC- 
tion  of  a  large  number  of  articles  was  for- 
bidden. Among  these  were  ribands,  silk, 
laces,  saddlerv,  ironwork,  and  playing  cards. 
This  prohibition  was  extended  lx>th  as  regards 
time  and  the  number  of  articles  in  1484.  In 
the  same  year  (1  Rich.  III.  c.  9)  restrictions 
were  placed  on  the  trade  of  Italian  and 
Catalan  merchants,  and  foreigners  were  for- 
bidden to  exercise  any  craft  in  England 
except  as  the  servants  of  English  masters,  or 
to  have  any  share  in  the  clothing  trade. 
The  trade  with  the  Netherlands  was  en- 
couraged by  a  famous  treaty  called  "  Inter- 
cursus  Magnus,'*  made  in  1496  between 
Henry  VI 1.  and  the  Archduke  Philip.  The 
next  year  Parliament  virtually  established 
the  Society  of  Merchant  Adventurers,  by 
controlling  the  exaction  of  fees  demanded  by 
a  fraternity  of  London  merchants  of  all  Eng- 
lishmen not  of  their  company  trading  m 
Netherland  ports.  By  3  Hen.  V III.  c.  1  the 
exportation  of  coin,  plate,  &c.,  was  forbidden 
under  the  penalty  ox  forfeiture  of  double  the 
value  of  the  export. 

By  an  Act  regulating  the  Baltic  trade  in 
1666,  the  Russia  Company  was  forbidden  to 
export  any  English  commodity  except  in 
English  ships.  This  principle  of  fostering 
oiir  carrying  trade  by  restriction  was  soon 
carried  further.  The  charter  granted  to  the 
East  India  Company  in  1600  to  trade  with 
Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  *'  beyond  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  to  the  Straits  of  Magellan,*' 
brought  us  into  rivalry  with  the  Butch.  In 
this  rivalry  we  were  at  a  disadvantage,  be- 
cause our  high  dues  caused  our  merchants  to 
freight  Dutch  ships  for  importation.  To 
meet  this  the  first  Navigation  Act  was  passed 
in  1651,  and  this  was  afterwards  extended  by 
12  Car.  II.  c.   18.    By  these  acts  the  im- 


portation of  foreign  commodities  was  restricted 
to  English  ships  or  to  the  ships  of  the  countij 
producing  the  import.  The  act  of  Charles  II., 
once  held  to  be  "  the  carta  maritima  of  Eng- 
land,*' had  an  injurious  influence  on  our  tnuie. 
The  navigation  laws,  however,  remained  in 
force  untu  they  f eU  before  the  enlightened 
policy  of  Mr.  Huskisson  in  1825,  the  last 
remains  of  them  being  repealed  by  17  Vic. 
c.  6.  In  1663  more  correct  views  having 
prepared  the  way  for  the  downfall  of  the 
false  notions  about  money,  leave  was  giv^n 
to  export  gold  and  silver.  In  1698  the  East 
India  Company  obtained  a  renewal  of  its  ex- 
clusive privileges  of  trade. 

Restrictions  were  laid  on  the  importation  of 
com  by  22  Car.  II.  c.  3.  High  prices  in  1766 
led  to  a  suspension  of  high  duties,  and  oon- 
siderable  liberty  of  importation  was  granted 
in  1773.  The  complaints  of  the  landholders, 
however,  caused  the  imposition  of  renewed 
restriction  in  1791.  The  success  of  the  policy 
of  Mr.  Huskisson,  who  in  1824,  by  lowering 
duties,  enormously  stimulated  the  silk,  wool 
and  other  trades,  pointed  to  the  wisdom  of  re- 
moving commercial  restrictions,  and  by  9  Geo. 
IV.  c.  60  a  graduated  scale  of  duties  on  coin 
was  established.  This  system,  however,  was 
open  to  objection,  because  it  introduced  a 
new  element  of  uncertainty  into  the  trade. 
Carrying  on  the  policy  of  Mr.  Huskisson,  Sir 
Robert  Peel  in  1845  abolished  the  duties  on 
no  leas  than  420  articles  of  trade.  At  last, 
after  a  long  struggle,  he  succeeded  in  1846  in 
carrying  the  bill  for  repealing  the  duties  on 
the  importation  of  com.  Since  that  date  the 
pressure  of  taxation  has  been  removed  from 
many  articles,  and  the  work  of  Sir  R.  Ped 
has  been  consummated  by  l^lr.  Gladstone, 
who  in  1860  succeeded  in  prevailing  on 
Parliament  to  approve  a  treaty  with  France, 
by  which  a  large  number  of  auties  and  pro- 
hibitions on  our  trade  with  that  country  were 
swept  away. 

Macpberson,  Hi$t.  of  Brituik  ComnMrn; 
▲dam  Smith,  iVtaltn  of  N<iiion$^  ed.  McCallodi : 
Conmuffhajn,  Gi'OtctH  of  EngliA  Indu$try  m»A 
Commerce.  C^^'  ^'1 

Trades'  TTnions.  The  Act  of  Appren- 
tices (5  Eliz.)  made  the  medieval  gild  ref- 
lations with  regard  to  apprentices  binding 
upon  all  the  trades  in  existence  at  the  time, 
and  in  addition  ordered  an  annual  assess- 
ment of  wages  by  the  justices.  But  thee^ 
enactments  g^dually  ceased  to  be  observed, 
and  as  early  as  1725  temporary  associations 
were  formed  among  workmen  to  secure  the 
carrying  out  of  the  Act.  But  these  were 
declared  illegal  by  Act  of  Parliament, 
although  the  attempts  of  the  legislaturR  to 
revive  -  the  practice  of  fixing  wages  bv 
the  justices  proved  resultless.  In  spite  of 
evils  in  particular  industries,  the  relations  of 
the  various  classes  engaged  in  manufacture 
wore  fairly  good  during  the  earlier  ptit 
of     the    century.      The    introduction    of 


Tra 


.(  1009) 


machinery,  however,  and  with  it  of  the  factory 
«yBtem,  soon  caused  an  industrial  war ;  jour- 
neyxnen  everywhere  petitioned  that  the  Act  6 
£liz.  should  be  enforced,  and  began  to  foim 
societies  and  raise  funds  for  the  prosecution  of 
•  offending  masters.    But  while  Parliament  sus- 
pended the  Act  for  the  benefit  of  employers 
year  after  year,  and  repealed  it  for  the  woollen 
manufacture  in  1809,  and  generally  in  1814, 
associations  of  workmen  were  rendered  penal 
by  Acts  of  1799  and  1800.    The  unions  either 
assumed    the    guise    of    friendly    provident 
societies  to  evade  the  Acts,  or  else  became 
secret  associations,  with  the  usual  evil  results. 
In  1 824  Joseph  Hume  gained  the  appointment 
of  a  Parliamentary  committee,  which  reported 
that  the  administration  of  the  law  had  been 
one-sided,  that  it  had  only  touched  workmen, 
and  not  masters  who  had  combined,  adding  also 
that  the  law  had,  '^  in  the  opinion  of  many  of 
both  parties,  tended  to  produce  mutual  irrita- 
tion   and  distrust,  and    to    give   a    violent 
character  to  the  combinations."    In  accord- 
ance with  its   advice,  all  the  Acts  against 
combination  were  repealed  in  1824 ;   but  so 
numerous  were  the  strikes  that  followed  that 
a  most    unwise  Amending  Act  was  passed 
next  year,  according  to  which,  though  persons 
meeting  to  determine  their  own  wages  were 
exempted  from  punishment,  "  all  meetings  or 
agreements  for  the  purpose  of  affecting  the 
wages   or    hours  of    work    of    persons   not 
present   at  the  meeting,  or  parties   to  the 
agreement,  were  conspiracies.     So  were  all 
agreements  for  controlling  a  master  in  the 
management  of  his  business.    So  were  all 
agreements  not  to  work  in  the  company  of 
any  given  person,  or  to  persuade  other  per- 
sons to  leave  their  employment,  or  not  to  en- 
^&ge  themselves.    In  fact,  there  was  scarcely 
m   act   performed  by  any  workman,  as  the 
nember    of   a  trade-union,  which  was  not 
m  act  of  conspiracy  and  a  misdemeanour." 
Besides,  the  general  Acts  against  conspiracy 
:ould  fitill  be  employed  against  unionists,  as 
n  1834,  when  six  Dorchester  labourers  were 
lentenced  to  seven  years'  transportation  for 
'  administering  unlawful  oaths  " — «.f .,  admit- 
ing  members  into  a  union.    During  the  next 
hirty   years,   in    spite    of   these  Acts,  the 
inionist  movement  spread  with  great  rapidity ; 
n  1851  a  combination  of  several  associations 
roduced    the  Amalgamated  Society  of  En- 
•ineers,    "which    played    a    part    in    trade- 
nion    struggles  comparable  to  that  of  the 
reavers  among  the  mediieyal  gilds.    Public 
ttention  "was  recalled  to  the  unions  by  the 
heffield  outrages  (q.v.)  of  1866,  which  led  to 
^e  appointment  of  a  Royal  Commission  in 
867  to  examine  the  whole  matter.    But  it  was 
[early    proved  that  the  large    majority  of 
nions  had  nothing  illegal  in  their  working, 
nd  in  consequence  the  Trades  Union  Act  of 
^71     recognised    their    complete     legality. 
inally,  tbe  last  vestiges  of  the  Combination 
cts  were    repealed  in  1875 ;   henceforward 


the  offences  of  unionists  must  be  tried  under 
no  special  Acts,  but  under  the  ordinary 
criminal  law.  About  the  same  time  unionism 
was  introduced  into  agricultural  districts,  and 
the  Agricultural  Labourers'  Union,  founded 
in  1872,  has  many  thousands  of  members. 
The  ExigUsh  trades  unions  are  bound  to- 
gether in  a  loose  confederation.  In  each 
town  there  is  a  Trades  Council,  upon  which 
sit  representatires  ot  such  unions  as  care 
to  join.  Tnde-union  conirresses  have  met 
annually  since  1868,  and  these  have  yearly, 
since  1871,  appointed  a  permanent  "  Parlia- 
mentary Committee  "  to  watoh  over  the  in- 
terests of  workmen. 

George  Howell,  C<mjli-i»  of  Labour  and  Cap- 
itol hS78),  Marshall,  Economies  of  Indiutrfi, 
and  Sidaej  and  Be<trioe  Webo,  Hist.  ofTradB 
Unionism,  See  also  Brentano,  Introductory 
Bnay  to  English  GUds  (1S70) ;  and  his  Ar- 
hnttrgUden  der  Qogenvart ;  Harrison,  Good  and 
JBvil  of  Trodo-Untonum,  Fortnightly  EevifWf  iii.  88 
(1805} ;  Comte  de  Paris,  Tradw  Unimu  of  Kngland 
(1809);  Annual  Repoi-ta  of  Trade-Union  Con- 
gresses ;  Held,  Z^eei  B^Ker  cur  Soc.  Qfch.  Eng, 
(1881).  For  laeir  economic  function,  see  Toyn- 
bee.  TTw  Induttrial  Bnolution  (IbSi),  170  sec; 
Walker,  Poltf .  Econ.  (1883),  pt.  0,  ch.  5. 

[W.  J.  A.] 

Traliedgar,  The  Battle  of  (Oct.  21, 
1805),  was  the  last  and  most  fatal  blow  in- 
flicted on  the  naval  power  of  France.  On 
the  previous  afternoon  the  comhined  French 
and  Spanish  fleets  had  heen  descried  sailing 
out  of  the  port  of  Cadiz,  and  during  the 
night  Nelson  had  kept  his  fleet  under  all  sail 
to  keep  them  in  sight.  At  daybreak  on  the 
21st  they  were  seen  in  a  close  line  about  twelve 
miles  ahead.  As  the  English  fleet  came  up 
with  him,  Villeneuve  (the  French  admiral) 
formed  his  fleet  in  a  double  line  in  close  order. 
Nelson  had  twenty-seven  men-of-war  and 
four  frigates,  against  the  combined  fleets  of 
thirty-three  ships  and  seven  frigates,  and  he 
adopted  the  plan  of  attacking  in  two  lines, 
ColHngwood  leading  the  lee-line  of  thirteen 
ships,  and  Nelson  the  weather- line  of  fourteen. 
Villeneuve  made  the  most  skilful  prepara- 
tions to  meet  the  attack,  but  seems  to  have 
perceived  at  once  that  Nelson's  plan  would 
succeed.  As  the  Victory^  Nelson's  ship, 
neared  the  French  fleet,  she  was  raked  by 
a  galling  fire  from  the  enemy,  so  that  she  had 
lost  fifty  men  before  returning  a  gun.  At 
noon  she  opened  her  fire,  and  ran  on  board 
ihe  RedottbtabUy  with  the  intention  of  breaking 
the  enemy's  line.  That  ship  fired  one  broad- 
side, and  then,  through  fear  of  being  boarded, 
let  down  her  lower  ports,  and  contented  her- 
self for  the  rest  of  the  battle  with  keeping 
up  a  fire  of  musketry  from  her  tops.  The 
Victory  soon  became  busy  with  her,  the 
Timeraire,  and  the  huge  Santissima  Trinidad^ 
and  at  a  quarter  past  one  Nelson  was  mortally 
wounded  by  a  ball  from  the  marines  in  the 
tops.  Within  twenty  minutes  the  Jiedoubtable 
struck.  In  the  meantime  the  battle  had 
been    raging   with    almost    equal    fury   on 


(  1010  ) 


all  sides;  and  everywhere  the  stubborn 
courage  of  the  British  seamen  wore  out  the 
resistance  of  the  enemy.  Nelsob.  lived  just 
long  enough  to  know  that  he  had  gained  his 
last  and  greatest  victory.  Twenty  of  the 
enemy  had  struck :  seven  of  their  ships 
escaped  from  the  battle,  only  to  be  all  cap- 
tured by  Sir  Richard  Stracluui  ofi  Rochefort. 
The  next  evening  a  gale  came  on  from  the 
south-west,  which  destroyed  most  of  the 
prizes.  The  English  loss  amounted  to  1,687 
men :  the  loss  of  the  allies  was  much  greater, 
and  included  the  Spanish  admiral,  while 
Yilleneu ve  was  taken  prisoner.  The  Spaniards, 
disgusted  with  the  conduct  of  the  French,  at 
once  made  peace,  and  treated  our  wounded 
with  the  utmost  attention.  With  the  loss  of 
Yilleneuve's  fleet  vanished  all  Napoleon's 
hopes  of  invading  England. 

Soathey,  Life  of  Nelton ;  Jamee,  If  aval  Hist. ; 
AUflon,  Hi$t.  of  Europe. 

Trailbaston.  Commissions  of,  were  first 
issued  by  Edward  I.  in  1292,  and  were  con- 
tinued down  to  the  middle  of  Richard  II. *s 
reign.  The  object  was  to  put  down  the 
numerous  bands  of  swashbucklers,  or  **  trail- 
hastens*'  {i.e.f  staff  or  bludgeon  carriers)  ajs 
they  were  called.  Commissions  for  the 
purpose  of  quelling  the  disturbances  caused 
by  these  rofSans  were  sent  throughout  the 
country,  inquiring,  imprisoning,  fining,  and 
even  hanging  summarily. 

Train  BandSi  or  trained  bands,  insti- 
tuted in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  were  bodies  of 
urban  militia,  which  combined  with  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  **  fyrd  "  a  large  volunteer  element. 
lAey  proved,  however,  exceedingly  turbulent, 
especially  in  London,  and,  having  espoused 
the  side  of  the  Parliament  during  the  Great 
Rebellion,  were  abolished  after  ihe  Restora- 
tion.    [MiLiTAKY  System.] 

Traquair,  John  Stewart,  Eabl  of 
(b.  1599,  d.  1659),  son  of  John  Stewart  of 
Gaverston,  was  a  great  favourite  of  Charles  I., 
who  created  him  an  earl  in  1633,  and  the 
following  year  made  him  Lord  High  Treasurer 
of  Scotland,  and  in  1639  High  Commissioner. 
In  1641  Traquair,  who  had  made  enemies, 
was  found  guilty  on  a  charge  of  treason,  but 
pardoned  by  XlJharles,  who  was  convinced  of 
his  loyalty.  In  1648  he  fought  at  the  battle 
of  Preston,  where  he  was  taken  prisoner,  and 
confined  in  Warwick  Castle  for  four  years  by 
command  of  the  Parliament.  His  charact^ 
is  thus  described :  '*  He  was  a  man  of  great 
learning,  but  of  too  much  craft ;  he  was  con- 
sidered the  most  capable  man  for  business, 
and  the  best  speaker,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Scotland." 

Travancore  was  a  little  principality  at 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  Malabar  coast. 
The  treaty  of  Mangalore  nlaced  it  under 
British  protection.  In  consequence  of  this 
Lord  Comwallis  began  the  second  Mysore  "War 
(q*v.)  to  avenge  on  Tippoo  the  insult  offered 


to  the  British  government  by  his  imjn- 
voked  attack  (1790)  on  the  Una  of  Trtsiu 
core  (a  line  of  ramparts  protected  by  &  ditdi 
and  bound  hedge,  extending  along  the  notthea 
frontier  from  tiie  Neilgherry  hills  to  the  sea). 
In  1796  a  subsidiary  alliance  was  condiulel 
between  the  Rajah  and  the  Company,  hf 
which  he  agreed  to  assist  them  if  neoessaiy 
with  troops  to  the  best  of  his  abilit^r.  Asd 
in  1806  a  second  treaty  was  concluded,  h 
which  this  duty  was  commuted  for  an  annual 
payment.  l>avancore  was  extremely  badlj 
governed,  and  retrenchment  and  refozm  v«9 
absolutely  necessary.  The  last  treaty  vitk 
the  English  had  stipulated  this.  In  ISOS 
an  attempt  to  enforce  this  led  to  an  attack 
on  the  Residency,  from  which  the  Resident 
barely  escaped.  English  troops  were  marched 
up,  and  order  was  after  some  trouble  restored. 
Travancore  is  still  one  of  the  protected 
native  States. 

TreatfOIly  The  Law  op.  High  treasos, 
which  means  a  transcendently  dangerous  kind 
of  betrayal,  is  theoretically  a  murderous  bkv 
aimed  at  the  State,  but  in  fact  is  any  mis- 
chievous action  or  design  against  the  penoa 
of  the  sovereign,  with  whose  particular  life  the 
general  welfare  is  supposed  to  be  bound.  It  is 
called  **  high  "  to  distinguiah  it  from  simpb 
or  petty  treason,  which  was  an  outrsgeoiu  or 
unnatural  betrayal  of  confidence,  as  that  of  s 
child  who  attempts  or  designs  the  slaughto' 
of  a  parent.  Feudalism  is  usually  creditai 
with  having  shifted  the  mark  of  treason  from 
the  State  to  the  sovereign.  Tet  the  idea  of 
the  king*s  supreme  lord^ip  and  conscqu^Qt 
importance  in  this  connexion  is  first  seen  in 
Arnisd's  law  of  treason :  "  If  any  one  plot 
against  the  king's  life,  of  himself  or  by 
harbouring  of  exiles,  or  of  his  men,  let  him 
be  liable  in  his  life  and  in  all  that  he  has."" 
For  such  *' treachery  against  a  lord"  Alfitd 
thought  no  reparation  possible.  After  tk 
Conquest,  therefore,  while  the  penalty  of 
rebellion  was,  for  a  Norman,  only  forfeitoff 
and  imprisonment,  for  an  Englishman  it  ^rtg 
death.  In  1076  the  Norman  earl,  Ralp^ 
Gnader,  met  with  no  worse  doom  than  kss  d 
lands  and  perpetual  captivity ;  the  Enf^isb* 
man  Waltheof  perished  on  the  scaffold.  Ih^ 
crime  did  not  assume  its  darker  aspect,  cr 
draw  after  it  the  more  awful  ponifihrnnit 
afterwards  reserved  for  it,  till  many  yeaw 
later.  The  Norman  and  early  Phmtagestt 
kings  seldom,  if  ever,  had  leaders  of  rebdlioQ 
executed  on  legal  process;  their  vengemct 
was  satisfied  with  the  ordinary  feudal  ccb- 
sequences.  The  idea  of  treason,  howerer. 
was  well  known.  Glanville  speaks  of  it 
under  the  name  of  "  lose  majesty,"  thus  shov- 
ing the  influence  of  the  Roman  law  on  its 
development.  Edward  I.  gave  expreesi* 
perhaps  for  the  first  time,  to  the  sterner  con- 
ception of  the  offence;  the  proceedings 
against  David  at  Wales  and  William  Waliae^ 


{  1011  ) 


first  exhibited  its  merciless  characteristics. 
The  coBstructiTe  complexity  of  David's  g^lt 
set  the  precedent  for  the  most   appalling 
feature  in  our  legal  history.     He  was  drawn 
to  the  gallows,  hanged,  had  his  bowels  burnt, 
and  his  quarters  dispersed  over  the  kingdom, 
respectively  for  the  treachery  to  his  lord,  the 
marder,  the  profanation'  of  a  holy  season,  and 
the  repeated  formation  of  designs  against  his 
king  at  various  places,  into  which  the  judges 
divided  his  crime.    This  case  practically  ruled 
all  that  came  after.    The  hurdle,  the  gallows, 
the  axe,  and  the  quartering  knife,  were  for 
ages  the  instruments  of  the  punishment  of 
treason,  varied  only  by  the  stake  and  the  faggot 
if  the  convicted  txaitor  were  a  woman.    The 
legal  sentiment  was  now  fostered  that  there 
was  a  special  heinousness  in  the  offence.    It 
was  deemed  politic,  perhaps,  to  frighten  the 
king's  liegemen  into  a  respect  for  their  oaths 
and  implied  fealty.     Any  scheme  that  struck 
at  the  king,  his  crown  and  dignity,  or  tended 
to  do  mischief  to  his  person  or  royal  estate, 
was  asserted  by  legal  writers  to  be  treason, 
not  only  in  those  who  attempted  it,  but  also 
in  those  who  advised  it.     But  the  crown  had 
the  interest  in  keeping  the  offence  indefinite 
that  the  consequent  frequency  of  forfeitures 
gave;  and  the  profitable  vagueness  was  al- 
lowed to  hang  over  it  for  a  time.     Mortimer, 
for   instance,  was  in  1330    condemned   for 
merely  "accroaching"  or  drawing   towards 
himself  the  royal  power.     In  1352,  therefore, 
the  puzzled  and  distressed  Lords  and  Com- 
mons begged  King  Edward  III.  to  declare 
authoritativdy  the  law  ofx  the  subject.     Ed- 
ward complied,  and  the  historic  Statute  of 
Treasons  was  the  result.    Henceforward  no 
man  was  to  be  held  guilty  of  treason  who  had 
not  compassed  the  death  of  the  king,  queen, 
or  their  eldest  son ;  violated  the  queen,  the 
king's  eldest  daughter,  if  unmarried,  or  the 
wife  of  his  eldest  son ;  levied  war  against  the 
king  in    his   kingdom,  or   adhered    to   his 
enemies :    coimterfeited  the  Great    Seal,  or 
brought  false  money  into  the  land ;  or  slain 
his  chancellor,  treasurer,  or  judges  "  being  in 
their  place  doing  their  offices."    And  all  the ' 
lands  forfeited  for  any  of  these  offences  were 
to  go  to  the  king,  whether  holden  of  him  or 
of   others.    The    weightier  clauses    of    this 
statute  are  law  stUl.    But  it  often  fell  short 
of    the   needs  of  an   arbitrary  kin^  or  an 
unusually  critical  condition  of  affairs;  and 
such  additions  were  made  to  it  by  the  legis- 
lature, and  constructions  placed  upon  it  by 
the   judges,  as  the  occasion  seemed  to  de- 
nand.     In  Richard  II.*s  heyday  of  power,  in 
Elenry  VI. 's  growing  weakness,  new  treasons 
nrere    created,  but  only  to  be  brushed  away 
it  the  return  of  better  or  more  settled  times. 
Che  reig^  most  prolific  of  artificial  treasons 
vaa     Henry   VIII.' s;    to    deny    the   royal 
lupremacy,  or  even  decline  to  admit  it,  to 
Leprive     the    king    of    any    of    his    titles, 
o  keop  hack  from  him  the  knowledge  of  an 


immorality  committed  by  the  lady  he  pro- 
posed to  marry,  and  several  other  things 
of  little  seeming  importance  at  other  times, 
were  exaggerated  into  treasons.  These  were 
all  swept 'away  when  Edward  VI.  succeeded ; 
but  many  of  them  were  ro-enacted  the  year 
before  his  death,  while,  as  a  feeble  antidote  to 
this  renewed  severit}',  it  was  provided  that  no 
treason  should  be  established  save  on  the 
testimony  of  two  witnesses.  The  restored 
additions  were  cast  out  again  in  Mary's  reign, 
but  the  mitigatory  provision  was  left  un- 
touched. The  safety  of  Elizabeth  called  for 
fresh  accessions  to  the  law — among  other 
enactments  it  was  made  treason  to  say  that 
the  queen  was  a  heretic,  a  schismatic,  or  a 
usurper — but  these  were  limited  to  the  queen's 
lifetime.  After  her  death  the  law  of  Edward 
III.  continued  the  sole  statutory  basis  of  the 
crime,  and  the  law  of  Edward  VI.  its  sole 
judicial  corrective.  The  nimble  wits  of  law- 
yers, however,  had  found  in  the  former,  by 
help  of  the  doctrine  of  constructive  treason, 
more  than  one  implication  of  crime.  Chief 
among  these  was  conspiracy  to  levy  war 
against  the  king,  which  though  not  asserted 
to  be  itself  treason,  was  accepted  as  a  con- 
vincing proof  of  treason.  To  this  principle 
Parliament  also  three  times  gave  a  lease  of 
the  existing  sovereign's  life,  in  the  reigns  of 
EHzabeth,  Charles  II.,  and  George  III.  The 
contemplated  deposition  of  the  sovereign, 
or  even  the  devisal  of  a  plan  for  putting  him 
under  restraint  for  any  purpose  whatever,, 
such  as  Essex  designed  in  1601,  was  discovered 
in  Edward  III.'s  statute.  At  last,  in  1816,  the 
whole  subject  was  comprehensively  treated  in 
a  statute  of  that  year,  which  is  now  the 
accepted  standard  of  treason.  By  this  measure 
not  only  the  overt  act,  but  the  mere  enter- 
tainment of  a  desigpi  to  slay,  wound,  coerce^ 
or  depose  the  king,  or  to  deprive  him  of  any 
part  of  his  dominions,  or  to  levy  war  against 
him  with  any  view  whatever,  or  to  move  an 
invasion  from  abroad,  and  the  publication  of 
an  intention  to  do  any  of  these  things,  were 
declared  to  be  high  treason.  The  law  was 
thus  definitively  fixed.  No  legal  process  was 
more  shamelessly  perverted  to  t}Tannical  and 
unjust  ends  than  that  of  treason,  as  a  hundred 
cases,  from  Burdett's  to  Sidney's,  testify'.  To 
remedy  the  monstrous  unfairness  of  trials  on 
this  charge  the  notable  law  of  1696  was 
passed.  This  insures  to  the  accused  the 
assistance  of  counsel,  the  examination  of  his 
witnesses  on  oath,  a  copy  of  his  indictment 
five  (afterwards  ten)  days,  a  list  of  the  jury 
panel  two  days,  before  his  trial,  and  the  cer- 
tainty of  having  two  direct  witnesses  pro- 
duced against  him;  and  limits  prosecutions 
to  the  term  of  three  years,  save  for  an  attempt 
to  assassinate  the  king.  The  revolting  horrors 
of  the  punishment  have  since  been  removed—- 
the  cutting  down  alive  and  disembowelling  of 
men,  and  the  burning  of  women,  in  1790; 
the  drawing,  quartering,  and  beheading,  in 


(  1012  ) 


Tre 


1870.    But  they  had  ceased  to  be  cairied  out 

much  earlier. 

Hallnm,  Conat.  HiA,  voL  iii. ;  Stnbbs,  Const. 
Bi$t, ;  Rniud  SttUvtM,  [J.  K.] 

Treasonable  Fractices  Bill  (1795) 

was  introduced  into  the  House  of  Lords  by 
Lord  Grenville  in  consequence  of  the  excited 
«tate  of  popular  opinion,  which  at  length  dis- 
played itself  in  an  attempt  upon  the  life  of  the 
king  (George  III.).  The  chief  point  in  the  Bill 
was  that  it  dispensed  with  proof  of  overt  acts 
of  treason,  and  altogether  widened  the  defini- 
tion  of  treason,  so  as  to  include  any  writing 
or  speaking  which  should  incite  the  people  to 
hatred  or  contempt  of  the  king*8  majesty,  or 
the  established  government  and  constitution 
of  the  resJm.  It  thus  formed  a  statutory 
prohibition  on  the  discussion  of  Parliamentary 
reform,  and  was  a  most  flagrant  encroach- 
ment upon  freedom  of  opinion.  The  Bill  was 
supported  in  a  narrow  spirit,  worthy  of  its 
aims;  but  it  also  found  seven  opponents 
among  the  Peers.  In  the  House  of  Commons 
it  met  with  a  vigorous  resistance.  Fox  went 
80  far  as  to  say  that  if  this  and  the  Seditious 
Meetings  Bill  '*  should  be  put  into  force  with 
<all  their  rigorous  provisions,  if  his  opinion 
were  asked  by  the  people  as  to  their  obedience, 
he  should  tell  them  it  was  no  longer  a  question 
of  moral  obligation  and  duty,  but  of  pru- 
dence." Ho  was  supported  by  Sheridan, 
Grey,  and  Whitbread,  and  others  of  the 
extreme  Liberals ;  but  the  ministers  openly 
avowed  their  determination  "  to  exert  a 
rigour  beyond  the  law  as  exercised  in  ordinary 
times  and  under  ordinary  circumstances.'' 
They  could  do  what  they  liked ;  and  in  spite 
of  this  brilliant  opposition  in  the  House,  and 
popular  indignation  outside,  the  Bill  was 
passed,  te  remain  in  force  during  the  life  of 
the  king,  and  till  the  end  of  the  next  session 
after  his  death. 

Hay,  Con9t.  Hist.,  vol.  il.  ch.  9. 


\  The  Lord  High,  the  office 
of,  was  of  Norman  origin.  It  does  not  seem 
at  first  te  have  been  considered  of  great  im- 
portance, the  duties  of  the  king's  treasurer 
consisting  in  keeping  the  royal  treasure  at 
Winchester,  and,  as  a  member  of  the  ex- 
chequer at  Westminster,  in  receiving  the 
accounts  of  the  sherifiEs.  The  office  was  held 
by  several  ecclesiastics,  among  whom  were 
Nigel  of  Ely  and  his  son,  Richard  Fitz-Neal. 
Under  the  Norman  kings  it  had  no  separate 
judicial  powers,  and  it  was  not  until  after  the 
extinction  of  the  office  of  justiciar  that  the 
treasurer  rapidly  became  one  of  the  chief 
functionaries  of  the  crown.  From  the  middle 
of  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  we  find  the 
treasurer,  in  conjunction  with  the  newly- 
created  chancellor  of  the  exchequer,  taking 
part  in  the  equitable  jurisdiction  of  the  ex- 
chequer. He  was  now  the  third  great  officer 
of  the  crown ;  and  his  duties,  besides  presiding 
in  the  upper  court  of  exchequer,  consisted  in 


the  custody  of  the  king's  treasure,  and  of  the 
records  deposited  there,  and  the  appointnuait 
of  the  commissioners  and  other  officers  em- 
ployed in  collecting  the  royal  revenue.  The 
treasury  appears  to  have  been  first  put  in 
commission  in  1635,  and  the  last  loird  hi^ 
treasurer  was  the  Earl  of  Rochester  (1685 — 87  u 
The  office  of  First  Lord  of  the  Treasarj  is 
now  held  by  the  Prime  Minister,  and  he  is  also 
not  unfrequently  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
as  welL  The  Lord  High  Treasurer  of  Scot- 
land was  created  by  James  I.  on  his  ret^ini 
from  captivity  in  England.  The  office 
was  modelled  on  the  parallel  institution  in 
England,  but  it  seems  to  have  acquired  more 
relative  importance,  for  in  1617  it  was  de- 
clared the  first  office  of  State.  Conunisaoiiexs 
of  the  treasury  were  first  appointed  in  Scot- 
land in  1641,  and  its  separate  existence  was 
abolished  at  the  Union.  A  similar  step  was 
taken  with  regard  to  Ireland  in  1816,  where 
lord  treasui'ers  seem  to  have  been  in  existsice 
as  early  as  the  reign  of  Henry  III. 

Stubbs,  SrUce  Chartert,  JHalomu  <U  Scaamia, 
and  Cofwt.  Hitt,,  toI.  i.  ch.  ii.  and  vol.  iiL 
ch.  18;  Haydii,  Book  o/Di^nttiea. 

Tremayne,  Akd&bw  {d.  1563),  one  of  the 
conspirators  in  Sir  Henry  Dudley's  plot  (15.56), 
had  been  suspected  of  being  involved,  together 
with  his  brother  Edward,  in  Wyatt's  rebellion 
(1554)  (q.v.),  but  nothing  was  proved  against 
him.  In  1560  Tremayne  distinguished  him- 
self at  the  siege  of  Leith;  he  was  killed  at 
Havre  at  the  same  time  as  his  twin  brother 
Nicholas.  Mr.  F»>ude  calls  him  '*  the  most 
gallant  of  the  splendid  band  of  youths  who 
had  been  driven  into  exile  in  Mary's  time, 
and  had  roved  the  seas  as  privateers.'* 

Stow,  AnndU;  AiUn,  Uemoin  of  tlu  Court  ^ 

Elixabeth. 

Treuchard,  Johk  {b.  1650,  d.  169.5), 

first  sat  in  the  House  of  Commons  in  1678, 
as  member  for  Taunton.  He  brought  in 
the  first  Exclusion  Bill.  He  was  imprisoned 
for  his  share  in  the  Rye  House  Con- 
spiracy, and  was  a  vigorous  supporter  of 
the  unfortunate  invasion  of  Monmouth.  He 
escaped  to  the  Continent,  and  was  expressly 
excepted  from  the  Bill  of  Pardon  of  1686. 
He  returned  with  William  HI.,  and  sat  as  a 
member  of  the  Convention.  In  1693  he  was 
appointed  Secretary  of  State.  "  Apparently," 
says  Macaulay,  "  he  was  not  trusted  with  any 
of  the  greater  secrete  of  State,  but  was  little 
more  than  a  superintendent  of  police."  He 
displayed  great  and  perhaps  excessive  seal  in 
the  suppression  of  tiie  Jacobites.  A  genial 
search  for  members  of  that  political  per- 
suasion in  Lancashire  failed  in  its  effects, 
owing  to  the  betrayal  of  the  design.  Trenchard 
was  thereupon  made  the  subject  of  hitter 
pamphlet  attacks.  The  prosecutions  of  the 
arrested  men  were  complete  failure*.  These 
proceedings  were  severely  commented  on  by 
the  House.  Trenchard's  health  gave  way, 
and  he  died  soon  afterwards. 


Tre 


(  1013  )  ) 


Trenoliard,  John,  son  of  the  foregoing 
(&.  1669,  d.  1723),  is  chiefly  remarkable  as  a 
political  writer.  In  1698  he  published  a 
^mphlet  entitled  The  History  of  Standing 
Armiesy  in  support  of  Whig  doctrines  on 
that  subject.  He  was  one  of  the  commissioners 
appointed  by  Parliament  to  examine  into  the 
Irish  land  grants,  and  issued  a  most  violent 
report  on  the  subject.  ■  He  subsequently  pub- 
lished a  journal  called  the  Independent  Whig, 
and  also  Cato'e  Zettere  (1720^23). 

Trent*  Thb  Casb  of  thb,  1861.    The 
British  mail  steamer  Trent  left  Havana  (Nov. 
7,  1861]  for  8t.  Thomas  with  the  mails  for 
England,  under  charge  of  a  commander  in  the 
navy,  and  with  numerous  passengers,  including 
Messrs.  Slidell  and  Mason,  commissioners  for 
tiie  Confederate  States.    It  was  stopped  (Nov. 
8)  at  the  entrance  to  the  Bahama  Channel, 
and  about  nine  miles  from  the  island  of  Cuba, 
by  the  American  steamship  of  war  San  JaeitUo, 
Captain  Wilkes.    The  Confederate  Commis- 
sioners  and    their    secretaries   were   taken 
from  the  mail  steamer,  which  was  allowed  to 
proceed  on  her  voyage,  and  were  carried  to 
the  Uoited  States,  wheie  they  were  imprisoned 
in  a  military  fortress.    As  soon  as  intelli- 
gence of  this  occurrence  reached   London, 
Earl  Russell,  in  a  despatch  on  Not.  30,  1861, 
instructed  Lord  Lyons  to  demand  their  re- 
lease and   a  suitable  apology.     This  note 
was    8upx>orted    by    oommonications    from 
France,  Austria,  Prussia,  Russia,  and  Italy, 
sustaining  the  views  of  the  British  govern- 
ment.    Mr.  Seward,  the  American  Secretary 
of     State,     justified    the    seizure    on    the 
grounds  that  the  commissioners  were  con- 
tiuband  of  war,  and  that  Captain  Wilkes 
was   entitled  to    seize  them  as  enemies  or 
rebels.     He    denied    the    immunity  of   the 
Trent   as  a  packet-boat,  and  declared  that 
Captain  Wilkes  had  exercised  the  right  of 
search    in  a   perfectly   legal    manner.    He 
conceded,  however,  that  Wilkes  was  guilty 
of  an  irregularity  in  not  sending  the  vessel 
into   an  American  port   to  be    tried  by  a 
prize  court,  and  finally  based  his  acquiescence 
m  the  British  demand  on  considerations  con- 
nected with  the  complaints  previously  made 
by  the  United  States  as  to  the  impressment 
of  seamen  from  their  vessels.    The  question 
was  thus  settled.    Lord  Russell,  however,  in 
%  despatch  of  Jan.  11,  1862,  explicitly  denied 
that  the  commissioners  could  in  any  sense  be 
described  as  contraband  of  war. 

The  Times,  1861-2 ;  Annwd  Re^er,  186L 

TresiliaUt  Siu  Robert  {d.  1388),  was 
Appointed  Chief  Justice  of  England  in  1381. 
blis  first  act  was  to  try  the  insurgents  of  Wat 
Tyler's  rebellion,  and  he  performed  his  duty 
with  such  cruelty  that  no  parallel  can  be 
found  for  his  conduct  till  the  campaign  of 
Tudg^  Jeffreys.  He  attached  himself  to  the 
king  and  De  Vere,  and  by  his  advice  Richard 
uinulled  the  Commission  of  Regency  which 


had  been  appointed  in  1386,  Treoilian  inducing 
the  judges  to  join  him  in  declaring  that  the 
commission  was  derogatory  to  the  royalty  of 
the  king.  When  Parliament  met  in  1 387,  the 
borons  were  determined  on  his  punishment ; 
he  was  deprived  of  his  office  and  appealed  ot 
treason.  He  sought  refuge  in  flight,  but  was 
captured  and  hanged  at  Tyburn. 

Trevelyaa,  Sir  Gborob  Otto  [b,  1838^, 
was  educated  at  Harrow  and  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  and  entei*ed  the  House  of 
Commons  in  1865.  In  1869  he  took  office  as 
a  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  and  from  1880  to 
1882  was  Secretary  of  the  same  Department. 
He  then  became  Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland, 
and  in  1884  was  rewarded  with  a  seat  in  the 
Cabinet.  In  1886,  being  vnable  to  approve 
of  Mr.  Gladstone's  Irish  policy,  he  resigned 
the  Secretaryship  for  Scotland.  Afterwards, 
however,  he  returned  to  the  main  section  of 
the  Liberal  party,  and  from  1892  to  1896  was 
again  Secretary  for  Scotland. 

Trevor.  Sir  John  {b.  1633,  d.  1717),  was, 
says  Macaulay,  **  bred  half  a  pettifogger,  and 
half  a  gambler.''  He  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1661.  He  was  a  creiitiire  of  Judge  Jeffreys', 
and  as  such  was  chosen  Speaker  in  1685. 
Shortly  afterwards  he  became  Master  of  the 
Rolls.  After  the  Revolution  he  was  sworn  of 
the  Privy  Council.  He  was  employed  by  Lord 
Caermarthen  to  buy  the  votes  of  the  House  of 
Commons.  He  again  became  Speaker  in 
1690,  without  opposition.  He  was  subse- 
quently created  First  Commissioner  of  the 
Great  SeaL  In  1695  he  was  accused  of  cor- 
ruption, having  received  from  the  City  of 
London  £1,000  for  expediting  a  local  bill.  It 
was  known  that  he  pocketed  £6,000  a  year  be- 
yond his  official  salary.  In  his  place  he  was 
forced  to  put  the  question  and  declare  that  the 
*<  ayes  "  had  it.  Next  day  he  avoided  putting 
the  vote  for  his  expulsion  by  pleading  illness. 
He  was,  however,  expelled  the  House. 

CommouM*  J<»imaU ;  Bnmet,  Kist,  of  Hu  Own 
Time;  Macaulay,  Hist,  ofEng. 

Triers,  Thb  Commission  op,  was  es- 
tablished by  Cromwell  (March,  1654).  Crom- 
well  regulated  the  Church  by  means  of  two 
ordinances,  one  of  which  established  local 
committees  to  eject  unfit  ministers,  whilst  the 
other  establis^hed  a  central  committee  to 
examine  ministers  newly  appointed.  The 
latter,  or  Commission  of  Triers,  consisted  of 
thirty-eight  persons,  of  whom  nine  were 
laymen  and  twenty-nine  divines,  to  whom 
four  divines  and  one  laymen  were  afterwards 
added.  Their  duty  was  to  examine  all  future 
presentees  to  livings  and  all  who  had  been 
appointed  since  April  1,  1653.  Their  certi- 
ficate of  fitness  was  to  be  regarded  as  qualify- 
ing candidates  to  receive  the  ministerial 
stipend,  but  it  was  expressly  declared  that  it 
was  not  to  be  regarded  as  *'any  solemn  or 
sacred  setting  apart  for  the  office  of  the 
ministry."    Baxter,  though  a  Presbytcriuiu 


Tvi 


(  1014  ) 


Tvi 


says,  ''To  give  them  their  due,  they  did 
abundance  of  good  to  the  Church."  "  They 
saved  many  a  congregation  from  ignorant, 
ungodly,  drunken  teachers."  He  goes  on  to 
add  that  they  were  too  partial  to  Independ- 
ents and  Separatists,  *'  yet  so  great  was  the 
benefit  above  the  hurt  which  they  brought  to 
the  Qiurch,  that  many  thousands  of  souls 
blessed  Ood  for  the  fiiithful  ministers  whom 
they  let  in." 

Muson,  Lift  o/Mitt<m. 


L,  The  Remonstrance  op  (1648),  was 
a  document  drawn  up  b^*  the  Irish  Catholics, 
and  transmitted  to  the  king  through  Ormonde. 
In  it  they  complain  of  the  penal  laws  and 
disabilities  they  have  been  suffering  under 
since  the  2nd  Elizabeth,  and  also  of  the 
conduct  of  the  Lord  Justices  in  1641,  and  of 
the  threats  of  the  English  Parliament ;  they 
conclude  with  an  ofter  of  10,000  men  to 
defend  the  king's  prerogative.  The  cessation 
soon  followed. 


Trimbnolgee  Baanfflia  was  an  un- 
worthy favourite  of  the  reishwa  Bajee  Bao, 
who  had  been  originally  a  spy.  In  1814  he 
treacherously  murdered  Gungadhur  Shastree. 
He  was  in  consequence  demanded  by  and 
surrendered  after  some  delay  to  the  English 
government  (1816).  In  1816  he  effected  his 
escape  from  the  fort  of  Tannah.  At  the  end 
of  the  Mahratta  and  Pindarrie  war  he  was 
arrested,  imprisoned,  and  died  in  the  fortress 
of  Chunar. 

Trimnieraf  The,  were  a  party  of  politi- 
cians who  formed  a  third  party  in  Parliament 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  about  1680, 
between  the  Whigs  and  the  Tories  as  they 
came  to  be  called.  Their  loader,  Halifax, 
was  a  Trimmer  on  principle,  and  looked  upon 
the  title  as  one  of  honour.  True  to  their 
character,  they  voted  in  the  Upper  House 
against  tiie  Exclusion  BiU,  although  they 
were  known  to  be  opposed  to  the  Duke  of 
York. 

Halifax,  CharadUr  of  a  Trimmtfr. 

Trinidad,  the  most  southerly  of  the 
West  India  Islands,  was  discovered  by 
"Oolumbus  in  1498,  and  was  for  many  years 
used  by  the  Spaniards  as  a  victualling  station 
for  their  ships.  In  1595  it  was  attacked  by 
:8ir  Walter  Raleigh,  and  in  1676  was  ravaged 
by  the  French.  In  1783  a  free  grant  of 
huid  was  promised  by  the  King  of  Spain 
to  every  Catholic  settler,  and  the  result  was  a 
-g^at  immigration  from  other  colonies,  the  bulk 
of  the  new-comers  being  Frenchmen.  In  1797 
Trinidad  was  taken  by  a  British  force  under 
Sir  Ralph  Abercrombie  and  Admiral  Harvey, 
and  by  the  peace  of  1802  England  was  con- 
firmed in  the  possession  of  the  island.  Imme- 
diately after  the  occupation  by  the  British, 
numbers  of  settlers  arrived  from  Scotland  and 
Ireland,  and  ever  since  that  time  the  island 
has  been  making  rapid  progress  in  productive- 


ness.   In  1834  negro  emancipation  wu  ac* 

oepted  without  any  of  the  disturbances  idiidi 

proved  so  ruinous  to  Jamaica,  and  as  a  ocm- 

sequence  Trinidad,  with  only  a  fifth  of  the 

population  of  Jamaica,  exports  about  as  much 

sugar  as  that  island.    It  is  a  crown  colony, 

the  administration  being  vested  in  a  govemn, 

an  executive  council,  and  a  legislative  conodl, 

nominated  by  the  crown. 

Edwards,  Wut  hiiint  S.  K.  Maxtin,  Britttk 
CfAonin  ;  Cnuj,  Britannie  £mptr«. 

Trinoda  VecessitaB,  «.«.,  the  ihn^ 
fold  necessi^  of  repairing  bridges  fbricg-bot,, 
keeping  up  fortifications  (borh-bot),  and  per- 
forming military  service  (fyrd^,  was  incambent 
on  every  holdfer  of  land  in  Anglo-Saxon 
times,  even  if  he  were  exempt  from  every 
other  service.  The  earliest  mention  of  the 
trinoda  necessitas  occurs  in  the  beginning  of 
the  eighth  century.    [Feudalism.] 

Tripaartita  Chronicle,  Tkb,  is  the 

title  ofa  Latin  poem  by  John  Giower,  in  which 
he  describes  the  chief  events  of  the  reign  of 
liichard  II.  As  the  name  implies,  it  is 
divided  into  three  parts.  The  firat,  entitled 
"  Opus  Humanum,'*  treats  of  the  Wondorfol 
Parliament  and  the  rule  of  Gloucester  and 
the  barons ;  the  second  part,  "  Opus  Infeini," 
relates  the  revenge  taken  bv  Richard  on  the 
Appellants;  while  the  third,  '*0pn8  in 
Ghristo,"  deals  with  the  deposition  of  Richard 
and  the  substitution  of  Henry.  It  is  written 
throughout  with  a  strong  bias  in  favour  of 
the  Lancastrians,  but  contains  much  interest- 
ing inf  oxmation  as  to  the  state  of  England  at 
the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century. 

Triple  Alliance,  Thb  (Jan.  23, 1668;, 

was  made,  chiefly  by  the  exertions  of  Sir 
William  Temple  and  the  Dutch  statesman 
De  Witt,  between  England,  Holland,  and 
Sweden.  The  three  powers  bound  themselves 
to  assist  one  another  against  France,  and 
especially  in  checking  the  aggressions  d 
Louis  XIY.  in  the  Spanish  Netherlands. 
Finding  himself  threatened  by  this  powerful 
coalition,  Louis  was  compelled  in  tiie  same 
year  to  make  the  Treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelk 
(q.v.)  with  Spain,  by  which  he,  while  re- 
taining many  of  the  border  fortresses  of  the 
Netherlands,  gave  up  Franche-Comt^,  whirh 
he  had  also  conquered,  and  agreed  to  retire 
from  the  Netherlands,  while  the  Spaniards 
ceded  to  him  many  important  frontier  tovns 
The  Triple  Alliance,  nowever,  was  of  short 
duration,  and  was  reversed  two  years  aft«p 
wards  by  the  Treaty  of  Dover,  concluded 
between  England  and  France  (1670),  and 
directed  against  Holland. 

Banke,  Hut.  of  Bng„  and  FmtaSiiaeM  B*' 
ichickto:  Martin,  Hitt.  a«  Franc*;  Cariaoa. 
GMchichttf  von  Schwodeti. 

Triple  Alliance  (India)  (July  4, 1790) 
was  concluded  between  the  Company,  under 
Lord  Comwallis' governorship,  the  Nisam,  and 
the  Peishwa.    Its  stipulations  were  that  the 


Tvi 


(  1015  ) 


Tod 


threepowen  ahould  attack  Tippoo's  dominions, 
both  during  and  after  the  rainB,  and  prosecute 
the  war  with  vigour ;  that  the  Mahxattas  and 
Kizam  should  join  the  English,  if  required, 
with  10,000  horse,  for  which  they  were  to  he 
fully  reimbursed ;  that  a  British  contingent 
should  aocompany  their  troops ;  that  all  con- 
quests should  he  equally  divided;  and  that 
none  should  make  peace  without  the  rest. 
Cornwallifl,  Detpateku;  MiU,  Hiti.  oflndiig, 

Trivaty  or  Triveth,  Nicholas  {b,  1268, 

d.  ?  1358),  was  the  son  of  Sir  Thomas  Trivet, 

Chief  Justice    of   the    Kins^'s    Bench.    He 

entered  the   Dominican  order,  and  on  his 

-death-bed  attained  the  position  of  prior.     His 

AnnaUt    Sex    Segum    Anglia    (1136—1307) 

have  passed    through    several   editions,    of 

which  the  most  accessible  is  that  published 

by  the  English  Historical  Society  in   1845. 

They  are  also  to  be  found  in  Luc  d'Achery, 

SpiciUffium,  torn.  3.     The  work  is  chiefly  a 

•compilation  from  di£ferent  authorities,  but 

the   latter  part  contains   some    interesting 

original  matter.     Mr.  Gairdner  says  :   **  In 

clearness  of   narrative   and    distinctness  of 

statement  it  exhibits  a  marked  advance  upon 

the  ordinary  chronicles  of  the  time.     The 

language,  too,  is  polished  and  elegant." 

Trokelowe,  John  of  (<;.P1343),  was  a 
monk  of  Tynemouth,  but  in  consequence  of 
an  act  of  disobedience  was,  about  1296,  re- 
moved in  chains  to  St.  Albans,  where  he 
was  employed  to  continue  the  Chronicle  of 
Hishanger,  His  Annals  extend  from  1307  to 
1323,  and  are  valuable  as  contemporary 
authorities. 

Trokelowe'fl  AnnaXs  have  been  published  in 
the  BoDs  Series. 

Trollop,  Sir  Andrew  {d.  1461),  served 
in  the  French  wars,  and  on  the  outbreak  of 
the  Wars  of  the  Roses  joined  the  Duke  of 
York.  In  1469,  after  the  battle  of  Blue 
Heath,  the  combined  forces  of  York,  Salis- 
bury, and  Warwick  assembled  at  Ludford, 
3lo8e  to  Ludlow.  Here  they  were  confronted 
by  the  king,  and  a  battle  was  imminent,  when 
IVollop  deserted  with  a  considerable  body  of 
nen  to  Henry.  His  defection  caused  the 
Torkists  to  retreat  in  disorder.  Trollop  com- 
nanded  the  van  of  the  Lancastrians  at  the 
>attle  of  Towton,  where  he  was  slain. 

Tret  of  Turriff,  The,  was  a  name 
^ven  to  a  defeat  of  the  Ck>venanters  at 
?urri£P  by  the  Gordons  (May,  1639). 

Troyes,  The  Peace  of  (1664),  was  con- 
luded,  after  the  surrender  of  Havre,  between 
^rance  and  England.  B}*^  it  the  queen's 
lother  undertook  to  pay  120,000  crowns  to 
iOgfland,  free  trade  was  to  be  allowed,  and  the 
'ronoh  hostages  were  to  be  released.  The 
Ing^lish  agents  were  Sir  Thomas  Smith  and 
ir  Xicholas  Throg^orton. 


«.«w^  «*.  The  Treaty  of  fMay  21,  1420), 
as  concluded  between  Henry  V.,  Charles  YI., 


King  of  France,  and  the  Burg^undian  partv. 
The  Dauphin  and  the  Armagnacs  were  stiU  m 
arms,  and  refused  to  recognise  the  treaty. 
The  terms  agreed  upon  were  that  the  Englidi 
king  should  cease  to  bear  the  title  of  King  of 
France;  Henry  should  have  the  title  of 
regent  and  heir  of  France ;  Henry  promised 
to  maintain  the  French  Parliaments  in  their 
privileges,  and  to  preserve  the  privileges  of  all 
mdividuals,  and  all  the  laws  and  customs  of 
the  realm  of  France.  Henry  promised  to 
restore  to  the  French  king  all  cities,  castles, 
&c,  that  had  revolted  from  him,  '*  being  on 
the  side  called  that  of  the  Dauphin  and  of 
Armagnac;"  Normandy  and  aU  parts  and 
cities  conquered  by  King  Henry  were  to  be  re- 
stored to  France  as  soon  as  Henry  succeeded 
to  the  throne  of  France ;  Henry  of  England 
was  to  succeed  on  the  next  vacancy  to  the 
throne  of  France ;  the  two  crowns  were  to  be 
for  ever  united ;  each  realm  was  to  have  its 
own  laws  and  government,  and  neither  was 
to  be  in  any  way  subject  to  the  other ;  finally, 
Henry  was  forthwith  to  espouse  Catherine, 
daughter  of  the  King  of  France. 

TmrOf  Thomas  Wilde,  Lord  (b.  1782, 
d,  1866),  was  the  son  of  an  attorney;  was 
educated  at  St.  PauPs  School ;  was  called  to 
the  bar  at  the  Inner  Temple  (1817) ;  and 
rose  steadily  in  his  profession.  In  1820  he 
was  en^iged  as  one  of  the  coimsel  for 
Queen  Caroline  on  her  trial.  He  entered 
the  House  of  Commons  for  Newark  (1831] ; 
lost  his  seat  in  1832 ;  but  was  returned  in 
1836,  1837,  1839.  In  1839  he  became 
Solicitor-General,  and  in  1841  he  was  ad- 
vanced to  the  Attorney-Generalship,  but  re- 
tired the  same  year  with  his  party  In  1846 
he  was  again  Attorney-General,  and  in  1860 
was  made  Lord  Chancellor  by  Lord  John 
Russell,  and  created  a  peer.  In  1862  he  re- 
tired with  his  party.  As  Lord  Chancellor,  he 
appointed  a  commission  to  inquire  into  the 
jurisdiction,  pleading,  and  practice  of  the 
Court  of  Chancery.  Their  report  recom- 
mended the  abolition  of  the  masters'  offices, 
a  measure  which  Lord  Truro  succeeded  in 
I>as8ing  though  he  had  quitted  office  at  the 
time.  Beveru  other  important  reforms  in  the 
procedure  of  the  Chancery  court  and  offices 
were  effected  by  him. 

Tudor,  The  Family  of,  was  of  Welsh 
orig^,  Tudor  being  probably  a  corruption  of 
Theodore.  The  first  of  the  Tudors  of  whom  we 
have  individual  knowledge  was  Owen  Tudor, 
a  gentleman  who  fought  during  the  Wars* 
of  the  Roses  on  the  Lancastrian  side,  and 
who  married  Catherine  of  Valois,  the  widow 
of  Henry  Y.  By  her  he  had  two  sons,  Ed- 
mond  and  Jasper,  whom  Henry  YI.  created 
Earls  of  Richmond  and  Pembroke.  The  mar- 
riage of  the  Earl  of  Richmond  with  Margaret, 
daughter  of  John  Beaufort,  Earl  of  Somerset, 
who  was  the  heiress  of  the  illegitimate  branch 
of  ^e  House  of  Lancaster,  founded  the  for- 


Tii4 


:(  1016)) 


Tvd 


tunes  of  the  race.  Am  Boon  as  the  house  of 
York  became  unpopular,  Henry,  E^rl  of 
Hichmond,  the  son  of  Edmond,  was  adopted 
by  the  party  of  the  Bed  Rose  as  the  only 
possible  candidate  for  the  throne.  When  his 
second  attempt  to  gain  the  throne  was  success* 
ful,  Henry  became  Henry  YII.,  and  was  care- 
ful to  confirm  his  dubious  claims  by  marry- 
ing Elizabeth,  the  daughter  of  Edward  lY., 
and  to  rule  by  a  quasi-Parliamentary  title. 

The  character  of  Henry  YII.  is,  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  an  enigma.  He  seems  to 
have  been  regarded  by  his  contemporaries 
with  a  mixture  of  hatred  and  admiration, 
the  former  called  forth  chiefly  by  the  exac- 
tions of  the  last  part  of  his  reign.  The  cen- 
tral fact  of  home  policy  is  the  systematic 
repression  of  the  old  nobility,  already  almost 
exterminated  by  the  'Wars  of  the  Rosen,  and 
his  continuance  of  the  rSffitne  of  pei«onal 
government  inaugurated  by  Edward  lY. 
Abroad  he  trusted  rather  to  diplomacy  than 
to  arms,  and  the  cold  mysterious  course  of 
action  which  was  adopted  also  by  his  contem- 
poraries Louis  XI.  of  France  and  Ferdinand 
the  Catholic,  of  Spain,  gained  for  them  the 
title  of  **  the  three  Magi.**  The  marriage  of 
his  daughter  Margaret  with  James  lY.  of 
Scotland  was  an  instance  of  singular  foresight. 
His  other  daughter,  Mary,  after  marrying  the 
decrepit  Louis  XII.  of  France,  was  united 
with  her  old  love  Charles  Brandon,  Duke  of 
Suffolk.  One  of  her  daughters  was  the 
mother  of  Lady  Jane  Grey ;  the  heiresses  of 
the  oilers  married  into  the  great  houses  of 
Seymour  and  Stanley. 

Few  kings  have  been  more  popular  at  the 
time  of  their  accession  than  the  handsome 
and  accomplished  Henry  YIII.  His  title  was 
undisputed,  and  the  able  part  which  he  soon 
began  to  play  in  foreign  affairs  still  further 
aroused  the  national  enthusiasm.  He  showed 
considerable  ability  in  maintaining  the  balance 
of  power  in  Europe,  and  by  the  aid  of  Wolsey 
was  able  to  a  great  extent  to  play  off  Ger- 
many against  France,  to  the  great  advantage 
of  England.  The  divorce  question,  with  its 
momentous  consequences,  was  the  turning 
point  of  the  reign.  Henry,  always  swayed 
by  passion  and  impulse,  was  nurried,  the  nation 
apparently  silently  approving,  into  a  njpture 
with  the  papacy,  and  sweeping  measures  of 
ecclesiastical  reform,  including  the  Act  of 
Supremacy,  and  the  destruction  of  the  old 
system  of  monasticism.  The  Church  aris- 
tocracy fell  before  him,  as  the  landed  aris- 
tocracy had  fallen  before  his  father,  and  on 
their  ruins  rose  a  new  and  subservient  nobility. 
All  this  time  Henry  was  sincerely  Catholic ; 
his  hatred  of  Lntheranism,  and  his  ^dgorous 
persecution  of  it  when  it  appeared  in  Eng- 
Wd,  were  quite  consistent  with  the  publi- 
cation of  the  ten  articles  of  religion. 
During  the  latter  i)art  of  his  reig^  Henry 
was  disliked  by  his  subjects,  and  was  con- 
Bcioua  of  that  dislike.     The  courage  with 


which  he  still  confronted  the  fonnidtU^ 
coalition  of  the  emperor  and  the  pope  wa» 
not  properly  appreciated.  Cromwell  prored  a 
more  violently  autocratic  instrument  tksii 
Wolsey  had  been ;  the  king  was  vexed  \rj 
agrarian  revolts,  and  troubled  by  the  hiltm 
of  his  marria^  projects.  During  the  last 
years  of  his  bfe  he  was  occupied  chiefly  in 
arranging  the  succession,  and  in  alteraatelr 
persecuting  and  protecting  the  parties  of  in- 
action and  of  reform. 

The  personality  of  young  Edward,  a  ackly 
and  precocious  hothouse  plant,  is  of  oompan- 
ti  vely  little  moment  in  the  history  of  the  house 
of  Tudor.  The  brief  reign  divides  itself  into 
two  periods ;  the  first,  during  which  the  king- 
dom was  under  the  uncertain  guidance  of  the 
Protector  Somerset,  being  marked  by  the 
violent  advance  of  the  R^ormation  and  te^ 
minating  in  another  agrarian  revolt;  the 
second  being  occupied  by  unprindpLed  in* 
trigues  for  the  management  of  the  saocesaoD. 
The  courage  of  Mary  and  the  loyalty  of  the 
nation  thwarted  the  schemes  of  KoithmQ* 
berland,  and  the  CatboUca  of  England,  c^- 
tainly  a  majority  of  the  gentry,  hailed  with 
deUght  the  accession  of  a  sovereigB  who 
had  suffered  persecution  and  sorrow  lor  the 
cause.  It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  Mart 
did  not  begin  by  shedding  blood.  She  spared 
Lady  Jane  Grey  as  long  as  she  could, 
but  her  Tudor  pride  could  brook  no  opposi- 
tion, and  the  popular  opposition  to  ha 
marriage  with  Philip  of  Spain  only  made  her 
the  more  bent  on  carrying  out  tbe  project 
By  that  miserable  arrangement  she  wrecked 
her  life.  Her  domestic  life  was  utterly 
blighted.  She  was  embroiled  in  a  disastrom 
war  with  France,  and  finally  she  was  indnc^ 
by  her  advisers  to  enter  upon  a  course  of  reli- 
gious persecution,  which  has  since  unjustly 
come  to  be  regarded  as  the  chief,  and,  perh&ps, 
only,  feature  of  her  reign. 

It  is  impossible  here  to  give  more  than  ths^ 
merest  general  outline  of  the  character  as^ 
policy  of  Elizabeth.  From  the  first  her  atti- 
tude to  Catholicism  was  perfectly  consistent 
With  little  real  religious  conviction,  she  w3» 
opposed  to  the  papacy  from  purely  political 
motives,  and  the  Acts  of  Supremacy  and  Vrd- 
formity  were  passed  solely  as  a  reply  to  the 
denial  by  Paul  lY.  of  her  right  to  succeei 
From  the  same  spirit  she  acted  severdy 
towards  the  Noncomormists ;  the  pale  of  tl^ 
English  Church  was  to  be  as  wide  as  possiblt, 
but  no  independence  could  be  allowed  ootade 
of  it.  In  spite  of  her  persecutions,  Eli»helh 
was  really  tolerant.  The  whole  history  d 
her  reign  turns  upon  the  religious  question, 
and  the  religious  question  in  turn  upoathe 
succession  qm«tion.  Mary  of  Scotland  w» 
put  forward  by  Catholic  Europe  as  the  legiti- 
mist candidate  for  the  throne,  and  Philip  of 
Spain,  with  the  Guises  at  his  back,  posed  w 
her  champion.  Elizabeth  was,  therefore, 
forcod,  like  her  father,  even  though  it  w«* 


Tnd 


(  1017  ) 


against    her  will,  to  abandon    a    trimming 
foreign  policy,  and  to  become  the  chief  of  the 
Protestant  cauBo ;  and  yet  in  the  very  erisis  of 
the  struggle  we  find  her,  partly  from  motiyes 
of  parsimony,  pA^^  from  excess  of  caution, 
and  partly  from  Tudor  reverence  for  royal 
authoiity,  acting  in  disregard  of  her  minis- 
^rs,    and  starving    the     rebellions    of    the 
Neths'rlands  and  of  the  Huguenots,  no  less 
than  her  own  army  and  navy.    It  cannot  be 
•denied  that  in  her  struggle  with  the  great 
tide  of  events  which  was  finally  stemmed  by 
the  Armada,  she  waa  favoured  by  good  fortune 
to  an  extraordinary  deg^ree.     Her  marriage 
•coquetries  nearly  wrecked  the  vessel  of  state 
moro  than  once,  and  her  indecision  in  dealing 
with   Mary  Stuart  aggravated  a  very  grave 
crisis.       Yet,  with  all  her  faults,  Elizabeth 
is  among  the  very  greatest  of  the  sovereigns 
•of  England.    In  her  personal  grace  and  cul- 
ture of   character,   her  patriotism,  her  des- 
potic spirit,  which  yet  understood  so  well  the 
temper  and  the  needs  of  the  nation,  she  ex- 
^emplifies  the  highest  qualities  of  the  family, 
to  which,  on  the  whole.  Englishmen  of  later 
times  owe  a  great  debt  of  gratitude. 

The  hiBtorian  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
Tudor  period  is  Mr.  Froude,  and  though  critics 
may  differ  as  to  hia  oouoluBions,  there  can  be 
but  one  opinion  as  to  the  gracee  of  his  style. 
Dr.  liingard  on  this  period  requires  to  be  read 
wltli  caution.  Mr.  Green  is  always  suggestive. 
Brewer's  Henry  VIII,  is  of  great  importanoe. 
Materials  for  independent  study  are  to  oe  found 
in  Bacon,  Uitt  of  Henry  VII. ;  Gkiirdner,  Memo- 
riaU  of  Henry  VIL;  Stats  Papers  durmy  ths  Reign 
of  Henry  VIII.,  and  Proeeedinge  of  the  Privy 
Council  CEtecord  Commission),  and  Calendars 
of  Statu  Fapere  (Bolls  Series) ;  Journal  of  Bdr 
v^ard  VI.  (Bomet  Collectanea);  Chronide  of 
(^iieen  Jane  and  Q^een  Mary  {Camden  Society) ; 
Noailles,  Amhaaeades  en  AngUterre;  Harrington, 
Nvtgee  AntiqiuB ;  BurgKley  Stats  Papere. 

[L.  C.  S.] 

Tudor,  Jasper  {d.  1495),  created  Duke 
of  Bedford  at  Henry  VII.*s  coronation,  was 
the  second  son  of  Sir  Owen  Tudor,  and 
consequently  an  uncle  of  the  founder  of  the 
Tudor  dynasty.  In  the  "Wars  of  the  Boses  he 
played  an  active  part  among  the  Lancastrian 
leaders,  and  it  was  his  defeat  at  Mortimer's 
Cross  by  Edward  IV.,  then  known  lis  the 
E^rl  of  March,  that  gave  Edward  the  pos- 
lession  of  London  and  the  crown  of  Eng- 
land at  the  same  time.  During  the  Yorkist 
nipremacy  Jasper  Tudor  was  an  exile.  On 
lis  nephew's  overthrow  of  Richard  III.,  he 
Bvas  entrusted  with  the  command  of  the  royal 
forces  durinff  the  earlier  troubles  of  Henr}'*s 
'eign,  and  ilhieBs  alone  prevented  his  takmg 
;he  leadership  during  the  Ck)mish  rising. 

Txidor,  Sir  Owen  {d.  1461),  claimed 
lescent  from  Cadwalad3rr,  the  last  so-called 
cing^  of  Britain,  but  his  origin  is  very  obscure. 
ie  seems  to  have  been  the  godson  of  Owen 
xlyndwr,  and  he  first  appears  in  history  as 
»no  of  the  band  of  Welshmen  who,  under 
>avid  Gam,  fought  at  Agincourt.  Henry  V. 
oade  him  one  of  the  squires  of  his  body,  and 


he  held  the  same  office  to  his  successor.  His 
handsome  person  gained  him  the  love  of 
Catherine,  widow  of  Henry  V.,  whom  he 
secretly  married  in  1428.  On  Catherine's 
death  he  was  imprisoned  in  Newgate,  whence, 
however,  he  escaped  twice,  and  was  subse- 
quently received  into  favour  by  Henry  VI. 
He  fought  on  the  Lancastrian  side  in  the 
Wars  of  the  Roses,  and  was  taken  prisoner  in 
the  battle  of  Mortimer's  Cross,  canded  to 
Hereford,  and  beheaded  there.  By  his  wife 
he  had  two  sons,  Edmund,  Earl  of  Richmond, 
father  of  Henry  VII.,  and  Jasper,  Earl  of 
Pembroke. 

Tnlclian  BislLOps,  The,  was  a  name 
given  to  the  creatures  of  the  Regent  Morton, 
who  were  appointed  to  sees  in  accordance  with 
the  enactments  of  the  Leith  Convention  (Jan., 
1572)  and  the  Perth  Assembly  later  in  the 
same  year.  The  commissioners  at  Leith  were 
the  mere  dupes  and  tools  of  a  rapacious  court, 
and  a  strange,  heterogeneous  compound  of 
popery,  prelacy,  and  presbyterj'  was  author- 
ised, by  which  the  avaricious  nobility 
imagined  they  had  secured  their  long- 
cherished  design  of  obtaining  for  them- 
selves the  reid  possession  of  the  wealth 
of  the  Church.  It  was  decided  (though  the 
true  nature  of  the  transaction  was  veiled 
as  far  as  possible)  that  as  much  valuable 
Church  property  could  only  be  held  by  bishops, 
prelacy  should  continue,  and  creatures  of  the 
court  should  be  appointed,  who  were  to  pay 
for  their  promotion  by  making  over  large 
portions  of  their  temporalities  to  their  patron, 
whoever  he  might  be,  who  had  procured  their 
election.  The  new  dignitaries  quickly  acquired 
the  name  of  ^'Tulchan"  bishops  (from  tulchan, 
a  calTs  skin,  stuffed  with  straw,  which  was 
used  in  the  Highhmds  to  induce  cows  who 
had  lost  their  calves  to  give  their  milk 
readily),  for  **the  bishop  had  the  title,  but 
my  lora  got  the  milk,  or  commoditie."  *'  Every 
lord,"  says  James  Melville  in  his  Diary,  "got 
a  bishopric,  and  sought  and  presented  to  the 
kirk  such  a  man  as  would  be  content  with 
least,  and  get  them  most  of  tacks,  feus,  and 
pensions." 

Cunningham,  Hid.  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  ; 
Hetherington,  Hiat.  oj  the  Church  of  Scotland. 

Tunnaga  and  Poundage,  a   duty 

which,  at  first  fluctuating,  was  eventually 
fixed  at  38.  on  every  tun  of  wine,  and  five 
per  cent,  on  aU  goods  imported.  It  appears 
to  have  been  first  voted  by  the  Commons  in 
1308.  The  original  intention  was  that  it 
should  be  apphed  to  the  protection  of  the 
merchant  navy ;  and  in  Sir  John  Fortescue's 
scheme  of  reform  we  find  that  it  was  regarded 
as  dedicated  to  that  purpose.  Nevertheless, 
the  custom  of  voting  the  duty  to  the  king  for 
life,  which  was  begun  in  the  reign  of  Henry  V., 
soon  caused  it  to  be  looked  upon  as  part  of 
the  royal  revenue.  Accordingly  some  indig- 
nation was  not  unreasonably  excited  in  the 


(  1018  ) 


court  when,  on  the  accession  of  Charles  I.,  the 
Commons  proceeded  to  vote  it  for  one  year 
only.  The  House  of  Lords  rejected  the  bill 
on  account  of  its  innovatiog  tendency,  and 
Charles  proceeded  to  try  and  levy  the  tax  by 
royal  authority,  but  the  London  merchants 
refused  to  pay  it.  A  remonstrance  was  carried 
against  tms*  conduct  in  1629,  and,  though 
Charles  declai'ed  that  tunnage  and  poundage 
was  what  he  would  not  give  away,  and  pro- 
rogued Parliament  in  order  to  avoid  receiving 
the  remonstrance,  he  was  compelled  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  to  consent  to  an  Act  renouncing 
the  power  of  levying  the  tax  without  the 
consent  of  Parliamont.  In  1641  the  prero- 
gative of  levying  customs  on  merchandise 
was  abolished  by  an  Act  which  granted 
tunnage  and  poundage  for  two  months  only. 
After  the  Restoration,  tunnage  and  poundage 
was  voted  for  life  to  Charles  II.  and  James  II., 
but  only  for  limited  periods  to  William  III. 
In  the  reign  of  Anne  it  was  made  perpetual, 
and  applied  to  the  diminution  of  the  na- 
tional  debt.  It  was  finally  abolished  by  Pitt's 
Customs  Consolidation  Act  of  1787. 

Tunstal,  CuTHnEKT  {b.  1474,  d.  1569),  was 
made  Bishop  of  London  (1522),  and  afterwards 
of  Durham  (1624)  by  Henry  VIII.,  who, 
after  ha\'ing  employed  him  on  various  diplo- 
matic missions,  also  named  him  in  his  will  as 
one  of  the  council  of  executors  during  the 
minority  of  Edward  VI.  In  1647  he  was 
excluded  from  the  council  for  his  opposition 
to  the  party  of  the  Reformation,  and  was 
shortly  afterwai*ds  sent  to  the  Tower  for  the 
same  reason,  though  the  ostensible  charge 
against  him  was  complicity  in  the  schemes  of 
Somerset.  In  1563  he  was  released  by  Mar)', 
and  appointed  a  commissioner  to  inquire  into 
the  condition  of  the  Protestant  bishops,  though 
he  appears  to  have  been  a  lenient  inquisitor. 
On  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  Tunstal  was 
deprived  of  his  bishopric  for  refusing  to  take 
the  oath  of  supremacy. 

Froude,  Hi$t.  of  Eng. ;  Sharon  Turner,  Uiti.  of 
JEng. ;  Burnet,  H\9i.  of  the  Refomudism. 

Turkey,  Relations  with.  The  relations 
between  England  and  the  earlier  Turkish  king- 
doms will  be  found  under  the  head  of  Crusades. 
The  dealings  between  England  and  the  Otto- 
man Turks  began  with  the  reign  of  Elizabeth, 
when  not  only  did  commercial  relations  of 
some  importance  spring  up,  but  the  queen 
sought  their  assistance  against  the  Spaniards. 
In  1579  three  merchants  (Hkrebone,  Ellis, 
and  Staple)  visited  Constantinople,  and  ob- 
tained for  English  merchants  eqiud  privileges 
to  those  of  other  countries.  In  1683  Harebone 
became  English  ambassador  to  the  Porte,  and 
Elizabeth  did  not  scruple  in  1687  to  invoke 
the  aid  of  the  Turks  against  the  '*  idolatrous 
Spaniard  and  Pope."  To  these  advances  the 
Turks  seem  to  have  made  no  answer.  Their 
State  was  already  decaying,  and  Roe,  James 
I.*s  envoy,  in  1622,  tells  emphatically  how  it 


had  become  "  like  an  old  body,  crazed  thioogh 
many  vices.*'     Durmg  the  seventeenth  cea- 
tury  a  renewal  of  vigour  gave  the  lie  to  Boe't 
prophecv  of  speedy  diastMution,  and  Puritan 
Xingland,  on  the  whole,  looked  with  favour  on 
the  power  that  checked  the  Cathohc  Anstmns 
on   the  Danube,   and   so  saved   Protestant 
Germany.  Louis  XI V.'s  alliance  with Torker, 
however,  turned  things  tho  other  way.   YU 
at  the  Congress  of  Curlovitz  (1699)  the  Eiur- 
lish  ambassador  did  his  best  to  mmimw  the 
cessions  of    Turkish   territory,  and  Snltui 
Achmet  III.  expressed  his  sto>ng  seoae  d 
gratitude  for  the  efforts  made  by  the  Engliik 
in  their  behalf.    The  general  alliance  between 
England  and  Russia  during  the  early  part  d 
the  eighteenth  century  involved  us  in  some 
hostility  to  the  Turks.    The  govemment  of 
C^eorge  III.  protected  the  Russian  fleet,  which 
in  1768  sailed  to  the  help  of  the  revoltt^ 
Greeks,  and  its  acquiescence  in  the  partition 
of  Pohmd  implied  approval  of  the  aggmaom 
against  Turkey.  During  the  Coalition  Mim§* 
try  Fox  acquiesced  in  the  annexation  of  the 
Cnmea.    At  last  Pitt  started  the  policy  d 
opposition    to    Russian   aggression,   and  of 
consequent  support  to  Turkey  in  its  struggle 
against  Cathenne  and  Joseph  II.    In  1^0' 
Duckworth's  disastrous  expedition  to  Con* 
stantinople  was  designed  to  punish  the  allianc]^ 
of  Turkey  and  Napoleon.     After  the  close  d 
the  Napoleonic  war,  England's  policy  has  con* 
stantly  tended  to  support  Turkey  as  a  nkfxt- 
sary  bulwark  against  Russia,  but  the  diffi- 
culties created   oy  Turkish   misgovemmcnt, 
and  the  impossibility  of  cordially  supporting 
so  efFcte  a  system,  have  largely  modified  the 
general  idea  in  practice,  and  Turkey,  although 
helped,  has  never  been  really  treated  as  an 
independent  power.    The  Greek  insurrection 
nowhere    excited   more    sympathy  than  in 
England ;  yet  England,  after  Kavurino,  drev 
back,  and,  while  giving  Greece  her  liberty, 
limited  her  power,  and  narrowed  her  frontier 
Similarly  in  1832  it  hesitated  to  help  Sultm 
Mahmoud  against  Mehemct  Ali,  and  then, 
after  Russia  had  sent  a  force  against  th^ 
rebellious  Egyptian,  joined  with  that  powtr 
and  Franco  in  restraining  his  advances.    In 
1839  English  support  of  Turkey,  again  at- 
tacked by  Mehemet  and  Ibrahim,  was  moi^ 
thorough  and  dedsive.     In   1840  England. 
Russia,  Austria,    and    Prussia    joined  with 
Turkev  in  a  treaty  defining  the  terms  of 
their  intervention.     An  English  fleet  und^r 
Stopford  and  Napier  bombarded  Beyroat  and 
Acre,  and  drove  Ibrahim  out  of  Syria.    In 
1864  l^e  Englii^  joined  with  France  in  the 
Crimean  War  (q.v.)  for  the  defence  of  Toricey : 
but  the  success  of  the  allies  could  only  post- 
pone the  decay  of  their  proUpS,    la  IS^ 
England  recognised  the  practical  independ- 
ence of  Roumania ;  yet  in  1860  it  assisted  in 
maintaining  order  in  Syria  [Lbbanox  QrB*- 
tion],  and  in  1867  in  subduing  Crete.   la 
1877  the  outbreak  of  Greek  insuzrectiaDS  in 


(  1019  ) 


Tyl 


connection  with  a  war  between  Turkey  and 
Bussia,  again  brought  forward  the  question 
of  the  rcktion  of  England  to  the  decaying 
SUxte.  Ultimately  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  main- 
tained the  European  peace,  while  recognising 
that  the  gradual  reconstitution  of  the  Turkish 
peninsula  into  autonomous  Christian  States 
is  the  only  solution  of  the  question.  From  that 
time  the  alliance  of  England  and  Turkey  may 
be  regarded  as  practically  ended.  [Eoyft.] 
Creasy,  Ottoman  'lurk»;  Yon  Haemmer,  Ot- 
Khichte  der  Oanumm.  [T.  F.  T.] 

Turk's    IslancUi    and    Caicos    (or 

Keys),  which  form  part  of  the  Bahamas,  were 
separated  from  the  govemmentof  those  islands 
in  1848.  They  were  in  that  year  formed  into 
a  presidency  under  the  government  of  Jamaica, 
and  affairs  were  administered  by  a  president 
appointed  by  the  crown,  assisted  by  a  council 
composed  of  eight  members,  four  of  whom 
wore  elected,  and  four  nominated  by  the 
crown.  In  1873  the  Turk's  Islands  were 
annexed  to  Jamaica,  and  the  government  was 
locally  vested  in  a  commissioner,  assisted  by 
a  legislative  board 

Tutbnry.  in  Staffordshire,  twentj  milee 
from  Stafforo,  was  granted  by  William  the 
Conqueror  to  Henry  de  Ferrars,  who  built 
the  castle.  In  1322  it  was  garrisoned  against 
Edward  II.  by  Thomas,  Earl  of  Lancaster, 
but  surrendered.  In  1360  John  of  Graunt  re- 
built the  castle  for  his  wife's  residence.  In 
1568-9  ]^Iary,  Queen  of  Scots,  was  imprisoned 
there,  under  the  charge  of  the  Earl  of  Shrews- 
bury, but  after  a  few  months  was  removed  to 
Wingfield.  In  1585  she  was  again  brought 
back  to  Tutbury,  in  charge  of  Sir  Amyas 
Paulct,  and  remained  there  until  her  removal 
to  Chartley.  Tutbury  was  frequently  visited 
by  James  I.  and  Charles  I.,  for  the  latter  of 
whom  it  was  garrisoned  by  Lord  Lough- 
borough in  the  Civil  War.  It  was  taken  and 
dismantled  by  the  Parliamentary  troojw  under 
Brereton  (1646). 

Twaxiga,  Sib  Robert,  a  knight  of  York- 
shire, organised  a  secret  society  in  the  year 
1231,  the  object  of  which  was  to  prevent  the 
intrusion  of  foreigners  into  English  benefices. 
Under  his  leadership  masked  men  went  about 
the  country  seizing  the  foreign  ecclesiastics, 
pillaging  their  bams,  and  giving  the  com  to 
the  poor.  These  doings  were  openly  connived 
at  by  many  of  the  leading  men  in  the  kingdom, 
and  when  Twenge  went  to  Rome  he  took 
with  him  letters  from  the  chief  men  in  the 
realm  remonstrating  against  the  papal  aggres- 
sion. The  pope  was  obliged  to  yield,  and 
|n*omised  never  again  to  interfere  with  the 
rights  of  patrons,  but  the  promise  was  not 
kept  long,  as  soon  afterwards  we  find  Grosse- 
teste  and  others  complaining  of  the  number 
of  Italians  holding  benefices  in  England. 

Tvlar, Wat,  Rebellion  of  (1 38 1) .  This out- 
breaK,  the  only  spontaneous  popular  rising  on  a 


grand  scale  that  our  history  presents,  was  a» 
brief  as  it  was  fierce  and  general ;  all  its  in- 
cidents lie  within  three  weeks  of  June,  1381. 
The  Tylers'  RebeUion  would  name  it  more  ac- 
curately, five  at  least  of  its  leaders  having  been 
of  that  surname  and  occupation,  though  Wat 
of  Maidstone  alone  has  attained  to  historic 
fame.     It  has  several  singular  and  one  or  two 
inexplicable  features ;  many  and  varied  causee 
contributed  to  it ;  many  and  varied  interests 
engaged  in  it ;  a  seemingly  sudden  and  isolated 
outburst  kindled  into  flame  a  dozen  of  shires 
with  an  approach  to  simultaneousness  possible 
only  to  concert  and  organisation ;   and  after 
blazing  furiously  and  in  apparently  irresist- 
ible might  for  a  week  or  two,  it  sank  into 
extinction  as  suddenly  as  it  had  risen.    We 
catch  a  glimpse  of  an  actual  organisation  in 
the  celebrated    letter  of  John  Ball  to  the 
Commons  of  Kent.    The  force  that  produced 
the  movement  was  made  up  of  many  simples, 
some  of  them  opposite  to  one  another.    The- 
exasperation  of  country  artisans  and  unskilled 
labourers  at  the  Statute  of  .Labourers  and 
with  the  too  prosperous  Flemings  that  had 
been  imported,  of  city  mechanics  disabled  in 
many  directions  by  the  gilds,  of  rustics  at 
the  revival  of  claims  on  the  services  that  they 
had  deemed  obsolete,  of  the  small  farmers  of 
Kent  with  landlords  and  lawyers,  of  disbanded 
soldiers  at  want  of  employment,  formed  a. 
social   contribution;    discontent    stirred    by 
the  levelling  doctrines  of  Lollard  agents  in 
some  places,  clerical  rage  at  alleged  wrongs 
in  others,  formed  a  religious;   the  general 
severity  of  taxation  and  the  particular  offen- 
siveness  of  the  lately  imposed  poll-tax,  hatred 
of  John  of  Graunt  with  some,  faith  in  John 
of  €kiunt  with   others,  formed  a  political. 
These  and  other  feelings  condensed  themselvea 
into  a  bitter  sense  of  wrong  almost  universal 
among  the  population  that  lived  by  the  work 
cf  their  htmds.     But  the  taxation  and  re- 
vival   of    villenage    grievances    were    the 
strongest.    The  earliest  rushes  to  arms  were 
made  nearly  on  the  s&me  day  in  Kent  and 
Essex.    Starting  from  Dartford  on  June  5, 
the  Kentish  movement  had  in  a  week  made 
the  circuit  of  the  county,  and  drawn  together 
an  enormous  host  from  town  and  country. 
On  June   13  Wat  Tyler  led  this  host  into 
London,  then  entirely  defenceless.    The  in- 
stinct of  destruction  was  powerful  in  these 
men,  and  vented  itself  on  ever3rthing  con- 
nected with  what  they  most  hated.     They 
wrecked  John  of  Gaunt  s  palace  of  the  Savoy 
and  the  house  of  the  Hospitallers  at  Clerken- 
well,  destroyed  Temple    Bar,  killed   every 
lawyer  and  Fleming  they  could  find,  and 
burnt  every  legal  record  they  could  lay  their 
hands  on.    Then  they  occupied  Tower  HilL 
On  the  same  day  the  men  of  Essex,  who  had 
first  risen  at  Fobbing,  and  murdered  the  Chief 
Justice  and  jurors,  appeared  at  Mile  End, 
while  the  men  of  Hertfordshire  took  up  their 
position  at  Highbury.    These  were  chiefly 


Tyn 


(  1020  ) 


rasticB,  indignant  at  present  and  prospective 
treatment.  Yet  their  conduct  was  com- 
paratively free  from  violence.  They  de« 
manded  (1)  the  abolition  of  villenage,  (2)  a 
general  pudon,  (3)  liberty  to  bay  and  sell 
ontolled  in  all  fairs  and  markets,  and  (4)  the 
fixing  of  the  rent  of  their  lands  at  fourpence 
•an  acre.  Next  day  Richard  left  the  Tower, 
met  them  at  Mile  End,  listened  to  the  tale  of 
their  grievances,  promised  them  all  they 
•asked,  and  persuaded  them  to  go  home. 
During  his  absence  the  Kentish  men  burst 
into  the  Tower,  flooded  its  rooms,  insulted 
the  king's  mother,  dragged  out  Simon  of 
4Sudbury,  Primate  and  Chancellor,  Sir  Robert 
Hales,  and  Legge,  the  farmer  of  the  poll-tax, 
and  had  their  heads  struck  off  on  Tower  Hill. 
The  ensuing  night  Richard  passed  at  the 
Wardix>be;  and  next  morning  (June  15)  he 
«ncountere(d  the  rebels  in  Smithneld.  There, 
while  parleying  with  the  king  and  wrangling 
with  Sir  Robert  Newton,  Tyler  was  suddenly 
smitten  down  by  Walworth,  the  mayor,  and 
elain  by  the  king's  followers.  Itichard's 
coolness  and  tact  disarmed  the  rebels  of  the 
fury  that  rose  within  them  at  this  deed ;  he 

fut  himself  at  their  head,  led  them  to 
slington,  and  by  granting  the  required 
liberating  charter  on  the  spot,  induced  them 
to  march  away  home.  Meantime  most  ef  the 
other  southern  and  midland  counties  were  in 
arms,  the  nobility  and  clergy  retiring  into 
their  fortified  houses  and  leaving  the  open 
<x)untry  to  the  mercy  of  the  rebels ;  and 
murderous  deeds  wore  done  in  many  places. 
But  the  insui-gents  of  Noriolk,  Cambridge, 
and  Huntingdon  met  a  redoubtable  antagonist 
in  Henry  Spencer,  Bishop  of  Norwich,  who 
•sallied  forth,  and  striking  fiercely  at  their 
roving  bands,  broke  them  in  pieces  one  by 
one,  capturing,  trying,  and  sending  to  the 
gallows  their  most  active  leaders,  notably  the 
formidable  John  Lytsterc,  whom  men  called 
King  of  the  Commons.  Before  those  decisive 
measures  and  the  news  of  the  doings  in 
London,  the  insurrection  quickly  subsided. 
Then  the  work  of  vengeance  began.  The 
charters  were  revoked — indeed,  the  king  had 
•exceeded  his  prerogative  in  granting  them — 
and  the  courts  of  law  passed  the  autumn  in 
handing  over  wretches  to  the  hangman. 
Though  the  worst  excesses  of  the  revolt  had 
been  perpetrated  by  the  political  insurgents, 
these  were  gratified  with  a  change  of  ad- 
ministration, while  Parliament  refused  the 
really  aggrieved  and  well-behaved  rustics  the 
redress  they  had  sought.  But  their  blood 
had  not  boon  shed  in  vain ;  the  landlord  class, 
made  wiser  by  the  terrible  lesson,  desisted  from 
further  prosecution  of  their  claims,  and  allowed 
free  play  to  the  liberating  tendency  of  the  age. 

Lingard,  Hist.  o/Eng.  :  Bogera,  Hist.  ofPrien ; 
Pauli,   Qachickte  v<ni  England:  Stubb«,   Comt, 

fl««.  [j:  r.] 

Tyndall,  William  (*.  1484,  d.  1536),  the 
translator  of  the  Bible,  ^tiis  a  student  both  at 


Oxford    and  Cambridge,  and  at  the  \aiia 

University  probably  came  under  the  influeaa 

of  Erasmus.     While  tutor  in  the  famiiy  of  Sii 

John  Walsh,  in  Gloucestershire,  he  tninskted 

the  Enchiridion  of  Erasmus,  and  for  that,  lad 

his  known  anti-clerical  views,  fell  under  tb- 

displeasure  of  the  bishop.     In  1523  he  went  U* 

London  and  tried  to  obtain  assistance  for  hit 

projected  translation  of  the  Bible.    Failing  U- 

do  so,  however,  he  sailed  for  Hamburg,  &iu 

there  printed  his  first  two  gospels.    Duns; 

the  rest  of  his  life  he  kept  himself  for  the  mk 

part  in  retirement,  in  company  with  his  friesd 

Fryth,  his  headquarters  being  at  Antweip. 

where  he  was  befriended  by  English  cki* 

chants.     In  1529  the  printing  of  Luthfiu 

books  was  prohibited  by  a  treaty  betvccs 

Henry   VIII.    and   the    Governors   of  tlie 

Netherlands.     At  length  he   was  seized,  at 

the    instigation   of    Henry,  when   he  ires: 

beyond  the  liberties  of  Antwerp,  and  «is 

burnt    by    the     order     of     the    Empeivr. 

The  first  part  of  the  quarto  edition  of  hii 

translation  of  the  New   Testament  readied 

England  in  1525,  the  Pentateuch,  in  whid 

he  was  assisted  by  Miles  Coverdale,  in  l-^>), 

and  four  editions  of  his  New  Testament  vae 

printed  at  Antwerp  in  1534.     About  fc<tT 

editions  were  afterwards  published. 

Foxe,  AdU  and  JfonunicnU  ;  Fiy,  Bio^rop^wd 
Det«Hptton  of  t*«  fditunu  <^  the  Hev  Ttst^mnL 

TyTGOnnelf  Bicmard  Talbot,  Eaxi  op 
{d.  1G91),  was  one  of  the  most  dissolute  and 
abandoned  of  the  persons  attached  to  Charles 
II.  *s  court.     In  1660  he  took  the  lead  in  ih^ 
infEunous   plot  to    defame  the  character  >•< 
Anne  Hyde.     In  1677,  after  being  engag^i 
in  a  long  course  of  devious  intrigues,  he  ^' 
arrested  as  a  Catholic  conspirator,  and  ban- 
ished.   In  1685,  however,  he  was  restored  to 
favour,    and    created    Earl    of    Tyrconitel 
and  the  following  year  sent  to  Ireland  s? 
Commander-in-Chief.      He  now  became  tl<- 
champion  of  the  Irish  Catholics,  and  ▼«• 
to  England,  and  tried   to  persoade  Jazce* 
to  rop^  the  Act  of  Settiement.    He  retunrri 
to  Ireland  in  Feb.,  1687,  as  Lord  Deuarr 
The  magistracy,  the  judicial  bench,  and  6> 
corporations  were  at  once  filled  with  Calholi  *& 
and  the  troops  enconiaged  in  all  exce«^ 
against    Protestants.     When    the  ncv$  • 
James'  flight  reached  Tyrconnel  in  1689.  I 
raised  over  100,000  men,  and  in  Fehniai? 
Londonderry  and  Enniskillen  alone  held  c^- 
against  him.    At  the  Boyne  he  commaiKit'- 
the    Irish    infantry.     In   1690  he  vas  f - 
abandoning  Limerick,  and  left  it  to  its  hte  a 
far  as  he  himself  was  concerned,  and  wdit  '• 
France.    In  the  spring  of  1691  heretunif- 
to    Ireland,   and    was    received  with  gn^' 
respect,  though  tiie  Irish  had  asked  for  a  c'« 
energetic  leader,  and  though  it  was  lan>«^ 
that  he  hated  Sarsfield  and  St.  Ruth.   Tsr 
fall   of    Athlone  was  attributed  to  hi^  ^^ 
vouritism  of  MarweU,  and  he  had  to  it^^ 
the  camp  and  go  to  limerick.    Aft^  i^^ 


(  1021  ) 


mm 


he  was  in  better  fayour,  but  died  in  August, 
1691. 

Fxoade»  Sng,  in  Irtiand;  Maoftolay,  Hi$t,  of 
Eng.  I  Stoiy,  Continuation. 

Tyrelly  Sik  Jambs  (</.  1502),  was  popularly 
supposed  to  have  murdered  the  young  princes 
£dward  Y.  and  Bichard,  Duke  of  York,  in  the 
Tower.  The  charge,  however,  is  insufficiently 
supported  by  proof,  and  was  not  brought  for- 
ward until  after  Tyrell's  execution  as  a  con- 
federate of  the  Earl  of  Suffolk. 

Tyrrel,  or  Tirbl,  Sm  Walter,  is  gene- 
rally credited  with  having  accidentally  slain 
William  Rufus  in  the  New  Forest.  Tirol 
himself  denied  the  charge,  but  the  facts  that 
his  name  appears  as  the  murderer  in  almost 
all  the  authorities  for  this  period,  and  that  he 
immediately  fled  across  sea,  seem  to  point  to 
him  as  the  actual  homicide. 

Tytler,  Pathicx  F^ssn  {h.  1791,  d. 
1849),  was  the  author  of  many  historical 
works,  the  most  valuable  of  them  being  his 
History  of  Scotland,  which  covers  the  period 
between  ^e  accession  of  Alexander  III.  and 
the  imion  of  the  crowns. 


Uchtred  of  Galloway  {d,  circa  1178),  the 
son  of  Fergus,  joined  his  brother  Gilbert  in 
revolt  against  William  the  Lion  (1174).  A 
few  months  later  he  was  murdered  by  his 
nephew  Malcolm,  at  the  instigation  of  Gilbert. 

Udal,  John  {d.  1692),  a  Puritan  minister, 

was  triea  for  the  publication  of  A  Demonatra- 

tum  of  Discipline^  as  **  a  libel  on  the  person 

of   the  queen,  because  it  inyeighed  against 

the  government  of  the  Church  established  by 

her  authority."  Udal  was  condemned  to  death, 

but  was  spared  at  the  intercession  of  Sir 

Walter  Raleigh.    He  died  in  prison  after  his 

pardon  had  actually  been  made  out. 

Neal.  Bint,  of  tht  Puritoiu;  Burnet,  Hid,  of 
iKe  Reformation. 

JJ flaky  King  of  East  Anglia,  is  said  to  have 
been  the  son  of  Wchla,  the  founder  of  the 
kingdom.  From  him  the  kings  of  the  East 
Angles  were  considered  to  derive  their  descent, 
rind  for  this  reason  were  called  TJffingas. 
Bede,  Eitt.  Ecdet. 

TThtred,  the  son  of  Earl  Waltheof, 
<lef eated  the  Scotch  towards  the  conunence- 
ment  of  the  eleventh  century,  and  thus  saved 
the  City  of  Durham  (1006).  For  this  he  was 
rewarded  with  both  the  earldom  of  Deira  and 
Bemicia.  In  1013  he  submitted  to  King 
Swegen,  but  in  the  course  of  the  same  year 
joined  Edmund,  only,  howeyer,  to  submit 
once  more  to  Canute  when  that  king  gained 
the  upper  hand.  Uhtred  was,  however,  now 
murdered  at  the  instigation  of  his  old  enemy 
Thurbrand  (1016). 

Ulf,  •  Bishop  of  Dorchester,  succeeded 
Eadnoth  in  the  year  1049,  much  to  the  disgust 


of  the  Englishmen,  who  considered  Imn 
utterly  unfit  for  the  office,  and  loathed  him  a& 
a  Norman.  When  Godwin  returned  in  1062, 
he  fled,  sword  in  hand,  from  London,  and 
crossed  over  to  the  Continent,  and  was  de- 
prived of  his  see.  He  is  spoken  of  as  the 
bishop  "  who  did  nought  bishop-like." 

Ulf,  Eakl  (d,  circa  1025),  is  generally 
credited  with  having  been  instrumental  in 
securing  the  rise  of  Godwin,  who  married 
luB  sister  Gytta.  His  wife  was  Estrith,  Canute's 
sister,  but  notwithstanding  this  relationship, 
he  was  put  to  death  by  this  king  somewhere 
about  the  year  1025. 

Ulfcytel,  ealdorman  of  the  East  Angles, 
led  the  men  of  his  province  against  Swegen 
in  1004.  The  same  year  he  and  his  Witan 
made  peace  with  the  invaders,  but  only  so  as 
to  gain  time.  Before  long  he  fought  a  drawn 
battle  with  the  strangers.  In  1010  he  was 
defeated  at  Ringmere,  mainly  owing  to  the 
treacherj'  of  Thurcytel.  Six  years  later  he 
was  slain  at  the  battle  of  Assandun  (1016). 

Ulster,  The  Kdyodox  and  Province  of^ 
appears  to  have  been  first  colonised,  at  an. 
unknown  period,  by  Picts  of  Celtic  origin. 
The  great  race  movements  which  culmin- 
ated in  the  formation  of  the  over-kingship> 
of  Meath  by  Tuathal  [Meath],  affected  the 
south  rather  than  the  north  of  Ireland ;  but 
about  335  a.d.  we  find  some  of  his  descendants, 
invading  Ulster  from  Meath  with  the  counte- 
nance of  the  ard-ri  (over-king),  and  winning  for 
themselves  the  land  of  Uriel.  They  were  fol- 
lowed, during  the  reign  of  Niall  '*  of  the  nine 
hostages  "  (379 — 405),  by  other  cadets  of  the 
reigning  family,  who  became  princes  of  T}'r- 
connel  and  Tyrone.  With  the  arrival  of  St. 
Patrick  (441),  Ulster,  which  had  lagged  some- 
what behind  the  rest  of  Ireland,  received  an 
extraordinary  impetus,  and  became  a  centre 
whence  large  nimibers  of  missionaries,  chief 
of  whom  was  St.  Columba,  issued  forth  to 
Britain  and  northern  Europe.  Ulster  offered 
a  rather  more  vigorous  resistance  to  the  ini'ad- 
ing  Fingalls  and  Danes  than  did  the  rest  of 
Ireland,  and  we  find  Murtogh  O'Neill,  about 
950,  making  a  triumphant  circuit  of  Ireland. 
During  the  anarchy  which  preceded  the  Anglo- 
Korman  invasion,  the  kings  of  Ulster  were 
engaged  in  a  long  and  arduous  struggle  with 
their  Munster  rivals,  and  Murtogh  O'Lough- 
lin,  of  the  house  of  O'Neill,  twice  succeeded  for 
a  brief  period  in  making  himself  over-king  of 
Ireland  (in  1148  and  1156).  Ulster  suffered 
little  from  the  first  invasion,  and  though 
Henry  granted  the  province  to  De  Courcy» 
he  only  succeeded  in  grasping  a  strip  of  land 
near  Downpatrick.  John,  however,  resumed 
the  grant,  and  gave  it  to  a  younger  member 
of  the  Do  Lacy  family,  through  whose 
daughter  and  heiress  it  passed  into  the  De 
Burgh  family.  After  the  murder  of  William, 
the  third  Earl  of  Ulster,  in  1333,  his  heiress, 
married  Lionel,  Duke  of  Clarence,  and  tho 


XJlm 


(  1022  ) 


mm 


earldom  thas  passed  through  females  to  the 
house  of  Mortimer,  and  to  Richard,  Earl  of 
Cambridge,  the  grandfather  of  Edward  IV., 
with  whom  it  became  vested  in  the  crown. 
In  the  thirteenth  century  Ulster  was  prac- 
tically independent.  The  English  posses- 
sions were  confined  to  the  outskirts  of 
Down,  Antrim,  and  Fermanagh,  and  a  town 
•or  two  in  Donegal.  The  invasion  of  the  Bruces 
in  1316  was  followed  by  the  loss  of  even 
these  paltry  districts,  and  the  O'Neills  dfd 
what  they  pleased  in  Ulster  before  the  acces- 
sion of  the  Tudors.  Under  Henry  VII.  Tur- 
lough  O'Donnell  and  Conn  O'Neill  were  dis- 
posed to  be  friendly  to  the  crown ;  the  descend- 
ants of  the  latter  chieftain  became  Earls  of 
Tyrconnel,  while  the  former  was  made  Earl 
•of  Tyrone.  When  the  first  attempt  to  intro- 
•duce  the  reformed  doctrines  was  made,  the 
primacy  was  transferred  from  Dublin  to  Ar- 
magh, where  the  O'Neills  could  protect  it. 
The  power  of  that  race,  however,  was  soon  to 
be  broken.  The  earldom  of  TjTone  was  con- 
ferred by  the  government  on  Conn*s  bastard 
■son  Matthew,  to  the  exclusion  of  his  legiti- 
mate sou  Shane.  The  latter  was,  however, 
chosen  chief  by  the  tribe,  and  having  mur- 
dered his  brother,  maintained  his  rights 
against  the  Lord- Lieutenant  Sussex,  pcutly 
by  arms  and  partly  by  intrigue.  For  a  while 
he  was  tdlowed  to  administer  Ulster  as  "  cap- 
tain of  Tyrone,"  and  used  the  opportunity  to 
oppress  the  O'Donnells  and  the  M'Donnells, 
Scottish  settlers  in  Antrim.      These  tribes 

Sromptly  espoused  the  side  of  the  new  lord 
eputy,  Sir  Henry  Sydney  (1586),  and  Shane, 
out-mancEuvred,  was  defeated  and  put  to 
death  by  the  M*Donnells.  The  earldom  was 
^^nted  to  Matthew's  son  Hugh  in  1687,  and 
he  was  soon  afterwards  placed  in  possession 
•of  the  territory. "  An  able  man,  he  formed  a 
coalition,  which  relied  on  Spanish  aid,  of  all 
the  northern  chiefs,  together  with  the  pre- 
tender to  the  honours  of  Kildare,  against  the 
English,  and  from  1695  to  1603  he  waged  a  life 
and  death  struggle  with  the  crown,  which  ter- 
minated in  his  submission  on  honourable  terms. 
The  province  was,  however,  utterly  ruined,  and 
in  the  following  reign  he  and  his  kinsman,  the 
Earl  of  Tyrconnel,  fled  from  Ireland  in  fear  of 
the  designs  of  the  government.  Six  counties 
were  thereupon  declared  to  be  forfeited  to  the 
crown,  the  minor  chiefs  were  driven  out  on 
one  pretence  or  another,  and  James  set  to 
work  on  the  plantation  of  Ulster  (q.v.),  which 
was  made  with  scientific  precision,  and  was  in 
consequence  a  success.  Wentworth  oppmiised 
Ulster  hardly  less  than  the  rest  of  Ireland, 
and  he  was  especially  severe  on  the  Scottish 
Presbyterians.  With  the  outbreak  of  the 
rebellion  of  1641,  Catholic  Ulster  at  once 
sprang  to  arms  under  the  brutal  Sir  Phelim 
()'Neill,  who  was  afterwards  superseded  by 
Owen  Roe  O'Neill,  a  trained  soldier.  The 
hitter  in  1646  gained  a  considerable  victory 
over  Munroe,  but  the  Irish  parties  began 


quarrelling  among  themselves,  and  CromwelTs 
work  was  easy.    After  the  massacre  of  I>r&> 
gheda,  the  chief  towns  of  Ulster  stxrreadered 
one  after  another,  and  the  rebellion  in  tb^ 
district  was  rapidly  stamped  out  by  (.'cote, 
the  Protector's  subordinate.     By  the  Crom- 
weUian  settlement,   the  remaining  Catholic 
gentry  were  transplanted    into   Connausrht, 
or  shipped  to  Barbadoes;  the  Presbrt^^riaDs 
also  of  Down  and  Antrim,  who  had  shova 
Royalist  sympathies,  were  compelled  tomiin^ite 
toMunster.  Of  the  lands  thus  vacated  AntriiiL, 
Down,  and  Armagh  were  partitioned  between 
adventurers   and   soldiers,  and   the  rest  of 
Ulster  was  colomsed  by  the   soldiers,  vho 
were  allowed   to  remain  practically  undi^ 
turbed   after   the   Restoration,   though  tkt 
Presbyterians  suffered  considerable  peran.i3- 
tion  under  the  last  of  the  Stuarts.     Henct  it 
can  hardly  be  wondered  that  after  the  Revola- 
tion  the  Protestaiits  of  Ireland  should  hi^ 
chosen  Ulster  as  the  spot  on  which  to  maki'  a 
stand,  and  that  Londonderry  and  Enmskillts 
should  have  held  out  against  James.    Fn« 
that  time  forward  Ulster  remained  distiad 
in  character  from  the  rest  of  Ireland.    It  vss 
more  prosperous,  a  valuable  linen  indostry 
having    been  founded   there    by   Hugrieat.: 
refugees  under  William  III.,  whicli  a  narriv 
mercantile  policy  was  not   able   whoUy  to 
destroy,  and  which  revived  when  in  1779  ihs 
Volunteers  won  free  trade  for  Ireland.  It  was 
also  emphatically  Protestant,  in  spite  of  the 
persecution  of  the  Presbyterians,  who  fled  in 
large  numbers  across  the  Atlantic.    Lastly  it 
was  emphatically  loyal,  though  it  was  fre- 
quently disturbed  by  turbulent  associatic-ss 
such  as  the  Whiteboys,  Peep-o'-day  Box-s, 
Orangemen,  and  the  like,   and  thoug-h  tbt- 
United  Irishmen  of  1798,  and  &e  F<wans  of 
a  later  date,  drew  recruits  from  Belfast  and 
Londonderry  almost  as  freely  as  from  Cork  cc 
from  Limerick.   Since  the  Union  the  conditi<s 
of  Ulster  has  been  on  the  whole  peaceful  ani 
prosperous ;  but  the  Repeal  agitation,  and  "• 
late  years    the  Home  Rule    movement    it 
which  the  Ulster  Protestants  have  been  ta. 
the  side  of  England  and  the  English  canrnx- 
tion),  have  perpetuated  the  distinction  betwrca 
it  and  the  rest  of  Ireland. 

For  autiiorities  see  articles  on  Goimaasbt, 
Leinster,  and  Hunster.  Among  thoGe  espei  ialij 
coucemiug  Ulster  may  l>e  mentioDed  Fktt. 
Hist,  of  the  Doicn  Survey;  Prendergast,  CrBw^ 
voellian  SeitUment  and  Tory  War  ^  n. «''?': 
Shirley,  Hist,  of  Monaghan ;  and  Beid,  HtAt.  «/ 
the  Pf-Mbyterian  Church  in  Ireland. 

[L,  C.  S.] 

Ulster,  The  Plantation  OP.  The  troubles 
of  the  early  years  of  the  seventeenth  centmy ,  the 
flight  of  T^TConnel  and  Tyrone,  and  other  n?- 
bellions,  had  resulted  in  the  forfeiture  of  a  vt-rr 
large  part  of  Ulster  to  the  crown.  In  1 60S 
a  commission  was  appointed  to  consider  «  hat 
should  be  done  with  these  large  estat<^  and 
proposed  to  colonise  the  whole  dislrict  with 
*' retired  civil  and  military  servaats,**  and 


XJlm 


(  1023  ) 


Und 


with  colonists  from  England  and  Scotland. 
Sir  Arthur  Chichester  would  have  left  the 
Irish   in   possession  of    their    own  territo- 
ries, and  only  settled  the  new-comers  here 
and  there   by  agreement  with    them;    but 
the  commissioners  recommended  that  large 
tracts    should  l)e    completely    handed    over 
to  the  colonists,  and  taken  away  from  the 
old  inhabitants.      In  1609  the  scheme  was 
ready.     The  escheated  lands  were  divided 
into  portions  consisting  of  1,000,  1,500,  and 
2,000  acres,  and  each  large  proprietor  was 
bound  to  build  a  castle  on  his  estate,  and  was 
forbidden  to  alienate  his  lands  to  Irishmen. 
Six  counties  were  to  be  ti'eated  in  this  way 
— Tyrone,   Coleraine,   Donegal,   Fermanagh, 
Cavan,  and  Armagh — and  the  natives  were  as 
a  rule  to  be  conHned  to  the  pails  assigned 
to  landholders  of  their  own  race,  though  in 
some  cases  they  were  allowed  to  remain  on 
the  grounds  of  the  new-comers.     Chichester, 
who  was  entrusted  with  the  carrying  out  of 
these  schemes,  found  himself  in  face  of  ter- 
rible difficulties,  and  could  not  secure  that 
the  natives  should  be  treated  with  fairness 
ind  consideration.     In  1610  he  visited  Ulster 
tor  the  purpose  of  remo\'ing  the  Irish,  and 
lad  to  leave  double  garrisons  behind  him  on 
lis  departure.    In  1611  the  work  progressed 
>etter.     The   City  of  London  had  founded 
ho  colony  of  Derry,  and  everywhere  things 
tegan  to  look  more  prosperous.    It  was  even 
Qund  possible  to  reduce  the  number  of  the 
roups.      According  to  the  original  scheme, 
16  division  of  the  forfeited  lands  was  to  be 
3  follows  : — 150,000  acres  were  to  go  to  the 
Inglish  and  Scotch  Undertakers — who  could 
ave  no   Irish  tenants;  45,500  acres  to  the 
>rvitors  of  the  crown  in  Ireland,  with  per- 
ission    to   have    either    Irish    or   English 
nants ;  while  70,000  acres  were  to  be  left 
the  hands  of  the  natives. 

S.  B.  Gardiner,  Htst.  of  Eng.,  190&-1M2, 

Ulster  Ma4Bisacr6»  The.  The  Irish 
bcllion  of  1641  began  with  a  sudden  attack 
.  the  ^English  settlers  in  Ulster,  and  their 
>]eut  expulsion  from  their  holdings.  Ac- 
rding  to  the  statement  of  Sir  John  Temple, 
0,000  persons  were  destroyed  between  1641 
i  tho  cessation  of  arms  in  1643,  of  whom 
3,000  perished  in  the  first  two  months. 
irendon  states  that  40,000  or  50,000  of  the 
g-Iisii  Protestants  were  "murdered  before 
y  suspected, themselves  to  be  in  any  danger 
could  provide  for  their  defence."  Other 
itomporary  authorities  give  equally  high 
ires.  3£r.  Lecky  affirms  that  the  figure 
300,000  exceeds  by  nearly  a  third  tiiie 
iiuited  number  of  Protestants  in  the 
jIq  island,  and  was  computed  to  be  more 
Q  ten  times  the  number  of  Protestants 
',  vs-ere  living  outside  walled  towns  in 
ell  no  massacre  took  place.  Mr.  Gardiner, 
lo  denying  that  there  was  any  general 
sacro,  or  ti^t  the  English  were  put  to  the 


sword  in  a  body,  considers  that  about  4,000 
persons  were  put  to  death  in  cold  blood,  and 
about  twice  that  number  perished  in  conse- 
quence of  the  privation  caused  by  their  expul- 
sion. 

8.  B.  Qardiner,  Sitt.  of  Eng.,  vol.  x. ;  Lecky, 

Snyland    in   the   EightetntK    Century,  vol.  ii. ; 

Prendergaftt,  CromueUian  Settlement  in  Ireland  ; 

Eighth  Report  of  the  Royal  Commxetion  on  Hidtori- 

oai  Manuacript*.    Hickson,  Ireland  in  the  Seven- 

Umth  Century  (1884). 

Umbayla  Campa^pn,  Thb.    A  fanatic 

conspiracy  broke  out  in  1863  among  the 
Sittana  and  other  Affghan  hill  tribes.  General 
Neville  Chamberlain  was  unsuccessful  against 
them,  and  was  badly  wounded  in  a  battle 
near  Umbeyla.  Sir  Hugh  Rose  then  advanced 
against  them,  and  General  G^mock  success- 
fully  assaiUted  Umbeyla  and  captured  Mulka. 
On  Christmas  Day,  1863,  the  force  retired, 
and  the  war  was  at  an  end. 

Umritsiry  Thb  Tkeaty  of  (April  25, 
1809),  was  concluded  between  the  East  India 
Company  and  Runjeet  Singh.  Its  provisions 
were  that  the  British  government  should 
have  no  concern  with  the  territories  and  sub- 
jects of  the  Rajah  north  of  the  Sntlej  ;  and 
that  the  Rajah  should  not  commit  anv  en- 
croachments, or  suffer  any  to  be  comnutted, 
on  the  possessions  or  rights  of  the  chiefs 
under  British  protection  south  of  it. 

Underllilly  Edwakd  {d.  circa  1549), 
known  as  the  "  Hot  Gospeller,'*  was  a  zealous 
Puritan,  and  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  insur- 
gents in  the  western  rebellion  of  1549.  He 
was  imprisoned  in  Newgate  by  Queen  Mary. 

Undertakers,  Thb,  sometimes  called 
ADVENTCKBas,  weroEngUsh  gentlemen,  chiefly 
from  Devonshire,  who  undertook  to  keep  pos- 
session of  the  lands  forfeited  to  the  crown  in 
Ireland,  or  of  lands  which,  though  nominally 
the  pro^rty  of  Englishmen,  had  been  allowed 
to  fall  into  Irish  hands.  The  first  attempt 
was  made  by  a  natural  son  of  Sir  Thomas 
Smith,  in  Ulster,  about  the  year  1>569  ;  again 
by  the  Earl  of  Essex  in  1575 ;  but  the 
result  in  both  cases  was  failure.  A  similar 
attempt  made  by  Sir  Peter  Carew  and  St. 
Leger  in  Munster,  resulted  in  the  outbreak  of 
the  great  Geraldine  rebellion.  After  its  sup- 
pression the  attempt  was  renewed ;  but  this 
time  the  government  insisted  on  two  condi- 
tions, which  were  to  be  obsen^ed  by  the  Adven- 
turers ;  of  which  the  principal  were,  that 
an  English  or  Scottish  family  was  to  be 
settled  on  every  240  acres,  and  that  no 
Irish  tenants  were  to  be  admitted.  But  the 
"  Undertakers,**  among  whom  were  Sir  "W. 
Raleigh  and  Edmund  Spenser,  observed 
neither  condition.  Hence  wht»n  O'Neill's 
revolt  broke  out  (1696),  they  had  to  fly.  In 
the  beginning  of  James  I.'s  reign,  however, 
they  came  back  again  in  greater  numbers. 

Undertakers  of  1614.    ^\li^,  in  1614, 

James  I.,  crippled  by  a  debt,  which  now 
amounted  to  £680,00*0,  had    determined  to 


Vni 


(  1024  } 


Vni 


call  a  fresh  Parliament,  Sir  Henry  Neville 
iind  certain  others  offered  to  undertake  that 
the  House  of  Commons  then  to  be  elected 
would  grant  the  king  the  large  supplies  of 
which  he  stood  so  greatly  in  need.  Otheni 
engaged  to  secure  the  return  of  mem- 
bers whose  riews  were  strongly  in  favour 
of  the  royal  prerogatives.  "Die  people  by 
whose  means  the  votes  of  the  House  were  to 
be  won  over  to  meet  the  royal  wishes  were 
called  by  the  name  of  Undertakers,  but  appear 
to  have  been  men  of  little  influence.  James's 
best  counsellors — Bacon,  for  example — were 
from  the  first  distrustful  of  the  scheme,  and 
the  king  himself,  in  his  opening  speech,  dis- 
owned his  connection  with  the  Undertakers. 
Again,  seven  years  later,  he  refers  to  them 
as  '*  a  strange  kind  of  beasts,  called  Under- 
takers— a.  name  which  in  my  nature  I  abhor." 
8.  R.  Gardiner,  Bitt,  of  Eng,,  1603—1648, 

Vnifomii'fy,  Thb  Fihst  Act  of,  was 
passed  Jan.  15,  1549,  in  spite  of  the  opposition 
of  some  of  the  bishops.  It  ordered  tiie  use  of 
the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  by  all  ministers 
on  penalty  of  forfeiture  of  stipend,  and  six 
months'  imprisonment,  with  heavier  punish- 
ment for  second  and  third  offences.  Learned 
persons  were,  however,  permitted  to  use  Latin, 
Greek,  or  even  Hebrew  for  their  own  private 
advantage;  while  university  chapels  might 
hold  all  services  (except  the  Communion)  in 
the  same  tongue  "  for  the  further  encouraging 
of  learning."  It  was  this  Act  that  led  in  a 
g^eat  measure  to  the  rebellion  in  the  West  of 
England  in  this  year. 

Uniformityy  ^he  Second  Act  op  (1559), 
<* prohibited,"  says  Mr.  Hallam,  ''under 
pain  of  forfeiting  goods  and  chattels  for  the 
first  offence,  of  a  year's  imprisonment  for 
the  second,  and  of  imprisonment  during  life 
for  the  third,  the  use  by  a  minister,  whether 
beneficed  or  not,  of  any  but  the  established 
liturgy ;  and  imposed  a  fine  of  one  shilling 
on  all  who  should  absent  themselves  from 
Church  on  Sundays  and  holydays."  It  also 
confirmed  the  revised  Book  of  Common  Prayer^ 
established  by  Edward  YI.,  1652,  and  in- 
flicted heavy  penalties  on  all  who  should 
make  a  mock  of  the  new  service,  interrupt 
the  minister,  or  have  any  other  form  used 
in  Church. 

Unifonnityv  The  Third  Act  of,  was 
passed  in  1662.  This  Act,  after  declaring  that 
a  universal  agreement  in  the  matter  of  public 
worship  was  conducive  to  the  peace  of  the 
nation,  bids  all  ministers  in  churches  within 
the  realm  of  England  and  Wales,  use  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer^  and  read  the  morning 
and  evening  prayers  therein.  All  parsons,  &c., 
holding  any  benefice,  were  publicly  to  read 
and  declare  their  assent  to  the  same  book  by 
St.  Bartholomew's  Day  (1662),  and  if  they 
refused  were  to  be  deprived  of  their  livings. 
For  the  future  all  people  presented  to  any 


benefice  were  to  make  a  similar  decknticR. 
Every  incumbent  was  to  read  the  wrncei 
pubUcly  at  least  once  a  month,  under  ptin  o{ 
a  fine  of  £5.  Every  dean,  university  reader, 
parson,  or  schoolmaster  or  private  tutor,  vu 
to  make  declaration  as  to  the  unlawfulnen 
of  bearing  arms  against  the  king  on  any 
pretence  whatever,  and  to  deny  the  binding 
force  of  the  Solemn  League  and  Coveoant. 
Schoolmasters  and  tutors  were  not  to  t«ach 
before  obtaining  a  licence  from  the  bishop  or 
archbishop  in  whose  diocese  they  were.  No 
one  who  had  not  been  episcopally  ordainod  ins 
to  hold  a  benefice  after  St.  Bartholomew'sDay, 
1662.  Heads  of  colleges  and  lecturers  wtre 
to  subscribe  to  the  TUrty-nine  Articles,  and 
declare  their  assent  to  the  Book  of  Commsi 
Prayer.  In  consequence  of  this  Act  more  thu 
2,000  ministers  resigned  their  preferments. 

Vllioil.    [Foo&  Laws.] 

Union  of  England   and  Zrebuid 

(1800).  After  the  suppression  of  the  Rebellivo 
of  1798,  the  Union  had  come  to  be  recogni$ei 
not  only  in  England,  but  also  by  many  of  the 
Irish,  as  a  necessary  measure,  if  only  in  order 
to  save  Ireland  from  itself .  Buttheinterestaof 
the  country  did  not  outweigh  the  intereste  d 
individuals,  and  these  latter  were  detenniiwd 
not  to  allow  their  own  interests  to  be  overlooM 
in  the  general  well-being  of  the  countn'.  It 
at  once  became  clear  that  the  oppositioD  of 
interested  individuals  would  be  fatal  to  thr 
scheme,  unless  they  were  bought  off.  Hie 
English  government  accordingly  set  sW 
the  gigantic  scheme  of  purchasing  the  Irish 
boroughs.  Seats  were  paid  for  at  the  rate  of 
£750  each,  nor  did  the  total  sum  paid  ai 
compensation  for  consent  to  the  schrice 
amount  to  less  than  one  million  and  a  quaittt: 
"  Peers  were  further  compensated  for  the 
loss  of  their  privilege  in  the  national  conncl 
by  profuse  promises  of  English  peersges.  or 
promotion  in  the  peerage  of  Ireland.  Com- 
moners were  ooncinated  by  new  honours,  ix.i 
by  the  largesses  of  the  British  govenuntc^ 
Places  were  given  or  promised;  penjiu^tf 
multiplied ;  secret  service  money  exhaust^!" 
At  length,  by  this  wholesale  system  of  politial 
jobbing,  the  consent  of  the  Irish  Paniamrst 
was  obtained,  in  spite  of  a  few  patriots*  vho 
still  protested  against  **the  sale  of  the  liberGtS 
and  free  constitution  of  Ireland."  Tla 
settlement  of  the  terms  of  the  Union  did  not 
occupy  a  long  time.  "  Ireland  was  to  k 
represented  in  Parliament  by  four  spiritual 
lords  sitting  in  rotation  of  sessions,  ^ 
twenty-eight  temporal  peers  elected  for  ji^ 
by  the  Irish  peerage,  and  by  a  hundred 
members  of  the  House  of  CJommons."  '^' 
pledge  to  redress  Catholic  grievances,  whi.t 
had  silenced  the  opposition  of  that  por^-' 
of  the  community,  had  to  wait  thirty  yetr* 
for  fulfilment,  owing  chiefly  to  ti-: 
scruples  of  George  III.  But  the  restrirti«^ 
on  Irish  commerce  were   removed,  and  her 


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Vni 


laws  were  administered  with  more  justice  i£iid 

impartiality. 

Maor.  Contt.  Hist. ;    Stanhope,  Li/e  of  Pitt ; 
Froude,  Bnglith  in  Ireland. 

Union  of  Bngland  and  Scotland. 

For  a  century  aiter  the  union  of  the  crowns 
the  two  countries  continued  entirely  sepa- 
rate kingdoms,   with  separate    Parliaments. 
Tames  I.  and  Bacon's  attempt  at  legislative 
mity    had    proved    signally    unsuccessful. 
Under  CromweU  the  two  nations  had  been 
;or  a  time  united  under  one  legislature,  but 
hat  union  was  severed  at  the  Restoration, 
ind  Scotland  replaced  on  the  same  indepen- 
iont  footing  as  before.    But  after  the  Bevo- 
ution  it  was  seen  that  this  state  of  things 
■ould  not   continue,   and  that  as  the  two 
ountries  were  now  one  in  interest  and  in 
peech,  they  must  also  become  one  in  law. 
Phe  wisdom   of  William  showed  him    the 
locessity  of   a    complete    amalgamation    of 
is  two  kingdoms,  but  his  death  cut  short 
is  plans   for  carrying    it    out.      ReligiouB 
nd  commercial    jealousies  were    still  fur- 
^cr  impediments.      The  religious  difficulty 
'as  an  internal  obstacle  in  Scotland  itself, 
'he  hatred  between  the  contending  sects  of 
Ipiscopacy  and   Presbyterianism    had    been 
>stered  by  the  persecutions  of  the  Resto- 
ition,  and  now  each  sect  wished  to  be  in  the 
jcendant,  and  neither  could  brook  the  tole- 
Ltion  of  the  other.  The  commercial  difficulty 
y  between  the  two  countries,  and  showed , 
lat  the  old  feeling  of  hostility  between  them 
as  not  extingui&ed,  and  might  on  slight 
'evocation   again    burst   into    flame.    The 
nglish  grudged  the  Scotch  the  advantages 
an  equal   share  of   the  trade   with  the 
lonies,  and  the  Scotch  refused  to  bear  their 
irt  of  the  national  debt.    The  Scotch  Act  of 
fcurity  of   1703   showed  only  too  plainly 
e   unsatisfactory  state  of    public    feeling. 
*om   this   Act  the   name  of  the  Princess 
tphia,    the    acknowledged    heiress    of   the 
iglish  throne,  was  omitted,  and  the  proviso 
IS    made    that    no   sovereign  of    England 
ould  be  acknowledged  in  Scotland  without 
ving  full  security  for  the  preservation  of 
3   religious  and  trading  liberties  of  that 
mtry.     Jealousy  of  their  country's  inde- 
ndence   led  the  Whigs  to  make  oonunon 
ISC  with  the  Jacobites,  and  in  case  of  the 
[.'en*s  death  there  was  great  danger  of  both 
iting  in  an  effort  for  &e  restoration  of  the 
lurts.     It  was  clear  that  a  union  was  the 
[y  possible  means  of  allaying  the  appre- 
Lsion  of  a  civil  war.     That  the  union  was 
oxnplished  so  successfully  was  due  to  the 
nat^ement  of  Somers.    The  Scotch  proposal 
t  the  union  should  be  federal  was  set  aside, 
L  it  was  resolved  that  as  the  two  nations 
L  virtually  become  one  people,  united  by 
imunity  of  interests,  so  they  should  now 
ome   one   in  point  of  law,  and  as  they 
i&dy  had  one  and  the  same  sovereign,  so 
H  HIT.— 33 


they  should  have  one  and  the  same  legislature. 
Commissioners    from    both    kingdoms   wero 
empowered  to  draw  up  the  Articles  of  Union, 
which   were    twenty -five    in    number.    The 
chief  provisions  of  these  articles  were  that 
on   May    1,    1707,    England    and    Scotland 
should  be  united  in  one  kingdom,  bearing  the 
n^me  of  Great  Britain ;  that  the  succession  to 
the  crown  of  Scotland  should  be  in  all  points 
the  same  as  had  been  settled  for  England; 
that  the  United  Kingdom'  should  be  repre- 
sented by  one  Parliament ;  that  thenceforward 
there  should  be  community  of  rights  and 
privileges  between  the  two  kingdoms,  except 
where  otherwise  agreed  upon  by  the  Parlia- 
ment;  that  all  stcmdards  of  coin,  weights, 
and  measures  in  Scotland  should  be  assimi- 
lated to  those  of  England;  that  the  laws  of 
trade,  customs,  and  excise  should  be  the  same 
in  both  countries;  that  all   other  laws   of 
Scotland  should  remain  unchanged,  but  with 
the  provision  that  the^  mi§^ht  be  altered  in 
time  to  come  at  the  discretion  of  the  united 
Parliament.    To  these  articles  was  added  an 
Act  of  Security  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
Scottish  Church  and  the  four  universities. 
This  Act  required  each  sovereign  on  his  or 
her  accession  to  take  an  oath  to  protect  the 
Presbyterian  Church  as  the  established  Church 
of  Scotland.    The  whole  judicial  machinery 
for  the  administration  of  the  Scottish  law 
system  remained  imtouched,  but  henceforward 
there  would  be  a  possibility  of  appeal  from 
the  decisions  of  the  Court  of  Sessions  to  the 
House  of  Lords.    In  the  Parliament  of  Great 
Britain  Scotland  was  to  be  represented  by 
forty-five  members  sent  up  by  the  Commons, 
and  sixteen  peers  elected  by  their  fellows  as 
representatives  of  the  peerage  of  Scotland. 
The  Articles  of  Union  receiv^  the  royal  as- 
sent, and  the  first  Parliament  of  Great  Britain 
met  Oct.   23,   1707.    A  standard,  on  which 
were  blended  the  flags  of  both  nations,  the 
crosses  of  St.  Andrew  and  St.  George,  which 
had  been  first  projected  by  James  VI.  under 
the  name  of  the  Union  Jack,  was  adopted  as 
the  national  fiag  of  the  United  Kingdom. 
Burton,  Hint,  of  SeoUandf  and  Queen  Anne. 

United  Iriwhmftn.  The.  The  plan  on 
which  this  society  was  afterwards  constituted 
was  sketched  by  Russel  and  Wolfe  Tone.  Its 
object  was  to  be  the  establishment  of  the 
"rights  of  man,"  and  correspondence  with 
the  Jacobin  Club  in  Paris,  and  the  English 
Revolution  Society.  Reform  and  Catholic 
Emancipation  were  to  be  among  its  imme- 
diate objects.  On  July  14,  1790,  it  was 
organiseo,  but  its  first  actual  meeting  took 
place  at  the  Eagle  in  Dublin  on  Nov.  9. 
Hamilton  Rowan  and  Wolfe  Tone  were  the 
leaders  ;  Napper  Tandy  was  secretarj'.  After 
the  French  victories  in  1792,  they  began 
openly  to  talk  of  rebellion,  and  raised  a 
national  guard.  The  meeting  of  the  Catholio 
Committee  was  thought  to  be  the  signal  of 


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war,  bat  Fitz-Gibbon  declaring  the  national 
^uard  illegal,  only  three  men  assembled 
in  defiance  of  his  proclamation.  In  the 
north  the  society  made  much  show  in  green 
uniforms,  but  were  disarmed  in  1793.  An 
attempt  at  a  representative  assembly  was 
foiled  by  the  Convention  Bill.  In  1794 
they  again  began  secretly  to  prepare  for 
revolt  Their  organisation,  now  secret,  con- 
sisted of  county  committees,  baronial  com- 
mittees, and  elementary  bodies,  with  an 
executive  directory  of  five  members  at  their 
head.  The  heads  of  these  bodies  were  changed 
every  fortnight,  and  they  only  corresponded 
with  and  knew  of  their  superiors.  They  had 
about  a  million  members,  but  the  very  per- 
fection of  their  organisation  was  its  great 
fault,  as  the  seizure  of  a  few  leaders  would 
paralyse  the  whole  body.  One  of  their  chief 
schemes  was  to  debauch  the  fidelity  of  the 
Dublin  garrison,  and  though  they  were  un- 
successful in  this,  the  militia  were  almost 
entirely  theirs.  In  1796  Hoche,  whom  Lord 
Edward  Fitzgerald  and  O'Connor  went 
to  see,  promised  them  French  help,  and 
they  boasted  at  that  time  that  they  could 
muster  200,000  men.  The  seizure  of  Keogh 
in  Dublin,  and  of  others  in  Belfast,  however, 
l)aralysed  them,  and  when  the  French  were 
at  Bantry  the  country  remained  quiet.  In 
1797  they  had  reorganised  themselves,  but 
General  Lake,  by  disarming  Ulster,  again 
disabled  them.  This  last  step  was  taken 
in  consequence  of  the  report  of  a  secret  com- 
mittee of  the  House  of  Commons ;  and  at  the 
same  time  a  free  pardon  was  promised  to  all 
the  United  Irishmen  who  surrendered  before 
June  24.  The  Dublin  men  refused  to  rise 
at  once,  and  in  consequence  the  men  of  Ulster 
submitted.  In  1798  the  Catholics,  with  the 
concurrence  of  the  Dublin  committee,  pre- 
pared to  rise,  but  again  the  arrest  of  liieir 
leaders  disconcerted  their  plans. 

Fronde,  Eng.  in  Irtlund;    Lif*  of  GmUan; 
Massey,  B.i%t.  of  Eng. 

United  Kingdom.  The  adoption  by 
James  I.  of  the  title  '*  King  of  Great  Britain  " 
instead  of  *'of  England  and  Scotland,"  was 
part  of  his  wider  plan  of  bringing  about  com- 
plete union  between  the  two  kingdoms.  As 
early  as  April,  1604,  the  English  Parliament 
was  asked  to  consent  to  the  change  of  style. 
But  fears  were  expressed  lest  the  laws  and 
liberties  of  England  might  not  hold  good  in 
the  new  realm  of  Britain,  and  the  Commons 
urged  that  some  agreement  as  to  the  terms  of 
the  union  should  precede  the  assumption-  of 
the  title.  James  yielded  to  the  advice  of 
Cecil,  and  deferred  the  change.  Bacon,  in 
Considerations  Touching  tfte  Unions  which  he 
laid  before  the  king  in  the  autumn,  sug- 
gested that  it  would  be  better  to  proceed  by 
proclamation :  ''  the  two  difiBculties  are  point 
of  honour  and  love  to  the  former  names,  and 
the  doubt  lest  the  alteration  may  induce  and 
involve  an  alteration  in  the  laws  and  policies 


of  the  kingdom.  Both  which,  if  yoor  maieitT 
shall  assume  the  style  by  prochunatioo  ^tod 
not  by  Parliameiyt,  are  satisfied ;  for  then  the 
usual  names  must  needs  remain  in  writs  and 
records,  the  forms  whereof  cannot  be  altered 
but  by  Act  of  Parliament,  and  so  the  point  of 
honour  satisfied.  And,  again,  your  prDclasia- 
tion  altereth  no  law,  ajid  so  the  scruple  of  a 
tacit  or  implied  alteration  of  laws  likewise 
satisfied."  Accordingly  on  Oct.  20  James 
issued  a  proclamation :  '*  Ab  an  impenal 
monarchy  of  these  two  great  kingdoms  doth 
comprehend  the  whole  island,  so  it  shall  keep 
in  all  ensuing  ages  the  united  denominatkm 
of  the  invincible  monarchy  of  Great  Britain, 
and,  therefore,  by  the  force  of  our  royal  pre- 
rogative we  assume  to  ourselves  the  ftyle 
and  title  of  King  of  Great  Britain,  France, 
and  Ireland  ...  to  be  used  in  tJl  prock- 
mations,  missives,  treaties,  leagues,  dedica- 
tions, &c. ;  '*  and  the  inscription  '*  J.  D.  (y. 
Mag.  Brit.  F.  et  H.  K.**  was  placed  on  the 
coinage.  James  was,  however,  baulked  in  his 
attempt  to  bring  about  union,  and  the  titk 
did  not  receive  Parliamentary  sanction  till  it 
was  adopted  for  the  United  Kingdom  of 
England  and  Scotland  in  1707.  By  the  Afi 
of  Union  (with  Ireland),  39  &  40  Geo.  III.,  c  €7 
(July,  1800),  the  kingdoms  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  were  constituted  the  United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  IreLand,  whidi 
has  been  the  official  designation  since. 

For  the  xneaaurefl  of  James,  see  Gardiaer'fl 
^  Eist.  0/  .Bii«.,  i.  177  ;  Spedding,  IMten  and  U^ 
*       of  Bacon,  iii.  25S.  [W.  J.  A.] 


United     States,     Relations 
[Colonies,  the  Amekican  ;  Ambrican  larni- 
PENOEKCB ;  American  Wak.] 

VniTerntieB.  The  word  unweniUs  i& 
in  Roman  Law  the  synonym  of  eoUegistsn.  In 
the  Middle  Ages  it  was  originally  used  of  any 
body  of  men  when  spoken  of  in  their  coHee- 
tive  capacity;  but  it  gradually  became  ap> 
propriated  to  those  guilds  or  corpofratioss 
either  of  masters  or  of  scholars,  the  earliest 
of  which  originated  in  that  great  revival  of 
intellectual  activity  throughout  £nrope 
which  began  at  the  end  of  the  eleventh  n^ 
the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century.  IV 
idea  of  a  university  may  be  said  to  ha'c^ 
originated  at  Bologna,  where  a  university  of 
students  was  formed  in  the  course  ci  th^ 
twelfth  century.  The  schools  of  P&riadatr 
their  pre-eminent  position  from  the  teaching  d 
Abelud  in  the  first  half  of  the  twelfth  o^itun  ; 
but  there  is  no  trace  of  the  formatiofn  of  && 
organised  society  or  univeisity  of  mastera  till 
towards  the  close  of  the  twelfth  oentarj. 

Oxford  was  the  earliest  of  the  univeiisiti<es 
organised  after  the  model  of  Pftris>  thou^ 
in  the  division  of  the  faculty  of  arts  inU 
Australes  (South-countrymen)  and  Beremlt* 
(North-countrymen),  each  under  its  "  Proctor^ 
(who  at  the  daughter -univenrity  of  Cam> 
bridge  long  retained  the  name  of  '"  Bedor  T-* 


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there  seeniB  a  trace  of  an  earlier  organisation 
on  the  model  of  the  two  universities,  each 
with  its  own  rector,  of    Ultranumtani   and 
CUramontani  at  Bologna.     The  legend  which 
attributes  the  foundation  of  the  University 
of  Oxford,  and  even  of  University  College,  to 
Alfred  the  Great,  is  supported  only  by  docu- 
meuts  now   known   to  be  forged  or  inter* 
polated.    There  is  no  trace  of  any  schools  of 
the  smallest  reputation  at  Oxford  till  about 
the  year   1232,   when   the    Paris   doctor  of 
theology,   Robert  Fulleyn,  is  said   to  have 
taught    there.    In    about  1250  the    Italian 
j  nrist  Vacarius  introduced  the  study  of  Boman 
Law.      At  the  beginning  of  the  following 
century  we  find  the  university  fully  organised 
on  the  model  of  Paris,  with  some  important 
differences.      At  Paris  the  masters  had  to 
obtain  their  licence  to  teach,  or  degree,  from 
the  Chancellor  of  the  Cathedral  or  of  St.  Gene- 
vieve.    At  Oxford  the  chancellor  was  chosen 
by   the  masters,  but  derived  his  authority 
from  the  bishop  of  the  distant  see  of  Lincoln. 
He,   in  fact,  united  the    functions    of    the 
chiuicellor    and    the    rector   at   Paris,    and 
eventually    became     more    powerful    than 
either.    He  was  from  the  first  an  ecclesiastical 
judgo  in  cases  affecting  scholars.    After  the 
j^reat  "  Town"  and  " Gown *'  battle  of  1209, 
in  which  three  scholars  were  hanged  by  the 
townsmen,  the  university  gained  its  first  royal 
charter   of  privilege,  and  its  chancellor  ob- 
tained  a  civil  and  criminal,  as  well  as  an 
ecclesiastical,  jurisdiction.  Each  of  those  san- 
guinary street-fights,  with  bow  and  arrow,  or 
sword  and  dagger,  between  clerks  and  towns- 
folk, which  make  up  the  history  of  mediaaval 
Oxford,  ended  in  the  humiliation  of  the  town 
and  some  accession  to  the  privileges  of  the 
university.      The  chancellor  eventually  ac- 
quired (subject  to  an  appeal  to  the  university) 
cognisance  of  all  cases  in  which  a  scholar  was 
one    party,  except  in  cases  of  homicide  or 
maim. 

The  students  (who  usually  began  their  arts 
course  at  thirteen  or  fifteen)  at  first  lived 
tonie times  in  lodgings  "^th  townsmen,  but 
jsually  in  "halls''  or  *'inns,"  which  were 
)oarding-houses  kept  by  a  master.  In  1249, 
William  of  Durham  left  a  legacy  to  provide 
>ensions  for  four  Masters  of  Arts  studying 
hc^olog^,  a  foimdation  which  developed  into 
*  University  College."  Some  time  between 
263  and  1268,  Balliol  College  was  founded 
or  poor  students  in  arts,  by  John  BaUiol 
nd  Dervorgilla,  his  wife.  It  was,  however, 
ho  far  larger  foundation,  in  1264,  of  Walter 
e  Merton,  Bishop  of  Rochester,  which  really 
riginated  the  English  college  system.  The 
>undation  of  Exeter  follow^  in  1314,  Oriel 
)y  Kd ward  II.)  in  1326,  Queen's  (named  after 
tueon  Philippa  by  Robert  Eglesfield  her 
iaplain)  in  1340.  WilKam  of  Wykeham's 
>lcndid  foundation  (1386),  still  known  as 
ew  College,  introduces  a  new  era  in  college- 
lildingr.     After  the  foundation  of  lincoln  \ 


in  1427  came  All  Souls'  (1437),  and  Mag. 
dalen  in  1458,  founded,  the  former  by 
Archbishop  Chichele,  the  latter  by  William  of 
Waynflete,  both  Wykehamists,  and  imitators 
of  Wykeham.  Brasenose  was  founded  in  1509, 
Cozpus  Christi — designed  to  foster  the  **  New 
Learning" — ^by  Bishop  Fox,  in  1516.  Christ 
Church  was  b^^un  under  the  name  of 
Cajrdinal  Coll^  by  Wolsey,  and  completed 
by  Henry  VIII.  in  1546.  Trinity  (1554), 
which  occupies  the  site  of  an  earlier  college 
for  Durham  monks,  and  St.  John's  (1555) 
are  the  offspring  of  the  Marian  reaction: 
Jesus  (1571),  Wadham  (1609),  and  Pembroke 
(1624)  of  the  Reformation.  Worcester,  on 
the  site  of  the  hall  once  occupied  by 
Gloucester  monks,  dates  from  1714.  Keble, 
founded  in  1870,  is  the  monument  of  the 
**  Oxford  movement."  The  ancient  Magdalen 
Hall  was  endowed  and  incorporated  as  Hert- 
ford College  in  1874. 

The  colleges  had  originally  been  intended 
only  as  a  means  of  support  for  poor  scholars ; 
but  their  superior  discipline  led  to  the  practice 
of  sending  wealthier  boys  as  *'  commoners," 
or  paying  boarders,  to  them.  The  Re- 
formation fon  a  time  nearly  emptied  the  uni- 
versity ;  most  of  the  halls  disappeared,  and 
the  code  of  statutes  imposed  upon  the 
university  during  the  chancellorship  of  Laud, 
completed  its  transformation  into  a  mere 
aggregate  of  colleges,  by  giving  the  "  Heb- 
domadal Council"  of  heads  of  houses  the 
sole  initiative  in  university  legislation. 

From  the  time  of  the  Restoration  learning 
declined,  and  in  the  eighteenth  century 
Oxford  gradually  sank  into  a  state  of 
intellectual  torpor.  The  first  sign  of 
reviving  life  is  the  foundation  of  "Honour 
Schools,"  in  classics  and  mathematics  in 
1807.  And  the  *^  Oxford  movement "  gave  a 
great  impulse  to  the  intellectual,  as  well  as 
the  ecclesiastical,  activitv  of  the  university. 
The  era  of  University  Reform  begins  with  the 
appointment  of  a  Royal  Commission  of 
Inquiry  in  1850.  The  Act  of  1854  abolished 
the  subscription  to  the  Articles  hitherto  re- 
quired at  matriculation  and  on  admission  to 
the  B.A.  degree,  and  appointed  an  executive 
commission  whidb  abolished  the  local  restric- 
tions of  scholarships  and  fellowships.  The 
abolition  of  tests  for  the  higher  degi*ees  was 
delayed  till  1871.  The  commission  of  1877 
founded  or  augmented  professorships  at  the 
expense  of  the  colleges,  limited  the  tenure  of 
''idle"  fellowships,  and  almost  completely 
removed  clerical  restrictions. 

The  stories  which  attribute  the  foundation 
of  Cambuidoe  to  Cantaber,  a  mythical  Spanish 
prince,  or  to  Sigebert,  King  of  the  East 
Angles  in  the  seventh  centur}',  are  among 
the  stupidest  of  historical  fabrications.  The 
first  authentic  notice  of  Cambridge  as  a  seat  of 
learning  is  in  1209,  when  some  of  the  students 
who  left  Oxford,  in  consequence  of  the  dis- 
turbances of  that  year,  established  themselvee 


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at  Cambridge.  In  1229  came  an  immigration 
of  students  who  had  left  Paris  on  account  of 
the  great  quarrel  of  that  university  with  the 
Friars.  To  this  year  belongs  the  first  legal 
recognition  of  the  university  and  its  chan- 
cellor. It  now  appears  to  be  organised  after 
the  model  of  Oxf  oid. 

The  history  of  medisaval  Cambridge  is 
marked  by  the  same  struggle  for  independence 
against  the  bishop,  and  the  same  sanguinary 
street-fights  between  "Town"  and  **Gown,'* 
or  North  and  South,  as  that  of  Oxford,  and 
the  chancellor  g^dually  acquired  nearly  the 
same  jurisdiction  as  at  Oxford.  The  ex- 
emption of  the  university  from  the  juris- 
diction of  the  bishop  and  of  the  metropolitan 
was  not,  however,  fully  established  till  1434. 
The  statutes  by  which  the  university  has  been 
nominally  governed  down  to  the  present  cen- 
tury were  imposed  upon  it  by  royal  authority 
in  1570,  chiefly  through  the  influence  of  Whit- 
gift,  then  Master  of  Trinity.  They  virtually 
destroyed  the  democratic  government  of  the 
masters  by  the  large  powers  which  they 
conferred  upon  the  heads  of  colleges. 

In  mediseval  times  Cambridge  had  never 
enjoyed  the  European  celebrity  of  Oxford; 
but  the  English  Reformation  was  a  Cam- 
bridge movement.  From  that  time,  but 
still  more  conspicuously  after  the  Restora- 
tion, to  the  present  century,  the  supe- 
riority in  intellectual  activity  was,  as 
Macaulay  boasts,  "on  the  side  of  the  less 
ancient  and  less  splendid  university."  It 
was,  in  the  main,  the  impulse  given  to 
mathematical  study  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton, 
long  resident  in  the  university  as  Fellow 
of  Trinity  and  Professor  of  Jifathematics, 
which  saved  Cambridge  from  the  stag- 
nation of  eighteenth-century  Oxford.  ITie 
lists  of  the  Mathematical  "  Tripos  "  date  from 
1747.  The  Classical  Tripos  was  founded  in 
1824. 

The  first  college  at  Cambridge,  Peterhouse, 
was  founded  by  Hugh  Balsham,  Bishop 
of  Ely,  in  the  year  1284,  upon  the  model  of 
Merton  College,  Oxford,  the  rule  of  Merton 
being  constantly  appealed  to  in  the  statutes. 
Michaelhouse  (now  extinct)  was  founded  in 
1324,  Clare  in  1326,  the  King's  Hall  by 
Edward  III.  in  1327,  Pembroke  in  1347, 
Gonville  (called  Gonville  and  Caius  since  its 
refoundation  by  Dr.  Caius  in  1558)  in  1348, 
Trinity  Hall  in  1350,  Corpus  Christi  by  the 
Cambridge  guilds  of  Corpus  Christi  and  of 
St.  Mary  in  1352.  King's  was  founded  in 
1441  by  Henry  VI.,  out  of  the  revenues  of 
the  suppressea  "alien  Priories."  Queens' 
owes  its  orig^  (1448)  to  his  consort,  Mar- 
garet of  Anjou,  being  re-founded  in  1466 
by  Elizabeth  Widville,  consort  of  Edward 
IV.  St.  Catherine's  was  founded  in  1473; 
Jesus  in  1496 ;  Christ's  (incorporating  an 
earlier  college  for  training  schoolmasters 
called  God's  House)  in  1505 ;  St.  John's,  on 
the  site  of  the  suppressed  Hospital  of  St. 


John,  in  1511  ;  Magdalene  in  1519.  Tnmtj 
College  (from  its  foundation  the  leading 
coUege  in  the  University)  was  erected  bj 
Henry  VIIL  in  1546,  on  the  site  of  the 
suppressed  Michaelhouse  and  King's  HilL 
Emmanuel  was  founded  by  a  Paritan  in 
1584 ;  Sidney  Sussex  dates  from  1598,  Down* 
ing  from  1800.  Selwyn,  Newnham,  Uts- 
didi,  and  Girton  have  recently  been  added  to 
the  list  of  colleges.  The  legislation  of  1S50, 
1856,  1871,  and  1877.  in  regard  to  Cambridge^ 
has  been  similar  to  that  in  regard  to  Oxford. 

The  first  Scottish  university  was  foundd 
at  St.  Andrews,  m  1411,  by  Archbishc^ 
Henry  Wardlaw.  It  owed  its  existence 
in  a  measure  to  the  schism  in  the  papacy,  is 
whidi  Scotland  adhered  to  the  French  Popee 
of  Avignon,  and  England  to  the  Boman  ]m. 
Although  exempted  from  the  obligation  of 
acknowledging  Clement  VIX,  tiie  schian 
added  to  the  unpopularity  and  oonaeq«iit 
ill-treatment  to  which  Scottish  students  had 
always  been  more  or  less  exposed  at  Oxfoid. 
At  St.  Andrews  the  bishop  and  his  succes- 
sors were  appointed  chancellors.  The  iuad 
of  the  university,  however,  was  (as  in  aD 
the  Continental  universities),  the  Loid 
Hector,  who  was  and  still  is  elected  by  the 
students.  St.  Salvator's  College  wasfoonded 
by  Bishop  Kennedy,  in  1456,  that  of  St. 
iJeonard  by  the  boy -Archbishop  Stewt 
and  Prior  Hepburn,  in  1512.  These  two 
colleges  are  now  amalgamated.  The  f onnda- 
tion  of  St.  Mary's  or"  New  College,*'  was  begun 
by  Archbishop  James  Beaton  in  1537,  and 
completed  by  his  two  immediate  sucoeaeois. 

The  University  of  Glasgow  was  founded 
in  1450  b^  Bishop  TumbulL  The  bgahop» 
were  constituted  chancellors.  As  at  Paris  the 
university  was  divided  into  four  "nations," 
whose  "  Proctors  "  elected  the  Rector.  In  the 
sixteenth  century-  the  university  fell  into 
complete  decay.  Its  revival  dates  from  the 
appointment  of  the  accomplished  humanist, 
Andrew  Melville,  to  the  prmcipalship  of  thf 
'*  College  of  Glasgow,"  within  the  umTerBtr, 
endow^  out  of  Church  estates  placed  at 
the  disposal  of  the  Town  Council  by  Qoeec 
Mary.  Henceforth  the  university  and  col- 
lege became  practically  identicaL  The  prin* 
cipalship  of  Melville  marks  the  close  of  tha 
medisaval  or  Aristotelian  period  in  Scottisb 
education.  By  him  the  study  of  Greek  aod  tk 
Logic  of  Ramus  were  first  introduced  into  the 
universities.  Classical  scholarship,  and  espe- 
cially Greek,  have,  however,  never  flourished 
in  the  Scottish  universities.  The  prominence 
still  accorded  to  Moral  Philosophy  and  Logic 
in  their  curriculum,  remains  a  witneai  to 
their  medisdval  origin. 

The  University  of  Abbrdssn  was  founded  in 
1494  by  Bishop  Elphinston.  The  foundation  o^ 
Aberdeen  was  designed  to  be  a  means  of  civi- 
lising the  Highlands  and  educating  its  dergr* 
A  small  college,  subsequently  called  Kin^'* 
College,  was  provided  for  by  the  founder 


Vni 


(  1029  ) 


Vtr 


Marischal  College  was  fonnded  in  1593.  Its 
assumed  power  of  cd&ferring  degrees  was 
recognised  by  PHrliament  in  1621. 

What  is  now  the  University  of  Edinbukoh 
has  grown  out  of  the  College  of  Edinburgh, 
founded  in  1582  by  the  Town  Council  on  the 
model  of  Calvin's  ** Academy"  at  Geneva. 
The  power  of  conferring  degrees  seems  to 
have  been  from-  the  first  assumed  by  the 
college  (unless  it  was  conferred  by  some  lost 
charter),  and  was  recognised  by  Act  of  the 
Scottish  Parliament  in  1621.1  The  College 
eventually  came  to  be  called  a  "  University." 
It  remained  under  the  government  of  the 
Town  Council  till  the  present  century,  but  is 
now  organised  like  the  other  Scottish  univer- 
sities, the  administration  resting  chiefly  with 
the  professors. 

The  idea  of  founding  a  umversity  at 
Durham  dates  from  the  days  of  Oliver  Crom- 
well, who  actually  established  a  college  there. 
The  present  university  was  founded  by  the 
Dean  and  Chapter  of  Durham  in  1831,  incor- 
porated by  royal  charter,  and  liberally  en- 
dowed with  a  portion  of  the  capitular  estates. 
There  are  two  colleges  at  Durham,  U  niversity 
College  and  Hatfield  Hall ;  and  the  Colleges 
of  Medicine  and  Physical  Science  at  New- 
castle-on-Tyne  are  fully  incorporated  with 
the  university. 

The  University  of  London  differs  from  the 
older  English  and  Scottish  universities,  in 
being  a  purely  examining  body.  It  examines 
and  grants  degrees  in  arts,  science,  laws,  and 
literature,  to  men  and  women  students  alike. 
It  was  founded  by  Royal  Charters  and  Act  of 
Parliamont  in  1826. 

Victoria  University,  consisting  of  Owens 
College,  Manchester,  and  other  colleges  in 
the  North  of  England,  received  a  royal 
charter  in  1880. 

The  University  of  Walks,  comprising  the 
University  College  of  Wales  (Aberystwith),  of 
North  Wales  (Bangor),  and  of  South  Wales 
and  Monmouthshire  (Cardiff),  received  a 
charter  in  1893. 

The  University  Education  Act   (Ireland) 
of  1879,  provided  for  the  dissolution  of  the 
"Queen's  University"  (founded  1850),  and 
for  the  foundation  of  the  Royal  University  of 
Ireland  J  which  received  its  charter  in  1880. 

The  University  Extension  movement  began 
with  Cambridge  in  1872,  and  has  been  par- 
ticipated in  by  other  universities  not  merely 
in  this  country,  but  in  the  Colonies  and 
America. 

Hnber,  Englikh  UnivenitieB;  Ingpram,  Memo- 
riaU  of  Oxford;  Anstej,  Munimenta  Academiea; 
Statutes  oj  the  ColUgu  of  Oxford,  1884  ;  RoporU 
of  the  Bo]ial  C<ymmiuion»  of  1860  aiul  1S77 ; 
J.  B.Mallinger,  Kutory  of  Camhridge ;  Bocwmenta 
relating  to  the  hisfory  of  Cambridge;  Dean 
Peacock,  O^teervatvowe  on  the  Statutes  of  Cam- 
bridge, Sc.;  Lyons.  Hitd,  of  St.  Andreroe;  Sir 
A.  Urant,  Story  of  the  University  of  Editiburgh. 

UniTandty  BUI,  Thb  Irish.  The 
easence  of  this  measuae  as  introduced  by  Mr. 


Gladstone  in  1873  was,  that  the  exclusive 
connection  between  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
and  the  University  of  Dublin,  was  to  cease, 
and  that  that  coUege,  as  well  as  Sir  Robert 
Feel's  Queen's  Colleges,  excepting  that  at 
Ghilway  —  which  was  to  be  dissolved  —  and 
also  several  Roman  Catholic  seminaries,  were 
to  be  placed  in  the  same  position  regarding 
the  university  as  an  Oxford  or  Cambridge 
college.  The  bill,  however,  was  soon  opposed 
on  all  sides,  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  and 
the  Dissenters  being  unfavourable  to  it,  and 
the  second  reading  was  lost  by  287  to  284. 

Valiant,  Tub  Battle  op,  was  fought  on 
July  27,  1778,  between  the  Englibh  and 
French  fleets.  The  former,  imder  the  com- 
mand of  Keppel,  consisted  of  thirty  vessels ; 
the  latter  of  thirty-two.  After  a  fight  which 
lasted  three  hours,  each  fleet  returned  to  its 
own  harbour,  without  having  captured  or 
destroyed  one  of  their  opponent's  ships. 
There  was  a  general  outcry  against  so  dis- 
honourable an  engagement,  and  Keppel  at- 
tempted to  throw  the  blame  of  his  ill- success 
upon  his  subordinate,  Palliser,  who  recrimi- 
nated upon  his  chief.  Finally  Sir  Hugh 
Palliser  Drought  deflnite  charges  against  the 
admiral,  and  a  court-martial  was  held,  which, 
however,  resulted  in  the  acquittal  of  Keppel. 
The  dispute  between  the  two  naval  ofiicers, 
of  whom  Keppel  represented  the  \Vliip  Op- 
position and  Palliser  the  court  party,  was 
made  an  instrument  of  political  agitation. 

VMlIier,  Jambs,  Archbishop  of  Armagh 
b.  1680,  d.  1656),  was  educated  at  Trinity 
bUege,  Dublin,  and  was  ordained  in  1601. 
In  1615  he  was  employed  in  drawing  up 
articles  for  the  Irish  Church ;  and  five  years 
latejr  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Meath,  from 
which  post  he  was  promoted  in  1624  to  be 
Archbishop  of  Armagh.  When  the  Irish 
Rebellion  broke  out  he  escaped  to  England, 
and  received  the  bishopric  of  Carlisle.  His 
chief  historical  work  is  entitled  Britannicarum 
EceUsiarum  Antiquitatee, 

Ufliiry.    [Intrrest.] 

Vtreclity  The  Peacb  of,  was  signed 
March  31,  1713.  Several  times  during  the 
War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  negotiations 
had  been  set  on  foot  between  England  and 
France.  In  1706,  after  the  battle  of  Ramil- 
lies,  Louis  suggested  a  new  partition  treaty, 
**  by  which  he  would  consent  to  acknowledge 
Queen  Anne  in  England,  to  give  the  Dutch 
the  barrier  they  demanded,  to  gprant  great 
commercial  advantages  to  the  maritime 
powers,  and  to  surrender  Spain  and  the 
Indies  to  the  Archduke  Charles,  if  only  he 
could  preserve  for  his  grandson,  Philip,  a 
kingdom  in  Italy  consisting  of  Milan,  Naples, 
and  Sicily."  But  the  Emperor  saw  that  the 
Dutch  barrier  would  be  taken  from  the 
Spanish  dominions  in  the  Netherlands,  and 
therefore  from  his  son ;  and  Marlborough  was 
anxious  to  continue  the  war  for  his  own  sake. 


^ 


Uxb 


(  1030  ) 


rmg 


The  Dutch  were  therefore  induced  to  reject  the 
demands.  In  1709,  after  the  battle  of  Ouden- 
arde,  the  French  king  again  tried  to  treat.  The 
allies  now  demaDded  ttie  resignation  of  the 
whole  of  the  Spanish  succession,  together  with 
the  restoration  of  Newfoundland  to  England. 
Xiouis  represented  that  his  grandson  would 
refuse  to  be  altogether  crownless.  Thereupon 
the  allies  demanded  that  if  Philip  would  not 
resign  Spain  within  two  months,  Louis  was 
to  pledge  himself  to  join  the  allies  in  expelling 
him  thence.  Next  year  the  negotiations  of  the 
previous  year  were  resumed  at  Gertruyden- 
Durg.  In  the  interval  the  French  had  fought 
and  lost  the  battle  of  Malplaquet.  The 
demands  of  the  previous  year  were  renewed, 
but  at  length  the  English  and  Dutch  waived 
the  point  of  the  assistance  of  Louis  in 
ejecting  his  grandson.  But  the  opposition  of 
»sivoy  and  Austria  rendered  general  negotia- 
tions impossible.  In  Jan.,  1711,  for  the  first 
time,  proposals  were  made  from  the  side  of  the 
allies.  In  Jan.,  1712,  the  congress  of  Utrecht 
opened.  By  April,  1713,  all  the  treaties  were 
signed  except  that  between  France  and  the 
Empire  and  Emperor.  In  the  course  of  1714 
they  also  were  concluded  at  Bastadt  and 
Baden.  The  terms  of  the  principal  treaties 
were:  (1)  Between  England  and  France. 
The  Protestant  succession,  through  the  house 
of  Hanover,  was  secured ;  the  Pretender  was 
to  be  compelled  to  quit  France ;  a  permanent 
severance  of  the  crowns  of  France  and  Spain 
was  solemnly  promised;  Newfoundland, 
Acadia,  and  the  Hudson's  Bay  Territory  were 
ceded  to  England.  (2)  The  Dutch  secured  a 
strong  fortress  barrier ;  the  Spanish  Nether- 
lands were  handed  over  to  them,  and  Lille  was 
given  back  to  France.  (3)  The  Duke  of  Savoy 
secured  Sicil}'  and  the  title  of  king.  (4)  The 
treaty  between  Spain  and  England,  signed  in 
July,  granted  to  England  the  possession  of 
Gibraltar  and  Minorca  [Barrieu  Treaty]  ; 
by  the  Assiento,  a  contract  signed  at  Madrid, 
the  grant  of  slave  trade  was  withdrawn  from 
France  and  given  to  England. 

Dumont,  RecueU  de  TraiUs ;  Lecky,  "BitA,  of 
f%«  EighUenih  Century. 

iTxbridgaf  The  Treaty  of  (Jan.  and 
Feb.,  164d),  is  the  name  given  to  the  futile 
attempts  at  an  understanding  made  between 
the  commissioners  of  the  king  and  the  Par- 
liament at  the  beginning  of  1645.  But  it 
was  soon  evident  that  the  demands  of  the 
Parliamentarian  party  were  too  exorbitant  to 
be  granted,  for  they  demanded  not  only  the 
abolition  of  episcopacy,  but  also  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Directory  instead  of  the  Book 
of  Common  I'rayer.  To  these  requirements 
they  added  the  command  of  the  army  and 
navy,  and  the  renewal  of  hostilities  in  Ireland. 
The  king  was  by  no  means  prepared  to  go  such 
lengths,  and  after  some  three  weeks  had  been 
wasted,  it  was 'once  more  seen  that  the  final 
appeal  would  have  to  be  made  to  the  sword. 


Vaoomagi,  The,  were  an  ancient  Bxitiih 
tribe  who  possessed  the  country  forming  tke 
modem  shires  of  Banff,  Elgin,  and  Kaini, 
with  the  east  part  of  Inverness  and  Braemai 
in  Aberdeenshire.  They  are  mentioned  In- 
Ptolemy  as  lying  between  the  Dumnonii  and 
the  Moray  Firth,  and,  according  to  Professor 
Rh^s,  extended  **  from  the  Ness  to  the  npp» 
course  of  the  Dee,  and  from  the  Moray  Filth 
into  the  heart  of  Perthshire." 
Bh^8,  C«ttio  BfHain. 

Va^aboncUl,  The  Act  against  (17W), 
empowered  all  justices  of  the  peace  to  airest 
such  able-bodied  men  as  should  be  found 
wandering. about  without  any  lawful  calliiu: 
or  visible  means  of  subsistence,  and  hand 
them  over  as  recruits  to  her  Majesty's  officen. 
It  was  strongly  approved  of  by  Marlboroogh. 
who  hoped  thereoy  to  recruit  his  amiy,  but 
was  bitterly  opposed  by  Nottingham.  It  vu 
opposed  in  the  House  of  Commons,  chiefly, 
however,  because  of  the  objection  fdt  by  the 
Tories  towards  a  standing  army.  In  the 
Upper  House  the  bill  was  made  the  occaaoc 
for  attacking  the  mean  conduct  of  Sir  Xathan 
Wright. 

Vagraaoy  Acts.  Enactments  against 
vagrancy  began  with  the  Statutes  of  Lalxmren 
(the  first  in  1349),  which  aimed  at  securing 
cheap  labour,  and  treated  the  labourers  wiw* 
wanaered  in  search  of  better  terms  as  crimi- 
nals. By  the  Act  of  1388— the  origin  of  the 
English  poor  law — the  labourer  was  forbidden 
to  leave  the  hundred  where  he  served  without 
a  passport  from  his  hundred  declaring  the 
cause  of  his  journey.  In  1414  justices  of  the 
peace  were  empowered  to  recover  fogitfre 
labourers  by  writ  in  whatever  part  of  the 
country  they  might  be,  and  were  given  »um* 
maiy  jurisdiction  over  all  offences  committed 
by  them.  Tudor  legislation  on  the  subjeci 
is  *'  written  in  blood,"  and  marks  the  terror 
felt  in  the  break-up  of  mediaeval  society  at 
the  bands  of  vagrants  wandering  over  the 
country.  The  Act  of.  1530  empowered  justices 
and  borough  magistrates  to  cause  able-boditd 
vagrants  *'  to  be  tied  to  the  end  of  a  cail 
naked,  and  be  beaten  with  whips  througboct 
the  town  till  their  bodies  were  bloodv."  Fire 
years  later  it  was  added  that  they  were  to  be 
set  to  labour;  "ruttelers,"  t.e.,  vagaboni< 
calling  themselves  serving  men,  were  to  ban 
their  ears  mutilated,  and  for  the  second  offence 
to  be  hanged.  By  the  Act  of  1547  the 
vagrant  was  to  be  branded,  and  given  as  a 
slave  for  two  years  to  anyone  who  asked  for 
him,  and  if  no  one  would  take  him  he  vas  to 
be  sent  back  to  his  birthplace,  and  set  to  work 
on  the  highways,  if  necessary  in  chaina  But 
this  was  felt  to  be  too  severe,  and  in  I^- 
the  statute  was  repealed,  and  the  previoo* 
Acts  again  came  into  force.    The  Act  of  Vi^^ 


7al 


(  1031  ) 


Van 


ordering  Tagiants  to  be  whipped,  Mnt  to 
their  place  of  settlement,  and  there  placed  in 
the  honee  of  correction,  and  that  of   1604, 
adding  the  brandinfip  of  incorrigible  rogues, 
remained  in  force  tiU  1713.    The  present  law 
is  based  on  the  Act  of  1744  and  1824,  by 
which  the  definitions  of  rog^  and  vagabond 
have   been    widely  extended,  and  attempts 
made  to  distinguiah  between  various  classes 
of  oifences.     It  ia  scarcely  necessary  to  add 
that  imprisonment  for  short  periods  has  taken 
the  place  of  whipping  and  branding.     ''It 
may  now  be  almost  stated  as  a  general  propo- 
sition that  any  person  of  bad  character  who 
prowls  about,  apparently  for   an    unlawful 
purpose,  is  liable  to  be  treated  as  a  rogue  and 
a  vagabond." 

Htephen,  Hitt.  Crim.  Leae,  iiL,  ch.  32. 

[W.  J.  A.] 

Valence,  Aylmbr  db  {d.  1260),  son  of 
Hugh  de  Lusignan  and  Isabella,  was  in  1250 
elected  Bishop  of  Winchester.  His  unpopu- 
larity' was  very  great,  both  with  the  barons 
and  the  clergy,  and  he  was  driven  out  of 
England  in  1258.  His  quarrel  with  Boni- 
face of  Savoy  in  1262  is  one  of  the  most 
noteworthy  incidents  in  his  life.  It  was  said 
that  at  a  parting  banquet,  just  before  leaving 
England,  in  1258,  he  attempted  to  poison  some 
of  his  chief  opponents,  but  this  assertion  rests 
on  no  very  authentic  basis. 

Valenoe,  Aylmbr  de,  Earl  of  Pem- 
BROKB  {d.  1324),  was  the  son  of  William  de 
Valence  (q.v.).  He  was  placed  by  Edward  I. 
in  command  of  the  army  against  Robert 
Bruce,  and  succeeded  in  surprising  him  at 
Methven,  but  in  1307  'he  was  defeated 
by  the  Scots  at  Loudon  Hill.  Shortly  after 
the  death  of  Edward  I.  he  resigned  hii9  com- 
mand in  Scotland,  and  became  one  of  the 
royal  ministers.  He  was  one  of  the  Ordainers 
(1310),  and  was  present  at  the  battle  of 
Bannockbum  (1314).  He  strongly  opposed 
Gaveston,  and  took  him  prisoner  at  Scar- 
borough, but  it  was  without  his  knowledge 
that  the  favourite  was  seized  by  Warwick, 
and  beheaded  without  trial.  This  violent 
conduct  on  the  part  of  Warwick  and  Lan- 
caster alienated  Pembroke,  who  then  endea- 
voured to  form  a  middle  party  between 
Lancaster  and  the  king,  and  from  May,  1318, 
to  1321  may  be  regarded  as  prime  minister. 
He  opposed  Lancaster  in  1322,  and  was  one 
of  th^  judges  before  whom  Lancaster  was  tried. 
In  1324  Pembroke  was  sent  over  to  France 
by  the  kinpf,  where  he  died — murdered,  it  was 
said,  by  the  ordets  of  (|iu'en  Isabella. 

Valence,  William  db  {d.  1296),  was  the 
son  of  Hugh  de  Lusignan  and  Isabella,  widow 
of  King  John,  and  consequently  half-brother 
to  Henry  III.,  from  whom  he  received  the 
earldom  of  Pembroke.  He  made  himself 
extremely  unpopular  in  England,  and  in  1258 
was  expelled  from  the  country.  He  subse- 
quently returned^  fought  for  the  king,  and 


after  the  battle  of  Lewes  had  to  flee,  while 
his  lands  were  confiscated.  The  defeat  of  the 
barons  restored  him  his  possessions,  and  he 
subsequently  received  large  grants  of  land 
from  the  crown. 

Valentia,  or  Valbntiaka,  was  the  Roman 
name  of  the  district  between  the  Wall  of 
Severus  and  that  of  Antoninus,  and  comprised 
the  Lowlands  of  Scotland,  Northumberland, 
and  Cumberland.  In  369  the  country  between 
the  two  walls  was  won  back  from  the  Celtic 
tribes  by  Theodosius,  and  g^ven  its  new 
name,  Yalentia,  in  honour  of  the  Emperor 
Yalens.  Mr.  Skene  is  inclined  to  throw  con- 
siderable doubts  upon  the  generally-accepted 
proposition  that  Yalentia  lay  between  the 
two  walls,  and  suggests  that  it  was  in  reality 
Wales. 

Val-ee-Ihinee,  The  Battle  op  (1047), 
was  fought  between  Duke  William  of  Nor- 
mandy, aided  by  King  Henry  I.  of  France, 
and  the  rebellious  Norman  barons.  William's 
victory  was  complete,  and  firmly  established 
his  power.  Yal-es-Dunes,  the  scene  of  the 
battle,  is  a  broad  plain  not  far  from  Caen. 

Valetta.  La,  the  capital  of  Malta  (q.v.), 
was  besieged  from  Sept.,  1798,  to  Sept.,  1800, 
by  a  force  of  Maltese  and  English,  who  were 
anxious  to  drive  the  French  out  of  the  island. 
After  being  reduced  to  the  verge  of  starvation 
the  French  garrison,>ycomman&d  by  General 
Yaubois,  were  compelled  to  surrender  to 
General  Pigot. 

Vancouver's  Island,  on  the  west  coast 
of  North  America,  separated  from  the  main- 
land by  Queen  Charlotte  Sound,  Johnstone 
Strait,  and  the  Strait  of  G^rgia,  was  in  1849 
granted  to  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company.  In 
1859  it  became  a  crown  colony,  and  in  1866 
was  incorporated  with  British  Colambia  (q.v.), 
whilst  five  years  later  the  whole  province 
became  part  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  (q.v.). 
The  capital  of  the  island  is  Yictoria,  which 
has  a  population  of  about  17,000 ;  and  the 
chief  sources  of  its  wealth  are  gold  and  coal, 
and  fisheries.  The  Canadian  Pacific  Railway, 
which  ends  at  Yancouver  city,  on  the  main- 
land, has  sensibly  increased  its  importance  and 
favoured  its  development. 

Van  Diemen's  Land.    [Australl^.] 

Vane,  Sir  Henry,  thb  Eldbk  (b.  1589,  d, 
1654),  was  employed  on  diplomatic  business 
by  Charles  I.,  and  subsequently  became 
treasurer  of  the  royal  household.  In  1639 
he  was  appointed  Searetarv  of  State,  through 
the  queen's  infiuence.  He  was  a  bitter  op- 
ponent of  Strafford,  and  one  of  the  chief 
instruments  in  his  conviction.  He  held  his 
secretaryship  till  Nov.,  1641,  though  he  de- 
cidedly inclined  towards  the  Opposition  in 
Parliament,  but  retired  into  private  life 
after  being  deprived  of  his  offices.  Clarendon 
says  that  he  was  the  last  of  the  king's  coun- 
sellors who  stayed  with  Parliament,  and  that, 


Van 


(  1032  ) 


**  though  he  concuned  in  all  the  malicious 
designs  against  the  king,  and  against  the 
Church,  he  grew  into  the  hatred  and  contempt 
of  those  who  had  made  most  use  of  him,  and 
died  in  universal  reproach.*' 

Vaae,  Sir  Henry  (b,  1612,  d.  1662),  the  son 
of  Sii*  Henry  Vane,  Comptroller  of  the  King's 
Household,  was  educated  at  Westminster 
School  and  Magdalen  Hall,  Oxford.  In  1635 
he  emigrated  to  Massachusetts,  of  which  colony 
he  was  elected  governor,  but  after  a  year's 
tenure  of  the  office  his  advocacy  of  unlimited 
religious  liberty  lost  him  his  post,  and  he 
returned  to  England  in  1637.  in  the  Long 
Parliament  he  became  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  Hoot  and  Branch  party,  and  his  e\'idence 

flayed  an  important  part  in  Strafford's  triaL 
n  July,  1643,  Vane  was  appointed  one  of  the 
commissioners  to  negotiate  the  alliance  with 
Scotland,  and  it  was  by  his  skill  that  the  clause 
"  according  to  the  Word  of  God,"  was  inserted 
in  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant.  In  the 
Parliament  Vane  was  recognised  throughout 
as  one  of  the  ablest  leaders  of  the  Indepen- 
dents, and  sided  with  that  party  and  with  the 
army  against  the  Presbyterians  in  1647.  Vane 
disapproved  of  the  violation  of  the  Parliament 
by  Pride's  Purge,  and  took  no  part  in  the  king's 
trial.  He  was  chosen  as  a  member  of  the 
Council  of  State  of  the  Republic,  but  refused 
the  proposed  oath  approving  of  the  punishment 
of  the  king.  As  head  of  the  commission 
governing  the  navy,  and  chairman  of  the 
committee  for  drawing  up  the  scheme  for  the 
constitution  of  a  new  Parliament,  he  played  a 
-very  important  part  during  this  period ;  but 
his  persistency  in  pressing  forward  the  passing 
of  his  measure,  and  refusing  Cromwell's  plan, 
led  the  general  to  expel  the  Rump  (1653). 
In  1656  he  wi'ote  a  tract  entitled  A  Healing 
Question  Propounded^  proposing  the  calling  of 
a  general  convention  to  establish  a  free  con- 
stitution, for  which  he  was  summoned  before 
the  Protector's  council,  and  imprisoned  at 
Carisbrooke  for  three  months.  In  Richard 
Cromwell's  Parliament,  Vane  represented 
Whitchurch,  and  headed  the  opposition  to  the 
new  government.  When  the  restored  Rump 
quarrelled  M-ith  the  army.  Vane  took  part 
with  the  army,  and  acted  in  the  Council  of 
State  established  by  it.  On  the  second  re- 
storation of  the  Rump,  Vane  was  punished 
by  being  expelled  from  Parliament  (Jan., 
1660),  and  relegated  to  his  estates  in  Durham. 
On  the  return  of  the  king  he  was  arrested 
(July,  1660),  and  wholly  excepted  from  the 
amnesty,  though  it  was  ag^ed  that  the  two 
Houses  should  petition  Charles  to  spare  his 
life.  After  two  years'  imprisonment  he  was 
tried  (June,  1662),  and  sentenced  to  death, 
the  king  thinking,  as  he  wrote  to  Clarendon, 
that  ho  was  too  dangerous  a  man  to  live  if  he 
could  honestly  be  put  out  of  the  way.  He 
was  executed  on  June  14,  1662. 

Forster,  BriiUh  Sfate«men„VQl.  iv. ;  Clarendon, 
Hi«t  .of  the  RtUlXitm,  [C.  H.  F.  ] 


Vansittart.  Henry,  was  a  MiMfaai 
civilian  selectea  to  succeed  Clire  in  tbe 
government  of  Bengal  (1760).  He  deter. 
mined  to  depose  Meer  Jaffier  and  place  Heer 
Cossim  as  ruler  in  his  stead.  In  this  plan, 
however,  he  was  oppoecKi  by  several  mem- 
bers of  his  counciL  His  attempts  to  fom^ 
revenue  reforms  on  Meer  Coesim  ended  in  tbe 
massacre  of  Patna  (q.v.),  and  the  restontion 
of  Meer  Jaffier.  Notwithstanding  the  ill- 
success  which  attended  his  measures  genenllr, 
Mr.  Vansittart  seems  to  have  been  a  man  ot 
very  good  intentions.  He  attempted  to  check 
the  illegitimate  trading  which  the  Company  $ 
servants  carried  on  for  their  own  benefit  in 
1765  he  returned  to  Europe  and  in  1769 
was  appointed  one  of  a  company  of  Uin^ 
"  Supervisors  "  sent  out  to  India  by  the  Com- 
pany  for  the  purpose  of  investigation  and  in- 
form. On  their  voyage  to  Hindostan  thtr 
frigate  in  which  these  gentlemen  were  em- 
barked, disappeared  in  an  unaccountable  vay, 
nothing  ha\'ing  ever  been  heard  of  its  unfor- 
tunate passengers  from  that  day. 

VaraviUe,  Tub  Battle  of  (1058).  wu 
fought  bv  William  of  Normandy  against  the 
combined  forces  of  France  and  Anjon.  Tbe 
latter  were  completely  routed,  and  shortlT 
afterwards  peace  was  made.  Varaville  is  an 
the  Dive,  not  far  from  Falaise. 

Vassalaffe  is  a  word  signif\*ing  the  con- 
dition of  feudal  dependence.  The  term  twm 
(from  a  Celtic  word  originally  meaning  "a 
growing  youth  ")  appears  first  in  Meronngian 
chronicles  and  charters  in  the  sense  of  an  im- 
free  person,  while  in  the  Carolingian  period  it 
is  used  for  a  freeman  who  has  commended  him- 
self to  some  more  powerful  person  or  corpon- 
tion.  Commendation  was  symbolised  by  the 
act  of  homage,  which  was  accompanied  by  &s 
oath  of  fealty.  But  at  first  the  relation  was 
a  purely  personal  one,  and  implied  no  chaDf;^ 
in  the  ownership  of  the  land.  It  was  only 
when  the  beneficiary'  tie,  that  relation  which 
arose  from  the  grant  of  a  benefice  with  the 
obligation  of  service,  was  united  to  com- 
mendation that  the  status  known  in  the 
later  Middle  Ages  as  vassalage  was  perfecti^ 

Frank    feudalism    arose    then   principally 

from  the  union  of  the  beneficial  system  and 

commendation.    Though  commendation  fn^ 

quently  occura  in  England,  its  part  in  the 

creation  of  the  English  nobility  by  serrictv 

and  of  the  semi -feudal,  condition  of  things 

immediately  before  the  Conquest,  is  of  cm- 

parativelv  small  importance  as  compared  vith 

that  of  the  eomitatus  and  that  of  the  English 

i  udicial  system .    The  word  vtusue^  or  teael^f, 

IS  of  very  rare  occurrence  before  the  Conqnf^ : 

though  as  early  as  Alfred  the  term  is  applied 

by  Asser  to  tlie  thanes  of  Somerset.    The 

Conquest  itself  universalised  a  feudal  tenure 

of  land  of  the  Continental  type,  and  with  the 

thing  came  the  name.    [Feudalism.] 

Stubbs,  Contl.  Ui$t.,  i.  §  65,  98,  where  ».f 
ooont  of  Continental  VBOBuagiB  is  gireo ;  Wait% 


Vav 


(  1033  ) 


Ver 


I>evtBch0'Verf<vt8}mg»  QttchichU  ;  »nd  Sobm,  AU- 
deuttche  Reich*-  Verfa»$unga.  fW.  J.  A.1 

VaTaSBOUr  (Fr.  Vavaseur)  was  a  small 
landowner.  The  word  has  been  variously 
<3xplained  as  signifying  a  person  next  in  dig- 
nity to  a  baron,  or  merely  a  middle-class  pro- 
prietor. Probably  a  vavassour  is  correctly 
defined  as  "a  sub-vassal  holding  a  small 
fief."  The  word  is  used  in  the  prologue  to 
the  Canterbury  Tales  in  reference  to  the 
Franklin. 

Vellore  Mutiny,  The  (July,  1806). 
Yellore,  a  fortress  eignty-eight  miles  west  of 
Madras,  had  been  selected  as  the  residence  of 
the  family  of  Tippoo  (q.v.J.  Here  they  were 
treated  with  great  liberahty  by  the  English 
^ovumment,  and  subjected  to  little  personal 
restraint;  but  made  use  of  their  opportuni- 
ties to  foment  a  deep  spirit  of  disaffection  in 
the  native  army — a  design  in  which  they 
were  greatly  aided  by  various  innovations 
introduced  by  the  adjutant-general  into  the 
military  code.  The  Sepoys,  for  instance,  had 
been  forbidden  to  appear  on  parade  with  ear- 
rings, or  any  distinctive  marks  of  caste ;  and 
were  also  required  to  shave  the  chin  and  trim 
the  moustache  after  a  particular  model. 
Those  unnecessary  orders  were  particularly 
vexatious,  but  it  was  a  new  form  prescribed 
*^or  the  turban  which  gave  the  g^reatest  offence 
because  it  was  said  to  bear  a  resemblance  to  a 
European  hat.  The  intrigues  of  the  Tippoo 
family  brought  the  affair  to  a  head,  ana  the 
insurrection  broke  out  early  in  July,  1806,  by 
the  seizure  of  the  powder  magazine  and  th^ 
assault  of  the  European  barracks.  The  Sepoys, 
however,  not  daring  to  face  the  English  sol- 
iiers  at  close  quarters,  kept  up  a  murderous 
Sre  from  a  distance  till  about  170  of  the 
Bnglish  troops  were  wounded  or  killed.  They 
;hen  fell  upon  the  officers  of  the  garrison,  of 
vhom  thirteen  were  slain.  The  surviving 
Snglish  troops,  however,  managed  to  hold  their 
K)sition  till  the  arrival  of  Colonel  Gillespie 
vith  succour  from  Arcot.  An  investigation 
vas  then  opened,  which  succeeded  in  fixing 
ho  greater  gfuilt  of  the  revolt  on  the  Tippoo 
amily,  who  were  accordingly  removed  to 
l!alcutta. 


.,  Thomas  (d.  1661),  a  wine- 
oopcr  by  trade,  was  the  leader  of  a  band  of 
i^ifth- Monarchy  men,  who  app^red  in  arms 
1  London  in  Jan.,  1661,  demanding  the  estab- 
shmcnt  of  the  monarchy  of  Christ.  Though 
nly  a  small  number,  the  fanatics  fought  with 
reat  bravery,  and  the  rising  was  not  sup- 
rcssed  -w^ithout  some  difficulty.  Venner  and 
jLteen  others  were  executed. 


^^ I,    Sir  Francis    (*.    1554,  d.  1608), 

icompanied  Sir  Philip  Sidney  (q.v.)  to  the 
cthcrlands,  and  in  1587  was  present  at  the 
2fcnce  of  Sluys  and  Bergen-op-Zoom,  where 
:;  c^cAtly  distinguished  himself.  Two  years 
ter  he  defended  the  island  of  Voom  against 

HI8T.-33* 


Mansfeldt,  and  whilst  he  continued  to  fight  for 
the  States  performed  many  brilliant  actions. 
In  1596  he  took  part  in  the  expedition  to 
Cadiz,  and  in  the  following  year  accompanied 
Essex  in  his  unfortunate  expedition  to  the 
Azores.  Towards  the  end  of  1597  he  returned 
to  the  Low  Countries  as  Governor  of  Brill, 
took  part  in  several  actions  against  the 
Spaniards,  and  defended  Ostend  against  an 
overwhelming  force.  In  1604,  on  the  con- 
clusion of  peace  between  England  and  Spain, 
he  returned  to  London,  where  he  died. 

Vere^  Sir  Horacb  {b,  1565,  d.  1635),  served 
with  his  brother,  Francis,  in  the  Low 
Countries,  and  was  present  at  the  capture  of 
Sluys.  He  succeeded  his  brother  in  the  com- 
mand of  Brill  till  that  town  was  restored  to 
the  States  of  Holland  in  1616.  On  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  ThiHy  Years'  War  ho  was  set 
at  the  head  of  the  force  destined  by  James  I. 
for  the  preservation  of  the  Palatinate,  but  on 
this  occasion  was  forced  to  surrender  to  TUly 
at  Mannheim.  He  was  created  Lord  Yere  of 
Tilbury  by  Charles  I.  on  his  accession  to  the 
crown,  and  was  made  Master  of  the  Ordnance 
in  1629. 

Vere,  Robert  de,  9th  Earl  of  Oxford, 
1st  Marquis  of  Dublin,  and  Duke  of  Ireland 
{d,  1392),  was  one  of  Richard  II.'s  chief  fa- 
vourites and  advisers.  He  married  Philippa, 
daughter  of  Ingelram  de  Coucy,  and  grand- 
daughter of  Edward  III.,  but  subsequently, 
having  obtained  a  divorce  from  her,  he  married 
a  German  lady,  who  had  come  over  with 
Anne  of  Bohemia  (1387).  De  Vere  quickly 
acquired  a  great  ascendency  over  the  young 
]^g»  ^y^  whom  in  1385  he  was  created  Marquis 
of  Dublin,  receiving  as  an  appanage  the  whole 
territory  and  lordship  of  Ireland.  In  the 
next  year  he  received  the  title  of  Duke  of 
Ireland,  and  became  practically  the  ruler  of 
England.  His  chief  opponent  was  the  Duke 
of  Gloucester,  who  was  actuated  more  by 
selfishness  than  any  desire  for  good  govern- 
ment, and  compelled  the  king  to  assent  to  the 
appointment  of  a  comnussion  of  regency. 
Alter  a  feeble  attempt  at  resistance,  the  king 
had  to  give  way,  and  the  chief  favourites  were 
appealed  of  treason.  Among  these  was  De 
Vere,  who  raised  a  small  body  of  troops,  and 
inarched  against  Gloucester,  but  he  was  met 
at  Radcot  Bridg;e  (1387)  by  the  Earl  of  Derby, 
and,  finding  himself  ouhiumbered,  fled  to 
Ireland.  He  was  proclaimed  a  traitor  by  Par- 
liament, but  succeeded  in  making  good  his 
escape  to  the  Continent.  In  1389  he  succeeded 
to  the  wealth  of  his  fellow  exile,  the  Earl  of 
Paris,  but  notwithstanding  this  he  seems 
to  have  died,  if  we  may  credit  Walsingham's 
authority,  some  three  years  later  in  great 
poverty  at  Louvain.    [Richard  II.] 

VemenilyTHEBAiTLBOF  (Aug.  16,1424), 
was  fought  by  the  English,  under  &e  Duke  of 
Bedford,  against  the   combined  French  and 


Ver 


(  1034  ) 


Var 


Scotch  force,  commanded  by  Buchan,  Ck)xi8table 
of  France.  The  want  of  discipline  in  the  French 
army,  and  the  misconduct  of  the  Lombard 
mercenaries,  contributed  in  no  small  degree 
to  the  victory  of  the  English.  The  French 
were  completely  routed,  and  out  of  a  force  of 
18,000  left  between  4,000  and  6,000  on  the 
field.  Amongst  those  who  fell  were  the  Con* 
stable,  and  the  Earl  of  Douglas,  while  the 
Duke  of  Alen9on  and  other  generals  were 
taken  prisoners.  This  victory  practically 
ensured  the  supremacy  of  the  Kngiiflh  in  the 
north  of  France.  Yemeuil  is  one  of  the 
frontier  towns  of  Maine,  and  Ib  not  far  from 
Evreux. 

VomioOineB  (or  Veniconbs),  The,  were 
an  ancient  British  tribe  who  inhabited  part  of 
Perthshire,  the  whole  of  Angus,  and  a  large 
part  of  Kincardineshire.  Acconling  to  Pro- 
fessor Rh^s  they  occupied  Meam,  An^us,  and 
the  east  of  Fife,  having  for  their  chief  town 
an  unidentified  place,  Orrea.  The  same  autho- 
rity regards  this  tribe,  who  are  mentioned  by 
Ptolemy,  as  being  one  with  the  later  MseatiB, 
and  considers  them  to  have  been  on  the  whole 
neither  Goidelic  nor  Brythonic,  i,e.,  not 
Celtic  at  all  by  race,  but  members  of  the 
aboriginal  Picts. 

Bh^s,  CeUic  Britain, 

Vamo&y  Edward,  Admiral  {b.  1684,  d. 
1767),  was  the  son  of  James  Vernon  (q.v.). 
filtering  the  navy,  he  served  in  the  Vigo 
expedition,  and  was  captain  at  twenty-one, 
and  rear-admiral  at  twenty-four.  He  was 
member  of  Parliament  for  Penrhyn  and 
Portsmouth  from  1727  to  1741,  and  in  this 

r'tion  was  a  strong  opponent  of  Walpolo. 
1739  he  was  despatched  to  the  Antilles 
with  a  fleet  to  destroy  the  Spanish  establish- 
ments there,  but  failed  in  his  attempt  to  seize 
Porto-Bello  from  an  insufficiency  of  force. 
In  1741  he  was  associated  with  Wentworth 
in  the  disastrous  expedition  against  Cartha- 
gena.  But  even  this  failure  did  not  destroy 
his  popularity  at  home,  where  he  was  elected 
for  three  boroughs  at  once,  and  continued  to 
take  part  in  politics  for  some  years  afterwards. 
Stuihope,  Hist,  of  England. 

Vernon,  James  {Jl,  1708),  was  a  Whig 
statesman  in  the  reign  of  William  III.  In 
Dec,  1697,  on  the  sudden  resignation  of  Sir 
WUliam  TVumball,  he  was  elevated  from  the 
post  of  Under-Secretary  to  that  of  Secretary 
of  State,  through  the  influence  of  Shrews* 
bury  (q.v.).  Soon  afterwards,  in  conjimction 
with  Montague,  he  was  elected  for  West- 
minster. He  attempted  in  vain  to  moderate 
the  violence  of  the  House  of  Commons  on  the 
Resumption  Bill,  proposing  that  William 
should  bo  allowed  to  retain  a  third  of  the  Irish 
grants.  When  the  Partition  Treaties  were 
discussed  he  carried  a  resolution  that  the 
House  would  support  the  king,  and  even  pro- 
posed that  William  should  be  authorised  to 
conclude  alliances.    On  the  accession  of  Anne 


he  was  dismissed  from  office.  He  was,  nys 
Banke,  "  a  pliant  Whig,  of  whom  it  was  nod 
that  he  knew  how  to  avoid  making  eoenaA 
of  those  he  was  obliged  to  injure;  one  ees 
from  his  letters  that,  on  the  other  hand,  he  wts 
ever  cautious,  even  in  his  wm-most  confidence! 
— ^a  caution  needful  in  one*s  lifetime,  du 
doubt,  but  useless  to  posterity.  One  would 
gladly  have  seen  plainer  language  in  his  Cor- 
respondence." Vernon's  Correspondence  bm. 
1696  to  1708  was  edited  by  G.  P.  K.  Jamess 
in  three  volumes,  and  is  of  considerable  im- 
portance for  the  history  of  the  years  it  ooren. 
Banke,  Eiet.  <^fBng.;  Macmnbiy,  Htft.  o/£m- 

Verona,  Comghess  of  (1822).  This  con- 
gress, which  met  in  the  year  1822,  consuted 
of  the  representatives  of  the  five  great  poireR 
of  Europe,  viz.,  England,  represented  by  tbt? 
Duke  of  Wellington  and  liord  Strangford; 
France,  represented  by  MM.  de  Moot- 
morency  and  Chateaubriand ;  Russia,  by  tbe 
Emperor  Alexander  in  person  and  Coant 
Nesselrode;  Austria,  by  Prince  Mettemich; 
and  Prussia,  by  Prince  Hardenbcrg.  Tlis 
chief  topics  for  discussion  were :  (1)  Tbe  in- 
surrection in  Greece  and  the  relations  betvets 
Russia  and  Turkey ;  (2)  the  evacuation  of 
Piedmont  and  Naples  by  the  Austrian  troops; 
(3)  the  slave  trade,  which,  however,  could  n^ 
be  done  away  with  because  of  the  FrescK 
interests  involved  in  that  traffic;  (4]  the 
question  of  the  independence  of  the  revolted 
South  American  States  and  the  piracy  of  the 
neighbouring  seas ;  (5)  the  question  u  to 
active  interference  in  Spain.  On  this  last 
subject  England  was  isolated,  all  the  otha- 
powers  declaring  that  they  would  follow  the 
example  of  France  in  their  diplomatic  rela- 
tions with  Spain. 

VersailleB,  Thb  T&eatt  or  (Sep- 
tember, 1783),  closed  the  war  between  Eng- 
land and  France,  Spain,  and  the  Tnited 
States.  The  principal  terms  of  the  Treaty 
of  Versailles  were :  The  full  recognitioo  d 
the  independence  of  the  United  States  on  the 
part  of  England,  with  the  recognition  of  the 
limits  of  that  republic,  which  also  kept  the 
right  of  fishing  in  the  Newfoundland  waters. 
England  returned  to  France  St.  Pierre  and 
Miquelon ;  in  the  West  Indies,  St.  Lucia  an-i 
Tobago ;  in  the  East,  Pondicherry,  Cbander- 
nagore,  together  with  right  of  free  commem'. 
France  gave  up  the  island  of  New  Grpnada, 
St.  Vincent,  Dominica,  St.  Kitts,  Nevis,  Mont- 
serrat,  and  others.  In  Africa  England  k- 
nouneed  Senegal  and  its  dependencies,  and 
restored  Goree,  but  was  guaranteed  the  ^oeea- 
sion  of  Fort  St.  James  and  the  river  Gssihi>^ 
with  a  right  to  share  in  the  gum  trade  from 
the  mouth  of  the  river  St.  Jean  to  Portendict 
Permission  was  also  given  to  fortify  Duntiit 
As  regards  Spain,  Minorca  and  the  Flondas 
were  given  up  by  the  English,  who  were, 
however,  to  be  allowed  to  cut  log- wood  within 
certain  limit8,and  who  were  to  have  I^ride&cr 


Ves 


(  1035  ) 


Vie 


and  the  Bahamas  restored  to  them.  Holland 
yielded  Negapatam,  and  promised  not  to 
haraas  English  navigation  in  the  Eastern  Seas. 

Eoch  and  Scboell,  Hitt.  dn  TraiUa  is  Pove; 
Martiii,  Hilt,  dc  .Prosioi. 

Vespasiail  was  sent  into  Britain  as 
"  legatus  legionom  "  in  the  year  43  a.d.  In 
this  capacity,  according  to  Suetonius,  he 
fought  thirty  battles  with  the  natives,  took 
twenty  of  their  towns,  and  subdued  the  Isle 
of  Wight.  After  attaining  the  Empire  (70 
A.D.)  he  continued  to  take  some  interest  in 
Britain,  to  which  island  he  sent  more  than 
one  army  for  the  purpose  of  conquest. 


in,  The.    This  province,  which  lay 
on  the  borderland  of  France  and  Normandy 
had,  according  to  the  Norman  writers,  been 
ceded  by  King  Henry  I.  of  France  to  Duke 
Robert  of  Normandy  as  the  price  of  his  assis- 
tance in  that  sovereign's  restoration.    During 
the  years  of  William's  childhood  it  had  been 
resumed  by  France,  and    the  conquest    of 
Maine  and  England  had  occupied  this  duke's 
time  too  fully  to  give  him  leisure  to  reclaim 
the  smaller  province  till  towards  the  close  of 
his  reign.    At  last,  irritated  by  the  French 
king's  jests,  and  the  ravages  conmiitted  on 
Norman  ground  by  tho  French  commanders 
in  Mantes,  he  entered  the  Vexin  in  1087. 
Mantes  was  razed  to  the  ground,  and  it  was 
among   the    burning  embers  of    this    town 
that  William  met  with   the  accident  which 
put  an  end  to  his  life. 

Vicar-General  was  the  title  given  to 
Thomas  Cromwell  in  his  capacity  of  exercising 
*<  all  the  spiritual  authority  belonging  to  the 
Jdng'  as  head  of  the  Church,  for  the  due  ad- 
ministration of  justice  in  all  cases  touching  the 
ecclesiastical  jurisdiction,  and  the  godly  re- 
formation and  redress  of  all  errors,  heresies, 
ind  abuses  in  the  same  Church,"  in  1535.  In 
1539  Cromwell  was,  by  Act  of  Parliament, 
empowered  to  sit  in  this  capacity  "on  the 
rig^ht  syde  of  the  Parliament  and  upon  the 
lame  f  ourme  that  the  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
>urie  sytteth  on,  and  above  the  same  Arch- 
>ishop  and  his  successors."  It  was  in  his 
•opacity  of  Vicax-General  that  Cromwell 
ssucd  the  commission  for  inquiry  into  the 
elig'ious  houses  throughout  the  kingdom. 

Victoria   Alexandrina^   Qxteen    (b. 

819,  s.  1837),  is  the  only  child  of  the  late 
>uke  of  Kent  (the  son  of  George  III.), 
nd  the  Princess  Louisa  Victoria  of  Saze- 
oburgf  (relict  of  the  hereditary  Prince  of 
.einin^en).  The  Duke  of  Kent  died  1820, 
ad  tlie  g^eneral  education  of  the  Princess  was 
ircctedy  under  her  mother's  care,  by  the 
'iichess  of  Northumberland,  wife  of  the 
lird  duke.  She  succeeded  to  the  throne 
.  1837  ;  was  married,  1840,  to  his  late  High- 
^09  Prince  Albert  of  Saxe-Coburg  Gotha, 
io  diGd  Dec.  14,  1861.  Her  Jubilee  was 
Lebraied  in   1887.      See    Ckimban  War; 


Ikdian  Mutiny  ;  Corn  Laws  ;  Ireland  ; 
Palmbrbton  ;  Peel  ;  Gladstone  ;  Bba- 
consfield,  &c.] 

Vienua.  The  Congress  of  (1814 — 15), 
met  to  settle  the  afbiirs  of  Europe  after  the 
defeat  of  Napoleon  and  the  entry  of  the 
allies  into  Paris.  The  Congress  was  attended 
by  plenipotentiaries  of  all  the  great  powers 
and  most  of  the  smaller  ones  of  Europe. 
England  was  represented  by  Lord  Castlereagh. 
The  proceedings  of  the  congress  were  much 
interfered  with,  first  by  the  continual  gaieties 
indulged  in  by  the  princes  and  ambassadors  in 
Vienna ;  and,  secondly,  by  the  divergence  of 
views  that  became  manifest  among  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  great  powers.  A  dispute, 
indeed,  had  arisen  before  the  formal  opening 
of  the  congress.  An  attempt  had  been  made 
by  Austria,  Prussia,  Russia,  and  England,  to 
get  the  entire  management  of  the  conference 
into  Uieir  hands,  and  to  exclude  France  and 
the  smaller  powers  from  the  settlement  of 
Europe.  This,  however,  failed  through  the 
determination  of  Talle>Tand,  who  asserted 
the  rights  of  France  and  the  secondary  states. 
In  the  congress  itself  it  was  evident  that  an 
arrangement  had  been  made  between  Prussia 
and  Russia  for  the  disposal  of  the  territories 
occupied  by  their  troops;  and  this  was  so 
unwelcome  to  the  others  that  in  Jan.,  1815, 
a  secret  convention  was  entered  into  between 
England,  France,  and  Austria,  to  compel  the 
adoption  of  the  policy  they  advocated.  This 
attitude  of  the  three  powers  compelled 
Russia  and  Prussia  to  agree  to  a  compromise, 
and  the  settlement  was  hastened  by  the  news 
of  Bonaparte's  escape  from  Elba  (Feb.  26, 
1814).  It  was  agreed  that  a  large  portion  of 
Saxony  should  be  |^ven  to  Prussia,  Posen 
should  belong  to  Prussia,  and  Galicia  to 
Austria,  while  the  rest  of  Poland  was  secured 
to  Russia;  Luxemburg  was  given  to  the 
Netherlands,  Switzerland  was  reorganised,  the 
Bom'bons  were  restored  to  Naples,  the  minor 
German  states  re-established,  and  the  congress 
declared  a  universal  disapprobation  of  the  slave 
trade.    The  congress  closed  June  9,  1815. 

Kooh  and  Schoell,  Hist,  det  Traitia  d§  Patx; 
AliBon,  Hiat.  of  Europe  i  C.  A  Fyife,  Hut  of 
Modsm  Europe, 

Vienna,  Conference  of  (1 853).  Towards 
the  end  of  July,  1853,  a  conference  of  the 
four  great  powers  was  held  at  Vienna.  This 
conference  adopted  a  certain  note  which  had 
been  previouslv  drawn  up  in  France  as  the 
embodiment  of  their  views  as  to  the  Russo- 
Turkish  question'.  Russia  at  once  acceded 
to  these  terms,  but  the  Porte  refused  its 
consent,  objecting  to  certain  passages.  These 
objections  the  great  powers  subsequently 
allowed  to  have  been  well-founded;  for,  as 
the  Sultan  said,  he  could  not  accept  a  doctrine 
whose  terms  implied  that  the  privileges  of  the 
Greek  Church  in  his  domains  were  only  main- 
tained by  the  championship  of  Russia,  and 


Vie 


(  1036  ) 


Vil 


also  threw  doubta  on  the  good  faith  of  the 
Torkiah  govermnent  as  regards  its  fulfilment 
of  treaty  obligations.  The  Forte  declared 
war  on  Oct.  5,  upon  which  the  congress  in- 
quired on  what  terms  Turkey  would  treat  for 
peace.  The  reply  was:  Onl}'- on  the  immediate 
and  complete  evacuation  of  Moldavia  and 
Wallachia,  the  I'cnewal  of  the  treaties,  and 
various  other  conditions  which  were  recog- 
nised by  the  congress  as  reasonable.  The 
cong^ss  accordingly  drew  up  a  protocol  to 
this  effect,  and  forwarded  it  to  Russia,  which 
power,  however,  rejected  the  terms  offered, 
and  proposed  five  new  ones  (Jan.  13,  1853). 
These  being  found  impossible  of  acceptance, 
the  conference  dissolved. 

Viaimay  The  Second  Congress  of,  met 
in  March,  1855,  and  consisted  of  pleni- 
potentiaries from  England  (Lord  J.  Russell), 
France,  Austria,  Turkey,  and  Russia.  On 
March  26  it  was  adjourned,  and  only  re- 
opened towards  the  middle  of  April.  Within 
a  few  days  Lord  Russell  left  Vienna,  the 
French  representative  followed  soon,  and 
though  the  congress  lingered  on  till  the  early 
days  of  June,  it  accomplished  nothing. 
Kinglitke,  The  Invasion  qf  ths  Crimea, 

Vienna,  The  Treaty  of  (March,  1731), 
completed  tJie  settlement  of  Europe  designed 
by  the  Treaty  of  Seville.  By  that  treaty 
the  Emperor  had  been  isolated  in  Europe. 
He  seized  the  duchy  of  Parma,  and  it  seemed 
likely  that  England,  in  conjunction  with 
France  and  Spain,  would  be  forced  into  a 
war  that  would  result  in  acquisitions  by 
France  in  the  Austrian  Netherlands  whicn 
would  be  dangerous  to  England.  Accord- 
ingly, Sir  Robert  Walpole,  in  conjunction 
with  Holland,  opened  negotiations  with  the 
Emperor.  England  guaranteed  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction,  which  secured  the  succession  of  the 
Austrian  dominions,  while  Austria  "  accepted 
the  terms  proposed  at  Seville,  agreed  to 
destroy  the  Ostend  Company,  to  establish 
Don  Carlos  in  his  duchies,  and  not  again  to 
threaten  the  balance  of  European  power." 
The  treaty  was  signed  without  the  participa- 
tion or  assent  of  France. 

VitfO  Bay,  The  Expedition  to,  in  the 
Waroi  the  Spanish  Succession,  was  despatched 
in  1702  under  the  command  of  the  Duke  of 
Ormonde,  with  Sir 'George  Rooke  at  the  head 
of  the  fleet.  It  consisted  of  fifty  vessels,  of 
which  thirty  were  English  and  twenty  Dutch. 
On  July  1  they  sailed  from  St.  Helen's,  and  on 
Aug.  12  thc^  anchored  in  the  harbour  of  Cadiz. 
Through  disunion  and  jealousy,  very  little 
was  effected  at  this  place  besides  the  plunder 
of  a  few  ports.  News,  however,  now  arrived 
from  England  of  the  arrival  of  the  Spanish 
galleons  in  the  Bay  of  Vigo,  and  instructions 
to  take  or  destroy  them  were  forwarded  to 
Sir  George  Rooke,  who,  however,  had  re- 
ceived this  information  earlier.  The  Dutch 
vessels  were  communicated  with,  and  on  Oct. 


11  it  was  resolved  to  attempt  to  capture  the 
French  and  Spanish  ships  which  were  drawn 
up  at  Vigo  Bay,  in  a  position  defended  by  a 
boom  and  a  castle.  Next  day  the  Dnke  of 
Ormonde  landed  some  soldieis  to  effect  a 
diversion,  and  these  soon  made  themselTa 
masters  of  the  castle.  Meanwhile  the  boom 
was  forced  by  the  English  ships,  and  tb- 
French  admiral,  seeing  destruction  imminent 
gave  orders  to  set  fire  to  his  own  vessels.  Oi 
Uie  enemy^s  men-of-war  eleven  were  bant, 
four  were  taken  by  the  Eng'lish  and  six  by 
the  Duteh.  Of  the  galleons  six  were  taken 
by  the  English  and  five  by  the  Dutch,  who, 
however,  sunk  six  others.  Of  the  trcftinn. 
on  board,  valued  at  more  than  40,000«00(} 
"  pieces  of  eight,"  much  had  been  taken  en 
shore  before  our  arrival,  and  booty  to  the 
amount  of  about  11,000,000  *'  pieces  of  eight'* 
alone  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  victors. 

Villa  Viciosa,  Thb  Battle  of  (1710 . 
in  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succesaoo. 
was  the  sequel  to  the  unfortunate  defeat  d 
the  allies  in  Spain  at  Brihuega.  That  defat 
was  mainly  owing  to  the  sluggishness  of  thr 
Imperial  general,  Staremberg,  in  the  support 
of  General  Stanhope.  On  coming  within 
sight  of  Brihuega  at  last,  Starembeig  fomui 
that  Stanhope  had  surrendered,  and  at  ooce 
attempted  to  retreat,  but  finding  that  step 
impossible,  he  drew  up  his  troops  in  order  of 
battle.  He  had  but  thirteen  thousand  op- 
posed to  twenty.  The  left  wing  of  the  allied 
troops  was  completely  routed  by  the  csTabr 
of  the  enemy,  amongst  whom  was  Philip,  the 
French  candidate  for  the  crown.  Instesi 
however,  of  proceeding  to  attack  the  n- 
mainder  of  our  army,  the  victorious  troops  fell 
to  plundering  the  baggage,  leaving  Starem- 
berg free  to  contend  with  the  left  wing,  t 
contest  in  which  he  was  so  far  successfol  that 
by  nightfall  he  was  left  in  possession  of  the 
field,  from  which  the  Duke  of  Vend6me  and 
Philip  had  galloped  in  haste.  The  enemy's 
cannon  were  taken  and  our  own  recapturaL 
but  the  allied  forces  had  suffered  so  much  ib 
the  action,  that  Staremberg  deemed  it  ad- 
visable to  retreat  to  Saragossa. 

J.  H.  Barton,  Beign  of  Qnoen.  Anne;  Xahoa, 
War  <^  the  Sueoeanon  in  $paim 

Villenage,   Villeiiui.     These  words 

respectively  denote  the  depressed  conditios. 
and  l^e  class  to  which  at  one  time  the  rtA 
bulk  of  the  population  that  was  in  immedi/^ 
contact  with  the  soil  belonged.  The  villus 
class  was  the  aggregate,  formed  by  political 
and  social  influences,  of  several  classes,  soitf 
similar  and  all  distinguishable,  which  begafi 
to  be  drawn  closer  to  one  another  long  before 
the  Norman  Conquest,  and  reached  their 
common  level  years  after  that  event  It  >> 
a  fair  surmise  that  the  mutual  attiactioo 
exercised  on  each  other  by  the  various  kinds 
of  eeorh  and  iheotcSf  the  former  sinking,  titf 
latter  rising,  till  they  met  and  blended,  had 


Vil 


(  1037  ) 


Vil 


been  working  from  an  early  date.  The  villeins^ 
however,  were  originally  those  who  had  a 
right  to  share  in  the  common  land  of  a  vill. 
When  Domesday  Book  was  compiled,  the 
sections  of  the  labouring  population  that  were 
in  a  few  generations  to  combine  into  the 
general  villein  class  were  known  as  bordars^ 
cottars  or  cotsetSy  serfsy  and  villeinBy  the  first 
and  last  in  enormous  majority.  These  may 
be  assumed  to  have  already  come  to  differ  in 
degree  only  ;  perhaps  they  were  not  far  from 
the  substantial  amalgamation  which  eventually 
made  a  single  class  of  them.  When  the 
coalescence  and  degradation  were  complete, 
they  bore  many  names.  As  tillers  of  the  soil, 
and  of  a  status  distinct  from  that  of  the 
lower  class  in  towns,  they  were  called  rustics  ; 
as  being  exclusively  of  English  birth  natives 
or  neifs  ;  villeins  because  they  were  bound  to 
live  on  the  vills,  which  had  now  become  the 
property  of  feudal  lords ;  and  serfs  because 
they  had  to  serve  another's  will.  The  feature 
in  the  condition  that  accompanied  every  one 
of  its  varying  stages  and  distinctions,  and 
doubtless  fixed  the  fate  of  the  different  con- 
stituents of  the  class,  and  may  consequently 
be  taken  for  the  most  significant,  was  the 
dependence  of-  every  member  of  it  on  a 
superior,  the  existence  of  an  intermediary 
through  whom  alone  they  came  under  the 
eye  of  the  law,  and  by  whom  alone  their 
rights  could  be  asserted.  The  moment  this 
is  seen  in  the  historic  development  of  our 
system — and  it  is  clearly  seen  in  the  later 
Anglo-Saxon  rule,  that  no  man  could  be  lord- 
less — at  that  moment  we  become  aware  of 
a  general  set  among  the  humbler  dwellers  in 
the  land  towards  villenage.  The  fresh  im- 
petus given  to  the  feudal  principle  by  the 
Conquest,  and  the  indifference  of  Noi-man 
judges  to  the  degrees  of  English  dependence, 
insured  the  completion  of  the  process ;  when 
the  twelfth  century  began,  the  men  whose 
labour  raised  the  necessarj*  food  for  all,  were 
in  huge  proportion  '*  irremovable  cultivators," 
holding  their  cottages  and  patches  of  ground 
at  the  will  of  others,  barely  capable  of  political 
rights,  and  at  the  mercy  of  others  for  the 
exercise  of  such  social  rights  as  the  law  doled 
out  to  them ;  in  a  word,  dependent  on  those 
who  had  lordship  over  them  for  everything 
that  made  living  possible,  and  life  support- 
able. The  peculiar  facts  of  their  condition 
were  summed  in  the  single  fact,  they  had 
a  master.  This  master  commanded  their 
services ;  had  nominally  power  to  take  from 
•  them  everything  they  possessed ;  could  transfer 
them  in  the  lump  with  the  land  they  tilled ; 
they  wore — in  some  instances  at  least — 
reckoned  part  of  the  stock  of  his  estate ; 
against  his  will  they  were  not  at  liberty  to 
withdraw  from  the  conditions  of  their  birth. 
They  could  not  buy  their  freedom  from  him 
with  their  own  money,  becaubo  all  they  had 
was  in  his  power.  If  a  villein  ran  away  from 
his  lord,  he  not  only  lost  the  holding  that 


afforded  him  a  livelihood,  but  was  liable  to  be 
dragged  back  to  his  former  dependence.  The 
consent  of  his  lord  was  needed  to  his  be- 
coming a  knight  or  clerk,  or  to  his  educating 
his  children  for  the  service  of  the  Church. 
Yet  his  lord's  authority  over  him  was  not 
unbounded ;  for  his  cruelty  or  neglect  the 
villein  had  a  remedy  in  the  king's  court. 
And  from  all  oppressions  but  his  lord's  he 
was  absolutely  safe ;  the  law  redressed  the 
wrongs  done  to  him  by  others  as  promptly  as 
those  of  the  most  law-worthy  man  in  the 
kingdom.  He  had,  moreover,  many  comforts 
and  little  responsibility.  He  was  generally 
left  in  undisturbed  enjoyment  of  his  small 
farm  and  the  gains  of  his  industry,  was 
exempt  from  service  in  war,  and  often  found 
his  lord  an  indulgent  master.  There  was 
more  than  one  door  to  freedom  that  he  might 
contrive  to  open;  residence  in  a  town  as 
member  of  a  gild  for  a  year  and  a  day, 
unclaimed  by  his  lord,  made  a  free  man 
of  him;  the  Church  was  on  his  side,  ever 
raising  her  strong  voice  in  favour  of 
emancipation.  Nor  was  he  always  an  utter 
nonentity  in  politics,  or  overlooked  in  the 
great  securities  of  the  national  rights.  His 
oath  was  received  in  the  great  inquests ;  he 
was  represented  in 'the  local  gatherings;  the 
Great  Charter  guaranteed  his  wainago  against 
legal  distraint.  In  course  of  time  the  villein's 
position  came  to  be  something  like  this :  he 
owed  his  lord  the  customary  services,  whereby 
his  lord's  demesne  was  cultivated;  and  to 
render  those  his  continual  presence  on  his 
lord's  estates  was  required ;  but  his  lord 
could  not  refuse  him  his  customary  rights  in 
return,  "his  house  and  lands  and  rights  of 
wood  and  hay,"  and  in  relation  to  every  one 
but  his  lord,  his  capacity  as  a  citizen  was 
unqualified — **he  might  inherit,  purchase, 
sue  in  the  courts  of  law."  His  condition,  too, 
had  a  tendency  to  improve ;  custom  raised 
his  hold  upon  his  house  and  land  into  a  form 
of  tenure — that  by  villenage,  which  even- 
tually developed  into  copyhold — he  was  al- 
lowed to  pay  his  rent  in  money  instead  of 
service ;  in  many  cases  his  lord's  grasp  upon 
him  gradually  relaxed ;  the  current  of  the 
time  ran  in  favour  of  enfranchisement.  In 
the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  a  large 
number  of  the  villeins  had  become  actually,  a 
large  number  virtually,  free ;  these  were 
"  free  to  cultivate  their  land,  to  redeem  their 
children,  to  find  the  best  market  for  their 
labour."  This  beneficial  movement  was 
checked  by  the  Great  Plague,  when  the 
scarcity  of  labour  gave  the  lords  an  interest 
in  recovering  stray  or  half-liberated  villeins, 
and  the  steps  they  took  to  this  end  drove 
the  whole  class  to  insurrection.  The  aboli- 
tion of  villenage  and  substitution  of  rent  for 
its  services  were  among  the  demands  of  the 
insurgents  of  1381.  The  check,  however, 
was  but  temporary ;  disappointed  of  their 
immediate   object   and  cruelly  punished  as 


vu 


(  1038  ) 


Vin 


they  were,  the  rustics  benefited  materially  by 
the  outburst.  '*The  landlords  ceased  the 
practice  of  demanding  base  services;  they 
let  their  lands  to  leasehold  tenants,  and  ac- 
cepted money  payments  iii  lieu  of  labour; 
they  ceased  to  recall  the  emancipated  labourer 
into  serfdom,  or  to  oppose  his  assertion  of 
right  in  the  courts  of  the  manor  and  the 
county."  It  must  be  remembered,  too,  that 
emancipation  had  long  been  common,  that 
the  law  was  now  making  for  freedom,  throw- 
ing the  burden  of  proof  on  the  claimant  lord, 
and  construing  doubtful  points  in  favour  of 
the  claimed — ruling,  for  instance,  that  no 
bastard  could  be  a  villein.  These  causes 
aifected  mainly  the  *' villeins  regardent,*'  as 
those  whose  bondage  was  dependent  on  land 
and  disabled  them  only  towards  their  lords, 
were  called.  It  is  suspected  that  there  were 
also  in  England  "  villeins  in  gross,"  whose 
villenage  was  personal  and  absolute,  whose 
services  at  least  could  be  sold  in  open  market, 
and  who  had  not  a  trace  of  political  status ; 
but  this  is  still  a  disputed  point.  "  We  may 
conjecture  that  the  viUem  regardent  had 
fallen  into  villenage  by  occupying  some  of 
the  demesne  of  the  lord  on  servile  conditions, 
and  that  the  villein  in  gross  was  a  chattel  of 
the  lord  whom  he  paid  or  maintained  by  a 
similar  allotment  of  land."  But  even  the 
more  debased  form  slowly  gave  way  before 
continuous  charters  of  enfranchisement;  by 
this  process  the  last  isolated  bondmen  and 
their  families  were,  in  Elizabeth^s  reign, 
quietly  absorbed  in  the  general  mass  of  free 
citizens. 

Stnbbs,  Const.  Hi$t. ;  Hallam,  Middle  Agu; 
Rogers,  Six  Centuries  of  Worle  and  Wages;  See- 
bohm.  The  English  ViUage  Community. 

[J.  R.] 

Villiers,  Elizabeth  {d.  1720),  was  one  of 
the  ladies-in-waiting  to  Princess  (afterwards 
Queen)  Mary  at  the  time  of  her  marriage 
with  William  of  Orange.  She  became  the 
prince's  mistress,  for  although  "destitute  of 
personal  attractions  and  disfigured  by  a 
hideous  squint,"  she  was  a  woman  of  con- 
siderable talents,  and  "  to  the  end  of  her  life 
great  politicians  sought  her  advice."  In  1693 
William  employed  her  in  vain  to  try  and  induce 
the  Duke  of  Shrewsbury  to  accept  oflice.  She 
married  George  Hamilton,  afterwards  Earl  of 
Orkney.  William  bestowed  on  her  a  grant 
of  part  of  the  old  crown  property  in  Ireland 
(estimated  at  £24,000,  though  really  only 
about  £4,000  a  year),  and  this  grant  became 
very  unpopular  when  grossly  exaggerated  in 
value  by  the  commission  sent  to  inquire  into 
the  Irish  forfeitures  (1699).  It  was  against 
Lady  Orkney,  Woodstock,  and  Keppel  that 
the  Resumption  Bill  of  1700  was  chiefiy 
directed. 

Mocatilay,  Hist,  of  Eng. 

Vimiera,  The  Battle  of  (Aug.  21,  1808), 
during  the   Peninsular   War,    was    brought 


on  by  an  offensive  movement  of  the  Yiea^ 
army    under    Junot,    four   days  after  tiie 
comoat  of  Rorica.     The  I'illage  of  Vimiai 
stands  in  a  small  plain  at  the  foot  of  hills, 
near    the    river    Maceira,    and   about  nine 
miles    from    Torres    Vedras.     Sir  Arthoi 
Wellesley*s  object  was  to  keep  near  the  CDast, 
in  order  to  protect  the   landing  of  Briti^ 
troops ;   but  although  holding  the  road  to 
Torres  Vedras,  he  had  been  forestalled  at  tluU 
place  by  Junot,  who  liad  collected  there  the 
scattered    troops    of    Laborde   and  Loison. 
WeUesley  accordingly  took  up  a  defoisiTe 
position,  occupying  two  ridges  and  some  high 
ground  between  l£em.     On  the  high  ground 
to  the  south  of  the  village,  WeUesley  plac<^ 
Fane  and  Anstruther  with  some  infantiy  u<i 
six  guns,  while  the  bulk  of  the  troops  occupied 
the  range  west  of  the  Maceira.    On  the  heighte 
to  the  east  and  north  few  troops  were  posted 
owing  to  a  want  of  water.     JunoVs  plan  was 
to  attack  these  heights,  so  thinly  defended, 
and    so    to    outflank  the  British  left;  hot 
WeUesley,    to    meet    this,    withdrew  largt 
bodies  from  the  right.     The  French  attack 
on  the  centre,   which    was  intended  to  be 
supported  by  the  troops  who  were  told  off  lo 
outflank  and  destroy  the  English  left,  met 
with  some  little  success  at  first,  but  wis 
checked  at  the  sunmiit  of  the  plateau  hr  tk 
50th,   who.  drove  them  back  over  the  ed^e, 
and  a  cavalry  charge  completed  their  roai. 
In  the  meantime  the  French  troops  on  the 
right,  having  too  late  extricated  themselves 
from  the  ravines  which  had  intercepted  thsr 
progress,  attacked  Ferguson  on  the  extmoe 
loft,    but    were    vigorously    repulsed.    The 
pursuit,   which  would   have    destroyed  the 
French  army,  routed  as  it  was,  was  aircsled 
by  Burrard,  who  had  arrived,  and  now  took 
up  the  command. 

Napier,  Pmtnsular  War, 

Vincenty  Henby,  was  one  of  the  chid 
leaders  and  orators  of  the  Chartists.  He  «i-* 
arrested  and  imprisoned  at  Xewport  f or  thf 
violence  of  his  language.  A  most  determinei 
attack  was  made  on  the  prison  to  release  him. 
but  it  was  repelled  bv  the  energy  of  tk 
mayor,  Mr.  Phillips,  ani  the  troops  stationfti 
at  Newport  (1839). 

Vinegar  ly^Tl,  The  Battle  op  (179f 
during  the  Irish  Rebellion,  was  fought  near 
Enniscorthy,  in  Wexford.  The  Irish  rebels. 
headed  by  Father  Murphy,  assembled  here,  es- 
tablished a  camp,  and  committed  fearful  cmel- 
ties  in  the  neighbourhood.  From  May  29  till 
the  time  when  the  camp  was  stormed,  thf 
massacre  of  Protestants  was  a  matter  of  almo^ 
daily  occurrence.  On  June  26,  the  Britiat 
troops,  under  the  command  of  General  la^^* 
advanced  from  five  sides  to  attack  the  rebels. 
the  road  to  Wexford  being,  however,  perfiap* 
intentionally,  left  open.  The  camp  was  tab« 
without  much  fighting,  only  400  out  of  16,(K* 
being  killed.    Thirtc«n  guns,  however,  vtf^ 


Vir 


(  1039  ) 


Vol 


taken,  and  the  rest  ol  the  rebels  fled  in  dis- 
•order  to  Wexford. 

Virgil,  PoLYDOM  (4.  1470  ?  d.  1656  ?), 
was  bom  at  Urbino.  Being  sent  by  Alex- 
ander VL  to  England  for  the  purpose  of 
•collecting  Peter^s  Pence,  he  so  favour- 
ably impressed  Henry  VII.  as  to  make  that 
king  desirous  of  keeping  him  in  his  realm. 
Being  appointed  Archdeacon  of  W»lls,  he 
was  induced  by  Fox,  Bishop  of  Winchester, 
to  undertake  to  compile  a  history  of  England, 
This  work  was  completed  after  several  years* 
labour,  and  was  published  at  Basle  in  1634. 
It  consists  of  twenty-sis  books,  and  extends 
to  the  end  of  Henry  VII.*s  reign.  Though  ^ 
of  contemporary  authority  only  for  the  latter 
years  of  Menry  VII.,  Polydore's  production 
merits  great  praise  as  being  the  fint  English 
history  which  is  critically  compiled  from  the 
annals  of  the  older  chronicles.  About  1560 
Polydore  Virgil  went  abroad  again,  still, 
however,  enjoying  the  revenues  of  his  English 
preferments,  and  is  generally  said  to  have 
4ied  at  Urbino  about  the  year  1656. 

Virgin  IbLbb,  The,  are  a  collection  of 
islands  in  the  West  Indies  belonging  to 
the  Lieeward  group,  and  owned  partly  by 
Denmark,  partly  by  Spain,  and  partly  by 
Oreat  Britain.  They  were  discovered  by 
Columbus  (1493),  and  visited  by  Drake  in 
1580  and  by  the  Earl  of  Cumberland  in  1596. 
Tortola,  and  some  other  of  the  Virgin  Islands, 
were  in  1666  acquired  by  the  English  after 
they  had  driven  out  the  Dutch  buccaneers, 
who  had  held  them  since  about  the  year  1648, 
and  were  in  the  course  of  the  same  reign  an- 
nexed to  the  Leeward  Islands. 

ViscoiUlt  is  a  title  of  nobility  between 
those  of  earl  and  baron.  As  an  hereditary 
honour  it  was  introduced  into  England  in 
Edward  II. 's  reign  from  France,  Henry  de 
Beaumont  being  the  first  man  created  Viscount. 
The  title  has  never  been  used  to  any  great 
extent  in  England,  though  in  latter  times  it 
has  been  the  custom  to  confer  it  on  prominent 
cabinet  ministers  when  they  are  raised  to 
the  peerage  It  must  be  remembered  that 
the  Latin  word  vice-cotMt  is  always  used  to 
translate  the  English  sherif;  in  this  sense 
the  word  seems  to  have  been  brought  into 
England  from  Normandy  at  the  time  of  the 
Conquest,  and  was  used  by  the  invaders  for 
the  English  shire- reeve  because  the  Norman 
vice-eoines  was  the  nearest  equivalent. 

Visd.'bation.  The  Committee  op,  ap- 
pointed by  the  Scottish  Parliament,  consisted 
of  Presbyterian  clergymen,  who  were  to 
pnrif  y  the  Church  by  visitation.  The  result 
was  the  expulsion  of  many  Episcopalian 
clergy  on  charges  of  immorality,  which  were 
often  the  result  of  malice. 

Vittoria,  The  Battle  op  (June  21, 1813), 
was  the  first  great  battle  oi  Wellington's 


campaign  of  that  year  in  the  Peninsular 
War.  Vittoria  stands  on  a  small  eminence 
with  the  Zadora  fiowing  through  the  plain 
on  its  northern  side.  In  Uie  Vittoria 
basin  Joseph  had  collected  all  the  baggage, 
camp-followers,  and  plunder  of  the  last 
campaigns.  On  the  19th  the  allies  came 
up,  and  encountered  the  French  in  some 
partial  skirmishes.  Joseph's  plan  was  to 
hold  the  bridges  over  the  Zadora,  and 
Wellington  determined  to  deliver  three 
attacks  on  the  French  position,  which  was 
very  widely  extended.  Hill,  on  the  right, 
was  to  force  the  bridge  of  the  narrow  pass 
called  La  Puebla,  and  drive  in  the  French 
left.  Wellington  himself  was  to  carry  the 
three  chief  bridges  in  the  centre,  while  on  the 
extreme  left  Graham  was  to  turn  the  French 
right,  and  so  enclose  the  whole  army  in  the 
Vittoria  bamn  between  the  Zadora  and  the 
Puebla  range.  On  the  morning  of  the  21st 
Hill  seised  the  village  of  La  Puebla,  and 
while  some  of  his  men  were  detached  to  seize 
the  heights,  he  himself  pushed  on  through  the 
pass,  and  carried  the  village  of  Subigana. 
In  the  'centre,  and  on  the  left,  Kemp  and 
Graham  succeeded  in  driving  back  the  enemy, 
and  before  long  all  the  Enf^lish  troops  were 
across  the  Zadora.  The  French  began  to 
retreat,  but  were  hotly  assailed  on  all  sides, 
especially  by  Wellington  from  the  hill  of 
Aimez,  which  he  had  seized  by  a  sudden  rush. 
They  nevertheless  kept  up  a  running  fight 
for  five  miles,  until?  after  being  driven  from 
each  successive  position,  they  finally  gave 
themselves  up  to  a  headlong  fiight,  leaving 
women  and  children,  baggage,  and  artillery 
behind  them  as  spoil  for  tiie  pursuing  troops. 
Kapier,  P^nttuular  War. 

Vixen.  Seizubs  of  tkb.  In  1837  Mr. 
Bell,  an^lnglish  merchant,  infringed  the 
Russian  blockade  of  the  coast  of  Circassia. 
but  at  the  distinct  advice  and  instigation  of 
Mr.  Urquhart,  the  English  minister  at  Con- 
stantinople, who,  it  was  believed,  acted  with 
the  express  cognisance  of  Lord  Palmerston 
(q.v.).  Great  excitement  was  created;  a 
large  party  in  the  country  urgently  demanded 
war  to  avenge  this  insult  to  the  British 
flag.  A  select  committee  on  the  subject  was 
moved  for  in  the  House  of  Commons,  and 
it  was  refused  by  only  a  small  majority. 
Annual  Stgider,  1857. 

Volunteer    Convention,    The,    at 

Dublin  (1783).  In  accordance  with  the 
resolutions  passed  at  the  Dungannon  Con- 
vention [Volunteers,  The  Irish],  300 
members  assembled  in  the  Rotunda  on 
Nov.  10,  1783,  and  under  the  presidency 
of  Lord  Charlemont,  passed  a  Reform  Bill 
excluding  all  Catholics.  Hood  brought  it 
before  Parliament  on  Nov.  29,  but  was 
beaten  by  two  to  one.  On  Dec.  1  the  Con- 
vention adjourned  sine  die,  and  thus  came  to 
an  end. 


Vol 


(  1040  ; 


Vor 


Volunteer  Corps,  Soon  after  the 
outbreak  of  the  Great  War  with  France, 
numerous  Volunteer  corps  were  raised  in 
England  to  defend  the  country  in  case  of  in- 
vasion, and  to  overcome  internal  disorder  .if 
necessary.  These  regiments  were  chiefly 
raised  from  the  gentry  and  the  middle 
classes,  and  were  armed  and  equipped  at  their 
own  expense.  Several  of  the  cc^rps  consisted 
of  cavalry.  In  1803,  when  the  war  broke  out 
again,  the  Volunteer  movement  received  a 
great  impetus.  A  bill  known  as  the  ^filitary 
Service  Bill  was  passed,  authorising  the  en- 
rolment as  Volunteers  of  all  able-boaied  men. 
Many  new  regiments  were  formed,  and  the 
numbers  of  the  Volunteers  rose  to  over 
300,000.  Pitt  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
movement,  and,  as  Warden  of  the  Cinque 
Ports,  raised  a  force  of  3,000  Volunteers,  of 
which  he  was  in  command.  Though  not 
called  upon  to  repel  invasion,  these  Volunteer 
corps  were  frequently  useful  in  suppressing 
riots.  In  1859  the  intemperate  language 
used  about  England,  in  French  newspapers 
and  pubhc  meetings,  roused  the  nation  to  its 
defenceless  condition.  In  consequence  large 
numbers  of  Bifie  Volunteer  Corps  were 
formed  all  over  the  country.  The  movement 
spread  and  took  firm  root.  In  1860  an  Act 
was  passed  to  regulate  the  conditions  of 
service,  and  in  1862  amended.  Several  other 
statutes  have  been  passed  in  reference  to  the 
Volunteers,  and  in  1870  an  Act  provided  for 
the  resumption  by  the  crown  of  direct  au- 
thority over  the  Volunteers.  Thus  the 
Volunteers  were  closely  incorporated  with 
the  military  system  of  the  country,  and  placed 
under  the  direct  control  of  the  War  Office. 
In  1881  they  were  further  affected  by  the 
Reg^ntions  of  the  forces,  and  by  administra- 
tive changes ;  the  chief  of  which  was  that  of 
attaching  the  Volunteer  corps  as  auxiliary 
battjilions  of  the  line  regiments.  In  recent 
years  the  number  of  this  valuable  force  has 
generally  been  about  22.), 000,  and  has  included 
infantry,  artillery,  engineers,  and  a  small 
body  of  cavalry. 

Volunteers,  The  Irish.  '  The  move- 
ment for  establishing  Volunteer  corps  began 
about  1778,  owin^,  on  the  one  hand,  to  the 
boldness  of  American  privateers,  and,  on  the 
other,  to  want  of  money,  which  prevented  the 
liOrd- Lieutenant  from  establishing  a  militia. 
It  was  part  of  the  definite  system  of  com- 
pelling the  English  government  to  grant 
legislative  and  commercial  independence  to 
Ireland  by  that  country  adopting  the  methods 
of  agitation  which  had  been  so  successful  in 
America.  In  1779  the  first  regular  regiment, 
under  command  of  the  Duke  of  Loinster,  was 
formed  in  Dublin,  and  though  the  Catholics 
were  persuaded  to  abstain,  Protestant  corps 
were  formed  all  over  the  country,  commanded 
by  country  gentlemen.  They  were  now  40,000 
Btrong.   On  Sept.  13,  Parliament  passed  a  vote 


of  thanks  to  them,  and  the  patriots,  aiixioD« 
to  imitate  America,  at  once  determined  to  osc 
them  to  extort  concessions  from  England.  In 
this  they  had  not  miscalculated ;  and  th*- 
government,  beii^  unable  to  spare  troops  for 
Ireland,  had  to  grant  free  trade  in  177^. 
Grattan  had  now  begun  to  attack  the  Union. 
The  Voluntet^rs  supported  him,  and  eloctoi 
Lord  Charlemont,  their  leader,  in  defiance  of 
the  Castle.  In  the  north  they  b^an  to  hold 
reviews,  their  flag  bearing  the  inscriptiou 
^*  Jfibtrnia  tatidem  libera.**  Soon  after,  thty 
passed  resolutions  declaring  free  trade  in 
danger  and  against  the  Perpetual  Mutiny 
Bill.  The  House  of  Commons  at  last  took 
the  alarm,  and  in  September,  1780,  declare-i 
their  resolutions,  *'  false,  scandalous,  libelloo*. 
and  tending  to  raise  sedition."  All  through 
1781  the  Volunteers  continued  to  incpBase 
till  their  numbers  were  estimated  at  100,000. 
Meanwhile  their  uselessness  in  case  of  invaMon 
had  been  shown  by  the  fact  that  when  Cork 
was  threatened,  only  300  came  forward  t»» 
defend  it.  In  April,  1782,  when  Parliament 
again  met,  the  Volunteers  poured  into  DuUin 
in  great  numbers  to  give  Grattan  confidence- 
The  Irish  demands  were  granted,  and  without 
doubt  the  constitution  of  1782  was  due  to  the 
inability  of  the  government  to  oppose  any 
force  to  the  Volunteers,  who  at  this  tin** 
actually  had  80,000  men  onder  anna,  an4 
130,000  on  the  rolls.  It  was  owing  to  their 
opposition  that  a  projected  increase  of  thf 
army  had  to  be  given  up.  The  second  Con- 
vention at  Dungannon  declared  in  favour  (^f 
Reform,  and  with  the  Earl  of  Bristol  .'q.v.  a* 
a  leader,  the  Volunteers  became  a  real  dsnff»-r 
to  the  State  when  they  assembled  again  in 
the  "  Volunteer  Convention "  (q-v.)  of  Xov. 
10,  1783,  at  Dublin,  under  the  prpsidcnfv'f 
Lord  Charlemont,  and  drew  up  a  Refonn  l»ill 
which  excluded  all  Catholics.  After  this 
the  better  classes  retired  from  the  movemrtit. 
and  the  ranks  began  to  be  largely  filled  with 
Catholics.  In  1 786  they  were  again  the  idols 
of  the  mob,  though  a  vote  of  thanks  to  th«n 
was  lost  in  the  Commons.  The  failure  of  a 
congress  to  l>o  held  under  their  auspitf? 
through  the  firm  action  of  the  government, 
and  the  suppression  of  the  Whitel^j's  in  1787. 
made  them  less  formidable.  Wolfe  Tone  trici 
to  revive  them,  but  without  success,  and  th?- 
Arms  Bill  of  33  George  III.  finally  put  an 
end  to  the  movement,  the  carrying  out  of  th* 
law  being  entrusted  to  the  soldiery,  who  me; 
with  opposition  at  Belfast  alone.'  Many  of 
the  arms  of  the  Volunteers,  however,  hai 
before  this  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
peasantry,  and  were  used  in  1798. 

Fronde,  En^lith  in  Irdand  ;  Life  <if  <rratt«. 

VortuFem  appears  to  have  been  a  prin^* 
of  one  of  the  British  tribes  (probably  the 
Demetflp)  in  the  middle  of  the  fifth  centuiT. 
Innumerable  stories  concerning  hioa  are  n^ 
lated  by  Nennius  and  Gfeoifrey  of  MonnDOuth. 


Vor 


(  1041  ) 


Wag 


none  of  which  redound  mnch  to  his  credit. 
He,  perhaps,  represented  the  national  British 
party  as  opposed  to  the  Roman  party  led  by 
Ambrosias  Aurelianus.  He  is  said  to  have 
invited  the  Saxons  over  to  Britain  to  help  him 
against  the  Picts.  But  Uengest  is  said  to 
have  very  soon  turned  against  him,  and,  after 
several  engagements,  to  have  driven  him  out  of 
Kent.  Of  his  subsequent  history  we  have  even 
less  trustworthy  accounts.  According  to  Nen- 
nius  he  was  burnt  by  fire  from  heaven,  while 
QeoSrey  declares  he  was  burnt  in  his  castle 
by  the  orders  of  Ambrosius.  The  story  of 
his  marriage  with  Rowena,  the  daughter  of 
Hengcst,  rests  on  very  bad  authority,  but  the 
names  of  four  of  his  sons,  Yortimer  (q.v.),  Gate- 
£^m,  Pascont,  and  Faustus,  are  preserved  in 
Nennius,  who  also  says  that  St.  Gcrmanus 
severely  reprimanded  Vortigem  for  marrying 
his  own  daughter.  He  seems  at  first  to  have  left 
the  conduct  of  the  war  against  the  Jutish  in- 
vaders to  his  eldest  son,  Yortimer,  being  him- 
self at  first  friendly  to  the  invaders.  Nennius 
is  also  the  authority  for  Hengest^s  massacre 
of  the  British,  on  which  occasion,  however, 
the  king's  life  is  said  to  have  been  spared. 
Such  are  the  chief  traditions  which  have  been 
preserved  concerning  the  reign  of  Yortigem. 
They  belong  to  fable  rather  than  to  history. 

Nennius  (Eng.  Hist.  Soc),  c.  43,  &c. 

Vortimer  (Gortixer)  {d,  circa  ^50)  was  the 
eldest  son  of  Yortigem  (q.v.),  and  appears  to 
have  actively  opposed  Hengest  and  the  Saxon 
invaders.  He  is  said  by  Nennius  to  have 
valoroiisly  encountered  them  on  four  occasions, 
but  as  his  name  does  not  occur  either  in 
Gildas  or  Bede,  any  particulars  about  him 
must  bo  extremely  doubtful.  According  to 
Nennius's  account,  Yortimer  at  first  suc- 
ceeded in  confining  the  Jutish  invaders  to 
the  isle  of  Thanet,  defeated  them  in  three 
battles,  and  forced  them  to  send  over  to 
Germany  for  a  fresh  supply  of  warriors. 
Three  times  after  this  ho  defeated  the  new- 
comers. Shortly  after  this  last  victory  he  died, 
with  his  last  breath  bidding  his  friends  bury 
"him  by  the  sea-side,  and  uttering  a  prophecy 
that  the  strangers  would  not  hold  their  con- 
quests for  ever. 

Kennias.  c  48,  44,  47. 

Vox  ClamantlB  is  the  title  of  an  im- 
portant Latin  poem  by  John  Gower,  in  which, 
under  the  guise  of  an  allegorical  dream,  he 
treats  of  the  causes  and  incidents  of  the 
Peasant  Revolt  of  1381. 


w 

Wace^  RoBEHT  (d.  after  1183),  was  a 
native  of  Jersey,  and  became  a  prebendary  of 
Bayeux.  He  wrote  two  long  historical  poems, 
Ze  Roman  de  Brut  (first  printed  1836),  which 
is  a  paraphrase  of  the  Eittory  of  (Jeoffrey  of 
Monmouth,  and  Le  Moman  de  Rou^  a  chronicle 


of  the  Dukes  of  Normandy  down  to  1106. 
The  latter  poem  has  been  edited  by  Sir  A. 
Malet  (1827),  and  translated  by  Mr.  E.  Taylor. 

Wade,  George,  General  (b.  1673,  d, 
1748),  entered  the  army  in  1690.  He  served 
under  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  during  the 
reign  of  Queen  Anne.  In  1707  ho  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  major-general.  Wade  was 
elected  member  for  Hindon  in  1 7 1 5.  In  1 725 
he  was  sent  to  pacif  v  the  Highlands  in  pur- 
suance of  the  "  Act  for  Disarming  the  High- 
landers." **  General  "Wade,"  says  Lord  Stan- 
hope, "  who  had  been  sent  into  Scotland  with 
very  full  powers,  seems  to  have  been  a  judi-> 
cioiis  and  conciliatory  man,  insomuch  that  he 
became  personally  popular,  even  whilst  faith- 
fully obepng  most  distasteful  orders.  He 
employed  himself  more  usefully  in  making 
military  roads  across  the  Highlands.'*  They 
have  been  immortalised  in  the  famous  lines — 

''If  you  had  bat  seen  these  roads  before  they  were 
made. 
Yon  would  hold  np  yonr  hands  and  bless  Qeneral 
Woda" 

From  1722  to  1748  he  sat  as  member  for  Bath. 
In  1744  he  commanded  the  British  forces  in 
Flanders,  but  could  accomplish  nothing 
against  the  superior  skill  of  l^Iarshal  Saxe. 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  Jacobite  Rebellion  of 
1745  he  collected  what  troops  he  could  at 
Newcastle.  A  false  report  that  he  was  ad- 
vancing to  relieve  Carliislo  induced  the  Pre- 
tender to  relinquish  for  awhile  the  siege  of 
that  city.  However,  he  pursued  the  Pre- 
tender through  Yorkshire,  but  his  inactivity 
during  the  campaign  was  a  general  subject 
of  complaint,  and  he  was  in  consequence 
superseded  in  command  by  Hawley. 
Stanhope,  Riai.  of  Eng. 

Wad6y  Sir  William,  one  of  the  diplo- 
matists and  statesmen  of  Queen  Elizabeth's 
reign,  was  In  1684  sent  to  Madrid  to  explain 
to  Philip  the  causes  of  his  ambassador's 
(Mendoza)  dismissal,  but  the  king  refused  to 
see  him.  The  same  year  he  was  entrusted 
with  the  task  of  explaining  to  the  Queen  of 
Scots  her  hopeless  position  if  she  refused  a 
reconciliation  with  Eliziibeth,  and  in  1585 
vainly  endeavoured  to  procure  the  extmdition 
of  the  Jesuit  Morgan  from  Henry  III.  of 
France.  He  subsequently  took  possession  of 
the  Queen  of  Scots'  papers  at  Chartlcy  after 
the  discovery  of  the  Babington  Conspiracy. 

Wager  of  Battle,  *^  A  relic  of  old  Teu- 
tonic jurisprudence,"  was  a  Normun  innova- 
tion introduced  into  England  by  William  the 
Conqueror.  A  man  charged  with  an  offence 
by  a  private  individual  **had  the  right  to 
plead  not  guilty,  and  throw  down  his  glove 
and  declare  his  readiness  to  defend  his  inno- 
cence with  his  body."  If  the  challenge  was 
accepted  by  the  accuser,  the  two  proceeded  to 
fight  on  an  appointed  day ;  if  the  defendant 
was  defeated,  or  unable  to  continue  the  com- 
bat all  day,  he  was  convicted  and  punished. 


Wai 


(  1042  ) 


Wal 


'wlule  if  he  waa  yictorious,  or  could  protract 
the  fight  tiU  nightfall^  he  was  acquitted,  and 
his  adversary  was  fined  sixty  shillingB  and 
declared  infamous.  *'  The  parties  were  obliged 
to  fight  in  their  own  persons,  except  the 
appellant  were  a  woman,  a  priest,  an  infant, 
flixty  years  old,  lame,  or  DHnd,  in  any  of 
which  cases  he  might  *  counterplead  the  battle,' 
and  compel  the  defendant  to  put  himself  upon 
trial  by  his  country.  As  a  N^orman  innova- 
tion Wager  of  Battle  was  much  disliked  in 
Kngland,  and  in  borough  charters  we  fre- 
quently find  amongst  the  privileges  granted 
to  the  burgesses,  the  one  of  exemption  from 
trial  by  battie,  which  was  not,  however, 
legally  aboUshed  until  1819.  In  1817  a 
■certain  Abraham  Thornton,  on  his  trial  for 
alleged  murder,  demanded  a  '^  trial  by  battle," 
and  on  the  refusal  of  the  prosecutor  to  ac- 
cede, was  discharged ;  this  led  in  1819  to  an 
Act  abolishing  "appeals  of  murder,  treason, 
felony,  or  other  offences,  and  Wager  of 
Battel,  or  joining  issue,  and  trial  by  Battel  in 
Writs  of  Right."    [Ordral.] 

Waitangi,  The  Treaty  of  (Feb.,  1840), 
was  made  between  Captain  Hobson,  represent- 
ing the  English  government,  and  the  l^Iaori 
chiefs.  By  it  the  sovereignty  of  New  Zealand 
was  handed  over  to  England,  whilst  Captain 
Hobson  promised  protection  to  the  natives 
together  with  the  rights  of  British  subjects, 
•confirming  also  "  to  the  chiefs  and  tribes  of 
New  Zealand  the  full,  exclusive,  and  un- 
iiisturbed  possession  of  their  lands,  estates, 
forests,  fisheries,  and  other  properties  which 
they  might  collectively  or  individually 
possess,  so  long  as  it  might  be  their  wish  to 
retain  the  same  in  their  possession." 

Wakefield,  The  BATTLEOF(Dec.  31, 1460), 
was  an  important  Lancastrian  victory  during 
the  Wars  of  the  Hoses.  The  battle  of  North- 
ampton had  placed  the  supreme  power  in  the 
hands  of  York,  who  had  been  acknowledged 
heir  to  the  crown,  but  Queen  Margaret,  who 
had  fled  to  Scotland,  refused  to  acknowledge 
this  arrangement,  whereby  her  son  was  de- 
prived of  the  succession,  and,  raising  an  army 
in  the  north,  advanced  against  the  Yorkists. 
The  Duke  of  York  marched  against  her,  and 
took  up  his  position  in  his  castle  at  Sandal, 
near  Wakefield,  l^largaret  ad^^anced  from 
York,  and  the  Yorkists  met  them  on  Wake- 
field Green,  between  the  town  and  Sandal 
Castle.  The  Yorkists,  who  were  greatly  in- 
ferior in  numbers,  were  defeated,  the  duke 
was  slain,  his  son,  Rutland,  was  murdered  by 
Lord  Clifford  while  escaping  from  the  battle- 
field, while  the  Karl  of  Salisbury  and  others 
were  sent  to  Pontefract,  where  they  were 
beheaded. 

Eng.    Chronicle  (Camden    Soc.) ;    Arrival   of 
Edtcard  IV.  (Camden  Soo.) 

Wakefield,  Edward  [d,  1862),  was  the 
originator  of  a  poculiar  system  of  colonisation, 
known  as  the  **  Wuketield  system,"  which  was 


to  '*  reproduce  in  Australia  the  strong  dUtino> 
Uon  of  classes  which  was  found  in  England;" 
with  this  object  the  land  wafl  to  be  sold  for  a 
high  price  to  keep  the  agriculturisiB  from 
becommg  landowners,  the  lowest  limit  beinf 
fixed  at  a  pound  an  acre.  This  system,  whid 
was  at  fint  adopted  in  South  Australia  and 
Victoria,  as  well  as  in  New  Zealand,  vai 
strongly  opposed  by  Sir  Richard  Bourke, 
Governor  of  New  South  Wales,  and,  except 
in  South  Australia,  never  had  any  hold.  In 
May,  1839,  Mr.  Wakefield  became  priTste 
secretary  to  Lord  Durham,  while  High  Com- 
missioner of  Canada. 

MiU.  Poltt.  JPcon.,  bk.  v.,  ch.  zL,  critidM 
'Wakefield's  proposals. 

Wakefield*  Peteb  op,  was  a  henoit 
celebrated  in  the  reign  of  King  John  for  the 
number  and  success  of  his  prophecies.  Is 
1213  John,  who  had  paid  little  heed  either  to 
interdict  or  excommunication,  was  tenifed 
into  submission  to  the  Pope  by  hearing  thai 
Peter  had  predicted  that  on  the  next  Asceoska 
Day  John  would  not  be  a  king.  Strangely 
enough  the  prophecy  received  a  kind  of  fnl- 
filment  from  the  &ct  that  before  the  dar 
mentioned  John  had  coded  his  kingdom  to 
the  Pope. 

Wakemaay  Sm  George,  was  phyadan 
to  Queen  Catherine,  wife  of  Charles  II.  He 
was  accused  of  conspiring  to  poison  the  king 
at  the  instance  of  the  queen.  The  chief  wit- 
ness against  him  was  Titus  Oates,  vhoee 
evidence  on  this  occasion  w^s  more  than 
usually  contradictor}',  and  Wakeman  wa« 
acquitted,  but  by  the  menace  of  a  second  trial 
was  so  frightened  that  he  left  the  kingdom. 

Walcheren  ExpediUon,  The  (\m\ 

was  projected  by  the  British  government  on 
the  renewal  of  the  war  between  Fiance  and 
Austria,  in  order  to  effect  a  diversion,  and 
assist  the  latter  power,  by  compelling  the 
French  to  withdraw  part  of  their  forces  from 
the  Danube  valley.  The  capture  of  the  im- 
mense arsenal  which  Bonaparte  had  fortified 
and  extended,  expressly  as  a  menace  to  £ng* 
land,  was  also  a  great  object.  The  armament, 
which  was  d  spatched  late  in  July,  was  one 
of  the  largest  ever  sent  forth  by  Englani 
and  consisted  of  sixty  ships  of  the  line  and 
frigates,  and  an  enormous  number  of  tnmi- 
ports,  conveying  over  40,000  infantry  and 
cavalry ;  in  all,  Sir  A.  Alison  computes  that 
there  mufft  have  been  more  than  100,000 
men  of  all  arms  and  both  services.  But 
the  results  achieved  by  this  great  force  were 
miserably  inadequate.  Lord  Chatham,  the 
brother  of  William  Pitt,  who  was  in  command, 
was  destitute  of  decisive  energy  or  militarr 
capacity.  On  July  29  part  of  the  English 
force  landed  in  the  isle  of  Walcheren,  and 
seized  Middleburg,  while  other  divisions  cap* 
tured  the  fortresses  at  the  mouths  of  the 
Scheldt.  Antwerp  might  have  been  eeiztni 
by  a  coup^-main  ;  but  instead,  time  was  lo6t 


TV 


Wal 


(  1048  ) 


Wal 


in  the  siege  of  Flushing,  which  suxrendered 
Aagnst  16.  By  tho  time  the  Englidi  were 
prepared  to  begin  the  siege  of  Antwerp,  that 
city  had  been  put  into  a  thorough  state  of 
defence,  and  the  garrison  had  been  very 
largely  reinforced.  As  it  was  now  the  begin- 
ning of  September,  Lord  Chatham,  suspend- 
ing operations,  withdrew  his  troops  to  the 
island  of  Walcheren,  and  kept  fifteen  thou- 
■sand  of  them  there  as  a  garrison,  while  the 
remainder  were  sent  back  to  England.  But 
the  sanitary  arrangements  of  the  army  were 
•extraordinarily  bad,  and  the  damp  climate  of 
Walcheren  told  terribly  on  the  soldiers.  Be- 
fore a  month  was  over  half  the  garrison  was 
in  hospital.  Orders  were  therefore  g^ven  to 
destroy  Flushing,  and  abandon  the  island, 
which  was  completely  evacuated  before  the 
■end  of  the  year.  The  failure  of  the  expedi- 
tion was  made  the  occasion  of  violent  attacks 
in  Parliament  on  the  ministry,  who  were  only 
saved  from  a  vote  of  censure  by  a  narrow 
majority.  A  violent  quarrel  broke  out  be- 
tween Canning,  who  was  Foreign  Minister, 
and  Castlereagh,  who  was  War  Minister,  and 
was  held  to  be  largely  responsible  for  the 
mismanagement  of  the  campaign,  which  re- 
sulted in  a  duel,  and  the  resignation  of  both 
ministers. 

Parliamentary  D^bafea,  vol.  zr.,  appendix  i. ; 
Annual  Rtvuter,  1809 ;  Aliaoo,  Hut.  itf  Europe, 
oh.  Iz. 

Waldegrave,  Sir  Edward  (d.  Sept., 
1561),  one  of  Mary's  most  trusted  advisers, 
used  his  utmost  endeavours  to  prevent  the 
queen''s  marriage  with  Philip.  He  was  ap- 
pointed in  1558  on  a  committee  of  ways  and 
means,  but  found  no  ftivour  with  Elizabeth, 
by  whom  he  was  sent  to  the  Tower  for  trans- 
gressing the  Act  of  Uniformity  (1561). 

Waldeily  RooBR,  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury (rf.  1406),  was  employed  on  diplo- 
matic errands  by  Richard  II.,  and  in  1395 
was  appointed  Lord  High  Treasurer  of 
England.  When  Archbishop  Arundel  was 
driven  into  exile  in  1397  the  king  obtained 
the  archbishopric  from  the  Pope  for  Walden. 
On  the  deposition  of  Kichara  II.  Walden's 
life  was  threatened,  but  he  came  to  terms  with 
Arundel,  and,  resigning  the  see,  retired  into 
private  life.  In  1405  he  was  elected  Bishop  of 
London  by  Arundel's  influence,  and  held  that 
see  till  his  death  in  the  next  vear. 

Wales  is  strictly  the  district  inhabited  by 
the  foreigners,  for  that  is  the  literal  meaning 
of  the  term  Welsh,  applied  by  the  English  ' 
to  all  the  Britons  alike.  Its  limits  have 
varied  with  the  progress  of  the  English  arms. 
In  the  sixth  century  it  included  an  unbroken 
stretch  of  country  from  the  Clyde  to  the 
English  Channel,  but  the  conquest  of  Cliester 
and  the  Severn  Valley  at  the  end  of  that 
century  cut  up  the  land  of  the  Welsh  into 
three  distinct  portions,  of  which  the  northern 


part  has  been  described  under  Cumbria,  and 
the  southern  under  Dumnonia.  It  remains  to 
speak  of  the  central  portion,  which  we  still 
call  Wales,  but  which  was  then  called  Korth 
Wales,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  West  Wales, 
south  of  the  Bristol  Channel,  and  whose  in- 
habitants called  themselves  Cymry,  and  the 
land  Cymru.  Before  the  end  of  the  sixth 
century  the  modem  Wales  was  simply  a  frag- 
ment of  South  Britain.  It  was  orig^inaliy 
peopled  bv  the  primitive  pre- Aryan  savages, 
who  largely  survived  in  the  great  tribe  of  the 
Silures ;  then  by  Ooidels  of  the  earlier  Celtic 
migration,  who  long  maintained  their  hold  in 
the  west ;  and  then  by  Brythonic  Celts,  who 
were  in  turn  subdued  by  the  Romans,  whose 
roads,  towns,  and  mines  showed  the  reality  of 
their  power,  but  whose  withdrawal  in  410  led 
to  the  bresJring  up  of  settled  government, 
the  relapse  of  the  Britons  into  the  tribal 
organisations  so  characteristic  of  the  Celts, 
the  relaxation  of  the  feeble  bonds  which  Roman 
Christianity  had  cast  over  them,  and  an 
anarchy  which  threatened  speedy  conquest  by 
the  English. 

During  the  sixth  century,  however,  a  re- 
markable revival  of  energy  seems  to  have 
occurred  in  Celtic  Britain,  and  not  least  in 
Wales.  The  political  revival,  which  set 
bounds  to  the  English  conquest,  and  united 
the  Britons,  firstly  under  Gwledigau,  or  tem- 
porary generals  in  war,  such  as  the  famous 
Arthur,  and,  at  a  later  stage,  under  national 
kings,  such  as  Cadwallon,  who  held  North- 
umbria  a  whole  year  in  servitude — the  political 
revival,  perhaps,  affected  Strathclyde  more 
intimately  than  Wales.  But  even  in  Gildas 
we  read  of  great  princes,  like  Maelgwm  of 
Gwynedd,  and  the  tradition  of  the  migration 
of  Cunedda  from  the  region  of  the  Wall  to 
North  Wales,  of  the  expulsion  of  the  Goidel 
by  his  descendants,  and  the  story  of  Kenti- 
gem*s  wanderings  from  Clyde  to  Clwyd  show 
that  Wales,  too,  was  affected  by  the  move- 
ment. The  peculiar  organisation  of  the  Celtic 
Church  certainly  originated  in  Wales,  though 
its  highest  development  was  worked  out  in 
Ireland  and  Scotland. 

But  the  promise  of  national  development 
was  never  fulfilled.  Enough  was  done  to  set 
limits  to  the  Saxon  conquest,  but  no  really 
united  state  was  formed.  Despite  the  later 
stories  of  Kings  of  all  Britain,  and  Kings  of 
all  Wales,  Wales  was  during  nearlv  the  whole 
of  its  history  split  up  into  an  infinity  of  tribal 
states,  over  which  very  rarely  some  powerful 
character  or  vigorous  stock  acquired  a  loose 
overlordship  that  was  never  strong  enough  to 
make  itseli  permanent.  In  the  north  the 
Kings  of  Gwynedd  were,  perhaps,  the  strongest 
line  in  Wales,  but  their  authority  over  much 
of  the  wide  district  so  named  was  probably 
very  slight.  In  the  south  we  know  of  a  very 
large  number  of  petty  states.  In  the  south- 
west the  kingdom  of  Demetia  or  Dyfed  was  in 
early  times  the  most  important    But  to  the 


Wal 


(  1044  } 


Wal 


north  the  aggressive  state  of  Ceredigion  grew 
at  the  expense  of  the  older  kingdom.  Gwent, 
Morganwg,  Brecheiniog,  and,  in  the  north- 
east, Powis,  were  other  important  divisions. 
In  shoii;,  Wales  was  a  group  of  clan  states, 
with  a  few  greater  sovereignties,  claiming 
indefinite  suzerainty  over  the  lesser  ones  and 
each  other.    . 

The  history  of  these  petty  states  consists 
primarily  in  endless  and  purposeless  feuds 
with  each  other,  true  '*hattles  of  kites  and 
crows,"  as  no  political  development,  no  na- 
tional state  gradually  evolved  from  the  con- 
flicb.  But  fierce  invaders  from  east  and  west 
ma^e  it  necessary  for  the  petty  kings  to  unite 
sometimes  for  common  defence.  The  English 
from  tho  east,  the  Irish  Danes  from  the  west, 
constantly  plundered  and  pillaged.  Especially 
terrihle  were  the  ravages  of  the  **  black 
pagans"  from  beyond  sea.  After  a  long 
period  of  predatory  incursions,  they  perhaps 
ultimately  formed  a  permanent  settlement  in 
Dyfed.  On  the  west,  the  Mercian  overlords 
were  formidable  neighbours  during  the  eighth 
century.  Ofifa  conquered  Pengwem  and  the 
western  portion  of  Powis,  and  built  a  dyke 
from  Dee  to  Wye  to  mark  off  the  limits  of 
his  kingdom,  and  keep  the  Welsh  marauders 
in  check.  He  probably  co-operated  with 
Eivod,  Bishop  of  Bangor,  in  forcing  the 
Catholic  Easter  on  the  unwilling  Welsh. 

During  this  period  the  meagre  Welsh  annals 
give  a  bare  catalogue  of  obscure  kings.  The 
end  of  the  ^lercian  overlordship  left  the  way 
clear  for  the  development  of  the  remarkable 
power  of  Rhodri  Mawr  (843 — 877),  who  seems 
to  have  added  to  his  patrimony  of  Gwynedd, 
the  kingdoms  of  Powis,  Ceredigion,  and  Dyfed, 
and  to  have  thus  been  ruler  of  nearly  all  Wales. 
It  ia  said  that  on  his  death  he  divided  his 
dominions  into  three  portions  among  his  three 
sons,  and  that  the  three  chief  states  of  later 
Wale.^ — GwjTiedd  with  its  capital  AberfFraw, 
Powis,  with  Mathraval  as  the  royal  seat  now 
that  Pengwem  had  become  Shrewsbury,  and 
Ceredigion,  including  Dyfed,  with  the  lnng*s 
residence  at  Dinevawr,  near  Llandilo.  Under 
Rhodri*8  g^ndson,  Howel  Dha  (q.v.)  of 
Dinevawr  (907 — 948),  another  hope  of  national 
unity  arose.  But  the  West  Saxon  monarchs 
were  too  strong  for  such  attempts.  The 
friendship  of  Asser  had  brought  Alfred's 
troops  into  the  western  wilderness  of  Dcmetia. 
All  the  South  Welsh  kings  acknowledged 
Alfred  as  their  lord.  South  Welsh  bishops 
were  consecrated  at  Canterbury,  and  a  deadly 
blow  struck  at  the  old  wild  freedom  of  the 
Welsh  episcopate  where  every  bishop  was, 
so  to  say,  archbishop  as  well  as  bishop  of  his 
own  see.  Howel  himself  attended  Edward's 
and  Athelstan's  Witenagemots.  The  laws 
that  go  by  his  name  are  a  curious  combina- 
tion of  old  Welsh  customs  with  those  of  the 
English  court.  On  Howel' s  death,  Wales 
became  more  anarchic  than  ever.  Its  relation 
to  England  checked  its  internal  development. 


but  the  English  supremacy  was  too  weik 
to  impose  oider  and  strong  government  bm. 
without. 

In  1015  Llewelyn  ap  Si tsyll  conquered  tbe 
usurper  Aedhan  ap  Blegywryd,  and  inspin-d 
with  new  vigour  the  kingdom  of  GrwyntdJ. 
His  son  Gruffydd  became  king  over  all 
Welshmen,  and,  in  close  alliance  with  Lis 
father-in-law,  Elfgar,  Earl  of  the  Mercians, 
played  a  really  important  part  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  time.  At  last  the  triumph  <>! 
the  house  of  Godwin  proved  fatal  to  the 
Welsh  king.  His  great  victories  in  Uerp- 
fordshire,  which  far  exceeded  the  measure  of 
the  border  forays  which  are  the  staple  of 
Welsh  history,  were  punished  by  two  bril- 
liant  English  campaigns  under  Harold  in 
person.  At  last  in  1065,  after  Harold  had 
ravaged  Wales  from  end  to  end,  Gruffydd  v&s 
slain  by  the  treachery  of  his  own  men.  The 
conqueror  divided  his  dominions  among  his 
kinsmen,  Bleddyn  and  Rhiwallon,  to  be  hc'ld 
as  dependencies  of  the  English  crown,  ani 
by  pushing  the  English  frontier  still  further 
westward,  prepared  the  way  for  the  new 
period  of  Saxon  aggression,  which  made  the 
Norman  Conquest  an  event  more  important 
in  Welsh  than  even  in  English  hi$tor}% 

The  foundation  of  the  great  border  Pala- 
tinates by  William  I.  was  the  first  result  of 
the  Conquest  on  Wales,  The  earldoms  d 
Hugh  of  Chester  and  Koger  of  Shrewsbury. 
proved  an  iron  barrier  which  effectually  M 
limits  on  Welsh  forays  for  the  future,  thtir 
military  organisation  made  them  equally 
capable  of  becoming  centres  of  ofifensiTe  war- 
fare. In  the  true  spirit  of  their  race,  a  swann 
of  Norman  knights  and  adventurers  pound 
over  the  borders  into  Wales.  The  earldom 
of  Chester  soon  extended  *ts  bounds  to  tha 
Conwy,  and  its  vassal  Robert  of  Rhuddlan, 
governed  the  vale  of  Clwyd.  The  modern 
county  of  Montgomery  roughly  marks  the 
district  now  added  to  the  Shrewsbury  earl- 
dom. Earl  Robert  of  Belesme  was  the 
terror  of  all  Welshmen.  His  brother  Amnlf 
conquered  Ceredigion  and  Dyfed.  Bernard 
of  Neufmarche,  founded  the  lordship  of 
Brecon  in  the  old  district  of  Brechoiniog. 
Robert  Fitz-Hamon  conquered  the  vale  of 
Glamorgan.  Gower,  Kidwely,  Ystradtowr, 
were  similarly  appropriated.  T"rnable  to  with- 
stand the  Normans  in  the  field,  the  Welsh 
withdrew  to  their  mountain  fastnesses,  and, 
in  sudden  forays,  revenged  themselves  on 
their  oppressors.  Revolt  after  revolt  of  the 
conquered  peasantry  confined  the  Nonnan 
lords  to  their  castle  walls.  To  guard  agaioct 
the  repetition  of  such  events,  English,  w 
Low  German,  colonists  were  planted  in 
southern  D>'fed,  in  Gower,  and  perhaps  in  part* 
of  Glamorgan,  and  the  old  inhabitants  ruth- 
lessly driven  out.  Commerce  came  in  the 
invaders*  train,  and  towns  sprang  up  in  * 
community  hitherto  unacquainted  with  urban 
life.   Norman  priests  and  bishops  followed  th» 


L 


Wal 


(  1045  ) 


Wal 


soldiers  and  mercliants.  The  Welsh  sees  were 
finally  subjected  to  Canterbury.  The  southern 
bishoprics  were  permanently  bestowed  on 
Normans.  By  the  time  of  Henry  I.  the 
Normans  had  conquered  all  southern  and 
western  Wales  worth  having.  After  the  fall 
of  Bhys  ap  Tewdwr  (1090),  the  native  princes 
lay  aside  even  the  title  of  king.  In  Gwynedd 
alone,  whose  monarchs  now  b^n  to  be  called 
Princes  or  Kings  of  Wales,  was  a  really  strong 
Celtic  power  left.  There  the  disastrous  faie 
of  Norman  interlopers  into  the  see  of  Bangor 
showed  that  the  native  spirit  was  still  un- 
subdued. The  territoiies  thus  conquered 
became  known  as  the  Lordship  Marches. 
Conquered  by  independent  adventurers,  they 
possessed  all  the  rights  of  a  Palatine  earldom. 
[Palatinb  Counties.]  Their  lords  were 
practically  kings  on  their  own  estates,  and 
were  boimd  to  the  English  monarch  by  no 
other  tie  than  simple  allegiance.  For  aU 
practical  purposes  they  were  as  free  as  the 
lords  of  Aberffraw.  After  a  generation  or 
two,  many  begin  to  amalgamate  with  the 
conquered  race,  or  at  least  to  intermarry  with 
them  and  get  mixed  up  in  their  quarrels. 
The  succession  of  great  English  barons  to 
some  of  these  lordships — for  example,  the 
union  of  Gloucester  and  Glamorgan — ^had  an 
important  reflex  influence  on  English  politics. 
Yet  the  Welsh  race  was  still  far  from  being 
subdued.  The  return  of  Gruffydd  ap  Cynan 
from  his  Irish  exile  (1100)  marks  a  new  de- 
velopment of  culture  and  literature  among 
the  Cymry.  The  Welsh  bards  renew  their 
songs.  The  Welsh  chroniclers  become  more 
copious.  The  old  laws  were  re-edited.  Even 
politically  they  were  only  reduced  ^o  a 
certain  extent.  The  Miurcher  lords  were 
as  much  divided  as  the  Welsh  chieftains. 
English  help  was  far  o£F,  and  often  ineffec- 
tuaL  Physical  difficulties  always  imposed 
obstacles  on  feudal  armies  among  the  moun- 
tains of  Gwynedd.  Henry  II.  *s  three  expe- 
ditions into  Wales  (1156,  1163,  and  1165) 
were  disastrous  failures,  and  were  followed 
with  none  of  those  indirect  successes  which 
had  attended  similar  invasions  of  Rufus. 
Owen  Gw^oiedd  {d,  1169)  was  a  prince  of 
vigour,  activity,  and  power.  The  expansive 
energy  of  the  Normans  was  diverted  into 
other  channels,  with  the  departure  of  Strong- 
bow  to  Ireland.  The  Celtic  sympathies  of 
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth,  the  strangely 
chequered  career  of  Giraldus  Cambrensis  aaow 
the  approximation  of  the  two  races.  Arch- 
bishop Baldwin's  crusading  tour  throughout 
all  Wales  in  1188  marks  the  comparative 
peace  that  now  reigned.  The  alliance  of 
Llewelyn  ap  lorweith,  who  became  Prince  of 
Gwynedd  in  1194,  with  the  baronial  opposi- 
tion to  John,  shows  that,  despite  differences 
of  race,  all  feudal  dependents  of  the  Angevin 
monarchs  had  a  common  interest  in  setting 
limits  to  the  arbitrary  power  of  their  impe- 
rious   overlord.      Llewelyn's    occupation  of 


Shrewsbury  helped  the  success  of  the  move- 
ment that  won  Magna  Charta,  and  the  re- 
gard shown  to  his  rights  in  that  famous  in- 
strument suggests  that  the  barons  were  not 
ungrateful  for  his  aid.  Llewelyn's  marriage 
with  John's  bastard  daughter,  kept  him  in 
peace  with  Henry  III.  for  some  time.  But 
m  1228  Henry  sent  an  expedition  against 
him  that  signally  failed,  and  exacted  nothing 
but  barren  homage  from  the  powerful  chief- 
tain. Up  to  his  death  in  1240,  Llewelyn 
waged  constant  and  not  unsuccessful  war 
on  the  Lords  Marchers,  and  succeeded  in  ex- 
tending his  power  in  some  of  those  southern 
districts  where  their  power  was  slight.  Be- 
tween 1240  and  1246,  David,  son  of  Llewelyn 
by  his  English  wife,  governed  the  princi- 
pality ;  but  in  1246  Llewelyn,  son  of  Gruff ydd, 
son  of  Llewelyn  by  a  Welsh  mother,  suc- 
ceeded him,  at  first  jointly  with  his  brothers, 
but  afterwards  alone.  The  national  revival, 
which  had  been  marked  under  Llewelyn  ap 
lorwerth,  reached  its  culminating  point  in 
Llewelyn  ap  Gruffydd.  The  energy  of  the 
Welsh  became  greater,  their  literary  activity 
bore  greater  results. 

In  1256 — 57  the  young  prince  Edward 
failed  in  his  attempts  to  curb  Lie  wel}ii's  power. 
In  alliance  with  Simon  de  Montfort,  Llewelyn 
took  an  active  part  against  the  kmg  during 
the  Barons'  Wars.  His  projected  marriage 
with  Eleanor,  Earl  Simon's  daughter,  involved 
his  alliance  with  the  French  crown  and  the 
remnants  of  the  disaffected  party  in  England. 
In  1275  Edward  I.  seized  the  bride  on  her 
way  to  Wales.  A  fierce  attack  of  the  injured 
prince  upon  the  Marchers  was  followed  in 
1277  by  an  expedition  of  Edward  that  exacted 
his  submission,  and  in  1278  he  was  allowed  to 
marry  Eleanor.  But  in  1282  his  treacherous 
brother  David  incited  him  to  a  fresh  revolt. 
Edward  resolved  to  settle  the  Welsh  question 
once  for  all.  He  made  a  great  effort,  syste- 
matically conquered  the  country,  and,  on 
Llewelyn's  death  in  battle,  declared  his 
dominions  forfeited  to  the  crown.  Thus 
Edward  I.  subdued  the  only  native  Welsh 
State  of  any  importance.  The  Statute  of 
Wales  (12  Eid.  I.)  finally  annexed*  the  Prin- 
cipality {ue.,  the  dominions  of  Llewel^ii^  to 
the  crown,  introduced  the  English  law, 
with  a  special  judicial  system  under  the 
Justice  of  Snowdon,  and  established  six  sheriff- 
doms of  Anglesea,  Carnarvon,  Merioneth,  Flint, 
Carmarthen,  and  Cardigan,  with  organisation 
analogous  to  those  of  the  English  shires.  But 
the  Principality,  though  united  to  the  crown, 
was  not  absorbed  in  it.  It  was  not  a  part  of 
England,  but  a  conquered  country.  It  be- 
came the  custom  to  invest  with  the  dignity 
of  Prince  of  Wales  the  eldest  son  of  the 
soverei^.  Edward's  campaigns  and  legisla- 
tion affected  the  Principality  only.  The 
hundred  and  forty  Lordship  Marchers  went 
on  as  before,  except  that  an  Act  of  1354  (28 
Ed.  III.,  c.  2)  declared  them  dependent  not  on 


Wal 


(  1046  ) 


Wal 


the  Principality  but  on  the  English  crown. 
Their  wild  freedom,  with  its  private  wars  and 
constant  outrages,  still  continued. 

Several  revolts  showed  the  unwillingfness 
of  Gwynedd  to  acquiesce  in  the  English 
conquest.  The  strong  line  of  Edwardian 
castles  alone  kept  the  country  subdued. 
David's  luckless  nsing  in  1283,  the  revolts  of 
Rhys  ap  Maredudd  in  1287  and  1292,  that  of 
Madoc,  Mailgwn,  and  Morgan,  in  1294,  show 
the  difficulty  involved  in  establishing  the 
Edwardian  system.  After  it  had  slept  for 
nearly  a  century,  Welsh  national  feeling  was 
again  aroused  by  the  revolt  of  Owen  Glen- 
dower  (1400),  whose  private  feud  with  his 
neighbour,  Lord  Grev  of  Ruthin,  became  the 

garm  of  a  determined  effort  to  throw  off  the 
nglish  yoke.  In  conjunction  with  the  Per- 
cies,  the  Mortimers,  and  the  Scots,  afterwards 
with  French  support,  Owen  managed  to 
defeat  expedition  after  expedition  sent  against 
him  by  Henry  IV.  From  one  end  of  the 
country  to  the  other  he  made  his  power  felt, 
and  managed  to  maintain  his  independence 
till  his  death  (about  1416).  But  the  English 
re-conquest  was  ultimately  effected,  and  a 
series  of  harsh  penal  statutes  was  passed  to 
check  further  revolts.  The  establii^ment  at 
Ludlow  of  the  Court  of  the  President  and 
CouncU  of  Wales  (1478),  was  Edward  IV. 's 
contribution  to  the  establishment  of  a  stronger 
system  of  government.  The  disorders  of  the 
period  of  revolt  gradually  disappeared.  The 
conquerors  and  the  conquered  began  to  ap- 
proximate towards  each  other.  The  Queen 
Dowager  of  England,  and  the  last  represen- 
tative of  the  line  of  John  of  Gnunt,  both 
married  into  the  same  Welsh  family.  Henry 
Tudor  became  King  of  England.  His  son 
passed  a  series  of  statutes  which  incorporated 
the  Principality  with  England,  restrained  the 
powers  of  the  Lords  Marchers,  made  all 
Wales  shiro-g^und,  and  introduced,  with 
English  laws,  English  local  self-government 
and  parliamentary  representation  (27  Hen. 
VIII.,  c.  26,  and  34  &  35  Hen.  VIIL,  c.  26). 
The  only  difference  between  Wales  and  Eng- 
land now,  besides  the  still  existing,  though 
diminished,  powers  of  the  Marchers  and  the 
Court  of  the  Council  of  Wales  at  Ludlow, 
was  the  fact  that  instead  of  being  united  to 
any  English  circuit,  a  special  court  of  justice, 
called  the  "  King's  Great  Sessions  in  Wales," 
was  to  be  held  twice  a  year  under  special 
justices;  an  arrangement  which  continued 
until  1830,  when  Wales  and  Cheshire  were 
formed  into  new  Engh'sh  circuits. 

These  great  measures  of  justice  formed  a 
new  epoch  in  Welsh  history.  The  peaceful, 
if  slow,  acceptance  of  the  Reformation,  the 
literary  and  educational  revival  that  began 
under  Elizabeth,  illustrate  the  beneficial 
results  of  the  change.  During  the  Civil  War 
Wales  was,  as  a  whole,  strongly  Royalist. 
Some  North  Welsh  castles  were  the  last 
places  to  hold  out  for  Charles  I.    Soon  after 


the  Revolution  of  1688  the  Court  of  Lndlov, 
and  the  renmants  of  the  Marcher  juiisdictiaD. 
were  abolished.  During  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury the  Methodist  movement  profoondly 
influenced  the  character  of  Wales.  Wliile 
introducing  a  new  religious  fervour,  a  hi^r 
tone  of  morality,  and  a  greater  amoimt  cf 
energy,  its  Puritanism  made  much  hstoc 
with  the  more  harmless  features  of  old  Welih 
life.  The  movement  began  with  6ri£Sth 
Jones,  vicar  of  Uanddowror,  whose  system 
of  "circulating  schools,*'  established  in  1730» 
was  the  only  important  step  made  in  that  ag» 
towards  popular  education.  In  1736  Howdl 
Harris  b^gan  to  preach.  His  connectioiiwith 
Whitefield  determined  the  theology  of  Welih 
Methodism.  The  suspension  of  the  £uiioa» 
preacher,  Daniel  Rowland  of  liangeitfao. 
first  turned  the  Welsh  Methodists  in  the 
direction  of  Nonconformity.  In  1811  tbe 
formal  separation  from  the  Church  took  plsoe. 
By  that  time  the  great  bulk  of  the  people 
had  become  Dissenters.  Hardly  until  th$ 
present  century  did  the  industrial  rerolii- 
tion  affect  Wales.  The  development  of  the 
coal  and  iron  trades  in  the  south  has  enor* 
mously  increased  its  population  and  resoimx& 
[See  sIbo  Celts  ;  Celtic  Church  ;  Corimis, 
The  Welsh  ;  Methodism.] 

For  earW  Welsh  history,  Gildss,  perfaips 
parts  of  Kennins,  the  AnnolM  Cambrior,  lad 
Brut  y  TytDysogion,  hftdly  edited  in  tbe  fioUs 
Series,  aiid  the  less  authentic  6««iiiian  Brd, 
puhlished  hy  the  Cambriao  ArcluBologioftl 
Society,  are,  with  the  so-called  1mm  of  netA 
JDHa  in  Owen's  Andtnt  Laws  and  Iiutitvfai  ^ 
WcXtt^  and  the  scattoed  references  in  tbe 
Kwg»4^  chronicles  and  charters,  the  chief 
anthorities.  Geoffirey  of  Monmonth,  moet  d 
the  Triads,  and  other  Utorary  sonroes,  must  be 
entirely  disregarded.  The  *'Four  Barda"  k 
Mr.  Skene's  Tow  ^noMiU  Book^  of  Waim  axe  to!> 
obscure  and  doubtful  to  give  much  help  to  tb* 
historian.  The  works  of  Oiraldos  Cambrensia, 
especially  his  Itiiwranum  Cambria^  are,  thoiKb 
not  implicitly  trustworthy,  of  very  srsat  ioipor- 
tance  for  the  twelfth  century.  With  Edwaidl't 
conquest  the  native  annals  cease.  The  atatntes 
aifecting  Wales  become  now  an  important  aoar» 
of  information,  and  the  English  chronfclea  be- 
come fuller  in  their  notice  of  the  Edwardjaa 
conquest,  and  the  revolt  of  Olendower,  whilathe 
Tery  extensive  remains  of  Welsh  litentore,  coa- 
tain  much  of  historical  interest.  Of  moders 
books  covering  the  whole  anUeH,  WazrimrtoD'i 
Hutory  of  Wala,  and  Miss  J.  WiUiams'a  fliriom 
of  IValu  are  the  best,  although  neiTher  are  to; 
critical.  They  are  both  largely  based  on  & 
■ixteentli  century  compilation,  Powel's  Hi^ 
of  Cambria,  that  has  obtained  more  credeoA 
tiW  it  always  desenres.  P.  Walter.  Dai  alh 
ITolea,  though  too  careiMn  in  its  cboi<»  « 
anthorities.  is  for  coolness  and  impartiaUty  tbe 
most  valuable  modem  work.  Eariy  W«teb 
history  is  best  treated  in  Skene's  Pr^fo*-  t«w 
Pour  Aneind  Books  of  WoU$  ;  Jones,  V^tiff  9 
tha  Gael  in  Gicynadd;  Jones  and  Fraenaa. 
History  of  St.  Bavid'a;  Stephens.  Ltf«rat«r«  « 
the  Cj/mry;  Elton,  Origvus  of  EngU$k  BiMn- 
and  Eh^s,  Cdltie  Britain.  Freeman's  Aoma» 
Conguert  and  William  Bnfue  are  cibaartiw 
for  the  conquest  of  South  Wales.  Stepiea- 
Hwtorw  of  Orimiiwil  Law;  Beeve.  H«*Ti  <^ 
Englimh,  Lav,  give  the  legal  history  of  t^ 
incorporation  of  England  and  Walea  A  ug* 
number  of  particular  points  are  well  wortw 


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S»  in  the  ArcheooHoma  CambrMMtt.  A  good 
ort  account  of  Welsh  Methodism  is  in 
Lecky's  Hist,  of  Bng.  Fuller  accounts  in 
Howell  Harris's  Autobiography.  Lady  Hunting- 
don's Mmtutin,  Middleton's  Bioaraphia  Evau^ 
acltco,  and  T>x.  Sees's  HUtory  cf  Nonamformity 
in  Wales.  [T.  F.  T.] 

WaleSy  Princb  of,  is  the  title  uBuallv 
borne  by  the  heir  apparent  of  the  English 
sovereign.  After  the  death  of  Llewelyn, 
the  last  native  Prince  of  Wales,  Edward  I.  in 
1301  created  his  son  Prince  of  Wales.  It  is 
noticeable  that,  whereas  the  heir  apparent  is 
bom  Duke  of  Cornwall,  it  is  only  bv  creation 
that  he  becomes  Prince  of  Wales.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  list  of  aU  the  English  princes  who 
have  borne  the  title  : — 

Edward,  son  of  Edward  I.  (afterwards  Edward  IL) 
Edward,  son  of  Edwai-d  III.  (the  Black  Prince). 
Sichard,  son  of  the  Black  Prince  (afterwards 

Bichaxd  lU 
Henry,  son  of  Henry  IV.  (afterwsacds  Henry  V.) 
Edward,  sou  of  Henry  VL 
Edward,  son  of  Edward  IV.  (afterwards  Edward 

V.) 
Edward,  son  of  Bichard  m. 
Arthur,  son  of  Henry  VIL 
Henry,  son  of  Henry  VII.  (afterwards   Henry 

vin.) 

Edward,  son  of  Henry  VHI.  (afterwards  Edward 

VI.) 
Henry,  son  of  James  I. 

(Jharfes,  son  of  James  I.  (afterwards  (Tharles  I.) 
Charles,  son  of  Charles  I.  (afterwards  Charles  II.) 
James,  son  of  James  II.  (tne  Old  Pretender). 
Qeorge,  son  of  George  I.  (afterwards  (j^rge  n.) 
Frederick,  son  of  George  ll. 
George,  son  of  Frederick  (afterwards  Ctoorge  IQ.) 
Qeorge,  son  of  George  in.  (afterwards  George 

IV.) 
Albert  Edward,  son  of  <)ueen  Victoria. 

Wales.  The  Statute  of  (1284),  was  passed 
by  £dwara  I.  immediately  after  the  oonqnest 
of  Wales.  Many  English  laws  and  regulations 
were  introduced,  such  as  the  appointment  of 
sherifEs,  and  the  English  law  of  succession; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  Welsh  local  customs, 
as  far  as  they  were  comparatively  unimportant, 
were  retained. 

Walker,  George  {d.  July  1,  1690),  was 
rector  of  the  parish  of  Monaghan.  He  took 
refuge  in  Londonderry  before  the  siege  of  that 
town,  and  was  active  in  rousing  the  inhabitants 
to  resist  James's  troops.  On  April  17,  1689,  he 
was  elected  one  of  the  goyernors  of  the  city, 
an  office  he  continued  to  hold  till  August, 
when  he  yielded  up  lus  authority  to  Colonel 
Kirke.  There  is  still  a  Walker  Club  in  the 
town,  and  his  statue  surmounts  the  pillar 
erected  on  one  of  the  bastions  in  memory  of 
the  siege.  When  he  arrived  in  London,  soon 
after  the  delivery  of  Londonderry  from  the 
Irish,  the  House  of  Commons  passed  a  vote  of 
thanks  to  him,  and  the  king  ^ve  him  £5,000. 
In  June,  1690,  the  bishopnc  of  Deny  fell 
vacant,  and  William  at  once  bestowed  it  on 
him.  He  had,  however,  contracted  a  passion 
for  war,  and  much  shocked  William  by  ap- 
pearing at  the  head  of  the  men  of  London- 
derry in  the  campaign  of  1690.    He  fell  at 


the  head  of  his  men  in  resisting  the  Irish 
cavalry  at  the  little  of  the  Boyne. 
Haoaulay,  Higt  ofEng. 

WaUdnsliaw.  Clementina,  was  a  mis^ 

tress  of  Charles  Edward  Stuart,  the  Young^ 

Pretender.    He  first  became  acquainted  with 

her  on  his  expedition  to  Scotland  in   1745. 

He  sent  for  her  after  his  return  from  that 

country,    and   soon    she    acquired  complete 

dominion  over  him.    It  was  believed  that  she 

was  in  the  pay  of  the  English  ministers; 

accordingly,  m  1748,  the  English  Jacobites 

sent  an  agent  named  Macnamara  to  request 

that  the  lady  should,  for  a  time  at  least,  retire 

to  a  convent.    Charles,  however,  obstinately 

refused  to  agree  to  this.    He  had  a  daughter 

by  her  about  1760,  who  died  in  1789. 

Vernon  Lee,  Th»  Counten  of  Alhany  ;  Ewald» 
Life  ofPrinoe  Charles  Edward. 

Wallace.  William,  the  younger  son  of 
Wallace  of  Elderslie,  in  Benf rewshire,  was 
outlawed  for  slaying  an  Englishman  who  had 
insulted  him  at  Lanark.  This  circumstance, 
and  the  indignation  with  which  he  viewed 
the  usurpation  of  Edward  I.,  induced  him  in 
May,  1297,  to  make  an  attack  on  the  English 
quarters  at  Lanark,  where  he  killed  Hazel- 
rigg,  the  governor.  He  was  soon  joined  by 
Sir  William  Douglas  and  a  considerable 
body  of  Scots.  The  murder  of  his  unde, 
Sir  Reginald  Crawford,  at  Ayr,  still  fuiiher 
incensed  him,  and  he  utterly  refused  to  join 
some  of  his  supporters  in  making  their  sub- 
mission to  the  English.  On  Sept.  11,  1297, 
Wallace  thoroughly  defeated  the  English 
at  Stirling,  following  up  his  victory  by  a 
raid  into  England.  The  following  year  he' 
was  chosen  governor  of  the  kingdom,  and  as 
a  consequence  increased  the  jealousy  of  many 
of  the  Scottish  barons.  Meantime  Edward 
had  returned  from  Flanders  and  hurried  to 
Scotland,  where  he  defeated  Wallace  at 
Falkirk  (q.v.)  (July  22,  1298).  At  this  time 
Wallace  aisappears  from  public  life,  and  is 
said  to  have  visited  France  and  Home.  It  is 
more  probable  that  he  remained  in  the  wilds 
of  his  native  country  with  a  few  followers. 
In  1305  he  was  betrayed  into  the  hands  of  the 
English  at  Glasgow  by  his  friend.  Sir  John 
Menteith,  carried  to  London,  and  tried  at 
Westminster.  Ho  was  condemned  as  a  rebel 
and  traitor  to  the  lAglish  king,  and  executed 
(Aug.  23,  1305).  In  spit43  of  the  want  of 
authority  which  characterises  most  of  the 
stories  told  about  Sir  William  Wallace,  it  is 
apparent  that  he  was  a  man  of  great  capa- 
city, and  a  military  genius  of  a  very  high 
order. 

BxtrtoTLf  Hist,  of  Scotland;  BiBhanger,  Chronicle 
fBnlls  Series) ;  Palgrave,  Documents  and  Records 
Illustrating  the  Hist,  of  Scotland, 

Waller,  Edmund  (b.  1605,  d.  1687),  poet, 
was  a  relation  of  John  Hampden.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge,  and  in  1623  took  his 
seat  in  Parliament  as  member  for  Amersham. 


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The  story  of  his  unsuccessful  courtship  of 
Lady  Dorothy  Sydney,  the  daughter  of  the 
Earl  of  Leicester,  appears  to  be  well  authen- 
ticated. A  zealous  member  of  the  Long  Par- 
liament, Waller  was  appointed  in  1643  one 
of  the  commissioners  who  negotiated  with 
Charles  at  Oxford.  There  he  was  won  over 
"by  the  court,  and  played  a  decidedly  equi- 
vocal part,  agreeing  on  his  return  to  Loudon 
to  publish  a  commission  of  array,  and  so 
having  collected  troops  to  seize  the  city  by  a 
coup-de'tnain.  The  plot,  however,  miscarried, 
and  he  was  heavily  fined  and  condemned  to 
banishment,  after  an  abject  submission  to 
the  House  of  Commons.  In  1651  he  was 
allowed  to  return  to  England,  and  attempted 
to  curr)'  favour  ^dth  the  Protector  by  his 
**  Panegyric  on  Cromwell,"  which  he  followed 
nip  by  an  ode  to  Charles  II.  after  the  Restora- 
tion. "Poets,  sire,*'  he  wittily  remarked  to 
the  king,  *'  succeed  better  in  fiction  than  in 
truth."  In  spite  of  his  time-serving  dispo- 
sition, Waller  was  popular  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  of  which  he  was  a  member  until 
1683.  His  poems — dainty,  but  uninspired 
productions — have  been  frequently  published. 
A  fairly  complete  edition  appeared  in  1694. 
Johnson,  Lives  of  the  PoeU. 

Waller,  Sir  William  (i.  1697,  d.  1668), 
was  a  cousin  of  the  foregoing.  His  military 
«du(»,tion  was  acquired  in  Germany  during 
the  Thirty  Years'  War.  In  1640  he  was 
returned  to  the  Long  Parliament  ns  member 
for  Andover.  Oa  Qie  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War  he  was  sent  into  the  west  of  England, 
and  at  first  gained  such  success  as  to  acquire 
J.OT  himself  the  title  of  "  William  the  Con- 
queror," but  in  July,  1643,  he  was  severely 
beaten  both  at  Bath  and  Devizes.  Parliament 
nevertheless  thanked  him  for  his  exertions. 
In  the  following  year  he  fell  out  with  Eissex, 
the  commander-in-chief,  and  in  consequence 
Charles  managed  to  make  a  sortie  from  Ox- 
ford, and  to  defeat  him  at  Cropredy  Bridge. 
Waller  again  returned  unsucces^ul  to  London. 
In  1645  he  was  removed  from  his  command 
by  the  Self-denying  Ordinance,  but  soon 
resumed  his  appointment,  and  under  Crom- 
well was  successful  ui  the  west  in  the  first 
-campaign  of  the  New  Model  army.  In 
1637  he  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Presby- 
terian pirty  who  attemp^Bd  in  vain  to  oppose 
the  advance  of  the  army  on  the  capital,  and 
was  one  of  the  eleven  members  against  whom 
its  resentment  was' especially  directed.  In 
1660,  during  the  troubled  time  which  pre- 
ceded the  Restoration,  he  was  a  member  of 
the  Council  of  State. 

Vindication  of  Sir  WiUiam  WalUr  by  Himself. 

Wallingford,  John  of,  was  the  author 
or  transcriber  of  a  chronido  extending  from 
the  year  449  to  1035.  Of  this  chronicle  Sir 
T.  Hardy  says : — "  The  author  seems  fre- 
quently desirous  of  examining  and  comparing 
authorities,  and  yet  the  result  is  only  error 


and  absurdity,  as  he  confounds  persons  ind 
places,  and  sots  chronology  at  defiance."  It 
IS  doubtful  who  the  author  was,  but  he  pro- 
bably lived  about  the  beginning  or  middle  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  and  was  an  inmate  U 
the  abbey  of  St.  Albans. 

WaUingford,  William  op  (rf.  1488), » 
monk  of  St.  Albans,  was  appointed  archdeac<in 
and  prior  of  the  abbey  in  1465,  and  held 
several  subordinate  ofiices.  Charges  of  perjury 
and  theft  are  made  against  him  in  the  register 
known  as  that  of  John  Whethamstede,  but 
they  are  evidently  written  with  considerabk 
animus.  He  became  abbot  in  1476  on  the 
death  of  William  Albon.  Of  his  tenure  of 
office  we  have  a  very  full  account,  bat,  thougli 
it  gives  an  idea  of  somewhat  fusy  actinty, 
it  presents  no  feature  of  interest.  His  register, 
which  he  compiled  in  imitation  of  his  prede- 
cessors, covers  the  period  from  1476  to  1488, 
though  the  entries  for  the  last  two  yean  ire 
not  numerous.  It  gives  a  powerful  picture 
of  the  corruption  of  the  monastic  system.  It 
has  been  edited  by  Mr.  Riley  in  the  Rolls 
Series  together  with  the  register  of  Walline- 
ford's  predecessors,  John  Whethamstede  and 
William  Albon. 

WaUingford,  Thb  Tbbatt  op  (1153),  is 
the  name  usually  given  to  the  peace  made  be- 
tween Stephen  and  Prince  Henry,  though  only 
the  preliminary  negotiations  took  place  at 
Wallin^ord,  the  treaty  itself  being  signed  at 
Westminster.  By  this  treaty  Stephen  wm  to 
retain  the  kingdom  during  his  lifetime^  hat 
Henry  was  to  succeed  him,  the  rights  of 
Stephen*8  children  to  the  private  dominions 
of  tiieir  parent  being  guaranteed.  At  the  same 
time  a  scheme  of  administrative  reform  «a8 
decided  upon,  which  was  intended  to  restore 
things  as  far  as  possible  to  the  state  in  which 
they  had  been  left  by  Henry  I. 

Walpole,  Horace,  Lord  (b.  1678,^.1757), 
the  elder  brother  of  Sir  Robert,  first  appeus 
as  secretary  to  Greneral  Stanhope  in  Spam 
(1706).  In  1707  he  was  appointed  secretary 
to  Henry  Boyle,  Chancellor  of  the  Ex- 
chequer. In  1708  he  was  sent  as  secretary  to 
an  embassy  to  the  Emperor,  and  was  after- 
wards in  the  same  position  at  the  negotiatioof 
at  Gertruydenberg.  In  1716  he  was  sent 
as  envoy  to  the  Hague.  He  subsequently 
appeared  at  Hanover,  and  remonstrated 
with  Stanhope  for  the  suspicions  he  enter- 
tained of  Townshend,  and  was  sent  home 
with  letters  calculated  to  heal  the  brearh  in 
the  ministry.  In  1720  he  was  appointed 
secretary  to  the  Buke  of  Grafton,  Lord-lieu- 
tenant of  Ireland.  In  1723  he  was  dematrhe^i 
to  Paris  to  counteract  Sir  Luke  ochaah 
He  ardently  attached  himself  to  Cardioal 
Fleury.  He  remained  in  France  until  1727. 
In  1728  he  was  one  of  the  plenipotentiaries  to 
the  congress  at  Soissons.  In  1733  Walpob 
was  sent  as  envoy  to  the  States-General   ^ 


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1739  he  was  sent  to  Holland  to  receive  the 
auxiliary  troops  stipulated  in  case  of  hostili- 
ties. In  1741  he  was  made  Secretary  to  the 
Exchequer,  and  in  1756  was  raised  to  the 
peerage.  ''He  was/*  savs  Stanhope,  ''a  man 
who  through  life  played  a  considerable  part, 
but  chiefly  because  he  was  the  brother  of  Sir 
Robert."  According  to  his  nephew,  "he 
knew  something  of  everything  but  how  to 
hold  his  tongue,  or  how  to  apply  his  know- 
ledge." 

Horace    Wali>ole.   Memwn;  Coze,  TFolpoIe; 
Stanhope,  Hut.  ofEng. 

Walpole*  Sir  Robert,  Earl  of  Orford 
(b.  1676,  d,  1745),  was  the  son  of  a  Norfolk 
gentleman,  and  was  educated  at  Eton  and 
at  King's  College,  Cambridge.  In  1702  he 
entered  Parliament  as  member  for  Castle 
Rising.  He  soon  attracted  the  attention  of 
the  Whig  leaders.  In  1705  he  was  placed  on 
the  council  of  Prince  George  of  Denmark 
as  Lord  High  Admiral,  and  in  1708  succeeded 
St.  John  as  Secretary  at  War.  In  1710  he 
was  one  of  the  managers  of  Sacheverell's 
trial,  of  which  he  secretly  disapproved;  and 
when  the  Whig  ministry  was  driven  from 
office  he  persisted  in  resigning  in  spite  of 
Harley's  solicitations  to  him  that  he  should 
retain  his  place.  He  now  became  with 
Somers  a  leculer  of  the  Whig  opposition,  and 
being  charged  with  peculations  as  Secretary 
at  War,  he  was  expelled  the  House  and  sent 
to  the  Tower,  where  he  remained  till  the  pro- 
rogation. His  defence  was,  however,  quite 
complete,  and  he  was  re-elected  for  East 
Lynn.  He  wrote  at  this  time  two  able  pam- 
phlets in  support  of  the  late  ministry.  The 
Debts  of  the  Nation  Stated  and  Considered^ 
and  T/k?  Thirty-five  Millions  Accounted  For, 
On  the  accession  of  George  I.  Walpole  was 
chosen  chairman  of  the  committee  of  inquiry 
into  the  conduct  of  the  last  ministry.  He 
became  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  and  Chan- 
cellor of  the  Elxchequer.  But  he  was  disliked 
hy  the  king,  and  angry  at  the  dismissal  of 
Townshend,  so  he  resigned  in  1717.  In  this 
year  he  had  established  the  first  sinking  fund. 
Immediately  he  passed  into  unscrupulous 
opposition,  and  spoke  against  the  Mutiny 
Act,  the  Quadruple  AUiance,  the  Peer- 
ago  Bill,  and  the  repeal  of  the  Schism  Act. 
Finding  opposition  hopeless,  he  rejoined  the 
ministry  as  Paymaster  of  the  Forces  in  1720. 
On  the  &U  of  the  South  Sea  Company  it  was 
felt  that  he  alone  could  deal  with  the  matter, 
and  his  measures,  though  severe,  were  felt  to 
be  just.  On  the  death  of  Stanhope  he  was 
left  without  a  rival,  and  became  Chancellor  of 
the  Exchequer  and  Prime  Minister  (April, 
1721).  His  history  is  now  the  history  of 
England.  He  crushed  Atterbury's  plot,  and 
placed  a  tax  to  the  amount  of  £100,000  on 
the  nonjurors.  Already  his  jealousy  of 
rivals,  the  great  fault  in  his  character  as  a 
minister,  had  become  apparent;  and  he  and 


Townshend  drove  Carteret  from  office.  Mean- 
while the  situation  abroad  had  become  com- 
plicated ;  the  alliance  between  Austria,  Spain, 
and  the  Duke  of  Bourbon's  pai'ty  in  France, 
was  checked  by  the  Treaty  of  Hanover 
between  England  and  France.  On  the  death 
of  George  I.,  Walpole,  disliked  by  the  new 
king,  found  himself  in  dangler  of  being  super- 
seded by  Sir  Spencer  Conipton.  Owing  to 
the  representations  of  Queen  Caroline,  he 
remained  in  power.  The  Opposition  con- 
sisted of  discontented  Whigs  led  by  Pulteney, 
and  the  remnant  of  the  Tories  under  Boling- 
broke.  In  1730  Walpole  quarrelled  with 
Townshend,  who  retired  from  political  life ; 
and  in  1733  with  Chesterfield.  His  sup- 
porters consisted  of  such  second-rate  men  as 
Newcastle,  Stanhope,  Compton,  and  Harring- 
ton. He  had,  however,  at  his  back  a  majority 
secured  by  the  most  unscrupulous  bribery. 
In  1729  the  Treaty  of  Seville  preserved  the 
peace  of  Europe  for  a  time.  In  1733  Walpole 
brought  forward  his  celebrated  excise  scheme, 
a  measure  thoroughly  sound  and  justifiable  ; 
but  such  was  the  success  of  Pulteney  in 
rousing  public  feeling  against  it  that  he  had 
to  abandon  it.  In  1734  he  was  much  blamed 
for  keeping  aloof  from  the  war  waged  by  the 
Emperor  against  France  and  Spain.  In  this, 
year  the  Opposition  joined  to  attack  the 
Septennial  Act.  They  failed ;  and  Bolingbroke 
withdrawing  to  France,  the  leadership  of  the 
party  fell  on  the  Prince  of  Wales,  whom 
Walpole  had  offended  by  resisting  the  increase 
of  his  income.  In  1737  Queen  Caroline'^ 
death  deprived  him  of  a  staunch  and  faithful 
friend.  The  Opposition,  now  reinforced  by 
Pitt,  continued  to  attack  his  pacific  policy ; 
Newcastle  began  to  intrigue  against  him,  and 
favoured  the  king's  desire  for  war.  Never- 
theless, Walpole  concluded  a  convention  with 
Spain;  and  the  Opposition  wishing  to  drive 
matters  to  a  ciisis,  seceded  from  the  House. 
It  had  become  obvious  that  he  most  declare 
war  or  resign.  He  chose  the  former  course 
(1739).  The  war  was  disastrous.  [Georob 
II.]  In  Feb.,  1741,  Mr.  Sandys  proposed 
that  he  should  be  removed  from  the  king's 
councils.  The  motion  was  thrown  out ;  but 
in  the  following  year  Walpole,  taking  his 
defeat  on  the  Qiippenham  election  petition 
(Feb.  2,  1745)  as  a  test,  resigned.  He  was 
created  Lord  Orford.  In  March  a  secret 
committee  of  inquiry  against  him  was  chosen ; 
but  in  spite  of  its  animosity  it  failed  to  bring 
any  but  the  most  trivial  charges  against  the 
ex-minister.  He  seldom  spoke  in  the  Lords, 
having,  as  he  remarked  to  his  brother  Horace, 
"  left  his  tongue  in  the  Commons."  In  1745 
he  died,  having  retained  his  influence  with 
the  king  to  the  last.  Walpole's  character  was 
exposed  to  the  most  violent  misrepresentation 
from  his  contemporaries.  His  jealousy  of 
power  made  almost  every  eminent  man  of 
the  age  his  enemy ;  while  the  corruption 
by  which   he   maintained   his  position  and 


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debauched  the  House  of  Commons  is  indis- 
putable. But  to  him  are  due  the  completion  of 
the  Revolution  settlement,  and  the  preserva- 
tion of  peace  at  a  time  when  peace  was  most 
required  by  England.  "  He  understood," 
says  Lord  Stanhope,  **  the  true  interest  of  his 
country  better  than  any  of  his  contem- 
poraries." "The  prudence,  steadiness,  and 
vigilance  of  that  man,"  says  Burke  {Appeal 
fiwn  the  New  Whiffs,  &c.),  "preserved  the 
crown  to  this  royal  family,  and  with  it  their 
laws  and  liberty  to  this  country." 

Coze,  Memoirt  of  Sir  Robert  WalpdU  ;  Balph, 
Criiieal  History  ofiA>rd  IKalpoU**  AdmimeiraUon  ; 
Horaoe  Wali>ole,B«iniiiueineM;  Stanhope,  Hist 
0/  Eng. ;  Lecky,  Hitt,  of  Bng,  in  ih$  SiqhtemUh 
Century ;  Macnulay,  Essay  on  Eoraes  WalpoU ; 
EwalcU  Sir  £.  WabpoU  ;  John  Morl^,  IFolpoU. 

Walpole»  Horace,  Earl  of  Orford 
rj.  1717,  d.  1797),  was  the  third  son  of  Sir 
Kobert  Walpole,  and  the  nephew  of  Lord 
Walpole.  In  1741  ho  entered  Parliament 
for  Calling^n,  but  he  never  took  a  prominent 
part  in  debate.  In  1757  he  exerted  himself 
m  favour  of  Admiral  Byng.  He  remained  in 
Parliament  till  1768.  In  1791  he  succeeded 
his  nephew  in  the  family  title  and  estates ; 
but  never  took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords. 
80  far  as  he  had  any  political  feeling  at  all, 
he  was  inclined  to  a  speculative  Republican- 
ism. As  a  man  of  letters,  virtuoeo,  novelist, 
critic,  and  retailer  of  public  and  private 
gossip,  Horace  Walpole  is  one  of  the  most 
characteristic  figures  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. His  Memoira  of  the  last  ten  years  of 
George  II.'s  reign,  though  inaccurate  and  pre- 
judiced, contain  a  good  deal  of  information, 
and  his  letters  (which  are  among  the  most  en- 
tertaining in  the  language)  are  very  valuable 
for  the  insight  they  give  into  the  social  his- 
tory of  the  century.  Walpole*s  work.  Historic 
Doubts  on  the  Life  and  Reign  of  Richard  III,, 
is  curious  and  acute. 

Walpole,  Wovks,  1792,  and  CorretpofMUnM, 
1840  ;  Lord  Dover,  Lt/e,  prefixed  to  the  Lett«ra 
to  Sir  H.  Mann ;  Macauloy,  Essays ;  Scott,  Lives 
cf  the  NovsUets ;  L.  B.  Seeley,  H.  Walpole  and 
hisWoHd. 

Walsintfliaiiiy  Sir  Francis  (b.  1536, 
d.  1690),  "The  most  penetrating  statesman 
of  his  time,"  was  bom  at  Chislehurst,  in 
Kent,  and  passed  most  of  his  youth  abroad. 
On  his  return  to  England,  after  the  accession 
of  Queen  Elizabeth,  his  abilities  and  accom- 
plishments recommended  him  to  the  notice 
of  Lord  Burleigh,  who  sent  him  to  the 
court  of  France  as  ambassador,  in  which 
capacity  he  showed  great  "  fidelity,  diligence, 
and  caution."  In  1573  Sir  Francis  was  re- 
called, sworn  of  the  Privy  Council,  and  made 
one  of  the  principal  secretaries  of  state, 
devoting  himself  especially  from  this  date  to 
the  unravelling  of  the  numerous  plots  against 
the  queen  and  her  government.  His  system 
of  espionage  wa8  most  elaborate,  and  his  spies 
were  active,  faithful,  and  ubiquitous.  In  1581 
he  was  employed  to  negotiate  the  proposed 


marriage  between  Elizabeth  and  the  Duke  of 
Anjou,  but  failed  to  bring  the  matter  to  1 
successful  issue,  through  the  caprice  of  the 
queen  herself.    Two  years  later  Walnngfam 
was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Scotland,  and  inb- 
sequently  had  the  satisfaction   of  detecting 
Babington's  conspiracy  and    of  implicating 
in  it  tiie  Queen  of  Scots.     That  Sir  Francis 
was  her  enemy  there  is  no  doubt,  but  it 
is  unlikely  that  he  forged  any  of  the  lettos 
produced  in  evidence,  as  Mary  declared,  and 
nis    reputed    letter    to    Sir    Amyas  Pankt, 
urging  him  **  to  find  out  some  way  to  fihortts 
the  life  of  the  Scots  queen,*'  is  most  probably 
a  f orger>\     He  was  subsequently  the  means 
of  preventing  a  breach  between  Elizabeth  and 
James  YI.     Sir  Francis,  who  was  a  staonch 
Protestant,  and  a  thoroughly  religioos  msn, 
did  his  best  to  procure    toleration  for  tin 
Puritans ;  he   "  has    the  honour  of  baring 
sustained  and  oemented  the  Protestant  cast 
in  times  of  its  greatest  peril,  and  of  baring 
effectually  ruined  the  interests  of  poper}'  ^ 
detecting  and  baflSing  all  its  plota'*    Tbf 
integ^ty  of  his  character  was  such  tbst  vith 
every  fo^cility  for  amassing  wealth  in  an  age  f^ 
corruption,  he  died  so  poor  as  to  leare  barelj 
enough  to  defray  the  expenses  of  his  burial 
A  biogprapher  of  the  following  century  (Uord, 
says  of  him,  **  His  head  was  so  strong  tbit 
he  could  look  into  the  depths  of  men  and 
business,  and  dive  into  the  whirlpools  of  stat». 
Dexterous  he  was  in  finding  a  secret;  close  in 
keeping  it.    His  conversation  was  insinuatini; 
and  reserved ;  he  saw  ever^'  man,  and  none 
saw  him.*' 

StiyBep  Bcdss.  Memorials;  WaUinghem  ^t- 
responaenes;  Nares,  Memoirs  of  BitrlAfk: 
Froude,  Hut  0/  Bnq. ;  Aikin,  Memcin  ci  tk 
Court  qf  EUsaheth;  Lloyd,  Stalesms*  snd  Fsr 
vourites  of  England,  1065. 

WaLnnghaaif  Tuoicas  op  (/.  1440), 

a  monk  of^^t.  Albans,  and  for  some  time 
Prior  of  Wymondham,  wrote  two  most  valo. 
able  historical  works,  Hietoria  BrttiSy  &  ^ 
tory  of  England  from  1272  to  1422,  and 
Tpodiffma  Neustria,  a  history  of  Normandr 
from  Rolf  to  Henry  V.  He  is  very  import- 
ant for  the  reigns  of  Richard  H  and 
Henry  IV.  and  V.,  and  gives  us  valnabk 
accounts  of  Wycliffe  and  the  Lollards,  tbt 
Peasant  Revolt,  and  the  French  wan  d 
Henry  V.*s  reign. 

Both  WalsinybaTn's  works  liar«  been  pa^ 
liahed  in  the  BoUs  Series. 

Walter,  Hubert,  Archbishop  of  Cin- 
terbury  (1193—1206),  and  justiciar  (1194- 
1198),  was  a  nephew  of  Ranulf  Glanvill  (q.y) 
and  first  came  into  prominence  during  Kin^ 
Richard's  captivity.  He  had  accompanied 
the  king  on  his  crusade,  and  on  his  v*T 
homewaras,  hearing  that  Richard  bad  bees 
tfl^en  prisoner,  he  visited  him.  The  ^ 
sent  him  over  to  England  to  act  ss  vicegfnstf 
in  his  absence,  to  counteract  the  intrigae«  d 
John,  and  raise  the  ransom,  while  at  the  auBe 


Wal 


(  1061  } 


Waa 


time  he  used  his  influence  to  obtain  Hubert's 
election  to  the  archbishopric.  In  1194  he  was 
appointed  justiciar,  and  held  that  office  for 
four  years,  governing  well  and  vigorously, 
his  most  important  work  being  the  repres- 
sion of  the  insurrection  of  William  Fits- 
Osbert  His  expedition  against  the  Welsh 
called  down  a  reprimand  from  the  Pope,  a 
fact  which  shows  that  the  age  of  fighting 
bishops  was  almost  over.  On  the  death  of 
Richard,  Hubert  supported  the  claims  of 
John  to  the  throne,  and  was  by  him  appointed 
chancellor.  Hubert  Walter  is  a  favourable 
specimen  of  the  statesman-ecclesiastic  of  the 
middle  ages,  and  it  is  in  the  former  light 
that  he  more  frequently  appears.  "  He  was 
a  strong  minister,'*  says  tfr.  Stubbs,  "and 
although  as  a  g^ood  Englishman  he  made  the 
pressure  of  his  master's  hand  lie  as  light  as  he 
could  upon  the  people,  as  a  good  servant  he 
tried  to  get  out  of  the  people  as  much  treasure 
as  he  could  for  his  master.  In  the  raising  of 
the  money  and  in  the  administration  of  justice 
he  tried  and  did  much  to  train  the  people  to 
habits  of  self-government.  He  taught  them 
how  to  assess  their  taxes  by  jury,  to  elect  the 
grand  jury  for  the  assizes  of  the  judges,  to 
choose  representative  knights  to  transact 
legal  and  judicial  work — such  representative 
knights  as  at  a  later  time  made  convenient 
precedents  for  Parliamentary  representation. 
The  whole  working  of  elective  and  represen- 
tative institutions  gained  greatly  unaer  his 
management.  He  educated  the  people  against 
the  better  time  to  come." 

Hook,  Livw  of  the  Archbi$hopa  ;  B.  Hoveden 
(Bolls  Series). 

Walter,  Siu  John  {d.  1630),  was  attomey- 
.general  to  Prince  Charles  in  1619,  but  refused 
to  conduct  the  prosecution  against  Sir  E. 
Coke.  Notwithstanding  this,  he  was  made 
Chief  Baron  of  the  Exchequer  by  Charles 
I.  in  1626.  He  showed  considerable  inde- 
pendence and  spirit  in  the  exercise  of  his 
j  udlcial  functions,  and  in  1 629  gave  his  opinion 
a^^ainst  Holies,  and  other  members  of  Par- 
liament, being  prosecuted  for  acts  done  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  For  this  the  king  pro- 
hibited his  taking  his  seat  on  the  bench, 
though  he  nominally  held  his  office  till  his 
death. 

WalterSf  Lucy  (d,  16SZ),  was  the  daughter 
of  a  Welsh  gentleman,  ana  in  1648  became 
the  mistress  of  Charles  II.,  by  whom  she  was 
the  mother  of  James,  Buke  of  Monmouth. 
She  lived  with  Charles  in  Holland.  In  16d6 
she  came  over  to  England,  where  she  was  im- 
prisoned in  the  Tower,  but  shortly  afterwards 
released.  After  this  little  or  nothing  is  known 
of  her.  When  Monmouth  put  forward  his 
claims  to  the  throne  it  was  contended  by  his 
adherents  that  his  mother  had  been  secretly 
married  to  Charles  II.,  but  of  this  asser- 
tion no  proof  was  forthcoming,  and  Mon- 
XDOuth  himself  subsequently  reteicted  it. 


Waltheof  (d.  1076)  was  a  powerful  noble- 
man, the  son  of  Siward.  After  the  battle  of 
Hastings  he  submitted  to  William  the  Con- 

Sueror,  and  was  allowed  to  retain  his  eai'l- 
om  of  Northampton.  Subsequently  he  re- 
belled, but  was  forgiven,  retained  in  his 
earldom,  and  married  to  the  Conqueror's 
niece,  Judith.  In  1076  he  joined  in  the 
conspiracy  of  the  Earls  of  Hereford  and  Nor- 
folk, with  the  intention  of  restoring  the  state 
of  tilings  which  had  existed  in  Edward  the 
Confessor's  time.  What  Waltheof's  share  in 
this  plot  was  is  very  doubtful;  probably  it 
was  no  more  than  a  tacit  acquiescence.  Wlien 
the  rebellion  broke  out  he  betrayed  the  plot 
to  Lanfranc,  and  was  for  the  moment  par- 
doned, but  shortly  afterwards  he  was  executed 
at  Winchester,  it  is  said  at  the  instigation  of 
his  wife.  His  body  was  removed  to  Croy- 
land,  where  miracles  were  said  to  be  worked 
at  his  tomb.  The  English  looked  upon  Wal- 
theof  as  a  martyr,  and  the  later  troubles  of 
William's  reign  were  considered  by  them  to  be 
judgments  on  him  for  the  murder  of  the  earl. 

Orderlcos   VitalJs;   AnglO'Saxon     Chronicle  ^ 
Freeman,  Norman  Conqueat, 

Walwoxtlly  Sia  William,  a  citizen  of 
London,  was  appointed  with  John  Philipot  in 
1377  by  Parliament  to  regulate  the  finances. 
In  1381  he  was  Lord  Mayor  of  London,  and 
attended  the  young  king  at  his  conference 
with  Wat  Tyler  and  the  other  insurgents. 
Fearinff  that  Tyler  was  about  to  attack 
Bachard,  Walworth  slew  the  rebel  leader,  for 
which  feat  he  received  the  honour  of  knight- 
hood. 

Waasborongh.  (Wodnbsbeorh),  on  the 
Wiltshire  Downs,  near  Swindon,  was  the 
scene  of  two  important  battles  in  Anglo- 
Saxon  history— one  in  591,  in  which  Ceaw- 
lin  of  Wessex  was  defeated  by  his  brother 
Ceol ;  the  other  in  715,  when  Ine  repulsed 
the  Mercians. 

Waadewashf  The  Battlb  op  (Jan.  22, 
1760),  was  fought  during  the  Seven  Years' 
War  between  the  French  and  English. in 
India.  The  two  armies  of  Lally  and 
Coote  encountered  each  other  near  Wande- 
wash.  The  English  had  1,900  Europeans 
and  2,100  native  infantry,  with  1,250  native 
cavalry,  and  16  field  pieces ;  the  French  2,250 
native  cavalry,  and  1,300  sepoys,  besides 
their  Mahratta  horse,  with  twenty  field  pieces. 
The  forces  were  therefore  pretty  equal. 
After  a  brilliant  combat,  the  French,  who 
had  suffered  very  severely,  retreated.  If  the 
English  native  horse  had  done  their  duty, 
the  defeat  might  have  been  even  more  deci- 
sive. 

Wanton.  Valentine  (<f.  1661),  married 
a  sister  of  C5liver  Cromwell,  and  joined  the 
Parliamentary  cause  in  the  Ci^'il  War.  In 
1646  he  was  made  a  colonel,  and  in  1648  was 
appointed  one  of  the  members  of  the  High 


Wap 


(  1062  ) 


War 


Court  of  Justice  to  try  the  king.    He  was 

S resent  at  all  the  sittings,  and  signed  the 
eath  warrant.  In  1649  he  was  made  one  of 
the  Council  of  State,  but  his  stem  Kepublican 
views  did  not  recommend  him  to  Cromwell, 
and  after  the  dissolution  of  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment he  retired  into  private  life  till  Richard 
Cromwell*s  deposition,  when  he  declared  for 
the  Parliament  against  the  army,  and  joined 
Monk.  Perceiving  that  the  Restoration  was 
inevitable,  he  withdrew  to  the  Continent, 
where  he  remained  in  disguise  till  his  death. 

Wapentake  is  a  name  of  Danish  origin, 
and  is  only  found  in  the  districts  occupied  by 
the  Danes,  where  it  answers  to  the  Hundred 
(q.v.)  of  other  parts  of  the  kingdom.^ 
Stnbbt,  Contt.  HiiL,  i.  §  45. 

Warbecky  Pe&kin  {d.  1499),  was  the 
name  of  one  of  the  most  celebrated  impos- 
tors in  histor}',  who,  for  several  3'^ears  during 
the  reign  of  Uenry  YII.,  succeeded  in  per- 
suading many  persons  that  he  was  Richard, 
Duke  of  York,  the  younger  of  the  two  princes 
generally  supposed  to  have  been  murdered  in 
the  Tower  under  Richard  III.  According  to 
the  story  of  the  writers  under  the  Tudors, 
he  was  in  reality  the  son  of  a  Jew  of  Tour- 
nay,  who  settled  in  London  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  IV.,  and  afterwards  returned  to 
Toumay.  The  lad  after  his  father*s  death 
went  to  Antwerp,  and  came  into  communica- 
tion with  agents  of  the  Duchess  Margaret  of 
Burgundy,  who,  struck  by  his  noble  de- 
meanour and  resemblance  to  the  Yorkist 
family,  conceived  the  design  of  bringing  him 
up  as  a  pretender  to  the  English  throne. 
This  story  is  borne  out  by  Warbeck*s  own 
Confesii&nf  and  by  a  letter  of  Henry  VII.  to 
Sir  Gilbert  Talbot  as  early  as  1593.  Some 
writers,  however,  are  still  inclined  to  believe 
the  very  plausible  hypothesis  that  he  was  a 
natural  son  of  Edward  TV.  The  mystery  can 
hardly  be  completely  solved.  The  history  of 
Wai'beck^s  proceedings  is  briefly  this.  In  1492 
he  made  his  appearance  in  Cork  as  Richard 
Plantagenet,  Duke  of  York,  and  obtained 
a  reception  so  encouraging  to  his  hopes  of 
success,  that  Charles  VIII.  of  France  thought 
it  well  to  specially  invite  him  to  take  up  his 
residence  at  Paris.  He  did  not,  however, 
have  any  long  enjoyment  of  the  French 
king's  protection  and  hospitality,  for  Henry 
made  it  a  special  article  of  the  treaty  con- 
cluded at  Estaples  in  the  autumn  of  1492 
that  no  further  shelter  or  assistance  should 
be  given  to  Warbeck.  Flanders  was  the  pre- 
tender's next  ref  age,  and  here  he  received  a 
most  cordial  welcome  from  Margaret,  Duchess 
of  Burgundy,  who  acknowled^d  him  at  once 
as  her  nephew,  honouring  him  on  all  occa- 
sions with  the  title  of  the  '*  White  Rose  of 
England."  Warbeck's  arrival  in  Flanders 
was  the  signal  for  the  commencement  of  a 
vast  system  of  conspiracy  in  England  against 


Henry's  life  and  authority ;  but  the  kind's 
resolute  caution,  and  the  zealous  activity  of 
his  spies,  conspicuous  among  whom  vas  Sir 
Robert  Clifford,  proved  more  than  a  matd 
for  the  efforts  of  his  enemies.    Sir  WilHun 
Stanley,  Lord  Fitzwalter,  Sir  Simon  MtsAr 
fort,  all  prominent  adherents  of  Warbeck, 
were  brought  to  the  block ;  and  the  pretended 
Duke  of  York,  forced  by  these  occunencA 
into  a  display  of  decided  action,  made  is 
July,  1495,  a  hurried  descent  upon  the  ctaa 
of  Kent.    This,  however,  was  a  misenUr 
failure,  ending  in  the  capture  on  Deal  badi 
of  a  portion  of  his  troops  by  the  people  of 
Sandwich.     This  experience  of  the  fcelm^  of 
the  country  for  his  cause  drove  Warbcvk 
in  despair   to   Flanders;  but  the  commer- 
cial treaty  concluded  in  Feb.,  1496,  betvitn 
Henry  and  Philip,  Duke  of  Burgundy,  ex- 
pressly  stipulating  for  his  expulsion,  the  im- 
postor, after  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  make 
a  settlement  in  Ireland,  crossed  over  thenc« 
to  Scotland.    Here  his  fortimes  began  for  & 
time  to  look  somewhat  brighter:  the  Scot- 
tish monarch  received  him  as  Richard  IV^ 
the  lawful  King  of  England,  and,  as  a  rery 
practical  proof  the  sincerity  of  his  heHef  ia 
his  pretensions,  bestowed  upon  him  in  mar- 
riage a  kinswoman  of  his  own,  the  IMx 
Catherine  Gordon.    Two  fruitless  invao'  ns 
of  England,  and  probably,  too,  the  inflncsi-e 
of  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  tended  to  greatly  cod 
James  IV.'s  affection  for  Warbeck's  caose. 
and  in  July,  1497,  he  requested  him  to  leave 
the  counti^.    Thus  once  again  abandoned  It 
his   friends,  Warbeck    found   a   temponir 
refuge  in  the  wilds  and  fastnesses  of  Ireland, 
which,  however,  he  left  on  receiving  an  invi- 
tation from  the  people  of  Devon  and  Coin- 
wall  to  make  another  attempt  in  England. 
He  landed   accordingly  at  Whitsand,  ntar 
Penzance,  Sopt.  27,  1497,  and,  after  captuim^ 
St.   Michael's    Mount,  laid   active  siege  to 
Exeter.    On  the  approach,  however,  of  the 
royal  forces  under  Lord  Daubeny,  Warbeck 
retired  to  Taunton,  whence,   in  despair  of 
success,  he  withdrew  secretly  to  the  sanctuair 
of  Beaulicu,  in  the  New  Forest.    Here,  oa 

Sromise  of  his  life  being  spared,  he  snrren- 
ered  himself,  Oct.*  5,  to  Lord  Daubeny.  by 
whom  he  was  despatched  a  prisoner  to  Lon- 
don. For  a  time  Warbeck  was  treated  with 
marked  leniency,  but  on  his  attempting  to 
escape  in  June,  1498,  he  was  at  once  placed 
in  close  confinement  in  the  Tower;  and 
towards  the  end  of  the  following  yetr,  ifl 
Nov.,  1499,  he  was  executed,  in  companv 
with  his  fellow-prisoner,  the  young  Earl  of 
Warwick,  on  a  charge  of  again  attemptm? 
to  escape,  and  of  having  conspired  vitli 
Warwick  and  others,  as  a  part  of  ^ 
plan,  to  get  forcible  possession  of  tbr 
Tower. 

Bacon,  Ljf9  0/  H«»ry  VU,;  Bay,  ^9ti»J^ 
torique$ 9t  Critiqyut  *ur  Biehard  JII.  (Puis.  ^Sa,] 
Qaixdner,  Lif^  and  JMgn  of  JKekanl  UL 


Wax 


(  1053  ) 


War 


WardSy  The  Covkt  of,   was  a  court  of 
record  founded  by  32  Hen.  VIIT.,  c.  46,  for 
the  survey  and  management  of  the  rights  of 
the  crown  over  its  wards.     Being  Joined  to 
the  Court  of  Liveries  by  33  Hen.  VlII.,  ch. 
22,  it  was  called  the  Court  of  Wards  and 
Liveries.    The  seal  of  the  C!ourt  was  kept  by 
its  chief  officer,  the  Master  of  Wards.     Its 
province  was  to  see  that  the  king  had  the  full 
profits  of  tenure,  arising  from  the  custody  of 
the  heirs  of  his  tenants  being  infants  or  idiots, 
from  the  licences  and  fines  for  the  marriage 
of  the  kings'  widows,  and  from  the  sums  paid 
for  livery  of  seisin  by  the  heir  on  cutting 
on  his  estate.     A  Court    of  Wards  estab- 
lished in  Ireland  by  James  I.  compelled  all 
heirs  in  the  king*s  custody  to  be  educated 
as  Protestants,  and   enforced    the    oath    of 
supremacy    as    a    condition    of    livery    of 
seisin.     !rhe    jurisdiction   of   the    Court  of 
Wards    was  unduly  extended,  and  became 
very  oppressive  under  the  first  two  Stuart 
kiDgs.     On  Feb.  24,  1645,  the  House  of  Com- 
mons ^*  passed  a  vote  that  the  Court  of  Wards 
itself,  and  all  wardships,  tenures,  licences  for 
alienation,  &c.,  should  be  taken  away;**  and 
the    lords    concurred  therein.      The  -Court 
was  finally  abolished  by  the  statute,  12  Car. 
ii.,  ch.  24,  which  destroyed  military  tenures. 

Beeve!!.  Hut.  of  the  Engliah  Laio,  iii. ;  White- 
locke,  MemoridU;  Stephen,  Commentarin,  U., 
oh.  2.  [W.  H.] 

WarcUdiip  ranked  as  one  of  the  Feudal 
Incidents,  and  consisted  in  the  right  of  the 
lord,  if  the  heir  were  under  age  on  the  death 
of  the  ancestor,  to  the  custody  of  the  land  and 
the  person.  This  right,  which  was  obviously 
capable  of  great  abuse,  was  carefully  limited 
by  Magna  Charta.     [Feudalism.] 

^7 a r ham,  William,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  {d.  1532),  was  highly  distin- 
^ruished  among  the  many  prelates  who 
favoured  the  spread  of  the  new  learning  in 
Eng^land.  Among  his  protigca  was  Erasmus, 
who  speaks  of  him  in  tem^s  of  great  regard. 
Warham  was  made  Keeper  of  the  Great  Seal 
(1502),  and  Lord  Chancellor  (1503),  an  ofiice 
in  which  he  was  continued  by  Henry  YIII. 
[n  the  following  year  he  became  successively 
liishop  oi  London  and  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
iury.  The  chief  event  of  his  primacy  was 
in  inquiry  into  the  condition  of  the  mon- 
.stcHes  'with  a  view  to  their  reform.  In  1515 
e  reaif^Tved.  the  chancellorship  on  account  of 
omo  difference  with  Wolsey,  then  Archbiahop 
f  York.  We  subsequently  find  him  uom- 
lonting^  adversely  on  the  cardinal's  severe 
Lxation.  The  growing  opposition  to  Rome 
reiitly  alarmed  him ;  and  when  the  clergy 
ok  the  g^rave  stop  of  acknowledging  that 
C3y  coixld.  not  legislate  without  the  consent 
J'arliaizient,he  resigned  office,  and  not  long 
Ajr'wards  died. 

Hook*  XtvM  of  the  ^rchbuKopt  o/ Cantarbtiry. 

William  DE  (d.  1087),  a  Nor- 


man baron,  distantly  related  to  the  Con- 
queror, was  one  of  the  commanders  at  the 
battle  of  Hastings,  and  in  1073  was  appointed 
regent  of  the  kingdom  in  William's  absence. 
He  assisted  William  Ruf  us  against  Robert,  and 
died  shortly  after  the  coronation  of  the  former. 

Warrexm69  John,  Earl  of  {d.  1304),  waa 
an  adherent  of  the  king  in  the  early  part 
of  the  Barons*  War,  and  fought  on  the 
Royalist  side  at  Lewes.  Subsequently  he 
quarrelled  with  the  king,  and  assaulted  the 
royal  justiciary  in  Westminster  Hall  in  1268. 
He  retired  to  his  estates  in  Surrey,  and 
fortified  his  castle  of  Reigate  against  Prince 
Edward  in  1268,  but  was  compelled  to  sur- 
render. He  did  not,  however,  entirely  forfeit 
Edward's  favour.  He  bore  a  conspicuous 
part  in  the  Scottish  wars,  and  was  appointed 
Guardian  of  Scotland  in  1296.  In  1297  he 
was  in  command  of  the  army  which  was  de- 
feated by  Wallace  at  Stirling.  He  sided  with 
the  baronial  party  in  the  disputes  which  led 
to  the  confirmation  of  the  charters,  and  in  the 
Parliament  of  Lincoln  (1301). 

Warrenney  John,  Ea&l  {d.  1347),  a 
powerful  member  of  the  old  aristocracy, 
maintained  an  independent  attitude  dur- 
ing the  troubles  of  Edward  II.'s  reign. 
He  did  not  oppose  Gaveston  at  first,  and 
although  he  subsequently  joined  in  the 
attack  on  the  Despencers,  he  was  faithful  to 
the  king  at  Boroughbridge,  as  well  as  after 
the  landing  of  Mortimer  and  Isabella.  He  was 
subsequently  appointed  one  of  the  Council  of 
Regency  during  Edward  III.*s  minority. 

Warrington,  Tkb  Town  op,  near  Liver- 
pool, was  an  object  of  contention  more  than 
once  by  the  rival  parties  in  the  Great  Re- 
bellion. In  the  summer  of  1643  it  was  be- 
sieged and  taken  by  the  Parliamentarians, 
and  in  1648  the  Scots  were  defeated  there  by 
General  Lambert  after  a  severe  tussle.  Again, 
in  1651,  it  was  the  scene  of  a  partial  success 
gained  by  Charles  II.  over  the  forces  of  the 
Commonwealth.  An  attempt  was  made  to 
chock  the  Young  Pretender  s  army  there  in 
1745,  but  it  was  foiled  by  the  activity  of  the 
rebels. 

Warwick  was  probably  one  of  the 
capitals  of  the  Mercian  kings.  Destroyed  by 
the  Danes,  it  was  rebuilt  by  Ethelfieda,  the 
**  Lady  of  the  Mercians,**  who  built  a  fortress 
there  in  913.  It  appescrs  as  a  borough  in 
Domesday.  The  castle  was  repaired  and  en- 
larged under  William  the  Conqueror.  It 
sent  members  to  Parliament  from  the  reign 
of  Edward  I.  onwards,  but  was  not  regularly 
incorporated  till  the  reign  of  Philip  and  Mary. 

Warwick,  Peerage  of.  The  Earldom 
of  Warwick  appears  to  have  been  first  con- 
ferred on  Roger  de  Bellomonte,  who  received 
the  title  from  William  the  Conqueror,  and 
died  in  1123.  In  the  thirteenth  century  the 
dignity  passed  by  marriage  into  the  family 


War 


(  1054  ) 


War 


of  the  Marischals,  EarlB  of  Pembroke,  and 
subeequently  by  Wiliiam  de  Mauduit,  from 
whom  it  descended  in  1267  to  William  de 
Beauchamp.  In  1449  Richard  Neville,  eldest 
son  of  Richard,  Earl  of  Salisbury,  married 
Anne,  the  heiress  of  the  Beauchamp  estates, 
and  was  created  Earl  of  Warwick.  In  1471, 
on  the  attainder  of  the  Earl  after  the  battle 
of  Bamet,  the  dignity  was  conferred  on  the 
Duke  of  Clarence,  who  had  married  his 
daughter  Isabella.  His  son  bore  the  title, 
but  it  became  extinct  on  his  execution  in 
1499.  In  1547  it  was  revived  for  John 
Dudley,  afterwards  Duke  of  Northumberland, 
and  was  also  homo  by  his  son  Ambrose 
Dudley,  on  whose  death  in  1590,  it  became 
extinct.  It  was  revived  in  1618,  and  con- 
ferred on  Robert,  Lord  Rich.  It  became 
extinct  in  this  family  in  1759.  It  was  revived 
the  same  year  for  Francis  Greville,  Earl 
Brooke,  whose  descendants  have  since  borne 
the  titles  of  Brooke  and  Warwick. 

Warwick,  Ambrose  Dudley,  Eabl  of 
{d.  1590),  son  of  the  Duke  of  Northumberland, 
was  brought  to  trial,  and  condemned  (1553) 
for  his  participation  in  his  father's  plot,  but 
was  not  executed.  In  1563  he  was  in  com- 
mand of  the  English  garrison  at  Havre  when 
it  was  forced  to  surrender;  and  after  his 
return  to  England  was  proposed  by  Elizabeth 
as  a  husband  for  the  Queen  of  Scots.  In  the 
rebellion  of  1569,  he  was  in  command  of 
some  of  the  royal  forces,  and  aided  materially 
in  crushing  the  insurrection.  **  He  appears," 
says  Miss  Aikin,  **  to  have  preserved  through 
life  the  character  of  a  man  of  honour,  and  a 
brave  soldier." 

Aikin,  Court  of  q^en^  Elitahelh. 

Warwick,  Edward  Plantagenbt,  Eabl 
OF  {d.  1499),  was  the  son  of  George, 
Duke  of  Clarence,  brother  of  Edward  Iv., 
by  Anne,  sister  of  the  Earl  of  Warwick, 
known  as  the  Kingmaker.  After  the  exe- 
cution of  his  father,  in  1478  the  young 
earl  was  kept  in  honourable  confinement  at 
the  castle  of  Sheriff-Hutton,  in  Yorkshire  until 
Henr}''s  accession  to  the  throne  in  1485,  when 
the  earl's  Yorkist  blood,  and  the  strong  claims 
it  gave  him  to  the  crown  of  England,  made  it 
a  very  obvious  necessity  on  the  new  king's 
part  to  have  him  placed  in  the  more  secure 
prison  of  the  Tower  of  London.  From  this 
prison  ho  never  again  emerged  except  on  two 
occasions,  viz.,  in  1487,  when  he  was  paraded 
through  the  principal  streets  of  London  to 
disprove  the  imposture  of  Lambert  Simnel, 
and  in  1499,  when  he  was  beheaded  on  a 
charge  of  being  concerned  with  Perkin  War- 
beck  (q.v,),  then  also  a  prisoner  in  the  Tower, 
in  a  conspiracy  to  get  forcible  possession  of 
the  Tower,  and  effect  the  overthrow  of  Henry's 
government. 

Warwick,  Guy,  Earl  op  {d.  1316),  dis- 
tinguished himself  in  the  Scottish  wars  in 
Edward  I.'s  time.    In  the  next  reign  he  took 


a  prominent  part  in  the  oppoeition  to  (Savestoo, 
and  was  one  of  the  ordainers  appointed  in 
1310.  In  1312  he  seized  Gaveston,  who  hsd 
given  him  mortal  insOlt  by  nicknsjming  him 
"The  Bkck  Dog  of  Arden,*'  as  he  was 
being  conducted  to  London  by  Pembroke,  and 
had  him  beheaded  without  trial.  Warwick 
died  shortly  afterwards — according  to  one 
account,  by  poison. 

Warwick,  Richa&d  Beauchamp,  Eaal 
OP  (b.  1381,  d,  1439),  son  of  Thomas  Bean- 
champ,  Earl  of  Warwick,  fought  cm  the 
RoyaHst  side  in  the  battle  of  Shrewsbury,  and 
distinguished  himself  in  the  Welsh  wara.  He 
was  appointed  governor  of  Henry  VI.  during 
his  childhood,  and  held  the  office  of  reigeot  (S 
France  from  1437  to  1439. 

Warwick,  Richard  Nbyills,  Eabx  or 
{b.  U2S,d.  1471),  was  the  son  of  Richard,  Eail 
of  Salisbury,  and  married  Anne,  daug'hta'  and 
heiress  of  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  with  whom 
he  received  the  title  as  well  as  the  estates  <^ 
the  Beauchamp  family.  He  thus  became  the 
owner  of  enormous  wealth  and  landed  pxo- 
pert^,  and  by  his  liberality  and  profuse 
hospitality  he  became  a  great  favourite  with 
the  people.  He  espoused  the  caose  of  the 
Duke  of  York,  with  whom  he  fought  at  the 
first  battle  of  St.  Albans  in  14d5.  In  the 
same  year  he  was  made  Captain  of  Oalais.  A 
quarrel  which  took  place  between  Warwick's 
retainers  and  some  of  the  king's  servants  in 
1469  led  to  a  renewal  of  the  Civil  War.  After 
the  affair  at  Ludford  he  fled  to  Calais,  and 
afterwards  joined  York  in  Ireland,  whiore  they 
arranged  a  plan  of  action,  aud  returning  to 
England  in  1460  defeated  the  lAncastrians  at 
Northampton,  and  took  the  king  jtrisoQer. 
After  the  battle  of  Wakefield,  Warwick 
attempted  to  intercept  Margarel*s  march  to 
London,  but  was  defeated  at  St.  Alhani. 
Retreating  with  a  considerable  force,  he 
effected  a  junction  with  Edward  at  Chipping- 
Norton,  and  returned  to  London,  when 
Edward  lY.  was  proclaimed  king.  Warwick 
took  part  in  the  battle  of  Towton,  and 
was  richly  rewarded  by  Edward,  reoeiviiig 
the  captaincy  of  Dover,  the  wardenahip  <Kf 
the  Scottish  marches,  the  offices  of  Lord 
Chamberlain  and  Steward,  with  large  grants 
of  forfeited  lands.  Warwick's  policy  was  to 
strengthen  the  new  dynasty  by  a  strict  and 
cordial  alliance  with  the  French  king,  and  for 
this  purpose  he  set  on  foot  n^potiati<ms  for 
marrying  Edward  to  Bona  of  Savoy,  sister  of 
Louis  ILI.  But  the  king  preferred  the 
alliance  of  Burgundy,  and  his  marriage  with 
Elizabeth  WoodviUe  entirely  upset  Warwick's 
plans.  The  ascendancy  of  the  Qne«i*s  kins- 
folk completed  Warwick's  estrangement,  and 
he  intrigued  with  Clarenoe,  who  in  14G9 
married  his  eldest  daughter  without  the  king's 
knowledge.  An  insurrection  in  Yorkshire 
now  induced  the  king  to  apply  for  help  to 
Warwick,  who  returned  from  Calais  but  for 


(  1066  ) 


tbo  purpose  of  destroying  the  power  of  the 
WoodvUles.    The  king  was  taken  prisoner. 
K,i  vers  and  Sir  John  Woodville  were  oeheaded, 
eund  for  a  time  the  government  was  completely 
in  MTarwick's  hanos.    But  in  1470  the  king 
escaped,  and  the  defeat  of  the  insurgents  at 
Loosecoat  Field  obliged  Warwick  once  more 
to  seek  refuge  at  Calais.    By  the  influence  of 
Xjouis  XI.  a  reconciliation  was  made  between 
Warwick  and  Queen  Margaret,  in  accordance 
vrith.  which  Warwick  invaded  England.     He 
was    joined  by  his  brother,  Montague,  and 
others,    whUe   Edward   fled    to    Burgundy. 
Henry  was  released    from  the  Tower,  and 
^Warwick  was  once  more  supreme.  But  in  the 
next  year  (H71)  Edward  returned,  was  joined 
by  Clarence,  and  entered  London.     Warwick 
"wsLS    encamped  at  Bamet,  and    here,  after 
a  hard-fought  battle,  he  was  defeated  and 
alain.      The  character  of  the  "last  of  the 
barons,"  or  the  '*  Kingpraaker,"  as  Warwick 
has  been  called,  was  in  some  respects  an  ex- 
aggeration of  the    ordinary    bofonial    type. 
But  as  a  politician  he  had  sagacity  and  fore- 
sight ;  and  he  was  a  skilful  waixior  and  mili- 
tary leader,  rather  of  the  modem  than  of  the 
modisBval   kind.      He    left    two   daughters, 
Isabella,  who  was  married  to  the  Duke  of 
Clarence ;  and  Anne,  married  first  to  Edward, 
son  of  Henry  YI.,  and  secondly  to  Hichard, 
Duko  of  Gloucester.     [Wabs  of  thb  Roses.] 

Coutinnator  of  the  Cropland  CfcrontcU; 
TVarkworth,  .Chronidi;  Paatcn  LetttrM,  with 
Gairdner'8  Introd. ;  Arrival  of  JBdward  IV. 
(Camden  See.):  Broogham,  Kng.  unAer  tk$ 
HouM  o/Lanaattar, 

Warwick,  Thomas  Beavchamp,  Earl  op 
{d.  1401),  was  appointed  Governor  to  Rich- 
ard II.  during  his  minority.  In  1386  he 
joined  Gloucester,  and  was  one  of  the  lords 
who  appealed  De  Yere,  and  the  other  royal 
ministers,  of  treason.  In  1397  he  was  ac- 
cused of  conspiring  with  Gloucester  against 
the  king,  and  condemned  to  death.  But 
having  confessed  his  guHt,  his  sentence  was 
commuted  to  exile,  and  he  was  banished  to 
the  Isle  of  Man.  On  the  deposition  of  Richard 
II.  he  was  released. 

Washingtoiif  founded  in  1790  as  the 
Federal  capital  of  the  United  States,  was 
attacked  by  the  English  during  the  American 
War  (1812—14).  A  body  of  troops  under 
General  Ross  was  landed  on  the  Chesapeake, 
while  a  fleet  under  Admiral  Ck>ckbum  assisted 
in  the  operations.  The  Americans  were  able 
to  offer  little  resistance  to  the  veterans  of  the 
Peninsula,  who  had  been  sent  straight  off 
from  Bordeaux  for  this  service.  The  town 
was  occupied  by  the  British,  and  though  there 
was  little  loss  of  life,  the  Capitol,  and  all  the 
public  buildings  and  offices,  were  destroyed ; 
an  act  which  caused  great  indignation  both  in 
America  and  Europe.  [Amebican  Wab.] 

Washington,  The  Treaty  op  (Mav  8, 
1871),  was  concluded  between  England  and  the 


United  States.  Its  provisions  were  that  a 
mixed  court  of  arbitrators  should  meet  to  ad  j  ust 
the  Alabama  claims  at  Geneva,  and  that  bv 
this  award  the  two  nations  should  be  bound, 
prescribing  ako  the  rules  in  accordance  with 
which  the  arbitrators  should  decide  on  their 
verdict ;  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  United 
States  diould  have  the  liberty  to  take  fish  of 
every  kind,  except  shell-fish,  on  the  sea-coasts 
and  shores  and. in  the  bays,  harbours,  and 
creeks  of  Quebec,  Nova  Scotia,  and  New 
Brunswick,  and  the  colony  of  Prince  Edwai-d^s 
Island,  and  of  the  various  islands  adjacent, 
with  permission  to  land  for  the  purpose  of 
dr^ng  their  nets  or  curing  their  fish ;  that 
this  liberty  should  only  extend  to  sea-fishing ; 
that  the  subjects  of  Great  Britain  should  have 
similar  rights  of  fishing  and  landing  on  the 
eastern  sea  coasts  and  shores  of  the  United 
States  north  of  the  39th  parallel ;  that  the 
navigation  of  the  River  St.  Lawrence,  its 
tributaries,  and  canals,  should  be  open  to 
the  subjects  of  the  United  States;  that  in 
return  the  Lake  Michigan,  and  the  canals 
between  it  and  the  Atlantic,  should  be  open  to 
British  subjects.  That  the  San  Juan  ques- 
tion should  be  decided  by  arbitration.  That 
this  treaty  should  last  for  ten  year8,and  should 
not  expire  after  that  time  until  two  3'ears 
have  elapsed  from  the  date  when  notice  of 
withdrawal  is  given  by  either  party.  In  ac- 
cordance with  this  treaty  the  Geneva  Com- 
mission of  Arbitrators  met  to  decide  the 
Alabama  claims,  and  the  San  Juan  question 
was  arbitrated  by  the  German  Emperor  Wil- 
liam, 1872.     [Geneva  Award.] 

Wa4diington,  George  {b.  1732,  d.  1799), 
distinguisheT  himself  at  the  age  of  nineteen, 
on  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  between  Eng- 
land and  France,  and  was  aide-de-camp  to 
General  Braddock  in  his  unsuccessful  ex- 
pedition against  Fort  Buquesne,  taking  part 
also  in  its  capture  in  1758.  Together  with 
Patrick  Henry,  he  represented  Virginia  at 
the  General  Congress  at  Virginia  in  1774, 
and  expressed  moderate  views  by  no  means 
favourable  to  secession.  On  the  outbreak  of 
the  war  he  was  chosen  commander-in-chief. 
This  is  the  place  for  the  very  briefest  account 
only  of  his  military  operations.  His  first 
great  success  was  in  compelling  the  English 
to  evacuate  Boston  in  March,  1776,  but  he 
was  defeated  at  Long  Island  by  Geneml 
Howe,  and  compelled  to  retreat  west  of  the 
Delaware.  A  succession  of  defeats,  notably 
one  at  Brandy  wine  in  Sept.,  1777,  followed 
two  slight  successes  at  Trenton  and  Prince- 
town,  but  they  were  more  than  compensated 
by  the  victory  of  Gates  at  Saratoga  (Oct., 
1777).  In  June,  1778,  he  fought  an  indecisive 
battle  at  Monmouth  Court  House.  During 
the  greater  part  of  1779  and  1780  he  remained 
inactive,  owing  to  the  weakness  of  his  army ; 
but  in  1781,  having  been  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  army  of  the  South,  he  was 


Wat 


(  1056  ) 


Wat 


enabled  to  direct  the  important  operations  of 
Green  and  Morgan,  which  resulted  in  the 
collapse  of  the  British  attack,  and  the  sur- 
render of  Lord  C!omwallis.  On  the  conclusion 
cf  peace,  Washington  resigned  his  commission 
to  Congress,  and  retired  to  his  farm.  He 
was,  however,  in  1787,  ejected  President  of  the 
National  Convention  at  Philadelphia,  which 
remodelled  the  constitution.  Two  years  later 
he  was  elected  President  of  the  United  States, 
and  again  in  1792.  Perhaps  the  most  dis- 
tinguishing feature  in  his  tenure  of  office 
was  the  skill  with  which  he  kept  America 
clear  of  the  complications  created  by  the 
French  Revolution.  In  1794  hostilities 
seemed  imminent  with  England,  but  Wash- 
ington averted  them  by  sending  John  Jay  to 
London  on  a  special  mission,  and  two  years 
later  negotiated  a  commercial  treaty.  He 
declined  to  be  nominated  for  the  presidency 
a  third  time.  Just  before  his  death,  when 
war  with  France  seemed  at  hand,  he  was  ap- 
pointed commander-in-chief. 

Sparks,  Li^a  and  Wviiingt  of  fTcwhmyton,  12 
vols.,  and  Diplomatic  History  qf  the  Amtrioan  JZ«- 
volution;  Bancroft,  Hi«t.  cf  America;  Qnizot, 
WaehiiiQioni  Washington  Irving,  JAf^  of 
IKashm^ton. 

Waterloo,  The  Battlb  op  (June  18, 
1815),  was  one  of  the  decisive  battles  in  history, 
since  it  closed  the  great  European  war  against 
France,  and  it  decided  the  fkte  of  Napoleon 
and  of  Europe.  In  June,  1815,  Napoleon 
crossed  the  Belgian  frontier.  Wellington's 
army  was  drawn  up  so  as  to  cover  Brussels,  in 
a  long  line  from  Cnarleroi  to  Antwerp.  The 
Prussians,  under  Blficher,  extended  eastward 
from  Charleroi  to  Li^ge.  Napoleon  attempted 
to  push  between  the  two  armies,  and  to  crush 
them  in  detail.  On  the  15th  he  attacked  the 
Prussians  at  Charleroi,  and  drove  them  back. 
On  the  16th  his  right  attacked  the  Prussians 
at  Ligny,  and,  after  a  hard  battle,  forced  them 
to  retreat.  Ney,  with  the  French  left,  at  the 
same  time  attacked  the  English  at  Quatre 
Bras.  After  fighting  all  day,  they  fell  back. 
The  English  slowly  retired  towards  Brussels 
on  the  1 7th.  Wellington,  relying  on  assistance 
from  Bliicher,  who  was  slowly  retreating  to- 
wards Wavre,  determined  to  fight  at  Waterloo. 
The  field  of  battle  consisted  of  two  low  lines 
of  hills,  running  parallel  to  one  another,  east 
and  west,  and  separated  by  a  valley  about 
half  a  mile  in  breadth.  Wellington  took  up  a 
position  on  the  northern  ridge,  about  twelve 
miles  south  of  Brussels,  wi&  the  Forest  of 
Soignies  in  his  rear,  the  centre  of  the  position 
being  the  hamlet  of  Mont  St.  Jean.  His  army 
was  drawn  up  in  two  lines.  On  the  extreme 
left  of  the  front  line  were  light  cavalry,  next  to 
them  were  the  fifth  and  fourth  Hanoverian 
brigades.  On  the  right  of  these  was  Bylandt^s 
Dutch  and  Belgian  infantrj',  with  Pack  and 
Kemp*s  brigades  on  their  right.  On  their  right, 
and  garrisoning  the  farm-buildings  of  La 
Haye  Sainte,  stood  the  Third  Division,  under 


Alten,  consisting  of  the  Kind's  German  legiosi, 
and  a  Hanoverian  brigade.  To  their  rigfatagain 
was  Halkett*s  brigade,  and  the  two  brig^uks 
of  the  Guards,  under  Maitland  and  B3'ng,  who 
held  the  farm  of  Hougoumont.  The  secGiid 
line  was  composed  entirely  of  cavalry,  the 
greatest  strength  being  concentrated  bdund 
the  centre,  resting  on  the  Charleroi  road ;  Lord 
Uxbridge  being  in  command  of  the  whole.  The 
French  on  the  opposite  ridge  were  drawn  up  in 
two  lines,  with  the  entire  Lnperial  Guard, 
cavalry,  and  infantry,  in  rear  of  the  centre 
as  a  reserve.  The  battle  began  at  ha]f-p«st 
eleven  by  a  fierce  attack  on  Hougoumont 
under  Jerome  :  but  though  the  French  woo. 
the  gardens  and  orchards,  they  could  not  drive 
the  Guards  from  the  buildings  themselves. 
As  this  attack  failed  in  its  main  object.  Napo- 
leon directed  a  grand  attack  on  the  left-centre 
of  the  allied  position.  As  the  columns  ap- 
proached, the  Dutch  and  Belgian  troope  fled 
m  panic ;  but  Picton,  with  the  3,000  men  vho 
formad  the  brigades  of  Pack  and  Kemp, 
seized  the  moment  when  the  French  halted  on 
the  brow  of  the  hill.  His  men  fired  a  volky 
at  thirty  yards'  distance,  and  then,  chaining, 
drove  the  columns  back  over  the  hilL  Mean- 
while Kellermann's  cuirassiers,  who  had  riddea 
up  the  Charleroi  road  in  support  of  Nev's  at- 
tack, had  been  charged  by  Lord  Uxbridge,  at 
the  head  of  the  Household  Brigade,  and  had 
been  driven  back  in  headlong  confusion.  It 
was  about  half-past  three  when  Napoleon 
found  that  his  grand  attack  had  failed,  and 
that,  far  from  making  any  way,  he  had  very 
much  weakened  his  right  wing,  while,  at  tb« 
same  time,  there  were  sure  signs  of  the 
approach  of  the  Prussians.  He  directed  ail 
his  splendid  cavalry  to  attack  the  centre  and 
right,  while  fresh  assaults  were  made  upon 
Hougoumont  and  La  Haye  Sainte.  But  the 
cuirassiers  could  make  no  impression  on  the 
impenetrable  squares  of  Briti^  infancy,  and 
the  artillery  played  upon  them  as  they  retiitHl, 
so  that  they  were  ahnost  wholly  destroyed. 
In  the  meantime  the  attacks  on  La  HayeSamte 
had  been  carried  on  with  determined  vigour : 
and  between  six  and  seven  o'clock  the  fVenck 
took  the  place.  The  Prussians  were  preseing 
on,  and  were  already  carrying  on  a  fierce  ocm- 
test  for  the  possession  oi  Planoenoit,  which 
lay  in  the  rear  of  the  French  right,  and  which 
the  Young  Gwuxl  hade  been  detached  to  hold. 
Napoleon  ordered  the  Old  Guard,  who  had  as 
yet  taken  no  part  in  the  struggle,  to  advance. 
The  two  columns  advanced  between  La  Haye 
Sainte  and  Hougoumont.  They  were  suddenly 
encountered  on  the  top  of  the  ascent  by 
Maitland's  Guards,  who  were  lying  down. 
When  the  French  arrived  at  uie  top,  the 
Guards  suddenly  rose  up,  at  a  distance  of  fifty 
yards,  and  while  the  French  attempted  to  de- 
ploy into  line,  showered  voile}''  after  voU^y 
into  their  ranks,  till  they  became  disordered. 
Then  the  Guards  charged,  and  drove  the 
French    column    headlong    down    the   lull. 


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returning  to  their  position,  however,  in  time 
to  take  part  in  the  destruction  of  the  second 
column,  which  bore  on,  undismayed,  slightly 
towards  the  left.     The  column  hroke,  and 
flod  in  disorder.    Napoleon,  meanwhile,  was 
rallying  the  remains  of  the  first  column  of  the 
Old    Guard  round  La  Belle  Alliance;  but 
Wellington  now  took  the  offensive.      Soon 
after  eight  o'clock  he  gave  the  word  for  a 
Pfeneral  advance  along  the  whole  line.     The 
British  troops  rushed  down  from  the  ridge, 
and  up  the  opposite  slope.    The  Old  Guard 
bravely  rallieo,  and  attempted  to  stem  the 
current.    But  it  was  in  vain.    The  British 
swept  away  all  resistance  in  their  impetuous 
rush ;  and  the  French  army  gave  itself  up  to 
flight  in  hopeless  confusion,  every  one  seek- 
ing only  his  own  safety.     Wellington,  riding 
back,  met  Bliicher  at  La  Belle  Alliance,  and 
entrusted  to  him  the  pursuit  with  the  Prus- 
sians, who  were  comparatively  fresh.     The 
allies,  under  Welling^ton,  had  lost  15,000  men 
killed  and  wounded  in  the  battle ;   the  Prus- 
sians 7,000 ;  but  the  French  army  was  annihi- 
lated.    It  lost  from  23,000  to  30,000,  and  the 
Hurvivors  were  a  mere  scattered  mob.    Wel- 
lington's army  had  numbered  about  68,000  at 
tlie  beginning  of  the  battle,  Napoleon's  about 
70,000. 

Sibome,  Watmloo ;  Chesney,  Waterloo  Lte- 
ium;  Alison,  Htst.  of  Europe;  Creasy,  Decinve 
Batilee  of  the  World ;  Thiers,  Hist,  of  the  Con- 
sxdate  and  Empire;  Jomini,  Military  Hint,  of 
Napoleon.  [W.  K.  S.] 

Watlintf  Street  was  one  of  the  great 
Roman  roads  through  Britain.  Starting  from 
Kichborough,  it  passed  by  Canterbury,  whence, 
leaving  Rochester  to  the  right,  it  ran  to 
London,  which  it  passed  through,  thence  to 
Verulam,  Dunstable,  Towcaster,  Weedon, 
Dovebridge,  High  Cross,  Fazeley,  and  Wel- 
lington, to  Wroxeter.  It  then  crossed  the 
Severn,  and  continued  by  Rowton  and  Bala 
to  Tommen-y-Mawr,  where  it  divided  into 
two  branches.  One  ran  by  Beddgolert  to 
Oaornarvon  and  Anglesea;  the  other  by 
Dolwyddelan  to  the  Menai  Straits,  where  one 
branch  went  to  Holyhead,  and  the  other 
through  Aber  to  Chester,  thence  by  North 
^ich,  Manchester,  Ilkley,  Masham,  and  New- 
ton, to  Catterick.  Crossing  the  Tees,  it  ran 
)y  Binchester,  Ebchester,  and  Corbrid^e,  into 
Sitotland,  thence  by  Jedburgh  to  the  interior 
>f  Scotland,  probably  as  far  as  the  Forth. 
Other  authorities  regard  the  road  between 
London  and  Wroxeter  as  alone  properly  the 
Watling  Street.  But  the  name  seems  popu- 
xirly  to  have  been  used  to  denote  several  lines 
>f  Roman  highways.    [Roman  Roads.] 

Watson,  RicHABD,  Bishop  of  T«1andaff 
6.  1737,  d.  1816),  was  educated  at  Trinity 
Jollege,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  was  elected 
k  Follow  in  1760.  He  became  Professor  of 
I^omistry  in  1764,  and  in  1771  Regius  Pro- 
'essor  of  Divinity.  He  wrote  largely  both  on 
scientific  subjects  and  on  theology,  and  had 
Hist.— 34 


also  written  some  pamphlets  to  defend  and 
explain  Whig  principles,  when,  in  July,  1782, 
he  was  maae  Bishop  of  Llandaff  by  Lord 
Shelbume.  He  sidea  with  the  Whigs  in  the 
House  of  Lords,  and  supported  the  claims  of 
the  Prince  of  Wales  on  the  Regency  question. 
In  1792,  in  his  charge  to  the  clergy,  he 
vehemently  eulogised  the  French  Revolution. 
Subsequently  he  changed  his  views  on  this 
subject,  and  wrote  in  1798  an  Address  to  the 
Feople  of  Great  Britain,  which  was  an  energetic 
appeal  in  favour  of  the  war  against  France, 
and  excited  immense  public  attention.  In 
1803  he  wrote  another  pamphlet  on  the  same 
subject.  His  best-known  work  is  perhaps  his 
Apology  for  the  Bible  against  the  attacks  of 
Thomas  Paine. 

Wavrin,  John  db  (rf.  circa  1471),  was  a 
French  knight,  who  fought  in  the  battle  of 
Agincourt,  but  subsequently  joined  the 
English,  and  attached  himself  to  Sir  John 
Fastolf.  He  wrote  a  chronicle  of  England 
from  the  earliest  times  to  the  year  1471, 
which  has  been  published  in  the  Rolls  Series. 

Waverley.  The  Annals  of,  is  one  of 
the  monastic  chronicles — written  in  the  Cis- 
tercian Abbey  of  that  name  in  Surrey — which 
extends  from  the  Incarnation  to  the  year 
1291.  From  1277  to  the  end  the  work  appears 
to  be  contemporary,  and  is  of  great  value. 
It  has  been  published  in  the  Rolls  Series. 

Wasrnflete,  William  (d.  1486),  was 
master  of  Winchester  School  from  about  1432 
to  1443,  when  he  was  made  first  provost  of 
Eton.  In  1447  he  was  elected  Bishop  of 
Winchester,  and  in  1456  became  Chancellor. 
In  1460  he  resigned  the  Great  Seal,  and, 
though  he  had  been  an  attached  friend  to 
Henry  YL,  he  lived  unmolested  by  Edward 
IV .  In  1 44 8  Waynflete  commenced  the  foun- 
dation of  Magdalen  College  in  Oxford,  which 
was  completed  in  1466.  He  also  founded  a 
school  in  his  native  town  of  Waynflete,  in 
Lincolnshire. 

Wajrs  and  Keaas,  The  Committee  op, 
is  a  Committee  of  the  whole  House  of  Com- 
mons appointed  to  determine  how  the  money 
is  to  be  raised  which  has  been  voted  to  the 
Crown  after  the  resolutions  framed  by  the 
Committee  of  Supply  have  been  agreed  to. 
Its  principal  duty  is  to  receive  the  budget  or 
financial  statement  of  the  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer.  Resolutions  for  new  ways  of 
raising  revenue  are  often  submitted  to  it 
previous  to  being  embodied  in  bills. 

WeddBrbunif  Albxandeb,  Lord  Lough- 
BOROUGH  and  Earl  op  Rosslyn  (b.  1 733,  d. 
1805),  was  the  son  of  a  Scotch  advocate  and 
judge.  He  was  called  to  the  Scotch  bar,  but 
his  short  career  in  Scotland  came  to  an  abrupt 
conclusion  in  1757,  and  he  came  to  London, 
and  was  called  to  the  English  bar.  In  1762, 
through  the  interest  of  Lord  Bute,  he  was 
returned  to  Parliament  for  the  Rothesay  and 


Wed 


(  1068  ) 


Wei 


InvCTHry  Burghs.  In  1769  he  spoke  in  sup- 
port of  the  legnlity  of  Wilkes's  election,  which 
earned  him  a  congratulatory  banquet  at  the 
hands  of  the  Opposition.  In  1771,  however, 
he  left  his  party,  and  became  Solicitor-Gen- 
eral to  Lord  North.  In  his  new  office  he  is 
described  as  ''elegant,  subtle,  and  insinuat- 
ing," but  he  had  no  great  opportimity  of 
displaying  his  powers  till,  in  1773,  he  defended 
Lord  Clive  against  General  Burgoj'ne's  reso- 
lution. During  the  following  years  he  de- 
fended the  policy  of  the  ministry  on  the 
American  war.  In  1778  he  refused  the  office 
of  Chief  Baron,  and  continued  in  Parliament 
to  urge  the  prosecution  of  the  war.  Next 
year  he  became  Attorney-General,  and  de- 
livered his  last  great  speech  in  tJie  Lower 
House  in  favour  of  a  firm  policy  of  repression 
towards  Ireland.  In  1780  he  became  Chief 
Justice  of  the  Common  Pleas,  with  the  title 
of  Lord  Loughborough.  When  the  Coalition 
ministry  was  formed  (1783)  the  Great  Seal 
was  put  into  commission,  and  Lord  Lough- 
borough was  appointed  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners, but  in  1784  the  chancellorship  was 
S'ven  to  Lord  Thurlow.  In  his  disgust.  Lord 
3ughborough  became  a  complete  Foxite. 
Ke  now  took  all  pains  to  cultivate  favour 
with  the  Prince  of  Wales,  and  advocated  his 
claims  in  the  debates  on  the  Regency  Bill. 
In  1791  he  made  a  vigorous  attack  on  Pittas 
Russian  policy,  and  became  so  strong  a  Whig 
that  he  advocated  measures  for  Catholic  reliei, 
"although  it  is  now  certain  that  when  he 
became  keeper  of  the  king's  conscience,  he 
poisoned  the  royal  mind  by  scruples  about 
the  coronation  oath,  and  that  he  obstructed 
the  policy  which  he  at  this  time  advocated." 
He  now  opened  negotiations  with  Pitt,  who,  in 
return  for  his  services  in  securing  the  ad- 
herence of  the  Duke  of  Portland  to  the  Pitt 
ministry,  obtained  for  him  the  Great  Seal 
(Jan.,  1793).  In  1794  he  advised  the  State 
prosecutions  for  sedition,  and,  while  he  cooled 
towards  the  Prince  of  Wales,  tried  to  win 
&vour  with  George  III.  In  1800  he  opposed 
all  measures  for  Catholic  emancipation  con- 
nected with  the  Union,  and  became  somewhat 
estranged  from  Pitt.  The  next  year  he 
betrayed  the  Prime  Minister's  private  corre- 
spondence to  the  king,  and  thereby  obtained 
the  dismissal  of  Pitt.  Addington,  succeeding 
to  the  vacant  place,  got  rid  of  Lord  Lough- 
liorough  by  the  bribe  of  an  elevation  to  an 
earldom,  with  the  title  of  Earl  of  Rossl}ni. 
Henceforth  his  Parliamentary  career  was 
imimportant.  At  his  death  George  III.  is 
reported  to  have  said,  "  He  has  not  left  a 
greater  knave  behind  him  in  my  dominions." 

Campbell,  LtvM  o/  f 7i«  ChancMon  ;  Jesse,  Ke- 
mmVd  of  ihs  Rei^n  ofQeorge  III.  ;  Parlianentary 
5t«t.;  Trevelyan,  Early  Li/6  of  0.  J.  Fox; 
I^etten  of  Junius. 

Wedmore,  The  Peacb  of  (879),  is  the 
name  frequently  ffiven  to  the  treaty  be- 
tween   Alfred    and    Guthrum,  though   the 


treaty   was    certainly    concluded    at    Chip- 

penham.     The  village  of  Wedmore  lie^  near 

Athelney,  between  Bridgewater  and  Yeovil. 

The  treaty  is  of  great  importance,  as  assgc- 

ing  a  definite  district  to  the  Danes,  and  esUb- 

lishing  a  modus  vivendi  bet^veen   tbem  and 

the  English.     The  boundaries  here  agreed 

upon  were — "Up  on  the   Thames,  and  then 

up  on  the  Lea,  and  along  the  Lea  to  its  source, 

then  right  to  Bedford ;  then  up  on  the  Oust 

unto  Watling  Street."    Thus  the  Danes  wen- 

to  leave  Wessex,  but  keep  East  AngHa  and 

the    north-eastern  part  of  Hercia,  but  the 

south-western  part  of  Mercia  was  united  to 

the  kingdom  of  Wessex.  "  Speaking  roughly.'' 

says  Mr.   Freeman,  "Alfred  recovered  tk^t 

part  of   Mercia  which   had  been   originaliy 

West  Saxon,  and  which  had  been  conquered 

by  the  Angles  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 

centuries.    .     .     .    The  Danes  got  much  th^ 

largest  part  of   England;   still  Alfred  ccr- 

trived  to  keep  London.*'     [Ai^rbd;  Daxem 

Mbrcia.] 

Freeman,  Norman  Conqtugt,  voL .{.,  and  f.f4 
Eng.  Hitt, ;  Stnbbs,  Select  Churfen,  63. 

WelleS)  Leo,  Lord  {d.  1461),  was  a  dis- 
tinguished commander  in  the  PVench  wars, 
and  in  1438  was  made  Lieutenant  of  Ireland 
which  office  he  held  till  1443.  He  fought  <sl 
the  Lancastrian  side  in  the  Wars  of  the  Roses, 
and  fell  in  the  battle  of  Towton. 

Wellee,  Richabd,  Lord  (</.  1470),  son  of 
the  above,  was  allowed  to  receive  his  father*? 
goods  and  estates  by  Edwimi  lY.,  though  ht 
had  been  attainted,  and  in  1468  he  was  restored 
to  all  his  honours.  In  1470  his  son  raised  t 
rebellion  in  Lincolnshire,  and  Lord  WeSes, 
being  unable  to  induce  him  to  sabmit,  was 
put  to  death  by  Edward,  contrary  to  a  piooiiie 
he  had  made. 

Welles,  Sir  Robert  {d.  1470),  was  the  eoa 
of  Richard,  Lord  Welles.  In  1470,  probably  at 
the  instigation  of  the  Earl  of  Warwick,'  h- 
raised  a  rebellion  in  Lincolnshire.  Although 
the  cry  of  **King  Henry!"  was  raised,  and 
many  Lancastrians  joined  his  standard,  it 
would  seem  that  his  real  object  was  to  fet 
Clarence  on  the  throne.  Before  assistance  eouk 
arrive  from  Warwick  or  Clarence,  he  was 
attacked  by  the  king,  and  totally  defeated  in 
the  battle  of  Looseooat  Field,  near  StamfiHiL 
He  was  captured,  and  beheaded  the  day  after 
the  battle,  having  made  a  full  ocmfeeBicn  d 
his  designs. 

Wellesley«  Richard  Collbt,  MAMons* 
OF  [b,  1760,  d.  1842),  was  the  eldest  son  of  tits 
first  Earl  of  Momington,  and  elder  brother  of 
the  Duke  of  Wellington.  He  took  his  seal 
in  the  Irish  House  of  Lords  as  soon  as  br 
became  of  age,  and  also  entered  the  Kngliyh 
House  of  Commons  as  member  for  B«nl- 
ston  in  1786,  and  afterwards  for  Windsor. 
He  took  the  Tory  side  in  the  debates  oa 
the  Regency  of  1789,  and  greatly  dtftin- 
guished  himself.    In  1797,  having  previoQstr 


Wei 


(  1060  ) 


Wei 


occupied  a  seat  on  the  Board  of  Control,  he 
received  a  British  peerage  (as  Baron  Mom- 
ing^n),  and  was  nominated  to  succeed  Lord 
Oomwallis  as  Governor-General  of  India. 
In  1799  he  became  Marquess  Wellesley  in 
the  Irish  peerage.  His  governor-generalship 
in  India  was  an  eventful  period.  On  first 
landing  he  found  the  English  power  exposed 
to  great  dangers,  owiug  to  the  existence  of  a 
formidable  body  of  disciplined  troops  in  the 
aervice  of  the  Nizam.  By  great  firmness 
and  skill  Lord  Moming^n  prevailed  on  the 
Nizam  to  disband  his  army,  and  to  enter  into 
a  subsidiary  alliance  with  England.  He  next 
determined  to  crush  the  power  of  Tippoo 
8ultaun  (q.v.),  who  was  then  deeply  engaged 
in  intrigues  with  France.  Owing  to  the 
firmness  and  energy  of  the  viceroy,  the  troops 
were  speedily  put  into  a  state  of  efficiency. 
In  1799  war  was  declared  on  Tippoo,  and 
three  armies  advanced  on  Seringapatam. 
The  Bombay  army  won  a  victory  at  Sudasere, 
and  that  of  Madras  at  Malavelly  and  Arikera. 
■Seringapatam  was  invested  and  captured,  and 
Tippoo  slain  in  the  assault.  Mysore  was 
partitioned,  and  the  Mohammedan  dynasty 
driven  out.  In  1 80 1  Lord  Wellesley  organised 
the  Red  Sea  expedition  (q.v.),  and  despatched 
a  large  force  into  Egypt  to  assist  in  the 
operations  against  the  French.  He  then 
proceeded  to  intervene  in  the  affairs  of  the 
Mahratta  States.  He  forced  the  treaty  of 
Bassein  upon  the  Peishwa  Bajee  Kao. 
Thereupon  a  combination  of  Scindiah,  Holkar, 
and  the  Rajah  of  Berar  was  formed  against 
the  English,  and  the  result  was  the  hardly 
contested  campaigns  in  which  the  British, 
under  Colonel  Wellesley  and  Lake,  were 
completely  successfuL  The  siege  of  Ali- 
gurh,  the  battles  of  Delhi  and  Laswaree, 
aoon  reduced  Scindiah's  French  battalions 
in  Hindostan;  the  battles  of  Assye  and 
Argaom  were  followed  by  the  treaties  of 
Deogaom  and  Surgee  Anjengaom,  which  em- 
bodied the  submission  of  Scindiah  and  the 
Bhonslah. 

Meanwhile  Lord  Wellesley  had  paid  much 
attention  to  the  commercial  development  of 
India.  He  gave  great  offence  to  the  Court  of 
Directors  partly  by  the  magnitude  and  ex- 
pense of  nis  military  exploits,  partly  by 
allowing  private  English  vessels  to  trade  in 
India,  contrary  to  the  Company's  monopoly. 
In  1805  Lord  Wellesley  was  recalled.  At- 
tempts were  unsuccessfully  made  in  Parlia- 
ment to  accuse  him  of  high  crimes  and 
misdemeanours,  and  the  Coui't  of  Proprietors 
passed  a  vote  of  censure  on  him  by  a  large 
majority.  But  after  thirty  years  the  feeling 
changed,  and  the  directors,  taking  advantage 
of  the  publication  of  his  despatches,  voted 
him  a  grant  of  £20,000,  and  ordered  his  statue 
to  be  placed  in  the  India  House.  His  policy 
in  India  was  to  establish  English  influence ; 
to  oblige  the  native  rulers  to  enter  into 
permanent  treaties  with  him;   to  place  the 


political  management  of  their  provinces  in 
the  hands  of  a  British  Resident ;  to  pay  for 
the  support  of  an  army  largely  officered  by 
Europeans;  while  the  native  princes  at  the 
same  time  retained  the  domestic  government 
in  their  own  hands.  ^*  The  administration  of 
Lord  Wellesley  may  be  regarded  as  the  third 
great  epoch  in  the  formation  of  the  British 
Indian  empire.  .  .  Lord  Wellesley  was 
the  first  to  perceive  that  in  India  a  political 
equilibrium  was  impossible;  that  peace  was 
only  to  be  insured  by  establishing  the  pre- 
ponderance of  British  power;  and  that  the 
task  of  breaking  down  the  Mahratta  con- 
federacy was  as  practicable  as,  sooner  or 
later,  it  must  have  been  necessary,  to  be 
undertaken." 

In  1808  Lord  Wellesley  was  appointed 
ambassador  in  Spain.  From  1809  to  Jan., 
1812,  he  was  Secretary  for  Foreign  Affairs  in 
Mr.  Perceval's  cabinet,  but  resided  in  con- 
sequence of  a  difference  with  his  colleagues 
on  the  Roman  Catholic  claims  in  Ireland.  In 
May,  1812,  he  unsuccessfully  attempted  to 
form  a  coalition  government.  Under  Lord 
Liverpoors  ministry  he  was  the  chanipion  of 
the  rights  of  the  Roman  Catholics  in  Ireland. 
In  1816  he  loudly  censured  some  of  the  pro- 
visions of  the  peace  with  France.  From  1821 
to  1828  he  was  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland, 
but  when  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  Welling- 
ton, took  office,  and  declared  against  the 
Catholic  claims,  the  Lord-Lieutenant  resigned. 
In  1831  he  was  appointed  Lord  Steward, 
under  the  Gre^  Ministr>',  and  in  1833  again 
became  Lord-Lieutenant,  but  resigned  in  1834. 
Detpatehea  of  the  Marqneu  Welledey,  ed.  byB. 
Montgomery  Martin,  1836—1838;  Pearoe,  Lif* 
of  WedeUey,  [B.  S.] 

WallULffton,  Ahtuuh  Wellesley,  Duke 
OF  (b.  1769,  d.  1852),  was  the  fourth  son  of 
the  first  Earl  of  Momington.  He  was  educated 
at  Eton,  and  afterwards  at  the  military  college 
at  Angers,  where  he  studied  under  the  cele- 
brated Pignerol.  He  entered  the  army  in 
Mar.,  1787.  His  career  in  the  field  com- 
menced in  Holland  (1794),  under  the  Duke  of 
York.  He  shared  the  hardships  of  this 
campaign,  occupying  the  post  of  honour,  the 
rearguard.  He  received  a  colonelcy  in  1796. 
His  next  service  was  in  India,  where  he 
passed  through  the  whole  of  the  Mysore  War, 
and  the  Siege  of  Seringapatam,  being  at- 
tached to  the  Nizam's  contingent  of  horse. 
In  July,  1799,  he  was  nominated  Governor  of 
Seringapatam  and  Mysore,  and  the  command 
in  chief  of  the  army  of  occujpation  was  en- 
trusted to  him.  He  exercised  the  great 
powers  conferred  upon  him  in  such  a  way  as 
to  deserve  and  obtain  the  gratitude  and  respect 
of  the  natives,  and  to  di^lay  his  own  extra- 
ordinary talents  for  organisation  and  command. 
While  thus  employed  he  found  it  necessary  to 
take  the  field  against  the  marauder  Dhoondiah 
Waugh,  whom  he  routed  and  slew.  In  1803 
he  waa  raised  to  the  rank  of  major-general. 


Wei 


(  1060  ) 


Wei 


and  shortly  afterwards  the  Mahratta  War 
broke  out.  Major-G^eral  Wellesley  was 
appointed  to  the  command  of  the  force 
destined  to  restore  the  Peishwa  to  his  throne 
after  the  conclusion  of  the  Treaty  of  Bassein, 
as  well  as  to  act  against  the  Mahratta  chiefs. 
Operations  in  the  Deccan  were  quickly  opened, 
and  concluded  by  Wellesley's  brilliant  victory 
at  Assye  (Sept.  23,  1803),  and  Argaum  (Nov. 
19),  which  effectually  subdued  the  opposition 
of  Scindiah  and  the  Rajah  of  Berar.  Shortly 
after  the  close  of  the  Mahratta  War,  Oeneral 
Wellesley  quitted  India,  and  after  an  absence 
of  five  years  hmdod  once  more  in  England. 
In  1807  he  was  appointed  Chief  Secretary 
to  the  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland.  In 
the  following  August  he  was  nominated  to  a 
command  in  the  expedition  to  Copenhagen, 
and  rendered  important  services,  for  which  he 
received  the  special  thanks  of  Parliament. 
On  July  12  the  same  year  he  started,  with  a 
command  of  10,000  men,  for  Portugal,  the 
Portland  ministry  having  sent  these  troops  at 
the  request  of  the  Portuguese  government, 
who  feared  the  ambitious  designs  of  Napoleon. 
Ho  landed  succeas^ly  at  Mondego,  marched 
on  Lisbon,  and  defeatea  the  French  at  Rolica. 
Sir  Harry  Burrard,  who  had  been  appointed 
over  Wellesley's  head,  now  arrived  and  took 
the  command,  and  countermanded  all  Welles- 
ley's  dispositions  for  the  attack  on  Junot  at 
Torres  Vedras.  The  French  therefore  assailed 
the  English  at  Vimiera,  and  again  Sir  Harry 
Burrard  prevented  the  English  success  being 
decisive  by  forbidding  Wellesley  to  pursue 
and  cut  off  the  French  retreat  to  Torres 
Vedras.  The  Convention  of  Cintra  roused 
the  general  indignation  in  England  against 
the  expedition  and  its  commanders,  and 
especially,  but  most  unwarrantably,  against 
Wellesley.  He  returned  to  England  and 
resumed  his  Irish  duties  and  his  seat  in 
Parliament.  In  1809,  when  the  French  had 
entirely  occupied  the  Peninsula,  Wellesley 
was  sent  out  again  with  24,000  men.  Ho 
landed  at  Lisbon  (April  22),  marched  against 
Soult,  who  was  strongly  posted  at  Oporto, 
and  drove  him  into  Qalicia.  The  state  of 
his  commissariat  rendered  it  impossible  to 
pursue  and  march  on  Madrid  as  he  had  in- 
tended ;  while  the  obstinacy  and  imbecility  of 
the  Spanish  generals  rendered  co-operation 
impossible.  In  spite,  therefore,  of  the  crush- 
ing victory  of  Talavera  (q.v.),  he  was  obliged 
to  retreat.  The  next  year  was  occupied  with 
the  inroad  of  Napoleon,  the  victory  of  Busaco, 
and  the  successful  defence  of  the  lines  of  Torres 
Vedras.  At  last,  in  1812,  after  the  capture  of 
Badajos  and  Ciudad  Rodrigo,  Wellington 
began  his  march  across  Spain  by  defeating 
the  French  at  Salamanca ;  opened  the  road 
to  Madrid;  and  marched  from  thence  to 
Burgos.  He  was,  however,  compelled  to  retire 
once  more  to  the  Portuguese  frontier.  In 
1813  he  marched  straight  to  Vittoria,  and 
from  victory  to  victory  till  Soult  was  finally 


routed  at  Orthez,  and  the  abdication  at 
Napoleon  ended  Uie  great  Peninsular  Was^ 
(q.v.).  At  the  close  of  the  campaign  he 
was  for  his  serWces  created  Harquis  of 
Douro  and  Duke  of  Wellington;  the  Hooae- 
of  Commons  voted  him  an  annnity  erf 
£10,000,  which  was  afterwards  commuted 
for  the  sum  of  £400,000,  and  on  July  1 
the  thanks  of  the  House  were  conveyed  to 
him  by  the  Speaker.  The  highest  honours 
were  conferred  on  him  by  the  allies,  and 
he  was  made  a  field-marshal  in  each  of 
the  principal  armies  of  Europe.  In  August 
he  proceeded  to  Paris  to  represent  the  Biitisli 
government  at  the  court  of  the  Tuileries. 
He  remained  five  months,  and  bore  a  prin- 
cipal share  in  the  negotiations  of  this  year.  In 
Jan.,  1815,  the  duke  was  accredited  to  Yiesc* 
as  one  of  the  representatives  of  Britain 
at  the  Congress  of  the  European  Vowen, 
and  united  with  Austria  and  France  in  re- 
sisting the  demands  of  Russia  and  Prusda. 
In  February  Napoleon  broke  loose  from  Elba, 
and  WeUixigton  was  appointed  Commander- 
in-Chief  against  him.  The  Hundred  DaT» 
ended  at  Waterloo  (q.v.),  and  the  aUied 
armies  marched  on  Paris,  where  Wellingtca 
had  the  greatest  difficulty  in  restnunimr 
the^  Prussian  desire  for  vengeance ;  and 
it  was  in  oonsequenoe  of  his  advice  thai 
the  army  of  occupation,  which  was  to  have 
remained  for  five  3'ears,  evacuated  France  at 
the  end  of  three.  The  military  career  of  th«r 
duke  thus  came  to  an  end.  In  Oct.,  1818, 
while  attending  the  Congress  of  Aix-k- 
Chapelle,  he  was  offered  and  accepted  the 
office  of  Master-General  of  the  Ordnance,  with 
a  seat  in  the  Cabinet.  He  took  no  prominent 
part,  however,  in  the  administration  of  home 
affairs,  though  he  shared  the  odium  which 
accrued  to  the  government  from  its  ooereivp 
policy.  He  represented  Great  Britain  at  th^ 
Congress  of  Verona  in  1822,  and  protested 
against  the  armed  intervention  of  thie  French 
court  in  the  affairs  of  Spain.  In  1826,  he 
was  sent  on  a  special  mission  to  St.  Petersburg 
for  the  purpose  of  promoting  a  peaceabl^ 
settlement  of  the  Greek  question.  In  the 
following  year  he  refused  to  serve  \inder  Mr. 
Canning,  and  resigned  the  post  of  Commander- 
in-Chief  which  had  naturally  come  to  him  go 
the  death  of  the  Duke  of  York.  In  1S2S,  he 
himself  became  Prime  Minister  of  England. 
The  Canningites  were  allowed  to  retain  thxxr 
seats  for  a  short  time,  but  very  soon  dissen- 
sions arose,  and  they  were  ei^er  driven  out 
or  resigned  spontaneously.  The  great  questioB 
of  Roman  Catholic  Emancipation  had  now  for 
a  quarter  of  a  century  occupied  the  attentioii 
of  the  legislature,  and  had  become  not  9? 
much  a  question  of  abstract  ]irinciple  asd 
policy  as  of  national  peace  and  secarity. 
The  continued  anarchy  of  Ireland,  the  int<T- 
minable  division  of  cabinets,  the  distiactioB 
of  imperial  councils,  and  the  utter  impossi- 
bility of  maintaining  such  a  state  of  thinr^ 


Wei 


(  1061  ) 


Wen 


Hi  last  satiBfied  the  duke  and  Sir  Robert  Peel 
that  the  time  had  come  when  the  clamorous 
demand  of  the  Roman  Catholics  should  be 
conceded.  The  premier  had  a  dear  per- 
ception of  the  difficulties  to  be  encountered, 
and  the  sacrifices  which  must  be  made  in  thus 
surrendering  the  citadel  of  Protestant  as- 
cendancy, but  Slaving  made  up  his  mind  that 
this  measure  was  necessary,  he  carried  it 
through  resolutely  and  characteristically. 
His  poHcy  was  announced  in  the  speech  from 
the  throne  (Feb.  6th,  1829),  and  so  vigorously 
was  the  measure  pressed,  that  in  spite  of  the 
most  determined  opposition,  the  Relief  Bill 
j)as8ed  both  Houses  by  a  large  majority,  and 
in  little  more  than  a  month  became  law.  The 
ininistr)'  of  the  duke  was  greatly  weakened 
by  his  victorj'  over  the  principles  and  preju- 
<hces  of  his  party.  His  opponents  were  not 
<'onciliated,  while  many  of  his  old  supporters 
had  become  furious  in  their  indignation. 
The  duke  failed  to  read  the  signs  of  the  times, 
and  his  obstinate  opposition  to  Parliamentary 
Reform  caused  the  downfall  of  his  ministry, 
the  accession  of  £arl  6re^  (1^31),  and  the 
passing  of  the  Refoi-m  Bill  (q.v.).  At  the 
final  crisis  of  the  Bill,  Wellington,  at  the 
request  of  the  king,  left  the  House  of  Lords, 
followed  by  about  a  hundred  peers,  to  allow 
the  Bill  to  pass.  All  through  this  period,  the 
tide  of  popular  feeling  ran  strongly  against 
the  duke,  who  found  it  necessary  to  protect  his 
windows  from  the  mob  by  casings  of  iron. 
When  the  excitement  of  the  Reform  agitation 
had  subsided,  popular  feeling  towards  him 
i^radually  changed ;  and  during  the  rest  of  his 
life  he  retained  a  firm  hold  on  the  affections 
^f  the  English  people.  In  1834  the  king 
innounced  his  intention  to  recall  the^duke  to 
lis  councils,  but  the  latter  insisted  that  Sir 
iiobort  Peel  was  the  proper  person  to  be 
:)laced  at  the  head  of  the  government,  and 
limself  accepted  the  post  of  Foreign  Secretary', 
[n  1835,  he  retired  with  his  leader,  and  never 
igain  took  charge  of  any  of  the  great  civil 
lepartments  of  state.  In  1841,  on  the  return 
»f  his  party  to  power,  he  accepted  a  seat  in 
he  Cabinet,  but  without  office;  though  he 
ook  an  active  part  in  the  business  of  the 
ountiy.  In  1842,  he  again  became  Com- 
lander-in-Chief,  and  was  confirmed  in  the 
ffice  for  life  by  patent  under  the  Great  Seal. 
Vhen  the  Irish  famine  brought  the  Anti- 
!om-law  agitation  to  a  crisis,  he  changed  with 
*c'cl,  and  gave  that  minister  the  warmest 
ad  most  consistent  support  in  his  new  com- 
lorcial  policy.  It  was  in  fact  mainly  through 
ic  duke's  influence  that  the  opposition  of  the 
reat  territorial  magnates  was  withdrawn. 
*n  the  complete  break-up  of  the  Conservative 
Firty,  in  1846,  the  duke  formally  intimated 
is  final  retirement  from  political  life,  and 
ever  again  took  any  part  in  the  debates  in 
le  House  of  Lords  except  on  militar}' 
lattcrs.  But  he  continued  to  take  the  warmest 
iterest    in  the    welfare    of   the  army,  the 


countr)',  and  the  sovereign,  and  was  regarded 
by  the  queen  as  a  friendly  and  intimate 
adviser.  With  the  nation  the  popularity  of 
**  the  duke  *'  during  his  later  years  was 
extraordinary  and  almost  unique.  Wherever 
he  appeared  he  was  received  with  enthusiasm 
and  affection.  On  Sept.  14,  1852,*  he 
died  at  Walmer  Castle,  where  he  resided  as 
Warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports.  Of  Wellington's 
eminence  as  a  general  there  is  no  question. 
In  an  age  of  great  commanders  he  was  one 
of  the  greatest ;  inferior  to  few  of  his  con- 
temporaries, save  the  great  opponent  whose 
designs  he  so  often  defeated.  The  integrity, 
honesty,  and  disinterested  simplicity  of  his 

Srivate  character  are  equally  little  open  to 
oubt.  His  position  as  a  statesman  admits 
of  more  dispute.  That  he  did  not  altogether 
comprehend  the  spirit  of  the  age  in  which  he 
lived,  and  that  he  offered  an  unbending  front 
to  reforms  which  in  the  end  he  was  obliged  to 
accept,  can  scarcely  be  denied. 

WaUngUm  Dnpatchu,  18S2,  18604.  and 
1807;  Briolmont,  Life  of  Welltngtim ;  AUsod. 
Hud.  of  Europe;  Yon  Sybel,  French  Rwolu- 
tion;  Thien,  Mid,  of  tfc«  Con«ttlat«  and  £mptr«; 
Napier^  Peninsular  War;  Greyille,  iiemoin; 
Walpol^  iitst.  ofBmg.Jrom  J815;  Stapleton, 
Oeorge  Canning  and  hit  Timu ;  Paoli,  Engligchs 
QtMhichte  text  1816 ;  Molesworth,  Higt.  of  ihe 
Reform  Bia;VeeL,Memoin.  [S.  J.  L.] 


Welsh.  Judicature.  Abolition  of  (11 
Geo.  IV.  &  1  Will.  IV.).  In  1820  a  select 
committee  was  appointed  to  inquire  into  the 
Welsh  judicature,  which  had  existed  for  cen- 
turies, in  spite  of  proposals  to  remove  it.  The 
Common  Laws  Commissioners  of  1822  de- 
cided that  its  continuance  was  indefensible. 
Peel,  therefore,  introduced  (1830)  a  bill  for 
its  abolition,  and  for  adding  an  additional 
judge  to  each  of  the  three  superior  courts  at 
Westminster.  The  bill  became  law  in 
1830.  The  Special  Sessions  in  Wales  were 
abolished,  ana  that  country,  with  Cheshire, 
erected  into  new  circuits,  8er\'ed  by  the  ordi- 
nary judges. 

Wendover,  Roobr  op  {d.  1236),  was  a 
monk  of  St.  Albans,  and  for  a  few  years  Prior 
of  Belvoir.  Tlie  great  work  usually  though 
not  universally  attributed  to  him,  Florea  Hiato- 
riarum,  extends  from  the  Creation  to  the  year 
1235,  and  for  the  last  thirty-five  is  a  most 
valuable  authority.  "  It  is  from  him,"  says 
Mr.  Gairdner,  "  we  derive  most  of  the  in- 
formation we  possess  about  the  reign  of  King 
John ;  and  the  straightf  orwaixl  simplicity  with 
which  he  teUs  the  tale,  denouncing  wicked- 
ness and  injustice  where  necessary,  without 
invective  or  high-colouring  of  any  kind,  is 
admirable."  His  work  was  continued  from 
1235  by  Matthew  Paris. 

There  is  ao  edition  of  the  Flore*  in  the  Rolls 
Series,  and  a  transli^on  in  Bohn's  Antiquarian 
Libraiy. 

Wenlock,  Loan  (d.  1471),  was  originally 
a  supporter   of  the  Lancastrian  pirty,  and 


Wen 


(  1062  ) 


fought  in  the  first  battle  of  St.  Albans. 
Subsequently  he  went  over  to  the  Yorkists, 
and  was  attainted  in  1439.  He  commanded 
the  rear  of  the  Yorkist  army  in  the  battle  of 
Towton,  and  many  honours  and  rewards  wore 
given  him  by  Edward  IV.  He  afterwards 
joined  Warwick  and  the  malcontents,  and 
fought  on  the  Lancastrian  side  in  the  battle 
of  Tewkesbury,  where  ho  was  slain,  it  is  said 
by  Somerset,  who  suspected  him  of  treachery. 

Wensleydale's  CamB,  Lord    (18.56). 

Sir  James  Parke,  judge  of  the  Court  of  Ex- 
chequer, was  raised  to  the  peerage  by  the 
title  of  Baron  Wensleydale ;  but  the  patent 
which  conferred  the  title  on  him  contained 
the  unusiuil  recital  that  his  barony  was  to 
be  held  '*for  the  term  of  his  natural  life." 
This  creation  was  an  attempt  to  revive  a  right 
which  had  lain  in  abeyance  since  the  reign  of 
Richard  II.  There  was  a  very  strong  feeling 
in  the  House  of  Lords  against  this,  and  Lord 
L^Tidhurst  acted  as  its  exponent.  Three 
great  legal  authorities  who  seldom  united  on 
any  point,  were  agreed  in  strenuous  opposition 
to  this  change — Lords  Lyndhurst,  Brougham, 
and  Campbell.  The  Lord  Chancellor,  on  the 
other  hand,  supported  it,  and  was  probably 
the  author  of  the  proposal.  After  some  discus- 
sion, and  the  propowd  of  a  great  number  of 
resolutions,  the  government  yielded,  and  con- 
ferred on  Sir  James  Parke  a  patent  of  peerage 
drawn  up  in  the  ordinary  form. 

Wentworthy  Petbu,  was  member  for  Tre- 
gony,  in  Cornwall,  and  a  man  of  courage 
and  independence.  Duiing  the  session  of 
1576  he  made  a  speech  reHecting  on  the  un- 
due influence  of  the  queen  on  the  Parliament, 
and  defending  the  privileges  of  the  House. 
Eor  this  he  was  sequestered,  and  a  committee 
of  all  the  privy  councillors  in  the  House  was 
appointed  to  examine  him.  He  was  sent  to 
the  Tower,  but  released  at  the  quecn^s  re- 
quest in  a  month,  being  reprimanded  on  his 
knees  by  the  Speaker.  In  1588  he  was  again 
committed  to  the  Tower  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  the  Speaker,  Serjeant  Puckering 
(afterwards  Lord  Keeper),  for  some  questions 
which  he  proposed  to  put  in  favour  of  liberty 
of  speech.  In  1593  he  was  again  imprisoned 
for  presenting  a  petition  to  the  Lord  Keeper, 
desiring  **  the  Lords  of  the  Upper  House  to 
join  with  those  of  the  Lower  in  imploring  her 
majesty  to  entail  the  succession  of  tlie  crown, 
for  which  they  had  already  prepared  a  bill." 

Hallam,  Con«t.  HUt. ;  Aiken,  Memoir$  of  the 
Court  of  Elizabeth. 

Weivgild,  in  Anglo-Saxon  times,  was 
the  money  value  of  each  man^s  life,  and  the 
sum  which,  in  case  of  his  death  by  violence, 
had  to  be  paid  by  the  murderer,  either  to  his 
kinsmen  or  gild-brethren,  or,  in  the  case  of  a 
serf,  to  his  master.  The  amount  of  the  wer- 
gild depended  entirely  on  the  rank  of  the  per- 
son slain,  and  was  carefully  graduated.   Thus 


the  tper  of  the  king  was  7,200  shillings,  that 
of  an  ealdorman  2,400  shillings,  while  a  king's 
thegn  was  valued  at  1,200  shillings,  an  ordi- 
nary thegn  at  600  shillings,  and  a  ceorl  al 
200.     [BoT.] 

Bobertson,  Hist.  Estayt ;  Stubba,  C<nut.  HM. 

Wesley,  John  {b.  I703,<f.  I7«I)  was  the  son 
of  Samuel  Wesley,  Rector  of  Epworth.  He 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Oxford,  and 
took  orders.  In  1 726  he  was  elected  to  a  fellow- 
ship at  Lincoln.  At  the  University,  he  and  his 
brother  in  1729  formed  a  society  to  promote 
religious  study  and  conversation.  They  soon 
became  known  (from  the  regularit}'  of  their  be- 
haviour)  as  the  "Methodists."  (q.v.).  In  17^ 
the  two  brothers  went  to  Georgia  to  convert 
the  Indians.  Their  mission  was  unfraitfid, 
and  they  returned  in  1738.  On  their  return 
they  proclaimed  themselves  advocates  of  th^ 
doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  alone.  In 
May,  1738,  the  Wesleys  began  to  ionn. 
Methodist  congregations  in  London.  For 
the  next  few  years  Wesley,  with  his  brother, 
George  Whitfield,  and  a  few  other  coadjutors, 
was  engaged  in  preaching  in  London  and 
other  parts  of  England  to  immense  and  grow- 
ing congregations.  In  spite  of  much  oppo- 
sition, frequently  manifested  in  the  form  of 
riot  and  violence,  the  movement  rapidly  gained 
ground*  John  Wesley  lived  till  1791,  by 
which  time  the  Methodists  had  established 
societies  in  everj-  important  town  in  England, 
and  had  a  flourishing  church  in  America. 

WesseZy  The  Kingdom  of.  This  state, 
which  c  vcntiially  expanded  into  the  kincdom  of 
the  English,  but  when  separate  covered  at  on«> 
time  seven  modem  counties,  was  founded  by 
the  West  Saxons  in  519.  Tliese  settlers  fiet?m 
to  havo*beei%at  first  called  (rtfur»M««,  which 
word  also  is  supposed  to  mean  men  of  the  west, 
and  had  been  already  spreading  over  and 
planting  themselves  in  the  Itchen  valley  for 
twentv-four  years.  Some  inquirers  beJietv 
that  during  this  time  the  work  of  conquest 
and  occupation  was  carried  on  "  by  indepen- 
dent bands  of  settlers,'*  who  had  not  yet  feU 
the  need  of  a  common  leader,  bnt  who,  in 
519,  were  brought  to  a  union  under  the  king- 
ship of  Cerdic  and  his  son,  Cj'niic.  Indeed,  to 
these  "  aldermen,"  as  it  calls  them,  the  Angh- 
Saxon  Chronicle  g^ves  aJl  the  distinction  from 
the  first,  informing  us  that  they  came  to  Britain 
in  495  with  five  ships,  and  had  a  fight  with 
the  Welsh  on  the  very  day  of  their  arrival; 
were,  in  501,  followed  by  Port;  slew,  in  508, 
5,000  Britons,  and  their  King  Natanleod; 
were,  in  614,  joined  by  Stuf  and  Wihtgar, 
leading  a  third  invading  force ;  **  laid  their 
grasp  on  the  kingship"  in  519,  thus  esta- 
blishing the  kingdom  that  has  since  swelled 
into  the  British  empire.  Their  battle  at  Mom 
Badonicus^  in  520,  with  "  the  king,  in  whom 
some  have  recognised  the  majestic  fignre  of 
Ambrosius"  (Elton),  some  tiie  mysterioiB 
Arth^''^  some  both,  is  reported  from  the  other 


Wes 


(  1063  ) 


Wes 


lide.     Cerdic  lived,  fought,  and  slew — routing 
;he  Britons  at  Cerdicdea  in  527,  and  over- 
running Wight  in  530 — till  534,  when  he  died, 
eaving  his  task  to  be  carried  on  by  Cynric. 
The  exact  extent  of  Gynric's  kingdom  is  un- 
known, but  it  had  certainly  spread  beyond 
Elampshire.     It    was    reserved  for   his   son, 
Jeawlin,  to  make  the  West  Saxon  a  large  and 
x)wcrful  state.     Beginning  in  560,  Ceawlin 
•eigned  for  thirty-one  years.     Aided  by  his 
irother,  Cuthwulf,  he  overthrew  Ethelbert  of 
Kent,  vanquished  the  Britons  at  Bedford  in 
>71,  vanquished  them  again  at   Derham  in 
jrlouccstershire    in    577,  and  took   into  his 
dngdom  Buckinghamshire  and  Oxfordshire, 
iorth(»m  Wiltshire,  and  the  Severn  Valley, 
[n  581  he  fought,  and  lost  his  brother,  in  the 
)attle  of  Fethanlca,  a  place  that  Br.  Guest 
dcmtifios  with  Faddiley,  regarding^  the  cam- 
>aign  as  a  conquering  march  as  far  as  Cheshire, 
)ut  others  conjecture  to  have  been  Frethern. 
[n  either  case  the  West  Saxons  had  extended 
hoir  conquests  far  beyond  the  line  of  tho 
rhanios  and  the  Somersetshire  Avon,  to  which 
ihey  had  been  at  first  restricted.   But  Ceawlin 
v^ould  socm  to  have  gone  too  &st;  disaster 
)vertook  his   arms   in   the   end.     Beaten  at 
^Vodensburg  by  his  own   subjects,  he  fled, 
knd   died   in   exile.      After   tms  rebuff   the 
idvance  of  the  West   Saxons  was  held  in 
jheck  for  more  than  two  hundred  years.  They 
ost  to  Mercia  the  conquests  they  had  made 
joyond  the  Thames,  and  they  even  lay  under 
h()  Mercian  yoke  for  nineteen  years  (733 — 
Jiy'2).    But  they  had  compensations.    About 
)3»3  they  were  converted  to  Christianity  by 
Birinus;   under  Kenwalch  (Cenwealh)  they 
rushed  their  western  frontier  from  the  Axe 
;o  the  Parret;  then,  under  Ina,  beyond  the 
Purrt't ;  from  the  same  Ina  they  obtained  the 
irst  English  code  of  laws ;  and,  led  by  Cuth- 
'e<i,  they  broke  the  Mercian  yoke  from  off 
:hpir  necks  by  a  great  victory  over  Ethelbald 
it  Burford  in  752.     At  the  same  time  they 
j^vc  two  examples  that  have  not  been  lost 
)n    their    posterity — in    672    they    took    a 
woman  for  their  ruler,  Sexborh,  Kenwalch's 
Bvidow,  and  in  755  they  dethroned  Cuthred's 
successor,    Sigebert,    after    he    had  reigned 
i    yojiT.     Ina,   too,  added  to  the  bishopric 
>f  Winchester,  founded  by  Kenwalch,  that 
>f    Sherborne,   of  which  ttie  see  was  later 
>n    shifted    to    Salisbury.     This  <  stage    of 
West  Saxon  history  closed  with  800,  when 
Ep^bcrt  came  to  the  throne.     Feared  by  his 
[>r(Mlecessor,  Brihtric,  he  had  passed  several 
yrears    in    exile    near    Charlemagne,  and   is 
thought  to  have  profited  greatly  thereby.     It 
Bvas  his  fate  not  only  to  extend  the  kingdom, 
ind  bring  it  once  more  to  the  front,  but  also 
to  raise  it  to  the  lordship  of  the  other  king- 
loms  and  states.     In  his  daj'B  Wessex  reached 
the  Tamar,  the  invading  Mercians  were  over- 
thrown at  Ellandun  in  823,  and  their  sceptre 
wa.M  wrested  from  them,  while  the  aggressive 
Danes  and  the  Comishmen  were  beaten  in  a 


great  battle  at  Hengestdown  in  835.  Between 
823  and  828  every  other  people  south  of  the 
Tweed  bad  been  annexed  to  or  made  depend- 
ent on  the  West  Saxons.  The  Danish  wars 
gave  a  new  turn  to  the  growth  of  Wessex. 
Under  Alfred  she  was  virtually  stripped  of 
her  external  supremacy,  but  her  immediate 
territorv  was  much  increased.  The  impulse 
thus  gamed  continued  under  Alfred's  son  and 
grandsons,  till  Wessex  far  outgrew  its  name, 
and  lost  itself  in  the  English  kingdom,  but 
her  distinguishing  legal  customs,  the  Jf^ett- 
»$axnalagej  survived  till  Henr^'  II.  reduced 
English  law  to  a  uniform  system. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle;  Elton,  Origin$  of 
EnglUh  Jligtory ;  Ghreen,  The  UaJeing  of  England; 
Lappenberg,  Anglo-Saxon  Kings ;  Freeman,  Nor- 
man  ConquHt.  fj.  R.] 

Kiiros  OP  Wbssex. 

Cerdio 519-.534 

Cynric 534-560 

Ceawlin 560—501 

Ceohic 501-507 

Ceolwulf 507-611 

Cynegils 611-648 

Cenwealh 643—672 

Bezbnrh  (Queen)      .       ...  672— 67S 

JBscwine 674—^6 

Centwine 676—685 

Ceadwalla 685— 6»8 

Ine 688-726 

Ethelhazd 726—741 

Cuthied 741-754 

Sigebert 754—755 

Cynewulf 755—784  » 

Bertric 784—800 

Egbert 800    836 

Ethel  wulf 836-858 

Ethelbald 858-860 

Ethelbert 860-866 

Ethelred 866—871 

Alfred 871-901 

Edward  the  Elder    .        .        .  901—925 

West  African  Colonies  and  Settle- 
ments, The,  consist  of  those  on  the  Gambia, 
the  Gold  Coast,  Lagos,  and  Sierra  Leone. 
They  are  all  crown  colonies — that  is,  the  crown 
has  entire  control  over  the  administration. 
(I)  The  Gambia  was  first  colonised  after 
1618 ;  a  patent  having  been  granted  to  some 
Exeter  merchants  by  Elizabeth  to  trade  in 
the  district.  Its  trade  chiefly  consisted  in 
slaves,  and  its  white  population  has  greatly 
decreased  since  tho  abolition  of  slavery. 
Until  1843  it  was  subject  to  Sierra  Leone.  It 
became  a  portion  of  the  government  of  We^t 
Africa  settlements  by  charter  in  1843,  and  an 
independent  colony  in  1 888.  (2)  Sierra  Leone 
was  at  first  settled  solely  with  negi'oes.  It 
became  a  British  colony  in  1787,  and  haM 
since  been  maintained  for  the  suppression  of 
the  slave-trade.  (3)  The  Gold  Coast  was 
first  visited  by  Englishmen  in  1591.  It  be- 
came the  possession  of  the  African  Company 
of  merchants  in  1750,  and  they  ceded  it  to 
the  crown  in  1820.  Several  times  during 
this  century  the  English  protectorate  over 
the  tribes  of  the  interior  has  caused  us  to 
come  into  collision  with  the  Ashantoes,  the 
last  occasion  being  in  1896,  when  their 
country  was  annexed.     In   1872   the  Dutch 


(  1064  ) 


Wm 


BOrrendered  all  their  settlements  on  the  Gold 
Ooast  to  England.  The  Gold  Coast  became 
an  independent  colony  in  1874.  (4)  Lagos, 
originally  belonging  to  the  King  of  Dahomey, 
was  captured  by  the  British  in  1851,  and  the 
slave-trade  suppressed.  It  was  formally  ceded 
by  liie  king  in  1861.  A  British  protectorate 
was  established  over  the  Niger  Coast  in  1884. 

WestbOTTy  RicHA&D  Bethell,  Lobd 
{b.  1800,  d.  1873),  was  the  son  of  a  physician 
at  Bristol ;  he  was  educated  at  Wadham  Col- 
lege, Oxford.  He  was  called  to  the  bar  (1823), 
and  soon  acquired  an  extensive  practice. 
He  obtained  distinguished  success  as  advocate 
for  Brasenose  College  in  a  suit  which  brought 
him  a  continually  increasing  practice,  and  in 
1840  he  became  a  Queen's  Counsel.  In  1847 
he  unsuccessfully  contested  Shaftesbury  in 
the  Liberal  interest.  In  1861  he  was  more 
successful,  and  was  returned  for  Aylesbury 
as  a  "  Liberal,  favourable  to  the  ballot  and 
the  abolition  of  Church  rates.'*  In  1859  he 
was  elected  for  Wolverhampton,  which  he 
continued  to  represent  till  he  waa  called  to 
the  Upper  House.  In  Dec,  1852,  he  became 
Solicitor-General  under  the  Coalition  govern- 
ment of  Lord  Aberdeen.  His  services  at 
this  time  were  of  much  use  to  Mr.  Gladstone 
in  carrying  the  Succession  Duty  Bill,  many 
of  the  points  in  which  were  so  intricate  and 
so  strictly  technical,  that  no  one  but  an  equity 
lawyer  could  have  explained  them  properly  to 
the  House.  The  success  in  fact  was  in  the  main 
due  to  Sir  Richard  Bethell,  who  also  took  an 
active  part  about  the  same  time  in  carrying 
the  bills  for  reforming  the  University  of 
Oxford,  and  for  abolishing  the  Ecclesiastical 
Courts.  In  the  winter  of  1866 — 7  Sir 
Richard  became  Attorney-General.  It  be- 
came his  duty  to  introduce  and  cany  through 
the  House  the  Probate  and  Administration 
Act  and  the  Divorce  Act,  and  this  duty  he 
discharged  effectually  and  successfully.  When 
the  new  Court  of  Probate  and  Matrimonial 
Causes  was  formed,  the  judgeship  was  first 
offered  by  Lord  Palmerston  to  Sir  Richard 
Bethell,  who,  however,  refused  it.  In  1867  he 
carried  successfully  through  the  House  of 
Conmions  another  important  measure,  the 
Fraudulent  Trustees  Bill.  He  had  a  large 
share  in  the  preparation  of  the  Conspiracy  to 
Murder  BiU  of  1858,  which  caused  the  re- 
tirement of  Lord  Palmerston's  Cabinet  from 
office.  In  1861,  on  the  death  of  Lord  Camp- 
bell, the  Great  Seal  was  offered  to  Sir  Richara, 
and  he  took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords  as 
Lord  Westburj',  having  previously  carried 
the  Bankruptcy  Bill  of  1861  through  the 
Lower  House.  In  the  summer  of  1865  some 
scandalous  proceedings  which  it  was  thought 
he  ought  to  have  detected  and  checked^  were 
brought  to  light  in  connection  with  the  Leeds 
Bankruptcy  Court,  and  in  consequence  of 
these,  and  of  an  adverse  motion  in  the  House 
of  Commons,  he  resigned  the  Great  Seal  in 


the  July  of  that  year.  From  that  date  down 
to  his  death,  Lord  Weetbury  constanUj 
took  part  in  the  decision  of  Appeals  brought 
before  the  House  of  Lords,  and  as  Arbitrator 
in  delicate  and  important  commercial 


Westminster  Abbey  was  commenced 

by  Edward  the  Confessor  in  1049,  and  ctm- 
secrated  in  Dec.,  1065.  The  rebuilding  wu 
commenced  by  Henry  III.  in  1220,  and  the 
chapter  house  begun  in  1250.  In  1256  Par- 
liament first  met  in  the  chapter  house  at 
Westminster,  and  their  last  sitting  in  this 
building  was  in  Jan.,  1547.  The  sanctuary 
rights  of  the  abbey  were  abolished  in  1602. 
In  1739  the  Western  Tower  was  finished,  and 
in  1808 — 22  the  abbey  was  repaired  and 
partly  reconstructed.  The  restoration  of  the 
chapter  house  was  began  in  1866  and  finished 
in  1871.  The  altar  screen  was  restored  in 
1867. 

Westminster  Assembly,  The,  was 

convoked  by  order  of  the  Long  Parliament 
in  the  sunmier  of  1643,  to  consider  the  con- 
dition of  the  Church,  as  *'  many  things  in  it» 
liturgy,  discipline,  and  govenmient  reqnir^i 
further  and  more  perfect  refonnatioii.*'  It 
met  on  July  1,  and,  after  a  sermon  from  Dr. 
Twiss,  the  Prolocutor,  began  its  sessions  in 
Henry  VII.'s  chapel,  whence  it  afterwards 
removed  to  the  Jerusalem  Chamber.  Th<r 
assembly  consisted  of  both  lay  and  clerical 
members,  and  was  never  very  ntmieroos — 
about  sixty  attending  its  ordinary  sittings. 
The  great  majority  of  the  assembly  werv 
inclined  to  Presbvterianism,  and  manT  of 
them  profoundly  convinced  of  its  Divine 
Right.  This  party  was  further  streng^thened 
when  political  necessities  involved  a  dose 
alliance  with  the  Scots,  and  compelled  the 
assembly  to  accept  the  Solemn  League  and 
Covenant,  and  to  add  to  its  numbers  Hender- 
son, Baillio,  and  other  commissioners  of  the 
General  Assembly  of  the  Scottish  Church. 
Their  predominance  was  further  assured 
when  the  moderate  Episcopalians,  the  ad- 
vocates of  '*  Ussher's  model,"  including  the 
archbishop  himself,  either  refused  to  sit  or 
withdrew  from  the  assembly.  But  a  sanall 
though  extremely  energetic  and  intelligent 
opposition,  consisting  partly  of  "  Erastians.** 
like  the  lawyers  Selden,  St.  John,  and  White- 
locke ;  and  the  divines,  Coleman,  and,  to  some 
extent,  lightfoot ;  and  partly  of  Independents, 
like  the  "dissenting  brethren,"  Vane,  Nye. 
Goodwin,  Bridge,  Burroughs,  and  Simpson. 
Bux^ss,  Calamy,  Marshall,  and  Ash,  were, 
with  the  Scots,  the  most  &moas  of  the 
Presbyterian  party.  After  1645  Charks 
Herle  was  its  Prolocutor.  The  debates  ol 
the  assembly  extended  over  nearly  all  possible 
subjects  of  theology.  From  July,  1643,  to 
the  summer  of  1647  it  pursued  its  way  un- 
interrupted. It  spent  much  time  on  the 
revision  of  the  Articles,  which  involred 
endless  theological  discussion.    It  supezsedsd 


Wes 


(  lOM  ) 


Wm 


the  Prayer  Book  by  the  Directory  of  HiiUe 
Wonhip,  It  did  ita  best  to  establish  a  rigid 
Fresbyterial  organisation^  slightly  modified 
by  a  few  insigniticant  concessions  to  the  In- 
dependents, and,  pending  its  establishment, 
it  took  upon  itself  the  function  of  ordaining 
ministers.  It  drew  up  the  celebrated  Wett^ 
mituter  Confusum  of  Faith  with  the  Longer 
and  Shorter  Gatedusms,  which  have  sinoe 
remained  the  authoritative  expositions  of 
British  Presbyterianism.  Possessing  no  direct 
power,  it  was  necessarily  somewhat  depen- 
dent on  the  Parliament  to  which  it  owed 
its  ezistendls ;  though  this  did  not  prevent 
the  active  section  exalting  the  spiritual 
power  so  highly  as  to  oall  down  upon 
the  assembly  the  threat  of  an  action  for 
jMrmmunire.  After  the  summer  of  1647,  the 
retirement  of  the  Soots  marked  the  ending  of 
the  main  business  of  the  Assembly.  But  up 
to  the  spring  in  1662  a  small  number  of  its 
divines  continued  to  meet  for  the  purpose  of 
■examining  candidates  for  ordination,  until 
Cromwell's  dissolution  of  the  Romp  led  to 
their  silent  disappearance  without  formal  dis- 
missaL  Despite  their  narrowness  and  bigotry, 
the  members  of  the  Westminster  Assembly 
liad  shown  much  learning  and  zeal,  and  some 
moderation,  in  a  critical  and  arduous  duty. 

Hetherington,  Sidory  of  i\t  "WtAwxMAM 
Jssembiy;  Boshwortli,  C<Xi»d,ionA;  Lightfoot, 
Joumai/  BaiUie,  LMvn;  Neal,  J7«rtory  0/ the 
Funtofu;  StooffhtoiL  i{c2«aion  xti  fnflond. 

[T.  F.  T.] 

Wdstminster.  Matthbw  of  {ji,  circa 
1325),  was  a  Beneoictine  monk.  His  Fhret 
HUtoriarum  begins  with  the  creation  of  the 
world,  and  en£  with  the  year  1307.  The 
first  part,  an  abridgment  of  the  Bible  and  a 
sketch  of  Koman  history,  is  of  no  worth, 
and  his  description  of  the  beginaings  of 
English  history  shows  a  strong  inclination  to 
the  marvellous.  His  account  of  the  Norman 
kinffs,  chiefly  based  on  Boger  of  Wendover, 
is,  however,  very  careful,  but  the  most  valu- 
able part  of  his  chronicle  is  that  dealing  with 
the  reigns  of  John,  Henry  III.,  and  Edward  I. 
He  seems  throughout  to  have  been  an  accurate 
and  paiastaking  writer.  Matthew  of  West- 
minster, more  sinned  against  than  sinning, 
was  the  source  of  numerous  compilations  in 
the  following  century.  An  edition  of  the 
Florec  Sittoriarum  was  published  in  1870, 
and  there  is  an  English  translation  of  them 
l>y  G.  D.  Yonge  in  Bohn's  Antiquarian 
Xabrary. 

Westminster,  Thb  Fibst  Statute  of 
<1275),  was  one  of  the  earliest  of  Edward  I.'s 
great  legal  measures,  and  was  a  measure 
of  reform  and  consolidation.  It  contains 
fifty-one  clauses,  and  covers  the  whole  ground 
of  legislation,  so  that,  as  Dr.  Stubbs  says,  it 
is  *'fumost  a  code  in  itsell"  Its  lang^nage 
now  recalls  that  of  Canute  or  Alfred,  now 
anticipates  that  of  our  own  day :  on  the  one 
hand  common  right  is  to  be  done  to  all,  as 
HX1T.-34* 


well  poor  as  rich,  without  respect  of  persons ; 
on  the  other,  elections  are  to  be  free,  and  no 
man  is  bv  force,  malice,  or  menace  to  disturb 
them.  The  spirit  of  the  Great  Charter  is 
not  less  discernible ;  excessive  amerce^lents, 
abuses  of  wardship,  irregular  demands  for 
feudal  aids,  are  forbidden  m  the  same  words, 
or  by  amending  enactments.  The  inquiry 
svstem  of  Henry  II.,  the  law  of  wreck,  and 
the  institution  01  coroner's  measures  of  Richard 
and  his  ministers,  come  under  review,  as  well 
as  the  Provisions  of  Oxford,  and  the  Statute 
of  Marlborough. 

Stubbs,  CoiuC.  EigL  and  Stl«ct  Charter^ 

Westmmsterf  Thb  Second  Statttb 
OF  (1265),  like  the  preceding,  is  rather  a  code 
than  a  simple  statute.  It  contains  the  famous 
article  J)e  Donia  Conditionalibua,  alters  and 
improves  the  laws  relating  to  manorial  juris- 
dictions, trial  of  criminals,  the  rights  of  com- 
monage, dower,  and  advowsons. 

Westminster,  The  Provisions  of 
(1259),  were  drawn  up  in  accordance  with  the 
plan  prescribed  by  the  Provisions  of  Oxford 
(q.v.).  They  were  republished  by  Henry  III. 
in  1262,  and  again  in  1264,  during  his  cap- 
tivity. They  were  subsequently  embodied  m 
the  Statute  of  Marlborough  (1267).  They  pro- 
vide for  the  orderly-  inheritance  of  property, 
forbid  the  disparaging  marriage  of  wards,  and 
the  granting  'of  lands,  &c.,  to  aliens ;  the 
offices  of  state  and  the  fortresses  are  to  be  put 
into  the  hands  of  Englishmen  only ;  eccle- 
siastics shall  not  acquire  any  land  without  the 
sanction  of  the  immediate  lord,  and  benefit  of 
clergy  is  limited. 

Westminster    Sail    "was    built   by 

William  Bufus  in  1097—99.  It  was  used  for 
sittings  of  the  courts  of  law  in  1224.  Richard 
II.  had  the  hall  rebuUt  in  1397.  The  law 
courts,  which  had  been  attached  to  the  out- 
side walls  of  the  hall,  were  taken  down  in 
1884  after  the  completion  of  the  Boyal  Palace 
ol  Justice  in  the  Strand. 

WestmorlAndf  Chablbs  Neville, 
Eakl  of  {d,  1584),  one  of  the  most  power- 
ful Catholic  nobles  of  Elizabeth*  s  reign, 
though  a  man  devoid  of  talent,  was  a  leader 
in  the  Northern  Bebellion  of  1569,  and 
achieved  the  only  success  in  the  insurrection 
by  the  capture  of  Barnard  Castle  from  Sir 
Greorge  Bowes.  On  the  collapse  of  the  move- 
ment he  made  his  escape  to  the  border,  and 
in  spite  of  many  attempts  to  seize  him, 
managed,  with  better  fortune  than  the  £arl 
of  Northumberland,  to  find  an  asylum  with 
the  Duke  of  Alva  in  the  Netherlands,  where  he 
dragged  out  a  tedious  existence  in  poverty 
and  obscurity,  barely  supplied  with  the  ne- 
cessaries of  life  by  a  slenaer  pension  from  the 
King' of  Spain. 

WestmorlAndf  Ralph  Neville,  Eakl 
OF  (d,  1425),  was  the  son  of  John,  Lord 
Neville.    In  1386  he  was  made  Guardian  al 


Wet 


(1066  ) 


the  West  Marchee,  and  in  1399  Earl  of  West^ 
morland.  He  joined  Bolingbroke  on  his 
landing  in  England,  and  was  by  him  created 
Earl  Marahal.  He  fought  for  Henry  lY. 
against  the  Perdes;  prevented  the  'EbltI  of 
Northumberland  from  joining  his  son  Hot- 
spur ;  checked  the  incursions  of  the  Scots,  and 
by  gT06s  treachery  got  Archbishop  8crope, 
the  Earl  of  Nottingham,  and  other  partisans 
of  the  Perdes  into  his  hands.  He  married 
first  Marffaret,  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Staf- 
ford ;  and  secondly,  Joan  Beaufort,  daughter 
of  John  of  Ghiunt. 

Wetherelly  Sir  Charles  (b,  1770,  d, 
1846),  was  the  son  of  the  Very  Kev.  Nathan 
Wetherell,  Dean  of  Hereford.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  and  was 
called  to  the  bar  (1794|.  His  friendship  with 
Lord  Eldon,  who  received  the  Q-reat  Seal  in 
1801 ,  stood  him  in  good  stead.  His  practice  in- 
creased continually,  and  in  1816  he  was  made 
king's  counseL  In  1817  he  undertook  the 
defence  of  Watson  after  the  Spa  Fields  Riots, 
but  this  proceeding  did  not  further  his 
chances  of  promotion.  In  1818  he  was 
elected  M.P.  for  Shaftesbury,  but  never 
acquired  any  great  influence  with  the  House. 
From  1820  to  1826  he  represented  the  city  of 
Oxford.  From  1826  to  1830  he  sat  for 
Plympton;  and  in  1830  he  was  elected  for 
Boroughbridge,  which  was  disfranchised  by 
the  Reform  Bill.  He  then  retired  from  Par- 
liament. In  1824  he  was  appointed  Solidtor- 
General  by  the  Earl  of  Liverpool;  and  in 
1826  he  succeeded  to  the  Attomey-Greneral- 
ship,  an  office  which  he  did  not,  however,  hold 
longer  than  till  April  30  the  following  year.  In 
1828  he  again  became  Attorney -Gkneral  under 
the  Duke  of  Wellington,  but  resigned  when 
the  government  accepted  the  Catholic  Relief 
Act.  He  opposed  lK>rd  Grey's  Reform  Bill 
with  the  greatest  ability  and  perseverance,  and 
in  consequence  became  extremely  impopular 
in  the  country.  In  1831,  therefore,  when  he 
proceeded  to  Bristol  to  hold  the  October 
Sessions  as  Recorder  of  the  town,  his  carriage 
was  surrounded  by  an  infuriated  mob,  and  he 
and  the  other  corporate  authorities  were 
pelted  with  stones.  Sir  Charles  retained  his 
office,  however,  in  spite  of  this,  till  his  death, 
which  was  due  to  an  accident  when  out 
dri\-ing. 

Wexford  was  frequently  the  scene  of 
conflict  in  Irish  wars  and  rebellions.  It  was 
taken  by  Fitzgerald  and  Fitzstaple  in  1169. 
In  1462  it  was  seized  by  Sir  John  Butler,  and 
recovered  by  the  Earl  of  Ormonde.  *  In  the 
autumn  of  1641  it  was  captured  by  the  Irish 
rebels.  Cromwell  fmpeared  before  Wexford 
after  the  capture  of  Drogheda  in  1649,  and  he 
refused  to  grant  the  terms  demanded  by  the 
governor,  and  demanded  an  -  unconditional 
surrender,  giving  only  an  hour  for  reflection. 
The  gates  were  not  opened  at  the  end  of  the 
hour   granted,  and  the  town  was  at  once 


stonnad.  Some  3,000  or  4,000  pec^le  wen 
massacred  (Oct.  9, 1649).  It  was  in  Wexford 
that  tiie  rebellion  of  1798  assumed  its  msH 
dangerous  form.  It  broke  out  on  May  26, 
and  the  troops  were  defeated  in  rapid  sao 
cession  at  Onlast,  Enniscorthy,  and  aft  the 
Three  Rocks.  In  consequence  of  this  laai 
defeat,  General  Fawcett,  who  had  been  ad- 
vancing to  support  Maxwell,  who  commanded 
in  Wexford,  retreated,  and  on  the  31st  Max- 
well himself  had  to  follow  his  example,  his 
men  refusing  to  fight.  The  Protestanft  in- 
habitants and  fugitives  had  fled  to  the  ships 
in  the  harbour,  but  were  brought  back  and 
thrown  into  prison.  After  the  rebel  defeat 
at  New  Roes  the  Protestants  were  given  a 
choice  between  conversion  to  Catholicism 
and  death.  On  June  20  ninety-aeven  Pro- 
testants were  murdered  after  a  mock  tiiaL 
The  nominal  leader  of  the  rebels  was  Bageoal 
Harvey,  but  the  real  leader  a  priest  named 
Murphy.  Lake'a  victory  at  Vinegar  Hill 
(June  21,  1798)  crushed  the  Wexford  re- 
bellion, and  the  insurgents  evacuated  the 
town  the  same  day. 

Whalley,  Edward  (d.  eirca  1679),  was  a 
member  of  an  ancient  Nottinghamshire  famihr, 
and  a  first  cousin  of  Oliver  CromwelL  He 
joined  the  Parliamentary  army,  and  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  bravery  at  Nasebv, 
for  which  he  was  made  a  colonel  of  hone. 
During  Charles  I.'s  imprisonment  at  Hamptoii 
Court  he  was  placed  in  WhaUey*s  chuge. 
In  1656  he  was  made  one  of  the  major-generals, 
and  subsequently  one  of  the  "  lords  '*  of  Crom- 
well's Upper  House.  He  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  trial  of  the  king,  and  was  one  of 
those  who  sipped  the  death  warrant.  Wboi 
the  Restoration  was  inevitable  he  fled  to 
America,  where  he  led  a  life  of  danger,  having 
continually  to  hide  in  the  woods  and  among 
Puritan  friends,  who  protected  him  from  the 
warrant  which  had  been  issued  against  him. 

Whalley.  Richard,  one  of  the  most  un- 
scrupulous adherents  of  Protector  Somerset, 
was  receiver-general  in  Yorkshire,  where  be 
managed  to  appropriate  a  good  deal  of  the 
public  money.  In  1551  he  was  accused  of 
having  formed  a  plot  for  the  restoration  of 
the  I^tector. 

WliamcliiFey  Jaices  Sttart  Wobtlet 
Mackenzie,  Baron  (h.  1776,  d.  1845),  was 
the  grandson  of  the  third  Earl  of  Bute.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Charterhouse,  entered 
the  army  in  1791,  and  quitted  it  in  1801,  after 
having  obtained  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
coloneL  In  1797  he  was  elected  to  Par- 
liament for  the  borough  of  Bossiney  in  Coni- 
waU.  In  1812,  after  the  failure  of  many 
ministerial  negotiations,  he  was  chosen  to 
move  an  address  to  the  Prince  Repent,  piay- 
ing  that  he  would  form  a  strong  and  efficient 
ministry.  In  1818  he  succeeded  to  his  large 
inheritance,  and  was  elected  for  Yorkshire, 
which  he  represented  till  1826y  when,  having 


Wha 


(  1067  ) 


Wha 


offended  his  constituents  by  his  opinions  on 
the  Catholic  question,  he  was  not  re-elected. 
He  was,  however,  elevated  to  the  peerage. 
He  strenuously  opposed  the  Reform  Bill  in 
1831,  but  was  reconciled  to  it  later  by  Earl 
Grey.  He  opposed  the  Whigs  as  long  as 
they  were  in  power,  but  when  Sir  H.  Peel 
was  recalled  from  Italy  (Nov.,  1834)  to  form 
a  Conservative  government,  he  took  office  as 
Lord  Privy  Se^,  which  he  held  till  April, 
1835.  In  1841,  on  the  return  of  Peel  to  power. 
Lord  Whamcliffe  became  President  of  the 
Council. 

WhartOllf  Philip,  Dvkb  of  {b.  1699,  d, 
1731),  son  of  Thomas,  Marquis  of  Wharton, 
early  displayed  extraordinaiy  talents,  com- 
bined witn  an  utterly  dissolute  and  unprin- 
cipled character.  In  1716  he  went  abroad 
and  had  interviews  with  the  Pretender  and 
queen-dowager,  and  offered  them  his  ser- 
vices. He  sat  in  the  Irish  Parliament  as 
a  Whig,  but  on  coming  to  England  he  passed 
into  Opposition.  His  talents  were  employed  in 
publishing  an  Opposition  paper,  known  as  the 
True  Briton.  In  1720  his  violent  attack  on 
Lord  Stanhope  and  the  ministry,  when  the 
South  Sea  Company  was  under  discussion,  so 
enraged  that  statesman  as  to  cause  a  rush  of 
blood  to  his  head,  which  proved  fatal.  [Stan- 
hope.] Wharton  made  a  fine  speech  in  1722 
in  defence  of  Atterbury.  Shortly  afterwards 
his  debts  compelled  him  to  leave  England.  He 
'went  to  Spain,  where  he  openly  attached  him- 
self to  the  Pretender's  cause,  and  was  created 
by  him  Buke  of  Northumberland.  He  became 
a  pretended  convert  to  Roman  Catholicism. 
At  this  time  the  schemes  of  Ripperda,  the 
Spanish  minister,  had  resulted  in  a  close 
alliance  between  Spain  and  Austria,  while  by 
a  secret  treaty  these  powers  pledged  themselves 
to  assist  the  restoration  of  the  Stuarts.  But 
the  imprudence  of  Wharton  and  Ripperda 
ruined  the  plan.  Wharton  had  so  far  cast 
aside  his  nationality  as  to  become  a  volunteer 
in  the  siege  of  Gibraltar.  In  1728  he  tried 
to  be  reconciled  with  the  English  court,  but 
they,  through  Horace  Walpole,  refused  to 
remit  the  indictment  for  high  treason  which 
bad  been  preferred  against  him.  His  character 
has  been  drawn  in  Pope's  lines : — 

"  Wharton,  the  scorn  and  wonder  of  our  days, 
Whose  ruling  passion  was  the  last  of  praise. 
•  •««•• 

A  fool,  with  more  of  wit  than  half  mankind ; 
Too  rash  for  thonght— for  action  too  refin'd ; 
A  tyrant  to  the  wife  his  heart  approves  ; 
A  rehel  to  the  very  king  he  loves." 

Whartoiit  Thomas,  Marqvis  of  (b,  1640, 
<f.  17 15),  was  the  son  of  Philip,  Lord  Wharton, 
who  had  fought  on  the  side  of  the  Parlia- 
ment in  the  Civil  War.  He  was  educated 
in  the  strictest  Calvinism,  but  neverthe- 
less became  one  of  the  most  dissolute  of  the 
Cavaliers  at  the  Restoration.  He  was,  how- 
ever,  throughout  his  life  a  firm  adherent  of 
the  Whig  party.    In  1685  he  was  elected  for 


Buckinghamshire,  where  his  political  influence 
was  very  great.  It  is  said  that  in  this  and 
other  counties  he  sent  thirty  members  to 
Parliament.  He  wus  one  of  the  boldest  op- 
ponents of  James  II.  When  James  repri- 
manded the  Commons  on  the  subject  of  the 
Test  Act,  Wharton  proposed  that  a  time  should - 
be  appointed  for  taking  the  king's  answer 
into  consideration.  By  his  song  <*Lilli- 
bullero"  (q.v.),  a  satire  on  TyrconnePs  ad- 
ministration, Wharton  afterwards  boasted  that 
he  had  sung  a  kins  out  of  three  kingdoms. 
On  the  arri\^  of  Wuliam  in  England  Wharton 
joined  him  at  Exeter.  When  the  throne  was 
declared  vacant,  Wharton  was  the  first  to 
propose  that  it  should  be  occupied  by  William 
and  Mary.  In  1695  he  conducted  an  attack 
on  the  Tory  ministry.  A  committee  was  ap- 
pointed to  examine  the  books  of  the  city  of 
London  and  the  East  India  Company.  He 
was  placed  in  the  chair;  and  the  leeuH  of 
the  inquiry  moved  the  impeachment  of  the 
Duke  of  Leeds.  In  1696  he  supported  the 
bill  for  Fenwick*8  attainder,  which  caused  the 
Whigs  to  triumph  completely.  He  was  made 
Chief  Justice  in  Eyre,  retaining  his  place  of 
Comptroller  of  the  Household.  In  1697  he 
hoped  to  be  made  Secretary  of  State ;  but 
William  refused  to  grant  the  request,  for  fear 
of  alienating  the  lories.  Next  year  a  Tory 
reaction  set  in,  and  Wharton's  candidates 
were  defeated  throughout  England.  In  1700 
he  proposed  amendments  in  the  bill  for  the 
resumption  of  Irish  land  grants.  A  struggle 
took  place  between  the  Lords  and  Commons ; 
but  the  former  yielded,  and  Wharton  retired 
from  London.  In  1701  he  regained  all  his 
influence  in  Buckinghamshire.  On  the  acces- 
sion of  Anne  he  was  removed  from  his  em- 
plo\anents.  In  1705  he  proposed  a  Regency 
Bill  in  the  case  of  the  queen's  demise.  In 
1708,  after  the  Junto  had  joined  Godolphin's 
ministry,  he  was  made  Lord- Lieutenant  of 
Ireland.  There  he  showed  great  hostility  to 
the  Catholics,  but  was  disi>06ed  to  conciliate 
the  Dissenters.  He  was  superseded  by  Ormonde 
in  1710.  His  administration  was  bitterly  at- 
^  tacked  by  Swift,  whose  Short  Character  of  the 
Earl  of  Wharton  is  a  satire  of  the  most  savage 
character.  During  the  last  session  of  Anne's 
Parliament  he  displayed  great  seal  for  the 
Protestant  Succession.  He  opposed  Boling- 
broke's  Schism  Act ;  he  proposed  that  the 
Duke  of  Lorraine  should  be  compelled  to  expel 
the  Pretender  from  his  dominions ;  h^  advo- 
cated the  issuing  of  a  proclamation  offering  a 
reward  for  the  apprehension  of  the  Pretender, 
whether  dead  or  alive.  On  the  accession  of 
George  he  was  made  Lord  Privy  Seal,  and 
created  a  marquis.  In  the  next  ^ear  he  died. 
Wharton's  private  character  was  irredeemably 
bad.     He  was  notorious  as  the  g^reatest  profli- 

£te  in  England,  and  his  effrontery  and  men- 
city  had  no  bounds.  He  was  the  most 
thorough-going  and  unscrupulous  of  all  the 
Whig  party  men  of  the  age.    **■  The  falsest  of 


Whe 


(  1068  ) 


wu 


mankmd  in  all  relations  but  one :  he  was  the 

truest  of  Whigs/'  says  Macaulay. 

Burnet,  Hitt.  (^hi$  Own  Ttm«;  Swift's  Works, 
Tol.  T. ;  Macaulay,  if  tat.  iff  Bng. 

Whetkanutede,  John  of  (d.  1464),  was 
Abbot  of  St.  Albans,  and  wrote  a  chronicle 
or  reg^ter  of  events  from  1441  to  1460. 
Though  a  very  meagre  record,  owing  to  the 
dearth  of  contemporary  writers  at  this  period, 
this  chronicle  is  of  considerable  importance, 
and  is  published  in  the  Bolls  Series. 

Wlliff .  This  famous  party  name  was  first 
nsed  todonote  the  stem  Covenanters  of  south- 
western Scotland,  who  struggled  against  the 
Bovalist  and  Episcopal  Re^ration  of  1660, 
and  frequently  rose  in  fruitless  revolt  against 
the  government  of  Charles  II.  About  1679, 
during  tiie  height  of  the  Popish  Plot  agitation, 
the  name  was  applied  to  the  champions  of  the 
Exclusion  Bill,  at  first  in  derision,  but  before 
long  as  their  accepted  name.  The  Whig  part^ 
had,  however,  existed  in  fact  long  before  it 
existed  in  name.  It  sprang  from  the  old 
Country  party,  which  had  begun  the  contest 
with^  dharles  I.,  and  had,  with  varying  for- 
tunes, continued  to  struggle  against  his  son. 
In  this  sense  the  germ  of  the  Whig  party  is 
almost  as  old  as  the  end  of  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth.  Proscribed  after  the  failure  of  the 
Exclusion  Bill,  the  Whig  party  found  their 
principles  accepted  by  nearly  the  whole  nation 
in  1688.  The  accession  of  the  house  of 
Hanover  completed  a  triumph  which  lasted 
until  the  accession  of  G^eorge  III.  During 
this  long  period  of  power  the  Whigs  became 
conservative.  Those  who  had  bera.  zealous 
for  the  old  liberties  of  the  nation,  for  Magna 
Carta,  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act,  and  the  "  Social 
Contract,'*  now  regarded  the  Revolution,  the 
Toleration  Act,  and  the  Bill  of  Rights  as  in- 
cluding all  the  most  important  of  their  prin- 
ciples. All  now  needed  was  to  preserve  the 
admirable  constitution  which  the  Revolution 
had  ^iven  us,  and  to  ^vem  the  country  in 
its  spirit.  The  opposition  to  the  crown  had 
always  been  led  by  the  aristocracy.  The 
triumph  of  the  opposition  made  the  English 
government  a  "Venetian  oligarch^,*'  while 
reducing  the  sovereign  to  the  position  of  the 
doge.  Of  this  party  in  its  earliest  stage,  Locke 
was  the  great  teacher ;  Somers  and  Walpole, 
perhaps,  the  gpreatest  practical  statesmen. 
But  the  long  tenure  of  power  demoralised  the 
party,  so  that  from  being  stationary  it  be- 
came almost  reactionary,  while  most  corrupt 
in  its  administration.  Attacked  both  from 
the  popular  and  royalist  sides  by  Chatham 
and  George  III.,  the  want  of  agreement 
between  the  two  elements  of  opposition,  and 
the  narrowly  personal  character  of  Greorge 
IXI.'s  policy,  postponed  for  a  time  its  final 
defeat.  At  last  Chatham's  son  repudiated 
the  name  of  Whig,  and,  in  alliance  with  the 
crown,  dealt  a  death-blow  to  the  Whig  aristo- 
cracy.   The  writings  of  Burke  enshrine  in  its 


most  perfect  form  the  Whig  theory  of  govo&i 
ment.  But  with  the  French  Revolntion  oev 
political  factors  came  into  play,  which  rert). 
lutionised  again  the  Whig  party.  The  mean- 
ing of  the  term  changed.  **  Revolution 
"^niigs,"  like  Burke,  became  practicallyToriei 
The  more  active  section  of  the  party  becune 
Liberal,  if  not  RadicaL  Fox  was  the  fotrnder 
of  the  New  Whigs,  whose  first  principle  mi 
admiration  of  the  French  Revolution,  and 
who  were  the  progenitors  of  the  modern 
Liberal  party.  Their  principles  triumphed  in 
the  Reform  Bill  of  1832  ;  but  once  in  power 
the  aristocratic  and  conservative  elemait 
which  still  remained  in  the  Whig  party  began 
to  show  itself  again  to  the  disgust  of  the  more 
advanced  section  of  the  Ref  onneis.  Gndnall; 
the  word  Whig  became  so  discredited  tlut 
Whig  progressists  preferred  to  bonowfroa 
Continent^  politicsthe  term  Liberal  asabett«r 
designation  of  their  party.  /  The  devdopment 
of  new  party  principles  by  the  changes  involvvd 
in  the  Reform  Act  completed  the  change.  Ulti- 
mately the  term  Whig  has  become  almoit  a 
term  of  reproach  in  the  great  party  whidi 
has  inherited  its  traditions,  and  is  popolarij 
used  to  denote  a  timid  and  rather  oid-nshioDed 
type  of  aristocratic  politician. 

Cooke,  Higt.  <^ Party t  HaUaauCoHfL  Ei^; 
Majr,  Con$t.  EiaL  [T.  F.  T.] 

Whigmmores'  Baid.  The,  is  the  name 
given  to  tne  proceedings  of  a  body  of  CoTe- 
nanters  (1648^  who  assembled  at  Mauchlinein 
Ayrshire,  unaer  Lord  EgUnton,  and  marched 
to  Edinburgh. 

WMtlmad,  Samuel  (*.  1758,/  1815], 
was  the  son  of  a  London  brewer,  his  mother 
being  a  daughter  of  Lord  ComwiUia,  and 
was  eduoutdd  at  Eton,  and  St.  John's  CoUe^ 
Oxford.  In  1790  he  was  returned  to  Pailia- 
ment  for  Bedford,  and  first  signalised  him- 
self by  a  powerful  speech  in  opposition  to  the 
proposal  of  the  ministry  for  a  Rossian  anna- 
ment.  In  the  following  year  (1793)  he 
^posed  the  project  of  a  war  with  France. 
"Oiroughout  the  lonff  sway  of  Pitt,  V^a^ 
bread  was  one  of  the  foremost  men  among  the 
Opposition.  When  in  1805  the  Oppofition 
decided  to  bring  Lord  Melville  to  acooont, 
Whitbread  was  selected  to  move  thensola- 
tions.  Consistent  in  his  view  of  the  ^ 
policy  throughout,  he  never  ceased  to  invogh 
against  the  rupture  of  the  Peace  of  Amieo*. 
and  broke  with  a  large  section  of  his  ovn 
party,  who  were  at  last  convinced  of  th« 
insincerity  of  Napoleon's  professioDS.  In 
1809  he  took  a  prominent  and  fearlesi  part  is 
the  inquiry  into  the  Duke  of  York's  condnci 
On  Napoleon's  escape  from  Elba,  Whitbread 
again  raised  his  voice  against  any  attonpt 
to  impose  a  ruler  on  France  and  to  interfen 
with  the  choice  of  the  nation.  Unfortona^ 
he  only  lived  just  long  enouflfa  to  see  the  end 
of  a  war  which  he  so  violentiy  detested.  He 
incurred   mneh  odiiun  in   hii  attenpa  t» 


Whi 


(  1069  ) 


Whi 


put  down  the  jobbery  which  had  prevented 

Dmiy  I^uie  Theatre  from    occupying   the 

national  position  which  it  ought  to  have  held. 

The  strain  thus  entailed  on  him,  combined 

with  his    Parliamentary   labours,  were  too 

much  for  him.     His  mind  gaye  way,  and  on 

July  6,  1816,  he  died  by  his  own  hand. 

Lord    HoUaad.   Mtm.   of   tU   Whig   Party; 
SomiUy,  Lif9  ;  JUf*  and  Op%nion$  of  Sari  Orty. 

White,  JoHX,  Bishop  of  Lincoln  and 
afterwards  of  Winchester  (A.  1511,  <f.  1560), 
was  a  strong  opponent  of  the  Beformation, 
and  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  by  Edward 
VI.  Under  Mary  he  obtained  high  fcivour  at 
court,  and  was  one  of  the  commissioners  ap- 

S minted  to  try  Cianmer  for  heresy  (1555). 
n  the  accession  of  Elizabeth  he  was  again 
Bent  to  the  Tower  for  preaching  a  violent 
sermon  against  the  queen. 
Strype,  M9morial$, 

White  Bands,  Thb  Parliament  of 
(1321),  was  the  name  nven  to  the  Parliament 
which  banished  the  Despencers,  from  the 
white  favours  which  were  worn  by  the  ad- 
herents of  the  barons.  * 

Whiteboys,  The.  The  increased  demand 
for  salt  beef  and  salt  butter  in  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  gave  a  great  impetus 
to  the  change  from  tillage  to  pasture  in 
Ireland.  Tithes  aggravated  the  sufferings 
of  the  tenants  which  necessarily  followed  this 
change.  The  Whiteboy  movement  was  the 
result ;  it  was  formidable  chiefly  in  Tipperary 
and  Limerick.  In  the  spring  of  1760  troops 
had  to  be  sent  there  together  with  a  special 
commission  to  try  the  numerous  offenders, 
but  few  were  convicted.  The  leader  of  the 
^Whiteboys  dalled  himself  Captain  Danger, 
and  from  1762  to  1765  his  commands  were 
better  obeyed  and  enforced  than  the  law.  At 
last  the  gentry  formed  bodies  of  Volunteers, 
and  this,  together  with  the  execution  of  a 
certain  Father  Sheehy,  repressed  the  outrages 
for  a  time.  In  1786,  however,  the  White- 
boys  reappeared  in  Munster ;  they  mustered 
in  opposition  to  the  payment  of  tithes,  and 
forced  the  people  to  swear  to  obey  the  Cap- 
tain's right.  They  disarmed  all  Protestants, 
and  committed  terrible  outrages,  especially  on 
curates  and  clergymen  of  the  Established 
Church.  In  1786  they  were  bold  enough  to 
attack  a  detachment  of  the  20th  Begiment ; 
they  were  driven  off  with  some  difficulty,  as 
they  had  managed  to  arm  themselves  with 
the  arms  of  the  Volunteers.  In  the  same 
year  a  special  bill  for  the  "  Protection  of 
the  Clergy"  had  to  be  passed.  General 
Luttrell  was  now  sent  down  with  trooi>s, 
and  he  and  Lord  Tyrone  stopped  the  move- 
ment for  the  moment.  But  soon  after,  the 
High  Sheriff'  bad  to  fly  for  his  life  from  the 
Whiteboys,  and  now  at  last  the  gentry  were 
roused,  and  headed  by  Lord  Kenmare,  a 
Catholic,  hunted  them  down  without  mercy, 


while  shiploads  were  sent  off  to  Botany  Bay. 
After  the  Rebellion  of  1798,  nothing  was 
heard  of  them  for  some  time,  but  in  1821 
they  again  appeared  in  Munster.  The  In- 
surrection Act  checked  them,  but  in  1823 
they  were  worse  than  ever. 

Whitefield.  [See  Appendix.] 

Whitelooke,  Bvlstbods  {b,  1605,  d. 
1676),  son  of  Judge  Sir  James  Whitelocke, 
became  a  student  at  the  Middle  Temple,  and 
was  elected  member  for  Marlow  in  Nov.,  1640. 
At  the  trial  of  the  Earl  of  Strafford,  White- 
locke  had  the  charge  of  the  last  seven  ar- 
ticles of  the  impeachment.  At  the  outbreak 
of  the  war  he  raised  troops,  and  occupied  Ox- 
ford for  the  Parliament  (Aug.,  1642),  but  was 
forced  to  abandon  it  immediately.  He  acted 
as  one  of  the  Commissiouers  for  the  Parlia- 
ment during  the  negotiations  at  Oxford  and 
Uxbridge,  and  was  also  a  member  of  the  West- 
minster Assembly.  In  May,  1647,  he  voted 
against  the  disbanding  of  the  army,  and  in 
March,  1648,  was  appointed  one  of  the  Com- 
missioners of  the  Great  Seal.  Whitelocke 
refused  to  take  part  in  the  preparation  of  the 
Idng's  trial,  but  continued  to  hold  his  place 
under  the  Commonwealth,  and  received  a 
seat  in  the  Council  of  State.  Although  he 
disapproved  of  the  violent  dissolution  of  the 
Parliament,  he  accepted  from  Cromwell  the 
post  of  ambassador  to  Sweden  (Nov.,  1658). 
After  concluding  a  treaty  of  amity  with 
.  Queen  Christina,  he  returned  to  England, 
and  resumed  his  duties  as  Commissioner  for 
the  custody  of  the  Great  Seal.  From  this 
office  he  was  dismissed  (June,  1655),  for 
opposing  Cromwell's  ordinance  for  the  reform 
of  Chancery.  He  was  nominated  as  a  member 
of  Cromwell*s  House  of  Lords,  but  refused  to 
accept  the  title  of  viscount  which  the  Protector 
wished  to  confer  on  him.  Bichard  appointed 
him  Keeper  of  the  Great  Seal,  but  he  never- 
theless became  a  member  of  the  Council  of 
State  of  the  restored  Bump,  and  when  the 
army  and  Parliament  quarrelled,  sided  with 
the  army,  and  attempted  to  raise  a  regiment 
to  oppose  Monk.  He  remained  in  retirement 
from  the  close  of  1659  to  the  final  dissolution 
of  the  Long  Parliament,  and  did  not  offer 
himself  for  election  to  the  Convention.  The 
House  of  Commons  by  175  to  134  votes  de- 
cided that  Whitelocke  should  have  the  benefit 
of  the  Act  of  Indemnity,  and  he  escaped  all 
punishment. 

A  book  called  WhUetodc^*  MmMmolt  was 
published  in  1688.  Mr.  Sanford,  in  his  Studim 
of  the  Great  JUheUiont  calls  this  work  "a  com- 
pilation which  is  manifestly  a  bookseller's 
specnlation,  founded  on  some  rough  notes  of 
Whitelocke's,  eked  ont  hj  scraps  from  the  news- 
papers,  and  other  mnch  more  doubtful iSonroes 
of  information ;  and  edited  by  some  •Royalist 
who  had  little  personal  knowledge  of  the  gene- 
ral events  of  the  Civil  War,  and  who  has  not 
only  made  sad  confusion  in  dates,  bat  has  also 
introduced  oortain  passages  which  may  be  safely 
ptoaonnoed  to  be  aMolute  forgeries.    Anthony 


Wbi 


{  1070  ) 


Wlh 


Wood  wrs,  that  the  MMoymoaa  editor  was 
Arthnr,  Earl  of  Annasley. 

Whitelooke,  Journal  •/  tkt  Smhauy  to  6io«d«n, 
edited  b^  U.  Reeve,  1855 :  J/«moirs  of  Bvlttrods 
Whitelocke,  by  K.  H.  IVhitelooke,  1800;  Wood, 
Athena  ar<mt«iiMt.  [C.  H.  F.] 

Whitgifb,  John  {b.  1630,  d,  1604),  Arch- 
bishop  of  Canterbury,  was  bom  at  Great 
Grimsby,  and  educated  at  Cambridge,  and 
became  Master  of  Trinity  in  1567.  Having 
early  become  a  zealous  advocate  of  the 
Reformed  doctrines,  he  would  have  been 
compelled  to  quit  Exigland  during  the  Marian 
persecution,  had  he  not  been  protected  by 
his  friend  Dr.  Peme.  After  the  accession  of 
Elizabeth,  Whitgilt  soon  acquired  great 
reputation  as  a  preacher,  and  in  1573  was 
made  Dean  of  Lincoln,  subsequently  obtain- 
ing the  see  of  Worcester  in  1576.  In  1583 
he  accepted  the  primacy  of  England  in  suc- 
cession to  Archbishop  Grindal,  and  at  once 
sot  himself  to  remedy  the  abuses  caused  by 
his  predecessor's  leniency.  He  issued  articles 
for  the  reg^ulation  of  the  Church  of  extreme 
severity,  and  took  active  measui-es  against  the 
Puritans  whom  he  had  formerly  attacked 
in  his  answer  to  Cartwright's  Admonition 
(q.v.).  On  the  death  of  Sir  Thomas  Bromley 
in  1587>  the  post  of  Lord  High  Chan- 
cellor was  offered  to  the  archbishop,  but 
refused  by  him  to  his  great  honour.  In  1595 
he  drew  up  the  famous  Lambeth  Articles,  and 
on  the  death  of  the  queen  endeavoured  to 
win  the  &ivour  of  her  successor,  an  attempt 
in  which  he  succeeded  admirably,  owing  to 
his  politic  flattery  of  James.  Though  nomi- 
nally president  of  the  Hampton  Court  Con- 
ference in  1604,  he  delegated  most  of  his 
duties  to  Bishop  Bancroft,  owing  to  his 
old  age,  and  died  shortly  afterwards  of  a 
paralytic  stroke.  Mosheim  says  of  him, 
*'He  was  disinterested,  consistent,  single- 
minded,  liberal,  and  discerning  above  most 
men.  His  great  natural  blemish  was  hasti- 
ness of  temper.  This,  however,  he  corrected 
by  a  spirit  so  thoroughly  considerate  and  for- 
giving that  his  friends  rather  apprehended 
from  him  undue  lenity.  When  piinciple  was 
at  stake  he  would  make  no  compromise.  In 
secular  politics  he  did  not  interfere,  usually 
retiring  from  the  council  board  when  it  was 
unoccupied  by  ecclesiastical  affairs.'' 

Btrype,  MemmidU  and  Lift  of  Whitgifl ;  Oam- 
den;  Hook,  Live*  of  the  Archhithope;  Neal's 
Pitntana,  Mosheim,  EocUsiatt.  Hiat, 

WMthem  (or  Candida  Casa)  was  the 
capital  of  the  district  subsequently  known  as 
Galloway,  and  is  said  to  have  been  the  see  of 
St.  Ninian,  who  in  397  built  a  church  there, 
which  he  dedicated  to  St.  Martin  of  Tours. 
About  730  the  Northumbrians  founded  a 
bishopric  here  xmder  Pecthelm,  but  the  line 
of  Anglic  bishops  came  to  an  end  with 
Beadulf  in  803. 

Widdrington,  Sib  Thomas  {d.  1664),  was 
a  member  of  an   amdent    Koithumberland 


family,  and  was  elected  member  for  Berwi^ 
in  1640.  He  took  a  prominent  part  on  flie 
Presbyterian  side  agsunst  the  bishops,  bat 
finding  subsequently  that  the  Independents 
were  tiie  rising  party,  he  joined  them,  and  in 
1648  was  made  one  of  the  Commissionen  of 
the  Great  Sedl.  He  refused  to  take  any 
part  in  the  king^s  trial,  but  in  1651  was 
made  one  of  the  Council  of  State.  He  was 
in  favour  of  making  the  young  Duke  of 
Gloucester  king  under  restrictions,  but  this 
advice  was  not  relished  either  by  the  Czxnn- 
wellian  or  Bepublican  factaons.  Cromwen 
reappointed  him  to  his  commiasionerahip, 
but  on  his  refusing  to  assent  to  the  proposed 
reforms  in  Chancer^',  he  was  removed  from 
office  in  1655.  He  was  chosen  Speaker  of 
the  Parliament  of  1656,  in  which  capacity  he 
presented  the  Humble  Petition  and  Advice 
to  CrmnweU,  and  strongly  advocated  his 
assuming  tJie  royal  title.  In  1658  he  was 
made  Chief  Baron  of  the  Exchequer,  and  in 
1660  Commissioner  of  the  Great  Seal,  which 
office  he  held  till  tha  Restoration.  He  owed 
his  rise  in  great  measure  to  his  having 
married  a  sister  of  Lord  Fairfax. 

Wight,  Thb  Islb  of  (called  by  the  K^wians 
Yectis,    and  in  Domesday  Book  Wict  and 
Wiht),  was  conquered  by  Claudiua  in  a.d.  43, 
and  subsequently  had  to  submit  to  raids  from 
Cerdic  the  Saxon  and  the  Danes.  Earl  Giodwin, 
after  his  banishment  by  Edward  the  Confessor, 
made  a  descent  on  the  island  in  1052.     After 
the  Conquest  William  allotted  the  island  to 
William  Fits-Osbem,  who  was  created  Lord 
of  the  Isle  of  Wight.    Fits-Osbem  built  the 
greater  part  of  Carisbrooke  Castle.  The  island 
was  temporarily  held  by  the  French  just  after 
the  accession  of  Richard  11.,  and  was  frequently 
plundered  by  them  down  to  the  reign  of 
lUchard  III.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  YI.  it  was 
allotted  to  the  Earl  of  Warwick,  who  received 
the  title  of  King  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  on 
the  accession  of  Edward  IV.  it  passed  to  Earl 
Rivers,  whose    successors,   the    Woodvilles, 
were  Captains  of  the  Isle  of  Wight  for  seveial 
generations.    The  first  governor  of  the  island 
was  the  Earl  of  Pembroke,  appointed  by  the 
Long   Parliament.      He  was  succeeded   by 
Colonel  Hammond,  to  whom  Charles  I.  re- 
paired after  his  escape  from  Hampton  CourL 
buring  the    imprisonment  of   the  king  at 
Carisbrooke,  and  subsequently  at  Hurst  Osstle, 
the  complicated  negotiations  and  intrigoes 
between  the  king  and  Parliament  were  canied 
on  chiefly  at  Newport. 

Wonley,  History  offkelAeef  Wi^kL 

Wiffla£  King  of  Mercia  (825--837),  sue 
ceeded  Ludecan.     In  the  early  part  ctf  his 
reign  he  was  conquered  by  Egbert,  and  cob- 
peUed  to  pay  tribute  to  Wessex. 
Florenoe  of  Woroester. 

Wihtgar    {d.    643  f^    wu    one    of   the 
invaders  of  Wessex  (514)y  and  is  said  to  harv 


Wih 


(1071  ) 


Wil 


been  a  nephew  of  Cerdic.  Together  with 
his  brother  Stuf,  he  assisted  Cerdic  and 
Oynric  against  the  Britons,  and  they  received 
the  Isle  of  Wight  in  534  as  a  tributary 
kin^om.  From  him  Carisbrooke  (Wihtgaies- 
byng)  is  supposed  to  derive  its  name. 

Wihtrod,  King  of  Kent  (692—725),  was 
fion  of  Egbert  and  brother  of  Edric.  After 
the  death  of  the  latter  in  687  (P^  there  seems 
to  have  been  an  interregnum  till  692,  when 
Wihtred,  having  purchased  peace  from 
Wessex,  was  chosen  king.  His  reig^  was 
successful,  and  he  is  spoken  of  as  ''an 
admirable  ruler,  an  invincible  warrior,  and  a 
pious  Christian." 

Anglo-Saxon  Chronid$, 

Wilberforce,  William  {b.  1759,  d,  1833), 
a  member  of  an  old  Yorkshire  family,  was 
educated  at  SL  John's  College,  Cunbridge, 
where  he  formed  a  close  friendship  with  Pitt. 
On  leaving  Cambridge,  he  was  returned  to 
Parliament  for  Hull,  his  native  town.    He  at 
once  opposed  North,  especially  in  regard  to  the 
American  War.    But  on  Pitt  becoming  Prime 
Minister,  he  exerted  all  his  powers  in  support 
of  the  struggling  government;   and  at  the 
g^eneral  election  in  1784,  he  was  identified  with 
the  Tories,  and  chosen  to  represent  his  native 
•county  against  all  the  influence  of  the  Whig 
families.      In  Parliament  he  strongly  sup- 
ported   Pitt's   measures    for    Parliamentary 
Ileform.     In  1787  he  tirst  mentioned  in  Par- 
liament the  subject  of  the  slave  trade,  with 
-which  his  name  is  most  familiarly  associated, 
and  in  the  next  year  proposed  a  resolution 
pledging  the  House  to  take  the  subject  into 
consideration.    After  a  long  series  of  pre- 
liminary   struggles,  WilbeHorce,    in    1791, 
proposed  to  prevent  the  further  imjportation 
of  African  negroes  into  the  colomes.    The 
"bill  was  rejected  by  a  majority  of  seventy- 
five  votes.     The  next  year  he  proposed  a 
measure  for  gradually  educating  the  negroes, 
so  that  they  might  at  length  be  fit  to  be 
emancipated.    This  was  passed;    and   from 
that  time  forward  Wilberforce  persevered  in 
order  to  obtain  the  total  abolition  of  the 
trade.    His  efforts  were  at  length  crowned 
with  success.    What   his    friend    Pitt    had 
found  impossible  to  achieve,  the  Whig  ad- 
ministration of  1807  accomplished  with  little 
difficulty,  with  only  sixteen  dissentient  voices, 
a  triumphant  result,  which  was  no  doubt  in 
some  measure  due  to  the  opportune  appearance 
of  a  book  by  Wilberforce  on  the   subject. 
Already  in  1797  he  had  acquired  considerable 
celebrity  as  an  author  by  a  book  discussing 
the  contrast  between  the  practice  and  profes- 
sion of  English  Christianity,  especially  among 
the  upper  classes.     After  the  abolition  of  the 
Engbsh  slave  trade,  he  was  not  satisfied  at 
the  result  of  his  exertions,  but  still  strove  for 
its  universal  extinction  by  all  countries.    But 
his  efforts  were  not  entirely  confined  in  this 
particular  channel.    He  took  an  active  part 


in  miscellaneous  questions,  and  gained  a  very 
conspicuous  place  in  Parliament,  both  by  his 
own  genius  and  singularly  captivating  oratory, 
and  by  his  entire  independence  of  party. 
An  instance  of  this  may  be  seen  in  his 
conduct  with  regard  to  Lord  Melville,  whose 
refusal  to  render  an  account  of  pubUc  moneys 
he  criticised  sharply,  in  spite  of  his  friend- 
ship for  Melville's  patron,  Pitt  In  1812  he 
retired,  on  account  of  ill-health,  from  the 
representation  of  Yorkshire,  which  had  at  six 
successive  elections  triumphantly  returned 
him,  and  in  1825  he  retired  altogether  from 
Parliament.  He  Uved  on  in  broken  health 
for  eight  years  more,  and  died  in  1833. 
**  Few  persons,"  said  Lord  Brougham,  "  have 
ever  either  reached  a  higher  and  more  en- 
viable place  in  the  esteem  of  their  fellow- 
creatures,  or  have  better  deserved  the  place 
than  Wilberforce,  whose  genius  was*  elevated 
by  his  virtues,  and  exalted  by  his  piety." 

Lifo  of  Wilberforce ;  Stanhope,  Lift  of  Pitt: 
Lord  SnaseU.  Ltfo  of  Fox;  lAft  and  Ogiininn%  of 
£arl  Orey;  Lord  Brougham,  Stat«nn«n  of  \\U 
Heivt^  of  Qeorif  in, 

Wilfred  (or  Wilfrith),  St.  {b.  630  ?  d. 
709),  was  educated  at  the  court  of  Northumbria 
and,  taking  holy  orders,  went  to  Home  in  the 
year  654,  and  on  his  return  became  tutor 
to  the  son  of  Oswiu,  King  of  Northumbrian 
from  whom  he  received  the  monastery  of 
Kipon.  At  the  Synod  of  Whitby  he  power- 
fully supported  the  Roman  views,  and  was 
appointed  to  the  archbishopric  of  York.  He 
then  passed  over  into  Qaul,  to  JEgilhert, 
Bishop  of  Paris,  but  during  his  absence  Chad 
was  appointed  to  York,  and  Wilfred,  when  he 
returned,  found  himself  obliged  to  retire  to 
Bipon.  In  669,  however,  Chad  resigned  York 
to  him,  and  Wilfrid  held  it  till  678.  He, 
however,  again  quarrelled  with  the  North- 
umbrian king,  and  was  driven  out,  his  vast 
diocese,  which  comprised  the  whole^  North- 
umbrian kingdom,  being  divided  into  the 
bishoprics  of  York,  lindisftime,  and  Hexham. 
Wilfrid,  after  spending  some  time  among  the 
heathens  of  fViesland,  went  to  Rome  to 
appeal  to  the  Pope.  He  obtained  a  papal 
decree  in  his  favour,  but  it  was  disregarded. 
Unable  to  obtain  restitution  of  his  see,  he 
visited  the  heathen  South  Saxons,  and  con- 
verted Ihem.  At  length,  in  687,  a  portion  of 
his  diocese  was  restored,  and  he  was  estab- 
lidied  at  Hexham,  but  was  again  driven 
out  in  691,  and  spent  several  years  in 
Mercia.  In  702  or  703  he  made  another 
journey  to  Rome,  obtained  another  decree  in 
his  favour  in  705,  and  passed  the  remaining 
years  of  his  life  as  Bishop  of  Hexham.  He 
died  at  Oundlo  in  709.  He  was  buried  in  the 
monastery  of  Ripon. 

Eddina,  Vita  Wtlfridi  in  Gale,  Sonplom,  L  40; 
Bede,  Httt,  XcoIm.;  Wright,  Bto^rapK,  Brit, 
lAUr, 

Wilkes,  John  {b.  1727,  d,  1797),  the  son 
of  Israel  Wilkes,  a  rich  distiller,  was  bom  on 


wu 


(  1072  ) 


wn 


Oct.  17, 1727.  Early  in  life  he  ma  persuaded 
to  marry  a  rich  heiress,  whom  he  treated  with 
much  cruelty  and  neglect.  In  the  i^ayest  and 
most  vicious  society  of  a  gay  and  vicious  age, 
he  soon  became  conspicuous  by  the  brilliance 
of  his  wit,  and  his  reckless  debauchery.  In 
1757,  after  being  previously  rejected  at  Ber- 
wick, he  bought  himself  a  seat  at  Aylesbury. 
In  June,  1762,  Mrith  Churchill's  help,  he  started 
a  periodical,  known  as  the  North  Briton,  In 
it  he  cleverly  managed  to  suit  the  popular  sen- 
timents of  the  time,  and  especially  pandered 
to  the  general  indignation  against  Bute,  and 
the  animosity  felt  towards  the  Scotch  nation. 
On  April  23,  1763,  appeared  **  Number  46," 
which  attacked  the  royal  speech  at  the  close 
of  the  late  session.  Gren\'ille  signalised  his 
entrance  into  office  by  arresting  Wilkes 
under  a  general  warrant.  After  being 
examined  before  Lords  Halifax  and  Egremont, 
the  Secretaries  of  State,  he  was  sent  to  the 
Tower,  from  which  he  was  soon  released  in 
virtue  of  his  prerogative  as  a  member  of 
Parliament.  He  then  retired  to  Pans.  On  the 
meeting  of  Parliament  in  November,  a  resolu- 
tion was  bassed,  declaring  No.  45  to  be  "  a 
false,  scandalous,  and  malicious  libel ;  *'  and  it 
was  also  resolved  that  privilege  of  Parliament 
does  not  extend  to  the  case  of  writing  and 
publishing  seditious  libels.  Being  prevented 
trom  obejnng  an  order  of  the  House  to  attend 
in  his  place,  he  was  expelled  in  his  absence. 
The  peers  went  further ;  and,pn  the  informa- 
tion of  Lord  Sandwich,  who  had  himself  been 
a  partner  in  nearly  all  Wilkes's  vices,  ordered 
prosecution  to  be  instituted  against  him  on 
account  of  a  work  entitled  An  Essay  on 
fFomaUf  of  which  thirteen  copies  only  had 
been  printed,  and  those  for  private  cir- 
culation. Wilkes  knew  that  the  Court  of 
King's  Bench,  under  the  presidency  of  Lord 
Mansfield,  would  decide  against  him,  and 
preferred  to  be  condemned  in  his  absence. 
The  sentence  passed  on  him  was  outlawiy, 
and  for  four  years  he  remained  abroad.  In 
Feb.,  1768,  he  ventured  again  to  appear  in 
London,  and  in  the  conspicuous  position  of 
candidate  for  the  City.  He  lyas  defeated  in 
the  City,  but  at  once  announced  himself  as  a 
candidate  for  Middlesex.  He  was  welcomed 
with  acclamations  by  the  electors,  and  carried 
by  an  overwhelming  majority.  The  outlawry 
was  at  length  reversed ;  but  on  the  original 
charge  Wilkes  was  ordered  to  pay  a  fine  of 
£1,000,  and  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for 
twenty-two  calendar  months.  In  Nov.,  1768, 
Wilkes  addressed  a  petition  to  the  House,  in 
which  he  claimed  his  privilege  against  further 
imprisonment.  This  was  disallowed.  In  the 
February  following,  his  expulsion  was  voted, 
and  a  new  writ  was  issued  for  Middlesex. 
The  electors,  however,  again  elected  him.  The 
Commons  replied  by  a  decision  that  Wilkes 
having  been  expelled  was  incapable  of  being 
Returned  to  the  same  Parliament,  and  that  his 
•Lection  was  null  and  void ;  but  the  electors  | 


of  Middlesex  again  returned  him  by  a  majority 
of  800  over  the  court  candidate.  Colonel  Lnt> 
trell.    The  House  now  decided  that  LottrdU 
ought  to  have  bean  elected.   A  petition  agaiut 
his  election  was  lodged ;  but  the  Home  wai 
not  to  be  convinced  by  the  arguments  of  Gren- 
ville,  Wedderbum,  and  Burke,  and  oonfiimed 
his  election.    In  January,  1770,  Dowdosvell 
twice  attacked  the  resolution  of  the  Commcns 
in   a  substantive  motion,   and    the   protest 
was  annually  renewed  by  Sir  Geoige  SaWle, 
only  to  meet  with  a  contemptuous  rejection. 
At  length,  in  1774,  the  ParUament  was  dis- 
solved ;  and  Wilkes  was  returned  again  far 
Middlcsex,  while  he  held  the  office  of  Lord 
Mayor.      The    contest    was    not   re-opencd, 
Wilkes  was  allowed  to  take  )iis  seat,  and  he 
now  bent  all  his  efforts  to  have  the  reBolutioo 
which  had  declar^  his  incapacity  expnnged 
from  the  journals  of  the  House  "as  sab> 
versive  of  the  rights  of  the  whole  body  of 
electors."    Year  after  year  he  proposed  hi» 
motion,  but  it  was  not  till  Ma^',  1782,  vheo 
the  Rockingham  government  was  in  power, 
that  all  the  declarations,  orders,  and  resola- 
tions  on  the  Middlesex  election  were  ezponged 
from  the  journals.    Thus  at  length,  bjr  hi* 
firm    conduct,    Wilkes   had  obtained  from 
Parliament  a  clear  recognition  of  the  right 
of  every  constituency  to  return  the  member 
of  its  dioice.    But  in  the  meantime  he  had 
been  waging  another  contest  with  the  aune 
body.    'Die  right  of  reporting  the  debates  of 
the  House  had  been  always  denied  b)*  Ftolia- 
ment,  and  had  been  watched  with  cautions 
jealousy,  and  the  printers  who  issued  reports 
of  debates  were  prosecuted.    Wilkes  took  up 
their  cause,  and  was  backed  by  all  the  strength 
of  the  City  authorities,  and  the  contest  finallf 
took  the  form  of  a  struggle  between  Puiia- 
ment  and  the  City,  in  the  couibo  of  which 
the    Lord    Mayor   Crosby,    and   Aldennan 
Oliver,  both  members  of  the  House,  wero  in 
March,  1771,  committed  to  the  Tower.    The 
House,  however,  shrank  from  a  new  contest 
with  Wilkes,  who  was  the  chief  offender. 
The  imprisoned  members  were  released  oo  the 
prorogation  of  Parliament,  and  the  conte^ 
thus  ended  in  the  defeat  of  Parliaments   ^ 
a  Parliamentary  speaker  Wilkes  was  an  utter 
failure,  and  never  carried  any*  weight  in  the 
House.    The  electors  of  Middlesex  still  stood 
by  him  as  long  as  he  chose  to  ask  for  their 
suffrage.     His  cheerful  disposition  was  not 
affected  by  the  change  in  his  position,  and 
he  was  never  happier  than  in  uie  sodet j  of 
his  dearly  loved  daughter.  At  length,  "  recom- 
ciled  to  every  reputable  opponent,  from  the 
king  downwards,"  he  died  at  the  close  of 
1799. 

Almon,  MtTMin  of  ITiUcM;  fhwvUU  Popm; 
Stanhope,  Hi$t,  of  JBn^.;  TrerelyBn,  Ariv  Ltfi 
^  C.  f.  jPm;  ParltMMiOary  Hutory;  AmMd 

WiUiam  Z.,  King  of  the  English  (Dk- 
26.  1066  —  Sept.  9,  1087).    This,  the  mort 


Wil 


(  1073  ) 


Wil 


masterly  spirit  of  the  most  masterly  race  of 
his  time,  was  a  grandson,  alike  of  Richard  the 
Good,  Buke  of  Normandy,  and  of  Fulk,  the 
tanner  of  Falaise,  and  was  bom  at  Falaise  in 
1027  or  1028.  The  tanner's  daughter,  Har- 
lotta,  or  Herleva,  is  said  to  have  caught  the 
eye  of  the  duke's  son  as  she  was  washing 
Imen;  an  irregular  union  followed,  which 
lasted  through  the  remainder  of  Robert's  life 
and  brief  tenure  of  the  duchy  (1028 — 1035). 
Of  this  union  William,  famous  as  the  Bastara, 
and  a  daughter,  Adelaide,  afterwards  Countess 
of  Ponthieu,  were  the  issue.  After  her  lover's 
death,  Herleva  wedded  a  noble  Norman, 
Herlwin  of  ConteviUe,  and  bore  him  two 
children,  Odo  and  Robert,  who  were  both  to 
share  in  the  greatness  of  their  half-brother. 
Odo  became  Bishop  of  Bayeux  and  Earl  of 
Kent ;  Robert,  Earl  of  Mortain  and  of  Corn- 
wall. William  was  barely  eight  years  old 
when  his  life  entered  the  domain  of  history. 
In  1035  his  father  died  at  Nicsoa,  as  he  was 
returning  from  Jerusalem.  Before  leaving 
Normandy,  Duke  Robert  had  persuaded  his 
chief  nobles  to  swear  allegiance  to  the  lad  as 
heir  to  the  duchy,  and  they  now  nominally 
kept  their  word.  William  became  Buke  of 
Normandy,  but  his  first  twelve  years  of  rule 
were  such  as  few  princes  have  been  called  on 
to  face,  as  only  a  rarely-gifted  boy  could  live 
through.  The  Norman  nobles  threw  off  all 
governance ;  despising  the  child-duke  and  his 
guardians,  tiiey  did  what  was  right  in  their 
own  eyes ;  they  waged  private  war,  and  plotted 
against  and  killed  one  another  as  if  no  central 
authority  existed.  The  other  members  of 
the  ducal  &iaily,  resenting  the  preference  of 
a  bastard  to  one  of  themselves,  miCde  their 
young  kinsman  the  constant  mark  of  mur- 
derous designs,  and  William  had  more  than 
one  miraculous  deliverance  out  of  their 
hands.  His  friends  were  few  and  weak; 
even  the  French  king,  Uenr}%  who  owed  his 
crown  to  William's  father,  turned  against 
him,  and  robbed  him  of  an  important  frontier 
fortress,  Tillieres.  His  boyhood  was  one  of  un- 
ceasing mortifications,  anxieties,  treacheries, 
perils,  and  alarms,  but  redeemed  by  one  re- 
assuring experience,  the  touching  fidelity  of  his 
guardians  and  humble  friends.  Two  of  these 
were  poisoned,  and  one  laid  down  his  life  to 
save  his  young  master's.  This  was  Osbem, 
who  held  the  door  of  William's  sleeping-room 
in  the  castle  of  Vaudreuil  against  a  sudden 
inburst  of  armed  men  seeking  his  life,  and, 
before  falling  dead,  had  won  him  the  time 
needed  for  his  escape.  Then  his  maternal  uncle, 
Walter,  took  up  the  task  of  self-devotion, 
patiently  keeping  watch  over  his  steps,  and 
sheltering  him  from  hann,  till  his  character 
had  begun  to  show  its  natural  strength,  and 
Ralph  Wacey,  an  honourable  kinsman,  had 
accepted  the  poet  of  guardian.  The  ground 
was  now  somewhat  firmer  under  Wuliam's 
feet ;  at  fifteen  he  was  able  to  give  his  earliest 
proof  of  a  capacity  for  bridlmg  anarchy  by 


wresting  Falaise  Castle  from  a  rebellious  vassaL 
"His  independent  career  began  in  1047  in  a 
very  striking  manner.    The  lawless  spirits  of 
the  Cotentin,  where  the  Banish  blood  and 
temper  still  abounded,  had  risen  in  rebellion^ 
surprised    the    castle    of    Valognes,    where 
William  was  lying,  and  forced  him  to  flee  for 
his  life  through  the  darkness  of  the  night. 
Not  long  afterwards  he  met  them  with  the 
most  loyal  of  his  vassals  and  his  reconciled 
lord,  the  French  king,  at  Yal-^s-dunes,  near 
Caen,  and  beat  them  utterly,  crushing  the 
revolt  at  a  single  blow.    Then,  as  generally 
through  his  life,  he  treated  his  vanquished 
rebels  with  singular  clemency.    Thus  firmly 
fixed  in  his  ducal  seat,  he  proceeded  to  achieve- 
ments that  gained  him  a  European  fame  before 
he  ever  drew  sword  in  England.    He  estab- 
lished law  and  order  throughout  his  duchy, 
adding  such  correctives  to  the  prevalent  f eudal'^ 
ism  as  might  make  a  strong  central  government 
possible.    His  measures  met  with  a  stubborn 
resistance,  and  over  and  over  again  he  reduced 
to  submission  the  ungovernable  among  his 
subjects.    With    the  hereditary  foe  of   his 
house,  GreofErey  Martel    of  Anjou,  he  reso- 
lutely grappled,  and  in  1049  recovered  Alen9on, 
and  snatched  Bomfront  from  him,  departhig 
at  the  former  place  from  his  accustomed  lenit}'- 
by  striking  on  the  hands  and  feet  of  thirty- 
two  of  its  defenders,  who  had  beaten  hides 
over  their  walls  in  scornful  reference  to  his 
origin.    He  took  the  first  step  towards  his 
conquest  of  England  by  visiting  King  Edward, 
his  childless  kinsman,  in  1052,  and  receiving 
from  him  the  assurances,  necessarily  vague, 
that  .he  afterwards  gave  out  to  have  been  a 
promise  of  the  succession  to  the  kingdom.   In 
the  next  year  he  took  to  wife,  despite  Pope 
Leo*s  inhibition,  his  cousin,  Matilda  of  Flan- 
ders, Count  Baldwin's  daughter,  whom  he  had 
loved  for  four  years.     The  papal  ban  under 
which  he  then  fell  was  not  removed  till  1060 ; 
and  religious  and  charitable  foundations  were 
erected  by  him  and  his  wife  as  the  prescribed 
atonement  for  their  defiance  of  the  Church. 
His  growing  greatness  then  gave  offence  to 
his  suzerain,  King  Henry,  who  twice  led  an 
army  into  Normandy  to  clip  the  wings  of  his 
power.  On  the  first  occasion  (1054)  one  of  his 
two  invading  columns  was  surprised  and  routed 
by  Robert  of  Eu  at  Mortemer,  whereupon  the 
other  made  all  haste  to  get  home  again.     On 
the  second  (1060),  just  when  his  force  had 
been  halved  by  the  rising  tide  of  the  Bive, 
near  Varaville,  William  came  down  upon  the 
hinder  half  thus  isolated,  and  cut  it  in  pieces, 
scaring  Henry  not  only  into  a  swift  retreat, 
but  also  into  the  making  of  a  peace  that 
restored    TiUi^es,  and  proved  lasting.    By 
this  time  the  duchy  had  increased  considferably 
at  the  expense  of  its  neighbours,  especially 
of  Anjou,  and  in  the  wisdom  of  its  nile  and 
general  prosperity  outdistanced    most   other 
states.    In  1063  William  made  his  g^reat  Con- 
tinental acquiaitioa  in  the  conquest  of  Maine, 


wn 


(  1074  ) 


Wil 


opon  which  a  compact  with  its  last  count, 
Merhert  Wakedog,  gave  him  a  claim,  but 
which  the  resistance  of  a  part  of  the  people 
obliged  him  to  reduce  by  force  of  arms.  Next 
year  he  made  war  on  Conan  of  Britanny 
with  complete  success.  This  was  probably  the 
expedition  on  which  Harold  of  England,  an 
impressed  guest,  was  his  companion,  and 
after  which  Harold  took  the  oatn  that  Nor- 
man writers  declare  to  have  pledged  him  to 
uphold  the  duke's  claim  1o  the  English  throne: 
for  the  greatest  crisis  of  William's  life,  and 
one  of  the  greatest  in  European  history,  was 
approaching. 

Early  in  1066  it  came.  Edward  of  England 
died  on  Jan.  6,  and  the  vacant  throne  was  at 
once  filled  by  Harold.  William  felt  himself 
overreached,  and  lost  no  time  in  making  him- 
.self  even  with  his  ready  rival,  and  vindicating 
his  position  as  a  candidate  for  the  English 
crown.  He  proceeded  to  seek  material  and 
moral  support  from  every  quarter  that  could 
supply  either,  won  over  the  Pope,  won  over 
his  unwilling  subjects,  drew  to  his  banner 
swarms  of  volunteers  from  surrounding  lands, 
and  thus  gathered  round  his  cause  not  merely 
a  noble  host  of  fighting  men,  but  the  general 
sympathy  of  Europe.  On  Sept.  28  he  landed 
at  Pevensey,  marched  to  Hastings,  and  on 
Oct.  14  decided  Harold's  fate,  his  own,  and 
England's,  at  the  terrible  fight  of  Senlac.  It 
was  his  battle  in  every  sense;  above  all 
earthly  forces,  it  was  his  own  skill,  ready 
resource,  and  prowess  that  gave  him  the 
victory.  His  subsequent  movements  made 
him  master  of  the  south-eastern  counties ;  at 
Berkhampstead  he  was  offered,  and  accepted, 
the  kingdom,  and  on  Christmas  Day  he  was 
crowned  at  Westminster.  Thus  he  became  a 
conqueror.  But  the  task  of  completing  and 
securing  his  conquest  still  lay  before  him,  and 
it  cost  him  four  years  of  rarely  exampled 
vigilance,  toil,  and  endurance.  After  a  long 
visit  to  Normandy  in  1067,  he  was  recalled 
thence  to  deal  with  risings  of  his  new  sub- 
jects. He  won  Exeter,  and  subdued  the 
western  counties ;  marched  to  Warwick,  and 
brought  the  Earls  Edwin  and  Morcar,  who 
had  rebelled  against  him,  to  their  knees, 
entered  York,  and  subdued  the  northern 
counties.  Next  year  (1069^  he  had  to  con- 
front a  general  outburst  of  tne  west,  midlands, 
and  north,  and  a  great  Danish  invasion,  but 
by  wise  management  and  indomitable  valour 
he  overcame  both  insurgents  and  invaders. 
He  f  oimd  arguments  that  persuaded  the  Danes 
to  withdraw,  scattered  the  rebels,  or  drove 
them  before  him,  stormed  York,  while  the 
men  of  the  west  sank  under  the  blows  of  his 
captains.  On  the  authority  of  later  writers 
he  is  said  to  have  utterly  laid  waste,  and 
practically  depopulated  all  northern  England, 
but  this  seems  to  be  a  heightened  way  of 
describing  a  thing  that,  in  its  broader  features 
at  least,  is  not  above  question.  A  vrinter 
march  upon   Chester,  across  a  country  im- 


passable to  an  army  leas  resolutely  led, 
the  work  of  conquest  (1070).  But  other  work 
remained.  The  Church  was  more  firmly 
linked  to  the  centre  of  western  Christendom ; 
its  administration  was  separated  from  the 
general,  of  which  it  had  hitherto  been  a  part : 
the  ranks  of  the  clergy  were  strengthened  by 
the  preferment  to  high  place  among  them  ci 
foreign  gfenius  and  learning,  such  as  was 
Laniranc  of  Pavia  and  Bee,  and  an  im^pulae 
given  to  the  building  of  churches  after  a 
grander  type.  Rules  of  law,  not  inequitably 
fitted  to  the  wants  of  a  mixed  population, 
were  framed  and  established ;  a  strict  execu- 
tion of  justice  was  everywhere  enforced,  and 
trading  in  slaves  was  forbidden.  Edgar  the 
Atheling  was  conciliated,  and  became  one  of 
William's  most  favoured  courtiers.-  The  stub- 
bom  mind  of  Hereward  was  overcome ;  he  is 
thought  to  have  even  taken  service  under  Wil- 
liam.  Conqueror  as  he  was,  William  strode 
hard  to  prevent  the  Norman  yoke  bein|^  exces- 
sively  galling  to  the  conquered.  But  he  bad 
still  much  fighting  to  do,  both  abroad  and  in 
Britain.  Abroad  he  had,  in  1073,  to  reoonr 
rebellious  Maine,  with  a  force  that  was  in 
a  large  measure  English,  to  suppress  a  rising 
of  his  son  Robert  against  him,  to  oountersct 
the  enmity  of  Philip  of  France  and  Fulk  of 
Anjou.  At  home  he  saw  reason  to  invade 
Scotland  in  1071 ;  and,  inarching  as  far  as 
Abemethy,  made  a  peace  there  with  King 
Malcolm,  and  in  1075,  during  one  of  his 
absences,  the  Earls  of  Hereford  and  Norfolk, 
whose  feudal  instincts  he  had  curbed,  rebelled, 
but  were  defeated  by  Lanfranc.  For  his  part 
in  this  affair  Waltheof  died  on  the  scaffold. 
William's  greatest  deed  was  his  last,  the 
compilation  of  Domesday  Book,'aceoniplished 
in  1086.  Sorrows  came  upon  him  in  later 
life ;  his  son  Richard  was  killed  in  the  New 
Forest;  in  1083  his  wife,  Matilda,  died;  his 
brother,  Odo,  entered  into  intrigues  that 
forced  William  to  throw  him  into  prison.  On 
Sept.  9,  1087,  his  own  busy  and  briDiant 
career  came  to  a  close.  Philip  of  France  had 
once  more  picked  a  quarrel  with  him ;  this 
exploded  in  war,  in  the  course  of  which 
Mantes  was  burnt,  and  WiSiam  received  a 
mortal  injury  by  a  fall  from  his  horse.  Borne 
to  the  priory  of  St.  Qervais,  near  Rouen«  he 
there  died.  He  was  buried  in  his  own  foun- 
dation of  St.  Stephen's  in  Caen.  William  was 
a  man  of  extraordinary  power  and  of  many 
virtues,  intellectual  and  moral,  a  certain  great- 
ness of  soul  being  the  chief.  To  Englishmen 
his  value  has  b^n  principally  this — ^he  was 
the  founder  of  strong  government  in  "RwgUnH, 
We  must  bear  in  mind  that  his  beet  niows 
title  is  now  misleading ;  '*  conqueror  "  in  his 
days  meant  merely  "acquirer,"  a  gainer  of 
possessions  in  any  other  way  than  by  regular 
process,  such  as  inheritance.  Strictly 
mg,  William  III.  was  also  a  conqueror. 

Freemin,  Vorman  Ccnqumt^    AH  othi. 
on  WiUiaoi  the  Conqnaror  have  been  suyweded 


wu 


(  1076  ) 


Wil 


Sv< 


Profemor  Freeman's  elaborate  and  ezhaoa- 
fve  hiatoTy,  The  Nwman  Conqutmt  of  England. 

[J.  R.] 

William  ZI.,  Kino  (b.   1060,  «.  Sept, 
26,  1087,  d.   Aug.   2,   1100).     William  the 
Bed  (Rufus}  was  the  third  son  of  the  Con- 
queror and  Matilda  of  Flanders.     He  was 
the  (Conqueror's  favourite  son;   for  he  had 
never  swerved  from  his  filial  obligations,  and 
had  shown  his  father  a  seemingly  sincere  af • 
fection.    He  was,  moreover,  a  vouo^  man  of 
good  parts  and  steadfastness — ^knowm^  well, 
and  always  acting  upon,  the  distinction  be- 
tween substance  and  shadow.     Nor  did  his 
vices  develop  early.    It  is  nothing  surprismg, 
then,  to  be  told  that  when  the  elder  William 
lay  upon  his  dying  bed,  he  expressed  a  wish 
t^t  this  most  dutiful  of  sons  should  have 
England  after  his  death ;  he  is  said  to  have 
even  given  Rufus  a  letter  to  Lanfranc,  re- 
<x>mmending   his    cause   to    the    influential 
piimate^s  support.   With  this,  William  at  once 
hastened  to  England.     There  was  much  in 
the  situation  to  discourage  him.    Most  of  the 
barons  would  have  prefened  his  eldest  brother, 
Robert,  and  Lanfranc  himself  was  undecided 
at  first.    The  primate's  indecision,  however, 
soon  gave  way ;  he  mav  have  concluded  that 
the    strong-tempered  William,    despite    hia 
faults,  would  probably  be  a  more  effective 
king   than  the  easy-natured   Robert,  when 
feudal  anarchy  was  the  most  menacing  evil; 
at  any  rate  he  secured  the  crown  for  William. 
But  he  made  conditions.    These  were,  that 
William  should  swear  to  maintain  justice  and 
mercy  throughout  the  kingdom,  to  defend, 
against  all,  the  peace,  freedom,  and  security  of 
all  churches,  and  to  comply  with  his  instruc- 
tions and  counsels  in  and  through  all  things. 
William  took  the  prescribed  oaths  with  Uie 
utmost  readiness;  and  seventeen  davs  after 
the  father's  death,  and  possibly  after  observing 
some  form  of  election,  Lanfranc  crowned  the 
son.  A  few  months  later  a  powerful  section  of 
the  nobles,  discontented  at  the  separation  of 
the  kingdom  from  the  duchy  (of  whom  Odo, 
now  released  and  restored  to  his  earldom  of 
Kent,  Roger,  Earl  of  Shrewsbury,  William  of 
St.  Carileph,  Bishop  of  Durham,  were  the 
chief),  took  up  arms  with  the  design  of  re- 
uniting the  two  countries  by  making  Robert 
Iring ;  and  a  force  sent  by  Robert  crossed  to 
Pevensey  to  their  aid.    By  Lanfranc's  advice 
William  threw  himself  on  the  support  of  the 
native    English,    solemnly    promising  them 
better  laws,  lighter  taxation,  and  other  good 
things ;  and  the  English,  urged  on  by  expec- 
tation and  St.   Wulfstaii,    crowded   to    his 
standard,    llieir  success  was  complete.    The 
invaders  were   driven   back  from  Pevensey 
over  the  sea;  Rochester  was  taken  after  a 
dogged   siege;   and  when  Odo  perfidioualy 
renewed  the  strife,  William  once  more  called 
the  natives  to  his  help,  commanding  all  those 
who  did  not  wish  to  be  branded  as  tiithwff  to 
join  him.    They  joined  him  in  flocks;  and 


Odo  was  chased  with  ignominy  from  the  land. 
But  William  soon  forgot  his  promises.  And 
the  death  of  Lanfranc,  in  1089,  left  him  un- 
controlled. His  subsequent  career  was  marked 
by  selfishness  and  wanton  tyranny,  mode- 
rated only  by  occasional  fits  of  sickness.  The 
Church  in  particular  felt  his  grasping  hand. 
The  revenues  of  vacant  sees  and  abbeys  were 
seised,  and,  to  further  enrich  the  crown,  the 
vacancies  were  deliberately  prolonged.  It 
was  his  policy  to  deal  witii  clerical  exactly 
as  with  lay  fees,  to  get  the  entire  Church  or- 
ganisation into  his  power,  and  make  it  a  per- 
petual feeder  of  his  own  revenues.  In  Anselm, 
however,  whom  he  had  nominated  to  the  see 
of  Canterbury  in  1093,  after  four  years' 
vacancy,  when  he  was  prostrated  at  Gloucester 
by  a  dangerous  illness,  he  found  an  uncompro- 
mising aaversary.  The  meek  primate  stoutly 
withstood  all  William's  efforts  to  enslave  the 
Church  and  degrade  the  clergy ;  he  carefully 
avoided  every  trap  that  William  laid  in  his 
path  to  surprise  him  into  an  admission  of  an 
authority  over  the  Church,  or  doing  anything 
that  had  the  appearance  of  simony;  a  pro- 
longed quarrel  ensued ;  the  Council  of  Rock- 
ingham failed  to  reconcile  the  two;  and 
Anselm  went  into  exile  for  a  time.  Then 
William  had  his  unrestrained  will.  His  con- 
fidential adviser  and  instrument  was  the 
notorious  Ranulf  Flambard,  the  Justiciar,  who 
earned  much  infamy  in  his  service  by  the 
zeal  and  callousness  with  which  he  executed 
his  purposes.  The  Danegeld  was  revived; 
in  1094  iAiefyrd  of  the  kingdom  was  marched 
down  to  Hastings,  and  dismissed  on  payment 
of  ten  shillings  a  man ;  not  a  pretence  that 
ingenuity  could  suggest  for  extorting  money 
was  overlooked;  the  lorest  law  was  mercilessly 
enforced.  The  nobility  of  the  Conquest  also 
suffered  grievously ;  gaps  were  made  in  their 
ranks,  and  forfeitures  were  frequent.  No 
class  escaped  William's  oppression.  The 
actual  events  in  his  reign  were  few  and  unim- 
portant. In  1090  he  carried  the  war  against 
Kobert  into  Normandy,  then  combined  with 
him  to  despoil  Henry,  and  succeeded  in  doing 
so.  He  took  Cumberland  from  the  King  of 
Soots  in  1091,  settled  a  southern  colony  there, 
and  refounded  Carlisle.  In  1095  he  took 
advantage  of  Robert's  eagerness  to  get  away 
on  the  &8t  Crusade  to  make  a  keen  bargain 
with  him  for  the  administration  of  Normandy 
and  Maine.  He  afterwards  suppressed  with 
astonishing  promptitude  a  rebellion  in  Maine. 
On  Aug.  2,  1100,  he  was  accidentally  killed 
in  the  New  Forest  by  an  arrow  that  was 
originally  despatched  by  his  own  or  some  un- 
known hand.  William  Rufus  was  the  most 
graceless  of  all  our  early  kings,  was  irreli- 
gious, greedy,  and  utterly  devoid  of  prin- 
ciple. He  was,  however,  a  man  of  excellent 
mental  gifts;  and  was  a  sayer  of  sharp 
sayings,  chiefly  cynical. 

FxeemAn,  Bm^a  <^  WiUiam  Rufiu.    [J.  R.] 
WHUaat  ZXI.,  King  of  England  and 


Wil 


(  1076  ) 


wn 


Prince  of  Orange  {b,  Nov.  4,  1660,  s.  Feb.  13, 
1689^^  d.  Mar.  8,  1702),  waa  the  eon  of 
William  n.,  Prince  of  Orange,  and  Mary, 
daughter  of  King  Charles  I.  of  England. 
He  was  bom  a  few  days  after  his  father's 
death,  and  his  youth  was  passed  under  the 
jealous  guardianship  of  the  aristocratic  P^y 
in  the  NetJierlands,  headed-  by  John  de  Witt. 
His  exclusion  from  the  Stadtholderate  was 
suggested  by  Cromwell,  and  agreed  to  by  the 
States  (1664).  William  received  but  little 
education,  but  early  showed  great  interest 
in  political  and  military  questions,  and  in  the 
doctrines  of  Calvinism.  From  a  child  he  was 
weak  and  sickly.  His  chief  and  almost  only 
amusement  was  the  chase.  At  the  age  of 
fifteen  he  was  deprived  of  his  personal  at- 
tendants by  the  jealous  government.  He  took 
a  part  in  the  Councils  of  State  at  eighteen. 
The  French  invasion  changed  this  state  of 
affairs.  The  De  Witts  were  murdered  by 
the  populace;  and  William,  who  neglected 
to  punish  the  murderers,  became  the  head  of 
the  government.  In  1672  he  took  command 
of  the  army,  recovered  Naerden,  and  took 
Bonn.  Louis  XI V.  thereupon  confiscated  his 
principalities  and  gave  them  to  the  Count  of 
Auvergne.  During  the  next  four  years  he 
fought  the  French  without  much  success. 
He  was  defeated  by  Cond6  at  Senef  (1674), 
and  failed  in  his  attempts  to  take  Oudenarde 
and  Maestricht  (1676):  he  was  driven  back 
at  Cassel,  and  compelled  to  raise  the  siege  of 
Charloroi.  Nevertheless  the  Dutch  lu^d 
already  elected  him  Stadtholder,  Oaptain- 
Greneral  and  Admiral-Greneral,  and  extended 
the  offices  to  his  descendants  (Feb.,  1674). 
Charles  II.  of  England  determined  thereupon 
to  many  him  to  his  niece  Mary,  daughter  of 
James,  Duke  of  York.  After  some  delibera- 
tion on  the  part  of  William,  the  marriage 
took  place  (Nov.,  1677),  and  a  scheme  was 
formed  for  an  alliance  with  England  which 
the  States-General  declined  to  ratify.  Aided 
by  the  English  he  attacked  Marshal  Luxem- 
burg near  Mons  with  some  success,  but  the 
news  of  the  conclusion  of  the  Treaty  of  Nime- 
guen  caused  him  to  suspend  operations  (1678). 
We  next  find  him  planning  a  great  European 
combination  against  Louis  XIV.  A  scheme 
was  on  foot  for  making  him  the  future  Pro- 
tector of  England  (1681).  He  attempfed  to 
'  mediate  between  Charles  II.  and  his  Parlia- 
ment, and  proposed  a  congress  for  the  settle- 
ment of  all  questions  at  issue  in  Europe 
(1683).  On  the  accession  of  James  II.  the 
Prince  of  Orange  drew  nearer  to  him,  al- 
though steadily  opposing  his  Bomanising 
schemes.  He  opposed  Monmouth's  rash 
attempt  on  the  crown,  advising  him  to  go  and 
fight  the  Turks ;  and  although  the  blunders 
of  the  States-General  permitted  his  departure 
for  England,  William  sent  back  the  English 
re^ments  which  were  in  the  Dutch  service. 
His  attention  was  now  entirely  absorbed  by 
hia  design  of  uniting  the  nations  of  Europe  in 


resistance  to  Louis  XIV.,  and  he  rejected  all 
ideas  of  an  invasion  of  England  to  which  ht 
was  urged  by  Mordaunt.  He  siw  that  hit 
claims  would  clash  with  those  of  his  wife. 
Still  the  Romanising  schemes  of  James  II. 
gradually  made  him  the  head  of  the  Engli^ 
Opposition.  He  wrote  to  the  king  strongly 
recommending  the  withdrawal  of  the  Deda- 
lation  of  Indulgence.  In  1686  he  sent  his 
envoy  Dykvelt  to  England  to  confer  with  the 
leading  statesmen.  He  was  now  completely 
estranged  from  James  II.,  wiio  was  mudi 
annoyed  by  the  publication  at  this  time  of 
William's  views  concerning  the  Indnlgenop. 
On  the  birth  of  the  young  Prince  of  Wales 
William  sent  his  congratulations  to  James. 
In  May,  1688^  Edward  Russell  went  over  to 
Holland  to  sound  the  prince,  but  received  a 
guarded  reply.  In  August  he  received  an 
invitation  to  England,  signed  by  seven 
leading  men,  which  he  accepted.  Great  diffi- 
culties lay  before  him.  He  was  afndd  of  the 
veto  of  the  States-General,  and  of  the  afieoa- 
tion  of  the  Catholic  powers.  James's  treatment 
of  the  dergv,  and  importation  of  Irisfa  troops 
to  Englano,  removed  his  difficulties  there. 
Having  completed  his  preparations  William 
issued  a  declaration,  in  which  he  declared  his 
intention  of  going  to  England  with  an  armed 
force  as  husband  of  the  heiress  of  V-n^inA 
After  being  driven  back  by  the  winds,  he 
landed  at  Torbay  (Nov.  6).  At  Exeter  he 
was  joined  by  many  influential  personages, 
and  James  was  deserted  by  the  army  at 
Salisbury.  William  advanced  towards  London, 
and  negotiations  were  opened  between  him 
and  the  king.  James,  however,  resolved  to 
fly,  but  was  stopped  by  some  fishermen  and 
returned  to  London.  William's  position  was 
now  extremely  difficult,  but  he  was  greatly 
relieved  by  the  final  escape  of  James  to 
France.  The  Convention,  which  met  on 
Jan.  22, 1689,  declared  the  throne  vacant,  and 
after  passing  the  Declaration  of  Rights  (q.v.), 
caused  William  and  Mary  to  be  prodauned 
King  and  Queen  of  England  (Feb.  13, 1639). 
The  reign  may  be  said  to  be  roughly  divided 
into  two  parts  by  ^0  Treaty  of  Ryswick  (1697), 
daring  the  first  of  which  William  was  engaged 
in  active  resistance  of  Louis  XIV.,  while  the 
second  is  modified  by  the  Spanish  SnocessiQa 
question.  William's  first  ministry  was  of  a 
mixed  charactw.  War  was  declared  against 
France  in  May.  In  Ireland  the  native  race 
showed  every  inclination  to  hold  out  for  King 
James,  who  betook  himself  thither.  London- 
derry was  besieged,  but  relieved  by  Kii^e,  and 
the  battle  of  Newton  Butler  gave  William  the 
advantage  for  the  time  being.  Meanwhile  is 
Scotland  the  crown  was  oflfered  to  WiUim 
(April  11).  Dundee,  however,  raised  the 
Highlanders  in  favour  of  James,  and  won  a 
baUle,  but  lost  his  life  at  KiUiecnmkie. 
Mackay,  by  lus  victories  at  St.  Johnstone's 
and  Dunkeld,  concluded  the  war.  At  hone^ 
party  quarrels  reached  a  great  heig^  bit 


Wil 


(  1077  ) 


Wil 


Parliament  passed  the  Bill  of  Rights.  Next 
year  Williain  determined  to  go  to  Ireland 
and  relieve  8chomberg.  He  won  the  battle 
of  the  Boyne  (Jul^  1),  but  was  compelled  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Limerick  and  return  home. 
The  English  fleet  had  been  disgracefully 
beaten  at  Beach^  Head.  In  1691  Ginkell 
concluded  the  Irish  war  by  taking  Athlone, 
winning  the  battle  of  Aghrim,  and  besieging 
Limerick.  The  Pacification  of  Limerick 
settled  the  Irish  question  for  a  time.  At 
home  Preston's  Plot  was  discovered  and 
thwarted.  Abroad,  though  unsuccessful  in 
the  field,  William  greatly  strengthened  his 
great  coalition  by  the  Congress  at  the  Hague. 
Early  in  1692  Marlborough's  intrigues  with 
the  Jacobites  in  France  were  discovered,  and 
he  was  dismissed  from  his  offices,  and  in  con- 
sequence the  Princess  Anne  quarrelled  with 
the  queen.  The  massacre  of  Glencoe  (Feb.  13) 
must  ever  remain  a  stain  on  the  memory  of 
William  III.  The  projected  invasion  of 
England  was  thwarted  oy  Russell's  great 
victory  off  La  Hogue  (May  19).  WiUiam 
was  defeated  by  Marshal  Luxemburg  >  at 
fiteinkirk  in  August.  In  Parliament  Mon- 
tague's financial  ability  re-established  the 
Land  Tax,  and  started  a  loan  which  proved 
the  origin  of  the  national  debt.  Military  and 
naval  a&irs  were  unfortunate  in  their  results 
in  1693.  The  loss  of  the  Smyrna  fleet  was 
followed  b^  the  defeat  at  Landen  in  July. 
William,  disgusted  with  party  quarrels,  deter- 
mined to  form  a  united  Whig  ministry.  The 
year  1694  is  important  from  a  financial  point 
of  view.  The  Bank  of  England  was  «itab- 
lished,  and  the  East  India  Company's  charter 
renewed.  The  disclosure  of  the  venality  in 
connection  with  the  East  India  Company 
compelled  the  Tories,  Sir  John  Trevor  and 
Carmarthen,  to  retire  from  office.  The  naval 
events  of  the  year  are  unimportant,  although 
Marlborough's  treachery  had  resulted  in  the 
destruction  of  the  expedition  against  Brest. 
The  Triennial  Act,  which  had  previously 
been  vetoed  by  William,  passed  in  December. 
In  the  same  month  Queen  Mary  died  of 
smaU-pox,  and  William  was  almost  heart- 
broken at  her  loss.  In  the  next  year  William 
was  successful  in  his  operations  i^gainst  Namur, 
which  surrendered  in  August.  The  year  1 796 
opened  successfully  with  the  re-establishment 
ox  the  currency.  The  Tory  Land  Bank,  how- 
ever, proved  a  failure,  and  the  money  required 
by  the  king  was  furnished  by  the  Bank  of 
Kngland.  The  discovery  of  Berwick's  Plot, 
and  the  infamous  Assassination  Plot,  created 
great  enthusiasm,  and  an  association  was 
formed  for  the  protection  of  the  king.  The 
chief  business  of  the  session  was  the  trial  and 
attainder  of  Sir  John  Fenwick,  who  was 
executed  in  the  following  January.  The 
ministry  was  now  completely  Whig.  The 
war  with  France  was  concluded  by  the 
Treaty  of  Ryswick  (Sept.,  1697).  William 
was  deeply  mortified  by  the  successful  intro- 


duction of  the  bill  for  the  reduction  of  the 
standing  army.  The  Irish  Parliament  of  this 
year  passed  several  statutes  of  a  highly  penal 
nature.  In  1698  Montague  formed  a  General 
East  India  Company  as  a  rival  to  that  already 
existing,  but  the  scheme  was  eventually  a 
failure.  An  attempt  to  settle  the  Spanish 
Succession  question  resolved  itself  into  the 
First  Partition  Treaty  (Oct.  11).  The  Tory 
party,  now  very  strong,  succeeded  in  carrying 
a  bill  which  necessitated  the  dismissal  of  the 
Dutch  guards.  The  king,  deeply  mortified, 
formed  the  intention  of  abandoning  England, 
and  was  only  dissuaded  by  the  prayerp  of 
Somers.  The  majority  in  the  Commons 
severely  attacked  the  measures  of  the  late 
ministry,  their  favourite  objects  being  Mon- 
tague and  Russell.  They  also  "tacked"  to 
the  Land  Tax  Bill  a  clause  empowering 
commissioners  to  inquire  into  the  disposal  of 
forfeited  lands  in  Ireland.  William  in  anger 
prorogued  Parliament  (May  4,  1698).  Dis- 
content in  Scotland  reached  a  high  pitch 
when  certain  news  arrived  of  the  utter 
failure  of  the  gpreat  Darien  scheme.  The 
Resumption  Bill  was  passed  in  April,  1700, 
greatly  to  the  annoyance  of  William  and  at 
tiie  risk  of  a  permanent  breach  between  the 
two  Houses.  Meanwhile  the  diplomacy  of 
William  had  brought  about  the  Second  Parti- 
tion Treaty.  It  was  not  well  received  in 
England.  William  now  dismissed  his  old 
ministry,  and  relied  on  an  entirely  Tory 
administration,  which  passed  the  Act  of  Suc- 
cession necessitated  by  the  death  of  the  voung 
Duke  of  Gloucester,  the  heir  to  the  throne. 
The  Commons  hurried  on  impeachments  against 
the  late  ministry  on  account  of  their  share  in 
the  Partition  Treaties,  which,  however,  proved 
abortive.  The  Kentish  Petition  and  the  Legion 
Memorial  proved  at  the  same  time  that  popular 
feeling  was  on  the  king's  side.  He  ventured, 
therefore,  to  prorogue  Parliament  (June,  1701). 
He  went  to  UoUimd,  and  there  consolidated 
the  g^rand  alliance  between  England,  Holland, 
and  the  Emperor,  directed  against  the  evident 
intention  of  Louis  XIV.  to  seize  the  Spanish 
throne  for  his  grandson.  Soon  afterwards 
James  II.  died  and  the  French  kinff  acknow- 
ledged the  Pretender  as  King  of  England 
(Sept.  6).  This  thoroughly  roused  English 
pamotism,  and  loyal  addresses  poured  in  on 
all  sides.  William,  who  had  returned  in  ill- 
health  in  November,  accordingly  seized  the 
opportunity  to  summon  a  new  Parliament. 
It  was  of  a  far  more  Whig  temper  than  its 
predecessor.  The  ''pretended  Prince  of 
Wales"  was  attainted  of  high  treason,  and 
an  abjuration  oath  made  necessary  for  every 
employment  in  Church  and  State.  But 
William's  days  were  numbered.  On  Feb.  20 
he  fell  from  his  horse  and  broke  his  collar- 
bone. He  gave  his  assent  to  the  Succession 
Act,  and  surrounded  by  his  old  friends  breathed 
his  last  on  March  8  (1702).  "Wherein," 
says  Ranke,  **  lay  his  greatness  f  It  lay  in  the 


Wil 


(  1078  ) 


Wil 


position  he  took  up  and  steadily  maintained ; 
m  the  world-wide  historic  results,  some  of 
which  he  himself  achieved  in  his  lifetime, 
while  of  others  he  only  laid  the  foundations, 
or  advanced  them  a  stage.  .  .  .  The  most 
important  question  of  the  day,  and  that  of 
the  highest  importance  for  the  future  of 
mankind  in  Europe,  was  the  rise  of  the 
French  monarchy  to  universal  preponderance, 
which  threatened  the  independence  of  every 
country  and  every  race.  The  livingimpulse, 
then,  which  determined  King  Wil&am's 
career,  n>rang  out  of  his  opposition  to  this 
already  oomineering  and  over-grasping  power. 
If  ihis  was  to  he  carried  through,  no  political 
or  theological  i»rty  attitude  was  to  be 
thought  of.  To  have  brought  a  coalition  of 
heterogeneous  elements  into  existence,  and 
to  have  successfully  opposed  it  to  the  over- 
whelming might  of  France — this  is  the 
historic  achievement  of  William  HI.  No 
one  was  ever  cleverer  at  building  up  con- 
federations and  holding  them  toge&er,  or  in 
commanding  armies  of  the  most  various  com- 
position without  arousing  national  antipathies; 
no  one  knew  better  how  in  contests  at  home 
to  await  the  right  moment,  to  give  way,  and 
yet  to  hold  fast.*' 

Clareudon,  Corrtapondenet,  1689  —  1090; 
Eohaxd,  Hid.  of  the  devolution;  Burnet,  Hid. 
of  his  Own  Time ;  LuttrelL  Elation  of  Slate 
Affaire;  Kenuet,  Hist,  of  Eng.;  Ma<n>heraon, 
State  Papers  ;  Balph,  Hiet  of  Eng.  The  staudard 
modern  a(%ouut  is  Macaalay's  aid.  of  Eng.,  of 
-which  William  III.  is  tbe  hero.  The  hrilliaiit 
Tpaigw  of  the  Whig  historian  may  he  naofolly 
supplemented,  hy  a  reference  to  Banke's 
learued  and  impartial  Hiet.  of  Eng.  m  the 
Seventeenth  Century,  to  Hallam's  sober  and 
judicious  Const.  Hid.,  and  to  ICartin's  Hid.  de 
Franee. 

Wimajn  IV.,  Kino  (b.  Aug.  21,  1766, 
«.  June  26,  1830,  d,  June  20,  1837),  was 
the  third  son  of  George  III.  At  the  age 
of  thirteen  he  was  entered  as  a  midship> 
man  on  board  the  PHnce  Georgey  a  ninety- 
eight  gun  ship.  In  1779  he  saw  active  service 
under  Rodney,  and  served  his  time  as  a  mid- 
shipman in  cruising  vessels  on  the  West 
Indies,  and  off  the  coasts  of  Nova  Scotia  and 
Canada.  He  served  under  Lord  Keith  on  the 
North  American  station,  under  Lord  Hood  off 
the  Delaware  River,  and  under  Nelson  upon 
the  Leeward  Island  station.  Between  the 
latter  commander  and  himself  a  strong  and 
lasting  friendship  grew  up.  In  1785  he  re- 
ceived his  lieutenant's  commission.  In  1786 
he  was  appointed  captain  of  the  Pegatus,  In 
1787  he  sailed  for  the  West  Indies  as  com- 
mander of  the  Androtneda  frigate.  In  1790 
he  was  made  rear-admiral  of  the  blue  by 
order  in  council.  On  May  19,  1789,  he  was 
created  Duke  of  Clarence  and  St.  Andrews 
and  Earl  of  Munster,  and  on  June  8  following 
took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords.  In  1811 
he  was  made  admiral  of  the  fleet,  and  in 
1814  hoisted  his  flag  to  convoy  Louis  XYIII. 


of  France  to  his  kingdom.  During  tbe  6u&r 
part  of  the  same  year  he  was  preseot  as  m 
amateur  before  Antwerp,  and  '^''^^gMwH 
himself  by  his  coolness  and  courage.  A  mar- 
riage was  negotiated  for  him  with  the  Princes 
Adelaide  Louisa,  daughter  of  the  Diike  d 
Saze-Coburg  Meiningen.  They  were  manied 
at  Kew,  1818,  and  shortly  aft^  prooeeded  to 
reside  in  Hanover,  Parliament  having  gnM 
on  the  occasion  an  accession  of  only  £6,000 
to  the  duke*s  income.  The  duchesi  iuui  tvo 
daughters,  who  both  died  almost  immediately. 
At  the  prosecution  of  Queen  Caroline  (1820] 
the  Duke  of  Clarence  supported  the  bQl  (^ 
pains  and  penalties.  On  the  deatii  of  £ui 
St.  Vincent  (1823)  he  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  general  of  marines.  On  the  death 
of  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  York,  he  became 
heir  presumptive  to  the  crown,  and  recdred 
an  accession  to  his  income,  which  raised  it 
to  £40,000  a  year.  On  April  17,  tiie  aame 
year,  he  was  appointed  Lord  High  Adminl 
The  Duke  of  Wellington,  however,  thai 
premier,  having  some  objections  to  the  ex« 
pense  of  his  highnesses  progresses,  he  resigned 
the  office  (1828).  At  the  death  of  GeorselV. 
the  Duke  of  Clarence  succeeded  to  tiie  thiooe 
rJune  26, 1830).  In  the  presence  of  the  Pnrr 
Council  assembled  on  tluLt  day,  according  to 
custom,  the  new  king,  with  marked  emphLsts, 
expressed  to  the  Duke  of  Wellingtoa  his 
entire  approval  of  the  way  in  which  his  gn«e 
had  carried  on  the  government  hitherto.  This 
was  a  distinct  declaration  in  favour  of  the  old 
system,  and  against  Reform.  The  king  in 
met  had  strong  personal  objections  to  the 
Reform  Bill,  and  in  the  crisis  of  May,  183i, 
when  the  Lords  were  preparing  to  reject  thd 
bill  a  third  time,  he  would  not  consest 
to  create  new  peers,  and  allowed  the  Gre^r 
ministry  to  resign.  But  the  failure  of  Wel- 
lington to  form  a  ministry  convinced  him  th^ 
the  feeling  of  the  nation  was  emphaticaQy  in 
favour  of  the  bill.  He  used  his  personal  in- 
tercession with  the  peers  to  induce  tbem  to  patf 
the  bill,  and  was  even  prepared  to  "  swamp  "tite 
House  of  Lords  with  new  peers  if  the  adyioe 
was  rejected.  The  bill,  however,  was  carried, 
and  followed  by  the  other  reforming  ststates 
which  have  made  William  IV.'s  short  rdga 
an  eventful  period  in  modem  English  histoiT- 
The  king  bked  neither  the  Whig  ministm 
nor  their  policy,  and  in  1834  (Nov.  \b)  h? 
exercised  his  prerogative,  and  suddenly  dis- 
missed Lord  Melbourne  and  his  coUeafa^ 
But  the  Peel  ministry  was  hopelessly  veak. 
and  in  1835  (April)  the  king  found  it  ezpa- 
dient  to  recall  Lord  Melbourne  to  his  coondb. 
William  IV.,  though  not  gieaUy  difdn- 
guished  for  talent  and  character,  was  a  kin(^ 
and  good-natured  man,  with  the  ooang<^  ai» 
firmness  of  his  race,  if  also  witii  its  herediti^ 
obstinacy.  "He  would  have  P*"*^"f%* 
Mr.  Walpole,  "  in  private  life  for  s  gtx»- 
natured  sailor." 

Walpole,  Hid,  i^S%g,f^nm  IBIS;  Qimt^ 


wu 


(  1079  ) 


Wil 


Jr«m<yir8;  Moleswortb,  Sitt,  ofth*  Befffrm  BiU  ; 
Haaaard,  JJtbatn. 

Williaaijiy  John,  Archbishop  of  York 
(b.  1682,  d,  1660),  was  a  member  of  an  old 
Welsh  family,  and,  after  a  brilliant  university 
career,  received  many  valuable  preferments  in 
the  Church,  being  at  lexu^  made  Dean  of 
Westminster  in  1620.  lie  was  also  one  of 
the  royal  chaplains,  and  high  in  favour  both 
with  Jam^es  I.  and  Buckingham.  In  1621  he 
was  made  Lord  Keeper  of  the  Privy  Seal,  in 
which  office  his  great  ability  and  industry 
supplied  the  place  of  early  legal  training,  and 
in  the  same  year  was  appointed  Bishop  of 
Ldncoln.  But  Buckinghiun*s  favour  did  not 
last  long,  and  by  his  influence  Charles  I.  re- 
moved Williams  from  his  office  in  1626.  Laud 
also  was  a  great  antagonist  of  his,  and  through 
his  influence  Williams  was  condemned  in  1637 
to  pay  a  heavy  fine,  be  imprisoned,  and  sus- 
pended from  his  ecclesiastical  functions  on 
the  charge  of  having  revealed  the  king's 
secrets,  and  tampered  with  witnesses.  In  1640 
he  was  released,  and  soon  regained  the  king's 
favour  by  supporting  the  cause  of  the  prero- 
gative and  episcopacy,  and  in  1641  was 
advanced  to  the  archbishopric  of  York.  Soon 
after  this  he  was  insulted  Dy  the  mob,  and  on 
protesting  with  the  other  bishops  against 
their  being  thus  excluded  from  Parliament, 
he  was  sent  to  the  Tower.  After  the  out- 
break of  the  Civil  War  he  zealously  assisted 
the  king,  both  with  money  and  advice,  and  is 
said  to  have  mourned  sincerely  for  his  death. 
His  character  is  very  un&vourably  i>ainted 
by  Clarendon.  He  is  said  by  this  writer  to 
have  been  "  of  a  proud,  restless,  and  over- 
weening spirit,  a  very  imperious  and  fiery 
temper,  and  a  very  corrupt  nature."  On  the 
other  hand,  Mr.  Foss,  summing  up  his 
character,  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  he 
was  ''though  too  much  of  a  temporiser, 
honest  and  sincere,  and  generallv  wise  in  the 
advice  which  he  offered,  and  to  the  monarchs 
whom  he  served  he  was  faithful  and  true." 

Haoket,  Life  of  WQUamM  ;  Foss,  J'ndgn  of  Bug. ; 
ICaaBon,  lAfe  of  Jfilton. 

Williain  Clito  {d.  1128)  was  the  eldest 
son  of  Robert  of  Normandy.  After  the 
battle  of  Tenchebrai  he  was  placed  under 
the  care  of  Helie  de  St.  Saen,  who  guarded 
him  most  loyally  against  Henry's  attempts  to 
seize  him.  His  claims  were  supported  by 
the  French  king  and  Fulk  Y.  of  Anjou,  the 
latter  of  whom  affianced  his  dau^ter  Sibyl 
to  him.  The  victory  of  Henry  at  Brenneville 
(1124)  destroyed  his  hopes,  and  he  had  to 
content  himself  with  claiming  the  country  of 
Flanders,  to  which  he  had  succeeded  by  the 
failure  of  the  male  line.  He  had  almost 
succeeded  in  making  himself  master  of  the 
country  when  he  was  pierced  by  a  lance  while 
besieging  the  town  of  Alost,  and  died  in '1128. 

William  the  Uon,  King  of  Scotland 
(1166—1214),  son  of  Prince  Hlmzya^d  Ada  de 


Warenne,  succeeded  his  brother,  Malcolm  IV., 
as  King  of  Scotland  (1 166) .  Having  failed  in 
obtaining  the  restoration  of  Northumberland 
from  the  English  king,  he  listened  eagerly  to 
the  proposals  of  Prince  Henry  of  England, 
and  in  1173  hurried  to  the  north  of  England, 
whence,  however,  he  was  driven  back  by 
Richard  de  Lucy  and  Humphrey  de  Bohun. 
The  following  year  he  again  invaded  Eng- 
land, took  seveml  castles,  and  laid  waste  the 
country.  He  was  taken  prisoner  at  Alnwick 
(July  13),  and  thence  hurried  with  every 
symptom  of  xndijniity  before  Henry  at  North- 
ampton. The  Enghsh  king  sent  his  royal 
mnsoner  to  Falaise  in  Normandy,  where,  in 
December,  1174,  a  treaty  was  concluded  ao- 
knowledging  the  supremacy  of  England  over 
Scotland,  and  making  all  Scotchmen  the 
vassalB  of  the  English  king.  This  subjection 
lasted  until  Richwi  I.  restored  Scottish  inde- 
pendence for  the  sum  of  10,000  marks  in 
1189.  On  William's  release  after  the  Treaty 
of  Falaise,  he  found  himself  compelled  to 
quell  an  insurrection  in  Ghilloway,  and  to 
subdue  Boss  a  few  years  later  (1179).  La 
1181  a  fresh  insurrection,  due  partly  to  dis- 
satisfaction at  the  Treaty  of  Falaise,  broke 
out  in  the  north  in  favour  of  Donald  Bane 
MacWilliam,  and  lasted  six  years,  during 
which  time  William  was  also  at  variance 
with  the  people  of  Galloway.  In  1188  an 
abortive  conference  was  held  at  Brigham 
between  the  King  of  Scotland  and  the  Bishop 
of  Durham  as  the  representative  of  Henry  II. 
In  1196  William  took  Caithness  &om  the 
Norwegian  Earl  Harold,  but  restored  it  to 
him  on  payment  of  a  sum  of  money  (1202). 
The  suppression  of  another  insurrection  under 
Godfrey  MacWilliam,  in  Boss  (1211),  was  the 
closing  act  of  William's  domestic  troubles. 
William  in  the  early  part  of  his  reign  had 
quarrelled  with  Pope  Alexander  III.,  who 
placed  his  kingdom  under  an  interdict,  which 
was,  however,  removed  by  Lucius  III.  in  1 182 ; 
in  1203  he  expressed  his  satisfaction  at  the 
interdict  laid  by  Innocent  III.  on  England, 
owing  to  the  unsatisfactory  nature  of  an 
interview  he  had  with  John  at  Lincoln  in 
Nov.,  1200.  Prom  this  time  for  twelve  years 
England  and  Scotland  were  frequently  on 
the  point  of  coming  to  blows  owing  to  Jphn*s 
persistence  in  attempting  to  build  a  castle  at 
Tweedmouth  to  overlook  Berwick.  In  1212, 
however,  a  close  alliance  was  made  between 
the  two  kings  at  Durham.  In  Dec,  1214, 
William  died  at  Stirling,  leaving  behind  him 
a  reputation  for  ener&y  of  character  and 
impetuosity.  It  was  his  constant  endeavour 
to  oury  out  the  policy  of  his  grandfiather 
David.  He  left  Scotland  in  a  far  more  ad- 
vanced state  of  feudalism  than  his  predecessor 
had  done.  William  married  Ermengarde  de 
Bellomonte.  , 

Williaauiy  Sib  Koosr  {d.  1595),  one  of 
the  bravept    soldiers   of   Elizabeth's  reign. 


wa 


(  1080  ) 


wu 


•erved  in  the  Netherlanda  under  Sir  John 
Norris  and  the  Earl  of  Leicester,  the  latter  of 
whom  treated  him  exceedingly  badly  from 
jealousy  of  one  who  had  eo  distinguiahed 
himaelf.  In  1587  the  Prince  of  Parma  in  vain 
endeavoured  to  induce  Sir  Roger  to  quit  his 
allegiance,  and  enter  the  Spanish  service. 

Willouifh'by  op  Pa&uax  ,  William,  Lord 
{d.  1666),  was  for  some  time  connected  with 
the  Parliamentary  party.  After  the  execu- 
tion of  Charles  I.  he  joined  the  Royalists,  and 
in  1660  went  out  to  Barbadoes,  where  in 
the  following  year  he  defeated  an  expedition 
under  Admiral  Ayscue,  who  had  been  sent 
out  by  Cromwell  to  punish  the  Royalist  pro- 
clivities of  the  Barbadians.  He  was  soon 
afterwards  compelled  to  return  to  England, 
where,  after  the  Restoration,  he  obtained 
•ubstantial  marks  of  favour  from  Charles  II. 
In  1663  he  returned  to  Barbadoes  as  governor, 
and  in  the  following  year  took  St.  Lucia. 
Two  years  later  he  penciled  in  an  expedition 
against  Guadaloupe. 

Will0U|fllliyf  Robert,  Lord,  was  a  dis- 
tinguished militaiy  commander  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  In  1416  he  was  present  with  Henry 
y.  at  the  siege  of  Harfleur,  and  the  battle  of 
Agincourt.  In  1418  he  was  at  the  siege  of 
Rouen,  and  in  1424  at  VemeuiL  The  foUow- 
ing  year,  in  company  with  Sir  John  Fastolfe, 
he  defeated  the  French  and  relieved  Alen^n. 
In  1428  he  accompanied  Cardinal  Beaufort 
in  his  expedition  to  Bohemia.  Returning,  he 
again  took  part  in  the  French  war,  assisted 
at  the  capture  of  St.  Denis  and  Pontoise  in 
1435,  and  was  charged  with  the  defence  of 
Paris  in  this  year.  He  was  obliged  to  sur- 
render the  capital  in  April,  1436.  One  of  his 
last  exploits  was  the  defeat  of  the  French  at 
Amiens,  in  1441.  The  date  of  hia  death  is 
uncertain. 

WiUouifhby  ^^  Brook,  Rohbrt,  Lord 
{d,  1508),  was  a  zealous  adherent  of  the  house 
of  Lancaster.  As  a  distinguishing  mark  of 
Henry*8  gratitude  for  his  past  services,  Sir 
Robert  Willoughby  was  raised  to  the  peerage 
during  the  sitting  of  Heury's  first  Parliament 
in  1486,  under  the  title  of  Lord  Willoughby 
of  Brook.  In  1488  he  was  given  the  com- 
mand of  the  EnffHsh  force  sent  to  the  aid  of 
the  Duke  of  Bntannv  in  1488,  and  in  1497 
relieved  Exeter  when  besieged  by  the  Cornish 
rebels. 

Wills,  Thb  Statutb  of  (1640),  was  ex- 
plained and  re-enacted  in  1643.  its  object 
was  to  remove  the  restrictions  imposed  under 
the  PUmtagenets,  on  the  testamentary  power 
over  freehold  land.  It  provided,  tfaNDrofore, 
that  any  one  being  seised  in  fee  simple  and 
being  a  person  capable  of  making  a  will, 
might  devise  to  any  other  person,  except  to 
bodies  corporate,  two-thirds  of  their  Isnda 
and  tenements  held    in  chivalry,  and   the 


whole   of   those  held   in   socage.    On  lie 

abolition  of  chivalry  after  the  Bestoiaticav. 

this  practically  included  all  landed  propotr 

except  cop)^ld  tenements, 

88  Hamy  YIIL,  o^i.  1,  and  34  ft  S5  Bmaj 
YIIL,cap.& 

Wilnuniftoii,  Spencbr  Comptok,  Lots 
{d,  1743),  a  son  of  the  Earl  of  NorthunpUn, 
was  chosen  Speaker  of  the  House  of  CommoBa 
in  1715.  He  was  a  &vourite  of  George  IL 
while.  Prince  of  Wales ;  and  on  the  prince'i 
accession  he  was  commissioned  to  foxm  a 
ministry.  Walpole,  however,  gained  over  Um 
king  by  proposing  to  increase  the  civil  list; 
and  Queen  CiEut>line's  influence  was  empkved 
in  his  favour.  Compton  could  not  even  dnv 
up  the  speech  from  the  throne,  and  had  to 
apply  to  his  rival  for  assistance.  He  nv 
that  his  power  was  gone,  and  soon  scoqited 
the  position  of  President  of  the  Coimcil,  with 
a  peerage  as  Lord  Wilmington.  He  gave  a 
lukewarm  support  to  Walpole,  and  remained 
neutral  when,  in  1741,  "Mr.  Sandys'  motioi 
that  he  should  be  removed  from  the  king*! 
council  was  brought  forward.  On  the  iail  (rf 
Walpole  in  January,  1742,  Pultenev,  wbo 
refused  the  premiership,  proposed  Wilining- 
ton  as  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  andnominil 
head  of  the  government.  He  retained  moa 
of  the  old  ministers.  The  only  incident  in 
his  brief  administration  was  the  committee  of 
inquiry  against  Walpole  |_ Walpole].  "He 
was,'*  says  Stanhope,  ''respectable  in  his 
public,  regular  in  his  private,  chaiacter  .  .  • 
but  the  seals  of  office  were  too  heavj  isf 
his  hands.** 

Stanhope,  Hid.  cf  Sny. ;  Coxa,  IToliwk 

Wilson,  Sot  Abchdalb  {ft.  1803,  i.  1874), 
entered  the  Bengal  army  1819,  served  at  the 
siege  of  Bhurtpore  (1825 — ^26);  commaxided 
the  artillery  as  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  Jnl- 
lundhur  Doab  in  1848^49,  and  rose  through 
various  grades  to  brigadier-commander  of  the 
Bengal  artillery  at  Heerut  (1857).  Here  the 
Induin  Mutiny  (q.v.)  first  broke  out,  andhefe 
Wilson  gained  tiie  first  victory  over  them. 
On  June  7  he  joined  Sir  H.  Barnard  tt  AH* 
pore,  and  on  the  latter*s  death  succeeded  to  the 
command  of  the  army  besieging  Delhi.  On 
the  20th  Delhi  surrendered  to  him.  Wilm 
subsequently  commanded  the  artillecy  at  the 
siege  of  Luoknow.  For  these  services  he  ^ 
thfmked  by  both  Houses,  made  in  saccegaoa 
a  Companion,  Knight-Commander,  and  Gi«^ 
Cross  of  the  Bath,  granted  a  pension  d 
£1,000  a  year  by  the  Company,  ana  created  a 
baronet 

Wiltahixe,  Thomas  Bolbtn,  Eabl  or 
{d,  1538),  was  the  father  of  the  ill-&ted 
Anne  Boleyn.  When  first  made  aware  of  the 
king's  passion  for  his  daughter,  he  does  not 
appear  to  have  given  Henry*s  wishes  anjsoii 
of  encouragement.  On  the  oontraiy,  v^ 
the  king,  after  breaking  off  the  coutilup 


Wtt 


1081  ) 


Win 


then  going  on  between  Anne  Boleyn  and  Lord 
Henry  Percy,  yisited  him  suddenly  at  his 
house  at  Hever,  Sir  Thomas  Boleyn,  though 
fully  aware  of  the  real  object  of  Henry's  visit, 
4id  not  give  him  any  opportunity  of  seeing 
or  conversing  with  his  daughter.  In  course 
of  time,  however,  both  he  and  his  daughter 
yielded  to  the  king's  perseverance,  and  Sir 
Thomas,  in  view  of  his  future  greatness  as 
father-in-law  of  the  king,  was  made  succes- 
sively Viscount  Rochford  and  Earl  of  Wilt- 
Bhire.    [Anne  Boleyn.] 

Wiltshire,  William  lb  Scrope,  Earl 
OF  {d.  1399),  was  the  son  of  Richard  le  Scrope, 
Chancellor  of  England.  He  was  highly  in 
favour  with  Richard  II.,  who  made  him  his 
treasurer,  and  created  him  Earl  of  Wiltshire 
in  1396.  He  was  one  of  the  king's  chief 
advisers  dtirine  the  latter  years  of  his  reign, 
and  on  the  landing  of  Henry  of  Lancaster  in 
1399,  he  was  seiz^  at  Bristol  and  beheaded 
without  trial. 

Wiltshirey  James  Butler,  Earl  of  {d. 
1461),  was  the  son  of  the  Earl  of  Ormonde, 
and  was  created  Earl  of  Wiltshire  by  Henry 
VI.  He  was  a  staunch  Lancastrian,  and 
fought  for  that  party  in  the  first  battle  of 
St.  Albans,  at  Wakefield,  Mortimer's  Cross, 
and  Towton.  After  this  last  engagement  he 
was  captured  by  the  Yorkists  and  beheaded 
at  Newcastle. 

Wimbledon,  Edward  Cecil,  Lord  {d. 
1638),  an  admiral  who  is  chiefly  known  to 
history  as  ha^nng  in  1625  commanded  a  disas- 
trous expedition  against  Cadiz,  which  was  to 
form  part  of  a  general  attack  on  Spain, 
planned  by  Charles  I.  and  Buckingham.  The 
appointment,  which  was  made  on  personal 
grounds,  proved  very  unfortunate.  Lord 
Wimbledon  failed  to  destroy  the  shipping  in 
the  harbour  of  Cadiz,  and  was  soon  com- 
pelled to  re-embark,  owing  to  the  disorderly 
behaviour  of  his  crews.  After  having  allowed 
the  Plate  fleet  from  the  West  Indies  to 
escape  him,  he  returned  to  England.  It  is 
said  that  on  the  return  voyage  he  carefully  ' 
distributed  some  men  suffering  from  conta- 
gious disease  among  the  healthy  crews. 

WinchelBey,  Robert  (b.  circa  1245), 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (1294—1313),  was 
bom  at  Wincholsea,  and  alter  a  most  distin- 
guished academical  career,  during  which  he 
was  successively  Rector  of  the 'University  of 
Paris  and  Chancellor  of  Oxford,  he  was  elected 
to  the  archbishopric.  Not  long  after  his 
appointment  Boniface  VIII.  issued  the  famous 
Bull  Clericis  Zaicos,  forbidding  the  pay- 
ment of  taxes  to  the  king  by  the  clergy 
without  the  leave  of  the  Pope;  Winchelsey 
gladly  availed  himself  of  the  excuse  to  decline 
to  allow  any  more  great  grants  of  Church 
revenue  to  the  king,  llie  contest  with 
Edward  I.  was  a  protracted  one,  the  clergy 


refusing  to  pay  were  outlawed,  and  the  pos- 
sessions of  the  see  of  Canterbury  seized,  but 
a  compromise  had  to  be  made.  The  arch- 
bishop showed  that  the  papal  prohibition  did 
not  apply  to  money  required  for  purposes  of 
national  defence,  and  ofiered  to  do  his  best  to 
obtain  a  grant  from  the  clergy  if  the  king 
would  condOrm  the  Charters.  This  was  agreed 
to,  and  in  1297  and  1300  the  Charters  were 
confirmed,  in  the  latter  case  certain  im- 
portant articles  being  added  to  them.  In  1301 
Winchelsey  again  quarrelled  with  the  king. 
The  circumstances  are  doubtful,  but  it  would 
seem  that  the  archbishop  was  accused  of 
treason,  and  of  plotting  to  dethrone  Edward 
in  favour  of  his  son.  In  1305  the  archbishop 
was  formally  accused  and  summoned  to  Rome, 
nor  did  he  return  again  till  after  the  death 
of  Edward  I.  During  Edward  II.*s  reign  we 
find  him  opposing  Gaveston,  and  doing  what 
he  could  to  restrain  the  excesses  of  the  young 
king.  Winchelsey  was  eminent  as  a  scholar 
and  a  divine,  and  famous  for  his  charity  and 
piety;  but  in  public  affairs  he  attempted  to 
play  the  part  of  Langton,  for  which  he  was 
unsuited,  and  for  which  there  was  no  neces- 
sity. His  policy  was  also  complicated  by  the 
foolish  arrogance  of  Boniface,  and  by  the 
determination  of  Edward.  By  his  want  of 
tact  and  steadiness,  the  archbishop  alienated 
both  the  king  and  the  Pope. 

Rishanger,  Chronicle ;  Freeman,  Euay  on  Ed- 
ward  I.;  Stubbs,  Contt.  Hut.,  and  The  £arly 
Flantagen^;  'Rook,  Archhiihopa. 

Winchester  (the  Gwent  of  the  Celts,  and 
Venta  Belgarum  of  the  Romans)  was  pro- 
bably an  important  town  before  the  Roman 
invasion.  It  was  conquered  by  the  Saxons 
under  Cerdic  in  519,  and  became  the  capital 
of  the  West  Saxon  kingdom  in  the  seventh 
century.  In  662  it  was  made  the  seat  of  a 
bishopric.  In  860  it  was  taken  by  the  Danes. 
During  the  later  West  Saxon  and  Danish 
period  it  was  verj'  frequently  the  centre  of 
government  for  England,  and  the  place  where 
the  Witenagemots  was  held.  In  1141  it  was 
burnt  during  the  war  between  Stephen  and 
the  Empress  Maud,  and  was  the  place  where 
the  treaty  between  the  two  powers  was  con- 
cluded (1153).  In  June,  1216,  it  was  taken 
by  Louis  the  Dauphin.  La  1265  it  was  sacked 
by  Simon  de  Montfort.  In  1285  the  im- 
portant Statute  of  Wincheiter  was  passed  here 
by  Edward  I.  The  cathedral  begun  by 
denwealh  in  643,  and  completed  in  9^4,  was 
rebuilt  in  the  eleventh  century,  and  recon- 
structed by  Bishops  Wykeham,  Beaufort,  and 
Waynflete  in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth 
centuries.  The  college  was  founded  by  Wil- 
liam of  Wykeham  in  1393.  In  March,  1644, 
Waller  inflicted  a  defeat  on  the  Royalists  at 
Clinton  Down  near  Winchester.  On  Oct.  6 
of  the  following  year  it  was  captured  by 
Cromwell,  and  the  castle  was  demolished ;  on 
the  site  of  this  fortress  a  palace  was  begun  in 
1683,  but  was  left  unfinished. 


Witt 


1082  ) 


Win 


Winchester,  Sir  William  Pavlet, 
Makquib  of  {b.  1476,  d.  1572),  Lord  St.  John 
of  Bassing  (1539),  Earl  of  Wiltshire  (1556), 
and  Marquis  of  Winchester  (1651),  "the 
crafty  fox  with  a  fair  countenance,"  was 
Treasurer  of  the  Household  to  Henry  VIII., 
and  one  of  the  judges  at  the  trial  of  Anne 
Boleyn.  By  the  will  of  the  king  he  was  ap- 
pointed one  of  the  Council  of  Regency,  and 
hecame  President  of  the  Council.  As  a  firm 
supporter  of  the  Protector  Somerset,  Paulet 
succeeded  Wriothesley  as  Lord  Keeper 
(March  7,  1547),  but  only  held  the  office  till 
October,  when,  owing  to  his  incompetence  as 
a  judge,  he  was  succeeded  by  Lord  Chan- 
cellor Kich.  On  Somerset's  fall  he  joined 
the  party  of  the  Earl  of  Warwick  and  ac- 
tually presided  as  Lord  High  Steward  at  the 
duke*s  trial  in  the  year  1551,  pronouncing 
sentence  of  death  upon  his  benefactor.  For 
some  time  he  remained  a  supporter  of  War- 
wick, but  his  leaning  towards  the  Catholic 
religion,  together  with  the  instinct  of  self- 
interest,  gradually  enlisted  his  s^nnpathies  on 
the  side  of  the  Princess  Mary,  though  after 
her  accession  he  continued  in  opposition  to 
Gkirdiner  and  the  persecuting  party.  At  the 
age  of  eighty -four,  Lord  Winchester  obtained 
the  office  of  Lord  High  Treasurer  to  Queen 
Elizabeth,  an  office  which  he  held  until  his 
death. 

Fronde,    BUt.    of  Eng. ;    Tjtler,  Rtigna    of 
Edicard  VI.  and  Mary ;  Foss,  Jndgw  of  England. 

Winchester,  Thb  Statute  of  (1285], 
was  one  of  those  enactments  by  which  Ea- 
ward  I.  sought  to  remodel  and  improve  upon 
the  legislation  of  Henry  II.  This  statute 
was  intended  to  place  the  militarj*  system  on 
a  better  footing,  and  reorganises  the  watch 
and  ward.  It  revived  and  developed  the 
military  and  police  action  of  the  hundred,  the 
hue  and  cry,  the  watch  and  ward,  the  f^rd  or 
militia  of  the  counties.  The  Assize  of  Arms, 
with  its  provisions  that  every  man  should 
keep  armour  and  weapons  proper  to  his  con- 
dition, is  re-enacted.  The  statute,  in  fact, 
attempts  to  restore  the  ancient  and  popular 
military  system  of  the  English,  which  had 
lasted  through  the  Conquest.  "It  is,"  says 
Dr.  Stubbs,  "  a  monument  of  the  persistence 
of  primitive  institutions,  working  their  way 
through  the  superstratum  of  feudalism,  and 
gaining  strength  in  the  process." 

Stubba,    Const.    Hwf.,  ii.  §  179;    and   Select 
Cfliariert. 

Winchester.  The  Anxals  of  thb  Mon- 
astery OF,  extend  from  a.d.  519  to  a.d.  1277. 
The  first  part  is,  as  usual,  meagre,  and  from 
2066  to  1267  the  compiler  relies  on  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Chronicle^  Matthew  Paris,  and  other 
obvious  sources  of  information.  The  last 
part  is  contemporary,  but  even  then  the  inte- 
rest is  chiefly  of  a  local  nature.  The  annals 
have  been  edited  by  Mr.  Luard  in  the  second 
volume  of  the  Annalea  Monastiei  in  the  Kolls 
Series. 


Windebank,  Sir  Frakcib  {d.  1646], 
son  of  Sir  Hiomas  Windebank,  was  edu- 
cated at  St.  John's  College,  Oxford,  where 
he  took  the  degree  of  B.A.  in  1601.  He 
became  Clerk  of  the  Council,  and  waa,  by  the 
influence  of  his  old  friend,  Laud,  appointed 
Secretary  of  State  (June,  1632).  He  was  thd 
king's  agent  in  the  secret  negotistiotis  with 
Spain  in  1634,  the  intermediary  between 
Charles  and  the  papal  agent,  Panzani,  and 
one  of  the  committee  of  eight  entrusted  with 
Scotch  afiairs  (1639).  In  May,  1640,  he  ap- 
plied  to  the  Pope's  agent,  Bossetti,  for  monr/y 
and  arms  to  be  employed  against  the  Scots. 
On  the  assembly  of  the  Long  Parliament  he 
was  attached  for  non-execution  of  the  -peoal 
laws  against  the  Catholics,  and  fled  to  France 
(Dec.  10,  1640),  where  he  died. 

Windham,  William  (b.  17.50,  d,  1810), 
was  educated  at  Eton  and  Oxford.  His  first 
appearance  in  politics  was  at  a  meeting  of 
the  county  gentlemen  of  Norfolk  in  1778, 
where  he  spoke  with  much  vigour  against  & 
proposal  to  subscribe  to  aid  the  government 
in  carrying  on  the  war  against  the  American 
Colonies.  In  1782  he  waa  returned  to  Par- 
liament for  Norwich,  and  very  soon  made 
himself  conspicuous,  and  he  was  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  appointed  Chief  Secretary  to  the 
Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  which  place  he 
resigned  within  four  months,  on  finduig  that 
it  required  the  emplojrment  of  acts  which  be 
felt  to  be  dishonourable.  He  became  verv 
intimate  with  Burke  and  Dr.  Johnson,  and 
although  at  first,  like  all  the  Whiga,  hd 
hailed  with  joy  the  outbreak  of  the  French 
Revolution,  yet  in  1793,  horrified  by  the 
later  outrages  of  the  movement,  he  took 
Burke's  view  of  it,  and  was  a  warm  advocate 
of  the  policy  which  Burke  wished  to  see 
adopted  towards  the  Kevolutionar}"  govern- 
ment. In  the  following  year  he  went  cm  a 
mission  to  the  Duke  of  York,  who  was  in  com* 
mand  of  an  expedition  in  Flanders,  and  was  in 
the  same  year  appointed  Secretary  at  War, 
with  a  seat  in  the  cabinet.  He  followed  Pitt 
out  of  office  in  1801,  nor  did  he  again  take 
office  until,  after  Pitt's  death,  he  became 
Secretary'  at  War  and  of  the  Colonies  in  the 
administration  of  **  All  the  Talents,"  On 
their  dismissal,  Windham  too  returned  to 
opposition,  and  remained  in  that  positioci 
until  in  Jan.,  1810,  he  died  of  a  tumour  pro- 
duced by  his  extraordinary  endeavours  to 
rescue  a  great  library  from  flames.  **  In  him 
were  strangely  mingled  a  zealous  love  d 
literature,  and  an  ardent  passion  for  field 
sports  of  every  kind.  And  so  genial  weie 
his  manners  that  in  spite  of  his  liberal  views 
he  was  almost  as  great  a  favourite  with  the 
king  as  he  was  popular  with  the  nation  at 
large."  Of  his  position  asa  speaker  andastates- 
man,  Sir  E.  May  says,  "  Superior  to  Sheridan  in 
education  and  attainments,  and  little  inferior 
in  wit,  he  never  achieved  successes  so  dazsUng; 


Win 


(  1083  ) 


Wit 


yet  he  maintained  a  higher  place  among  the 

debaters  of  his  age.    Though  his  pretensions* 

to  the  higher  quah'ties  of  a  statesman  were 

inconsiderable,  and  his  want  of  discretion  and 

temper  too  often  impaired  his  unquestionable 

merits  in  debate,  his  numerous  talents  and 

virtues    graced   a    long    and    distinguished 

public  life/' 

Lord  Colchester,  Diary ;  Pellew,  Life  of  SidL- 
mouth ;  Bnckingham,  Memoir*  of  the  Court  of 
the  Reifency ;  Maj,  Coiut.  Hiat. 

Window  TaZ|  The,  was  first  imposed  in 
1695  by  the  Act  6  &  7  Wm.  III.,  c.  18,  and 
was  frequently  re-imposed,  notwithstanding 
its  injurious  effect  in  offering  an  obstacle  to 
good  ventilation.  It  was  repealed  and  the 
house- tax  substituted  for  it  in  1851. 

Windsor  Castle  appears  to  have  been 
first  regularly  used  as  a  royal  residence  by 
Henry  I.,  although  there  seems  to  have  been  a 
fortress  there  previous  to  the  Conquest.  To 
Henrj'  I.'s  building,  Henry  III.  made  several 
additions  ;  but  it  was  in  the  reign  of  Edward 
III.,  under  the  designing  hand  of  William  of 
Wykeham,  that  the  castle  as  we  now  know 
it  began  to  rise.  St.  George's  Chapel  was 
rebuilt  by  Edward  IV.,  its  architects  being 
Richard  Beauchamp,  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  and 
after  his  death  in  1481,  Sir  Reginald  Bray, 
architect  of  Henry  VII. 's  Chapel  at  West- 
minster. Elizabeth  formed  the  terraces,  and 
erected  or  altered  the  gate  known  by  her 
name.  Charles  II.  erected  the  Star  building, 
which  was  afterwards  Gothicised  by  James 
Wyatt.  Traces  of  Sir  Christopher  Wren  are 
to  be  found  in  the  edifice,  but  his  plan  of  re- 
building the  south  side  of  the  Upper  Ward 
was  not  carried  out.  St.  George's  Chapel, 
which  was  much  injured  by  the  Puritans 
in  1648,  was  re-decorated  in  1787— -90.  Of 
late  years  no  additions  of  much  importance 
have  been  made. 

H.  Ashton,  niugtralions  of  Wvndeor  CctMe; 
W.  H.  Dixoo,  Royal  Windeor. 

Winfffield,  Sir  Anthony,  Vice-Chamber- 
lain to  Henry  VIII.  (1547),  was  named  in  the 
king's  will  one  of  the  council  who  were  to 
govern  during  the  minority  of  Edward  VI. 
He  bore  a  leading  part  in  the  measures  taken 
against  Protector  Somerset. 

Winter,  Sir  William,  Admiral,  was 
in  Dec.,  1559,  sent  to  the  Firth  of  Forth  by 
Elizabeth  to  do  any  damage  he  could  to  the 
French.  The  queen,  as  was  her  wont,  com- 
missioned him  to  act  on  his  own  responsi- 
bility, being  thus  enabled  to  disavow  his 
actioQS  in  case  of  failure.  On  his  arrival  in 
the  Firth  he  managed  to  provoke  the  French 
to  attack  him,  and  retaliated  by  seizing  Burnt- 
island, which  had  been  occupied  by  the 
enemy,  and  destropng  some  of  their  vessels. 
Had  his  successes  at  sea  been  backed  up  by 
energetic  action  on  the  part  of  the  land 
forces,  Leith  would  have  fallen  at  once. 
In  1569  Winter  commanded  an  expedition  to 


La  Rochelle,  which  brought  supplies  to  Cond6» 
and  in  1580  did  good  service  on  the  Irish 
coast,  being  present  at  Smerwick.  He  ia 
credited  with  ha\'ing  originated  the  plan  of 
sending  fire-ships  amongst  the  Spanish 
vessels,  which  proved  so  destructive  to  the 
Armada.  The  mixture  of  caution  and  dash- 
ing courage  which  he  displayed,  together 
with  his  steadfast  loyalty,  made  him  one  of 
the  most  valued  servants  of  Elizabeth,  and  he 
well  deserved  Cecil's  praise — '*  of  Mr.  Winter 
all  men  speak  so  well,  I  need  not  mention 
him." 

Fronde,  Hist,  of  Eng.;  Barrow,  Naval  Wor- 
thies. 


i,  Gregory  of,  was  a  monk  of 
St.  Peter's,  Gloucester.  His  Annates ^  which 
extend  from  a.d.  681  to  a.d.  1290,  have  never 
been  printed. 

Wintoun,  Andrew  of,  a  Scotch  annalist, 
lived  about  1400.  His  OriginaU  Crony kil  of 
Scotland^  printed  in  1795,  is  a  valuable  source 
of  information  for  early  Scottish  history. 

Winwidfield.  The  Battle  of  (635),  be- 
tween Penda  of  Mercia  and  Oswy  of  North- 
umbria,  resulted  in  the  defeat  and  death  of 
the  former.  The  place  is,  probably,  Win- 
moor,  near  Leeds,  the  river  Winwied  being 
identical  with  the  Aire. 

Wishart.  George,  was  one  of  the  Pro- 
testant preachers  who  incurred  the  wrath  of 
Cardinal  Beaton.  He  was  tried  at  St.  Andrews, 
and  burnt  (1546).  He  is  said  to  have  entered 
thoroughly  into  the  plot  for  assassinating  the 
cardinal 

Wisharty  Robert,  Bishop  of  Glasgow, 
was  one  of  the  Scotch  commissioners  (1289) 
who  tried  to  arrange  for  the  marriage  of  the 
Maid  of  Norway  and  Prince  Edward.  He  joined 
Wallace's  pai-ty  in  1297,  but  a  few  months 
later  negotiated  the  treaty  by  which  many  of  the 
Scotch  nobles  made  submission  to  Edward.  In 
1303  he  was  exiled  for  two  years,  but  the 
next  year  recovered  Edward's  favour.  Ho 
counselled  the  English  king  to  hold  a  general 
assembly  of  the  Scotch  nation  at  Perth  in 
1304,  and  to  appoint  commissioners  to  regulate 
the  government  of  Scotland.  He  was  continu- 
ally taking  oaths  of  fealty  to  one  side  or 
another,  and  breaking  them.  Having  sided 
with  Robert  Bruce  in  1306,  he  was  taken 
prisoner  in  the  same  year  at  Cupar  in  Fife, 
and  imprisoned  at  Nottingham. 

Witenaflfemot,  The,  means  the  meeting 
or  council  of  the  wise  men  {Witan)^  and  in 
Anglo-Saxon  times  was  the  highest  council  in 
the  land.  The  theory  that  the  Witenagemot 
was  an  assembly  to  which  every  freeman  had 
a  right  to  come  (as  he  undoubtedly  had  to 
the  shire-mote)  is  scarcely  tenable.  We  have 
little  evidence  of  any  such  right  beyond  the 
fact  that  at  certain  national  crises,  as  at  the 
exile  of  Godwin  in  1051,  or  on  sudden  Danish 
invasions,  and  even  at  the  election  of  a  new 


Wit 


(  1084  ) 


W61 


king,  a  tumultaous  concourse  of  spectators  at- 
tended the  meetings  of  the  Witan,  and  shouted 
applause  or  disapprobation  of  the  proposals 
made.  But  this  right,  if  it  existed,  mast  have 
been  purely  theoretical.  Whatever  claims  the 
Witenagemot  has  to  the  position  of  a  national 
council  rest  upon  the  fact  that  it  contained 
the  official  leaders  of  the  nation,  both  in 
Church  and  State.  But  it  was  primarily  a  royal 
council.  It  consisted  of  **  the  king,  sometimes 
accompanied  by  his  wife  and  sons ;  the  bishops 
of  the  kingdom,  the  ealdormen  of  the  shires  or 
provinces,  and  a  number  of  theldng's  friends 
and  dependants.  These  last  generally  describe 
themselves  as  minUtri,  or  king's  thegns,  and 
numbered  amongst  themselves  no  doubt  the 
chief  officers  of  the  household,  and  the  most 
eminent  of  the  persons  who,  in  the  relatinn  of 
ffegtth  or  eomeg  to  the  king,  held  portions  of 
lolkland  or  of  royal  demesne,  and  were  bound 
to  him  by  the  oath  of  fealty.  Occasionally  a 
prafectua  or  gerefa  appears  in  the  early 
charters;  he  is  probably  the  heah^gwefa  or 
high-steward  of  the  household.  .  .  .  Under 
the  later  kings  a  considerable  number  of 
abbots  attest  the  charters.*'  Thus  the  Witan 
were  a  small  body  of  men,  of  high  position, 
and  all  closely  connected  with  the  administra- 
tion. The  tendency  was  towards  the  increase 
of  the  king's  thegns,  who  at  the  end  of  the 
West  Saxon  period  outnumber  all  the  other 
members  of  the  council.  Probably  the 
Witenagemot  met  at  regular  intervals,  and 
at  fixed  places,  but  in  the  absence  of 
exact  dates  it  is  impossible  to  speak  with 
certainty  about  this.  With  regard  to  the 
functions  of  the  Witan  Mr.  Kemble  has 
laid  down  twelve  canons  on  the  subject  as 
follows: — (1)  They  possessed  a  consultative 
voice,  and  a  right  to  consider  every  public 
act  which  could  be  authorised  by  the  king.  (2) 
They  deliberated  upon  the  making  of  new  laws 
which  were  to  be  added  to  the  existing  folk- 
right,  and  which  were  then  promulgated  by 
their  own  and  the  king's  authority.  (3)  They 
had  the  power  of  making  alliances  and  treaties 
of  peace,  and  of  settling  their  terms.  (4)  They 
had  the  power  of  electing  the  king,  (o)  They 
had  the  power  to  depose  the  king  if  his 
government  was  not  conducted  for  the  benefit 
of  his  people.  (6)  They  had  the  power  with 
the  king  of  appointing  prelates  to  vacant  sees. 
(7)  The  king  and  the  Witan  had  also  power 
to  regulate  ecclesiastical  matters,  appoint  fasts 
and  festivals,  and  decide  upon  the  levy  and 
expenditure  of  ecclesiastical  revenues.  (8)  The 
king  and  the  Witan  had  power  to  levy  taxes 
for  the  public  service.  (9)  The  king  and  his 
Witan  had  power  to  raise  land  and  sea  forces 
when  occasion  demanded.  (10)  The  Witan 
possessed  the  power  of  recommending,  as- 
senting to,  and  guaranteeing  grants  of  land, 
and  of  permitting  the  conversion  of  folkland 
into  bookland  and  vice  versa,  (1 1)  The  Witan 
possessed  the  power  of  adjudging  the  lands  of 
offenders  and  intestates  to  be  forfeit  to  the 


king.  (12)  The  Witan  acted  as  a  sapreme 
cburt  ofjustice  both  in  civil  and  cruniial 
causes.  Thus  the  Witenagemot  was  a  sapnma 
council  for  deliberation,  administratiaii,  aod 
assent,  as  well  as  for  judicial  and  taxatiTe 
purposes.  Its  real  power  naturally  vaiied 
inversely  with  that  of  the  king.  **  Under  t 
strong  long,"  says  Bishop  Stubbs,  "  manj  o( 
these  claims  are  futile ;  the  whole  pubhc  land 
seems,  by  the  eleventh  century,  to  have  beea 
regarded  as  at  the  king's  disposal  really  if  not 
in  name ;  the  sherifEs,  ealdorman,  and  Wiojs 
are  named  by  the  king ;  if  he  be  a  pions  one. 
the  bishops  are  chosen  by  him  with  lesp&d  to 
the  consent  of  the  diocesan  clergy ;  if  he  lie  a 

Seremptory  one,  they  are  appointed  by  his 
etermined  will.  But  the  powers  of  legis* 
lation  and  taxation  are  never  lost,  nor  doee 
the  king  execute  judgment  without  a  court 
which  is  in  name  and  in  reality  perhaps  a 
portion  of.  the  Witenagemot."  It  may  also 
be  added  that  the  power  of  election  tended 
to  become  formal,  and  that  the  power  d 
deposition  was  very  seldom  exercised.  After 
the  union  of  the  kingdoms,  the  crown  re* 
Inained  in  the  West  Saxon  family,  and 
ordinarily  went  by  hereditar}^  descent,  thoogh 
in  all  cases  a  formal  election  was  made,  and 
though  in  several  cases  an  uncle  of  full  age 
was  preferred  to  the  infant  son  of  the  deceased 
sovereign.  The  elevation  of  Canute  to  tbe 
throne  is  an  exception,  but  his  title  rested 
rather  on  conquest  than  on  election,  to 
that  the  election  of  Harold  U.  renuiss 
the  sole  instance  of  the  Witan  freely  electing 
a*  king  outside  the  royal  house.  Of  depos- 
tion,  Uiere  is  likewise  but  a  solitary  instani« 
after  Egbert,  that  of  Ethelred  II.  in  1013. 
The  analogy  seen  by  some  historians  of  the 
past  and  present  centuries  between  the 
Witenagemot  and  the  House  of  Commons  is 
misleading.  There  is  little  resemblance  be- 
tween an  elective  and  representative  cbamher, 
and  a  council  of  magnates  and  royal  officers 

Stubbs,  Conct  Hist.,  chap.  vi. ;  GnesI, 
VorwaUwigareehb ;  Kemble,  The  Soamu  m  ftf* 
land  :  Freeman,  Norman  Conqtust,  toL  i..  appA* 
diz  Q :  Waits,  Dnd9<M-Verf<usnng*  G^BCkuMt: 
Schmid,  6«sctM  der  Ang§liach9mii. 

[a  J.  L] 

Wolfe,  General  James  {b.  1726,  d.  1759), 
entered  the  army  at  the  age  of  fourteen, 
and  was  present  at  the  battles  of  Dettingeo 
(1742),  Fontenoy  (1746),  and  Lawfeldt  (1747). 
He  first  attracted  Pitt's  notice  in  1757,  wbtn 
a  combined  military  and  naval  expedition  wu 
despatched  against  Rochefort  under  Admiral 
Hawke  and  General  Mordaunt.  In  1758  he 
served  under  General  Amherst  at  the  8ieg«  of 
Louisbourg  on  Cape  Breton  Island.  In  1739 
Pitt  entrusted  him  with  the  attack  on  Quebec 
This  was  to  be  a  combined  movement,  but  the 
combination  failed,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
plan  was  too  extensive.  Wolfe,  with  8,000  nuffl, 
embarked  in  Admiral  Saunders^s  squadron,  and 
reached  the  Isle  of  Orleans  in  the  St  Lawrence. 


Wol 


(  1086  ) 


Wol 


Bepeated  attempts  were  made  to  induce  Mont- 
calm, the  French  commander,  to  leave  the 
lines  of  Beaufort,  hut  without  success.  Find- 
ing that  nothing  could  he  effected  from  the 
Isle  of  Orleans,  Wolfe  moved  the  army  ahove 
Quehec,  hut  Montcalm  refused  to  move,  and 
Wolfe  was  in  despair.  At  length  it  occurred 
to  him  to  surprise  the  heights  of  Ahraham. 
Collecting  hoats,  he  crossed  the  river,  climhed 
the  heights  with  great  difficulty,  and  when 
morning  came  was  in  position  opposite  the 
French.  Montcalm  was  forced  to  cross  the 
St.  Charles,  and  offer  hattle.  The  English 
gained  a  complete  victory.  Wolfe  fell,  hut 
before  he  died  he  knew  that  he  had  won  the 
day.    [Quebec] 

Wolseyi  Thomas,  Archbishop  of  York 
(b.  1471,  d.  1630),  was  the  son  of  a  wealthy 
Ipswich  butcher.  Educated  at  Magdalen 
College,  he  obtained  his  degree  when  barely 
fifteen ;  and,  as  a  consequence,  became  fami- 
liarlv  known  among  his  university  associates 
as  me  **Boy  Bachelor."  In  virtue  of  this 
early  proficiency  Wolsey  soon  succeeded  to  a 
Magdalen  fellowship,  and  was  shortly  after- 
wards appointed  master  of  the  school  attached 
to  his  college.  Among  his  pupils  at  this 
school  were  the  sons  of  &e  Marquis  of  Dorset, 
who  presented  Wolsey,  in  Oct.,  1600,  to  the 
living  of  Lymington,  in  Somersetshire.  Here 
Wolsey  is  said  to  have  on  one  occasion  played 
so  unbecoming  a  part  in  his  paiish  revelries 
as  to  bring  upon  himself  the  degradation  of 
the  stocks,  and  to  have  been  compelled  to 
abandon  his  living.  By  this  time,  however, 
he  had  made  many  influential' friends,  and 
through  the  interest  of  some  of  these  ho  ob- 
tained the  post  of  secretary  and  domestic 
chaplain  to  Henry  Deane,  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  which  he  continued  to  hold  till 
the  death  of  the  primate  in  1603,  when  he 
secured  an  appointment  in  the  chaplaincy  at 
Calais.  The  strong  common  sense  Wolsey 
displayed  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties  caused 
him  to  be  appointed  one  of  the  chaplains  to 
the  king.  Wolsey  soon  secured  the  notice 
and  friendship  of  Bishop  Fox,  the  Lord  Privy 
Seal,  and  of  Sir  Thomas  Level,  the  Treasurer 
of  the  Koyal  Household.  He  was  thus  speedily 
selected  for  the  transaction  of  Henry's  more 
confidential  business;  and  so  highly  appre- 
ciated were  his  diplomatic  services  at  the 
courts  of  Germany  and  Scotland,  that  the 
king,  some  two  months  before  his  death,  con- 
ferred upon  him  the  deanery  of  -  Lincoln 
(1609).  While,  however,  Wolsey 's  tact  and 
energy  were  a  strong  recommendation  of  him 
to  a  keen  judge  of  men  like  Henrj'  VII.,  his  wit, 
gay  humour,  and  varied  personal  accomplish- 
ments made  him  the  indispensable  companion 
of  that  monarch's  successor ;  and  his  upward 
progress  under  Henry  VIII.  was  rapid  and 
brilliant.  Soon  occupying  the  position  of 
almoner  to  the  king,  and  of  a  royal  councillor, 
Wolsey    received    in   quick   soccessioa    the 


living  of  Torrington,  in  Devon,  the  registrar- 
ship  of  the  Order  of  the  Garter,  a  Windsor 
canonry,  and  the  important  deanery  of  York. 
Accompanying  Henry  to  France  in  1613,  he 
was  appointed  by  him  to  the  see  of  Toumay, 
which  the  fortune  of  war  had  temporarily 
placed  in  English  hands;  and  as  compensa- 
tion for  the  purely  nominal  character  of  this 
last  preferment,  Wolsey  was  promoted  in  Feb., 
1614,  to  the  bishopric  of  Lincoln,  whence  he 
was  translated,  before  the  expiration  of  the 
year,  to  the  archbishopric  of  York.  In  the 
following  year  (1616)  his  English  dignities 
were  crowned  by  the  reception  of  a  caidinal*B 
hat  from  Pope  Leo  X.,  with  the  title  of  St. 
Cecilia,  an  honour  which  was  quickly  suc- 
ceeded by  a  commission  from  the  pontiff  as 
Legatus  a  latere.  About  this  time,  too,  his 
revenues  from  various  sources  were  still 
further  increased  by  the  gift  from  the  king 
of  the  administration  of  the  see  of  Bath  and 
Wells,  and  the  temporalities  of  the  wealthy 
abbey  of  St.  Albans  ;  and  by  the  enjoyment, 
one  after  the  other,  of  the  bishoprics  of  Dur- 
ham and  Winchester.  Wolsey 's  position  at 
Henry's  court  was  now  not  only  one  of 
enormous  emolument,  but  one  that  carried 
with  it  a  degree  of  power  and  influence 
more  extensive  than  had  ever  previously 
been  wielded  by  a  minister  of  tiie  crown. 
For  several  years,  indeed,  he  directed  the 
foreign  policy  of  his  country,  lending  the 
English  support  to  France  and  Germany 
alternately,  according  as  it  seemed  to  suit  the 
varying  necessities  of  his  own  personal 
interests,  while  his  supremacy  in  all  that 
related  to  the  domestic  government  of  the 
kingdom  was  only  nominally  subordinate  to 
that  of  Henry  himself.  Difficult  and  dan- 
gerous, however,  as  was  the  commanding 
position  to  which  he  had  attained  with  eadb. 
unexampled  rapidity,  Wolsey  succeeded  in 
holding  his  place  in  the  king's  favour  for  some 
considerable  time,  and  his  good  fortune  in 
this  respect  was  due  not  only  to  the  watchful 
tact  wiUi  which  he  on  all  occasions  conducted 
himself  in  his  dealings  with  Henry,  but  also 
partly  to  the  fact  that  the  primary  object  of 
his  ambition,  viz.,  the  reformation  and  aggran- 
disement of  the  English  Church,  was  one  for 
which,  in  the  early  period  of  his  reign  at 
least,  the  king  had  felt  a  considerable  degree 
of  sympathy.  While  he  impressed  the  popular 
mind  with  the  pre-eminent  state  and  magni- 
flcence  of  a  Church  dignitar}"-,  by  the  every- 
day pomp  of  his  household  arrangements,  and 
by  his  gorgeous  preparations  for  the  reception 
of  his  c^inal's  hat,  he  endeavoured  to 
awaken  a  more  permanent  respect  for  the 
clergy  as  a  body  by  instituting  a  series  of 
greatly-needed  ecclesiastical  reforms.  Con- 
spicuous among  his  measures  for  purging  the 
Church  of  some  of  the  more  crying  abuses 
into  which  she  had  fallen  latterly  was  the 
suppression  of  several  of  the  smaller  monas- 
teries, and  the  devotion  of  the  funds  thus 


Wo2 


(  1086  ) 


Woo 


obtained  to  the  establishment  of  Gardinal^s 
College  (now  Christ  Church)  at  Oxford,  and 
of  a  new  grammar  school  at  Ipswich,  de- 
signed to  serve  as  a  sort  of  preparatory- 
institution  for  the  imiversity.  In  his  en- 
deavours to  raise  the  social  status  of  the 
Church,  and  to  make  her  ordained  servants 
an  example  to  the  country  of  sound  learning 
and  morality  of  life,  Wolsey  was  compelled  to 
make  the  utmost  use  of  the  power  at  his 
command.  It  was  his  zeal  in  this  matter 
that  led  him  to  hazard  a  breach  of  the  Statute 
of  Praemunire  by  accepting  the  appointment 
of  papal  legate  from  Leo  X.,  for  experience 
speedily  taught  him  that  the  authority  of 
an  ordinary  English  prelate  was  quite  in- 
sufficient to  act  with  any  effect  against  the 
monasteries  and  other  strongholds  of  eccle- 
siastical corruption. 

Rapid  beyond  all  comparison  as  had  been 
Wolsey*8  rise  to  the  position  of  the  most 
influential  subject  in  Europe,  his  fall  was 
fully  as  sudden  and  conspicuous.  By  the 
indecision  he  exhibited  in  the  matter  of 
Henrv's  divorce,  he  not  only  lost  the  king's 
confidence,  but  excited  against  himself  the 
disappointed  fury  of  Anne  Boleyn.  His 
enemies,  who  were  many  and  powerful,  were 
not  slow  to  take  advantage  of  his  misfortunes, 
and  to  revive  popular  indignation  against  him 
on  account  of  his  oppressive  taxation  and  his 
arbitrary  system  of  government.  Prosecuted 
in  1529  under  the  Statute  of  Praemunire,  he 
had  to  resign  the  Great  Seal  and  retire  to  his 
«ee  of  Winchester.  This  e'vidence,  however, 
of  his  lost  influence,  was  not  sufficient  to 
satisfy  the  jealous  vengeance  of  his  political 
rivals ;  and,  though  he  received  several  kind 
messages  from  t£e  king,  his  troubles  were 
■speedily  augmented  by  his  impeachment  in 
the  House  of  Lords.  The  faiuiful  devotion 
of  "Wolsey's  servant,  Thomas  Cromwell,  and 
some  lingering  remnant  of  regard  in  Henry*8 
heart  for  the  once  powerful  cardinal,  caused 
the  bill  to  be  thrown  out  in  tl^e  House  of 
Commons  ;  but  the  Statute  of  PrsBmunire  was 
allowed  to  have  its  full  course,  and  all 
Wolsey*s  property  was  declared  forfeited  to 
the  crown.  The  fallen  minister  was  allowed 
subsequently  to  withdraw  to  his  diocese  of 
York;  but  as  the  popularity  he  had  begun 
to  acquire  there  by  his  courtesy  and  hospi- 
tality awakened  the  fears  of  his  successors  in 
court  favour,  he  was  again  arrested  in  1530 
on  a  charge  of  high  treason.  His  health  had 
greatly  suffered  in  the  anxieties  accompanying 
bis  terrible  reverse  of  fortune,  and  he  was 
allowed  in  consequence  to  travel  towards 
London  by  a  succession  of  easy  journeys. 
After  a  fortnight's  stay  at  the  mansion  of 
the  Earl  of  Shrewsbury,  a  violent  dysentery 
by  which  he  was  attacked  so  reduced  his 
strength  that,  when  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Leicester,  he  was  compelled  to  accept  the 
hospitality  offered  him  at  the  monastery 
there.    He  reached  the  monastery  on  Nov. 


26,  1530,  and  died  within  three  days  of  hit 

arrival,  on  Nov.  29,  1530.     He  was  buried  in 

the  abbey  precincts,  but  no  monument  coTLts 

his  remains  there.     [Henry  YIIL;  Csom- 

WELL ;  C&ANMEK ;  Anne  Boletn.] 

The  Slate  Paj^  of  Henry  VIII.,  wi^  3b. 
J.  S.  Brewer's  invaluable  lutrodnctionfl,  ftire 
the  fullest  histoiy  of  Wolsey's  adintniirtmica 
and  i»erhapB  the  fairest  estimate  of  his  cbane- 
ter.  ThehiBtortana  of  the  sixteenth  oentnxy. 
Hall,  Holinshed,  and  Grafton,  are  of  little  reil 
value  for  Wolsey. 

Woody  SiH  Andrew,  of  Largs,  ^nis  the 
first  great  naval  officer  Scotland  possessed 
On  the  murder  of  James  III.  he  declared 
for  his  son  against  the  counciL  In  1490  he 
captured  five  English  vessels  with  onlytvo 
of  his  own ;  and  subsequently  took  the  three 
ships  which  had  been  sent  under  the  com- 
mand of  Stephen  Ball  to  avenge  the  insult. 

Wood,  Anthony  [b.  1632,  d.  1695),  vas 
an  antiquarian  of  gi-eat  research  and  industry. 
He  was  educated  at  Merton  College,  OxfonL 
and  took  his  B.A.  degree  in  1652.  In  1674 
he  published  his  History  and  Antiquum  *j 
Oxfordy  the  copyright  of  which  was  purchased 
by  the  university,  a  work  which  was  subse- 
quently continued  by  Gutch  in  1 786.  In  1691 
appeared  the  Athcnte  Ox&niensea:  an  ex*ei 
History  of  all  the  Writers  and  Bttkops  «k 
haee  had  their  Education  in  the  Univertitjf  if 
Oxford  from  1500  to  1695,  to  which  are  edid 
the  Faetif  or  Annate  of  the  said  UniversUjf.  An 
attack  on  Lord  Clarendon,  contained  in  thu 
work,  procured  for  its  author  expulsion  fxoa. 
the  university,  and  he  was  afterwards  em- 
broiled  in  disputes  with  Bishop  Burnet 

B.  Bawlinson,  Life  of  Anihomv  Weed  (Bbv* 
edition  of  the  AtKence  is  the  best). 

WoodfiEilL  William,  a  printer,  was  tiied 
in  1770  forpublishing  JuniuB*8  "  Letter  to  the 
King."  The  right  of  the  jury  to  judge  of  lb«? 
criminality  of  the  libel  having  been  denied 
by  Lord  Mansfield,  they  found  the  pristBier 
guilty  of  ''printing  and  publishing  only.'* 
Lord  Mansfield  was  severely  taken  to  task 
in  the  House  of  Lords  for  his  arbitrazy  con- 
duct, but  the  question  was  not  settled  until 
twenty  years  after,  by  Fox's  Libel  Act. 
State  Trialtt  vol.  xx. 

Wood's  Kalf^uce.  There  was  no 
mint  in  Ireland  in  1722,  and  there  being  & 
want  of  small  coin,  and  a  great  deal  of  1«# 
money  dating  from  the  times  of  Eliiabftk 
and  James  L,  a  patent  for  coining  copper 
money  .was  granted  to  the  royal  mistress,  lbs 
Duchess  of  Kendal,  and  by  her  sold  to  Wood, 
an  English  ironmonger.  He  was  to  be 
allowed  to  coin  £108,000  wortb  of  halijprtice 
and  farthings,  a  pound  of  copper  to  be  couwd 
into  thirty  pence,  for  Ireland.  In  Engkw 
twenty-three  pence  only  were  coined  from 
one  pound,  but  as  the  cost  of  transport  «w 
an  import  duty  had  to  be  considered,  ^^ 
ference  was  not  really  unreasonable.  Tw 
gains  Wood  would  make  were  calcuktcd  st 


Woo 


(  1087  ) 


Wor 


£4,000,  and  no  doubt  the  amount  of  copper  to 

be  put  in    circulation  was  excessive,   since 

about  £15,000  worth  would  have  been  enough. 

The  excitement  in  Ireland,  however,  was  out 

of  all  proportion  to  the  real  importance  of 

the  matter.    The  Irish  House  of  (Commons 

absurdly    enough    pretending    that    Ireland 

would  lose  £150  on  every  100  lbs.  of  copper 

coined ;  it  was  also  intimated  that  the  coin 

as  actually  issued  was  debased.     Sir  Isaac 

Newton,  however,  examined  it  and  found  it 

fully  as  good  as  was  required.    In  1723  the 

sum  to  be  coined  was  reduced,  but  in  1724 

8wift*s  DrapUr*8  Letters  appeared,   and  all 

Ireland,  including  even  the  Chancellor  and 

the  Archbishop  of  Dublin,  was  unanimous  in 

refusing  the  new  halfpence.    Carteret  came 

over  and  attempted  to  prosecute  the  *  *  Drapier," 

but  the  grand  jury  not  only  ignored  the 

indictment,  but  presented  all  persons  who 

had  accepted  the  new  coin.    At  last  in  1725 

Walpole  gave  in  to  the  clamour  raised  in 

Ireland,   the  patent  was  revoked,   and  the 

Irish  Parliament  passed  a  vote  of  thanks  to 

the  king.    Wood  got  3,000  guineas  for  eight 

years  as  compensation  from  the  Irish  Pension 

List,  but  under  a  false  name. 

Swift,  Drapiwr'a  LetterB  i  Leaky,  HM.  of  Bng.s 
Leader B  of  Public  Ouinion  in  Ireiand;  Coze,  YTol- 
poU;  Craik,  Life  ofSmfL 

WoocLrtock,  The  Assize  of  (1184),  was 
the  great  code  of  regulations  relating  to  the 
royal  forests,  issued  by  Henry  II.  It  was 
subsequently  considerably  modified  by  Magna 
Charta,  and  Henry  III.'s  Charter  of  the 
Forest.  The  Assize  of  Woodstock  is  the 
fbnst  formal  Act  relating  to  the  forests  that  is 
in  existence.  The  Act  was  somewhat  leas 
severe  than  the  legislation  on  the  subject 
under  William  the  Conqueror  and  Henry  I. 
But  the  punishment  for  breaches  of  this  law 
were  heavy,  and  it  was  carried  out  with 
burdensome  rigour.  "And  this,"  says  Dr. 
Stubbs,  "is  altogether  the  part  of  his 
[Henry's]  legislation  that  savours  most 
strongly  of  tyranny."  The  Assize  carefully 
preserves  the  game  and  wood  of  the  forest, 
orders  a  jury  of  twelve  men  in  each  forest 
county  to  be  chosen  for  the  custody  of  vert 
and  venison,  and  requires  every  person  of 
twelve  years  and  upwards  living  within  the 
bounds  of  the  forests  to  take  the  oath  of 
peace.  Death  was  to  be  the  penalty  for  a 
third  infraction  of  the  forest  law8.YFurther  in- 
formation given  under  Assize  of  Woodstock.] 
The  Assize  is  girea  in  Stubbs,  Select  Chartere, 

Woodville,  Lord  Edwabd,  was  a  brother 
^f  Edward  IV.'s  wife,  and  consequently  uncle 
to  the  queen  of  Henry  VII.  He  obtained  a 
temporary  notoriety  m  the  reig^  of  this  latter 
monarch  by  his  expedition  at  the  head  of  400 
men  to  aid  the  Duke  of  Britanny  in  1488, 
notwithstanding  the  king's  positive  orders 
against  the  despatch  from  England  of  any 
expedition  with  such  an  object.     Besides  ex- 


citing considerable  indignation  in  France,  this 
proceeding  on  the  part  of  Lord  WoodviUe  had 
the  effect  of  larcing  Henry  to  adopt  a  definite 
position  with  regard  to  the  dispute  between 
France  and  Britanny.  The  news  of  the 
French  victory  at  St.  Aubin  (July  28,  1488), 
and  of  the  death  of  Lord  WoodviUe,  with 
the  almost  total  destruction  of  the  small 
English  force  which  he  commanded,  raised 
public  feeling  in  England  to  an  extent  which 
licnry  could  no  longer  afford  to  ignore  ;  and, 
although  there  continued  to  be  a  secret 
arrangement  with  Charles  YIII.  on  the 
subject,  a  supply  of  troops  was  at  once  sent 
to  the  aid  of  Britanny.  At  the  time  of  the 
ill-starred  expedition  which  ended  in  defeat 
and  slaughter  at  St.  Aubin,  Lord  WoodviUe 
was  Governor  of  the  Isle  of  Wight. 

WoodviUe,     Elizabeth.       [Elizabeth 

WOODVILLE.] 

Worcester,  Florence  of.  [Flohence 
OF  Worcester.] 

Worcester,  John  Tiptoft,  Earl  of 
{d.  1470),  was  a  strong  Yorkist  partisan.  He 
held  the  office  of  Treasurer  in  1452,  and  eaily 
in  Edward  IV.'s  reign  was  made  Constable, 
and  rendered  himself  odious  by  his  cruelties. 
He  was  Lieutenant  of  Ireland  in  1467,  and 
held  other  important  offices.  In  1470,  on  the 
restoration  of  Henry  VI.,  he  was  captured, 
and  beheaded  on  Tower  Hill.  He  was  illus- 
trious for  his  learning  and  his  patronage  of 
learned  men ;  he  translated  many  works  into 
«  English,  and  spent  a  great  part  of  his  life  in 
travel  and  study. 

Worcester,  Thomas  Percy,  Earl  of 
{d.  1403),  was  the  younger  brother  of  Henry 
Percy,  Earl  of  Northumberland,  and  served 
with  distinction  in  the  French  wars.  He 
afterwards  become  Steward  of  the  Household 
to  Richard  II.,  who  created  him  Earl  of  Wor- 
cester. He  joined  Henry  of  Lancaster,  but 
in  1403  took  part  in  his  brother's  rebellion 
against  him.  He  fought  in  the  battle  of 
Shrewsbury,  where  he  was  taken  prisoner, 
and  beheaded  two  days  after. 

Worcester,  William  of  {d.  circa  1480), 
a  physician,  wrote  the  Annals  of  Hug  land  from 
lSf4  to  Lf68,  which  were  subsequently  con- 
tinued by  another  hand  to  1491.  It  has  been 
published  by  Heame. 

Worcester,  The  Battle  of  (Sept.  3, 
1661),  was  fought  between  the  Scottish  and 
Parliamentarians  during  the  unsuccessful 
expedition  of  Charles  11.  to  England  previous 
to  the  Restoration.  After  the  battle  of  Dunbar 
and  the  capture  of  Edinburgh  by  Cromwell, 
Charles  made  a  sudden  movement  southwards 
in  January,  hoping  to  cut  off  a  portion  of 
the  English  army,  which  lay  aouth  of  the 
Forth.  CromweU  thereupon  moved  north- 
wards towards  Perth,  and  so  left  open  the 
way  to  England.  The  king  promptly  hastened 
across  the  frontier,  and  advanced  rapidly  to 


Wor 


(  1088  ) 


Wri 


Worcester,  which  he  entered  on  Aug.  22. 
There  he  lay  inactively,  and  allowed  Crom- 
well to  overtake  him.  The  Parliamentary 
army  attacked  in  two  dividonB,  connected  hv 
a  bridge  of  boats,  Fleetwood  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Severn,  Cromwell  marching  on 
the  east  bank  upon  the  town  itself.  Charles 
^t  attacked  Cromwell,  but  without  success, 
and  he  was  driven  back  into  the  town,  where 
the  two  divisions  of  the  enemy  met,  and  drove 
the  Royalists  through  the  streets.  They 
made  no  attempt  to  rally,  and  the  war  soon 
came  to  an  end. 

Carlyle,  CromwdCt  LdUn, 

WorcesteTi  The  Citt  and  Borough  of, 
has,  perhaps,  had  a  more  disturbed  history 
than  any  town  in  England.  From  894,  when 
it  was  almost  entirely  destroyed  by  the  Danes, 
its  annals  present  a  long  series  of  sieges, 
burnings,  and  captures.  Rebuilt  by  Ethelred, 
it  was  retaken  by  Hardicanute  in  1041.  In 
1074  it  was  occupied  by  the  barons  of  Here- 
ford, and  a  conspiracy  against  William 
crushed.  The  cathedral,  founded  by  Bishop 
Oswald  in  983  on  the  ruins  of  a  previous 
building,  was  destroyed  by  fire.  It  was  re- 
built by  Bishop  Wulstan  in  1084,  but  again 
suffered  twice  from  fire,  and  was  repaired 
and  reconsecrated  in  1280.  During  the 
troubles  of  Stephen's  reign  Worcester  was 
plundered  by  the  Empress,  and  besieg^  by 
the  king,  and  again  bv  his  son,  Eustace. 
Hugh  of  Mortimer  held  the  castle  against 
Henry  II.  in  1157.  A  council  was  held  there 
in  1240.  In  Henry  III.'s  reign  it  became  a 
stronghold  of  the  baronial  party,  the  king 
being  taken  there  after  the  battle  of  Lewes. 
Worcester  was  plundered  in  1401  by  Owen 
Glendower,  who  held  it  until  driven  off  by 
Henry  IV.  In  1642  it  was  taken  by  Prince 
Rupert,  but  was  recovered  by  the  Parliamen- 
tarians under  Colonel  Fiennes  in  the  same 
^ear.  Lastly,  Charles  II.  was  defeated  there 
m  Sept.,  1651. 

Oreen,  Aidiqyaiie*  of  Woroetter;  Nash,  TTor- 
ocBtertihirt. 

Wovmm,  The  Tkbaty  op  (Sept.  17, 1743), 
was  signed  by  England,  Austria,  and  Sar- 
dinia. After  the  battle  of  Dettingen  in  the 
War  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  negotiations 
for  peace  were  set  on  foot,  but  were  abruptly 
broken  off  owing  to  the  desire  of  England  to 
carry  on  the  war  with  France.  Accordingly 
the  treaty  was  signed  at  Worms  on  Sept.  13. 
It  was  negotiated  by  Carteret  without  re- 
ference to  the  ministers  at  home,  and  they 
accordingly  refused  to  ratify  a  separate  and 
secret  cenvention  by  which  Maria  Theresa 
was  to  be  supplied  with  a  subsidy  of  £300,000 
a  year  as  long  as  **  the  necessity  of  her  affairs 
shall  require."  The  treaty  agreed  to  assure 
the  Pragmatic  Sanction  and  the  European 
balance ;  the  King  of  Sardinia  was  to  have  a 
yearly  subsidy  of  £200,000  from  England, 
the  cession  of  the  Vigevenese  from  Austria, 


and  the  command  of  the  allies  in  Italy,  on 
condition  that  he  should  bring  to  the  field 
an  army  of  45,000,  and  renounce  his  preten- 
sions to  the  Milanese.  This  alliance  was  met 
by  the  League  of  Frankfurt,  of  which  the 
most  important  members  were  France  and 
Prussia. 

Kooh  and  Schoell,  Traiiia  de  PaU;  Axneth, 
Maria  Tharaiia. 

Wotton,  Dr.  Nicholas  {b,  1497,  d.  1566), 
was  employed  by  Thomas  Cromwell  (1537)  to 
arrange  the  marriage  of  Henry  VIU.  and 
Anne  of  Cleves.  Made  Dean  of  Canterbury 
and  York  by  Henry,  who  had  a  high  opinion 
of  his  abilities,  he  was  named  one  of  the 
council  of  executors  appointed  by  the  king's 
will,  and  subsequently  oecame  a  trusted  ser- 
vant of  Mary,  for  whom  he  discovered  the 
plot  of  Sir  Heniy  Dudley  (IdoG).  In  the 
same  year  he  laid  bare  a  conspiracy  to  seize 
Calais,  and  averted  the  danger  for  the  moment 
In  1568  he  was  one  of  the  Engliah  representa- 
tives  in  the  discussion  of  a  proposied  peace 
with  France,  which  took  place  at  Cercamp. 
and  in  the  following  year  was  present  at  the 
negotiations  at  Cunbray,  while  in  1565  b- 
was  sent  to  Bruges  to  discuss  the  subject  of 
the  suppression  of  English  pirates  who  were 
alleged  to  be  doing  great  damage  to  th>' 
Spanish  shipping.  Dr.  Wotton  was  offerel 
the  primacy  in  1559  before  the  appointment 
of  Archbishop  Parker,  but  ref uBed  it,  knowing 
that  he  was  no  theologian,  and  that  *'inor« 
than  administrative  ability  and  knowledge  of 
the  world  was  at  this  time  required  in  the 
primate." 

Llovd,  Worthie$;  Tjrtler,  Eng.  under  Ed,  FI. 
and  Mary, 

Wray,  Sir  Chbistophek  [d.  1592),  one  of 
the  favourite  judges  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  waii 
an  active  member  of  Parliament  during  the 
reign  of  Mair,  and  up  to  1571,  when  he  was 
chosen  Speaker.  In  1672  he  was  made  a 
judge,  and  two  years  later  be<»me  Chief  Jus- 
tice of  the  Queen*s  Bench,  in  which  capacity 
he  presided  at  the  trial  of  Secretary  Davison. 
Sir  Edward  Coke  calls  him  ^'  a  most  reverend 
judge,  of  profound  and  judicial  knowledgis 
accompanied  with  a  ready  and  singular  capa- 
city, g^ve  and  sensible  elocution,  and  con- 
tinual and  admirable  ]>atience.'' 
Fobs,  Judgn  of  England, 

Writfllt,  Sir  Nathan  (A.  1653,  d.  1721). 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1677.  He  assisted  at 
the  trial  of  the  Seven  Bidiops.  In  1697  he 
was  created  King*s  Sergeant.  On  the  dis- 
missal of  Somers,  he  was  appointed  Lord 
Keeper  of  the  Privy  SeaL  In  1702  we  find 
him  addressing  the  commission  which  had 
been  appointed  to  frame  the  union  with  Scot- 
land. He  rendered  himself  objectionable  by 
his  partisanship  of  the  Church.  He  was 
restncted  to  sUence  in  the  Upper  Hoiup. 
where  he  performed  the  duties  ot  a  Speaker, 
for  want  of  a  peerage.    We  find  him  accnsed 


Wri 


(  1089  ) 


Wya 


of  leaving  out,  in  hla  list  of  the  JusticeB  of 
the  Peace,  all  who  were  not  of  Tory  peptics. 
He  waa  removed  in  1705.  Mr.  Wyon  eays 
•of  him  that  "  his  leg^  acquirements  were 
below  the  requisite  standard,  and  his  cha- 
racter for  meanness  and  avarice  ill-qualified 
him  to  preside  over  the  most  august  assembly 
in  the  kingdom.*'     [Someba  ;  Cowpkr.] 

Burnet,  Hut.  of  hia  Own  Tvom  ;  Wyon,  Rngn 
of  Q^$m,  Ann$, 

Wright,  William,  a  doctor  of  law,  who 
flourished  in  the  reign  of  Henry  YIII.,  and 
is  famous  as  being  Henry's  first  envoy 
to  Rome  respecting  his  projected  divorce 
from  Catherine  of  Aragon.  Wright's  mis- 
sion was  entirely  without  any  tangible 
results,  and  the  fkcts  that  (1)  Clement  VII. 
was  at  that  time  a  prisoner  in  the  hands  of 
Charles  V.,  and  (2)  that  Henry's  ideas  on 
the  subject  of  the  divorce  had  not  reached  the 
decided  stage  they  attained  a  little  later, 
naturally  prevented  Wright  from  doing  much 
more  than  preparing  the  papal  mind  for  a 
favourable  reception  of  Henry's  wishes. 

Writs.  Pakliamentaby,  are  addressed  to 
the  sherin  of  a  county  directing  him  to  cause 
to  be  elected  a  member  or  members  to  the 
House  of  Commons  in  case  of  a  general 
election  or  vacancy.  They  issue  upon 
the  warrant  of  the  Lord  Chancellor,  or, 
during  the  sitting  of  the  House,  upon  the 
warrant  of  the  Speaker.  The  first  in- 
stance of  a  writ  of  summons  in  their  later 
form  is  in  1213,  when  the  king  directed  that 
four  discreet  men  should  be  returned  from 
«ach  shire  ad  hquendum  nabiseum  de  negotiu 
regni  nottri,  and  at  the  same  date  four  men 
and  the  reeve  were  summoned  from  the 
township  or  demesne.  It  was  not  until  the 
end  of  the  reign  of  Eklward  I.  that  Parlia- 
ment assumed  its  final  form,  and  that  the 
possibility  of  the  merchants  and  lawyers  being 
summoned  as  separate  sub-estates  ceased. 
Of  the  other  estates  of  the  realm,  writs  of 
summons  were  addressed  in  ^the  times  of 
Henry  III.  and  Edward  I.  to  a  certain  select 
number  of  hereditary  barons,  who,  in  con- 
junction with  the  prelates,  formed,  by  the 
middle  of  the  fourteenth  century,  the  House 
of  Lords.  The  form  of  the  early  Parlia- 
mentary writs  illustrates  very  clearly  the 
different  functions  of  the  three  estates.  The 
maghates  are  usually  summoned  ad  traC" 
tandutn ;  the  Commons,  ad  conMuUndttm  et 
eoftsetUiendum,  that  is,  the  latter  body  are 
regarded  as  having  inferior  powers.  Prelates 
were  summoned  ds  JIde  $t  dUeetione ;  lords 
temporal,  de  Me  et  homagio  or  de  homagio 
4t  ligeantia.  Writs  of  summons  to  the  Com- 
mons are  important  in  the  qualifications 
introduced,  which  vary  from  the  formula  **  de 
diaeretumihue  et  legalionobut "  of  1276  to  the 
qualification  that  members  should  be  *'  gladiie 
unitoe^^^  or  belted  knights,  introduced  in 
1340.    Later  changes  depend  upon  the  eleo- 

HX8T.-36 


tion  Acts  in  force  at  different  periods,  such 

as  those  imposing  a  property  qualification  on 

electors,  and  directing  the  methods  of  election. 

Btnbbs,  Comai.  HiU.t  cha»  xt.  and  zz.  For 
spedmema  of  Parliamentary  wiita,  see  Stabba, 
SeUet  Cfcartorc,  and  Palgxave,  Parliamentary 
Write;  see  also  Majr,  Parltamcntary  Practice. 

Wrotlk,  Sir  Thomas,  was  sent  to  Ireland 
(1564)  as  a  special  commissioner,  in  con- 
junction with  Sir  Nicholas  Arnold,  to  in- 
quire into  the  complaints  which  had  been 
made  against  the  English  army.  He  had 
previoudy  been  employed  on  diplomatic  mis- 
sions in  Germany,  and  had  been  one  of  the 
witnefses  to  Edward  yi.'s  "device"  for 
altering  the  succession  in  favour  of  Lady 
Jane  Grey. 

Wrothaoi  SeatllyTnE  Battlb  of  (Jan., 
1654),  resulted  in  thedefeat  of  the  Kentish 
insurg^ts  under  Sir  Henry  Isley  by  Lord 
Abergavenny.  Wrotham  is  a  small  town 
near  Sevenoiaks  in  Kent. 

Wolf  heln,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(923^-942),  was  translated  from  WeUs.  *Hui 
episcopate  saw  the  commencement  of  the 
movement  in  favour  of  monasticism  and  rigid 
celibacy,  which  was  to  agitate  the  Church  in 
the  reigns  of  his  immediate  successors. 

William  of  ICalmetbtuy ;  Hook,  ArchJbUkopt, 

Wlllfherep  King  of  Mercia  (659—676), 
was  the  son  of  Penda  and  brother  of  Peada. 
On  the  death  of  the  latter,  Oswiu  of  North- 
umbria  assumed  the  government  of  Merda, 
but  in  659  the  Northumbrian  yoke  was 
shaken  off  and  Wulfhere  proclaimed  king. 
He  was  successful  in  his  wars  against  Wessex, 
and  having  conquered  the  Ide  of  Wight, 
granted  it  to  Ethelwald  of  Sussex.  He 
carried  on  the  work  of  convendon  begun 
by  Peada,  and  founded  the  bishopric  of 
Lichfield.  One  of  bis  daughters  was  St. 
Werburgh. 

BedA,Soelet.flift.;  Hook,  ^roUiehope. 

Wvlfrddy  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(806 — 832),  was  chosen  on  the  death  of  Ethel- 
hard.  *'  He  was,"  says  Dean  Hook,  '*  a  good, 
easy,  prudent  man ;  equally  intent  on  serving 
lus  own  family  and  on  improving  the  property 
and  estates  of  the  chapter  and  the  see."  And 
this  is  all  that  can  be  said  of  him,  for  though 
he  held  the  archbishopric  for  more  than 
twenty-six  years,  he  did  nothing  worthy  of 
record. 

Florence  of  Woroeeter ;  Hook,  ^rehbiehepc. 

Wntt,  SiH  Thomas  (d,  April  11,  1664), 
was  tne  son  of  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt  the  poet. 
In  Jan.,  1664,  he  became  one  of  the  leaders 
in  the  rebellion  against  Hary,  though  he 
is  said  to  have  had  nothing  to  do  with  the 
origin  of  the  plot.  The  insurrection  which 
was  caused  by  national  discontent  at  the  con- 
templated mamage  of  Mary  with  Philip  of 
Spain,  had  for  its  object  the  deposition  of  the 


Wye 


(  lOdO  ) 


Wye 


queen  in  favour  of  the  Princess  ElLzabeth 
and  Courtenay,  Earl  of  Devon.  Sir  Thomas 
Wyatt  was  charged  with  the  duty  of  rais- 
ing Kent,  and  so  well  did  he  perform  his 
mission,  that  Kent  was  the  only  part  of  the 
country  where  the  rebellion  assumed  at  all 
formidable  dimensions.  **  He  excited/'  says 
Mr.  lingard,  "the  applause  of  his  very  ad- 
versaries by  the  secrecy  and  address  with 
which  he  organised  the  rising,  and  by  the 

Spirit  and  perseverance  with  which  he  con- 
ucted  the  enterprise.*'  A  delay,  however, 
in  taking  possession  of  London,  proved  fatal 
to  Wyatt's  success;  and  after  a  sharp  en- 
gagement he  found  himself  compelled  to  sur* 
render  at  Temple  Bar  to  Sir  Maurice  Burke- 
ley.  After  his  capture  he  implicated  Gour- 
tenay  by  his  confessions;  but  though 
earery  endeavour  was  made  to  extort  from 
him  a  full  revelation,  he  steadfastly  re- 
fused to  buy  his  life  at  the  price  of  an  accu- 
sation  of  the  Princess  Elisabeth,  which  was 
what  her  enemies,  with  Bishop  Grardiner  at 
their  head,  were  labouring  to  obtain ;  and  at 
the  last  moment  retracted  what  he  had  said 
eonceming  Courtenay*s  guilt. 

Stow,  Annal9 ;  NooUles,  Amba$$ad49  en  AmgU. 
tairt ;  Lingard,  Hid,  of  Eng. ;  Fronde,  Hitt.  <^ 
Eng. 

Wycliffe.  John,  was  bom  about  the  year 
1320,  or  a  little  later.  Leland,  the  antiquary, 
names  his  birthplace  as  Ipreswel,  or  Hips- 
well,  near  Richmond  in  Yorkshire,  and  states 
that  he  derived  his  origin  from  the  family 
which  held  the  lordship  of  WydifPe-on-Tees. 
It  was  this  connection  plainly  that  drew  him 
to  Balliol  Colleg^,  Oxford,  which  had  been 
founded  by  John  Balliol,  of  Barnard  Oastle, 
on  the  borders  of  Durham,  in  the  preceding 
century.  By  an  old  mistiike,  Wycliffe  has 
been  described  as  first  a  commoner  of  Queen's 
College  and  a  confusion  (as  it  appears)  with 
a  namesake,  makes  him  f eUow  and  seneschal 
of  Merton.  In  all  probability,  however,  he 
remained  a  member  of  Balliol  until  he  was 
chosen  master  of  the  college  some  time  after 
1356^  but  not  later  than  1360.  In  1361  he 
was  mstituted  to  the  college  living  of  Fillinf- 
ham,  near  Lincoln,  and  shortly  afterwaros 
resigned  the  mastership.  He  does  not  ap- 
pear, however,  to  have  given  up  his  work  as 
a  teacher  in  Oxford,  for  we  fina  him  renting 
rooms  at  Queen's  College,  doubtless  with  this 
object,  at  various  dates  between  1363  and 
1380.  But  in  this  interval — if  we  are  to  ac- 
cept a  view  now  nearly  universally  credited, 
which  rests  indeed  upon  abundant  contem- 
porary evidence,  but  which  none  the  less  may 
nave  arisen  from  the  confusion  above  referred 
to  with  the  other  John  Wycliffe,  of  Merton — 
the  future  Reformer  was  nominated  by  Arch- 
bishop Islip  in  1365,  warden  of  his  founda- 
tion of  Canterbury  Hall,  the  site  of  which 
BOW  forms  a  portion  of  Christchurch,  Oxford. 
"WyclifPe  ana  three  fellows,  secular  clergy- 
men, were  appointed  in  the  place  of  three 


monks  whose  position  in  the  hall  had  heeai  a 
source  of  disturbance;  but  in  1367  Islip'a 
successor.  Archbishop  Langham,  himself  a. 
monk,  expelled  Wycliffe  and  the  fellows  who 
had  entex^  with  him,  and  substatuted  regular 
clergymen.  Wycliffe  appealed  to  Rome; 
judgment  was  given  against  him  in  1369  and 
published  in  1370,  and  the  sentence  was  en- 
forced by  royal  writ  in  1372.  His  living- 
of  Fillingham  he  exchanged  in  1368  for 
Ludgershall,  in  Buckinghamshire,  and  in  1374 
he  was  presented  by  the  crown  to  the  rectory 
of  Lutterworth,  in  Leicestershire,  where  hie 
remained  until  his  death. 

During  these  years  Wycliffe  had  written 
a  variety  of  scholastic  treatises;  then, 
turning  to  theology,  he  had  devoted  himBelf 
in  particular  to  expanding  and  applying  his 
theory  of  the  divine  government,  Imown  to 
us  as  the  doctrine  of  dominion.  Hb  erected 
a  sort  of  theocratic  feudalism  where  each 
man  "  held "  of  Gh)d,  without  the  interposi- 
tion of  any  mesne  lord,  and  where  **  grace  '* 
or  "  charity"  was  the  sole  indispensable  con- 
dition of  tenure.  When  Wycliffe  went  on  to 
explain  that  the  universal  power  claimed  by 
the  Pope  could  only  belong  by  right  to  the 
'*  Lord-in-chief ,'*  who  had  never  delegated 
his  authority  in  that  sense  to  man,  it 
was  evident  that  in  the  doctrinaire  might 
be  found  one  able  to  do  good  service  to 
his  country,  espedaUy  at  a  time  when  Eng- 
land was  pressed  by  demands  for  tribute 
to  the  Pope,  and  overrun  by  his  emis- 
saries.  Accordingly  we  find  that  Wycli^ 
was  made  chaplain  to  the  king;  in  1366  he 
wrote  against  the  papal  claim,  and  in  1374 
acted  as  one  of  the  royal  oommissionen  at 
the  conference  held  at  Bruges,  with  the  object 
of  settling  the  disputed  question  of  *'  provi- 
sions.'* Wycliffe  now  appears  as  a  hearty 
co-operator  with  John  of  Graunt,  though  it 
should  seem  that  the  only  point  they  had  in 
common  was  a  desirB  to  repress  the  over- 
grown power  of  the  endowed  (uergy.  Through 
this  connection  rather  than  from  any  serioua 
charge  of  incoirect  doctrine,  Wycliffe  waa 
cited  by  William  Courtenay,  Bishop  of 
London,  a  declared  opponent  of  the  Duke  of 
Lancaster,  to  appear  before  him  at  SL  Paul*a 
in  Feb.,  1377 ;  out  the  trial  broke  np  in  an 
undignified  quarrel  between  John,  who  ac- 
companied Wycliffe,  and  the  bishop.  Wy- 
cliffe's  teaching,  however,  with  regard  to  the 
rights  of  the  Church,  especially  as  to  the 
temporalities,  had  already  reached  Rome ; 
and  a  few  months  later  a  series  of  bulls  were 
directed  against  him  by  Gregory  XI.  But 
the  king's  death  in  June  delayed  their  execu- 
tion, and  the  attempted  action  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  was  thwarted  far  some 
time  by  the  independent  attitude  of  the 
University  of  Oxford.  Meantime  Wycliffe 
published  his  answer  to  the  papal  accusation. 
At  length,  in  the  spring  of  1378,  he  had 
to  appear  at  Lambeth;  but  here  again  the 


Wye 


(  1091  ) 


Wym 


seefiion  was  intemipted  by  an  uproar  of  the 
people,  who  resented  the  intrusion  of  papal 
bulls :  and  Wycliffe  was  simply  forbidden  to 
lecture  upon  the  subjects  which  had  given 
offence.    The  Great  Schism,  however,  which 
began    in    the  same  year,  exasperated    his 
opposition  to  the  papacy.     He  went  further 
than  before,  and  venturea  to  dispute  the  doc* 
trine  of  transubstantiation.    He  turned  from 
the  clergy  to  the  commonalty,  and  began  to 
address  them  in  English  tracts ;  he  denounced 
the  papacy,  the  monastic,  and  now  particu- 
larly the  mendicant,  orders.      He  planned 
and  mainly  executed,  with  the  help  of  John 
Purvey  and  other  friends,  a  translation  of 
the  Bible  into  English,  the  first  complete 
version  ever  attempted,  which  was  quickly 
spread  abroad  in  innumerable  copies ;  at  least 
165  manuscripts  of  it,  in  whole  or  in  part, 
have   come  down   to   us,    in    spite  of   the 
strong  measures  taken  by  the  Church  for  its 
suppression.    He  sent  out  his  disdnles,  the 
''poor    priests,''    to    preach    his    doctrines 
throughout  the  country.    But  the  hostility 
among  the   leading  churchmen  aroused   by 
these  movements  was  much  more  languid  than 
naight  have  been  anticipated.     A  vigorous 
attack   was    made   upon    his   principal  ad- 
lierents  in  Oxford,  Nicholas  Hereford,   Ro- 
pyngdon,  Ashton,  and    Bedeman,   in  1382, 
and  they  were  induced  to  recant.    But  the 
heresiarch  himself  was  hardly  at  aU  molested, 
though  his  doctrines  were  condemned  by  the 
Chancellor  of  Oxford,  and  by  a  provmcial 
council  held  at  the  Blackfriars  in  Ix)ndon,  in 
May,  1382  :  it  is  said  also  that  he  had  to  ap- 
pear in  person  at  another  council  at  Oxford  in 
November  of  that  year ;  but  no  sentence  was 
passed  upon  him.    He  retired  unmolested  to 
Luttorworth  and  died  there  from  a  paralysis  on 
Dec.  31,  1384.    Wycliffe  was  a  strenuous  and 
conscientious,  if  in  some  respects  injudicious, 
advocate  of  Church  reform.    So  i&r  he  was  in 
unison  with  perhaps  a  majority  of  the  earnest 
clergy  of  his  day.     With  the  Franciscans  he 
found  a  chief  cause  of  the  corruption  of  the 
Church  in  the  excessive  possession  of  temx>oral 
goods  by  the  clergr.  He  parted  company  with 
them,  as  with  all  loyal  Catholics,  when  he 
sought  to  reform  the  doctrinal  system,  and 
to  destroy  almost  everything  upon  which  the 
sacerdotal  principle  was  based.    But  by  this 
very  course  of  teaching  he  attached  the  mul- 
titude to  him,  weary  as  it  was  of  the  perfunc- 
tory ministrations  of  a  corrupt  order.    It  is 
in  his  English  works,  his  short,  robust  tracts 
and  sermons — ^far  more  than  in  his  Latin  ones, 
which,  although  of  a  high  interest,  are  but 
too  plainly  the  products  of  a  declining  and  ar- 
tificial period  of  scholasticism — ^that  Wycliffe 
shows  his  real  genius ;  and  he  may  almost  be 
said  to  have  invented    English  prose  as  a 
vehicle  of  literary  exposition.    His  influence 
was    permanent,  though   not   perhaps  very 
extensive ;  but  the  fact  which  makes  him  a 
true  herald  of  the  Protestant  Reformation 


was  his  assertion  of  the  rights  of  the  in« 
dividual  conscience  before  God  and  against 
any  human  intermediary  whatsoever. 

Biographies,  by  J.  Lewis  (2nd  ed.,  Oxfoxd, 
1820),  Professor  Q.  V.  Leohler  (1873),  and  A.  B. 
Pennington  C1884} ;  also  in  Shirlej's  introdao- 
tion  to  the  FoaetctiZt  Zuantorum  (RolLi  Series) ; 
and  in  F.  D.  Matthew's  introduotion  to  his 
Sngli$h  Woria  of  WyoLjf.  The  two  last  are  of 
special  valne.  WyoUiie's  English  works  have 
been  published  by  T.  Arnold  (3  volumes)  and 
Matthew  ( 1  volumeX  His  Latin  works,  of  which 
hitherto  little  more  than  the  Tridlogm  has 
seen  the  light  (ed.  Leohler),  are  now  in  course 
of  publication  by  the  Wyclif  Society. 

[R.  L.  P.] 

Wyteluun,  William  of  (6.1324,  d.  1404), 
was  Dom.  at  Wykeham  in  Hampshire.  He 
long  served  Edward  III.  in  the  capacity  of 
surveyor  of  works,  and  built  for  him  many 
noble  edifices,  Windsor  Castle  among  the 
number.  He  became  warden  of  the  forests 
south  of  the  Trent,  Keeper  of  the  Privy  Seal 
Pk^dent  of  the  Council,  Bishop  of  Win- 
chester, and  at  length  Chancellor  in  1367.  In 
1371  he  was  driven  from  court,  and  his 
temporalities  seized  on  charges  of  corruption, 
which  were  subsequently  proved  to  be  un- 
founded. On  the  accession  of  Richard  II.  he 
was  restored  to  favour,  but  took  little  further 
part  in  public  affairs  till  1389,  when  he  was 
mdttced,  much  against  his  inclination,  to 
accept  again  the  office  of  Chancellor.  He  held 
the  Great  Seal  for  two  years  and  a  half,  during 
which  period  tranquillity  and  good  govern- 
ment prevail«d.  In  1391  he  retired  from 
public  Hfe,  and  devoted  his  energies  to  the 
administration  of  his  diocese,  and  the  found- 
ing and  endowing  of  ^e  noble  establish- 
ments of  New  CoU^,  Oxford,  and  St. 
Mary,  Winchester.  Wykeham  was  a  man 
of  such  a  blameless  life  that  one  of  his 
contemporaries  said  that  his  enemies  in 
attacking  him  were  trying  to  find  a  knot  in 
a  rush. 

WykeSy  Thomas,  Canon  of  Osney  (Jior. 
eirea  1260),  was  the  author  of  a  chronicle 
otherwise  called  Chronicon  SaUtburiensi*  Mot^ 
atterii.  It  begins  with  the  Conquest  and  goes 
down  to  1289,  after  which  it  is  continued  by 
an  anonymous  author  to  1304.  Only  the 
part  dealing  with  the  struggles  between 
Henry  III.  and  the  barons  is  of  much  value. 
The  chronicle  has  been  published  by  Gale  in 
the  second  volume  of  £erum  Anglicarum 
Scnptorea,  1687. 

Wymnnd,  a  monk  of  Fumess,  was  made 
Bidiop  of  ln^n  (1134).  As  soon  as  he  had 
obtained  this  position  he  gave  out  that  he 
was  a  son  of  Ang^,  Ean  of  Moray,  as- 
sumed the  name  of  Malcolm  MacHeth,  and, 
supported  by  the  Norwegian  King  of  the 
Isles,  and  by  Somerlaed  of  Argyle,  whose 
daughter  he  had  married,  invaded  Scotland, 
causing  great  trouble  to  David^  who,  however. 


Wyn 


(  1092  ) 


Yeo 


at  length  took  him  priBoner  (1137),  and  con- 
fined lum  in  the  castle  of  Boxburgh.  He  was 
libezated,  and  made  Earl  of  Ross  by  Malcolm 
IV.  (1167).  Mr.  Robertson  considers  tiiat 
Wymund  and  Malcolm  MacHeth  were  two 
dinerent  people. 

Wyndham,  Sn  William  {b.  1687,  d. 
1740),  sat  for  the  county  of  Somerset  (1710), 
and  in  1713  became  Chancellor  of  the  Ex- 
chequer. He  was  a  follower  of  Bolingbroke^s, 
and  introduced  in  the  House  that  Schism  Act 
which  drove  Oxford  from  office.  In  Boling- 
broke's  projected  ministry  he  was  to  have 
been  head  of  the  commission  of  the  Privy 
Seal.  Wyndham's  Jacobitism  had  at  any  rate 
the  merit  of  sincerity.  On  the  accession  of 
G^eorge  I.  he  was  dismissed  from  office.  In 
Opposition  he  vigorously  opposed  the  procla- 
mation for  a  new  Parliament,  for  which  he 
was  reprimanded  by  the  Speaker,  and  defended 
the  fulen  ministry.  In  1715,  on  the  out- 
break of  the  Jacobite  insurrection  in  the  north, 
he  was  promptly  arrested,  and  committed  to 
the  Tower.  Bolingbroke  informs  us  that  he 
and  Lord  Lansdowne  were  the  onlv  two  men 
who  could  possibly  have  organised  an  insur- 
rection in  the  west  of  England,  and  there  is 
no  doubt  that  he  held  the  threads  of  the  con- 
spiracy. On  his  release  he  continued  until 
his  death  a  vi^rous  opponent  of  Walpole,  his 
eloquence,  which  was  very  great,  being  espe- 
cially directed  against  that  statesman.  He 
was  the  recognised  leader  of  the  Tory  part 
of  the  composite  Opposition.  His  oest 
speech  was  made  in  1734  against  the 
^ptennial  Act.  In  1739  he  announced 
that  he  and  his  friends  were  going  to  secede 
from  the  House,  and  solemnly  took  leave 
of  it  for  ever.  But  the  manoeuvre  was 
not  a  success,  and  the  Opposition  returned 
to  their  places.  It  was  generally  believed 
at  the  time  that  Wyndham  wished  to  play 
the  part  of  a  political  martyr,  and  be  sent  to 
the  Tower.  *<  As  a  statesman,*'  says  Lord 
Stanhope,  "he  wanted  only  a  better  cause, 
a  longer  life,  and  the  lustre  of  official  station 
for  petfect  fame.  His  oratory,  more  official 
end  stately  than  Pulteney's,  and,  perhaps, 
less  ready,  was  not  less  effective.'' 

Wynendaal,  Skirmish  at  (1708J),  was 
one  of  the  episodes  of  the  siege  oz  Lille 
during  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Succession. 
On  Sept.  27  a  huge  convoy  departed  from 
Ostend  for  the  English  army.  Lamotte, 
the  officer  in  command  of  the  French  cavalry, 
hastened  to  intercept  it  towards  evening  at 
Wynendaal,  near  which  the  road  passes 
through  a  wood.  He  found  the  wood,  how- 
ever, occupied  by  an  officer  named  Webb, 
with  6,000  men,  supported  towards  the  end 
of  the  action  by  Cadogan,  with  some  squad- 
rons of  horse,  who  drove  off  the  enemy  at  all 
points.  The  convoy  arrived  safely  at  the 
English  camp. 


XiphiliniUi  was  a  Oreek  monk  who  lived 
in  the  eleven^  century,  and  who  has  left  us 
an  epitome  of  several  of  the  lost  works  of  Dio 
Cassius,  from  which  we  get  considerable 
information  coneexning  the  early  history  of 
Britain. 


Yaadaboo,    Trbatt    of.      [Bu 

War,] 

Tarmoiltll^     Sophia     db    Walmodex, 

Countess  of  (k.  1765),  was  a  mistress  of 
George  II.  He  had  known  her  in  Hanover, 
and  Portly  after  the  death  of  Queen  Caroline 
she  was  brought  to  England,  and  created 
Countess  of  Yarmouth — ''the  last  instance/* 
says  Stanhope,  '*  in  our  annals  of  a  British 
peerage  bestowed  on  a  royal  mistress.  Her 
character  was  quiet  and  inoffensive,  and 
though  she  did  not  at  first  possess,  she  gradu- 
ally gained  considerable  influence  over  the 
king.''  She  was  summoned  when  George  was 
found  dead,  and  bv  a  codicil  to  that  long's 
will  was  bequeathed  £10,000.  [Gkorob  II.] 
Herrey,  Mtmoira. 

V 

Xaactedy  Frakcis  (d.  1566),  one  of  the 
household  of  Mary  Queen  of  Soots,  was  em- 
ployed by  her  in  various  confidential  missions, 
the  details  of  which  he  invariably  betrayed  to 
Elizabeth's  minister.  In  1565  he  was  sent 
to  Philip  of  Spain  to  obtain  the  aid  of  that 
monarch  against  the  English  queen,  and  was 
droiv^ed  on  his  way  back  in  charge  of  a  large 
sum  of  money,  which  he  was  conveying  as  a 
present  from  Spain  to  Mary.  *<  Yazted,"  says 
Mr.  Froude,  '*  was  a  conspirator  of  the  kind 
most  dangerous  to  his  employers — ^vmin, 
loud,  and  confident,  fond  of  boasting  of  his 
acquaintance  with  kings  and  princes,  and 
'promising  to  bring  to  a  ^[ood  end  whatsoevcr 
should  be  committed  to  him.'  '* 

TelTerton,  Sir  Christophrr  {d,  1612), 
who  had  on  several  occasions  distingnished 
himself  by  his  Parliamentary  speediea  in 
favour  of  the  restriction  of  tiie  royal  prero- 
gative within  due  limits,  was  in  1597  elected 
Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons.  By  his 
conduct  while  holding  his  office  he  managed  to 
regain  the  favour  of  the  queen,  which  he  had 
fo^eited  by  his  previous  speeches,  and  in 
1602  was  made  a  judge  of  the  Queen's 
Bench.  His  character  is  described  aa  that  of 
"  a  gentleman,  a  learned  man,  and  a  lawyer ; 
one  that  will  deliver  his  miiDul  with  per^- 
cuous  reason  and  great  comeUness." 


Yeomaairy,  Thb  (England),  was  the 
name  given  to  a  force  of  volunteer  cavalry, 
first  rused  in  1761,  and  embodied  in  1797, 
when  numerous  regiments  were  f onned.    In 


Yeo 


(  1093  ) 


1814,  when  the  Volunteers  were*  diebanded, 
many  of  the  YeomajiTy  Cavalry  were  allowed 
to  exist,  under  regulations  providing  that 
they  should  be  called  out  for  short  periods  of 
exercise  every  year.  In  1871  the  cotnmand 
of  the  Militia,  Yeomanry,  and  Volunteers 
was  vested  in  the  crown  and  the  War  Office. 

[VOLUMTSEBS.] 

Toomanxyy  Thb  (Ireland),  were  em- 
bodied in  Sept.,  1796,  as  the  Militia  could 
not  be  trustea  in  so  dangerous  a  time.  The 
government  being  afraid  of  a  religious  war, 
had  long  refused  the  applications  of  the 
gentry  to  be  allowed  to  raise  men  at  their 
own  expense,  but  could  not  refuse  any  longer. 
The  Orangemen  entered  largely  into  these 
corps,  of  which  I>ublin  alone  raised  four 
regiments  of  foot  and  four  troops  of  horse. 
Thirty  thousand  men  were  soon  under  arms, 
nearly  aU  of  whom  were  Protestants.  It  was 
the  Yeomanry  who  effected  the  disarmament 
of  Ulster  in  1797,  and  to  them  more  than  to 
any  other  force  was  the  suppression  of  the 
rebellion  of  1798  due.  It  cannot,  however, 
be  denied  that  their  free  use  of  the  lash,  the 
picket,  and  the  pitchcap,  both  before  and 
during  the  revolt,  may  have  prevented  the 
insurgents  from  laying  down  their  arms,  and 
led  to  many  of  the  cruelties  committed  by  the 
peasantry. 

Fronde,  Englith  in  Inland, 

Tonga,  Sir  William  {d.  1755),  was  the 
eldest  son  and  successor  of  Sir  Walter  Yonge, 
Bart.,  of  Culloden,  near  Honiton,  in  Devonshire. 
He  was  elected  member  for  Honiton  at  the 
beginning  of  George  I.'s  reign,  and  succeeded 
to  his  father's  estates  in  1731.  In  1717  he 
was  appointed  a  commissioner  for  examining 
the  debts  due  to  the  army ;  in  1724  a  Lord- 
Commissioner  to  the  Treasury.  About  1730 
he  was  made  Secretary  of  War  and  a  member 
of  the  Privy  Council.  He  was  a  strong  sup- 
porter of  Walpolo,  w^ho  was  accustomed  to 
say  of  him,  *Hhat  nothing  but  Yonge's 
character  could  keep  down  such  parts,  and 
nothing  but  his  parts  could  support  his 
character."  In  1746  he  was  a  memror  of  the 
committee  for  managing  the  impeachment  of 
Lord  Lovat. 

Tork  (Latin,  Eboraeum;  Old  English, 
Eorfonpic)  was  the  capital  of  Roman  Britain, 
a  fortress  where  the  head-quarters  of  the 
Sixth  Legion,  and  for  a  time  of  the  Ninth, 
were  situated,  and  the  site  of  an  important 
colony.  Its  two  rivers,  the  Ouse  and  the 
Foes,  strengthened  its  walls,  and  the  former 
made  it  an  important  commercial  centre.  Con- 
stantiuB  Chlorus  died  there,  and  Constantino 
the  Great  was  there  hailed  Emperor  by  his 
troops  (306  A.D.).  It  was  also  the  seat  of 
one  of  the  bishoprics  of  the  Romano-British 
Church.  Under  the  Anglian  kings  it  pre- 
served its  position  as  a  capital;  first  ,of 
Beira,  afterwards  of   the  greater  kingdom 


of  Northumbria.  In  627  Paulinus  baptised 
King  Edwin  in  the  hastily -built  chapel 
where  the  cathedral  after^'utis  rose.  The 
organisation  of  the  English  Church,  effected 
by  Theodore,  made  York  an  archbishopric, 
though  quite  dependent  on  Canterbury,  until 
Archbishop  Egbert  vindicated  its  claims  to 
metropolitan  independence.  In  867  it  was 
taken  by  the  Danes,  and  its  recovery  by 
Athelstan  took  place  in  937.  At  the  Con- 
quest it  contained  about  10,000  people.  It 
submitted  to  William,  who  built  a  castle 
there  in  1068.  It  was  taken  in  Sept.,  1069, 
by  an  English  revolt  aided  by  a  Panish 
fleet,  but  retaken  by  William  without  oppo- 
sition at  the  end  of  the  year.  In  the  reign 
of  John,  York  had  a  merchant  gild,  and 
possessed  a  mayor  and  aldermen.  During  the 
long  wars  with  Scotland  it  was  very  fre- 
quently the  meeting-place  of  Parliaments. 
In  1298  Edward  L  ;  in  1314,  1318,  1319,  and 
1322  Edward  II. ;  in  1328,  1332,  1333,  1334, 
and  1335  Edward  III.  held  sessions  at  York, 
and  again  in  1 464  a  Parliament  was  summoned 
thither  by  Edward  IV.  Its  commerce  con- 
tinued to  flourish,  although  diminished  by 
the  rise  of  Hull,  and  Edwiu4  III.  for  a  time 
freed  the  staple  there.  Richard  II.  made  the 
city  a  county,  and  Henry  VT.  extended  its 
jurisdiction  over  the  Wapentake  of  the 
Ainsty.  The  Yorkist  Idngs  cultivated  the 
favour  of  the  citizens,  and  Richard  III. 
counted  them  his  trustiest  supporters.  York 
suffered  greatly  at  the  Reformation  from 
the  destruction  of  the  hospitals,  chapels, 
and  chantries  which  abounded  there.  It  was 
captured  by  the  rebels  during  the  Pilgrimage 
of  Grace  (1536),  and  became  the  seat  of  the 
Council  of  the  North,  which  was  erected 
there  during  those  disturbances.  At  York 
also  met  the  commission  which  commenced 
the  inquiry  into  the  charges  against  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots  (1568).  In  the  civil  wars  of 
the  next  centur}''  the  city  played  a  still  more 
important  part.  There,  in  1642,  Charles  I. 
collected  his  partisans,  and  the  surrender  of 
York  in  July,  1644,  sealed  the  fate  of  the 
north  of  England.  Its  occupation  by  Fairfax 
in  Jan.,  1660,  enabled  Monk  to  advance  into 
England,  and  materially  forwarded  the  Res- 
toration. Like  most  other  corporations  York 
lost  its  charter  in  1684,  and  had  it  restored  in 
Nov.,  1688.  In  the  same  month  Lord  Danby 
seized  the  city,  then  governed  by  Sir  John 
Rereeby,  and  declared  for  a  free  Parliament 
and  the  Protestant  religion.  At  the  time  of  the 
Revolution  of  1688,  York  probably  contained 
about  10,000  inhabitants.  Though  its  trade 
was  fast  diminishing,  and  its  political  Weight 
decreased  as  g^reat  manufacturing  towns  grew 
up  in  the  north  of  England,  it  still  retained 
its  importance  as  a  social  centre.  *'  What 
has  beien,  and  is,  the  chief  support  of  the 
city  at  present,"  wrote  Drake  in  his  Bistory 
of  York  (1737),  "  is  the  resort  to  and  residence 
of   several   country   gentlemen   with    their 


(  1094  ) 


Tor 


families  in  it."  Aa  the  judicial  and  political 
centre  of  the  largest  of  English  counties,  as 
the  ecclesiastical  centre  of  a  much  wider 
district,  it  continues  to  rank  amongst  the 
great  cities  of  England. 

Wellbeloved,  £lK>ra«ttm;  Drske,  Eboraeum, 
or  ths  Hiatory  and  Antiquitin  of  York;  Davies, 
York  Record$ ;  Barnes,  Yorkahin,  Pott  and 
Pretnt ;  Baine,  F(utx  EhoraonuM, 

Xovky  Abcubishops  of.    [AxcaBzeHOPs.] 

Tork,  HousB  OF.  The  regal  house  of 
York  was  the  most  short-lived  of  our  d^^nas- 
ties.  Beginning  with  the  proclamation  of 
Edwaird  IV.  (March  4,  146ll  it  ended  with 
the  fall  of  Edward^s  youngest  orother,  Kichard, 
on  the  field  of  Bosworth  (Aug.  22,  1486).  It 
sprang  from  a  marriage,  made  early  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  between  Richard,  Earl  of 
Cambridge,  and  Anne  Mortimer,  his  first 
cousin  twice  removed.  Kichard  was  the 
younger  son  of  the  fifth  son  of  Edward  III. 
(Edmund,  Duke  of  York),  and  Anne  was  the 
neat  grand-daughter  of  the  third  son  (Lionel, 
Duke  of  Clarence).  Thus  the  designation  of 
the  house  came  ixom  a  younger,  its  title  to 
the  crown  from  an  elder,  son  of  Edward  III. 
Another  Richard,  bom  in  1410,  was  the  issue 
of  this  marriage,  and  as  early  as  1424  a  suc- 
cession of  events  had  made  this  Richard  heir 
general  of  Edward  III.  It  came  about  in 
this  way.  The  Black  Princess  line  expired 
with  Richard  II. ;  King  Edward's  second  son 
died  in  his  infancy;  Lionel's  sole  child, 
Philippa,  and  her  husband,  Edmund  Mortimer, 
Earl  of  March,  had  a  son,  Roger,  whose 
children,  Edmund  and  Anne,  were  in  Henry 
y.'s  reign  the  only  descendants  of  Lionel, 
Duke  of  Clarence.  In  1424  Edmund  died 
childless.  Consequently,  just  when  the  most 
inefficient  of  the  royal  descendants  of  John  of 
Gkkont,  Edward's  fourth  son,  was  beginning 
to  reign,  the  undoubted  representative  of  the 
third  was  growing  up  into  a  manly  vigour 
and  a  healthy  robustness  of  character,  which 
promised  a  really  competent  ruler.  Richard 
had  clso  become  the  only  representative  of 
the  family  of  York,  for  his  father,  having 
conspired  with  others  against  Henry  V.,  had 
been  beheaded  in  the  summer  of  1416,  and  a 
few  months  afterwards  his  uncle,  Edmund, 
Duke  of  York,  had  fallen  at  Agincourt,  leaving 
no  issue. 

Notwithstanding  his  father's  treason,  the 
full  favour  of  the  court  shone  upon  Ricluurd's 
path  from  the  first.  He  was  carefully  brought 
up  as  his  father's,  mother's,  and  uncle's  heir, 
and  was  allowed  to  connect  himself  by 
marriage  with  the  wide-spread  and  influential 
Neville  family,  whose  head,  Ralph,  Earl  of 
Westmoreland,  had  indeed  been  his  guardian 
for  a  time.  He  wedded  Ralph's  daughter. 
Cicely,  and  thus,  when  the  big  moment  arrived, 
had  linked  to  his  aspirations  and  fortunes 
such  powerful  nobles  as  his  brothers-in-law, 
Richard   Neville,    Earl    of    Salisbury,    and 


William,  Lord  Fauconberg,  and  Richard's 
sons,  Richard,  Earl  of  Warwick,  and  John, 
Lord  Montacute ;  while  the  advisers  of  Henry 
YI.  took  every  pains  to  add  to  his  greatneK. 
By  giving  him  command  in  France  and  then 
makmg  him  regent  there,  and  appointing  him 
to  the  Irish  lieutenancy,  they  threw  oj^mt- 
tunities  in  his  way  whidi  he  was  able  and 
willing  to  turn  to  account.  He  was,  there- 
fore, between  1460  and  1460  the  fomnost 
man  in  England.  Yet  his  claim  to  the  throne 
was  not  put  forward  till  the  meeting  of 
Parliament  in  Oct.,  1460.  Its  soundness  is 
not  indisputable.  Succession  to  the  crown  did 
not  then  follow  the  same  rule  as  sucoeasion  to 
private  property ;  the  transmission  of  a  right 
to  the  throne  through  an  heiress,  such  as 
Philippa  of  Clarence,  had  never  been  estab- 
lished, and,  even  if  it  were  admitted,  its 
virtue  was  destroyed  by  the  sixty  years'  pre- 
scription, the  Acts  of  Parliament,  and  the  oft- 
repeated  oaths  of  allegiance,  that  made  for 
Henry's  right.  The  lords  of  Parliament 
shrank  from  giving  iudgment,  and  Richard 
agreed  not  to  press  Lis  claim  on  being  de- 
clared Henry's  heir.  Slain  in  the  following 
December  with  his  second  son,  Edmund,  after 
the  fight  of  Wakefield,  he  left  his  rights  to 
hiB  eldest  son,  Edward,  Earl  of  March,  who 
soon  asserted  them  with  a  strong  hand.  Ed- 
ward simply  sensed  the  crown  on  March  4, 
1461.  The  victory  of  Towton,  and  the  voice 
of  a  Parliament  that  met  in  November,  rati- 
fied the  act,  and  Edward  lY.  was  recognised 
as  full  king  from  the  date  of  his  proclamation. 
Mismanagement,  and  the  alienation  of  War- 
wick, expelled  him  from  the  kingdom  in  1470, 
but  in  1471  he  recovered  his  royalty,  holding 
it  in  security  till  his  death  in  April,  1483.  By 
that  time  his  second  brother,  George,  Duke  oi 
Clarence,  was  dead,  despatched,  on  a  condem- 
nation for  treason,  in  some  unknown  fashion; 
but  Edward  left  two  sons,  Edward,  called  the 
Fifth,  and  Richard,  and  five  daughters.  His 
youngest  brother,  however,  Richard,  Duke  of 
Gloucester,  cunningly  supplanted  and  then 
murdered  the  two  sons,  reigning  as  Richard 
III.  for  two  years.  Richard's  crimes  estranged 
from  him  several  staunch  Yorkists,  who  then 
promoted  a  marriage  between  Edward  IV.'s 
oldest  daughter,  Elizabeth,  and  Henry  Tudor. 
Before  the  combination  that  ensued  Richard 

grished  on  Bosworth  Field  on  Aug.  22,  148.5. 
enry  married  Elizabeth,  and  thus  the  rival 
houses  coalesced.  Another  daughter  of  Ed- 
ward rV.'s  married  the  Earl  of  Devon,  and 
was  the  mother  of  the  Marquis  of  Exeter.  ii«o 
fortunate  and  unfortunate  in  Henrv  VII  I. 's 
reign.  Clarence,  who  was  married  to  the 
Earl  of  Warwick's  elder  daughter.  Isabella. 
left  two  children,  Edward,  Earl  of  Warwick, 
who  was  kept  in  prison  bv  Henry  VII.  tiU 
complicity  with  a  design  of  I'erkin  Warbeck's 
led  to  his  execution,  and  l^fargaret,  created 
Countess  of  Salisbury,  and  executed  by  Henry 
VIII.    The  chief  historical  distinctian  of  the 


(  1095  ) 


iiouse  of  York  ia,  that  it  was  the  first  to  set 

the  fashion  of    constitutional  despotiflm  in 

£ng]ancL  ^ 

Oaixdner,  BkHuird  IH.;  Stabbs,  Coiut.  Hue., 
▼oL  ilL  [J.  R.] 

Xorky  Edmund  of  Lanolet,  Dukb  of 
{b,  1341,  d,  1402),  was  the  fifth  son  of  Ed- 
ward  III.  In  1362  he  was  made  Earl  of 
Cambridge,  and  on  the  accession  of  Richard 
II.  was  appointed  one  of  the  cooncil  of  re- 
gency. He  did  not  take  any  prominent  part 
in  the  battles  of  lus  nephew^s  reign,  but  in 
1386  was  made  Duke  of  York,  and  in  1399, 
during  the  king's  absence  in  Ireland,  was 
appointed  regent  On  Bolingbroke*s  landing, 
xorS  raised  a  force  to  oppose  him,  but  finding 
him  more  powerful  thim  he  had  expected,  he 
was  induced  to  make  terms  with  hmi,  and  to 
believe  that  Henry  had  no  traitorous  designs 
■against  the  king.  Subsequently  he  proposed 
to  Richard  to  resign  the  crown,  thereby  pre- 
aerving  a  semblance  of  legality  to  what  was 
in  reality  a  revolution.  After  this  he  retired 
to  his  domain,  whore  he  spent  the  last  years 
of  his  life.  He  figures  as  a  weak  man,  of 
moderate  views,  and  always  ready  by  medi- 
ation to  prevent  civil  strife.  His  desertion 
of  Richard,  whose  representative  he  was  in 
England,  can  scarcely  be  palliated,  particularly 
as,  if  he  had  made  a  firm  stand  on  hearing  of 
Bolingbroke*B  landing,  the  barons  would  pro- 
hably  have  submitted.  Edmund  was  twice 
married,  first  to  Isabella,  daughter  of  Pedro 
the  Cruel  of  Castile,  and  secondly  to  Joan^ 
daughter  of  Thomas  Holand,  Earl  of  Kent. 

Torky  Edward,  Dukb  of  {d.  1415),  was 
the  son  of  Edmund  of  I^angley.  In  the  life- 
time of  his  father  he  was  created  Earl  of 
Rutland,  and  subsequently  Duke  of  Albemarle 
by  Richard  II.  He  accompanied  the  king 
on  his  expedition  to  Ireland  in  the  year  1399, 
but,  on  learning  of  Bolingbroke's  success, 
deserted  Richard.  Henry  deprived  him  of 
his  dukedom,  but  despite  the  fact  that  Lord 
ITitzwalter  and  many  other  barons  accused 
him  of  abetting  Richard  in  his  tyrannical 
acts,  he  received  no  other  punishment.  In 
1400  he  conspired  with  the  Earl  of  Hunting- 
don and  others  against  Henry,  but  turned 
traitor,  and  revealed  the  plot  to  the  kins.  He 
accompanied  Henry  Y.  to  France,  and  was 
one  of  the  commanders  in  the  battle  of  Agin- 
court,  where  he  was  slain.  He  married 
Philippa,  daughter  of  Lord  Mohun,  but  left 
no  issue. 

7orky  FaBDEKiCK  Augustus,  Dukb  of 
(b,  1763,  d.  1827),  was  the  second  son  of 
Creorge  III.,  and,  as  early  as  his  elder  brother, 
broke  away  from  the  rigid  discipline  by  which 
their  parents  fondly  hoped  to  preserve  them 
from  the  evils  of  the  world.  At  the  age  of 
twenty-one  he  was  created  Duke  of  York  and 
^  Ibnny,  and  Earl  of  Ulster.  But  already  in 
his  third  year  he  had  been  elevated  by  his 


father  to  the  half-secularised  bishopric  of 
Osnabruck.  In  1791  he  married  Charlotte, 
eldest  daughter  of  Frederick  William,  King 
of  Prussia,  when  his  income  was  increased 
by  a  Tote  of  £30,000  per  annum.  In 
1793  he  was  placed  in  command  of  an 
expedition  to  the  Netherlands,  to  act  with 
the  Prince  of  Saxe-Cobm-g  against  France. 
Though  giving  some  proofs  of  personal 
gaUantr^,»he  soon  made  it  dear  that  his 
royal  birth  was  his  only  qualification  for 
command.  Fortunately  for  England  the 
duke  became  disgusted  at  his  want  of 
success,  and  retreated,  leaving  Abercromby 
in  command.  As  a  reward  for  the  military 
ability  displayed  in  this  campaign,  he  was  ia 
1795  appointed  Conmuinder-in-chief  of  tho 
Forces,  and  in  1799  was  again  entrusted  with 
the  command  of  an  expedition  to  the  Low 
Countries,  in  which,  nowever,  the  only 
successes  gained  were  due  to  Abercromby. 
The  campaign  finally  ended  in  a  disgraceful 
convention  with  the  French.  The  duke  was 
compelled  to  resign  his  office  because  of  tho 
shameful  disclosures  as  to  the  way  in  which 
he  allowed  his  mistreSK,  Mrs.  Clarke,  to 
influence  the  military  appointments,  but  was 
later  restored  to  his  old  office  imder  his 
brother's  regency.  His  last  act  in  public  life 
was  a  most  violent  speech  in  the  House  of 
Lords  against  Catholic  Emancipation  in  1826. 
In  the  following  January  he  died. 

Xork,  RiCHA&D,  Dukb  of  (b,  circa  1410,  <i?« 
1460),  was  the  son  of  Richard,  Earl  of  Cam- 
bridge, by  Anne,  daughter  of  Roger,  Earl  of 
Mardi.  In  1425  he  was  rdieved  from  the 
effects  of  his  father's  attainder,  and  succeeded 
to  the  estates  and  titles  of  his  uncles,  Edward, 
Duke  of  York,  and  Edmund,  Earl  of  March. 
In  1430  he  was  made  Constable  of  England, 
in  1432  he  was  appointed  guardian  of  the 
coast  of  Normandy,  and  in  1436  was  made 
regent  of  France,  and  advanced  with  an  army 
almost  to  the  gates  of  Paris.  In  the  next 
year  he  was  recalled,  but  in  1440  was  ap- 
pointed regent  again,  holding  office  till  1445. 
In  1449  he  was  made  Lieutenant  of  Ireland, 
and  governed  that  country  with  great  wisdom 
and  moderation  during  the  one  year  for 
which  he  held  this  post.  On  his  return  to 
England  in  1450  he  came  prominently  forward 
as  tiie  opponent  of  the  Duke  of  Somerset.  He 
was  as  popular  as  Somerset  was  odious,  and 
had  powerful  allies  in  the  Nevilles,  with  whom 
he  was  closely  connected  by  his  marriage  with 
Cecily,  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Westmore- 
land. In  1451  a  proposal  was  made  in 
Parliament  that  York  should  be  declared  heir 
to  the  crown,  but  this  was  not  seriously  enter- 
tained, and  the  proposer  was  imprisoned.  In 
1452  York,  declaring  that  his  sole  object  was 
to  rid  the  king  of  Somerset  and 'other  evil 
counsellors,  raised  a  force,  and  marched  to 
London.  Henry  met  him  at  Blackheath,  and 
York  laid  before  him  a  bill  of  accusation 


(  1096  ) 


Tor 


against  Somerset,  at  tbe  same  time  swearing 
feaHy  to  the  king,  and  promising  for  the 
fature  to  soe  for  remedy  in  legal  form.  The 
birth  of  an  heir  to  Henry  in  1463  deprived 
York  of  all  hope  of  succeeding  peacefully  to 
the  throne,  while  the  imbecility  of  the  king 

gave  him  the  office  of  Plrotector,- which  he 
eld  till  Henry's  recovery  in  1455,  Somerset 
being  in  prison  during  this  period.  On  the 
king*s  restoration  to  health  Yorls  was  dis- 
missed and  Somerset  reinstated.  The  first 
battle  of  St.  Albans  followed,  in  which  the 
latter  was  slain,  and  the  king  shortly  after- 
wards becoming  once  more  imbecile,  York 
was  again  appointed  Protector.  When  in 
Feb.,  1456,  Henry  recovered,  and  York  was 
relieved  of  his  office,  two  years  of  comparative 
peace  followed,  and  in  March,  1458,  a  great 
pacification  took  place  at  St.  Paul's.  The 
misgovemment  and  misfortunes  of  the 
country,  and  the  alienation  of  the  Nevilles 

?tve  York  another  opportunity  in  1459.  The 
orkists  were  marchmg  south  when  Lord 
Audley  tried  to  stop  them  at  Blore  Heath, 
but  was  defeated,  and  battle  was  imminent  at 
Ludlow  when  the  defection  of  Trollop  alarmed 
the  Yorkists,  and  they  fled.  The  (mke  went 
to  Ireland,  and  in  the  Parliament  held  at 
Coventry  at  the  end  of  the  year  was  attainted. 
In  1460  the  Yorkist  lords  planned  a  return  to 
England,  and  York  issued  a  manifesto  against 
the  royal  ministers.  The  battle  of  North- 
ampton placed  the  king  at  their  mercy,  and 
the  Parliament  which  met  repealed  the  auke*s 
attainders.  York  now  for  the  first  time 
asserted  his  claim  to  the  throne,  and  after  a 
long  discussion  a  compromise  was  effected,  by 
which  Henry  was  to  retain  the  crown  during 
his  life-time,  after  which  it  was  to  revert  to 
York  and  his  heirs.  Meanwhile  the  duke 
and  his  sons  were  not  to  molest  the  ki 
any  attempt   on   the  duke's  life  was  m 


ng. 
ade 


high  treason,  and  the  principality  of  Wales 
was  handed  over  to  him.  However,  Margaret, 
who  refused  to  recognise  this  arrangement, 
had  been  collecting  an  army  in  the  north, 
and  against  her  the  Duke  of  York  marched. 
The  battle  of  Wakefield  ensued  on  ttie  last 
day  of  the  year,  when  York  was  slain.  His 
head  was  placed  on  the  walls  of  York,  gar- 
nished with  a  paper  crown,  but  was  taken 
down  after  the  battle  of  Towton.  3y  his 
marriage  with  Cecily  Neville  the  duke  had 
eight  sons  and  four  daughters,  of  whom  four 
sons  and  one  daughter  died  in  childhood.  Of 
the  others,  Edward  and  Richard  became 
kings,  Edmund  was  killed  at  Wakefield,  and 
George  was  created  Duke  of  Clarence.  His 
daughters  were  Anne,  who  married  the  Duke 
of  Exeter,  and  secondly  Sir  J.  St.  Leger; 
Elizabeth,  who  married  John,  Earl  of  Suffolk, 
and  Margaret,  who  married  Charles  the  Bold, 
Duke  of  Burgundy. 

Broaffbam,  Rng.  under  the  Houee  o/LancaMer; 
Wan  of  the  Englwh  in  France  (Sella  Series) ; 
Faaton  Letten, 


Torke,  Cha&lbs  {b.  1723,  d.  1770),  was  the 
second  son  of  the  first  Lord  Hazdwicke. 
Called  to^e  bar  in  1743,  he  soon  obtained  a 
large  practice,  and  in  the  next  year  made  his 
reputation  as  a  jurist  by  the  publication  of 
Some  Considerationt  on  ike  Laws  of  For/titmre 
for  High  Trtaeon,  In  1747  he  was  returned 
to  Parliament  forReigate,  and  in  Nov.,  1756, 
he  was  appointed  Sohcitor-General.  In  the 
following  July  he  was  doomed  to  a  bitter  dis- 
appointment when  Pitt  insisted  on  making 
"Fnist  Attomey-G^eral  over  his  head.  For 
this  slight  he  never  quite  forgave  Pitt,  and 
on  the  accession  of  CkK>rge  III.  attached 
himself  to  Bute.  On  Pratt's  appointment  to 
the  Chief  Justiceship  of  the  Common  {*leas 
in  Jan.,  1762,  he  became  Attomey-GrenezaL 
Bute's  administration,  however,  was  short- 
lived, and  early  in  1763,  he  made  way  for  Sir 
Fletcher  Norton.  Out  of  office  Yorke's  re- 
putation in  the  House  rose.  He  strongly 
condemned  the  action  of  the  government  in 
issuing  general  warrants.  In  1765  he  became 
again  Attorney-General  during  the  Rocking- 
ham administration,  but  resigned  his  office  on 
their  falling  in  the  following  year,  and  con- 
tinued in  opposition  until  the  last  few  days  of 
his  life,  but  his  activity  was  confined  for  the 
most  part  to  the  courts,  and  was  not  employed 
in  any  vigorous  opposition  to  the  govern- 
ment. Towards  the  beginning  of  1770,  on 
the  resignation  of  Lord  Camden,  he  was 
offered  the  chancellorship — a  post  which  he 
accepted  after  having  declined  it  twice. 
Within  a  week  of  this  date  he  died,  suspected 
of  having  put  an  end  to  his  own  life  by 
suicide. 

Campbell,  Livee  of  the  Chnneellon  ;  Treraljaii, 
Early  Life  nf  Fox  ;  Jesse,  JCemmr  of  Oeor^e  III. : 
Walpole,  Jnemotr  of  George  III,;  Bockingbam, 
Memoir  ;  Lettere  qf  Jicm'iu. 

Xorkey  Sir  Rolakd  {JI,  1587),  wasa  "soU 
dier  of  fortune,"  who  was  the  tntter  enemy 
of  Leicester,  and  who  is  said  to  have  been 
instrumental  in  bringing  about  the  treachery 
of  Sir  WiUiam  Stanley  in  delivering  up 
Deventer  to  the  Spaniards  (1587).  At  the 
same  time  Yorke  himself  gave  up  the  forts  at 
Zutphen,  of  which  he  was  in  command,  and 
went  over  to  Philip. 

Torlitowii,  The  Sur&ender  of  (Oct  19^ 
1781),  is  memorable  as  the  last  important 
act  of  the  American  War  of  Independence. 
Early  in  August  Comwallis  had,  in  obedience 
to  orders  from  Clinton,  withdrawn  into  York- 
town,  a  place  whose  safety  required  a  naval 
superiority  in  its  defenders,  and  at  this 
time  that  superiority  had  passed  away  to 
the  French,  who  had  a  large  fleet  under 
De  Grasse  in  those  waters.  Comwallis  was 
aware  of  the  danger  of  his  position,  espe- 
cially so  when,  on  Sept.  28,  the  oombincMl 
French  and  American  armies  appeared  in 
sight.     On  Oct.  1  the  investment  was  com- 


Y<m 


(  1097  ) 


Yon 


pleted,  and  works  were  beg^nn  with  a  view  to 
the  bombardment  of  the  English  position. 
After  an  ineffectual  attempt  to  cany  the  in- 
fantry across  the  strait  into  Gloucester,  a  small 
town  on  the  opposite  headland,  Comwallis 
sent  a  flag  of  truce  proposing  to  capitulate  on 
condition  that  the  garrisons  of  Gloucester  and 
Torktown  should  be  sent  home  on  their  word 
of  honour  not  again  to  serve  against  America 
or  her  allies.  Washing^n  would  not  accept 
these  terms,  and  finally  Onmwallis  sur- 
rendered his  public  stores  and  artilleiy  in  the 
two  forts,  as  well  as  all  the  shipping  in  the 
harbour,  the  men  to  remain  prisoners  of  war 
in  America,  the  ships  to  become  the  property 
of  France.  With  the  surrender  at  Torktown 
the  war  was  virtually  at  an  end. 

Bancroft,  Htitory  of  Unttad  Statu;  Mahon, 
Sittory. 

Toung,  Abthue  (b,  1741,  d.  1820),  was  a 
writer  of  numerous  works  on  agriculture  and 
rural  economy,  to  collect  information  on 
which  subjects  he  made  numerous  journeys 
through  the  British  Itdes  and  on  the  Conti- 
nent. In  1784  he  published  a  periodical  work 
called  the  AnmUa  of  Agriculture,  In  1789  he 
was  appointed  Secretary  to  the  Board  of 
Agriculture.  Young's  works,  especially  his 
Politieal  ArUhmetie  (1774)  and  his  TraveU 
(1792),  are  of  very  great  value  for  the  light 
they  throw  on  the  state  of  society,  trade,  and 
ag^culture  in  England,  Ireland,  and  France. 
Young's  account  of  France,  which  he  visited 
on  the  eve  of  the  Revolution,  is  of  singular 
interest. 

Younify  BoBBBT  {d,  1700),  one  of  the 
most  disreputable  informers  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  was  ordained  a  deacon  in  the  Irish 
Church,  but  was  expelled  from  his  first  parish 
for  immorality,  and  from  his  third  for  bigamy. 
In  1684  he  was  convicted  of  having  rorged 
Sancroft's  signature,  and  was  sentenced  to  the 
pillory  and  imprisonment.  When  Monmouth's 
insurrection  broke  out  he  gave  witness  of  a 
pretended  conspiracy  in  Suffolk  against  the 
king,  but  his  evidence  was  proved  to  be  false. 
After  the  Revolution  he  determined  to  become 
an  accuser  of  the  Jacobites,  and  concocted  a 
story  of  a  plot  against  William  and  Mary.  In 
1692,  he  forged  a  paper  purporting  to  be  an 
association  for  the  restoration  of  the  banished 
king,  to  which  he  appended  the  names  of 
Marlborough,  Combury,  Salisbury,  Sancroft, 
and  Sprat,  Bishop  of  Rochester.  A  sub- 
ordinate agent  named  Blackhead  dropped  the 
paper  in  one  of  Sprat's  flower-pots.  Young 
thereupon  laid  information  before  the  Privy 
Council.  Marlborough  was  committed  to  the 
Tower,  and  Sprat  taken  into  custody,  but  the 
document  could  not  be  found.  Blackhead 
thereupon  rescued  it  from  its  hiding-place, 
and  gave  it  to  Young,  who  had  it  conveyed 
to  the  Secretary  of  State.  But  when  con- 
fronted by  Sprat,  Blackhead  lost  his  presence 
of  mind,  and  confessed  all.  Young,  however, 
BUT.-36* 


with  unblushing  effrontery  persisted^  in  his 
deniaL  Young  was  imprisoned  and  pilloried. 
He  was  finally  hanged  for  coining. 

ToQiig  England  TBaetsr^  Thb,  was  the 
name  given  to  a  group  of  Tory  politicians 
during  the  Com-Iisw  struggles  of  1842-— 46, 
mostly  young  members  of  aristocratic  &milies. 
They  came  prominently  before  the  public  in 
the  autumn  of  1844.  It  was  the  theory  of  the 
Young  lEnglajid  Party  that  what  was  sup-* 
posed  to  be  the  ancient  relation  between  rich 
and  poor  should  be  restored.  The  landownen 
and  wealthy  classes  were  to  be  the  benevolent 
protectora  and  leaders,  while  the  poor  were  to 
be  obedient  and  trustful  dependents.  Every 
effort  was  to  be  made  to  improve  the  material 
condition  of  the  labouring  classes,  while  at 
the  same  time  a  firm  resistance  was  to  be 
offered  to  the  levelling  spirit  of  the  age,  to 
free-trade,  and  to  the  principles  of  the  Libe- 
rals generally.  Combined  with  a  good  deal 
of  coxcombry  and  conceit,  there  was  an  ele- 
ment of  usefulness  in  the  Young  Englandera. 
'*What  the  Tractarian  priesthood  were  at 
this  time  requiring  of  their  fiocks,"  says  Miss 
Martineau,  *'  the  Young  England  politicians 
were  striving  for  with  the  working  classes ; 
and  the  spectacle  was  seen  of  Sunday  sports 
encouraged,  as  in  the  old  Catholic  times ;  and 
popular  festivals  revived  at  which  young 
loxds  and  memben  of  P&rliament  pulled  off 
their  coats  to  play  cricket  with  the  labourers, 
or  moved  about  among  the  crowd  in  the  park 
or  on  the  green,  in  the  style  of  the  feudal 
superior  of  old."  In  Parliament  the  Young 
England  politicians,  affecting  to  believe  in 
the  *'  Old  Tory  principles  "  or  the  preceding 
century,  chiefly  distinguished  themiselves  by 
their  noisy  opposition  to  the  Whigs.  They 
opposed  liie  repeal  of  the  Com  £aws,  vio- 
lently attacked  reel  for  his  change  of  policy, 
and  declined  to  join  the  Peelites.  Amoxig 
their  most  prominent  membera  were  Lord  J. 
Manners,  and  the  Hon.  Ot.  Smythe,  member 
for  Omterbury ;  and  ^Ir.  Disraeli  lent  them 
his  support,  and  was  looked  upon  in  some  sort 
as  their  leader. 

Martineau,  Htst.  of  iht  Peace,  ii.  520. 

Yonng  Ireland  Party.  The  group  ol 
men  known  under  this  name,  among  whom 
Gavan  Duffy,  Meagher,  and  Mitchell  are  the 
best  known,  were  at  first  foUowera  of 
O'Connell,  and  did  much  for  the  Irish  cause 
by  writing  papen,  historical  romances,  and 
national  songs,  and  by  publishing  old  ones. 
In  1843  they  separated  irom  O'Connell  after 
his  failure  to  repel  force  by  force  at  Clontarf , 
and  began  to  be  known  as  the  Physical  Force 
Party.  In  1848  Smith  O'Brien  became  their 
leader,  and  as  a  consequence  of  his  futile 
attempt  at  rebellion,  many  of  them  were 
sentenced  to  transportation,  or  at  least  had  to 
leave  Ireland.  Some  of  them,  like  Gravan 
Duffy,  attained  high  distinction  in  the 
colonies. 


Bern 


(  1098  ) 


Sot 


ZemaiUL  Shah  (d,  1802),  the  rnler  of 
Afghanistan,  threatened  to  invade  India 
during  the  yean  1795-98,  and  even  entered 
into  negotianons  with  Tippoo  Sultan.  Lord 
Wellesley,  however,  concluded  an  alliance 
with  Persia  against  him,  and  internal  factions 
prevented  his  intended  invasion.  He  was 
slain  during  the  civil  war  in  1802. 

'  SoniilldarSy  Thb,  are  Indian  revenne 
officers,  to  whom  the  right  of  collecting  so 
much  revenue  was  orig^inally  farmed  out  by  the 
Mogul  dynasty.  These  officers  tended  to  be- 
come hereditary,  and  thus  to  assume  the  posi- 
tion of  an  aristocracy  collecting  tribute  from 
the  land,  a  quota  of  which  was  paid  into  the 
coffers  of  the  state.  In  Comwallis*8  settle- 
ment of  Bengal  these  tax-gatherers  were 
elevated  into  landed  aristocracy,  on  the 
model  of  the  English.  The  term  <' zemin- 
dar *'  has  consequently  become  identified 
in  meaning  with  the  expression  **  landed 
proprietor." 

ZnlesteiiLy  Williaic  Hbnbt  Kabsau 
{d.  1702J,  wa«  an  illegitimate  cousin-german 
of  Wilham  of  Orange,  afterwards  William 
III.,  and  employed  by  him  in  the  intrigues 
with  the  English  Opposition  in  1687.  **  His 
bearing  was  that  of  a  gallant  soldier ;  a  mili- 
tary man  who  had  never  appeared  to  trouble 
himself  about  political  afiEkirs  could,  without 
exciting  any  suspicion,  hold  with  the  English 
aristocracy  an  inteitourse  which,  if  he  had 
been  a  noted  master  of  statecraft,  would  have 
been  jealously  watched."  He  was  again  sent 
to  congratulate  King  James  on  the  birth  of 
the  Pnnce  of  Wales.  When  William  in- 
vaded England,  Zulestein  was  sent  to  James 
declining  a  proposed  conference  with  the 
Prince  of  Orange.  On  the  accession  of 
William  he  was  made  Master  of  the  Robes. 
In  1691  he  accompanied  William  to  Holland. 
In  1695  Zulestein  was  created  Earl  of  Roch- 
ford,  and  received  large  grants  of  property  in 


Ireland,  which  were  attacked  by  the  Commooi 
in  the  Hesumption  BilL 

Mscaolaj,  Sid.  of  BngloMd. 

Svlllland.  In  January,  1879,  a  war 
broke  out  between  the  British  and  the  Zola 
king,  Cetewayo,  owin^  to  the  refusal  of  the 
latter  to  make  reparation  for  the  raids  by  his 
subjects  upon  Natal.  A  British  force  under 
Lord  Cheunsford  crossed  the  frontier,  but 
was  surprised  and  attacked  at  Isandhlwuia 
(Jan.  22,  1879),  and  defeated  with  the 
slaughter  of  sev^al  hundred  British  troops. 
The  war  was  continued,  and  on  Jdy  4, 1880, 
Cetewayo  was  completely  defeated  at  Uiondi, 
was  taken  prisoner  by  the  EngliRh,  and  wm 
sent  to  Capetown.  Zululand  was  divided 
into  a  number  of  small  principalities  under 
the  native  chiefs,  and  a  <*  Reserve"  territor)' 
on  the  borders  of  Natal,  with  a  Brituh 
Resident  to  watch  over  the  country,  was  in- 
h-tituted.  In  1883  Cetewayo  was  allowed  to 
visit  England,  and  subsequently  was  replaced 
(Jan.  26,  1883)  in  possession  <^  a  large  part 
of  his  dominions.  The  result,  after  eome 
months  of  continual  fighting  between  Ceto- 
wavo  and  the  most  powerfu  of  his  rivals, 
Usibepu,  was  that  Cetewayo  was  driven  from 
his  .throne  (July,  1883),  and  soon  afterwards 
died  (Feb.  8,  1884).  The  country  remained 
in  a  state  of  considerable  disorder,  owing  to 
civil  war  among  (the  chiefs,  aided  by  adven- 
turers  from  the  Transvaal ;  and  in  1888  s 
rebellion  of  Dinizula  was  crushed,  and 
the  country  annexed.  [South  Africa>- 
Colonies.] 

ZntpllOliy  Thb  Battlb  of  (Sept.  22, 
1586),  was  fought  in  Guelderland  between 
the  Spaniards  under  the  Prince  of  Parma  and 
the  English  forces,  who  were  assisting  the 
Dutch,  under  the  Earls  of  Leicester  and 
Essex  and  Lord  Willoughby  The  English 
were  besieging  Zutphen,  and  attempted  to 
cut  off  a  force  which  was  bringing  provisiom 
to  the  beleaguered  garrison ;  but  were  com- 
pletely foiled.  The  battle  is  famous  as  the 
one  in  which  Sir  Philip  Sidney  received  bii 
death-wound. 

Motley,  DuteK  BtpiMie, 


APPENDIX. 


-•o«- 


Asqnith.  Hbrbeut  Hbkrt  (b,  1852),  was 
educated  at  the  City  of  London  School  and  at 
Balliol  College,  Oxford.  He  was  called  to 
the  Bar  at  Lincoln's  Inn  in  1876,  and  took  silk 
in  1890.  He  entered  the  House  of  Commons 
ss  member  for  East  Fifeshire  in  1886,  and 
first  took  office  as  Home  Secretary  under  Mr. 
Gladstone  in  1892.  After  the  fall  of  the 
Ministry  in  1895,  he  returned  to  the  Bar. 

Balfour,  Abtuvr  J.,  LL.D.,  B.CL., 
F.R.S.  {b.  1848),  a  nephew  of  Lord  Salisbury, 
•educated  at  Eton  and  at  Trinity  CoUege,  Cam* 
bridge,  first  sat  in  the  House  of  Commons  in 
1874  as  member  for  Hertford.  For  a  time  he 
was  oneof  the  members  of  the  "Fourth  Party.'* 
In  Lord  Salisbury's  first  administration  (1885) 
he  was  President  of  the  Local  Gk>yemment 
Board ;  in  1886  he  joined  the  Cabinet  as 
Secretary  for  Scotland;  in  1887  he  became 
-Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland;  in  1891  he  suc- 
ceeded the  late  Mr.  W.  H.  Smith  as  First  Lord 
of  the  Treasury  and  Leader  of  the  House,  re- 
suming those  positions  when  his  party  re- 
turned to  power  in  1896. 

Browor,  John  Shxr&bn  {b.  1810,  d.  1879), 
graduated  at  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  in 
1833.  From  1841  till  1877  he  was  Professor 
of  English  Literature  and  History  at  King's 
OoUege,  London.  He  was  appointed  by  the 
Mast^  of  the  Bolls  to  edit  the  Calendars  of 
State  Fapert  relating  to  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.,  and  wrote  some  masterly  introductions 
to  them.  Mr.  Brewer's  inti'oductions  and 
prefaces  to  the  Calendar  have  been  collected 
«mder  the  title,  The  Betgn  of  Henry  VIII. 

Britisli  Central  Africa  is  the  official 
designation  of  territory  in  the  British  sphere 
of  influence  bounded  on  the  north  by  German 
East  Africa  and  the  Congo  Free  State,  on  the 
south  by  the  Zambesi,  on  the  west  by  the 
Portuguese  province  of  Angola,  and  on  the 
•east  by  Lake  Nyassa,  and  covering  an  area  of 
about  500,000  square  miles.  The  British 
Central  Africa  Froteetorate,  to  which  British 
Central  Africa  belonged,  until  in  1895  the 
latter  was  handed  over  to  the  British  South 
Africa  Company,  i^  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
£ir  H.  H.  Johnston,  H.M.  Commissioner. 

Bryce,  James,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.  (ft.  1838), 
studied  at  the  High  School  and  University  of 
Olasgow,  at  Trinity  College,  Oxford,  and  at 
Heidelberg.  '  From  1870  to  1893  he  was 
Itegius  Professor  of  Civil  Law  at  Oxford. 
His  Parliamentary  career  began  in  1880.     In 


1886  he  took  offioe  under  Mr.  Gladstone 
as  Foreign  UndeivSecretary,  entering  the 
Cabinet  in  1892  as  Chanoellor  of  the  Duchy, 
an  offioe  which  he  exchanged  in  1894  for  the 
Presidency  of  the  Board  of  Trade.  Mr. 
Brj'ce  is  the  author,  among  other  works,  of 
The  Holy  Boman  Empire  (1864)  and  The 
American  CommonteeaUh  (1889). 

Campbell- BamMmuuif  Sib  Hsnbt, 
G.C.B.  [b.  1836),  educated  At  Glasgow  Uni- 
versity and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
entered  the  Hou^  of  Commons  in  1868,  and 
was  Financial  Secretary  of  the  War  Office 
1871-74  and  1880-82.  In  1882  he  was  ap- 
pointed Secretary  to  the  Admiralty ;  in  1884 
Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland ;  and  in  1886,  and 
again  in  1892,  War  Secretary. 

Balling  and  Bvlwer,  Hbnbt  Lttton 
Eablb  Bulwbb,  Lord  {b.  1804,  d.  1872),  was 
the  son  of  General  Bnlwer.  He  was  sent  as 
minister  to  Madrid  in  1843,  where  he  remained 
until  in  1848  he  was  ordered  to  leave  the  king- 
dom upon  presenting  to  the  queen-mother 
Lord  Palmerston*s  recommendations  to  adopt 
a  more  liberal  policy.  From  1849  to  1852  he 
was  Minister  at  Washington  (where  he  nego- 
tiated the  Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty),  and  from 
1852  to  1855  at  Florence.  From  1857  till  1865 
he  was  ambassador  at  Constantinople.  In  1 87*1 
he  was  creatod  Baron  Dalling  and  Bulwer. 

Bodesiastioal      Oo]iixiiiaaion«m« 

The.  In  1835  a  commission  was  appointed 
"  to  consider  the  state  of  the  several  dioceses 
in  England  and  Wales  with  roferenoe  to  the 
amount  of  their  revenues,  and  the  more  equal 
distribution  of  episcopal  duties;  to  consider 
also  the  state  of  cathedral  and  collegiate 
chnrohee  with  a  view  to  the  suggestion  of 
such  measures  as  may  render  them  mora 
conducive  to  the  efficiency  of  the  Established 
Churoh;  and  to  devise  the  best  means  of 
providizig  for  the  cure  of  souls,  with  specijil 
reference  to  the  residence  of  the  clergy  on 
their  respective  benefloiBS."  This  commission 
drew  up  several,  reports  recommending  a 
fairer  mstribution  of  episcopal  duties  and 
revenues,  and  the  establishment  of  a  fund  to 
provide  for  worship  in  poor  districts  by 
the  appropriation  of  part  of  the  revenues  of 
cathedral  and  collegiate  churohes,  and  of  the 
surplus  revenues  of  certain  bishoprics.  For 
this  latter  purpose  a  commission  was  created 
by  an  Act  of  1836  with  all  the  powers  of  a 
perpetual  corporation.  'In  1850  the  Queen  was 


(  1100  ) 


empowered  to  nominate  two  **  Church  Estates 
Commiaaioners "  (one  paid),  and  the  arch- 
biflhop  one  (;paid).  These  were  to  be  members 
of  the  Ecclesiastical  Commission,  and  to  form 
with  two  other  members  the  <*  Church  Estates' 
Committee,"  which  was  to  manage  all  the 
property  of  the  Commission.  They  were  em- 
powered by  Acts  of  1850  and  1860  to  secure 
fixed  instead  of  their  fluctuating  incomes  to 
bishops,  and  to  manage  episcopal  estates. 
They  make  grants  to  or  increase  the  endow- 
ments of  poor  liyings,  and  arrange  for  the 
creation  oi  new  pari&es;  and  their  consent  is 
necessary  for  leases,  exchange  of  advowsons, 
&c.  In  1856  the^  became  also  the  Church 
Building  CommissioDerB  (first  created  in  1818). 

Anwud  BiVorU  of  th«  Be6U9.  CoinmtMtofi«ni ; 
Phmimore,  BctA.  Law,  iL  9090;  EUiot,  Tks  8taU 
and  th$  Churek,  in  Bngl.  Ottism  SertM. 

[W.  J.  A.] 

Elgin,  Jambs  Brucb,  8th  Eabl  of  {b, 
1811,  d.  1863),  was  the  eldest  son  of  Thomas, 
seventh  Earl  of  Elgin,  and  eleventh  Earl  of 
Kincardine.  He  entered  Parliament  as 
member  for  Southampton  in  the  Conservative 
interest  in  1841.  In  1842  he  resigned  his 
seat  in  the  Commons  on  being  appointed 
Governor-General  of  Jamaica.  In  1846  he 
was  sent  to  Canada  to  deal  with  the  diffi- 
culties which  had  arisen  there.  He  carried 
out  the  conciliatory  policy  of  his  father-in- 
law,  Lord  Durham ;  preserved  neutrality  be- 
tween the  two  parties ;  developed  the  resources 
of  the  country,  agricultural  and  commercial : 
and  did  much  to  queU  discontent  and  render 
more  secure  the  ties  between  Canada  and  the 
mother  country.  In  reward  for  these  services 
he  was  raised  to  the  English  peerage  with  the 
title  of  Baron  Elgin.  From  Cani^  he  went 
to  China  as  special  ambassador,  and  success- 
fully negotiated  the  Peace  of  Tientsin  after 
the  capture  of  Canton  and  the  rout  of  the 
Celestials.  In  1859  he  entered  Lord  Pal- 
merston^s  cabinet,  with  the  office  of  Post- 
master-QeneraL  In  consequence,  however, 
of  the  refusal  of  the  Chinese  to  receive  his 
brother,  Mr.  Bruce,  as  envoy,  in  accordance 
with  the  treaty,  which  refusal  was  followed 
by  the  disaster  on  the  Peiho,  he  was  sent 
again  to  sustain  English  authority,  and  was 
once  more  completely  successful  (1860).  He 
was  shortly  afterwards  appointed  to  succeed 
Lord  Canning  as  Gk>vemor-G^eneral  of  India. 
In  the  autumn  of  1863  Lord  Elgin  started  on 
a  tour  of  inspection  of  the  north  of  India, 
with  the  intention  of  visiting  Cashmere.  He 
was  seized  with  illness  in  the  Himalayan 
Passes,  and  died  Nov.,  1863. 

EllMiboroughtEDWASD  Law,  Eabl  of 
{b.  1790,  d.  1871).  He  was  the  son  of  Lord 
Chief  Justice  Ellenborough ;  was  educated 
at  Eton  and  Cambridge ;  entered  Parliament 
in  1814  ;  but  was  soon  removed  to  tiie  Upper 
House  on  succeeding  his  father  as  Baron 
Ellenborough  in  1818.  He  first  took  office 
as  Lord  ^vy  Seal  in  the  Duke  of  Wed- 


lingtcm's  administration.  In  1834  he  was 
appointed  President  of  the  Board  of  Control 
in  Sir  Robert  Peel's  government;  and 
occupied  the  same  position  in  Sir  Robertas 
second  administration  of  1841.  Soon  aft^, 
he  accepted  the  Governor-Generalship  of 
India,  where  he  arrived  early  in  1842.  Under 
his  administration  in  that  country,  was  ac- 
complished the  expedition  into  Afghanistan, 
under  Generals  Pollock  and  Nott,  which 
resulted  in  the  recapture  of  Ghnsni  and 
Cabul,  and  the  rescue  of  Lady  Sale  and 
the  other  English  prisoners,  llie  conquest 
of  Sdnde  by  Sir  Charles  Kimier,  in  1843, 
was  also  undertaken  by  Lord  EUenboroogh's 
government,  but  his  policy  did  not  meet  with 
the  approval  of  the  Court  of  Directoia,  and 
in  1844  he  was  recalled  by  that  body.  Tlie 
Duke  of  Wellington,  however,  defended  Lord 
EilenborougVs  policy  in  Parliament,  and  on 
his  rotum  home  he  was  created  an  earL  f  Vom 
Jan.  to  July,  1846,  he  filled  the  post  of  the 
First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty  in  Sir  R.  Peel's 
administration,  and  in  1858  he  undertook  for 
two  months,  under  Lord  Derby's  administra- 
tion, his  old  office  of  President  of  the  Board 
of  Control 

Towler,  Sm  Henbt  Ha&tlbt,  G.C.S.1. 
{b.  1830),  was  returned  to  the  House  of  Com- 
mons in  1880  as  member  for  Wolverhampton, 
for  the  eastern  division  of  which  he  still  sits. 
In  1884  he  took  office  as  Under-Secretary  of 
the  Home  Office;  in  1886  he  became  Financial 
Secretary  to  the  Treasury,  and  was  sworn  of 
the  Privy  Council.  In  1892  he  entered  the 
Cabinet  as  President  of  the  Local  Gk>vemment 
Board,  and  gained  great  increase  of  reputation 
by  the  skill  with  which  he  piloted  the  com- 
plicated Parish  Councils  BiU.  In  1894  he 
was  Secretary  for  India,  and  on  the  fall  of 
the  Government  in  1895  was  created  G.C.S.L 


L,  Edwabd  Avoustub  {b.  1823, 
d.  1892),  the  learned  historian  of  the  Norman 
Conquest,  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Oxford.  F^m  1884  until  his  death  he  was 
Regius  Professor  of  Modem  History  at  Oxford. 
His  Hittory  of  the  Norman  Con^nett  appeared 
between  1867  and  1876.  Among  many  other 
works,  historical  and  architectiural,  from  his 
pen,  are  The  Growth  of  the  Englieh  Cotutitniion 
(1872),  The  Meign  of  WiUiam  Bufue  (1881), 
9LVi4k,The  Methode  of  Historical  Study  (1886). 

Fronde,  Jambs  Anthony  {h.  1818,  d, 
1894),  one  of  the  most  brilliant  but  not  the 
most  exact  of  English  historians,  was  educated 
at  Westminster  and  at  Oriel  CoUege,  Oxford. 
On  Professor  Freeman*s  death  in  1892  he 
succeeded  to  the  Begius  Pkt>fe88ot8ihip  of 
Modem  History  at  Oxford.  His  chief  his- 
torical work  is  The  MitUny  of  England  from 
the  FaU  of  JTolsey  to  the  Death  of  Elisabeth 
(1856>70).  He  also  wrote  7%e  Englieh  in 
Ireland  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  (1871>74], 
The  Divorce  of  Catherine  ofArogon  (1891),  and 
The  SpanUh  Story  qf  the  Armada  (1891). 


CHI 


(  HOI  ) 


Gil 


Gilds  (probably  from  Anglo-Saxon  ^ti!iaM, 
to  pay).  Associations  of  various  kinds^  for 
mutual  assistance,  were  of  considerable  anti- 
quity in  England.  Among  the  Anglo-Saxons 
three  kinds  of  gilds  may  be  distinguished — 
religious  and  social  gilds,  "  frithgilds,"  and 
merchant  gilds.  Of  the  first  of  these,  two  well- 
known  examples  are  the  gilds  of  Abbotsbury 
■and  of  Exeter,  of  which  the  statutes,  dating 
from  the  earlier  part  of  the  eleventh  c«ntur}% 
]>re6cribe  contributionB  towards  feasts  and  for 
religious  purposes,  and  direct  provision  to  be 
made  for  the  burial  of  members.  The  thegxis* 
gild  at  Cambridge,  of  the  same  period,  did 
more  than  provide  for  mutual  help  of  this 
sort ;  it  exacted  recompense  from  thieves  who 
robbed  its  members,  and  paid  wen;ild  for  a 
brother  who  slew  a  man  righteouuy.  Such 
reg^ulations  imply  that  a  certain  authority 
was  recognised  in  the  gild  officers,  and  the 
gild  itself  may  therefore  be  looked  upon  as 
a  rudimentaiy  town  corporation. 

In  the  laws  of  Ini  mention  is  made  of  the 
^gegildan,  to  whom  the  wergild  of  a  stranger 
was  to  be  paid ;  and  those  of  Alfred  fix  the 
share  to  be  paid  or  received  by  the  gegildan 
<A  a  man  who  is  without  relatives.  Con- 
cerning the  meaning  of  these  enactments  a 
long  controversy  has  arisen,  which  has  as  yet 
come  to  no  definite  result ;  possibly  they 
merely  refer  to  gilds  of  foreigners  in  the 
seaport  towns;  possibly  they  indicate  a 
system  of  gilds  spread  over  the  whole 
■country.  In  Sie  latter  case,  we  must  suppose 
that  gilds  grew  up  to  take  the  place  of  the 
&mily  for  the  purposes  of  police,  when  the 
family  tie  began  to  be  loosened.  We  are  on 
■«urer  ground  when  we  come  to  the  Jtuiieia 
CivUatis  Zondonia  of  the  time  of  Athelstan, 
which  describes  itself  as  "  ordained  and  con- 
firmed by  the  bishops  and  reeves  of  London 
among  our  fritJigegildas  (brethren  of  a  peace 
gild),  as  well  eorlish  as  ceorlish,'*  to  supple- 
ment the  decrees  of  recent  Witenagemots. 
It  provides  for  common  banquets,  and  the 
.•ringing  of  funeral  psalms.  But  its  chief 
•object  is  the  enforcement  of  mutual  defence ; 
payment  is  made  towards  a  common  insurance 
■and  police  fund ;  directions  are  given  for  the 
pursuit  of  thieves  and  the  exaction  of  com- 

Csation ;  and  the  members  are  arranged  in 
ies  of  tens  and  hundreds  under  headmen. 
This  ordinance  may  be  interpreted  either  as 
pointing  to  the  creation  de  novo  by  the  public 
authorities  of  an  organisation  for  the  main- 
tenance of  order,  or  as  merely  the  recognition 
-of  instittftions  already  existing.  In  any  case, 
such  a  system  was  probably  peculiar  to  Lon- 
4on.  While  social  and  religious  gilds  existed 
to  t^e  close  of  the  Middle  -Ages,  there  is  no 
mention  of  frithgilds  after  the  Conquest. 

The  merchant  gild  {gilda  mereatoria^ 
■€€apmanno  gilde),  or  Hansa,  probably  arose  in 
several  towns  in  the  early  part  of  the  eleventh 
century.  As  seen  soon  after  the  Con- 
quest, it  owns   property,  contains    all    the 


traders  of  the  town,  and  regulates  its  trade. 
"  In  the  reign  of  Henry  11.  the  possession  of 
a  merchant  guild  had  become  tne  sign  and 
token  of  municipal  independence ;  it  was  in 
fact,  if  not  in  theory,  the  governing  body  of  the 
town  in  which  it  was  allowed  to  exist.  It  is 
recognised  by  Glanvill  as  identical  with  the 
eommuna  of  the  privileged  towns,  the  munici- 
pal corporation  A  the  later  age."  (Stubbs.) 
[Towns.] 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  the  relation 
between  the  merchant  gild  and  the  trade  or 
craft  gilds  which  first  became  prominent  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  II.  These  gradually 
obtained  royal  sanction,  and  during  the 
fourteenth  century  gained  complete  control  of 
industry.  In  most  cases  the  merchant  gild  was 
entirely  merged  in  the  corporation ;  while  thb 
trade  gilds  became  completely  snlf-govem- 
ing,  and  imposed  on  their  memben  minute 
regulations  as  to  trade  processes  and  personal 
morality.  It  was  an  industry  of  small  shops 
and  of  general  equality ;  for  each  master 
employed  only  two  or  three  workmen  (who 
earned  at  least  half  as  much  as  he  did,  and 
might  fairly  hope  to  become  masters  in  their 
turn),  together  with  an  apprentice  or  so.  But 
with  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
it  became  in  some  crafts  very  difficult  to  rise 
to  the  position  of  master,  and  there  are  traces 
of  the  formation  of  separate  yeomen's,  i.^., 

i'oumeymen's,  gilds.  This  part  of  gild  history 
las  not  yet  been  adequately  examined,  and  the 
stages  of  change  are  not  clear.  It  is,  how- 
ever, evident  that  in  spite  of  the  Statute  of 
Apprentices  by  which  Elizabeth  extended  the 
gild  regulations  as  to  apprentices  to  all  the 
trades  in  existence  at  tiie  time,  the  gilds 
were  already  dying;  the  same  Act  en- 
trusted the  fixing  of  wages  to  the  justices. 
During  the  seventeenth  century*'  the  small- 
shop  system  gave  way  to  the  domestic 
system,  and  that  in  the  eighteenth  to  the 
factory  system;  and  early  in  the  present 
century  the  last  remnants  of  the  gild  re- 
strictions were  abolished  by  statute.  [Tkadbs* 
Unions.] 

It  is  to  be  added  that  the  Act  of  Edward 
VI.  confiscating  aU  the  gild  endowments 
(except  those  of  the  London  Qilds  or 
Companies),  on  the  pretence  that  they  were 
applied  to  superstitious  uses,  was  one  of  the 
chief  causes  of  the  pauperism  which  made  the 
Poor  Law  of  Elizabeth  necessary. 

Toulmin  Smith's  SngluH  Gitilds  (Early  Eng. 
Text  Soc.,lG70),  Brentano's  Introductton  to  whicn 
on  The  Htctory  and  Devf  Io]>m«nt  of  Gtld<,  is  the 
f oondation  of  almost  all  that  has  been  written 
on  the  BQbjeot  in  England  sabeequently. 
Hanv  of  his  oonolunous  have  been  disputed 
by    Ochenkowski,    EngUmd»    Wviikachaji9iicU 

and  Groas,  Qilda  MtroaUma  (Gottingen,  1883)i 
For  the  earliest  English  guds,  see  Btubbe, 
Congt.  Hut,,  i.  xi.  f  Waitz,  Lwttche-Yerfaaaunm 
Quehichtt,  L  461  seq. ;  Kemble,  Saxons,  bk.  f., 
oh.  iz. ;  Schmid,  Qtutu  der  ^nye(«a<A«m,01osear. 
8.T.  GMtldo.  For  the  oralt  gilds,  Stubbs* 
CofuA.   Uiat.,  iii.,  zzi.  j    Canningbam,  Qrowth 


Gor 


(  1102) 


«r.  Aif.  Iiuliittry.  bk  iii. .  oh.  ii. ;  and  for  tfaflir 
flnal  aimppeamnce.  Held,  Zic«i  JBiicfi«r  cur  S0O, 
•    QmcK  EngUmd$.  [W.  J.  A.] 

Gorst,  Sir  John  Eldon  {b,  1836),  after  a 
difltinguished  career  at  Cambridge  (St.  John's 
College),  was  for  a  time  (1861-63)  Civil 
Commissioner  of  Waikato,  New  Zealand. 
Called  to  the  Bar  at  the  Inner  Templb  in 
1806,  he  took  silk  in  1876,  and  in  1886  was 
appointed  Solicitor-General.  In  1886  he 
became  Under-Secretary  for  India,  and  in 
1890  was  sworn  of  the  Privy  Council.  He 
was  Financial  Secretary  to  the  Treasury  in 
1891-92;  in  1896  he  accepted  the  Yice- 
Pk^sidency  of  the  Coanoil. 

Goschen,  Qeorob  Joachim  (b.  1831), 
was  educated  at  Rugby  and  at  Cried  College, 
Oxford.  Elected  one  of  the  members  for  the 
City  of  London  in  1863,  he  became  Vice- 
President  of  the  Board  of  Trade  in  1866,  and 
in  1866  entered  the  Cabinet  as  Chancellor 
of  the  Duchy.  In  1868  he  was  appointed 
President  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  m  1871 
First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty.  In  1880-81, 
us  Ambassador-Extraordinary  to  the  Porte, 
he  efifected  a  settlement  of  the  Greek  and 
^lontenegrin  frontier  questions.  His  tenure 
of  the  office  of  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer 
(1887-92)  was  signalised  by  a  measure  for 
the  conversion  01  the  National  Debt.  In 
1896  he  became  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty. 

Grand  Alliuioef  The,  was  the  name 
given  to  the  alliance  between  England,  Hol- 
land, and  the  Empire,  concluded  at  the 
'  Hague,  Sept.  7,  1701.  The  treaty  declared 
the  desirability  of  compensating  the  Emperor 
for  the  loss  of  Spain,  and  of  providing  for  the 
security  of  EngUnd  and  Holland.  As,  how- 
•  ever,  w  illiam  could  not  at  the  moment  be 
■  sure  of  energetic  support  in  England,  he 
pledged  himself,  in  case  the  overtures  of  the 
allies  were  rejected  by  France,  only  to  attempt 
to  conquer  Milan  for  Austria,  and  the 
barrier  fortresses  for  Holland.  The  alliance 
was  afterwards  joined  by  Prussia,  Jan.  20, 
1702;  Lv  Portugal,  May  16,  1703;  and  by 
Savoy,  Oct.  26,  1703 ;  and  its  object  became 
the  conquest  of  all  the  Spanish  Empire, 
and  especially  of  Spain  itseU.  [Partition 
TRSATxas ;  Spanish  Succbssion,  Wars  of.] 

Oreen,  JohnKichard  {b.  lS37,d.  1883),  was 
educated  at  Jesus  College,Oxf  ord.  Besides  vari- 
ous papers,  he  wrote  A  Short  History  oftheEng- 
lish  Feople^  which  was  afterwards  republished 
and  exUarged  as  A  History  of  ih§  English  FoopU. 

Orii&th's  Valuation,  a  valuation  of 
Irish  land,  begun  in  1830,  made  for  purposes 
pi  taxation  by  Sir  Richard  Griffiths,  only  rural 
property  being  surveyed.  It  was  about  30 
per  cent,  below  the  average  of  rents  before  the 
'Act  of  1881.    [Land  Lboxslation,  Ireland.] 

'.    Siffli  Commiasioii,  Thb  Court  of, 
•was  the  name  given  to  a  judicial  committee 


instituted  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  to  inves- 
tigate   ecclesiastical    cases.       Edward   VI. 
and   Majy  frequently  had  recourse  to   the 
plan   of  exercising  their  jurisdiction  in  ec- 
clesiastiod  matters  through  special  commis- 
sioners.    General  commissions  wece  issued 
by  Edward  in  1549  and  1661  to  a  number  of 
royal  councillors,  theologians,  and  lawyers,  to^ 
inquire  into  heresy  and  nonconformity,  snd 
a  somewhat  similar  commission  appeared  in 
1667,  though  in  this  case  it  was  restricted  to 
inquiry,  and  further  action  was  left  to  th*» 
bishops*  courts.  The  statute  (1  Eliz.,  c.  1)  re- 
storing the  royal  jurisdiction  m  mattets  eccle- 
siastical, empowered  the  queen  to  nominate 
commissioners  to  exercise  this  power;    ac- 
cordingly two   months  later  (July,  15d9)  a 
commission  was  directed  to  Parker,  Ghindal,. 
and   seventeen   other   persons,  chiefl^r  state 
officials  and  lawyers,  which  followed  in  the 
main  the  form  of  those  of  Mary.    They  werf* 
to  inquire,  *'  as  well  by  the  oaths  of  twelve 
good  and  lawful  men,  as  also  by  witnesses, 
and  other  ways  and  means  yo  can  devise,**  into- 
offences  against  the  acts  of  supremacy  and 
uniformity,  heresy,  adulteries,  and  other  ec- 
clesiastical crimes.    The  subsequent  oommis* 
sions  were  drawn  on  the  model  of  this  osieL 
The  commission  of  1683,  on  which  Hallam 
has  laid  such  stress,  seems  to  di&r  little 
from   preceding  ones.      But  Whitgift   ap> 
pears  to  have  used  the  power  of  proceeding 
by  oath  ex-qfieio  more  freely  than  his  jnede- 
cessors,  and    drew  up  an  elaborate   hst  of 
questions  to  be  asked  of  the  accused,  a  method 
which  Burleigh  complained  of  as  "  too  much 
savouring  of  the  Boman  Inquisition.**    In  the 
case    of    Cawdrey,    it    was    held    by   the 
judges  that  the  act   did  not  abrogate  the 
older  ecclesiastical   jurisdiction   of    the   so- 
vereign, nor  lessen  her  power  of  imposing 
penalties.      In   the    reign    of    James    fre- 
quent disputes  arose  wiUi  the  oommon-law 
courts  as  to  the  limits  of  the  power  of  the 
High  Commission ;  in  1611  Coke  laid  down 
that  it  had  no   right   to  fine  or  inqirisoar 
except  in  cases  of  heresy  and  schism,  and, 
with  six  other  judges,  nominated  members  of 
the  court  by  a  new  commission,  refused  to  sit. 
During  the  whole  of  its  existence  the  cooit 
busied  itself  in  enforcing   uniformity,  and 
little  change  in  this  respect  was  made  by 
Laud.     The  number  of  ministere  touched  by 
the  High  Commission  has  been  grossly  ex- 
aggerated; during  two  years  of  its  greatest 
activity  only  three  persons  were  denrived  and 
seven  suspended.     Laud's  hand  is  rather  to 
be  seen  in  its  increased  vigilance  in  oases  of 
adultery,  and  in  the  impartiality  with  which 
it  punished  offenders  of  rank.      The  court 
was  abolished  by  Act  of  the  Long  Parliament 
(July,  1641).    In  1609  a  Court  of  High  Com- 
mission had   been  established  by  James  in 
each  of  the  two  archiepiscopal  provinces  of 
Scotland ;  Charles  was  obUged  to  consent  t» 
their  abolition  in  Sept.,  1638. 


Znd 


'(  1108  ) 


In  spite  of  the  Act  of  1641,  and  that  of 
•  1661,  oonflrming  it,  James  Ij.,  in  July,  1686, 
mated  a  new  Goort  of  Commission  for  eccle- 
-  siastical  oanses.  It  consisted  of  seven  mem- 
bers— the  Chancellor  Jeffreys,  Sancroft  (who 
refused  to  sit),  the  Bishops  of  Durham  and 
Rochester,  the  Lord  Treasurer,  the  Lotd 
President,  and  Chief  Justice.  By  this  court 
Compton  was  suspended  from  his  episcopal 
functions,  the  Vice-chancellor  of  Cambridge 
depriyed  of  his  office,  and  Hough's  dection 
as  President  of  Magdalen  quashed.  It  was 
abolished  by  the  Bill  of  Rights. 

The  main  uthority  is  Stnbbs.  in  Bn^frt  of 
Eedn.  Courts  ComtntMton  (1888),  p.  49.  For 
other  eonnniwriona  not  there  mentioned,  Me  the 
Calendart  of  Bomeatie  SUdt  Papart ;  that  for  1M7 
--1580, pp.  203,368,071;  for  1581— 1»0, 194,248; 
for  1601— 1603. 610.  Burnet,  Hiat.  Bsf.  (ed.  16811 
p.  311 ;  Neal,  Hitt.  ofPwritanit,  p.  874 ;  Gardiner, 


^ »» .  J.  A,.J 


XTeiyn,  thary,  Jnlj  14, 168& 


ZBdepmcleiltfl.  As  early  as  1668  a 
congregation  of  Separatists  existed  in  London, 
organised  upon  the  principle  that  Christians 
ought  to  be  gathei'ed  toother  in  strictly 
voluntary  and  self-govemmg  congregations 
or  chux^es.  They  numbered  about  two 
hundred,  all  poor,  and  the  majority  women, 
under  the  pastorate  of  a  certain  Richard 
Fits.  The  first  prominent  teacher  of  this 
theory,  however,  was  Robert  Browne,  a 
oleigyman  and  giaduate  of  Cambridge,  whose 
greatest  activity  was  during  the  years  from 
1671  to  1681.  Owing  to  the  protection  of 
his  powerful  relative,  Burleigh,  Browne 
escaped  punishment,  and  finally  conformed. 
But  his  tracts  formed  the  great  storehouse 
of  argument  for  those  who  had  accepted  his 
doctrine— especially  numerous  in  the  eastern 
counties  —  and  they  were  long  known  only 
as  Browniste.  Several  Separatist  churches 
were  formed,  especially  in  Lraidon,  which  met 
in  secret,  and  were  often  discovered  and  dis- 
persed by  the  authorities;  many  of  their 
members  were  imprisoned  and  five  executed. 
Of  these  Henry  Barrowe,  a  barrister  of 
Gray's  Inn,  executed  in  1693  for  the  publi- 
cation of  seditious  books,  i,e.,  pamphlets 
against  the  ilrtablished  Church,  was  the  most 
important,  and  for  some  time  "  Barrowist " 
was  used  as  a  synonym  of  Brownist.  The 
repressive  measures  of  the  government  caused 
the  members  of  a  Brownist  church,  which  had 
been  formed  in  London  about  1692,  to  flee  to 
Holland,  and  they  finally  settled  at  Amster- 
dam. Another  and  more  successful  church 
was  that  of  Nottinghamshire  men  at  Leyden 
under  John  Robinson,  and  this  Leyden 
church  is  the  true  '*  parent  of  Independency 
alike  in  England  and  America."  In  1620 
the  first  settlement  was  made  in  New  England 
by  Independents  coming  from  Holland  in 
the  Mayi/hwer ;  the  New  World  became 
the  refuge  of  all  'vsho  were  attacked  bv  the 
eccleoastical  authorities  at  home,   and  In- 


dependency became  practically  the  establishfld 
religion  in  the  New  England  colonies. 

^e  example  of  New  England  was  of  the 
greatest  importanoe  when,  with  the  meeting 
of  the  Long  Parliament,  the  Independent 
at  laftt  obtained  freedom  of  speech  in 
England.  It  is  not  necessary  here  to  show 
how  the  growth  of  Independency  accompanied 
the  victories  of  the  New  Model ;  and  how  the 
attempt  to  substitute  the  complete  Presby- 
terian system  for  that  of  Episcopacy  was 
defeated.  Few  of  the  early  Independents 
advocated  entire  voluntaryism,  and  many  ac- 
cepted benefices  and  received  tithes  under  the 
rule  of  Cromwell.  But  in  such  cases,  while 
the  minister  preached  to  all  the  parishioners 
in  the  pariBh  church,  there  was  often 
an  attempt  to  create  side  by  side  with  the 
parochial  organisation,  a  special  Independent 
Church.  Difi&culties  arose  when  the  Inde- 
pendent ministers  refused  to  administer  the 
sacrament  to  persons  outside  this  inner 
church,  and  one  at  least  of  the  justices  on 
assize  advised  aggrieved  parisnioners  to 
withhold  tithes.  In  1668  a  synod  of  Inde* 
pendent  Churches  was  held  in  London  which 
drew  up  the  Savoy  Dtelaration,  following 
in  doctnne  the  Westminster  Confession,  but 
adding  their  peculiar  theory  of  Church  govern- 
ment. The  Act  of  Uniformity  drove  Inde- 
pendents with  Presbyterians  out  of  the 
National  Church,  and  Uie  rigid  penal  code  of 
Charles  II.  prevented  their  meeting  in  wor- 
ship. Later  in  the  reign  ef  Charles  II.,  and 
under  James  II.,  they  again  began  to  form 
churches,  and  under  William  III.  obtained 
toleration.  But  their  numbers  were  much 
diminished,  and  it  was  not  till  the  evan- 
gelical movement  of  the  latter  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century  that  they  began  to  recover 
strength.  As  meanwhile  the  English  Presby- 
terians had  lost  g^und,  and  liad  largely 
become  Unitarian,  they  became  .in  the  nine- 
teenth century  one  of  the  most  important 
of  the  Nonconformist  bodies.  During  the 
eighteenth  century  they  had  long  received  &, 
regium  donum  of  £1,000  a  year  for  the  widows 
of  ministers;  but  in  the  nineteenth  the 
wrongfulness  of  endowment  became  one  of 
their  main  tenets.  They  are  now  usually 
known  as  Congregationalists,  and  form  a 
"Congregational  Union  of  England  and 
Wales,"  with  subordinate  "  County  Unions." 

'nie  best  ftcooonte  of  the  history  of  Inde- 

Elency  are— from  the  side  of  the  Chnroh  of 
land— that    of   Corteie,  in   Distent  in  ite 
(ion  to  ths  Church  of  Englajid,  and  from  the 
CoDgr^ratioiialiat  aide  that  of  Fairbum,  in  hia 


tannioa ;  see  also  Stoorhton,  Rniqion  in  Bnft- 
land ;  (Hrdiner,  KUt,  Bng. ;  Maasoti,  Lifs  ami 
Time*  of  MUlon ;  Skeat,  History  of  Free  Churohm. 


Xhartowa.  [Gordon  ;  Sovdan,  p.  1 1 08..] 

£aad  Taar,  Th^,  was  first  levied  in  1600, 
when  it  was  3s.  in  the  pound.  It  was 
originally  an  annual  grant,  and  varied  iH 
amount  each  year ;  but  in  1798  it  was  madb 


Laa 


(  1104  } 


perpetual,  and  was  fixed  at  48.  in  the  pound 
npon  the  valuation  of  1692,  provision  being 
made  for  its  redemption  by  the  payment  of  a 
lump  sum.  This  has  been  taken  advantage 
of  by  many  landowners ;  but  at  the  present 
time  there  is  still  a  large  quantity  of  land  on 
which  the  tax  has  not  be^  redeemed  and  is 
still  levied. 

Xiangsidtt,  Thb  Battle  of  (May  13, 
1568),  was  fought  near  Glasgow  between  the 
forces  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  who  had  just 
escaped  from  Lochleven  Castle,  and  those  of 
the  Kegent  Murray,  who  had  with  him  Lord 
Morton  and  Kirkcaldy  of  Grange.  Mary, 
in  spite  of  the  superior  numbers  of  her  army, 
was  defeated  by  the  excellent  generalship 
shown  by  her  opponents. 

XiaztfSy  The  Battle  of  (Oct.  2, 1263),  was 
fought  Mtween  Haco  of  Norway  and  the 
army  of  Alexander  III.  on  the  coast  of  Ayr- 
shire. A  severe  storm  had  shattered  the 
Korweffian  fleet,  and  barely  1,200  men  were 
opposed  to  the  Scottish  force.  The  ground 
was  fiercely  contested,  and,  though  the  Scots 
claimed  a  victory,  the  battle  really  appears  to 
have  been  indecisive. 

Latho  was  a  division  of*  the  county  of 
Kent,  answering  to  the  Hiding  of  Yorkshire, 
or  possibly  to  the  Hape  of  Sussex,  and  corre- 
sponding, it  is  just  possible,  either  to  the 
original  counties  of  the  Kentish  folk,  or  to 
the  smaller  sub-kingdoms,  which  were  agglo- 
merated to  make  up  the  kingdom. 

Xievellem  was  the  name  given  to  an  im- 
portant party  during  the  period  of  the  Com- 
monwealth. Early  in  1647  a  considerable 
ultra-Republican  sect  appeared  in  the  New 
Model  Army,  especially  among  the  Adjuta- 
tors.  The  rejection  of  the  Army  Pix)po8als  by 
Charles,  and  the  increasing  hostility  displayed 
by  the  Commons  towards  the  army,  furthered 
the  spread  of  such  opinions,  and  many  of  the 
soldiers  distrusted  Cromwell  himself  on  ac- 
count of  his  too  lenient  treatment  of  the  king, 
and  their  distrust  produced  the  mutiny  of 
Nov.  15.     [Adjutatobs.] 

A  more  formidable  outbreak  took  place  early 
in  1649.  Lilbume,  and  those  who  thought 
with  him,  considex^  the  existing  republic 
too  aristocratic,  and  little  better  than  the 
monarchy  to  which  it  had  succeeded.  In  two 
pamphlets,  England't  New  Chaitu  Diaetfveredy 
and  The  Hunting  of  the  Foxea  (i.*.,  the  army 
magnates)  from  Newmarket  to  Whitehall  by 
Five  Small  Beaglee,  Lilbume  demanded  that 
the  Council  of  State  should  be  dissolved  and  the 
management  of  public  afiEairs  should  be  given 
to  Parliamentary  Committees  of  short  dura- 
tion ;  that  greater  liberty  of  conscience  and 
of  the  press  should  be  permitted ;  that  a  new 
and  reformed  Parliament  should  speedily 
come  together,  and  the  Self-denying  Ordi- 
nance revived.  Lilbume  and  three  other  of  the 
next  conspicuous  Levellers — Overton,  Wal- 


wyn,  and  Prince — were  airested  andbrougfat 
b^ore  the  Council ;  they  were  committed  to 
the  Tower.  On  April  25  a  mutiny  broke 
out  among  a  troop  quartered  in  Bishops- 
gate,  who  refused  to  obey  an  order  to  leare 
London.  But  Fairfax  and  CromweU  caii\e 
up  quickly  and  crushed  the  rising:  fifteen 
mutineers  were  tried  by  court-martial,  sod 
one,  Lockyer,  shot  in  St.  Paul's  Chnrchyaxrl 
More  formidable  risings  took  place  in  vazioos 
parts  of  the  country.  A  Captain  Thompon 
with  two  hundred  troopers  rose  in  revolt  at 
Banbury,  issuing  a  manifesto,  but  he  vas 
overpowered  by  his  ooloneL  From  Salisbury 
a  thousand  insurgents  marched  toward  Lon- 
don ;  they  were  surrounded  by  Cromwell  st 
Burford,  and  surrendered,  and  Comet  Thomp- 
son, a  brother  of  the  captain,  and  two  cor- 
porals were  shot,  and  the  very  dangeroiu 
military  Levelling  movement  was  over. 

Befoire  this,  another  and  more  harmlesB 
Levelling  movement  had  been  defeated. 
Some  thirty  men  met  on  St.  Margaret's  Hill 
and  St.  George's  Hill,  near  Cobhamin  Surrey, 
where  they  '*  digged  the  ground  and  sowed 
it  with  roots  and  beans."  They  were  dis- 
persed, and  their  leaders  brought  before  the 
CounciL  There,  one  of  tiiem,  Evenird,  de- 
clared that  '*  what  they  did  was  to  renew 
the  ancient  community  of  enjoying  the 
fruits  of  the  earth,  and  to  distribute  the  bene- 
fit thereof  to  the  poor  and  lieedy.  But  they 
intend  not  tor  meddle  with  any  man's  property 
nor  to  break  down  any  pales  or  enciosores; 
but  only  to  meddle  with  what  was  oommon 
and  untilled,  and  to  make  it  fruitful  for  the 
use  of  man ;  that  the  time  will  suddenly  be, 
that  all  men  shall  willingly  come  in  and  sub- 
mit to  this  community." 

Cromwell's  attitude  towards  the  Levellen 
appears  in  a  speech  of  1654,  where  he  decLira 
his  approval  of  '*  the  Ranks  and  Orders  of 
men  whereby  England  hath  been  known  for 
hundreds  of  years.  A  nobleman,  a  goitle- 
ma^  and  a  yeoman ;  that  is  a  good  interest 
of  the  nation.  Did  not  that  Levelling  prin- 
ciple tend  to  the  reducing  of  all  to  an  equality ': 
What  was  the  pumort  of  it  but  to  make  the 
tenant  as  liberal  a  fortune  as  the  landlord ':  ** 

Wbitelooke,  Jftmoriob;  KasBon,  JCflfam  aii4 
Hii  Time,  iu.  586-^9,  570,  588;  ir.  48-Sl| 
Carlyle.  OromwU.  [W.  J.  A] 


iSy  Sir  Geo&ob  ComrswALL  {h.  1806, 
d,  1863),  the  eldest  son  of  Sir  Thomas  Frank- 
land  Lewis,  of  Harpton  Court,  Radnorshire, 
was  educated  at  Eton  and  Christ  Church,  and 
called  to  the  bar  at  the  Middle  Temple  (I83I). 
In  1836  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  Com- 
missioners of  Inquiry  for  the  Relief  of  the 
Poor  and  into  the  state  of  the  Church  in 
Ireland ;  and  in  the  following  year  was 
placed  on  the  Commission  of  Inquiry  into  the 
AfiEairs  of  IVialta ;  and  was  a  Poor-Law  Com- 
missioner from  Jan.,  1839,  to  July,  1847, 
when  he  was  first  elected  member  for  the 
county  of  Hweford.    He  sat  for  that  coonty 


(  1106  ) 


until  1852,  and  from  March,  1856,  to  his 
death  represented  the  Radnor  district  of 
boroughs.  He  succeeded  to  the  haronetcy  on 
the  death  of  his  father  in  1855.  Sir  Geor||^ 
Lewis  filled  numerous  important  offices  in 
the  government.  He  was  appointed  Secretary 
to  the  Board  of  Control  from  Nov.,  1847, 
to  May,  1848;  Under  Secretary  for  the 
Home  Department  to  July,  1850 ;  Financial 
Secretaiy  to  the  Treasury  to  Feb.,  1862; 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  from  March, 
1855,  to  Feb.,  1858 ;  and  was  appointed 
Secretary  of  State  to  the  Home  Depiutment, 
June,  1859.  On  the  resignation  of  Lord 
Herbert,  1861,  Sir  George  was  appointed  by 
Lord  Palmerston  Secretary  for  War,  which 
office  he  held  till  his  death.  Sir  G.  C.  Lewis 
wrote  numerous  works  on  antiquities,  history, 
and  political  philosophy.  His  Infiuenee  of 
Antkority  in  MatttvM  of  Opinion  was  ptih- 
lished  in  1849,  and  Dialogue  on  ths  Best  Fonn 
of  Government,  in  1863. 


I  J      ^        ROREKT,      or     ROBB&T      DB 

Bkuxnb  (now  Bourn)  in  Lincolnshire,  was  a 
canon  of  the  Gilbertine  order,  who  lived  for  a 
considerable  time  at  Sempringham,  and  after- 
wards at  other  Gilbertine  houses  in  Lincoln- 
shire. About  1303  he  translated  a  French 
Manuel  dee  Peekh  under  the  title  HantUyng 
Synne;  and  between  1327  and  1338  the  French 
Chronicle  of  Langtnft  (down  to  the  death  of 
Edward  I.^  into  English  rhyme,  with  addi- 
tions which  are  occasionally  of  considerable 
historical  value. 

The  Chronide  was  pablished  by  Hearne,  Ox- 
ford, 1725 :  and  again  in  1810. 

Majrnooth  College  owes  its  origin  to 

^  bill  introduced  by  relham  in  1795  for 
founding  a  Catholic  academy  in  Ireland.  It 
was  at  Srtii  intended  for  both  priests  and  lay- 
men, but  afterwards  for  the  former  only.  An 
Act  for  its  government  was  passed  in  1800. 
In  1845  Sir  Robert  Peel,  with  the  support  of 
the  Whigs  and  Irish  members,  carried  a  bill 
through  both  Houses  incorporating  the  col- 
lege, raising  the  annual  grant  to  £2,000,  and 
giving  £30,000  towards  the  repairing  of  the 
buildings ;  800  students  were  to  be  accommo- 
<iated  Uiere.  In  1860  the  coUege  was  again 
enlarged.  The  Irish  Church  Act  of  1869, 
however,  determined  that  the  annual  grant 
ahould  cease  (Jan.,  1871),  but  compensation 
was  made  to  the  college. 

Melboiiniey  William  Laicb,  Yiscolitt 

ih,  1779,  d,  1848 J,  was  the  second  son  of 
i^eniston,  first  Viscount  Melbourne.  He  was 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and 
at  Glasgow  University.  In  1805  he  entered 
the  House  of  Commons  as  member  for  Leo- 
minster, and  joined  the  Opposition  under  Fox. 
When  Mr.  Canning  was  commissioned  to 
form  a  cabinet.  Lamb  accepted  the  office  of 
Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland,  and  in  that 
coimtry  the  Roman  Catholic  party  hailed  his 
arrival  '*  with  a  degree  of  triumph  that  was 


almost  absurd.'*  He  accepted  office  later 
under  Lord  Goderich,  and  under  the  Duke  of 
Wellington,  and  during  this  period  seems  to 
have  been  alienated  from  the  extreme  Whigs, 
and  to  have  drawn  nearer  to  the  Xories.  When 
the  East  Retford  question,  however,  came 
before  the  House  Mr.  Lamb  supported  the 
Whigs,  and  this  insubordination  ended  in  his 
being  compelled  onoe  more  to  join  the  Oppo- 
sition. In  1828  he  succeeded  his  father  in 
the  House  of  Lords.  He  took  office  under 
Lord  Grey,  in  1830,  as  Home  Secretary. 
In  1834  the  Irish  Church  difficulties  caused 
considerable  secession  from  the  cabinet,  and 
Lord  Grey  found  his  position  untenable^ 
The  king  sent  for  Loitl  Melbourne,  who 
contrived  to  construct  a  ca\)inet,  which 
lasted  till  the  end  of  the  year.  The  death 
of  Earl  Spencer,  which  took  Lord  Althorp 
away  from  the  Commons  and  the  Ex- 
chequer, caused  the  fall  of  the  cabinet.  The 
king  cailled  upon  Lord  Melbourne  to  re- 
tire, and,  on  the  advice  of  the  Duke  of 
Wellington,  summoned  Sir  R.  Peel  from 
Italy  to  assume  the  premiership.  The  new 
government  did  not  last  over  the  year.  A 
new  Parliament  decided  against  them,  and 
Melbourne  formed  a  mixed  government, 
which  lasted  from  1835  to  Sept,  1841. 
During  the  latter  part  of  William  IV. 's  rei^ 
Lord  Melbourne  had  no  special  difficultxes 
to  encounter.  At  the  begmning  of  Queen 
Victoria's  reign  the  prime  mimster's  posi- 
tion was  one  that  required  address  and  tact, 
and  by  universal  acknowledgment  Lord  Mel- 
bourne filled  it  with  success,  and  in  such  a 
way  as  to  earn  the  g^titude  of  her  Majesty. 
The  ministr}',  however,  had  been  gradualW' 
losing  ground  ever  since  its  formation.  It 
had  only  maintained  itself  at  all  by  yielding 
to  O'Connell,  and  earning  the  doubtful  sup- 
port of  the  Irish  "  taiL"  Several  important 
Acts  were  added  to  the  statute  book  by  it, 
including  the  New  Poor  Iaw,  the  two  Irish 
Tithe  Bills,  and  the  Municipal  Corporations 
Act.  The  administration  was  attacked  both 
by  the  Tories  and  the  discontented  Whigs, 
and  in  1839  Lord  Melbourne,  after  a  practical 
defeat  on  the  Jamaica  question,  resigned. 
Sir  Robert  Peel,  however,  declined  to  form  a 
ministry  on  account  of  the  disputes  about  the 
royal  household,  known  as  the  **  Bedchamber 
Question,"  and  Lord  Melbourne  returned. 
The  general  election  of  1841  resulted  in  a 
Conservative  majority,  and  the  government 
resigned,  giving  place  to  Sir  R.  Peel.  After 
his  resignation  Lord  Melbourne,  though  he 
continued  the  confidential  friend  and  coun- 
sellor of  the  Queen,  took  little  active  part  in 
public  afEairs. 

Or«inU«  Jf«moirs;  Walpole,  HitA,  of  "Enq.  tiiMe 
1815;  Earl  Biuscdl,  BeeclUctione  and  SttneB- 
tions. 

Mitchell,  John  (b.  1812,  d.  March  21, 
1875),  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Young 
Ireland  party  in  1848,  and  in  his  journal,  the 


Kon 


(  1106  ) 


United  Irithman^  supported  open  rebellion. 
He  was  tried,  but  found  not  guilty.  When 
the  Treason  Felony  Act  was  passed,  however, 
he  was  again  arrested,  and  his  newspaper 
suppressed.  He  was  finally  sentenced  to 
fourteen  years'  transportation,  and  sent  to 
Bermuda.  He  escaped  by  breaking  his  parole, 
and  fled  to  the  United  States,  where  he 
became  an  ardent  partisan  of  the  Confede- 
rates. In  1874  he  came  to  Ireland,  and  was 
returned  to  Parliament  unopposed  for  Tippe- 
rary  county.  On  Mr.  Disraeli's  motion, 
however,  he  was  declared  incapable  of  sitting. 
A  new  writ  being  issued,  he  was  again  elected, 
but  Captain  Moore,  a  Conservative,  who  was 
next  on  the  poll,  claimed  the  seat,  and  it  was 
adjudged  to  him  by  the  Irish  Court  of  Com- 
mon Pleas.  Mitchell  now  intended  to  stand 
for  every  Irish  county  in  turn,  but  died  before 
he  could  carry  out  his  plan. 

Montrose,  James  Graham,  6tu  Earl 
OP  {b,  1612,  d,  16d0),  at  first  espoused  the 
cause  of  the  Covenanters,  whose  troops  he 
commanded  in  the  north  of  Scotland.  Having 
got  possession  of  his  enemy,  Huntly,  by 
violating  his  safe-conduct  (1639),  Montrose 
sent  him  to  Edinburgh,  and  continued  his 
movements  against  the  Gordons  and  other 
Royalists,  whom  he  defeated  at  Stonehaven, 
subsequently  routing  them  again  at  the 
Bridge  of  ]Dee.  In  1641  Montrose,  annoyed 
at  the  Covenanters  refusing  him  the  supreme 
command,  went  over  to  the  aide  of  the  kins, 
who  created  him  a  marquis  in  1644.  In  his 
Highland  campaign  (1644 — 46),  Montrose  was 
most  successful,  defeating  the  Covenanters  at 
Tippermuir,  Aberdeen,  Auldearn,  Alford,  and 
Kilsj^h,  though  he  was  himself  beaten  at 
Philiphaugh  ^pt.,  1646).  He  was  for  a  time 
Viceroy  of  Scotland,  but  Charles,  during 
his  eight  months*  sojourn  in  the  Scottish 
camp,  withdrew  his  commission,  and  he  was 
compelled  to  leave  Scotland.  After  the  death 
of  the  king  (1649),  Montrose  landed  in  the 
Orkneys  with  about  2,000  men,  and  crossed 
to  the  mainland,  where  he  was  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner  at  Invercharron  in  Ross-shire. 
He  was  hanged  at  Edinburgh  with  every 
mark  of  indignity,  May  21, 1660. 

Mnrpliy,  Father  John  {d.  June  26, 
1798),  was  the  son  of  a  small  farmer,  and 

.educated  for  the  priesthood  at  Seville.  In 
1794  he  took  the  oath  of  allegiance,  but  was 
the  first  to  rise  at  the  head  of  his  parishioners 
on  May  26,  1798.  He  soon  gathered  some 
6,000  men  around  him,  and  committed  fearful 
cruelties.    He  was  victorious  over  the  troops 

.  at  Enniscorthy  and  Oulast,  and  established  a 
camp  at  Vinegar  Hill ;  his  forces  increased 
to  60,000  in  consequence  of  his  success,  and 
he  plundered  and  murdered  the  Protestants 
at  his  leisure.  On  the  29th  he  set  out  for 
Wexford,  and  after  defeating  an  English 
force  at  Throe  Rocks,  and  capturing  their 

I  guns,  he  occupied  Wexford  on  May.  31.     He  . 


then  determined  to  march  on  Dublin,  and 
defeated  Colonel  Walpole  at  Ballymorf. 
He  now,  however,  loit^vd,  and  when  with 
20,000  men  he  attacked  Arklow  on  Jane  9, 
he  was  driven  back  with  heavy  losiw  On 
June  21  he  was  again  beaten  at  Vinegar 
HilL  He  fled  to  Wexford,  and  from  there 
to  Kilkenny,  committing  fearful  outrages 
but  his  f olloweis  dispersed  in  the  Widdov 
Mountains,  and  he  was  captured  and  hanged 
on  June  26.  Murphy  was  by  far  the  aUest 
of  the  Irish  rebel  leaders,  but  also  the  meet 
inhuman  and  nnacmpulous  among  them. 


^'y  James  Stuabt,  Eabl  op,  ms 
the  illegitimate  son  of  James  V.,  and  the 
half-brother  of  Mary  Queen  of  Soots.  On 
the  return  of  his  sister  from  France  (1561), 
Murray,  up  to  that  time  Prior  of  St.  An- 
drews, took  a  chief  share  in  the  government, 
proving  himself  a  moderate  and  able  states- 
man. In  1662  he  married  a  daughter  of  the 
Earl  Marischal,  and  was  created  Earl  of  Mar. 
a  title  which  he  soon  changed  for  that  of 
Murray.  During  the  same  year  he  accompa- 
nied his  sister  in  her  ro}*al  progress  to  the 
north,  when  the  contest  YdiYi  Huntly  took  place- 
Vehemently  opposed  to  the  marriage  with 
Damley,  he  headed  the  combination  of  lords 
againsi  the  queen  and  her  wretched  husband, 
chiefly  on  the  g^round  that  the  Protestant 
religion,  of  which  he  was  a  strong  supporter, 
was  in  danger  of  annihilation.  In  1*567, 
shortly  after  the  murder  of  Damley,  he  vent 
to  France,  only  to  be  recalled  by  the  tiding 
that  he  had  been  appointed  regent  on  thf 
abdication  of  his  sister.  After  an  intenriew 
with  the  queen  in  Lechleven  Castle,  Mumj 
set  himself  vigorously  to  the  task  of  goven- 
iug  Scotland,  his  flrst  act  being  to  bring  to 
trial  all  the  murderers  of  Damley  on  whom  he 
could  lay  hands.  On  Mary's  escape  (156$) 
he  hastily  collected  a  body  of  troops,  and  de- 
feated her  at  Langside,  immediately  after- 
wards sending  a  special  envoy  to  London  to 
watch  Elizabeth's  conduct  with  regard  to  the 
Scottish  queeiL  He  was  one  of  the  Commis- 
sioners for  James  VI.  at  York,  and  on  the 
close  of  the  Commission  at  Hampton  Court 

i  1668-9),  was  accused  by  Lesley,  Bishop  of 
Coss,  of  having  himself  been  a  paity  to  the 
murder  of  Daridey.  This  charge  n^ed  no 
refutation,  and  Murray  returned  to  Scotland 
with  his  hands  much  strengthened  by  the 
support  of  England.  His  implacable  enemies, 
the  Hamiltons,  soon,  however,  found  means 
to  gather  a  combination  against  him,  snd 
measures  wen  freely  canvaned  for  bringing 
back  Mary  and  ousting  the  regent.  Mnrrar 
seized  the  chief  conspirators,  amongst  whom 
were  Lethington  and  Balfour,  and  was  th«n 
obliged  to  give  his  attention  to  quieting  the 
Border,  where  he  took  prisoner  the  Earl  of 
Northumberland.  On  Feb.  23,  1570,  before 
the  regent  had  time  to  consummate  his  plans, 
he  was  assassinated  by  James  Hamilton  of 


FlkU 


(  1107  ) 


<Bob 


Bothwellhaugh,  one  of  Iub  old  enemies,  at 
Linlithgow.    [Scotland;  Maby,  Queen  of 

8<X>T8.] 

FaulL  Reinhold  {b.  1823,  d,  1882),  was 
the  son  of  a  pastor  of  Berlin.     After  passing 
the  greater  part  of  his  boyhood  at  Bremen, 
he  entered  upon  the  study  of  history  under 
Ranke  at  Berlin,  and  of  classical  philology 
at  Bonn.    In  1847  he  became  tntor  in    a 
Scottish  family,  but  after  a  year  gave  himself 
up  entirely  to  the  study  of  Engush  history. 
In  1849  he  entered  the  house  of  Bunsen,  the 
Prussian  ambassador,  as  private    secretary. 
His  first  work,  a  Zifi  of  Alfred  the  Great, 
appeared  in  1850,  and  immediately  gave  him 
a  great  reputation,  so  that  Lappenberg  en- 
trusted to  nim  the  continuation  of  his  own 
Miatory  of  Jinglandy  for  the  Heeren  and  Ukert 
series.  Of  this  the  third  (Pauli's  first)  volume, 
beginning  with  Henry  II.,  was  puUished  in 
1863,  the  fourth  in  1855,  the  fifth,  concluding 
.with   the   death'  of  Henry  VII.,  in    1868. 
In  1857  he  became  Professor  of  History  at 
Rostock,  moving  in  1859  to  Tiibingen,  wheoe 
he  remained  till  1867.     In  1867  he  passed  to 
a  professorship  at  Marburg ;  this  he  exchanged 
for  one  at  Gottingen  in  1870,  and  here  he  re- 
mained till  his  death.  Among  his  more  impor- 
tant works  were  his  Fieturee  of  Old  England 
(1860),  Simon  de  Montfort,  Creator  of  the  Houee 
of  Commons  (1867),  both  of  which,  together  with 
his   Alfred,  have  been    translated,  and  his 
Geeehiehte  von  England  entlSld  (1864—76),  of 
which  the  last  volume  reached  to  1862.    Few 
modem  historians  have  surpassed  Dr.  Pauli  in 
intimate  knowledge  of  the  original  materials 
for  English  history,  and  in  sound  critical 
judgment  in  using  them.    His  greatest  work, 
which  has  not  been  translated  into  English, 
is  by  far  the  best  general  history  of  England 
in  the  later  Middle  Ages. 

FrensdorfT,  i{«tnhol4  Twii;  Sede  gehaUen  in 
der  Qffentlich;  Sitmng  der  K.  QneUachaJt  der 
Wieaeruchaften,  Gottingen  (1882). 

[W.  J.  A.] 

Peace  Freservatioii  Act  (Ireland). 

On  ^larch  1 7, 1870,  this  Act  was  introduced  by- 
Mr.  Chichester  Fortescue,  in  order  to  prevent 
outrages  in  Mayo,  chiefly  directed  against 
cattle.  There  was  no  opposition,  and  it 
received  the  royal  assent  on  April  4.  By 
this  Act  the  use  of  firearms  without  a 
licence  was  forbidden,  under  heavy  penalties, 
in  any  proclaimed  district.  The  grand  jury 
was  also  empowered  to  levy  a  cess  on  districts 
where  outrages  had  been  committed,  to  com- 
pensate the  victims.  Domiciliary  visits  were 
authorised,  and  persons  loitering  about  at 
night  might  be  seueed  by  the  police.  In  1876 
Sir  Michael  Hicks-Beach  asked  for  a  con- 
tinuance of  the  Act,  making  it,  however, 
loss  stringent.  The  Irish  members  strenuoudy 
but  in  vain  opposed  it.  The  Act  was  allowed 
to  expire  by  Mr.  Gladstone's  government  in 
1880.     [Meeting,  Right  of  Public,  p.  726.] 


Fedf  Jonathan,  G^eneral  (h,  1799,  d, 
1879),  waa  the  son  of  the  first  Sir  Robert  Peel, 
and  younger  brother  of  the  Prime  Minister. 
He  entered  the  army,  and  in  1826  became- 
member  for  Norwich.  He  joined  the  Tories. 
In  1841  he  was  appointed  Surveyor-General 
of  Ordnance  by  his  brotiier,  and  held  the  post 
till  1846.  In  1868  he  was  Secretary  of  State 
for  War  under  Lord  Derby,  and  in  1866  he 
held  the  same  office  in  Lord  Derby's  third 
administration.  He  resigned  his  office  on 
Mr.  Disraeli^s  accession  to  the  Premiership, 
owing  to  a  difference  with  that  statesman  on 
the  subject  of  parliamentary  reform. 

Pcntland  HHills,  The  Battle  op  the 
(Nov.  28,  1666),  was  fought  between  the 
royal  troops  and  the  Covenanters.  The  latter, 
harassed  by  the  heavy  fines  and  cruel  punish- 
ments inflicted  on  them,  rose  and  marched  on 
Edinburgh,  which  they  hoped  to  surprise; 
but  finding  the  gates  closed  they  were  obliged 
to  retreat,  and  being  met  by  a  Koyalist  force 
they  were  defeated  on  the  Pentland  Hills,  a 
large  number  of  them  l)eing  taken  prisoners 
and  many  of  them  executed. 

Petty,  Sia  WiLUAM  (b.  1623,  d.  1687), 
was  educated  abroad,  and  became  a  Fellow  of 
Brasenose  College,  Oxford.  In  1662  he  was 
First  Physician  of  the  Irish  Army,  and  after- 
wards as  Surveyor-General  he  surveyed  the 
forfeited  estates  in  Ireland,  and  was  seeretary 
to  Henry  Cromwell.  By  buying  up  the 
claims  oi  the  soldiery  to  the  forfeited  landa 
he  acquired  large  estates.  In  1661  he  waa 
kniffhted  by  Charles  II.  He  published  several 
works,  among  them  his  valuable  Political 
Arithmetic  and  a  Folitieal  Survey  of  Ireland. 
In  1688,  in  the  first  year  of  her  widowhood, 
his  wife  was  created  Baroness  Shelbume  for 
life,  and  his  eldest  son  Baron  Shelbume. 
Finally  both  the  estates  and  title  passed  to  tho 
house  of  Lansdowne. 

Fudsay  (or  Pviset),  Hugh  db  (d,  1196), 
was  the  son  of  a  sister  of  King  Stephen, 
and  in  1163  was  consecrated  Bishop  of 
Durham.  He  did  not  mix  much  in  politics 
till  the  beginning  of  Richard  I.'s  reign,  when 
he  purchased  from  the  needy  king  the 
earlaom  of  Northiunberland  and  the  office  of 
Justiciar,  which  he  exercised  with  the  Earl 
of  Essex,  and  after  his  death  in  1190  with 
Longchamp.  Quarrels  soon  broke  out,  and 
before  long  Hugh  was  ousted  by  his  more 
skilful  rival,  on  pretence  of  treason,  and  put 
in  prison.  His  release  speedily  followed, 
but  he  failed  to  get  back  his  office.  He  waSy 
says  Dr.  Stubbs,  "  a  great  captain,  a  great 
hunter,  a  most  splendid  builder ;  not  a  very 
clerical  character,  but  altogether  a  grand  figure 
for  nearly  fifty  years  of  Siglish  history, 

Sobairtflon,  Jakes  Bubton  {b.  1800,  d, 
1877),  was  in  1866  appointed  to  the  chair  of 
Modem  History  in  die  Catholic  Universit)' 
of  Ireland.  He  was  a  voluminous  writer  on 
historical    and  other  subjects.    Among  his 


Bob 


(  1108  ) 


Wol 


works  are  Zeetur08  on  Burk$  (1868),  Spain  in 
ths  Eighteenth  Century^  Leeturee  on  varioue  »ub' 
jeett  in  Ancient  and  Modem  Hietory  (1858), 
and  a  tranalation  of  Schlegol^s  FhUowphy  of 
Hittory, 

SobertsoiLf  Jambs  Craioib  (b.  1813,  d, 
1882),  was  Professor  of  Ecclesiastical  History 
at  King's  College,  London.  Among  his  worlcs 
are  Lectures  on  the  Growth  of  Papacy  (1876), 
Sketches  of  Church  History  (1855—78),  and 
A  Biography  of  Thomas  Becket  (1859).  He 
edited  the  valuable  Chronicles  and  Memorials 
ef  Thomas  Becket  for  the  Rolls  Series. 

SaacUmrstf  William  Rosb  Mamsfibld, 
Lord  {b,  1819,  J.  1876),  entered  the  army  in 
1835.  In  1845  he  was  in  the  Sutlej  cam- 
paign. In  1855  he  became  military  attach^ 
at  Constantinople.  In  1857  he  went  to  India, 
and  was  chief  of  the  staff  during  the  Mutiny. 
In  1865  he  became  commander-in-chief  in 
India.     In  1871  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage. 

BoymOlirt  Ladt  Janb  (d.  1537),  was  the 
third  wife  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  mother  of 
Edward  YI.  Had  been  maid-of-honour  to 
Anne  Boleyn,  whom  she  supplanted  in  1536. 

Shafbesbnry,  A.  Ashlbt-Coopbb,  7th 
EarIi  op  (b.  1801,  d.  1885),  was  a  direct 
descendant  of  the  Ist  Earl.  Entered  Parlia- 
ment in  1826,  and  devoted  his  life  to  the 
amelioration  of  the  life  of  the  lower  classes, 
and  several  times  carried  through  bills  for 
their  relief. 

Soudan,  Tub  Expedition  to  thb  (1884). 
At  the  close  of  1883  the  vast  dominions  of 
Egypt  in  the  Soudan  were  in  a  state  of  com- 
plete revolt.  An  Egyptian  army  commanded 
by  an  English  oflSoer,  Colonel  Hicks,  had 
been  destroyed,  and  the  Egyptian  garrisons 
were  closely  besieged.  A  body  of  ^^yptian 
police  and  gendarmie  sent  out  to  enect  the 
relief  of  the  towns  near  the  Bed  Sea,  under 
Baker  Pasha,  was  almost'  annihilated  at  El 
Tcb.  England,  being  in  military  occupation 
of  Egypt,  felt  allied  upon  to  despatch  a  force 
to  Suakim.  About  4,000  English  troops 
under  General  Graham  were  sent,  and  en- 
gaged the  natives  at  El  Teb  (Feb.  29)  and 
Tamanieb  (March  13),  defeating  them  with 
great  slaughter.  Leaving  Suakim  guarded 
by  gun-boats  and  a  small  force,  the  English 
army  retired  almost  immediately  after  these 
battles.  With  a  view  to  assisting  the  Egyptian 
garrisons  who  were  besieged  in  the  interior 
of  the  Soudan,  Major-General  Gordon  (q.v.) 
was  sent  out  (Jan.,  1884)  to  effect  the  with- 
drawal of  the  troops  and  inhabitants.  He 
penetrated  to  Khartoum,  but  was  himself 
hemmed  in  there,  and  in  Sept.,  1884,  it  be- 
came necessary  to  despatch  an  English  army, 
under  Lord  Wolseley,  to  his  assistance.  After 
H  tedious  voyage  up  the  Nile,  a  portion  of 
Wolseley*6  force  marched  across  the  desert, 


defeated  the  enemy  at  Abou  Klea  and  Alxn 
Kru,  and  arrived  within  a  short  distance  of 
Khartoum.  [CKibdon.]  A  second  En^iih 
army,  under  General  Graham,  was  de^tcfaed 
to  Sujakim,  and  inflicted  some  severe  defeats 
on  the  "rebels.**  In  1885  the  Soudan  vu 
evacuated,  but  in  1896  a  force  of  Egyptian 
troops  was  despatched  to  recover  at  letst  a 
portion  of  the  territory. 

Venemelay  Relations  with.  The  rela- 
tions of  Great  Britain  with  Venezaela  have 
turned  mainly  on  a  long-standing  dispate  u 
to  the  boundary  between  the  Republic  and 
the  colony  of  British  Guiana.  The  Veneme- 
lans  derive  their  territorial  claims  from  Spsia, 
the  British  from  the  Dutch,  who  ceded  the 
colony  to  them  in  1814.  As  a  result  of  Pre> 
sident  Cleveland's  message  to  Congrea  at  the 
end  of  1895  demanding  that  the  dispute  should 
be  submitted  to  arbitration,  the  question  far 
a  time  assumed  a  highly-critical  aspect  as  be- 
tween Great  Britain  and  the  United  SUJbes, 
and  a  committee  was  appointed  by  the  latter 
power  to  make  an  eznaustive  investigation 
into  the  rights  of  the  respective  daimanta 

WhitefleUL  or  Whitfield,  Gkoroe  {h. 

1714,  d.  1770),  bom  at  Gloucester,  and  edu- 
cated at  Oxfoid,  where  he  joined  the  Metho- 
dists. He  was  ordained  at  the  early  age  of 
21,  and  after  holding  various  curacies  in  £Dg- 
land,  went  to  America  to  join  the  Wesleji 
(q.v.),  reaching  Savannah  in  1738.  He 
returned  to  England  and  met  with  extxv 
ordinary  success  as  a  preacher.  In  1739  he 
went  again  to  America,  and  came  back  to 
England  again  in  1741.  The  rest  of  his  life 
he  spent  travelling  and  preaching,  and  died  in 
Newbury  Port,  New  England. 

Wolneleyy  Fibld  •  Mabskai.  Gaeket 
Joseph,  Viscount,  son  of  Major  Wolselej, 
was  bom  in  1833,  served  in  the  Bnnneee 
(1852-53)  and  Crimean  Wars,  in  the  Indian 
Mutiny  and  the  Chinese  War.  In  1867  he  was 
appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Red  RiTer 
Expedition,  and  in  1873,  as  major-genenl 
commanded  the  troops  in  the  Aahantee  War. 
Upon  his  return  General  Wolseley  was 
thanked  by  Ptoliament,  and  a  grant  was  coo- 
fened  upon  him.  In  1875  he  was  sent  to 
administer  Natal,  and  in  1876  became  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  India.  In  1878  he 
was  appointed  High  Commissioner  in  Cyprns, 
and  in  1879  returned  to  Natal  as  go%'enior. 
and  reduced  Secocoeni  to  submission.  In  1 882 
he  commanded  the  C!gyptian  expedition,  von 
the  victory  of  Tel-el-Kebir,  and  was  rewarded 
by  a  barony.  In  Sept.,  1884,  he  led  the  ex- 
pedition to  Khartoum  for  the  relief  of  General 
Gordon,  and  was  made  a  Viscount.  In  1882 
he  became  Adjutant-General,  in  1890  Com- 
mander-in-Chief of  the  army  in  Ireland,  and 
in  1896  succeeded  the  Duke  of  Cambridge  ts 
Commander-in-Chief  of  the  British  anny. 


INDEX. 


nUa  Indai  ittea  to  labJeeM  on  wbliili  MpuKt«  utioles  are  not  f<Teii,  but  to  which  kom  alliuUin  win  bft 
lonnd  nndn  th»  UUm  hare  priotad  Id  italloa.  In  atrnm  whan  tha  reader  Ig  In  doubt  u  to  ttaa  baaainc 
ondn  which  an  utiolc  he  la  in  aamh  of  nuj  ba  pUoed,  ha  wUl  Bud  it  aMfnl  to  isfer  U>  tbit  tBdax. 
For  tantann.  thara  li  no  utlola  on  "B»on;"  bob  *  irbnM  at  tha  indu  wltl  aliow  ttiat  Baaon  Is 
Imluil  under  the  Utla  "  St.  AHhuu."  Tha  Bomban  In  thli  Index  stand  for  ths  pagea  In  the  body  of 
tbe  work  on  which  the  matter  leferrad  to  is  to  be  found,  and  the  latt«rs  a  and  b  MigtdTj  the  first  and 
saeoDd  oolnmna  of  tha  pafta,  Thns,  tha  cotrr  "Abajanoa,  Fwroft,  907,  b,"indicata«  that  rsfsnmM  la 
made  to  AbeTsnca  in  tha  artlcla  Pnuusn,  on  the  seooiid  oolninn  ol  pase  807.) 


tsf 


jUdnM  ID  ilw  huplg,  kci,  'walmn. 


r  LarO.  llnimiirta,  Bt 


ALtWDld.  EIni    Df  Ehs  El 

AUga,  ^IJllEm,  KUItm   • 

Mia  V  4  wiiUiH.  <^,' 

3" -'""'■"" 


Uhuil,  AvHdi 


Ant^RnhHTt,  l**«*ttr,  en, . 
ADdnwH,    Bitlioii,    Blih 


id-Dwn.  dimalUi.  BB.  t 


r«a(Hcilira.«il.»' 


Baun,  rrudt,a.  ABmu.  an,  a 


Billle.' jiibnuuii.  17, » 


ABlvHiliii  Lalur.  Samm,  Imi  jBim, 

BddwlB.  Coiut  of  Pludtn,  Ron- 
4tr«  AtattoMMM,  Ml, ' 

-iasi,;*!,:"'™—-'- 

Baltial  bsUif^  Oitord,  (TiifHrXUu. 


SSi 


I,  S1111&  Ajncm'  Oaimlt, 


Jbidh.  AMmr<lciL,  Pmraf  «*. 


Blnldyg.  Vulu.  lOH, » 
Biocteile.  MMnilibr,  n 
BiDlt.  ClurJe*  lit,  ifuufi 


BmiDFt-pleca,  Cvlna^e,  *U.  p^ 

Border  1aw«,  BorAert,  lU,  I 
Borcmnmn.  !«■««■.  sin  a 
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>uul)ndg<i   Uim'enlly,    OmircrwiU. 


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John,  tha  OM  Bmniir^W^II,* 


JnriT.'Ceiniet.  JiVHi'pr'.li^ 


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KlnsawSctLllPlL  ot.  CfMMI..  * 
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Klllbfrn  rtt,  rnUUpa^  Ba.  a 


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Ij*op»Rl,  trlDfe,  AOvMt/,  pptfofft  tf, 
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1116 


IKDBX. 


XoimviftDS,  Oatht,  PaHiameitiary, 
77ft,  b 

— ,  Member*  of  Parliamemt, 

798|5 

Mony,  Kingdom  of,  HiohUmda,  367,  a 

Morgan,  Henry.  BueeaHeera,  1&7,  b 

Xorg»nwg,  Wale*,  lOM,  a 

Mormaer,  HigfUandt.  567,  a 

Moniiugton.Lord,  mfeUe»ley,Marqui9t 
low,  a 

Morton's  Fork,  BetuwOeHeeM,  151,  a 

Morville.  Hugh  de,  Beeket,  144,  a 

Mount  If  orris,  Bsron,  AngUtey^  Peer- 
age of,  48,  b 

Mountain  Men,  Oameroniane,  S20,  b 

Mounih,  PicU,  819,  b 

Muvaliles,  Taxes  on,  Taxation^  891,  a 

Mozufler  Jung,  JTizam.  7&6,  b 

,  Nazir  Jung,  761,  a 

Mug.  King,  Mututcr,  748,  b 

MuKwanporo,  Battle  of,  Ocorkka  War. 
fiCB,6 

Mnlgrave,  Barl  at,  SuekingluuHehire, 

Mulhar  Bao  Hullcar,  HoUmr,  570,  a 
Mungo. St.,  Kentigem.St., 641, 6 
Mun»ier,  Ducliess  of.  Kendal,  Dueheee 

of,  631),  b 
Murray,  Colonel,  Ocrdon  Riot*,  610,  a 
Musgravc.   John,   BaUia  of  jBoltooy 

Mo9»,  U68.  a 


Nadir  Sbata.  jro^ui,  784,  a 
Vanlcin,  Treaty  of,  Bong-Kong,  674,  a 
Napoleon  III..  Palmergton,  705,  a 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  France,  476,  a 

,  French  Sevolu- 

tion.  War  of,  479,  b 

,  Vienna,  Congreae 


o/,  lOBS,  b 


-,  Waterloo,  10B6,  a 


Nasir  Khan.  AAfhan  Ware,  16,  a 
Natal.  .SbutA  African  CoUmiet,  tse,  a 
Nativi,  KtiJ«iUMr0, 1(07,  a 
"Nation   of  Suopkeepers,"    Adama, 

Samtul,  7,  & 
Naturalisation.  uiK«fM,  88,  b 
Neck-verse,   The,  Ben^  of  Otergif, 

150,5 
Nectan,  Ptcte.810, 5 

,  Se^tttsf ,  MK),  a 

Nectan»mere,     Battle     of,    Kgfred, 

490,  a 
Neerwinden,  Battle  of,  Landen,  Bat- 
tle of,  067,  a 
Neif 8,  Villenage,  1CS7.  a 
Neill,  Hui,  Ireland,  ODC,  5 
NenudianH,  Celt*,  S41,  a 
Nesselrode,   Count,  Polish  QueetUm, 

8S5,  a 
Netherlands,  Holland,  BeUUUm*  with, 

571,  a 
New   College,   Oxford.   Unitereitiee, 

1087.5 
New  Guinea,  Anetralaeia,  101. 5 
New  Hampshire,  CoUmtea,  The  Amerir 

cun,  288,  b 
New  Jersey,  Cio2on<e«,  The  American, 

S88,  5 
New  Lights,  IrUih  Church.  618.  6 
Ni*w  lYovidence.  Bahoma»,A&,a 
Newcastle.  Roe  of,  Biehnpric,  1«S,  5 
Newrastle,  Treaty  of,  Alexander  III^ 

»,  a 
Newman,  John  Henry,  ITii/A  Ckwreh, 

SM,b 
Newspapers.  Pre**,   Liberty   of  the, 

M85.5 
Ney.  Qiuttrf.  Bra*.  84S,  a 

.  Waterloo,  1056,  a 

Nicliolas,  Bm|)eror.  Rueeia,  HW.  b 
Nirholls.  Colonel.  Almorah.  88.  o 
Nicholson.  Brigadier,  Delhi,  Hiege  of, 

(lW7).a«4.  6 
Nicolas  of  Hereford,  Bible.  157,  b 
Niger     ('oa*t      Protectorate,     We$t 

African  CoUmiea,  1064,  a 
No.  46.  Wilke*,  1072,  5 
Nobility,  Peerage.  807,  ft 
Nol)lC8,  Coinage,  28S,  a 
Nolan,     Oaptain,     Ottlwoy   jrtoeeion, 

486,5 
Nootka  Sound.  Spain,  959,  a 
Norfolk.     King     of,     Ket,    Bobert, 

643,  a 
Nomianhy,  Lord.  Spanieh  Marriage*, 

900,  a 
Normanby,  Marquis  of,  Buckingham- 

•hire,  Ihtke  of,  «S  ft 


North,  Franciit,  Lord,  Onilford,  Lord, 

531,5 
North,   Mr.    Uovemor   of    Ceylon, 

Kandy  Ware,  688,  a 
Northmen,  Dane*,  858.  a 
North- West  Territorlei,  Canada, 

a  and  5 
Nott,  ik'ueral,  Afghan  War*,  15l  ft 
Nuns,  A'ttMnerie;  774.  6 


O'Brien,  Goodnuin,  Cardell,  60S,  ft 
Ochcerlony,  Colonel,  Delhi,  Siege  <tf, 

864,  a 
Ockley.  Battle  of,  Bthelwulf,  448,  a 
O'Olerighe,  Mlctiael.  Four    Matter*, 

The  Chronicle  of  t*«,  471, 5 
O'Clerighe,    Cucofrighe.   Four  Mao- 

ter*.  The  Chrotucu  of  the,  471. 5 
Octa,  King  of  Kent,  Kent,  Kingdom 


or  Ml,., 
Ottn.  King,  S**ex,  Kingdom  of,  486,  ft 
Offlilcy,  Barony  of.  Fiagerala,  FamUy 

of,  tftf,  ft 
OiEaly,  Countie*,  The  Irieh,  8S4,  ft 
Oguu      Inscriptions,     jn*eription*, 

Celtic,  600,  a 
Old  Guard,  The.  Waterloo,  lOBO,  ft 
Old  Whig,  Addiaon,  8,  ft 
Olnegmacht,  Cpnnaiiirikr,  80S,  a 


Oodoypoor,  kc^putana,  KO,  b 
inge  Free  9u 
Ootontes,  905,  ft 


South   African 


Orator  Hunt,  Spa  Field*  BioU,  969,  ft 

,  Prterloo,  817,  a 

Ordination,  Benefice,  ISO,  a 
Ordo vices,  Briton*,  lUB,  a 
Oreto,  Geneva  Convention,  491,  a 
Orford.  Edward.   Karl    of.    RuaeeU, 

897.  a 
Orford,  Horace,  Barl    of,    WalpoU, 

loao,a 
Orford,   Robert,    Karl    of,   Walpole, 

1049.  a 
Oriel  College.  Oxford,   Univeraitie*, 

1017,  a 
Orleans,  Charles,  Duke  of,  Henry  V., 


King,  B68,  a 

nde,  Bark 
Family  of.  Ill,  b 


Ormonde,  Earldom  Ac,  ot,  Btdler, 


Orrery,  Earl  vt.Bomle,  Lord,  180,  ft 
Orsini,  BemardT*  Case.  154.  a 
Oftburgh,  The  Lady,  Alfired,  80,  a 
OsUtc,  Alfred,  80,  a 

8snabnrg.  Bishqprio  of,  York,  1006,  a 
ssory.  Title  of,  BtUler,  Family  of. 

Ml,  ft 
Ostend  Company,  Hanover,'*  Treaty  of, 

588.  a 
Oswald,  King,  Aidam,  St.,  SI,  ft 
Oswald.  King.  ITessex.  loot,  ft 
Otto    IV.,    Smperor,    John,    King, 

681.  A 
Otto,  Council  of,  Couauil*,  Beeleaiaati- 

cal,aa,b 
Otto.  King  of  Greece,  Greece-,  Beta- 

noiM  wUh,  516,  a 
Ottobon.  Council  of,  Cotmeila,  Seele- 

aiaatical,  SS3,  ft 
Oudenarde,  Spaniah  Sueceaaion,  061,  a 
Outdoor  Relief,  Poor  Latra,  8S7,  a 
Overlord,  Land  Tenure,  665,  a 
Overseers,  Poor  Law*,  8S6,  a 
Overton's  Plot.  Harriaon,    Themaa, 

Owain  ap  Gmifydd,  Glendovoer,  604,  a 
Owen  Gwyltedd.  Wdlea,  1045,  a 
Owen  Tudor.  Tudora,  1016,  ft 
Oxford,  Barl  of,  Harley,  Bobert,  685,  ft 
Oxford,  See  of,  Biahqpric,  16L  a 
Oxford  University.  Vniveramea.vm,b 
Oyer  and  Terminer,  JuBiIces  of,  /un- 
ties, 686,  a 


Pakenham,  Shr  E.,   Ammican  War, 

48,a 
Palmer  Bank,  Haatinga,  Franeia,  let 

Marquia  of.  641.  ft 
Palmer,  Rir  Geolirey,  Bridgman,  Sir 

Orlando,  19»,  a 
Palmer,  William,  High  CAttrrA, 608,  ft 
Pannage,  Foreata,  468,  ft 
Papcron,  Cardinal  John,  Iriah  ChurA, 

61S,  ft 
Paramaribo,  English  Settlement  at, 

Ouiana,  SSI,  a 
Park.  Colonel,  Antigua,  6S,  a 


Parke,  Sir  J..  Wenateudale'a  Coat,  lOflB,  a 
Parliamentary  Register,  The,  Almon, 

87,  ft 
Parma,  Duchy     of,   Aix-la-<!hapeUe, 

Trtaty  of,  S2,  ft 
Pamell,    Henry    Brooke,    Omglden, 

Lord,  SDl,  ft 
Passaro,  Cape,  Spain,  9B9,  a 
Paaiursge,  nights  of,  Vommtm  Landa, 

ss8,ft 
Pata^,  Battle 'Of,  IFmufred    Fears* 

Irar,  588,  ft 
Pat«rson.  William,  Bankina,  isai  ft 
Patriarch  of  Jerusalem.  BdL,Anihmry, 

147,5 
Patron,  Advovaon,  14,  a 
Paul  IV.,  Pope,  Papacy,  79&  ft 
Pavia,  Battle  of,  Henty  YltU  Hing, 

557,  ft 
Peasant  Revolt,  Lollarda,  686,  ft 

,  Tyler,  Wat,  1019,  a,  ft 

Pecsaetan,  Mercia,  727,  ft 

Pedro  the  Cruel,  KavarreU,  748,  ft 

Peel  Towers,  Caatlea,  SSS,  ft 

Peers,  Privileges  of.  Peerage,  807,  ft 

Peers,  Representative,  Peerage,  iXiS,  a 

Pembroke  College,  Oxford,  Oniverai- 

tiea,  1087,  ft 
Penal  Servitude.  PrtsoiM,  887,  ft 
Penang,  Straita  Settlementa,  974,  ft 
Peony,  Voinage,  888,  a 
Pepys.  Charles  Christopher,  Gotten- 

ham.  1st  Earl  of,  817,  ft 
Periffueux,   Bishopric    of,  AbbeviUe, 

TreeUy  of,  1,  a 
Perkin  Wari>eck.  ITorbeei-.  lt6S,  a 
Perrers,  Alice.  Edward  Hi.,  415,  a 
Pestilence,  Black  Death,  164,  a 
Peter  do  la  Mare,  Speaker,  962,  ft 
Peter  the  Cruel,  Portugal,  8S0,  ft 

,  Spain,  968,  a 

Peter  the  Great,  Buuia,  8U6.  a 
Peterborough,  Ab)>ot  of.  Abbot,  S,  a 
Peteritorough.    See    of,    Biahi^prie, 

168,  a 
Paterhouse,  Ghmbridge.  Univeraitiea, 

loss,  a 
Petit  Sergcanty,  Sergeanh/,im,a 
Petitions,  Receivers  of,  BiltaTParUa- 

mentary,  160,  a 
Petitions,  Triers  of,  Billa,  Parlianun^ 

tary,  leo,  a 
Pett,  Phineas.  J^oey,  780,  ft 
Petty  Jury,  Jury,  613,  ft,  684,  ft 
Philadelphia,  Uipture  of,  American 

Independence,  War  of,  41,  b 
Philip  August im.  King   of  France,. 

John,  King,  680.  ft,  681,  a 

.Richard  /.,874,ft 

Philip  v.,  Utrecht,  1080,  a 

Philip,  Count  of  FUinders, lYafufers. 

RelatUma  ufith,  468,  a 
Phllipputeaux,  Acre,  t,  ft 
Placenxa,  Duchy  of,  Aix4arChapdk, 

Treaty  q^  22,  ft 
Pilgrim  Fathers,  Coloniaa,  The  AmsK- 

eaii,388,ft 
Pinkeney.  Robert  de.  Ctaimanta  «/ 

tAe  Softtiah  Crown  in  SBl.  270^  ft 
PIttshurg,  Fort  Duqueene,  470,  ft 
Placks,  Coinage,  284,  a 
Plantagenets,  Angevina,  401  a 
Platen,     Madame     de.     Iktrtington 

Oonnteaa  of,  857,  a 
Plegmund,  Alfred,  81,  ft 
Porching,  Crame  Lawa.  487,  a 
Points.  Colonel,  XiitN9<ial<',Atr  Marma- 

duia,  667,  ft 
Police  Rat4>s.  Reiea,  858,  a 
Poll  Tax,  Taxation.  991.  ft 

,Tyler,  Wat„  10l9Jh. 

Pollock.  General.  it/pkoM  ITars,  16.  ft 
Polychronicon,  Hidden,  Rah^,  565.  a 
Poniare,  Queen,  Tahiti  (Ration,  987.5 
Pumbal,  PortugeU,93l,  ft 
Pondicherry,  VeraaiUea,  10B4,  ft 
Pontigny,  Roger  of,  Roger  of  PonHgnyy 

MM    Ik 

PoorPriests.  LoUorrfs,  685,  ft 
Poor  Rates.  Poor  Lawa.  827,  a 
Popham,  Sir  Home,  AaeiiM  J.irrcs.SOO.ft 
Porcupine,  Peter,  Oobbett,    WiUiavt, 

PortZnington,  Baron,  Oalway,  Sort 

o/,4MI,a 
Port  Elizabeth,  South  African  CWo- 

niea,  966.  ft 
Port-Reeve,  Bailiff,  116,  a 

.Reeve,  8S7.  a 

Porte  Ferrajo,  Evacuation  of.  Amiena,, 

Treaty  of,  44.  ft 
Port  Mahon,  Stanhope,  967.  a 
Posse  Cnmitatus,  Sheriff,  941,  ft 
Pottinger,  Sir  Edward,  Herat,  560.  ft 
Pound.  Cotnage,  S8S,  ft 
Powis.  Walea,  1044.  a 


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